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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5
+       "Hinduism" to "Home, Earls of"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 23, 2012 [EBook #39232]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HINDUISM: "But, in this respect, we also meet in the epics
+      with the first clear evidence of what in after time became the
+      prominent feature of the worship of Siva and his consort all over
+      India ..." 'respect' amended from 'repect'.
+
+    ARTICLE HINDUISM: "Though the Lingayats still show a certain
+      animosity towards the Brahmans, and in the Census lists are
+      accordingly classed as an independent group beside the Hindus ..."
+      'classed' amended from 'classes'.
+
+    ARTICLE HINTERLAND: "In the purely physical sense 'interior' or
+      'back country' is more commonly used, but the word has gained a
+      distinct political significance." 'or' amended from 'on'.
+
+    ARTICLE HIPPODROME: "... so that the width was far greater, being
+      about 400 ft., the course being 600 to 700 ft. long." 'course'
+      amended from 'cource'.
+
+    ARTICLE HIRSAU: "C. H. Klaiber, Das Kloster Hirschau (Tübingen,
+      1886); and Baer, Die Hirsauer Bauschule (Freiburg, 1897)."
+      'Hirsauer' amended from 'Hirsauers'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOBBES, THOMAS: "In politics the revulsion from his
+      particular conclusions did not prevent the more clear-sighted of
+      his opponents from recognizing the force of his supreme
+      demonstration of the practical irresponsibility of the sovereign
+      power ..." 'particular' amended from 'particuar'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH: "His Japanese grammar (Japanische
+      Sprachlehre) was published in Dutch and English in 1867, and in
+      English and German in 1876." 'Sprachlehre' amended from
+      'Sprechlehre'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK: "He was editor of the Zuid Afrikaan
+      till its incorporation with Ons Land, and of the Zuid Afrikaansche
+      Tijdschrift." 'Tijdschrift' amended from 'Tidjschrift'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOHENLOHE: "... which was to exercise an important
+      influence on his political activity. As the younger son of a cadet
+      line of his house it was necessary for Prince Chlodwig to follow a
+      profession." 'political' amended from 'politcal'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOLLAND: "The height of the boezem peil ranges between
+      1(1/3) ft. above to 1(5/6) ft. below the Amsterdam zero ..."
+      'between' amended from 'beween'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOLLAND: "... Nieuwe Wandelingen door Nederland, by J.
+      Craandijk and P. A. Schipperus (Haarlem, 1888) ..." 'Wandelingen'
+      amended from 'Wanderlingen'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOLLAND: "... agreed to accept the sovereignty of the
+      Netherlands provinces, except Holland and Zeeland." 'Netherlands'
+      amended from 'Netherland'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOLLAND: "left England on the 22nd of August for
+      Sainte-Mère Eglise in Normandy." 'Eglise' amended from 'Eglide'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XIII, SLICE V
+
+         Hinduism to Home, Earls of
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HINDUISM                         HODY, HUMPHREY
+  HINDU KUSH                       HOE, RICHARD MARCH
+  HINDUR                           HOE
+  HINGANGHAT                       HOEFNAGEL, JORIS
+  HINGE                            HOF
+  HINGHAM                          HOFER, ANDREAS
+  HINRICHS, HERMANN WILHELM        HÖFFDING, HARALD
+  HINSCHIUS, PAUL                  HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH
+  HINTERLAND                       HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM
+  HINTON, JAMES                    HOFFMANN, FRANÇOIS BENOÎT
+  HIOGO                            HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH
+  HIP                              HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH
+  HIP-KNOB                         HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON
+  HIPPARCHUS                       HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON
+  HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM           HOFMANN, MELCHIOR
+  HIPPEASTRUM                      HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT
+  HIPPED ROOF                      HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK
+  HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON     HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS
+  HIPPIAS OF ELIS                  HOGARTH, WILLIAM
+  HIPPO                            HOGG, JAMES
+  HIPPOCRAS                        HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON
+  HIPPOCRATES                      HOGMANAY
+  HIPPOCRENE                       HOGSHEAD
+  HIPPODAMUS                       HOHENASPERG
+  HIPPODROME                       HOHENFRIEDBERG
+  HIPPOLYTUS (Greek legend hunter) HOHENHEIM
+  HIPPOLYTUS (Church writer)       HOHENLIMBURG
+  HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF        HOHENLOHE
+  HIPPONAX                         HOHENSTAUFEN
+  HIPPOPOTAMUS                     HOHENSTEIN
+  HIPPURIC ACID                    HOHENZOLLERN
+  HIPURNIAS                        HOKKAIDO
+  HIRA                             HOKUSAI
+  HIRADO                           HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH
+  HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT          HOLBEACH
+  HIRING                           HOLBEIN, HANS (the elder)
+  HIROSAKI                         HOLBEIN, HANS (the younger)
+  HIROSHIGE                        HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG
+  HIROSHIMA                        HOLBORN
+  HIRPINI                          HOLCROFT, THOMAS
+  HIRSAU                           HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON
+  HIRSCH, MAURICE DE               HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC
+  HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL           HÖLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH
+  HIRSCHBERG                       HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF
+  HIRSON                           HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL
+  HIRTIUS, AULUS                   HOLGUÍN
+  HISHAM IBN AL-KALBI              HOLIDAY
+  HISPELLUM                        HOLINSHED, RAPHAEL
+  HISSAR (district in Asia)        HOLKAR
+  HISSAR (Indian town & district)  HOLL, FRANK
+  HISTIAEUS                        HOLLAND, CHARLES
+  HISTOLOGY                        HOLLAND, SIR HENRY
+  HISTORY                          HOLLAND, HENRY FOX
+  HIT                              HOLLAND, HENRY RICH
+  HITA, GINÉS PEREZ DE             HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX
+  HITCHCOCK, EDWARD                HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT
+  HITCHCOCK, GEORGE                HOLLAND, PHILEMON
+  HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT        HOLLAND, RICHARD
+  HITCHIN                          HOLLAND (country)
+  HITTITES                         HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
+  HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE         HOLLAND (Michigan, U.S.A.)
+  HITZACKER                        HOLLAND (cloth)
+  HITZIG, FERDINAND                HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS
+  HIUNG-NU                         HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES
+  HIVITES                          HOLLOWAY, THOMAS
+  HJÖRRING                         HOLLY
+  HKAMTI LÔNG                      HOLLYHOCK
+  HLOTHHERE                        HOLLY SPRINGS
+  HOACTZIN                         HOLMAN, JAMES
+  HOADLY, BENJAMIN                 HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL
+  HOAR, SAMUEL                     HOLMFIRTH
+  HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT          HOLOCAUST
+  HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS          HOLOCENE
+  HOBART, JOHN HENRY               HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES
+  HOBART PASHA                     HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON
+  HOBART (capital of Tasmania)     HOLSTEIN (duchy of Germany)
+  HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT                HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN
+  HOBBES, THOMAS                   HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS
+  HOBBY                            HOLSTER
+  HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE        HOLT, SIR JOHN
+  HOBOKEN (town of Belgium)        HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON
+  HOBOKEN (New Jersey, U.S.A.)     HÖLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH
+  HOBSON'S CHOICE                  HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM FRANZ PHILIPP VON
+  HOBY, SIR THOMAS                 HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS
+  HOCHE, LAZARE                    HOLUB, EMIL
+  HOCHHEIM                         HOLY
+  HÖCHST                           HOLY ALLIANCE, THE
+  HÖCHSTÄDT                        HOLYHEAD
+  HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND VON       HOLY ISLAND
+  HOCKEY                           HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB
+  HOCK-TIDE                        HOLYOKE
+  HOCUS                            HOLYSTONE
+  HODDEN                           HOLY WATER
+  HODDESDON                        HOLY WEEK
+  HODEDA                           HOLYWELL
+  HODENING                         HOLYWOOD
+  HODGE, CHARLES                   HOLZMINDEN
+  HODGKIN, THOMAS                  HOLZTROMPETE
+  HODGKINSON, EATON                HOMAGE
+  HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON          HOMBERG, WILHELM
+  HÓDMEZÖ-VÁSÁRHELY                HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HÖHE
+  HODOGRAPH                        HOME, EARLS OF
+  HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES
+
+
+
+
+HINDUISM, a term generally employed to comprehend the social
+institutions, past and present, of the Hindus who form the great
+majority of the people of India; as well as the multitudinous crop of
+their religious beliefs which has grown up, in the course of many
+centuries, on the foundation of the Brahmanical scriptures. The actual
+proportion of the total population of India (294 millions) included
+under the name of "Hindus" has been computed in the census report for
+1901 at something like 70% (206 millions); the remaining 30% being made
+up partly of the followers of foreign creeds, such as Mahommedans,
+Parsees, Christians and Jews, partly of the votaries of indigenous forms
+of belief which have at various times separated from the main stock, and
+developed into independent systems, such as Buddhism, Jainism and
+Sikhism; and partly of isolated hill and jungle tribes, such as the
+Santals, Bhils (Bhilla) and Kols, whose crude animistic tendencies have
+hitherto kept them, either wholly or for the most part, outside the pale
+of the Brahmanical community. The name "Hindu" itself is of foreign
+origin, being derived from the Persians, by whom the river Sindhu was
+called Hindhu, a name subsequently applied to the inhabitants of that
+frontier district, and gradually extended over the upper and middle
+reaches of the Gangetic valley, whence this whole tract of country
+between the Himalaya and the Vindhya mountains, west of Bengal, came to
+be called by the foreign conquerors "Hindustan," or the abode of the
+Hindus; whilst the native writers called it "Aryavarta," or the abode
+of the Aryas.
+
+But whilst, in its more comprehensive acceptation, the term Hinduism
+would thus range over the entire historical development of Brahmanical
+India, it is also not infrequently used in a narrower sense, as denoting
+more especially the modern phase of Indian social and religious
+institutions--from the earlier centuries of the Christian era down to
+our own days--as distinguished from the period dominated by the
+authoritative doctrine of pantheistic belief, formulated by the
+speculative theologians during the centuries immediately succeeding the
+Vedic period (see BRAHMANISM). In this its more restricted sense the
+term may thus practically be taken to apply to the later bewildering
+variety of popular sectarian forms of belief, with its social
+concomitant, the fully developed caste-system. But, though one may at
+times find it convenient to speak of "Brahmanism and Hinduism," it must
+be clearly understood that the distinction implied in the combination of
+these terms is an extremely vague one, especially from the chronological
+point of view. The following considerations will probably make this
+clear.
+
+
+  Connexion with Brahmanism.
+
+The characteristic tenet of orthodox Brahmanism consists in the
+conception of an absolute, all-embracing spirit, the Brahma (neutr.),
+being the one and only reality, itself unconditioned, and the original
+cause and ultimate goal of all individual souls (_jiva_, i.e. living
+things). Coupled with this abstract conception are two other doctrines,
+viz. first, the transmigration of souls (_samsara_), regarded by Indian
+thinkers as the necessary complement of a belief in the essential
+sameness of all the various spiritual units, however contaminated, to a
+greater or less degree, they may be by their material embodiment; and in
+their ultimate re-union with the _Paramatman_, or Supreme Self; and
+second, the assumption of a triple manifestation of the ceaseless
+working of that Absolute Spirit as a creative, conservative and
+destructive principle, represented respectively by the divine
+personalities of Brahma (masc.), Vishnu and Siva, forming the _Trimurti_
+or Triad. As regards this latter, purely exoteric, doctrine, there can
+be little doubt of its owing its origin to considerations of theological
+expediency, as being calculated to supply a sufficiently wide formula of
+belief for general acceptance; and the very fact of this divine triad
+including the two principal deities of the later sectarian worship,
+Vishnu and Siva, goes far to show that these two gods at all events must
+have been already in those early days favourite objects of popular
+adoration to an extent sufficient to preclude their being ignored by a
+diplomatic priesthood bent upon the formulation of a common creed. Thus,
+so far from sectarianism being a mere modern development of Brahmanism,
+it actually goes back to beyond the formulation of the Brahmanical
+creed. Nay, when, on analysing the functions and attributes of those two
+divine figures, each of them is found to be but a compound of several
+previously recognized deities, sectarian worship may well be traced
+right up to the Vedic age. That the theory of the triple manifestation
+of the deity was indeed only a compromise between Brahmanical
+aspirations and popular worship, probably largely influenced by the
+traditional sanctity of the number three, is sufficiently clear from the
+fact that, whilst Brahma, the creator, and at the same time the very
+embodiment of Brahmanical class pride, has practically remained a mere
+figurehead in the actual worship of the people, Siva, on the other hand,
+so far from being merely the destroyer, is also the unmistakable
+representative of generative and reproductive power in nature. In fact,
+Brahma, having performed his legitimate part in the mundane evolution by
+his original creation of the universe, has retired into the background,
+being, as it were, looked upon as _functus officio_, like a venerable
+figure of a former generation, whence in epic poetry he is commonly
+styled _pitamaha_, "the grandsire." But despite the artificial character
+of the _Trimurti_, it has retained to this day at least its theoretical
+validity in orthodox Hinduism, whilst it has also undoubtedly exercised
+considerable influence in shaping sectarian belief, in promoting
+feelings of toleration towards the claims of rival deities; and in a
+tendency towards identifying divine figures newly sprung into popular
+favour with one or other of the principal deities, and thus helping to
+bring into vogue that notion of avatars, or periodical descents or
+incarnations of the deity, which has become so prominent a feature of
+the later sectarian belief.
+
+Under more favourable political conditions,[1] the sacerdotal class
+might perhaps, in course of time, have succeeded in imposing something
+like an effective common creed on the heterogeneous medley of races and
+tribes scattered over the peninsula, just as they certainly did succeed
+in establishing the social prerogative of their own order over the
+length and breadth of India. They were, however, fated to fall far short
+of such a consummation; and at all times orthodox Brahmanism has had to
+wink at, or ignore, all manner of gross superstitions and repulsive
+practices, along with the popular worship of countless hosts of
+godlings, demons, spirits and ghosts, and mystic objects and symbols of
+every description. Indeed, according to a recent account by a close
+observer of the religious practices prevalent in southern India, fully
+four-fifths of the people of the Dravidian race, whilst nominally
+acknowledging the spiritual guidance of the Brahmans, are to this day
+practically given over to the worship of their nondescript local village
+deities (_grama-devata_), usually attended by animal sacrifices
+frequently involving the slaughter, under revolting circumstances, of
+thousands of victims. Curiously enough these local deities are nearly
+all of the female, not the male sex. In the estimation of these people
+"Siva and Vishnu may be more dignified beings, but the village deity is
+regarded as a more present help in trouble, and more intimately
+concerned with the happiness and prosperity of the villagers. The origin
+of this form of Hinduism is lost in antiquity, but it is probable that
+it represents a pre-Aryan religion, more or less modified in various
+parts of south India by Brahmanical influence. At the same time, many of
+the deities themselves are of quite recent origin, and it is easy to
+observe a deity in making even at the present day."[2] It is a
+significant fact that, whilst in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, at
+which no animal sacrifices are offered, the officiating priests are
+almost invariably Brahmans, this is practically never the case at the
+popular performance of those "gloomy and weird rites for the
+propitiation of angry deities, or the driving away of evil spirits, when
+the pujaris (or ministrants) are drawn from all other castes, even from
+the Pariahs, the out-caste section of Indian society."
+
+
+  Caste.
+
+As from the point of view of religious belief, so also from that of
+social organization no clear line of demarcation can be drawn between
+Brahmanism and Hinduism. Though it was not till later times that the
+network of class divisions and subdivisions attained anything like the
+degree of intricacy which it shows in these latter days, still in its
+origin the caste-system is undoubtedly coincident with the rise of
+Brahmanism, and may even be said to be of the very essence of it.[3] The
+cardinal principle which underlies the system of caste is the
+preservation of purity of descent, and purity of religious belief and
+ceremonial usage. Now, that same principle had been operative from the
+very dawn of the history of Aryanized India. The social organism of the
+Aryan tribe did not probably differ essentially from that of most
+communities at that primitive stage of civilization; whilst the body of
+the people--the _Vis_ (or aggregate of _Vaisyas_)--would be mainly
+occupied with agricultural and pastoral pursuits, two professional
+classes--those of the warrior and the priest--had already made good
+their claim to social distinction. As yet, however, the tribal community
+would still feel one in race and traditional usage. But when the
+fair-coloured Aryan immigrants first came in contact with, and drove
+back or subdued the dark-skinned race that occupied the northern
+plains--doubtless the ancestors of the modern Dravidian people--the
+preservation of their racial type and traditionary order of things would
+naturally become to them a matter of serious concern. In the extreme
+north-western districts--the Punjab and Rajputana, judging from the
+fairly uniform physical features of the present population of these
+parts--they seem to have been signally successful in their endeavour to
+preserve their racial purity, probably by being able to clear a
+sufficiently extensive area of the original occupants for themselves
+with their wives and children to settle upon. The case was, however,
+very different in the adjoining valley of the Jumna and Ganges, the
+sacred _Madhyadesa_ or Middle-land of classical India. Here the Aryan
+immigrants were not allowed to establish themselves without undergoing a
+considerable admixture of foreign blood. It must remain uncertain
+whether it was that the thickly-populated character of the land scarcely
+admitted of complete occupation, but only of a conquest by an army of
+fighting men, starting from the Aryanized region--who might, however,
+subsequently draw women of their own kin after them--or whether, as has
+been suggested, a second Aryan invasion of India took place at that time
+through the mountainous tracts of the upper Indus and northern Kashmir,
+where the nature of the road would render it impracticable for the
+invading bands to be accompanied by women and children. Be this as it
+may, the physical appearance of the population of this central region of
+northern India--Hindustan and Behar--clearly points to an intermixture
+of the tall, fair-coloured, fine-nosed Aryan with the short-sized,
+dark-skinned, broad-nosed Dravidian; the latter type becoming more
+pronounced towards the lower strata of the social order.[4] Now, it was
+precisely in this part of India that mainly arose the body of literature
+which records the gradual rise of the Brahmanical hierarchy and the
+early development of the caste-system.
+
+The problem that now lay before the successful invaders was how to deal
+with the indigenous people, probably vastly outnumbering them, without
+losing their own racial identity. They dealt with them in the way the
+white race usually deals with the coloured race--they kept them socially
+apart. The land being appropriated by the conquerors, husbandry, as the
+most respectable industrial occupation, became the legitimate calling of
+the Aryan settler, the _Vaisya_; whilst handicrafts, gradually
+multiplying with advancing civilization and menial service, were
+assigned to the subject race. The generic name applied to the latter was
+_Sudra_, originally probably the name of one of the subjected tribes. So
+far the social development proceeded on lines hardly differing from
+those with which one is familiar in the history of other nations. The
+Indo-Aryans, however, went a step farther. What they did was not only to
+keep the native race apart from social intercourse with themselves, but
+to shut them out from all participation in their own higher aims, and
+especially in their own religious convictions and ceremonial practices.
+So far from attempting to raise their standard of spiritual life, or
+even leaving it to ordinary intercourse to gradually bring about a
+certain community of intellectual culture and religious sentiment, they
+deliberately set up artificial barriers in order to prevent their own
+traditional modes of worship from being contaminated with the obnoxious
+practices of the servile race. The serf, the _Sudra_, was not to worship
+the gods of the Aryan freemen. The result was the system of four castes
+(_varna_, i.e. "colour"; or _jati_, "gens"). Though the Brahman, who by
+this time had firmly secured his supremacy over the _kshatriya_, or
+noble, in matters spiritual as well as in legislative and administrative
+functions, would naturally be the prime mover in this regulation of the
+social order, there seems no reason to believe that the other two upper
+classes were not equally interested in seeing their hereditary
+privileges thus perpetuated by divine sanction. Nothing, indeed, is more
+remarkable in the whole development of the caste-system than the jealous
+pride which every caste, from the highest to the lowest, takes in its
+own peculiar occupation and sphere of life. The distinctive badge of a
+member of the three upper castes was the sacred triple cord or thread
+(_sutra_)--made of cotton, hemp or wool, according to the respective
+caste--with which he was invested at the _upanayana_ ceremony, or
+initiation into the use of the sacred _savitri_, or prayer to the sun
+(also called _gayatri_), constituting his second birth. Whilst the Arya
+was thus a _dvi-ja_, or twice-born, the Sudra remained unregenerate
+during his lifetime, his consolation being the hope that, on the
+faithful performance of his duties in this life, he might hereafter be
+born again into a higher grade of life. In later times, the strict
+adherence to caste duties would naturally receive considerable support
+from the belief in the transmigration of souls, already prevalent before
+Buddha's time, and from the very general acceptance of the doctrine of
+_karma_ ("deed"), or retribution, according to which a man's present
+station and manner of life are the result of the sum-total of his
+actions and thoughts in his former existence; as his actions here will
+again, by the same automatic process of retribution, determine his
+status and condition in his next existence. Though this doctrine is
+especially insisted upon in Buddhism, and its designation as a specific
+term (Pali, _Kamma_) may be due to that creed, the notion itself was
+doubtless already prevalent in pre-Buddhist times. It would even seem to
+be necessarily and naturally implied in Brahmanical belief in
+metempsychosis; whilst in the doctrine of Buddha, who admits no soul,
+the theory of the net result or fruit of a man's actions serving
+hereafter to form or condition the existence of some new individual who
+will have no conscious identity with himself, seems of a peculiarly
+artificial and mystic character. But, be this as it may, "the doctrine
+of _karma_ is certainly one of the firmest beliefs of all classes of
+Hindus, and the fear that a man shall reap as he has sown is an
+appreciable element in the average morality ... the idea of forgiveness
+is absolutely wanting; evil done may indeed be outweighed by meritorious
+deeds so far as to ensure a better existence in the future, but it is
+not effaced, and must be atoned for" (_Census Report_, i. 364).
+
+In spite, however, of the artificial restrictions placed on the
+intermarrying of the castes, the mingling of the two races seems to have
+proceeded at a tolerably rapid rate. Indeed, the paucity of women of the
+Aryan stock would probably render these mixed unions almost a necessity
+from the very outset; and the vaunted purity of blood which the caste
+rules were calculated to perpetuate can scarcely have remained of more
+than a relative degree even in the case of the Brahman caste. Certain it
+is that mixed castes are found referred to at a comparatively early
+period; and at the time of Buddha--some five or six centuries before the
+Christian era--the social organization would seem to have presented an
+appearance not so very unlike that of modern times. It must be
+confessed, however, that our information regarding the development of
+the caste-system is far from complete, especially in its earlier stages.
+Thus, we are almost entirely left to conjecture on the important point
+as to the original social organization of the subject race. Though
+doubtless divided into different tribes scattered over an extensive
+tract of land, the subjected aborigines were slumped together under the
+designation of Sudras, whose duty it was to serve the upper classes in
+all the various departments of manual labour, save those of a downright
+sordid and degrading character which it was left to _vratyas_ or
+outcasts to perform. How, then, was the distribution of crafts and
+habitual occupations of all kinds brought about? Was the process one of
+spontaneous growth adapting an already existing social organization to a
+new order of things; or was it originated and perpetuated by regulation
+from above? Or was it rather that the status and duties of existing
+offices and trades came to be determined and made hereditary by some
+such artificial system as that by which the Theodosian Code succeeded
+for a time in organizing the Roman society in the 5th century of our
+era? "It is well known" (says Professor Dill) "that the tendency of the
+later Empire was to stereotype society, by compelling men to follow the
+occupation of their fathers, and preventing a free circulation among
+different callings and grades of life. The man who brought the grain
+from Africa to the public stores at Ostia, the baker who made it into
+loaves for distribution, the butchers who brought pigs from Samnium,
+Lucania or Bruttium, the purveyors of wine and oil, the men who fed the
+furnaces of the public baths, were bound to their callings from one
+generation to another. It was the principle of rural serfdom applied to
+social functions. Every avenue of escape was closed. A man was bound to
+his calling not only by his father's but also by his mother's condition.
+Men were not permitted to marry out of their gild. If the daughter of
+one of the baker caste married a man not belonging to it, her husband
+was bound to her father's calling. Not even a dispensation obtained by
+some means from the imperial chancery, not even the power of the Church
+could avail to break the chain of servitude." It can hardly be gainsaid
+that these artificial arrangements bear a very striking analogy to those
+of the Indian caste-system; and if these class restrictions were
+comparatively short-lived on Italian ground, it was not perhaps so much
+that so strange a plant found there an ethnic soil less congenial to its
+permanent growth, but because it was not allowed sufficient time to
+become firmly rooted; for already great political events were impending
+which within a few decades were to lay the mighty empire in ruins. In
+India, on the other hand, the institution of caste--even if artificially
+contrived and imposed by the Indo-Aryan priest and ruler--had at least
+ample time allowed it to become firmly established in the social habits,
+and even in the affections, of the people. At the same time, one could
+more easily understand how such a system could have found general
+acceptance all over the Dravidian region of southern India, with its
+merest sprinkling of Aryan blood, if it were possible to assume that
+class arrangements of a similar kind must have already been prevalent
+amongst the aboriginal tribes prior to the advent of the Aryan. Whether
+a more intimate acquaintance with the manners and customs of those rude
+tribes that have hitherto kept themselves comparatively free from Hindu
+influences may yet throw some light on this question, remains to be
+seen. But, by this as it may, the institution of caste, when once
+established, certainly appears to have gone on steadily developing; and
+not even the long period of Buddhist ascendancy, with its uncompromising
+resistance to the Brahman's claim to being the sole arbiter in matters
+of faith, seems to have had any very appreciable retardant effect upon
+the progress of the movement. It was not only by the formation of ever
+new endogamous castes and sub-castes that the system gained in extent
+and intricacy, but even more so by the constant subdivision of the
+castes into numerous exogamous groups or septs, themselves often
+involving gradations of social status important enough to seriously
+affect the possibility of intermarriage, already hampered by various
+other restrictions. Thus a man wishing to marry his son or daughter had
+to look for a suitable match outside his sept, but within his caste. But
+whilst for his son he might choose a wife from a lower sept than his
+own, for his daughter, on the other hand, the law of hypergamy compelled
+him, if at all possible, to find a husband in a higher sept. This would
+naturally lead to an excess of women over men in the higher septs, and
+would render it difficult for a man to get his daughter respectably
+married without paying a high price for a suitable bridegroom and
+incurring other heavy marriage expenses. It can hardly be doubted that
+this custom has been largely responsible for the crime of female
+infanticide, formerly so prevalent in India; as it also probably is to
+some extent for infant marriages, still too common in some parts of
+India, especially Bengal; and even for the all but universal repugnance
+to the re-marriage of widows, even when these had been married in early
+childhood and had never joined their husbands. Yet violations of these
+rules are jealously watched by the other members of the sept, and are
+liable--in accordance with the general custom in which communal matters
+are regulated in India--to be brought before a special council
+(_panchayat_), originally consisting of five (_pancha_), but now no
+longer limited to that number, since it is chiefly the greater or less
+strictness in the observance of caste rules and the orthodox ceremonial
+generally that determine the status of the sept in the social scale of
+the caste. Whilst community of occupation was an important factor in the
+original formation of non-tribal castes, the practical exigencies of
+life have led to considerable laxity in this respect--not least so in
+the case of Brahmans who have often had to take to callings which would
+seem altogether incompatible with the proper spiritual functions of
+their caste. Thus, "the prejudice against eating cooked food that has
+been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong that, although
+the Shastras do not prohibit the eating of food cooked by a Kshatriya or
+Vaisya, yet the Brahmans, in most parts of the country, would not eat
+such food. For these reasons, every Hindu household--whether Brahman,
+Kshatriya or Sudra--that can afford to keep a paid cook generally
+entertains the services of a Brahman for the performance of its
+_cuisine_--the result being that in the larger towns the very name of
+Brahman has suffered a strange degradation of late, so as to mean only a
+cook" (Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_). In this
+caste, however, as in all others, there are certain kinds of occupation
+to which a member could not turn for a livelihood without incurring
+serious defilement. In fact, adherence to the traditional ceremonial and
+respectability of occupation go very much hand-in-hand. Thus, amongst
+agricultural castes, those engaged in vegetable-growing or
+market-gardening are inferior to the genuine peasant or yeoman, such as
+the Jat and Rajput; whilst of these the Jat who practises widow-marriage
+ranks below the Rajput who prides himself on his tradition of ceremonial
+orthodoxy--though racially there seems little, if any, difference
+between the two; and the Rajput, again, is looked down upon by the
+Babhan of Behar because he does not, like himself, scruple to handle the
+plough, instead of invariably employing low-caste men for this manual
+labour. So also when members of the Baidya, or physician, caste of
+Bengal, ranging next to that of the Brahman, farm land on tenure, "they
+will on no account hold the plough, or engage in any form of manual
+labour, and thus necessarily carry on their cultivation by means of
+hired servants" (H. H. Risley, _Census Report_).
+
+  The scale of social precedence as recognized by native public opinion
+  is concisely reviewed (ib.) as revealing itself "in the facts that
+  particular castes are supposed to be modern representatives of one or
+  other of the original castes of the theoretical Hindu system; that
+  Brahmans will take water from certain castes; that Brahmans of high
+  standing will serve particular castes; that certain castes, though not
+  served by the best Brahmans, have nevertheless got Brahmans of their
+  own whose rank varies according to circumstances; that certain castes
+  are not served by Brahmans at all but have priests of their own; that
+  the status of certain castes has been raised by their taking to
+  infant-marriage or abandoning the re-marriage of widows; that the
+  status of others has been modified by their pursuing some occupations
+  in a special or peculiar way; that some can claim the services of the
+  village barber, the village palanquin-bearer, the village midwife,
+  &c., while others cannot; that some castes may not enter the
+  courtyards of certain temples; that some castes are subject to special
+  taboos, such as that they must not use the village well, or may draw
+  water only with their own vessels, that they must live outside the
+  village or in a separate quarter, that they must leave the road on the
+  approach of a high-caste man and must call out to give warning of
+  their approach." ... "The first point to observe is the predominance
+  throughout India of the influence of the traditional system of four
+  original castes. In every scheme of grouping the Brahman heads the
+  list. Then come the castes whom popular opinion accepts as the modern
+  representatives of the Kshatriyas; and these are followed by the
+  mercantile groups supposed to be akin to the Vaisyas. When we leave
+  the higher circles of the twice-born, the difficulty of finding a
+  uniform basis of classification becomes apparent. The ancient
+  designation Sudra finds no great favour in modern times, and we can
+  point to no group that is generally recognized as representing it. The
+  term is used in Bombay, Madras and Bengal to denote a considerable
+  number of castes of moderate respectability, the higher of whom are
+  considered 'clean' Sudras, while the precise status of the lower is a
+  question which lends itself to endless controversy." ... In northern
+  and north-western India, on the other hand, "the grade next below the
+  twice-born rank is occupied by a number of castes from whose hands
+  Brahmans and members of the higher castes will take water and certain
+  kinds of sweetmeats. Below these again is rather an indeterminate
+  group from whom water is taken by some of the higher castes, not by
+  others. Further down, where the test of water no longer applies, the
+  status of the caste depends on the nature of its occupation and its
+  habits in respect of diet. There are castes whose touch defiles the
+  twice-born, but who do not commit the crowning enormity of eating
+  beef.... In western and southern India the idea that the social state
+  of a caste depends on whether Brahmans will take water and sweetmeats
+  from its members is unknown, for the higher castes will as a rule take
+  water only from persons of their own caste and sub-caste. In Madras
+  especially the idea of ceremonial pollution by the proximity of an
+  unclean caste has been developed with much elaboration. Thus the table
+  of social precedence attached to the Cochin report shows that while a
+  Nayar can pollute a man of a higher caste only by touching him, people
+  of the Kammalan group, including masons, blacksmiths, carpenters and
+  workers in leather, pollute at a distance of 24 ft., toddy-drawers at
+  36 ft., Pulayan or Cheruman cultivators at 48 ft., while in the case
+  of the Paraiyan (Pariahs) who eat beef the range of pollution is no
+  less than 64 ft."
+
+In this bewildering maze of social grades and class distinctions, the
+Brahman, as will have been seen, continues to hold the dominant
+position, being respected and even worshipped by all the others. "The
+more orthodox Sudras carry their veneration for the priestly class to
+such a degree that they will not cross the shadow of a Brahman, and it
+is not unusual for them to be under a vow not to eat any food in the
+morning, before drinking _Bipracharanamrita_, i.e. water in which the
+toe of a Brahman has been dipped. On the other hand, the pride of the
+Brahmans is such that they do not bow to even the images of the gods
+worshipped in a Sudra's house by Brahman priests" (Jog. Nath Bh.). There
+are, however, not a few classes of Brahmans who, for various reasons,
+have become degraded from their high station, and formed separate castes
+with whom respectable Brahmans refuse to intermarry and consort. Chief
+amongst these are the Brahmans who minister for "unclean" Sudras and
+lower castes, including the makers and dealers in spirituous liquors; as
+well as those who officiate at the great public shrines or places of
+pilgrimage where they might be liable to accept forbidden gifts, and, as
+a matter of fact, often amass considerable wealth; and those who
+officiate as paid priests at cremations and funeral rites, when the
+wearing apparel and bedding of the deceased are not unfrequently claimed
+by them as their perquisites.
+
+As regards the other two "twice-born" castes, several modern groups do
+indeed claim to be their direct descendants, and in vindication of their
+title make it a point to perform the _upanayana_ ceremony and to wear
+the sacred thread. But though the Brahmans, too, will often acquiesce in
+the reasonableness of such claims, it is probably only as a matter of
+policy that they do so, whilst in reality they regard the other two
+higher castes as having long since disappeared and been merged by
+miscegenation in the Sudra mass. Hence, in the later classical Sanskrit
+literature, the term _dvija_, or twice-born, is used simply as a synonym
+for a Brahman. As regards the numerous groups included under the term of
+Sudras, the distinction between "clean" and "unclean" Sudras is of
+especial importance for the upper classes, inasmuch as only the
+former--of whom nine distinct castes are usually recognized--are as a
+rule considered fit for employment in household service.
+
+
+  Theology.
+
+The picture thus presented by Hindu society--as made up of a confused
+congeries of social groups of the most varied standing, each held
+together and kept separate from others by a traditional body of
+ceremonial rules and by the notion of social gradations being due to a
+divinely instituted order of things--finds something like a counterpart
+in the religious life of the people. As in the social sphere, so also in
+the sphere of religious belief, we find the whole scale of types
+represented from the lowest to the highest; and here as there, we meet
+with the same failure of welding the confused mass into a well-ordered
+whole. In their theory of a triple manifestation of an impersonal deity,
+the Brahmanical theologians, as we have seen, had indeed elaborated a
+doctrine which might have seemed to form a reasonable, authoritative
+creed for a community already strongly imbued with pantheistic notions;
+yet, at best, that creed could only appeal to the sympathies of a
+comparatively limited portion of the people. Indeed, the sacerdotal
+class themselves had made its universal acceptance an impossibility,
+seeing that their laws, by which the relations of the classes were to be
+regulated, aimed at permanently excluding the entire body of aboriginal
+tribes from the religious life of their Aryan masters. They were to be
+left for all time coming to their own traditional idolatrous notions and
+practices. However, the two races could not, in the nature of things, be
+permanently kept separate from each other. Indeed, even prior to the
+definite establishment of the caste-system, the mingling of the lower
+race with the upper classes, especially with the aristocratic landowners
+and still more so with the yeomanry, had probably been going on to such
+an extent as to have resulted in two fairly well-defined intermediate
+types of colour between the priestly order and the servile race and to
+have facilitated the ultimate division into four "colours" (_varna_). In
+course of time the process of intermingling, as we have seen, assumed
+such proportions that the priestly class, in their pride of blood, felt
+naturally tempted to recognize, as of old, only two "colours," the Aryan
+Brahman and the non-Aryan Sudra. Under these conditions the religious
+practices of the lower race could hardly have failed in the long run to
+tell seriously upon the spiritual life of the lay body of the
+Brahmanical community. To what extent this may have been the case, our
+limited knowledge of the early phases of the sectarian worship of the
+people does not enable us to determine. But, on the other hand, the same
+process of racial intermixture also tended to gradually draw the lower
+race more or less under the influence of the Brahmanical forms of
+worship, and thus contributed towards the shaping of the religious
+system of modern Hinduism. The grossly idolatrous practices, however,
+still so largely prevalent in the Dravidian South, show how superficial,
+after all, that influence has been in those parts of India where the
+admixture of Aryan blood has been so slight as to have practically had
+no effect on the racial characteristics of the people. These present-day
+practices, and the attitude of the Brahman towards them, help at all
+events to explain the aversion with which the strange rites of the
+subjected tribes were looked upon by the worshippers of the Vedic
+pantheon. At the same time, in judging the apparently inhuman way in
+which the Sudras were treated in the caste rules, one has always to bear
+in mind the fact that the belief in metempsychosis was already universal
+at the time, and seemed to afford the only rational explanation of the
+apparent injustice involved in the unequal distribution of the good
+things in this world; and that, if the Sudra was strictly excluded from
+the religious rites and beliefs of the superior classes, this exclusion
+in no way involved the question of his ultimate emancipation and his
+union with the Infinite Spirit, which were as certain in his case as in
+that of any other sentient being. What it did make impossible for him
+was to attain that union immediately on the cessation of his present
+life, as he would first have to pass through higher and purer stages of
+mundane existence before reaching that goal; but in this respect he only
+shared the lot of all but a very few of the saintliest in the higher
+spheres of life, since the ordinary twice-born would be liable to sink,
+after his present life, to grades yet lower than that of the Sudra.
+
+To what extent the changes, which the religious belief of the Aryan
+classes underwent in post-Vedic times, may have been due to aboriginal
+influences is a question not easily answered, though the later creeds
+offer only too many features in which one might feel inclined to suspect
+influences of that kind. The literary documents, both in Sanskrit and
+Pali, dating from about the time of Buddha onwards--particularly the two
+epic poems, the _Mahabharata_ and _Ramayana_--still show us in the main
+the _personnel_ of the old pantheon; but the character of the gods has
+changed; they have become anthropomorphized and almost purely
+mythological figures. A number of the chief gods, sometimes four, but
+generally eight of them, now appear as _lokapalas_ or world-guardians,
+having definite quarters or intermediate quarters of the compass
+assigned to them as their special domains. One of them, Kubera, the god
+of wealth, is a new figure; whilst another, Varuna, the most spiritual
+and ethical of Vedic deities--the king of the gods and the universe; the
+nightly, star-spangled firmament--has become the Indian Neptune, the god
+of waters. Indra, their chief, is virtually a kind of superior raja,
+residing in _svarga_, and as such is on visiting terms with earthly
+kings, driving about in mid-air with his charioteer Matali. As might
+happen to any earth-lord, Indra is actually defeated in battle by the
+son of the demon-king of Lanka (Ceylon), and kept there a prisoner till
+ransomed by Brahma and the gods conferring immortality on his conqueror.
+A quaint figure in the pantheon of the heroic age is Hanuman, the
+deified chief of monkeys--probably meant to represent the aboriginal
+tribes of southern India--whose wonderful exploits as Rama's ally on the
+expedition to Lanka Indian audiences will never weary of hearing
+recounted. The Gandharvas figure already in the Veda, either as a single
+divinity, or as a class of genii, conceived of as the body-guard of Soma
+and as connected with the moon. In the later Vedic times they are
+represented as being fond of, and dangerous to, women; the Apsaras,
+apparently originally water-nymphs, being closely associated with them.
+In the heroic age the Gandharvas have become the heavenly minstrels
+plying their art at Indra's court, with the Apsaras as their wives or
+mistresses. These fair damsels play, however, yet another part, and one
+far from complimentary to the dignity of the gods. In the epics
+considerable merit is attached to a life of seclusion and ascetic
+practices by means of which man is considered capable of acquiring
+supernatural powers equal or even superior to those of the gods--a
+notion perhaps not unnaturally springing from the pantheistic
+conception. Now, in cases of danger being threatened to their own
+ascendancy by such practices, the gods as a rule proceed to employ the
+usually successful expedient of despatching some lovely nymph to lure
+the saintly men back to worldly pleasures. Seeing that the epic poems,
+as repeated by professional reciters, either in their original Sanskrit
+text, or in their vernacular versions, as well as dramatic compositions
+based on them, form to this day the chief source of intellectual
+enjoyment for most Hindus, the legendary matter contained in these
+heroic poems, however marvellous and incredible it may appear, still
+enters largely into the religious convictions of the people. "These
+popular recitals from the Ramayan are done into Gujarati in easy,
+flowing narrative verse ... by Premanand, the sweetest of our bards.
+They are read out by an intelligent Brahman to a mixed audience of all
+classes and both sexes. It has a perceptible influence on the Hindu
+character. I believe the remarkable freedom from infidelity which is to
+be seen in most Hindu families, in spite of their strange gregarious
+habits, can be traced to that influence; and little wonder" (B. M.
+Malabari, _Gujarat and the Gujaratis_). Hence also the universal
+reverence paid to serpents (_naga_) since those early days; though
+whether it simply arose from the superstitious dread inspired by the
+insidious reptile so fatal to man in India, or whether the verbal
+coincidence with the name of the once-powerful non-Aryan tribe of Nagas
+had something to do with it must remain doubtful. Indian myth represents
+them as a race of demons sprung from Kadru, the wife of the sage
+Kasyapa, with a jewel in their heads which gives them their sparkling
+look; and inhabiting one of the seven beautiful worlds below the earth
+(and above the hells), where they are ruled over by three chiefs or
+kings, Sesha, Vasuki and Takshaka; their fair daughters often entering
+into matrimonial alliances with men, like the mermaids of western
+legend.
+
+In addition to such essentially mythological conceptions, we meet in the
+religious life of this period with an element of more serious aspect in
+the two gods, on one or other of whom the religious fervour of the large
+majority of Hindus has ever since concentrated itself, viz. Vishnu and
+Siva. Both these divine figures have grown out of Vedic conceptions--the
+genial Vishnu mainly out of a not very prominent solar deity of the same
+name; whilst the stern Siva, i.e. the kind or gracious one--doubtless a
+euphemistic name--has his prototype in the old fierce storm-god Rudra,
+the "Roarer," with certain additional features derived from other
+deities, especially Pushan, the guardian of flocks and bestower of
+prosperity, worked up therewith. The exact process of the evolution of
+the two deities and their advance in popular favour are still somewhat
+obscure. In the epic poems which may be assumed to have taken their
+final shape in the early centuries before and after the Christian era,
+their popular character, so strikingly illustrated by their inclusion in
+the Brahmanical triad, appears in full force; whilst their cult is
+likewise attested by the coins and inscriptions of the early centuries
+of our era. The co-ordination of the two gods in the Trimurti does not
+by any means exclude a certain rivalry between them; but, on the
+contrary, a supreme position as the true embodiment of the Divine Spirit
+is claimed for each of them by their respective votaries, without,
+however, an honourable, if subordinate, place being refused to the rival
+deity, wherever the latter, as is not infrequently the case, is not
+actually represented as merely another form of the favoured god. Whilst
+at times a truly monotheistic fervour manifests itself in the adoration
+of these two gods, the polytheistic instincts of the people did not fail
+to extend the pantheon by groups of new deities in connexion with them.
+Two of such new gods actually pass as the sons of Siva and his consort
+Parvati, viz. Skanda--also called Kumara (the youth), Karttikeya, or
+Subrahmanya (in the south)--the six-headed war-lord of the gods; and
+Ganese, the lord (or leader) of Siva's troupes of attendants, being at
+the same time the elephant-headed, paunch-bellied god of wisdom; whilst
+a third, Kama (Kamadeva) or Kandarpa, the god of love, gets his popular
+epithet of Ananga, "the bodiless," from his having once, in frolicsome
+play, tried the power of his arrows upon Siva, whilst engaged in austere
+practices, when a single glance from the third (forehead) eye of the
+angry god reduced the mischievous urchin to ashes. For his chief
+attendant, the great god (Mahadeva, Mahesvara) has already with him the
+"holy" Nandi--presumably, though his shape is not specified, identical
+in form as in name with Siva's sacred bull of later times, the
+appropriate symbol of the god's reproductive power. But, in this
+respect, we also meet in the epics with the first clear evidence of what
+in after time became the prominent feature of the worship of Siva and
+his consort all over India, viz. the feature represented by the _linga_,
+or phallic symbol.
+
+As regards Vishnu, the epic poems, including the supplement to the
+Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, supply practically the entire framework of
+legendary matter on which the later Vaishnava creeds are based. The
+theory of Avataras which makes the deity--also variously called
+Narayana, Purushottama, or Vasudeva--periodically assume some material
+form in order to rescue the world from some great calamity, is fully
+developed; the ten universally recognized "descents" being enumerated in
+the larger poem. Though Siva, too, assumes various forms, the
+incarnation theory is peculiarly characteristic of Vaishnavism; and the
+fact that the principal hero of the Ramayana (Rama), and one of the
+prominent warriors of the Mahabharata (Krishna) become in this way
+identified with the supreme god, and remain to this day the chief
+objects of the adoration of Vaishnava sectaries, naturally imparts to
+these creeds a human interest and sympathetic aspect which is wholly
+wanting in the worship of Siva. It is, however, unfortunately but too
+true that in some of these creeds the devotional ardour has developed
+features of a highly objectionable character.
+
+  Even granting the reasonableness of the triple manifestation of the
+  Divine Spirit, how is one to reconcile all these idolatrous practices,
+  this worship of countless gods and godlings, demons and spirits
+  indwelling in every imaginable object round about us, with the
+  pantheistic doctrine of the _Ekam Advitiyam_, "the One without a
+  Second"? The Indian theosophist would doubtless have little difficulty
+  in answering that question. For him there is only the One Absolute
+  Being, the one reality that is all in all; whilst all the phenomenal
+  existences and occurrences that crowd upon our senses are nothing more
+  than an illusion of the individual soul estranged for a time from its
+  divine source--an illusion only to be dispelled in the end by the
+  soul's fuller knowledge of its own true nature and its being one with
+  the eternal fountain of blissful being. But to the man of ordinary
+  understanding, unused to the rarefied atmosphere of abstract thought,
+  this conception of a transcendental, impersonal Spirit and the
+  unreality of the phenomenal world can have no meaning: what he
+  requires is a deity that stands in intimate relation to things
+  material and to all that affects man's life. Hence the exoteric theory
+  of manifestations of the Supreme Spirit; and that not only the
+  manifestations implied in the triad of gods representing the cardinal
+  processes of mundane existence--creation, preservation, and
+  destruction or regeneration--but even such as would tend to supply a
+  rational explanation for superstitious imaginings of every kind. For
+  "the Indian philosophy does not ignore or hold aloof from the religion
+  of the masses: it underlies, supports and interprets their polytheism.
+  This may be accounted the keystone of the fabric of Brahmanism, which
+  accepts and even encourages the rudest forms of idolatry, explaining
+  everything by giving it a higher meaning. It treats all the worships
+  as outward, visible signs of some spiritual truth, and is ready to
+  show how each particular image or rite is the symbol of some aspect of
+  universal divinity. The Hindus, like the pagans of antiquity, adore
+  natural objects and forces--a mountain, a river or an animal. The
+  Brahman holds all nature to be the vesture or cloak of indwelling,
+  divine energy, which inspires everything that produces awe or passes
+  man's understanding" (Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Brahminism_).
+
+
+  Sectarianism.
+
+During the early centuries of our era, whilst Buddhism, where
+countenanced by the political rulers, was still holding its own by the
+side of Brahmanism, sectarian belief in the Hindu gods seems to have
+made steady progress. The caste-system, always calculated to favour
+unity of religious practice within its social groups, must naturally
+have contributed to the advance of sectarianism. Even greater was the
+support it received later on from the Puranas, a class of poetical works
+of a partly legendary, partly discursive and controversial character,
+mainly composed in the interest of special deities, of which eighteen
+principal (_maha-purana_) and as many secondary ones (_upa-purana_) are
+recognized, the oldest of which may go back to about the 4th century of
+our era. It was probably also during this period that the female element
+was first definitely admitted to a prominent place amongst the divine
+objects of sectarian worship, in the shape of the wives of the principal
+gods viewed as their _sakti_, or female energy, theoretically identified
+with the _Maya_, or cosmic Illusion, of the idealistic Vedanta, and the
+_Prakriti_, or plastic matter, of the materialistic Sankhya philosophy,
+as the primary source of mundane things. The connubial relations of the
+deities may thus be considered "to typify the mystical union of the two
+eternal principles, spirit and matter, for the production and
+reproduction of the universe." But whilst this privilege of divine
+worship was claimed for the consorts of all the gods, it is principally
+to Siva's consort, in one or other of her numerous forms, that adoration
+on an extensive scale came to be offered by a special sect of votaries,
+the _Saktas_.
+
+
+  Sankara.
+
+In the midst of these conflicting tendencies, an attempt was made, about
+the latter part of the 8th century, by the distinguished Malabar
+theologian and philosopher Sankara Acharya to restore the Brahmanical
+creed to something like its pristine purity, and thus once more to bring
+about a uniform system of orthodox Hindu belief. Though himself, like
+most Brahmans, apparently by predilection a follower of Siva, his aim
+was the revival of the doctrine of the Brahma as the one self-existent
+Being and the sole cause of the universe; coupled with the recognition
+of the practical worship of the orthodox pantheon, especially the gods
+of the Trimurti, as manifestations of the supreme deity. The practical
+result of his labours was the foundation of a new sect, the _Smartas_,
+i.e. adherents of the _smriti_ or tradition, which has a numerous
+following amongst southern Brahmans, and, whilst professing Sankara's
+doctrines, is usually classed as one of the Saiva sects, its members
+adopting the horizontal sectarial mark peculiar to Saivas, consisting in
+their case of a triple line, the _tripundra_, prepared from the ashes of
+burnt cow-dung and painted on the forehead. Sankara also founded four
+Maths, or convents, for Brahmans; the chief one being that of Sringeri
+in Mysore, the spiritual head (_Guru_) of which wields considerable
+power, even that of excommunication, over the Saivas of southern India.
+In northern India, the professed followers of Sankara are mainly limited
+to certain classes of mendicants and ascetics, although the tenets of
+this great Vedanta teacher may be said virtually to constitute the creed
+of intelligent Brahmans generally.
+
+  Whilst Sankara's chief title to fame rests on his philosophical works,
+  as the upholder of the strict monistic theory of Vedanta, he doubtless
+  played an important part in the partial remodelling of the Hindu
+  system of belief at a time when Buddhism was rapidly losing ground in
+  India. Not that there is any evidence of Buddhists ever having been
+  actually persecuted by the Brahmans, or still less of Sankara himself
+  ever having done so; but the traditional belief in some personal god,
+  as the principal representative of an invisible, all-pervading deity,
+  would doubtless appeal more directly to the minds and hearts of the
+  people than the colourless ethical system promulgated by the Sakya
+  saint. Nor do Buddhist places of worship appear as a rule to have been
+  destroyed by Hindu sectaries, but they seem rather to have been taken
+  over by them for their own religious uses; at any rate there are to
+  this day not a few Hindu shrines, especially in Bengal, dedicated to
+  Dharmaraj, "the prince of righteousness," as the Buddha is commonly
+  styled. That the tenets and practices of so characteristic a faith as
+  Buddhism, so long prevalent in India, cannot but have left their marks
+  on Hindu life and belief may readily be assumed, though it is not so
+  easy to lay one's finger on the precise features that might seem to
+  betray such an influence. If the general tenderness towards animals,
+  based on the principle of _ahimsa_, or inflicting no injury on
+  sentient beings, be due to Buddhist teaching, that influence must have
+  made itself felt at a comparatively early period, seeing that
+  sentiments of a similar nature are repeatedly urged in the Code of
+  Manu. Thus, in v. 46-48, "He who does not willingly cause the pain of
+  confinement and death to living beings, but desires the good of all,
+  obtains endless bliss. He who injures no creature obtains without
+  effort what he thinks of, what he strives for, and what he fixes his
+  mind on. Flesh-meat cannot be procured without injury to animals, and
+  the slaughter of animals is not conducive to heavenly bliss: from
+  flesh-meat, therefore, let man abstain." Moreover, in view of the fact
+  that Jainism, which originated about the same time as Buddhism,
+  inculcates the same principle, even to an extravagant degree, it seems
+  by no means improbable that the spirit of kindliness towards living
+  beings generally was already widely diffused among the people when
+  these new doctrines were promulgated. To the same tendency doubtless
+  is due the gradual decline and ultimate discontinuance of animal
+  sacrifices by all sects except the extreme branch of
+  Sakti-worshippers. In this respect, the veneration shown to serpents
+  and monkeys has, however, to be viewed in a somewhat different light,
+  as having a mythical background; whilst quite a special significance
+  attaches to the sacred character assigned to the cow by all classes of
+  Hindus, even those who are not prepared to admit the claim of the
+  Brahman to the exalted position of the earthly god usually conceded to
+  him. In the Veda no tendency shows itself as yet towards rendering
+  divine honour to the cow; and though the importance assigned her in an
+  agricultural community is easily understood, still the exact process
+  of her deification and her identification with the mother earth in the
+  time of Manu and the epics requires further elucidation. An idealized
+  type of the useful quadruped--likewise often identified with the
+  earth--presents itself in the mythical Cow of Plenty, or "wish-cow"
+  (Kamadhenu, or Kamadugha, i.e. wish-milker), already appearing in the
+  Atharvaveda, and in epic times assigned to Indra, or identified with
+  Surabhi, "the fragrant," the sacred cow of the sage Vasishtha.
+  Possibly the growth of the legend of Krishna--his being reared at
+  Gokula (cow-station); his tender relations to the _gopis_, or
+  cow-herdesses, of Vrindavana; his epithets _Gopala_, "the cowherd,"
+  and _Govinda_, "cow-finder," actually explained as "recoverer of the
+  earth" in the great epic, and the _go-loka_, or "cow-world," assigned
+  to him as his heavenly abode--may have some connexion with the sacred
+  character ascribed to the cow from early times.
+
+
+  Worship.
+
+Since the time of Sankara, or for more than a thousand years, the gods
+Vishnu and Siva, or _Hari_ and _Hara_ as they are also commonly
+called--with their wives, especially that of the latter god--have shared
+between them the practical worship of the vast majority of Hindus. But,
+though the people have thus been divided between two different religious
+camps, sectarian animosity has upon the whole kept within reasonable
+limits. In fact, the respectable Hindu, whilst owning special allegiance
+to one of the two gods as his _ishta devata_ (favourite deity), will not
+withhold his tribute of adoration from the other gods of the pantheon.
+The high-caste Brahman will probably keep at his home a salagram stone,
+the favourite symbol of Vishnu, as well as the characteristic emblems of
+Siva and his consort, to both of which he will do reverence in the
+morning; and when he visits some holy place of pilgrimage, he will not
+fail to pay his homage at both the Saiva and the Vaishnava shrines
+there. Indeed, "sectarian bigotry and exclusiveness are to be found
+chiefly among the professional leaders of the modern brotherhoods and
+their low-caste followers, who are taught to believe that theirs are the
+only true gods, and that the rest do not deserve any reverence whatever"
+(Jog. Nath). The same spirit of toleration shows itself in the
+celebration of the numerous religious festivals. Whilst some of
+these--e.g. the _Sankranti_ (called _Pongal_, i.e. "boiled rice," in the
+south), which marks the entrance of the sun into the sign of Capricorn
+and the beginning of its northward course (_uttarayana_) on the 1st day
+of the month Magha (c. Jan. 12); the _Ganesa-caturthi_, or 4th day of
+the light fortnight of Bhadra (August-September), considered the
+birthday of Ganesa, the god of wisdom; and the _Holi_, the Indian
+Saturnalia in the month of Phalguna (February to March)--have nothing of
+a sectarian tendency about them; others again, which are of a distinctly
+sectarian character--such as the _Krishna-janmashtami_, the birthday of
+Krishna on the 8th day of the dark half of Bhadra, or (in the south) of
+Sravana (July-August), the _Durga-puja_ and the _Dipavali_, or lamp
+feast, celebrating Krishna's victory over the demon Narakasura, on the
+last two days of Asvina (September-October)--are likewise observed and
+heartily joined in by the whole community irrespective of sect. Widely
+different, however, as is the character of the two leading gods are also
+the modes of worship practised by their votaries.
+
+_Siva_ has at all times been the favourite god of the Brahmans,[5] and
+his worship is accordingly more widely extended than that of his rival,
+especially in southern India. Indeed there is hardly a village in India
+which cannot boast of a shrine dedicated to Siva, and containing the
+emblem of his reproductive power; for almost the only form in which the
+"Great God" is adored is the _Linga_, consisting usually of an upright
+cylindrical block of marble or other stone, mostly resting on a circular
+perforated slab. The mystic nature of these emblems seems, however, to
+be but little understood by the common people; and, as H. H. Wilson
+remarks, "notwithstanding the acknowledged purport of this worship, it
+is but justice to state that it is unattended in Upper India by any
+indecent or indelicate ceremonies, and it requires a rather lively
+imagination to trace any resemblance in its symbols to the objects they
+are supposed to represent." In spite, however, of its wide diffusion,
+and the vast number of shrines dedicated to it, the worship of Siva has
+never assumed a really popular character, especially in northern India,
+being attended with scarcely any solemnity or display of emotional
+spirit. The temple, which usually stands in the middle of a court, is as
+a rule a building of very moderate dimensions, consisting either of a
+single square chamber, surmounted by a pyramidal structure, or of a
+chamber for the linga and a small vestibule. The worshipper, having
+first circumambulated the shrine as often as he pleases, keeping it at
+his right-hand side, steps up to the threshold of the sanctum, and
+presents his offering of flowers or fruit, which the officiating priest
+receives; he then prostrates himself, or merely lifts his hands--joined
+so as to leave a hollow space between the palms--to his forehead,
+muttering a short prayer, and takes his departure. Amongst the many
+thousands of Lingas, twelve are usually regarded as of especial
+sanctity, one of which, that of Somnath in Gujarat, where Siva is
+worshipped as "the lord of Soma," was, however, shattered by Mahmud of
+Ghazni; whilst another, representing Siva as _Visvesvara_, or "Lord of
+the Universe," is the chief object of adoration at Benares, the great
+centre of Siva-worship. The Saivas of southern India, on the other hand,
+single out as peculiarly sacred five of their temples which are supposed
+to enshrine as many characteristic aspects (linga) of the god in the
+form of the five elements, the most holy of these being the shrine of
+Chidambaram (i.e. "thought-ether") in S. Arcot, supposed to contain the
+ether-linga. According to Pandit S. M. Natesa (_Hindu Feasts, Fasts and
+Ceremonies_), "the several forms of the god Siva in these sacred shrines
+are considered to be the bodies or casements of the soul whose natural
+bases are the five elements--earth, water, fire, air and ether. The
+apprehension of God in the last of these five as ether is, according to
+the Saiva school of philosophy, the highest form of worship, for it is
+not the worship of God in a tangible form, but the worship of what, to
+ordinary minds, is vacuum, which nevertheless leads to the attainment of
+a knowledge of the all-pervading without physical accessories in the
+shape of any linga, which is, after all, an emblem. That this is the
+case at Chidambaram is known to every Hindu, for if he ever asks the
+priests to show him the God in the temple he is pointed to an empty
+space in the holy of holies, which has been termed the Akasa, or
+ether-linga." But, however congenial this refined symbolism may be to
+the worshipper of a speculative turn of mind, it is difficult to see how
+it could ever satisfy the religious wants of the common man little given
+to abstract conceptions of this kind.
+
+
+  Mendicant orders.
+
+From early times, detachment from the world and the practice of
+austerities have been regarded in India as peculiarly conducive to a
+spirit of godliness, and ultimately to a state of ecstatic communion
+with the deity. On these grounds it was actually laid down as a rule for
+a man solicitous for his spiritual welfare to pass the last two of the
+four stages (_asrama_) of his life in such conditions of renunciation
+and self-restraint. Though there is hardly a sect which has not
+contributed its share to the element of religious mendicancy and
+asceticism so prevalent in India, it is in connexion with the Siva-cult
+that these tendencies have been most extensively cultivated. Indeed, the
+personality of the stern God himself exhibits this feature in a very
+marked degree, whence the term _mahayogi_ or "great ascetic" is often
+applied to him.
+
+  Of Saiva mendicant and ascetic orders, the members of which are
+  considered more or less followers of Sankara Acharya, the following
+  may be mentioned: (1) _Dandis_, or staff-bearers, who carry a wand
+  with a piece of red cloth, containing the sacred cord, attached to it,
+  and also wear one or more pieces of cloth of the same colour. They
+  worship Siva in his form of Bhairava, the "terrible." A sub-section of
+  this order are the Dandi Dasnamis, or Dandi of ten names, so called
+  from their assuming one of the names of Sankara's four disciples, and
+  six of their pupils. (2) _Yogis_ (or popularly, Jogis), i.e. adherents
+  of the Yoga philosophy and the system of ascetic practices enjoined by
+  it with the view of mental abstraction and the supposed attainment of
+  superhuman powers--practices which, when not merely pretended, but
+  rigidly carried out, are only too apt to produce vacuity of mind and
+  wild fits of frenzy. In these degenerate days their supernatural
+  powers consist chiefly in conjuring, sooth-saying, and feats of
+  jugglery, by which they seldom fail in imposing upon a credulous
+  public. (3) _Sannyasis_, devotees who "renounce" earthly concerns, an
+  order not confined either to the Brahmanical caste or to the Saiva
+  persuasion. Those of the latter are in the habit of smearing their
+  bodies with ashes, and wearing a tiger-skin and a necklace or rosary
+  of _rudraksha_ berries (Elaeocarpus Ganitrus, lit. "Rudra's eye"),
+  sacred to Siva, and allowing their hair to grow till it becomes matted
+  and filthy. (4) _Parama-hamsas_, i.e. "supreme geese (or swans)," a
+  term applied to the world-soul with which they claim to be identical.
+  This is the highest order of asceticism, members of which are supposed
+  to be solely engaged in meditating on the Brahma, and to be "equally
+  indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible of heat or cold, and
+  incapable of satiety or want." Some of them go about naked, but the
+  majority are clad like the Dandis. (5) _Aghora Panthis_, a vile and
+  disreputable class of mendicants, now rarely met with. Their filthy
+  habits and disgusting practices of gross promiscuous feeding, even to
+  the extent of eating offal and dead men's flesh, look almost like a
+  direct repudiation of the strict Brahmanical code of ceremonial purity
+  and cleanliness, and of the rules regulating the matter and manner of
+  eating and drinking; and they certainly make them objects of loathing
+  and terror wherever they are seen.
+
+  On the general effect of the manner of life led by _Sadhus_ or "holy
+  men," a recent observer (J. C. Oman, _Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of
+  India_, p. 273) remarks: "_Sadhuism_, whether perpetuating the
+  peculiar idea of the efficiency of austerities for the acquisition of
+  far-reaching powers over natural phenomena, or bearing its testimony
+  to the belief in the indispensableness of detachment from the world as
+  a preparation for the ineffable joy of ecstatic communion with the
+  Divine Being, has undoubtedly tended to keep before men's eyes, as the
+  highest ideal, a life of purity, self-restraint, and contempt of the
+  world and human affairs. It has also necessarily maintained amongst
+  the laity a sense of the righteous claims of the poor upon the charity
+  of the more affluent members of the community. Moreover, _sadhuism_,
+  by the multiplicity of the independent sects which have arisen in
+  India, has engendered and favoured a spirit of tolerance which cannot
+  escape the notice of the most superficial observer."
+
+
+  Lingayats.
+
+An independent Saiva sect, or, indeed, the only strictly Saiva sect, are
+the _Vira Saivas_, more commonly called _Lingayats_ (popularly Lingaits)
+or _Lingavats_, from their practice of wearing on their person a phallic
+emblem of Siva, made of copper or silver, and usually enclosed in a case
+suspended from the neck by a string. Apparently from the movable nature
+of their badge, their _Gurus_ are called _Jangamas_ ("movable"). This
+sect counts numerous adherents in southern India; the Census Report of
+1901 recording nearly a million and a half, including some 70 or 80
+different, mostly endogamous, castes. The reputed founder, or rather
+reformer, of the sect was Basava (or Basaba), a Brahman of the Belgaum
+district who seems to have lived in the 11th or 12th century. According
+to the Basava-purana he early in life renounced his caste and went to
+reside at Kalyana, then the capital of the Chalukya kingdom, and later
+on at Sangamesvara near Ratnagiri, where he was initiated into the Vira
+Saiva faith which he subsequently made it his life's work to propagate.
+His doctrine, which may be said to constitute a kind of reaction against
+the severe sacerdotalism of Sankara, has spread over all classes of the
+southern community, most of the priests of Saiva temples there being
+adherents of it; whilst in northern India its votaries are only
+occasionally met with, and then mostly as mendicants, leading about a
+neatly caparisoned bull as representing Siva's sacred bull _Nandi_.
+Though the Lingayats still show a certain animosity towards the
+Brahmans, and in the Census lists are accordingly classed as an
+independent group beside the Hindus, still they can hardly be excluded
+from the Hindu community, and are sure sooner or later to find their way
+back to the Brahmanical fold.
+
+
+  Avatars.
+
+Vishnu, whilst less popular with Brahmans than his rival, has from early
+times proved to the lay mind a more attractive object of adoration on
+account of the genial and, so to speak, romantic character of his
+mythical personality. It is not, however, so much the original figure of
+the god himself that enlists the sympathies of his adherents as the
+additional elements it has received through the theory of periodical
+"descents" (_avatara_) or incarnations applied to this deity. Whilst the
+Saiva philosophers do not approve of the notion of incarnations, as
+being derogatory to the dignity of the deity, the Brahmans have
+nevertheless thought fit to adopt it as apparently a convenient
+expedient for bringing certain tendencies of popular worship within the
+pale of their system, and probably also for counteracting the Buddhist
+doctrines; and for this purpose Vishnu would obviously offer himself as
+the most attractive figure in the Brahmanical trinity. Whether the
+incarnation theory started from the original solar nature of the god
+suggestive of regular visits to the world of men, or in what other way
+it may have originated, must remain doubtful. Certain, however, it is
+that at least one of his Avatars is clearly based on the Vedic
+conception of the sun-god, viz. that of the dwarf who claims as much
+ground as he can cover by three steps, and then gains the whole universe
+by his three mighty strides. Of the ten or more Avatars, assumed by
+different authorities, only two have entered to any considerable extent
+into the religious worship of the people, viz. those of _Rama_ (or
+Ramachandra) and _Krishna_, the favourite heroes of epic romance. That
+these two figures would appeal far more strongly to the hearts and
+feelings of the people, especially the warlike Kshatriyas,[6] than the
+austere Siva is only what might have been expected; and, indeed, since
+the time of the epics their cult seems never to have lacked numerous
+adherents. But, on the other hand, the essentially human nature of these
+two gods would naturally tend to modify the character of the relations
+between worshipper and worshipped, and to impart to the modes and forms
+of adoration features of a more popular and more human kind. And
+accordingly it is exactly in connexion with these two incarnations of
+Vishnu, especially that of Krishna, that a new spirit was infused into
+the religious life of the people by the sentiment of fervent devotion to
+the deity, as it found expression in certain portions of the epic poems,
+especially the _Bhagavadgita_, and in the _Bhagavata-purana_ (as against
+the more orthodox Vaishnava works of this class such as the
+Vishnu-purana), and was formulated into a regular doctrine of faith in
+the _Sandilya-sutra_, and ultimately translated into practice by the
+Vaishnava reformers.
+
+
+  Ramanujas.
+
+The first successful Vaishnava reaction against Sankara's reconstructed
+creed was led by Ramanuja, a southern Brahman of the 12th century. His
+followers, the Ramanujas, or Sri-Vaishnavas as they are usually called,
+worship Vishnu (Narayana) with his consort Sri or Lakshmi (the goddess
+of beauty and fortune), or their incarnations Rama with Sita and Krishna
+with Rukmini. Ramanuja's doctrine, which is especially directed against
+the Linga-worship, is essentially based on the tenets of an old
+Vaishnava sect, the Bhagavatas or Pancharatras, who worshipped the
+Supreme Being under the name of Vasudeva (subsequently identified with
+Krishna, as the son of Vasudeva, who indeed is credited by some scholars
+with the foundation of that monotheistic creed). The sectarial mark of
+the Ramanujas resembles a capital U (or, in the case of another
+division, a Y), painted with a white clay called gopi-chandana, between
+the hair and the root of the nose, with a red or yellow vertical stroke
+(representing the female element) between the two white lines. They also
+usually wear, like all Vaishnavas, a necklace of _tulasi_, or basil
+wood, and a rosary of seeds of the same shrub or of the lotus. Their
+most important shrines are those of Srirangam near Trichinopoly,
+Mailkote in Mysore, Dvaraka (the city of Krishna) on the Kathiawar
+coast, and Jagannath in Orissa; all of them decorated with Vishnu's
+emblems, the tulasi plant and salagram stone. The Ramanuja Brahmans are
+most punctilious in the preparation of their food and in regard to the
+privacy of their meals, before taking which they have to bathe and put
+on woollen or silk garments. Whilst Sankara's mendicant followers were
+prohibited to touch fire and had to subsist entirely on the charity of
+Brahman householders, Ramanuja, on the contrary, not only allowed his
+followers to use fire, but strictly forbade their eating any food
+cooked, or even seen, by a stranger. On the speculative side, Ramanuja
+also met Sankara's strictly monistic theory by another recognizing
+Vishnu as identical with Brahma as the Supreme Spirit animating the
+material world as well as the individual souls which have become
+estranged from God through unbelief, and can only attain again conscious
+union with him through devotion or love (_bhakti_). His tenets are
+expounded in various works, especially in his commentaries on the
+Vedanta-sutras and the Bhagavadgita. The followers of Ramanuja have
+split into two sects, a northern one, recognizing the Vedas as their
+chief authority, and a southern one, basing their tenets on the Nalayir,
+a Tamil work of the Upanishad order. In point of doctrine, they differ
+in their view of the relation between God Vishnu and the human soul;
+whilst the former sect define it by the _ape_ theory, which makes the
+soul cling to God as the young ape does to its mother, the latter
+explain it by the cat theory, by which Vishnu himself seizes and rescues
+the souls as the mother cat does her young ones.
+
+
+  Madhvas.
+
+_Madhva Acharya_, another distinguished Vedanta teacher and founder of a
+Vaishnava sect, born in Kanara in A.D. 1199, was less intolerant of the
+Linga cult than Ramanuja, but seems rather to have aimed at a
+reconciliation of the Saiva and Vaishnava forms of worship. The
+_Madhvas_ or _Madhvacharis_ favour Krishna and his consort as their
+special objects of adoration, whilst images of Siva, Parvati, and their
+son Ganesa are, however, likewise admitted and worshipped in some of
+their temples, the most important of which is at Udipi in South Kanara,
+with eight monasteries connected with it. This shrine contains an image
+of Krishna which is said to have been rescued from the wreck of a ship
+which brought it from Dvaraka, where it was supposed to have been set up
+of old by no other than Krishna's friend Arjuna, one of the five Pandava
+princes. Followers of the Madhva creed are but rarely met with in Upper
+India. Their sectarial mark is like the U of the Sri-Vaishnavas, except
+that their central line is black instead of red or yellow. Madhva--who
+after his initiation assumed the name Anandatirtha--composed numerous
+Sanskrit works, including commentaries on the Brahma sutras (i.e. the
+Vedanta aphorisms), the Gita, the Rigveda and many Upanishads. His
+philosophical theory was a dualistic one, postulating distinctness of
+nature for the divine and the human soul, and hence independent
+existence, instead of absorption, after the completion of mundane
+existence.
+
+
+  Ramats.
+
+The Ramanandis or Ramavats (popularly Ramats) are a numerous northern
+sect of similar tenets to those of the Ramanujas. Indeed its founder,
+Ramananda, who probably flourished in the latter part of the 14th
+century, according to the traditional account, was originally a
+Sri-Vaishnava monk, and, having come under the suspicion of laxity in
+observing the strict rules of food during his peregrinations, and been
+ordered by his superior (Mahant) to take his meals apart from his
+brethren, left the monastery in a huff and set up a schismatic math of
+his own at Benares. The sectarial mark of his sect differs but slightly
+from that of the parent stock. The distinctive features of their creed
+consist in their making Rama and Sita, either singly or conjointly, the
+chief objects of their adoration, instead of Vishnu and Lakshmi, and
+their attaching little or no importance to the observance of privacy in
+the cooking and eating of their food. Their mendicant members, usually
+known as Vairagis, are, like the general body of the sect, drawn from
+all castes without distinction. Thus, the founder's twelve chief
+disciples include, besides Brahmans, a weaver, a currier, a Rajput, a
+Jat and a barber--for, they argue, seeing that Bhagavan, the Holy One
+(Vishnu), became incarnate even in animal form, a Bhakta (believer) may
+be born even in the lowest of castes. Ramananda's teaching was thus of a
+distinctly levelling and popular character; and, in accordance
+therewith, the Bhakta-mala and other authoritative writings of the sect
+are composed, not in Sanskrit, but in the popular dialects. A follower
+of this creed was the distinguished poet Tulsidas, the composer of the
+beautiful Hindi version of the Ramayana and other works which "exercise
+more influence upon the great body of Hindu population than the whole
+voluminous series of Sanskrit composition" (H. H. Wilson).
+
+
+  Kabir.
+
+The traditional list of Ramananda's immediate disciples includes the
+name of Kabir, the weaver, a remarkable man who would accordingly have
+lived in the latter part of the 15th century, and who is claimed by both
+Hindus and Moslems as having been born within their fold. The story goes
+that, having been deeply impressed by Ramananda's teaching, he sought to
+attach himself to him; and, one day at Benares, in stepping down the
+ghat at daybreak to bathe in the Ganges, and putting himself in the way
+of the teacher, the latter, having inadvertently struck him with his
+foot, uttered his customary exclamation "Ram Ram," which, being also the
+initiatory formula of the sect, was claimed by Kabir as such, making him
+Ramananda's disciple. Be this as it may, Kabir's own reformatory
+activity lay in the direction of a compromise between the Hindu and the
+Mahommedan creeds, the religious practices of both of which he
+criticized with equal severity. His followers, the Kabir Panthis ("those
+following Kabir's path"), though neither worshipping the gods of the
+pantheon, nor observing the rites and ceremonial of the Hindus, are
+nevertheless in close touch with the Vaishnava sects, especially the
+Ramavats, and generally worship Rama as the supreme deity, when they do
+not rather address their homage, in hymns and otherwise, to the founder
+of their creed himself. Whilst very numerous, particularly amongst the
+low-caste population, in western, central and northern India, resident
+adherents of Kabir's doctrine are rare in Bengal and the south; although
+"there is hardly a town in India where strolling beggars may not be
+found singing songs of Kabir in the original or as translated into the
+local dialects." The mendicants of this creed, however, never actually
+solicit alms; and, indeed, "the quaker-like spirit of the sect, their
+abhorrence of all violence, their regard for truth and the
+inobtrusiveness of their opinions render them very inoffensive members
+of the state" (H. H. Wilson). The doctrines of Kabir are taught, mostly
+in the form of dialogues, in numerous Hindi works, composed by his
+disciples and adherents, who, however, usually profess to give the
+teacher's own words.
+
+The peculiar conciliatory tendencies of Kabir were carried on with even
+greater zeal from the latter part of the 15th century by one of his
+followers, Nanak Shah, the promulgator of the creed of the _Nanak
+Shahis_ or _Sikhs_--i.e. (Sanskr.) _sishya_, disciples, whose guru, or
+teacher, he called himself--a peaceful sect at first until, in
+consequence of Mahommedan persecution, a martial spirit was infused into
+it by the tenth, and last, guru, Govind Shah, changing it into a
+political organization. Whilst originally more akin in its principles to
+the Moslem faith, the sect seems latterly to have shown tendencies
+towards drifting back to the Hindu pale.
+
+  Of Ramananda's disciples and successors several others, besides Kabir,
+  have established schismatic divisions of their own, which do not,
+  however, offer any very marked differences of creed. The most
+  important of these, the Dadu Panthi sect, founded by Dadu about the
+  year 1600, has a numerous following in Ajmir and Marwar, one section
+  of whom, the Nagas, engage largely in military service, whilst the
+  others are either householders or mendicants. The followers of this
+  creed wear no distinctive sectarial mark or badge, except a skull-cap;
+  nor do they worship any visible image of any deity, the repetition
+  (_japa_) of the name of Rama being the only kind of adoration
+  practised by them.
+
+
+  Eroticism and Krishna worship.
+
+Although the Vaishnava sects hitherto noticed, in their adoration of
+Vishnu and his incarnations, Krishna and Ramachandra, usually associate
+with these gods their wives, as their _saktis_, or female energies, the
+sexual element is, as a rule, only just allowed sufficient scope to
+enhance the emotional character of the rites of worship. In some of the
+later Vaishnava creeds, on the other hand, this element is far from
+being kept within the bounds of moderation and decency. The favourite
+object of adoration with adherents of these sects is Krishna with his
+mate--but not the devoted friend and counsellor of the Pandavas and
+deified hero of epic song, nor the ruler of Dvaraka and wedded lord of
+Rukmini, but the juvenile Krishna, Govinda or Bala Gopala, "the cowherd
+lad," the foster son of the cowherd Nanda of Gokula, taken up with his
+amorous sports with the _Gopis_, or wives of the cowherds of Vrindavana
+(Brindaban, near Mathura on the Yamuna), especially his favourite
+mistress Radha or Radhika. This episode in the legendary life of Krishna
+has every appearance of being a later accretion. After barely a few
+allusions to it in the epics, it bursts forth full-blown in the
+Harivansa, the Vishnu-purana, the Narada-Pancharatra and the
+Bhagavata-purana, the tenth canto of which, dealing with the life of
+Krishna, has become, through vernacular versions, especially the Hindi
+_Prem-sagar_, or "ocean of love," a favourite romance all over India,
+and has doubtless helped largely to popularize the cult of Krishna.
+Strange to say, however, no mention is as yet made by any of these works
+of Krishna's favourite Radha; it is only in another Purana--though
+scarcely deserving that designation--that she makes her appearance, viz.
+in the Brahma-vaivarta, in which Krishna's amours in Nanda's cow-station
+are dwelt upon in fulsome and wearisome detail; whilst the poet
+Jayadeva, in the 12th century, made her love for the gay and inconstant
+boy the theme of his beautiful, if highly voluptuous, lyrical drama,
+_Gita-govinda_.
+
+  The earliest of the sects which associate Radha with Krishna in their
+  worship is that of the Nimavats, founded by Nimbaditya or Nimbarka
+  (i.e. "the sun of the Nimba tree"), a teacher of uncertain date, said
+  to have been a Telugu Brahman who subsequently established himself at
+  Mathura (Muttra) on the Yamuna, where the headquarters of his sect
+  have remained ever since. The Mahant of their monastery at Dhruva
+  Kshetra near Mathura, who claims direct descent from Nimbarka, is said
+  to place the foundation of that establishment as far back as the 5th
+  century--doubtless an exaggerated claim; but if Jayadeva, as is
+  alleged, and seems by no means improbable, was really a follower of
+  Nimbarka, this teacher must have flourished, at latest, in the early
+  part of the 12th century. He is indeed taken by some authorities to be
+  identical with the mathematician Bhaskara Acharya, who is known to
+  have completed his chief work in A.D. 1150. It is worthy of remark, in
+  this respect, that--in accordance with Ramanuja's and Nimbarka's
+  philosophical theories--Jayadeva's presentation of Krishna's fickle
+  love for Radha is usually interpreted in a mystical sense, as
+  allegorically depicting the human soul's striving, through love, for
+  reunion with God, and its ultimate attainment, after many
+  backslidings, of the longed-for goal. As the chief authority of their
+  tenets, the Nimavats recognize the Bhagavata-purana; though several
+  works, ascribed to Nimbarka--partly of a devotional character and
+  partly expository of Vedanta topics--are still extant. Adherents of
+  this sect are fairly numerous in northern India, their frontal mark
+  consisting of the usual two perpendicular white lines, with, however,
+  a circular black spot between them.
+
+  Of greater importance than the sect just noticed, because of their far
+  larger following, are the two sects founded early in the 16th century
+  by Vallabha (Ballabha) Acharya and Chaitanya. In the forms of worship
+  favoured by votaries of these creeds the emotional and erotic elements
+  are allowed yet freer scope than in those that preceded them; and, as
+  an effective auxiliary to these tendencies, the use of the vernacular
+  dialects in prayers and hymns of praise takes an important part in the
+  religious service. The Vallabhacharis, or, as they are usually called,
+  from the title of their spiritual heads, the Gokulastha Gosains, i.e.
+  "the cow-lords (_gosvamin_) residing in Gokula," are very numerous in
+  western and central India. Vallabha, the son of a Telinga Brahman,
+  after extensive journeyings all over India, settled at Gokula near
+  Mathura, and set up a shrine with an image of Krishna Gopala. About
+  the year 1673, in consequence of the fanatical persecutions of the
+  Mogul emperor, this image was transferred to Nathdvara in Udaipur
+  (Mewar), where the shrine of Srinatha ("the lord of Sri," i.e. Vishnu)
+  continues to be the chief centre of worship for adherents of this
+  creed; whilst seven other images, transferred from Mathura at the same
+  time, are located at different places in Rajputana. Vallabha himself
+  went subsequently to reside at Benares, where he died. In the doctrine
+  of this Vaishnava prophet, the adualistic theory of Sankara is
+  resorted to as justifying a joyful and voluptuous cult of the deity.
+  For, if the human soul is identical with God, the practice of
+  austerities must be discarded as directed against God, and it is
+  rather by a free indulgence of the natural appetites and the pleasures
+  of life that man's love for God will best be shown. The followers of
+  his creed, amongst whom there are many wealthy merchants and bankers,
+  direct their worship chiefly to Gopal Lal, the boyish Krishna of
+  Vrindavana, whose image is sedulously attended like a revered living
+  person eight times a day--from its early rising from its couch up to
+  its retiring to repose at night. The sectarial mark of the adherents
+  consists of two red perpendicular lines, meeting in a semicircle at
+  the root of the nose, and having a round red spot painted between
+  them. Their principal doctrinal authority is the Bhagavata-purana, as
+  commented upon by Vallabha himself, who was also the author of several
+  other Sanskrit works highly esteemed by his followers. In this sect,
+  children are solemnly admitted to full membership at the early age of
+  four, and even two, years of age, when a rosary, or necklace, of 108
+  beads of basil (tulsi) wood is passed round their necks, and they are
+  taught the use of the octo-syllabic formula _Sri-Krishnah saranam
+  mama_, "Holy Krishna is my refuge." Another special feature of this
+  sect is that their spiritual heads, the Gosains, also called
+  Maharajas, so far from submitting themselves to self-discipline and
+  austere practices, adorn themselves in splendid garments, and allow
+  themselves to be habitually regaled by their adherents with choice
+  kinds of food; and being regarded as the living representatives of the
+  "lord of the Gopis" himself, they claim and receive in their own
+  persons all acts of attachment and worship due to the deity, even, it
+  is alleged, to the extent of complete self-surrender. In the final
+  judgment of the famous libel case of the Bombay Maharajas, before the
+  Supreme Court of Bombay, in January 1862, these improprieties were
+  severely commented upon; and though so unsparing a critic of Indian
+  sects as Jogendra Nath seems not to believe in actual immoral
+  practices on the part of the Maharajas, still he admits that "the
+  corrupting influence of a religion, that can make its female votaries
+  address amorous songs to their spiritual guides, must be very great."
+
+  A modern offshoot of Vallabha's creed, formed with the avowed object
+  of purging it of its objectionable features, was started, in the early
+  years of the 19th century, by Sahajananda, a Brahman of the Oudh
+  country, who subsequently assumed the name of Svami Narayana. Having
+  entered on his missionary labours at Ahmadabad, and afterwards removed
+  to Jetalpur, where he had a meeting with Bishop Heber, he subsequently
+  settled at the village of Wartal, to the north-west of Baroda, and
+  erected a temple to Lakshmi-Narayana, which, with another at
+  Ahmadabad, forms the two chief centres of the sect, each being
+  presided over by a Maharaja. Their worship is addressed to Narayana,
+  i.e. Vishnu, as the Supreme Being, together with Lakshmi, as well as
+  to Krishna and Radha. The sect is said to be gaining ground in
+  Gujarat. Chaitanya, the founder of the great Vaishnava sect of
+  Bengal, was the son of a high-caste Brahman of Nadiya, the famous
+  Bengal seat of Sanskrit learning, where he was born in 1485, two years
+  after the birth of Martin Luther, the German reformer. Having married
+  in due time, and a second time after the death of his first wife, he
+  lived as a "householder" (_grihastha_) till the age of 24, when he
+  renounced his family ties and set out as a religious mendicant
+  (_vairagin_), visiting during the next six years the principal places
+  of pilgrimage in northern India, and preaching with remarkable success
+  his doctrine of Bhakti, or passionate devotion to Krishna, as the
+  Supreme Deity. He subsequently made over to his principal disciples
+  the task of consolidating his community, and passed the last twelve
+  years of his life at Puri in Orissa, the great centre of the worship
+  of Vishnu as Jagannatha, or "lord of the world," which he remodelled
+  in accordance with his doctrine, causing the mystic songs of Jayadeva
+  to be recited before the images in the morning and evening as part of
+  the daily service; and, in fact, as in the other Vaishnava creeds,
+  seeking to humanize divine adoration by bringing it into accord with
+  the experience of human love. To this end, music, dancing,
+  singing-parties (_sankirtan_), theatricals--in short anything
+  calculated to produce the desired impression--would prove welcome to
+  him. His doctrine of Bhakti distinguishes five grades of devotional
+  feeling in the _Bhaktas_, or faithful adherents: viz. (_santi_) calm
+  contemplation of the deity; (_dasya_) active servitude; (_sakhya_)
+  friendship or personal regard; (_vatsalya_) tender affection as
+  between parents and children; (_madhurya_) love or passionate
+  attachment, like that which the Gopis felt for Krishna. Chaitanya also
+  seems to have done much to promote the celebration on an imposing
+  scale of the great Puri festival of the Ratha-yatra, or
+  "car-procession," in the month of Ashadha, when, amidst multitudes of
+  pilgrims, the image of Krishna, together with those of his brother
+  Balarama and his sister Subhadra, is drawn along, in a huge car, by
+  the devotees. Just as this festival was, and continues to be, attended
+  by people from all parts of India, without distinction of caste or
+  sex, so also were all classes, even Mahommedans, admitted by Chaitanya
+  as members of his sect. Whilst numerous observances are recommended as
+  more or less meritorious, the ordinary form of worship is a very
+  simple one, consisting as it does mainly of the constant repetition of
+  names of Krishna, or Krishna and Radha, which of itself is considered
+  sufficient to ensure future bliss. The partaking of flesh food and
+  spirituous liquor is strictly prohibited. By the followers of this
+  sect, also, an extravagant degree of reverence is habitually paid to
+  their gurus or spiritual heads. Indeed, Chaitanya himself, as well as
+  his immediate disciples, have come to be regarded as complete or
+  partial incarnations of the deity to whom adoration is due, as to
+  Krishna himself; and their modern successors, the Gosains, share to
+  the fullest extent in the devout attentions of the worshippers.
+  Chaitanya's movement, being chiefly directed against the vile
+  practices of the Saktas, then very prevalent in Bengal, was doubtless
+  prompted by the best and purest of intentions; but his own doctrine of
+  divine, though all too human, love was, like that of Vallabha, by no
+  means free from corruptive tendencies,--yet, how far these tendencies
+  have worked their way, who would say? On this point, Dr W. W.
+  Hunter--who is of opinion that "the death of the reformer marks the
+  beginning of the spiritual decline of Vishnu-worship," observes
+  (_Orissa_, i. 111), "The most deplorable corruption of Vishnu-worship
+  at the present day is that which has covered the temple walls with
+  indecent sculptures, and filled its innermost sanctuaries with
+  licentious rites" ... yet ... "it is difficult for a person not a
+  Hindu to pronounce upon the real extent of the evil. None but a Hindu
+  can enter any of the larger temples, and none but a Hindu priest
+  really knows the truth about their inner mysteries"; whilst the
+  well-known native scholar Babu Rajendralal Mitra points out
+  (_Antiquities of Orissa_, i. 111) that "such as they are, these
+  sculptures date from centuries before the birth of Chaitanya, and
+  cannot, therefore, be attributed to his doctrines or to his followers.
+  As a Hindu by birth, and a Vaishnava by family religion, I have had
+  the freest access to the innermost sanctuaries and to the most secret
+  of scriptures. I have studied the subject most extensively, and have
+  had opportunities of judging which no European can have, and I have no
+  hesitation in saying that, 'the mystic songs' of Jayadeva and the
+  'ocean of love' notwithstanding, there is nothing in the rituals of
+  Jagannatha which can be called licentious." Whilst in Chaitanya's
+  creed, Krishna, in his relations to Radha, remains at least
+  theoretically the chief partner, an almost inevitable step was taken
+  by some minor sects in attaching the greater importance to the female
+  element, and making Krishna's love for his mistress the guiding
+  sentiment of their faith. Of these sects, it will suffice to mention
+  that of the Radha-Vallabhis, started in the latter part of the 16th
+  century, who worship Krishna as Radha-vallabha, "the darling of
+  Radha." The doctrines and practices of these sects clearly verge upon
+  those obtaining in the third principal division of Indian sectarians
+  which will now be considered.
+
+
+  Saktas
+
+The Saktas, as we have seen, are worshippers of the _sakti_, or the
+female principle as a primary factor in the creation and reproduction of
+the universe. And as each of the principal gods is supposed to have
+associated with him his own particular _sakti_, as an indispensable
+complement enabling him to properly perform his cosmic functions,
+adherents of this persuasion might be expected to be recruited from all
+sects. To a certain extent this is indeed the case; but though
+Vaishnavism, and especially the Krishna creed, with its luxuriant growth
+of erotic legends, might have seemed peculiarly favourable to a
+development in this direction, it is practically only in connexion with
+the Saiva system that an independent cult of the female principle has
+been developed; whilst in other sects--and, indeed, in the ordinary
+Saiva cult as well--such worship, even where it is at all prominent, is
+combined with, and subordinated to, that of the male principle. What has
+made this cult attach itself more especially to the Saiva creed is
+doubtless the character of Siva as the type of reproductive power, in
+addition to his function as destroyer which, as we shall see, is
+likewise reflected in some of the forms of his Sakti. The theory of the
+god and his Sakti as cosmic principles is perhaps already foreshadowed
+in the Vedic couple of Heaven and Earth, whilst in the speculative
+treatises of the later Vedic period, as well as in the post-Vedic
+Brahmanical writings, the assumption of the self-existent being dividing
+himself into a male and a female half usually forms the starting-point
+of cosmic evolution.[7] In the later Saiva mythology this theory finds
+its artistic representation in Siva's androgynous form of Ardha-narisa,
+or "half-woman-lord," typifying the union of the male and female
+energies; the male half in this form of the deity occupying the
+right-hand, and the female the left-hand side. In accordance with this
+type of productive energy, the Saktas divide themselves into two
+distinct groups, according to whether they attach the greater importance
+to the male or to the female principle; viz. the _Dakshinacharis_, or
+"right-hand-observers" (also called _Dak-shina-margis_, or followers "of
+the right-hand path"), and the _Vamacharis_, or "left-hand-observers"
+(or _Vama-margis_, followers "of the left path"). Though some of the
+Puranas, the chief repositories of sectarian doctrines, enter largely
+into Sakta topics, it is only in the numerous Tantras that these are
+fully and systematically developed. In these works, almost invariably
+composed in the form of a colloquy, Siva, as a rule, in answer to
+questions asked by his consort Parvati, unfolds the mysteries of this
+occult creed.
+
+  The principal seat of Sakta worship is the north-eastern part of
+  India--Bengal, Assam and Behar. The great majority of its adherents
+  profess to follow the right-hand practice; and apart from the implied
+  purport and the emblems of the cult, their mode of adoration does not
+  seem to offer any very objectionable features. And even amongst the
+  adherents of the left-hand mode of worship, many of these are said to
+  follow it as a matter of family tradition rather than of religious
+  conviction, and to practise it in a sober and temperate manner; whilst
+  only an extreme section--the so-called _Kaulas_ or _Kulinas_, who
+  appeal to a spurious Upanishad, the Kaulopanishad, as the divine
+  authority of their tenets--persist in carrying on the mystic and
+  licentious rites taught in many of the Tantras. But strict secrecy
+  being enjoined in the performance of these rites, it is not easy to
+  check any statements made on this point. The Sakta cult is, however,
+  known to be especially prevalent--though apparently not in a very
+  extreme form--amongst members of the very respectable Kayastha or
+  writer caste of Bengal, and as these are largely employed as clerks
+  and accountants in Upper India, there is reason to fear that their
+  vicious practices are gradually being disseminated through them.
+
+The divine object of the adoration of the Saktas, then, is Siva's
+wife--the _Devi_ (goddess), _Mahadevi_ (great goddess), or _Jagan-mata_
+(mother of the world)--in one or other of her numerous forms, benign or
+terrible. The forms in which she is worshipped in Bengal are of the
+latter category, viz. _Durga_, "the unapproachable," and _Kali_, "the
+black one," or, as some take it, the wife of _Kala_, "time," or death
+the great dissolver, viz. Siva. In honour of the former, the
+_Durga-puja_ is celebrated during ten days at the time of the autumnal
+equinox, in commemoration of her victory over the buffalo-headed demon
+Mahishasura; when the image of the ten-armed goddess, holding a weapon
+in each hand, is worshipped for nine days, and cast into the water on
+the tenth day, called the Dasahara, whence the festival itself is
+commonly called Dasara in western India. _Kali_, on the other hand, the
+most terrible of the goddess's forms, has a special service performed to
+her, at the _Kali-puja_, during the darkest night of the succeeding
+month; when she is represented as a naked black woman, four-armed,
+wearing a garland of heads of giants slain by her, and a string of
+skulls round her neck, dancing on the breast of her husband (Mahakala),
+with gaping mouth and protruding tongue; and when she has to be
+propitiated by the slaughter of goats, sheep and buffaloes. On other
+occasions also Vamacharis commonly offer animal sacrifices, usually one
+or more kids; the head of the victim, which has to be severed by a
+single stroke, being always placed in front of the image of the goddess
+as a blood-offering (_bali_), with an earthen lamp fed with ghee burning
+above it, whilst the flesh is cooked and served to the guests attending
+the ceremony, except that of buffaloes, which is given to the low-caste
+musicians who perform during the service. Even some adherents of this
+class have, however, discontinued animal sacrifices, and use certain
+kinds of fruit, such as coco-nuts or pumpkins, instead. The use of wine,
+which at one time was very common on these occasions, seems also to have
+become much more restricted; and only members of the extreme section
+would still seem to adhere to the practice of the so-called five _m's_
+prescribed by some of the Tantras, viz. _mamsa_ (flesh), _matsya_
+(fish), _madya_ (wine), _maithuna_ (sexual union), and _mudra_ (mystical
+finger signs)--probably the most degrading cult ever practised under the
+pretext of religious worship.
+
+  In connexion with the principal object of this cult, Tantric theory
+  has devised an elaborate system of female figures representing either
+  special forms and personifications or attendants of the "Great
+  Goddess." They are generally arranged in groups, the most important of
+  which are the _Mahavidyas_ (great sciences), the 8 (or 9) _Mataras_
+  (mothers) or _Mahamataras_ (great mothers), consisting of the wives of
+  the principal gods; the 8 _Nayikas_ or mistresses; and different
+  classes of sorceresses and ogresses, called _Yoginis_, _Dakinis_ and
+  _Sakinis_. A special feature of the Sakti cult is the use of obscure
+  Vedic _mantras_, often changed so as to be quite meaningless and on
+  that very account deemed the more efficacious for the acquisition of
+  superhuman powers; as well as of mystic letters and syllables called
+  _bija_ (germ), of magic circles (_chakra_) and diagrams (_yantra_),
+  and of amulets of various materials inscribed with formulae of fancied
+  mysterious import.
+
+
+  General conclusions.
+
+This survey of the Indian sects will have shown how little the character
+of their divine objects of worship is calculated to exert that elevating
+and spiritualizing influence, so characteristic of true religious
+devotion. In all but a few of the minor groups religious fervour is only
+too apt to degenerate into that very state of sexual excitation which
+devotional exercises should surely tend to repress. If the worship of
+Siva, despite the purport of his chief symbol, seems on the whole less
+liable to produce these undesirable effects than that of the rival
+deity, it is doubtless due partly to the real nature of that emblem
+being little realized by the common people, and partly to the somewhat
+repellent character of the "great god," more favourable to evoking
+feelings of awe and terror than a spirit of fervid devotion. All the
+more are, however, the gross stimulants, connected with the adoration of
+his consort, calculated to work up the carnal instincts of the devotees
+to an extreme degree of sensual frenzy. In the Vaishnava camp, on the
+other hand, the cult of Krishna, and more especially that of the
+youthful Krishna, can scarcely fail to exert an influence which, if of a
+subtler and more insinuating, is not on that account of a less
+demoralizing kind. Indeed, it would be hard to find anything less
+consonant with godliness and divine perfection than the pranks of this
+juvenile god; and if poets and thinkers try to explain them away by dint
+of allegorical interpretation, the plain man will not for all their
+refinements take these amusing adventures any the less _au pied de la
+lettre_. No fault, in this respect, can assuredly be found with the
+legendary Rama, a very paragon of knightly honour and virtue, even as
+his consort Sita is the very model of a noble and faithful wife; and yet
+this cult has perhaps retained even more of the character of mere
+hero-worship than that of Krishna. Since by the universally accepted
+doctrine of _karman_ (deed) or _karmavipaka_ ("the maturing of deeds")
+man himself--either in his present, or some future, existence--enjoys
+the fruit of, or has to atone for, his former good and bad actions,
+there could hardly be room in Hindu pantheism for a belief in the
+remission of sin by divine grace or vicarious substitution. And
+accordingly the "descents" or incarnations of the deity have for their
+object, not so much the spiritual regeneration of man as the deliverance
+of the world from some material calamity threatening to overwhelm it.
+The generally recognized principal Avatars do not, however, by any means
+constitute the only occasions of a direct intercession of the deity in
+worldly affairs, but--in the same way as to this day the eclipses of the
+sun and moon are ascribed by the ordinary Hindu to these luminaries
+being temporarily swallowed by the dragon _Rahu_ (or _Graha_, "the
+seizer")--so any uncommon occurrence would be apt to be set down as a
+special manifestation of divine power; and any man credited with
+exceptional merit or achievement, or even remarkable for some strange
+incident connected with his life or death, might ultimately come to be
+looked upon as a veritable incarnation of the deity, capable of
+influencing the destinies of man, and might become an object of local
+adoration or superstitious awe and propitiatory rites to multitudes of
+people. That the transmigration theory, which makes the spirit of the
+departed hover about for a time in quest of a new corporeal abode, would
+naturally lend itself to superstitious notions of this kind can scarcely
+be doubted. Of peculiar importance in this respect is the worship of the
+_Pitris_ ("fathers") or deceased ancestors, as entering largely into the
+everyday life and family relations of the Hindus. At stated intervals to
+offer reverential homage and oblations of food to the forefathers up to
+the third degree is one of the most sacred duties the devout Hindu has
+to discharge. The periodical performance of the commemorative rite of
+obsequies called _Sraddha_--i.e. an oblation "made in faith" (_sraddha_,
+Lat. _credo_)--is the duty and privilege of the eldest son of the
+deceased, or, failing him, of the nearest relative who thereby
+establishes his right as next of kin in respect of inheritance; and
+those other relatives who have the right to take part in the ceremony
+are called _sapinda_, i.e. sharing in the _pindas_ (or balls of cooked
+rice, constituting along with libations of water the usual offering to
+the Manes)--such relationship being held a bar to intermarriage. The
+first _Sraddha_ takes place as soon as possible after the _antyeshti_
+("final offering") or funeral ceremony proper, usually spread over ten
+days; being afterwards repeated once a month for a year, and
+subsequently at every anniversary and otherwise voluntarily on special
+occasions. Moreover, a simple libation of water should be offered to the
+Fathers twice daily at the morning and evening devotion called _sandhya_
+("twilight"). It is doubtless a sense of filial obligation coupled with
+sentiments of piety and reverence that gave rise to this practice of
+offering gifts of food and drink to the deceased ancestors. Hence also
+frequent allusion is made by poets to the anxious care caused to the
+Fathers by the possibility of the living head of the family being
+afflicted with failure of offspring; this dire prospect compelling them
+to use but sparingly their little store of provisions, in case the
+supply should shortly cease altogether. At the same time one also meets
+with frank avowals of a superstitious fear lest any irregularity in the
+performance of the obsequial rites should cause the Fathers to haunt
+their old home and trouble the peace of their undutiful descendant, or
+even prematurely draw him after them to the Pitri-loka or world of the
+Fathers, supposed to be located in the southern region. Terminating as
+it usually does with the feeding and feeing of a greater or less number
+of Brahmans and the feasting of members of the performers' own caste,
+the Sraddha, especially its first performance, is often a matter of very
+considerable expense; and more than ordinary benefit to the deceased is
+supposed to accrue from it when it takes place at a spot of recognized
+sanctity, such as one of the great places of pilgrimage like Prayaga
+(Allahabad, where the three sacred rivers, Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati,
+meet), Mathura, and especially Gaya and Kasi (Benares). But indeed the
+_tirtha-yatra_, or pilgrimage to holy bathing-places, is in itself
+considered an act of piety conferring religious merit in proportion to
+the time and trouble expended upon it. The number of such places is
+legion and is constantly increasing. The banks of the great rivers such
+as the Ganga (Ganges), the Yamuna (Jumna), the Narbada, the Krishna
+(Kistna), are studded with them, and the water of these rivers is
+supposed to be imbued with the essence of sanctity capable of cleansing
+the pious bather of all sin and moral taint. To follow the entire course
+of one of the sacred rivers from the mouth to the source on one side and
+back again on the other in the sun-wise (pradakshina) direction--that
+is, always keeping the stream on one's right-hand side--is held to be a
+highly meritorious undertaking which it requires years to carry through.
+No wonder that water from these rivers, especially the Ganges, is sent
+and taken in bottles to all parts of India to be used on occasion as
+healing medicine or for sacramental purposes. In Vedic times, at the
+_Rajasuya_, or inauguration of a king, some water from the holy river
+Sarasvati was mixed with the sprinkling water used for consecrating the
+king. Hence also sick persons are frequently conveyed long distances to
+a sacred river to heal them of their maladies; and for a dying man to
+breathe his last at the side of the Ganges is devoutly believed to be
+the surest way of securing for him salvation and eternal bliss.
+
+  Such probably was the belief of the ordinary Hindu two thousand years
+  ago, and such it remains to this day. In the light of facts such as
+  these, who could venture to say what the future of Hinduism is likely
+  to be? Is the regeneration of India to be brought about by the modern
+  theistic movements, such as the Brahma-samaj and Arya-samaj, as so
+  close and sympathetic an observer of Hindu life and thought as Sir A.
+  Lyall seems to think? "The Hindu mind," he remarks, "is essentially
+  speculative and transcendental; it will never consent to be shut up in
+  the prison of sensual experience, for it has grasped and holds firmly
+  the central idea that all things are manifestations of some power
+  outside phenomena. And the tendency of contemporary religious
+  discussion in India, so far as it can be followed from a distance, is
+  towards an ethical reform on the old foundations, towards searching
+  for some method of reconciling their Vedic theology with the practices
+  of religion taken as a rule of conduct and a system of moral
+  government. One can already discern a movement in various quarters
+  towards a recognition of impersonal theism, and towards fixing the
+  teaching of the philosophical schools upon some definitely authorized
+  system of faith and morals, which may satisfy a rising ethical
+  standard, and may thus permanently embody that tendency to substitute
+  spiritual devotion for external forms and caste rules which is the
+  characteristic of the sects that have from time to time dissented from
+  orthodox Brahminism."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Census of India_ (1901), vol. i. part i.; _India_, by
+  H. H. Risley and E. A. Gait; vol. i. _Ethnographical Appendices_, by
+  H. H. Risley; _The Indian Empire_, vol. i. (new ed., Oxford, 1907); J.
+  Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_ (2nd ed., 5 vols., London, 1873);
+  Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in India_ (London, 1883);
+  _Modern India and the Indians_ (London, 1878, 3rd ed. 1879);
+  _Hinduism_ (London, 1877); Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Asiatic Studies_ (2
+  series, London, 1899); "Hinduism" in _Religious Systems of the World_
+  (London, 1904); "Brahminism" in _Great Religions of the World_ (New
+  York and London, 1902); W. J. Wilkins, _Modern Hinduism_ (London,
+  1887); J. C. Oman, _Indian Life, Religious and Social_ (London, 1879);
+  _The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India_ (London, 1903); _The
+  Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India_ (London, 1907); S. C. Bose,
+  _The Hindus as they are_ (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1883); J. Robson,
+  _Hinduism and Christianity_ (Edinburgh and London, 3rd ed., 1905); J.
+  Murray Mitchell, _Hinduism Past and Present_ (2nd ed., London, 1897);
+  Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_ (Calcutta, 1896);
+  A. Barth, _The Religions of India_ (London, 1882); E. W. Hopkins, _The
+  Religions of India_ (London, 1896).     (J. E.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "It is, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can best
+    represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform worked
+    upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organized and
+    executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the Holy
+    Roman Empire and the Church Apostolic." Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Asiatic
+    Studies_, i. 2.
+
+  [2] Henry Whitehead, D. D., bishop of Madras, _The Village Deities of
+    Southern India_ (Madras, 1907).
+
+  [3] "The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious
+    basis." Sir A. C. Lyall, _Brahmanism_.
+
+  [4] Thus, in Berar, "there is a strong non-Aryan leaven in the dregs
+    of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races which
+    have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become fused
+    with the general community, while these same races are still distinct
+    tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle." Sir Alfred C. Lyall,
+    _As. St._, i. 6.
+
+  [5] Siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the
+    present age as Sveta, the White, for the purpose of benefiting the
+    Brahmans, and he is invariably painted white; whilst Vishnu, when
+    pictured, is always of a dark-blue colour.
+
+  [6] As in the case of Siva's traditional white complexion, it may not
+    be without significance, from a racial point of view, that Vishnu,
+    Rama and Krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed to
+    them, viz. blue, hyacinthine, and dark azure or dark brown
+    respectively. The names of the two heroes meaning simply "black" or
+    "dark," the blue tint may originally have belonged to Vishnu, who is
+    also called _pitavasas_, dressed in yellow garment, i.e. the colours
+    of sky and sun combined.
+
+  [7] This notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic
+    cosmogonic hymn, Rigv. x. 129, where it is said that--"that one
+    (existent, neutr.) breathed breathless by (or with) its _svadha_ (?
+    inherent power, or nature), beyond that there was nothing whatever
+    ... that one live (germ) which was enclosed in the void was generated
+    by the power of heat (or fervour); desire then first came upon it,
+    which was the first seed of the mind ... fertilizing forces there
+    were, _svadha_ below, _prayati_ (? will) above."
+
+
+
+
+HINDU KUSH, a range of mountains in Central Asia. Throughout 500 m. of
+its length, from its roots in the Pamir regions till it fades into the
+Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, this great range forms the water-divide
+between the Kabul and the Oxus basins, and, for the first 200 m.
+reckoning westwards, the southern boundary of Afghanistan. It may be
+said to spring from the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, where it unites
+with the great meridional system of Sarikol stretching northwards, and
+the yet more impressive mountain barrier of Muztagh, the northern base
+of which separates China from the semi-independent territory of Kanjut.
+The Wakhjir pass, crossing the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir into the
+sources of the river Hunza, almost marks the tri-junction of the three
+great chains of mountains. As the Hindu Kush strikes westwards, after
+first rounding the head of an Oxus tributary (the Ab-i-Panja, which
+Curzon considers to be the true source of the Oxus), it closely
+overlooks the trough of that glacier-fed stream under its northern
+spurs, its crest at the nearest point being separated from the river by
+a distance which cannot much exceed 10 m. As the river is here the
+northern boundary of Afghanistan, and the crest of the Hindu Kush the
+southern boundary, this distance represents the width of the Afghan
+kingdom at that point.
+
+  _Physiography._--For the first 100 m. of its length the Hindu Kush is
+  a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width, permitting
+  the formation of small lakes on the crest, and possessing no
+  considerable peaks. It is crossed by many passes, varying in height
+  from 12,500 ft. to 17,500 ft., the lowest and the easiest being the
+  well-known group about Baroghil, which has from time immemorial
+  offered a line of approach from High Asia to Chitral and Jalalabad. As
+  the Hindu Kush gradually recedes from the Ab-i-Panja and turns
+  south-westwards it gains in altitude, and we find prominent peaks on
+  the crest which measure more than 24,000 ft. above sea-level. Even
+  here, however, the main central water-divide, or axis of the chain, is
+  apparently not the line of highest peaks, which must be looked for to
+  the south, where the great square-headed giant called Tirach Mir
+  dominates Chitral from a southern spur. For some 40 or 50 m. of this
+  south-westerly bend, bearing away from the Oxus, where the Hindu Kush
+  overlooks the mountain wilderness of Badakshan to the west, the crest
+  is intersected by many passes, of which the most important is the
+  Dorah group (including the Minjan and the Mandal), which rise to about
+  15,000 ft., and which are, under favourable conditions, practicable
+  links between the Oxus and Chitral basins.
+
+
+    Kafiristan section.
+
+  From the Dorah to the Khawak pass (or group of passes, for it is
+  seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the Hindu
+  Kush), which is between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in altitude, the
+  water-divide overlooks Kafiristan and Badakshan. Here its exact
+  position is matter of conjecture. It lies amidst a wild, inaccessible
+  region of snowbound crests, and is certainly nowhere less than 15,000
+  ft. above sea-level. There is a tradition that Timur attempted the
+  passage of the Hindu Kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts,
+  and that, having failed, he left a record of his failure engraved on a
+  rock in the pass.
+
+
+    Passes.
+
+  The Khawak, at the head of the Panjshir tributary of the Kabul river,
+  leading straight from Badakshan to Charikar and the city of Kabul, is
+  now an excellent kafila route, the road having been engineered under
+  the amir Abdur Rahman's direction, and it is said to be available for
+  traffic throughout the year. From the Khawak to the head of the
+  Ghorband (a river of the Hindu Kush which, rising to the north-west of
+  Kabul, flows north-east to meet the Panjshir near Charikar, whence
+  they run united into the plains of Kohistan) the Hindu Kush is
+  intersected by passes at intervals, all of which were surveyed, and
+  several utilized, during the return of the Russo-Afghan boundary
+  commission from the Oxus to Kabul in 1886. Those utilized were the
+  Kaoshan (the "Hindu Kush" pass _par excellence_), 14,340 ft.; the
+  Chahardar (13,900 ft.), which is a link in one of the amir of
+  Afghanistan's high roads to Turkestan; and the Shibar (9800 ft.),
+  which is merely a diversion into the upper Ghorband of that group of
+  passes between Bamian and the Kabul plains which are represented by
+  the Irak, Hajigak, Unai, &c. About this point it is geographically
+  correct to place the southern extremity of the Hindu Kush, for here
+  commences the Koh-i-Baba system into which the Hindu Kush is merged.
+
+
+    General conformation.
+
+  The general conformation of the Hindu Kush system south of the Khawak,
+  no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock composition as at
+  present exists to the north, points to its construction under the same
+  conditions of upheaval and subsequent denudation as are common to the
+  western Himalaya and the whole of the trans-Indus borderland. Its
+  upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the north-west of the
+  Indian peninsula long after the Himalaya had massed itself as a
+  formidable mountain chain, belongs to a comparatively recent geologic
+  period, and the same thrust upwards of vast masses of cretaceous
+  limestone has disturbed the overlying recent beds of shale and clays
+  with very similar results to those which have left so marked an
+  impress on the Baluch frontier. Successive flexures or ridges are
+  ranged in more or less parallel lines, and from between the bands of
+  hard, unyielding rock of older formation the soft beds of recent shale
+  have been washed out, to be carried through the enclosing ridges by
+  rifts which break across their axes. The Hindu Kush is, in fact, but
+  the face of a great upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it
+  northwards, just as the Himalaya forms the southern face of the great
+  central tableland of Tibet, and its general physiography, exhibiting
+  long, narrow, lateral valleys and transverse lines of "antecedent"
+  drainage, is similar. There are few passes across the southern
+  section of the Hindu Kush (and this section is, from the
+  politico-geographical point of view, more important to India than the
+  whole Himalayan system) which have not to surmount a succession of
+  crests or ridges as they cross from Afghan Turkestan to Afghanistan.
+  The exceptions are, of course, notable, and have played an important
+  part in the military history of Asia from time immemorial. From a
+  little ice-bound lake called Gaz Kul, or Karambar, which lies on the
+  crest of the Hindu Kush near its northern origin at the head of the
+  Taghdumbash Pamir, two very important river systems (those of Chitral
+  and Hunza) are believed to originate. The lake really lies on the
+  watershed between the two, and is probably a glacial relic. Its
+  contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on conditions
+  of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses towards one end.
+  It marks the commencement of the water-divide which primarily
+  separates the Gilgit basin from that of the Yashkun, or Chitral,
+  river, and subsequently divides the drainage of Swat and Bajour from
+  that of the Chitral (or Kunar). The Yashkun-Chitral-Kunar river (it is
+  called by all three names) is the longest affluent of the Kabul, and
+  it is in many respects a more important river than the Kabul.
+  Throughout its length it is closely flanked on its left bank by this
+  main water-divide, which is called Moshabar or Shandur in its northern
+  sections, and owns a great variety of names where it divides Bajour
+  from the Kunar valley. It is this range, crowned by peaks of 22,000
+  ft. altitude and maintaining an average elevation of some 10,000 ft.
+  throughout its length of 250 m., that is the real barrier of the
+  north--not the Hindu Kush itself. Across it, at its head, are the
+  glacial passes which lead to the foot of the Baroghil. Of these
+  Darkot, with a glacial staircase on each side, is typical. (See
+  GILGIT.) Those passes (the Kilik and Mintaka) from the Pamir regions,
+  which lead into the rocky gorges and defiles of the upper affluents of
+  the Hunza to the east of the Darkot, belong rather to the Muztagh
+  system than to the Hindu Kush. Other passes across this important
+  water-divide are the Shandur (12,250 ft.), between Gilgit and Mastuj;
+  the Lowarai (10,450 ft.), between the Panjkora and Chitral valleys;
+  and farther south certain lower crossings which once formed part of
+  the great highway between Kabul and India.
+
+
+    Chitral.
+
+  Deep down in the trough of the Chitral river, about midway between its
+  source and its junction with the Kabul at Jalalabad, is the village
+  and fort of Chitral (q.v.). Facing Chitral, on the right bank of the
+  river, and extending for some 70 m. from the Hindu Kush, is the lofty
+  snow-clad spur of the Hindu Kush known as Shawal, across which one or
+  two difficult passes lead into the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This
+  spur carries the boundary of Afghanistan southwards to Arnawai (some
+  50 m. below Chitral), where it crosses the river to the long Shandur
+  watershed. South of Arnawai the Kunar valley becomes a part of
+  Afghanistan (see KUNAR). The value of Chitral as an outpost of British
+  India may be best gauged by its geographical position. It is about 100
+  m. (direct map measurement) from the outpost of Russia at Langar Kisht
+  on the river Panja, with the Dorah pass across the Hindu Kush
+  intervening. The Dorah may be said to be about half-way between the
+  two outposts, and the mountain tracks leading to it on either side are
+  rough and difficult. The Dorah, however, is not the only pass which
+  leads into the Chitral valley from the Oxus. The Mandal pass, a few
+  miles south of the Dorah, is the connecting link between the Oxus and
+  the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan; and the Bashgol valley leads
+  directly to the Chitral valley at Arnawai, about 50 m. below Chitral.
+  Nor must we overlook the connexion between north and south of the
+  Hindu Kush which is afforded by the long narrow valley of the Chitral
+  (or Yashkun) itself, leading up to the Baroghil pass. This route was
+  once made use of by the Chinese for purposes of pilgrimage, if not for
+  invasion. Access to Chitral from the north is therefore but a matter
+  of practicable tracks, or passes, in two or three directions, and the
+  measure of practicability under any given conditions can best be
+  reckoned from Chitral itself. By most authorities the possibility of
+  an advance in force from the north, even under the most favourable
+  conditions, is considered to be exceedingly small; but the tracks and
+  passes of the Hindu Kush are only impracticable so long as they are
+  left as nature has made them.
+
+_Historical Notices._--Hindu Kush is the Caucasus of Alexander's
+historians. It is also included in the Paropamisus, though the latter
+term embraces more, Caucasus being apparently used only when the alpine
+barrier is in question. Whether the name was given in mere vanity to the
+barrier which Alexander passed (as Arrian and others repeatedly allege),
+or was founded also on some verbal confusion, cannot be stated. It was
+no doubt regarded (and perhaps not altogether untruly) as a part of a
+great alpine zone believed to traverse Asia from west to east, whether
+called Taurus, Caucasus or Imaus. Arrian himself applies Caucasus
+distinctly to the Himalaya also. The application of the name Tanais to
+the Syr seems to indicate a real confusion with Colchian Caucasus.
+Alexander, after building an Alexandria at its foot (probably at Hupian
+near Charikar), crossed into Bactria, first reaching Drapsaca, or
+Adrapsa. This has been interpreted as Anderab, in which case he probably
+crossed the Khawak Pass, but the identity is uncertain. The ancient Zend
+name is, according to Rawlinson, Paresina, the essential part of
+Paropamisus; this accounts for the great Asiastic _Parnassus_ of
+Aristotle, and the _Pho-lo-sin-a_ of Hsüan Tsang.
+
+The name Hindu Kush is used by Ibn Batuta, who crossed (c. 1332) from
+Anderab, and he gives the explanation of the name which, however
+doubtful, is still popular, as (Pers.) Hindu-Killer, "because of the
+number of Indian slaves who perished in passing" its snows. Baber always
+calls the range Hindu Kush, and the way in which he speaks of it shows
+clearly that it was a range that was meant, not a solitary pass or peak
+(according to modern local use, as alleged by Elphinstone and Burnes).
+Probably, however, the title was confined to the section from Khawak to
+Koh-i-Baba. The name has by some later Oriental writers been modified
+into Hindu _Koh_ (mountain), but this is factitious, and throws no more
+light on the origin of the title. The name seems to have become known to
+European geographers by the Oriental translations of the two Petis de la
+Croix, and was taken up by Delisle and D'Anville. Rennell and
+Elphinstone familiarized it. Burnes first crossed the range (1832). A
+British force was stationed at Bamian beyond it in 1840, with an outpost
+at Saighan.
+
+The Hindu Kush, formidable as it seems, and often as it has been the
+limit between petty states, has hardly ever been the boundary of a
+considerable power. Greeks, White Huns, Samanidae of Bokhara,
+Ghaznevides, Mongols, Timur and Timuridae, down to Saddozais and
+Barakzais, have ruled both sides of this great alpine chain.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Information about the Hindu Kush and Chitral is now
+  comparatively exact. The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884 and
+  the Chitral expedition of 1895 opened up a vast area for geographical
+  investigation, and the information collected is to be found in the
+  reports and gazetteers of the Indian government. The following are the
+  chief recent authorities:--Report of the Russo-Afghan Boundary
+  Commission (1886); Report of Lockhart's Mission (1886); Report of
+  Asmar Boundary Commission (1895); Report of Pamir Boundary Commission
+  (1896); J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta, 1880); W.
+  M'Nair, "Visit to Kafiristan," vol. vi. _R.G.S. Proc._, 1884; F.
+  Younghusband, "Journeys on the Pamirs, &c.," vol. xiv. _R.G.S. Proc._,
+  1892; Colonel Durand, _Making a Frontier_ (London, 1899); Sir G.
+  Robertson, _Chitral_ (London, 1899).     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HINDUR, or NALAGARH, one of the Simla hill states, under the government
+of the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901) 52,551; area, 256 sq. m.; estimated
+revenue, £8600. The country was overrun by the Gurkhas for some years
+before 1815, when they were driven out by the British, and the raja was
+confirmed in possession of the territory. The principal products are
+grain and opium.
+
+
+
+
+HINGANGHAT, a town of British India in Wardha district, Central
+Provinces, 21 m. S.W. of Wardha town. Pop (1901) 12,662. It is a main
+seat of the cotton trade, the cotton here produced in the rich Wardha
+valley having given its name to one of the best indigenous staples of
+India. The principal native traders are Marwaris, many of whom have
+large transactions and export on their own account; but the greater
+number act as middle-men. There are two cotton-mills and several ginning
+and pressing factories.
+
+
+
+
+HINGE (in Mid. Eng. _henge_ or _heeng_, from _hengen_, to hang), a
+movable joint, particularly that by which a door or window "hangs" from
+its side-post, or by which a lid or cover is attached to that which it
+closes; also any device which allows two parts to be joined together and
+move upon each other (see JOINERY). Figuratively the word is used of
+that on which something depends, a cardinal or turning point, a crisis.
+
+
+
+
+HINGHAM, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on
+Massachusetts Bay. Pop (1890) 4564; (1900) 5059 (969 being
+foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4819; (1910) 4965. Area, about 30
+sq. m. The township is traversed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
+railway, and contains the villages of Hingham, West Hingham, Hingham
+Center, and South Hingham. Derby Academy, a co-educational school
+founded and endowed with about £12,000 in 1784 by Sarah Derby
+(1714-1790), was opened in 1791. Hingham has a public library (1868),
+with 12,000 volumes in 1908. The Old Meeting House, erected in 1681, is
+one of the oldest church buildings in the country used continuously.
+Manufactures were relatively much more important in the 17th and 18th
+centuries than since. There were settlers here as early as 1633, some of
+them--notably Edmund Hobart, ancestor of Bishop John Henry
+Hobart,--being natives of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whence the name;
+and in 1635 common land called Barecove became the township of Hingham.
+
+  See _History of the Town of Hingham_ (4 vols., Hingham, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1794-1861), German philosopher,
+studied theology at Strassburg, and philosophy at Heidelberg under Hegel
+(q.v.), who wrote a preface to his _Religion im innern Verhältniss zur
+Wissenschaft_ (Heidelberg, 1722). He became a _Privatdozent_ in 1819,
+and held professorships at Breslau (1822) and Halle (1824).
+
+  WORKS.--(1) Philosophical: _Grundlinien der Philosophie der Logik_
+  (Halle, 1826); _Genesis des Wissens_ (Heidelberg, 1835). (2) On
+  aesthetics: _Vorlesungen über Goethes Faust_ (Halle, 1825); _Schillers
+  Dichtungen nach ihrem historischen Zusammenhang_ (Leipzig, 1837-1839).
+  By these works he became a recognized exponent of orthodox
+  Hegelianism. (3) Historical: _Geschichte der Rechts- und
+  Staatsprinzipien seit der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart_ (Leipzig,
+  1848-1852); _Die Könige_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1853).
+
+
+
+
+HINSCHIUS, PAUL (1835-1898), German jurist, was the son of Franz Sales
+August Hinschius (1807-1877), and was born in Berlin on the 25th of
+December 1835. His father was not only a scientific jurist, but also a
+lawyer in large practice in Berlin. After working under his father,
+Hinschius in 1852 began to study jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Berlin,
+the teacher who had most influence upon him being Aemilius Ludwig
+Richter (1808-1864), to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of
+the study of ecclesiastical law in Germany. In 1855 Hinschius took the
+degree of _doctor utriusque juris_, and in 1859 was admitted to the
+juridical faculty of Berlin. In 1863 he went as professor
+extraordinarius to Halle, returning in the same capacity to Berlin in
+1865; and in 1868 became professor ordinarius at the university of Kiel,
+which he represented in the Prussian Upper House (1870-1871). He also
+assisted his father in editing the _Preussische Anwaltszeitung_ from
+1862 to 1866 and the _Zeitschrift für Gesetzgebung und Rechtspflege in
+Preussen_ from 1867 to 1871. In 1872 he was appointed professor
+ordinarius of ecclesiastical law at Berlin. In the same year he took
+part in the conferences of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs, which
+issued in the famous "Falk laws." In connexion with the developments of
+the _Kulturkampf_ which resulted from the "Falk laws," he wrote several
+treatises: e.g. on "The Attitude of the German State Governments towards
+the Decrees of the Vatican Council" (1871), on "The Prussian Church Laws
+of 1873" (1873), "The Prussian Church Laws of the years 1874 and 1875"
+(1875), and "The Prussian Church Law of 14th July 1880" (1881). He sat
+in the Reichstag as a National Liberal from 1872 to 1878, and again in
+1881 and 1882, and from 1889 onwards he represented the university of
+Berlin in the Prussian Upper House. He died on the 13th of December
+1898.
+
+The two great works by which Hinschius established his fame are the
+_Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (2 parts,
+Leipzig, 1863) and _Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken und Protestanten in
+Deutschland_, vols, i.-vi. (Berlin, 1869-1877). The first of these, for
+which during 1860 and 1861 he had gathered materials in Italy, Spain,
+France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland and Belgium, was the first
+critical edition of the False Decretals. His most monumental work,
+however, is the _Kirchenrecht_, which remains incomplete. The six
+volumes actually published (_System des katholischen Kirchenrechts_)
+cover only book i. of the work as planned; they are devoted to an
+exhaustive historical and analytical study of the Roman Catholic
+hierarchy and its government of the church. The work is planned with
+special reference to Germany; but in fact its scheme embraces the whole
+of the Roman Catholic organization in its principles and practice.
+Unfortunately even this part of the work remains incomplete; two
+chapters of book i. and the whole of book ii., which was to have dealt
+with "the rights and duties of the members of the hierarchy," remain
+unwritten; the most notable omission is that of the ecclesiastical law
+in relation to the regular orders. Incomplete as it is, however, the
+_Kirchenrecht_ remains a work of the highest scientific authority.
+Epoch-making in its application of the modern historical method to the
+study of ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice, it has become
+the model for the younger school of canonists.
+
+  See the articles s.v. by E. Seckel in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_
+  (3rd ed., 1900), and by Ulrich Steitz in the _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_, vol. 50 (Leipzig, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+HINTERLAND (German for "the land behind"), the region lying behind a
+coast or river line, or a country dependent for trade or commerce on any
+other region. In the purely physical sense "interior" or "back country"
+is more commonly used, but the word has gained a distinct political
+significance. It first came into prominence during 1883-1885, when
+Germany insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the
+territory behind those parts of the African coast that she had occupied.
+The "doctrine of the hinterland" was that the possessor of the littoral
+was entitled to as much of the back country as geographically,
+economically or politically was dependent upon the coast lands, a
+doctrine which, in the space of ten years, led to the partition of
+Africa between various European powers.
+
+
+
+
+HINTON, JAMES (1822-1875), English surgeon and author, son of John
+Howard Hinton (1791-1873), Baptist minister and author of the _History
+and Topography of the United States_ and other works, was born at
+Reading in 1822. He was educated at his grandfather's school near
+Oxford, and at the Nonconformist school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on
+his father's removal to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in
+Whitechapel. After retaining this situation about a year he became clerk
+in an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study, and
+this, joined to the ardour, amounting to morbidness, of his interest in
+moral problems, so affected his health that in his nineteenth year he
+resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts by running away to sea.
+His intention having, however, been discovered, he was sent, on the
+advice of the physician who was consulted regarding his health, to St
+Bartholomew's Hospital to study for the medical profession. After
+receiving his diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at
+Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone to take
+medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage thence to Jamaica,
+where he stayed some time. He returned to England in 1850, and entered
+into partnership with a surgeon in London, where he soon had his
+interest awakened specially in aural surgery, and gave also much of his
+attention to physiology. He made his first appearance as an author in
+1856 by contributing papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the
+_Christian Spectator_; and in 1859 he published _Man and his
+Dwelling-place_. A series of papers entitled "Physiological Riddles," in
+the _Cornhill Magazine_, afterwards published as _Life in Nature_
+(1862), as well as another series entitled _Thoughts on Health_ (1871),
+proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition. After being
+appointed aural surgeon to Guy's Hospital in 1863, he speedily acquired
+a reputation as the most skilful aural surgeon of his day, which was
+fully borne out by his works, _An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana
+tympani_ (1874), and _Questions of Aural Surgery_ (1874). But his health
+broke down, and in 1874 he gave up practice; and he died at the Azores
+of acute inflammation of the brain on the 16th of December 1875. In
+addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author of _The
+Mystery of Pain_ (1866) and _The Place of the Physician_ (1874). On
+account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of many of the important
+moral and social problems of the time, his writings had a wide
+circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.
+
+  His _Life and Letters_, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction
+  by Sir W. W. Gull, appeared in 1878.
+
+
+
+
+HIOGO [HYOGO], a town of Japan in the province of Settsu, Nippon, on the
+western shore of the bay of Osaka, adjoining the foreign settlement of
+Kobe, 21 m. W. of Osaka by rail. The growth of its prosperity has been
+very remarkable. Its population, including that of Kobe, was 135,639 in
+1891, and 285,002 in 1903. From 1884 to the close of the century its
+trade increased nearly eightfold, and the increase was not confined to a
+few staples of commerce, but was spread over almost the whole trade, in
+which silk and cotton fabrics, floor-mats, straw-plaits, matches, and
+cotton yarns are specially important. Kobe owes much of its prosperity
+to the fact of serving largely as the shipping port of Osaka, the chief
+manufacturing town in Japan. The foreign community, exclusive of
+Chinese, exceeds 1000 persons. Kobe is considered the brightest and
+healthiest of all the places assigned as foreign settlements in Japan,
+its pure, dry air and granite subsoil constituting special advantages.
+It is in railway communication with all parts of the country, and
+wharves admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo
+without the aid of lighters. The area originally appropriated for a
+foreign settlement soon proved too restricted, and foreigners received
+permission to lease lands and houses direct from Japanese owners beyond
+the treaty limits, a privilege which, together with that of building
+villas on the hills behind the town, ultimately involved some diplomatic
+complications. Kobe has a shipbuilding yard, and docks in its immediate
+neighbourhood.
+
+Hiogo has several temples of interest, one of which has near it a huge
+bronze statue of Buddha, while by the Minatogawa, which flows into the
+sea between Hiogo and Kobe, a temple commemorates the spot where
+Kusunoki Masashige, the mirror of Japanese loyalty, met his death in
+battle in 1336. The temple of Ikuta was erected on the site of the
+ancient fane built by Jingo on her return from Korea in the 3rd century.
+
+Hiogo's original name was Bako. Its position near the entrance of the
+Inland Sea gave it some maritime importance from a very early period,
+but it did not become really prominent until the 12th century, when
+Kiyomori, chief of the Taira clan, transferred the capital from Kioto to
+Fukuhara, in Hiogo's immediate neighbourhood, and undertook various
+public works for improving the place. The change of capital was very
+brief, but Hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction.
+
+
+
+
+HIP. (1) (From O. Eng. _hype_, a word common in various forms to many
+Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch _heup_, and Ger. _Hüfte_), the projecting
+part of the body formed by the top of the thighbone and the side of the
+pelvis, in quadrupeds generally known as the haunch (see JOINTS). (2)(O.
+Eng. _héope_, from same root as M.H. Ger. _hiefe_, a thorn-bush), the
+fruit of the dog-rose (_Rosa canina_); "hips" are usually joined with
+"haws," the fruit of the hawthorn.
+
+
+
+
+HIP-KNOB, in architecture, the finial on the hip of a roof, between the
+barge-boards of a gable.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPARCHUS (fl. 146-126 B.C.), Greek astronomer, was born at Nicaea in
+Bithynia early in the 2nd century B.C. He observed in the island of
+Rhodes probably from 161, certainly from 146 until about 126 B.C., and
+made the capital discovery of the precession of the equinoxes in 130
+(see ASTRONOMY: _History_). The outburst of a new star in 134 B.C. is
+stated by Pliny (_Hist. nat._ ii. 26) to have prompted the preparation
+of his catalogue of 1080 stars, substantially embodied in Ptolemy's
+_Almagest_. Hipparchus founded trigonometry, and compiled the first
+table of chords. Scientific geography originated with his invention of
+the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude and
+longitude. There can be little doubt that the fundamental part of his
+astronomical knowledge was derived from Chaldaea. None of his many works
+has survived except a Commentary on the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus and
+Eudoxus, published by P. Victorius at Florence in 1567, and included by
+D. Petavius in his _Uranologium_ (Paris, 1630). A new edition was
+published by Carolus Manitius (Leipzig, 1894).
+
+  See J. B. J. Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie ancienne_, i. 173; P.
+  Tannery, _Recherches sur l'histoire de l'astr. ancienne_, p. 130; A.
+  Berry, _Hist. of Astronomy_, pp. 40-61; M. Marie, _Hist. des
+  sciences_, i. 207; G. Cornewall Lewis, _Astronomy of the Ancients_, p.
+  207; R. Grant, _Hist. of Phys. Astronomy_, pp. 318, 437; F. Boll,
+  _Sphaera_, p. 61 (Leipzig, 1903); R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
+  Astronomie_, p. 45; J. F. Montucla, _Hist. des mathématiques_, t. i.
+  p. 257; J. A. Schmidt, _Variorum philosophicorum decas_, cap. i.
+  (Jenae, 1691).     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+
+HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM, Pythagorean philosopher, was one of the earliest
+of the disciples of Pythagoras. He is mentioned both by Diogenes
+Laërtius and by Iamblichus, but nothing is known of his life. Diogenes
+says that he left no writings, but other authorities make him the author
+of a [Greek: mystikos logos] directed against the Pythagoreans.
+According to Aristotle (_Metaphysica_, i. 3), he was an adherent of the
+Heraclitean fire-doctrine, whereas the Pythagoreans maintained the
+theory that number is the principle of everything. He seems to have
+regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter, and so approximates the
+orthodox Pythagorean doctrine of the central fire, or Hestia, to the
+more detailed theories of Heraclitus. In spite of this divergence,
+Hippasus is always regarded as a Pythagorean.
+
+  See Diogenes viii. 84; Brandis, _History of Greek and Roman
+  Philosophy_; also PYTHAGORAS.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPEASTRUM, in botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae,
+containing about 50 species of bulbous plants, natives of tropical and
+sub-tropical South America. In cultivation they are generally known as
+_Amaryllis_. The handsome funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster
+of two to many, at the end of a short hollow scape. The species and the
+numerous hybrids which have been obtained artificially, show a great
+variety in size and colour of the flower, including the richest deep
+crimson and blood-red, white, or with striped, mottled or blended
+colours. They are of easy culture, and free-blooming habit. Like other
+bulbs they are increased by offsets, which should be carefully removed
+when the plants are at rest, and should be allowed to attain a fair size
+before removal. These young bulbs should be potted singly in February or
+March, in mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand, about
+two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil, which
+should be made quite solid. They should be removed to a temperature of
+60° by night and 70° by day, very carefully watered until the roots have
+begun to grow freely, after which the soil should be kept moderately
+moist. As they advance the temperature should be raised to 70° at night,
+and to 80° or higher with sun heat by day. They do not need shading, but
+should have plenty of air, and be syringed daily in the afternoon. When
+growing they require a good supply of water. After the decay of the
+flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist temperature of from 70°
+to 80° by day during summer to perfect their leaves, and then be ripened
+off in autumn. Through the winter they should have less water, but must
+not be kept entirely dry. The minimum temperature should now be about
+55°, to be increased 10° or 15° in spring. As the bulbs get large they
+will occasionally need shifting into larger pots. Propagation is also
+readily effected by seeds for raising new varieties. Seeds are sown when
+ripe in well drained pans of sandy loam at a temperature of about 65°.
+The seedlings when large enough to handle are placed either singly in
+very small pots or several in a pot or shallow pan, and put in a bottom
+heat, in a moist atmosphere with a temperature from 60° to 70°. _H.
+Ackermanni_, with large, handsome, crimson flowers--itself a hybrid--is
+the parent of many of the large-flowered forms; _H. equestre_ (Barbados
+lily), with yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet, has also given
+rise to several handsome forms; _H. aulicum_ (flowers crimson and
+green), _H. pardinum_ (flowers creamy-white spotted with crimson), and
+_H. vittatum_ (flowers white with red stripes, a beautiful species and
+the parent of many varieties), are stove or warm greenhouse plants.
+These kinds, however, are now only regarded as botanical curiosities,
+and are rarely grown in private or commercial establishments. They have
+been ousted by the more gorgeous looking hybrids, which have been
+evolved during the past 100 years. _H. Johnsoni_ is named after a
+Lancashire watchmaker who raised it in 1799 by crossing _H. Reginae_
+with _H. vittatum_. Since that time other species have been used for
+hybridizing, notably _H. reticulatum_, _H. aulicum_, _H.
+solandriflorum_, and sometimes _H. equestre_ and _H. psittacinum_. The
+finest forms since 1880 have been evolved from _H. Leopoldi_ and _H.
+pardinum_.     (J. Ws.)
+
+
+
+
+HIPPED ROOF, the name given in architecture to a roof which slopes down
+on all four sides instead of terminating on two sides against a
+vertical gable. Sometimes a compromise is made between the two, half the
+roof being hipped and half resting on the vertical wall; this gives much
+more room inside the roof, and externally a most picturesque effect,
+which is one of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the
+south of England, and is rarely found in other countries.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON (1741-1796), German satirical and humorous
+writer, was born on the 31st of January 1741, at Gerdauen in East
+Prussia, where his father was rector of a school. He enjoyed an
+excellent education at home, and in his sixteenth year he entered
+Königsberg university as a student of theology. Interrupting his
+studies, he went, on the invitation of a friend, to St Petersburg, where
+he was introduced at the brilliant court of the empress Catherine II.
+Returning to Königsberg he became a tutor in a private family; but,
+falling in love with a young lady of high position, his ambition was
+aroused, and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with enthusiasm
+to legal studies. He was successful in his profession, and in 1780 was
+appointed chief burgomaster in Königsberg, and in 1786 privy councillor
+of war and president of the town. As he rose in the world, however, his
+inclination for matrimony vanished, and the lady who had stimulated his
+ambition was forgotten. He died at Königsberg on the 23rd of April 1796,
+leaving a considerable fortune. Hippel had extraordinary talents, rich
+in wit and fancy; but his was a character full of contrasts and
+contradictions. Cautiousness and ardent passion, dry pedantry and piety,
+morality and sensuality; simplicity and ostentation composed his nature;
+and, hence, his literary productions never attained artistic finish. In
+his _Lebensläufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ (1778-1781) he intended to
+describe the lives of his father and grandfather, but he eventually
+confined himself to his own. It is an autobiography, in which persons
+well known to him are introduced, together with a mass of heterogeneous
+reflections on life and philosophy. _Kreuz- und Querzüge des Ritters A
+bis Z_ (1793-1794) is a satire levelled against the follies of the
+age--ancestral pride and the thirst for orders, decoration and the like.
+Among others of his better known works are _Über die Ehe_ (1774) and
+_Über die bürgerliche Verbesserung der Weiber_ (1792). Hippel has been
+called the fore-runner of Jean Paul Richter, and has some resemblance to
+this author, in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of
+scientific matter in his narrative. Like Richter he was strongly
+influenced by Laurence Sterne.
+
+  In 1827-1838 a collected edition of Hippel's works in 14 vols., was
+  issued at Berlin. _Über die Ehe_ has been edited by E. Brenning
+  (Leipzig, 1872), and the _Lebensläufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ has in
+  a modernized edition by A. von Öttingen (1878), gone through several
+  editions. See J. Czerny, _Sterne, Hippel und Jean Paul_ (Berlin,
+  1904).
+
+
+
+
+HIPPIAS OF ELIS, Greek sophist, was born about the middle of the 5th
+century B.C. and was thus a younger contemporary of Protagoras and
+Socrates. He was a man of great versatility and won the respect of his
+fellow-citizens to such an extent that he was sent to various towns on
+important embassies. At Athens he made the acquaintance of Socrates and
+other leading thinkers. With an assurance characteristic of the later
+sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and
+lectured, at all events with financial success, on poetry, grammar,
+history, politics, archaeology, mathematics and astronomy. He boasted
+that he was more popular than Protagoras, and was prepared at any moment
+to deliver an extempore address on any subject to the assembly at
+Olympia. Of his ability there is no question, but it is equally certain
+that he was superficial. His aim was not to give knowledge, but to
+provide his pupils with the weapons of argument, to make them fertile in
+discussion on all subjects alike. It is said that he boasted of wearing
+nothing which he had not made with his own hands. Plato's two dialogues,
+the _Hippias major_ and _minor_, contain an exposé of his methods,
+exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument but written with full
+knowledge of the man and the class which he represented. Ast denies
+their authenticity, but they must have been written by a contemporary
+writer (as they are mentioned in the literature of the 4th century), and
+undoubtedly represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing
+influence of the professional Sophists. There is, however, no question
+that Hippias did a real service to Greek literature by insisting on the
+meaning of words, the value of rhythm and literary style. He is credited
+with an excellent work on Homer, collections of Greek and foreign
+literature, and archaeological treatises, but nothing remains except the
+barest notes. He forms the connecting link between the first great
+sophists, Protagoras and Prodicus, and the innumerable eristics who
+brought their name into disrepute.
+
+  For the general atmosphere in which Hippias moved see SOPHISTS; also
+  histories of Philosophy (e.g. Windelband, Eng. trans. by Tufts, pt. 1,
+  c. 2, §§ 7 and 8).
+
+
+
+
+HIPPO, a Greek philosopher and natural scientist, classed with the
+Ionian or physical school. He was probably a contemporary of Archelaus
+and lived chiefly in Athens. Aristotle declared that he was unworthy of
+the name of philosopher, and, while comparing him with Thales in his
+main doctrine, adds that his intellect was too shallow for serious
+consideration. He held that the principle of all things is moisture
+([Greek: to hygron]); that fire develops from water, and from fire the
+material universe. Further he denied all existence save that of material
+things as known through the senses, and was, therefore, classed among
+the "Atheists." The gods are merely great men canonized by popular
+tradition. It is said that he composed his own epitaph, wherein he
+claims for himself a place in this company.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOCRAS, an old medicinal drink or cordial, made of wine mixed with
+spices--such as cinnamon, ginger and sugar--and strained through woollen
+cloths. The early spelling usual in English was _ipocras_, or _ypocras_.
+The word is an adaptation of the Med. Lat. _Vinum Hippocraticum_, or
+wine of Hippocrates, so called, not because it was supposed to be a
+receipt of the physician, but from an apothecary's name for a strainer
+or sieve, "Hippocrates' sleeve" (see W. W. Skeat, _Chaucer_, note to the
+_Merchant's Tale_).
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOCRATES, Greek philosopher and writer, termed the "Father of
+Medicine," was born, according to Soranus, in Cos, in the first year of
+the 80th Olympiad, i.e. in 460 B.C. He was a member of the family of the
+Asclepiadae, and was believed to be either the nineteenth or seventeenth
+in direct descent from Aesculapius. It is also claimed for him that he
+was descended from Hercules through his mother, Phaenarete. He studied
+medicine under Heraclides, his father, and Herodicus of Selymbria; in
+philosophy Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus of Abdera were his
+masters. His earlier studies were prosecuted in the famous Asclepion of
+Cos, and probably also at Cnidos. He travelled extensively, and taught
+and practised his profession at Athens, probably also in Thrace,
+Thessaly, Delos and his native island. He died at Larissa in Thessaly,
+his age being variously stated as 85, 90, 104 and 109. The incidents of
+his life are shrouded by uncertain traditions, which naturally sprang up
+in the absence of any authentic record; the earliest biography was by
+one of the Sorani, probably Soranus the younger of Ephesus, in the 2nd
+century; Suidas, the lexicographer, wrote of him in the 11th, and
+Tzetzes in the 12th century. In all these biographies there is internal
+evidence of confusion; many of the incidents related are elsewhere told
+of other persons, and certain of them are quite irreconcilable with his
+character, so far as it can be judged of from his writings and from the
+opinions expressed of him by his contemporaries; we may safely reject,
+for instance, the legends that he set fire to the library of the Temple
+of Health at Cnidos, in order to destroy the evidence of plagiarism, and
+that he refused to visit Persia at the request of Artaxerxes Longimanus,
+during a pestilential epidemic, on the ground that he would in so doing
+be assisting an enemy. He is referred to by Plato (_Protag._ p. 283;
+_Phaedr._ p. 211) as an eminent medical authority, and his opinion is
+also quoted by Aristotle. The veneration in which he was held by the
+Athenians serves to dissipate the calumnies which have been thrown on
+his character by Andreas, and the whole tone of his writings bespeaks a
+man of the highest integrity and purest morality.
+
+Born of a family of priest-physicians, and inheriting all its traditions
+and prejudices, Hippocrates was the first to cast superstition aside,
+and to base the practice of medicine on the principles of inductive
+philosophy. It is impossible to trace directly the influence exercised
+upon him by the great men of his time, but one cannot fail to connect
+his emancipation of medicine from superstition with the widespread power
+exercised over Greek life and thought by the living work of Socrates,
+Plato, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus and Thucydides. It was
+a period of great intellectual development, and it only needed a
+powerful mind such as his to bring to bear upon medicine the same
+influences which were at work in other sciences. It must be remembered
+that his training was not altogether bad, although superstition entered
+so largely into it. He had a great master in Democritus, the originator
+of the doctrine of atoms, and there is every reason to believe that the
+various "asclepia" were very carefully conducted hospitals for the sick,
+possessing a curious system of case-books, in the form of votive
+tablets, left by the patients, on which were recorded the symptoms,
+treatment and result of each case. He had these records at his command;
+and he had the opportunity of observing the system of training and the
+treatment of injuries in the gymnasia. One of his great merits is that
+he was the first to dissociate medicine from priest-craft, and to direct
+exclusive attention to the natural history of disease. How strongly his
+mind revolted against the use of charms, amulets, incantations and such
+devices appears from his writings; and he has expressly recorded, as
+underlying all his practice, the conviction that, however diseases may
+be regarded from the religious point of view, they must all be
+scientifically treated as subject to natural laws (_De aëre_, 29). Nor
+was he anxious to maintain the connexion between philosophy and medicine
+which had for long existed in a confused and confusing fashion.[1] His
+knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology was necessarily
+defective, the respect in which the dead body was held by the Greeks
+precluding him from practising dissection; thus we find him writing of
+the tissues without distinguishing between the various textures of the
+body, confusing arteries, veins and nerves, and speaking vaguely of the
+muscles as "flesh." But when we come to study his observations on the
+natural history of disease as presented in the living subject, we
+recognize at once the presence of a great clinical physician.
+Hippocrates based his principles and practice on the theory of the
+existence of a spiritual restoring essence or principle, [Greek:
+physis], the _vis medicatrix naturae_, in the management of which the
+art of the physician consisted. This art could, he held, be only
+obtained by the application of experience, not only to disease at large,
+but to disease in the individual. He strongly deprecated blind
+empiricism; the aphorism "[Greek: hê peira sphalerê, hê krisis chalepê]"
+(whether it be his or not), tersely illustrates his position. Holding
+firmly to the principle, [Greek: nousôn physies iêtroi], he did not
+allow himself to remain inactive in the presence of disease; he was not
+a merely "expectant" physician; as Sydenham puts it, his practice was
+"the support of enfeebled and the coercion of outrageous nature." He
+largely employed powerful medicines and blood-letting both ordinary and
+by cupping. He advises, however, great caution in their application. He
+placed great dependence on diet and regimen, and here, quaint as many of
+his directions may now sound, not only in themselves, but in the reasons
+given, there is much which is still adhered to at the present day. His
+treatise [Greek: Peri aerôn, hydatôn, kai topôn] (_Airs, Waters, and
+Places_) contains the first enunciation of the principles of public
+health. Although the treatises [Greek: Peri krisimôn] cannot be accepted
+as authentic, we find in the [Greek: Prognôstikon] evidence of the
+acuteness of observation in the manner in which the occurrence of
+critical days in disease is enunciated. His method of reporting cases is
+most interesting and instructive; in them we can read how thoroughly he
+had separated himself from the priest-physician. Laennec, to whom we are
+indebted for the practice of auscultation, freely admits that the idea
+was suggested to him by study of Hippocrates, who, treating of the
+presence of morbid fluids in the thorax, gives very particular
+directions, by means of succussion, for arriving at an opinion
+regarding their nature. Laennec says, "Hippocrate avait tenté
+l'auscultation immédiate." Although the treatise [Greek: Peri nousôn] is
+doubtfully from the pen of Hippocrates, it contains strong evidence of
+having been the work of his grandson, representing the views of the
+Father of Medicine. Although not accurate in the conclusions reached at
+the time, the value of the method of diagnosis is shown by the retention
+in modern medicine of the name and the practice of "Hippocratic
+succussion." The power of graphic description of phenomena in the
+Hippocratic writings is illustrated by the retention of the term "facies
+Hippocratica," applied to the appearance of a moribund person, pictured
+in the _Prognostics_. In surgery his writings are important and
+interesting, but they do not bear the same character of caution as the
+treatises on medicine; for instance, in the essay _On Injuries of the
+Head_, he advocates the operation "of trephining" more strongly and in
+wider classes of cases than would be warranted by the experience of
+later times.
+
+  The _Hippocratic Collection_ consists of eighty-seven treatises, of
+  which a part only can be accepted as genuine. The collection has been
+  submitted to the closest criticism in ancient and modern times by a
+  large number of commentators (for full list of the early commentators,
+  see Adams's _Genuine Works of Hippocrates_, Sydenham Society, i. 27,
+  28). The treatises have been classified according to (1) the direct
+  evidence of ancient writers, (2) peculiarities of style and method,
+  and (3) the presence of anachronisms and of opinions opposed to the
+  general Hippocratic teaching--greatest weight being attached to the
+  opinions of Erotian and Galen. The general estimate of commentators is
+  thus stated by Adams: "The peculiar style and method of Hippocrates
+  are held to be conciseness of expression, great condensation of
+  matter, and disposition to regard all professional subjects in a
+  practical point of view, to eschew subtle hypotheses and modes of
+  treatment based on vague abstractions." The treatises have been
+  grouped in the four following sections: (1) genuine; (2) those
+  consisting of notes taken by students and collected after the death of
+  Hippocrates; (3) essays by disciples; (4) those utterly spurious.
+  Littré accepts the following thirteen as absolutely genuine: (1) _On
+  Ancient Medicine_ ([Greek: Peri archaiês iêtrikês]); (2) _The
+  Prognostics_ ([Greek: Prognôstikon]); (3) _The Aphorisms_ ([Greek:
+  Aphorismoi]); (4) _The Epidemics_, i. and iii. ([Greek: Epidêmiôn a'
+  kai g']); (5) _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_ ([Greek: Peri diaitês
+  oxeôn]); (6) _On Airs, Waters, and Places_ ([Greek: Peri aerôn,
+  hydatôn, kai topôn]); (7) _On the Articulations_ ([Greek: Peri
+  arthrôn]); (8) _On Fractures_ ([Greek: Peri agmôn]); (9) _The
+  Instruments of Reduction_ ([Greek: Mochlikos]); (10) _The Physician's
+  Establishment, or Surgery_ ([Greek: Kat' iêtreion]); (11) _On Injuries
+  of the Head_ ([Greek: Peri tôn en kephalê trômatôn]); (12) _The Oath_
+  ([Greek: Horkos]); (13) _The Law_ ([Greek: Nomos]). Of these Adams
+  accepts as certainly genuine the 2nd, 6th, 5th, 3rd (7 books), 4th,
+  7th, 8th, 9th and 12th, and as "pretty confidently acknowledged as
+  genuine, although the evidence in their favour is not so strong," the
+  1st, 10th and 13th, and, in addition, (14) _On Ulcers_ ([Greek: Peri
+  helkôn]); (15) _On Fistulae_ ([Greek: Peri syringôn]); (16) _On
+  Hemorrhoids_ ([Greek: Peri haimorrhoïdôn]); (17) _On the Sacred
+  Disease_ ([Greek: Peri hierês nousou]). According to the sceptical and
+  somewhat subjective criticism of Ermerins, the whole collection is to
+  be regarded as spurious except _Epidemics_, books i. and iii. (with a
+  few interpolations), _On Airs, Waters, and Places_, _On Injuries of
+  the Head_ ("insigne fragmentum libri Hippocratei"), the former portion
+  of the treatise _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_, and the "obviously
+  Hippocratic" fragments of the _Coan Prognostics_. Perhaps also the
+  _Oath_ may be accepted as genuine; its comparative antiquity is not
+  denied. The _Aphorisms_ are certainly later and inferior. In the other
+  non-Hippocratic writings Ermerins thinks he can distinguish the hands
+  of no fewer than nineteen different authors, most of them anonymous,
+  and some of them very late.
+
+  The earliest Greek edition of the Hippocratic writings is that which
+  was published by Aldus and Asulanus at Venice in 1526 (folio); it was
+  speedily followed by that of Frobenius, which is much more accurate
+  and complete (fol., Basel, 1538). Of the numerous subsequent editions,
+  probably the best was that of Foesius (Frankfort, 1595, 1621, Geneva,
+  1657), until the publication of the great works of Littré, _Oeuvres
+  complètes d'Hippocrate, traduction nouvelle avec le texte grec en
+  regard, collationnée sur les manuscrits et toutes les éditions,
+  accompagnée d'une introduction, de commentaires médicaux, de
+  variantes, et de notes philologiques_ (10 vols., Paris, 1839-1861),
+  and of F. Z. Ermerins, _Hippocratis et aliorum medicorum veterum
+  reliquiae_ (3 vols., Utrecht, 1859-1864). See also Adams (as cited
+  above), and Reinhold's _Hippocrates_ (2 vols., Athens, 1864-1867).
+  Daremberg's edition of the _Oeuvres choisies_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1855)
+  includes the _Oath_, the _Law_, the _Prorrhetics_, book i., the
+  _Prognostics, On Airs, Waters, and Places, Epidemics_, books i. and
+  iii., _Regimen_, and _Aphorisms_. Of the separate works attributed to
+  Hippocrates the editions and translations are almost innumerable; of
+  the _Prognostics_, for example, seventy editions are known, while of
+  the _Aphorisms_ there are said to exist as many as three hundred. For
+  some notice of the Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew translations of works
+  professedly by Hippocrates (Ibukrat or Bukrat), the number of which
+  greatly exceeds that of the extant Greek originals, reference may be
+  made to Flügel's contribution to the article "Hippokrates" in the
+  _Encyklopädie_ of Ersch and Gruber. They have been partially
+  catalogued by Fabricius in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_.     (J. B. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "Hippocrates Cous, primus quidem ex omnibus memoria dignus, ab
+    studio sapientiae disciplinam hanc separavit, vir et arte et facundia
+    insignis" (Celsus, _De medicina_).
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOCRENE (the "fountain of the horse," [Greek: hê hippou krênê]), the
+spring on Mt Helicon, in Boeotia, which, like the other spring there,
+Aganippe, was sacred to the Muses and Apollo, and hence taken as the
+source of poetic inspiration. The spring, surrounded by an ancient wall,
+is now known as _Kryopegadi_ or the cold spring. According to the
+legend, it was produced by the stamping of the hoof of Bellerophon's
+horse Pegasus. The same story accounts for the Hippocrene in Troezen and
+the spring Peirene at Corinth.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPODAMUS, of Miletus, a Greek architect of the 5th century B.C. It was
+he who introduced order and regularity into the planning of cities, in
+place of the previous intricacy and confusion. For Pericles he planned
+the arrangement of the harbour-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the
+Athenians founded Thurii in Italy he accompanied the colony as
+architect, and afterwards, in 408 B.C., he superintended the building of
+the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of series of broad,
+straight streets, cutting one another at right angles.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPODROME (Gr. [Greek: hippodromos], from [Greek: hippos], horse, and
+[Greek: dromos], racecourse), the course provided by the Greeks for
+horse and chariot racing; it corresponded to the Roman _circus_, except
+that in the latter only four chariots ran at a time, whereas ten or more
+contended in the Greek games, so that the width was far greater, being
+about 400 ft., the course being 600 to 700 ft. long. The Greek
+hippodrome was usually set out on the slope of a hill, and the ground
+taken from one side served to form the embankment on the other side. One
+end of the hippodrome was semicircular, and the other end square with an
+extensive portico, in front of which, at a lower level, were the stalls
+for the horses and chariots. The modern hippodrome is more for
+equestrian and other displays than for horse racing. The Hippodrome in
+Paris somewhat resembles the Roman amphitheatre, being open in the
+centre to the sky, with seats round on rising levels.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOLYTUS, in Greek legend, son of Theseus and Hippolyte, queen of the
+Amazons (or of her sister Antiope), a famous hunter and charioteer and
+favourite of Artemis. His stepmother Phaedra became enamoured of him,
+but, finding her advances rejected, she hanged herself, leaving a letter
+in which she accused Hippolytus of an attempt upon her virtue. Theseus
+thereupon drove his son from his presence with curses and called upon
+his father Poseidon to destroy him. While Hippolytus was driving along
+the shore at Troezen (the scene of the _Hippolytus_ of Euripides), a
+sea-monster (a bull or _phoca_) sent by Poseidon emerged from the waves;
+the horses were scared, Hippolytus was thrown out of the chariot, and
+was dragged along, entangled in the reins, until he died. According to a
+tradition of Epidaurus, Asclepius restored him to life at the request of
+Artemis, who removed him to Italy (see VIRBIUS). At Troezen, where he
+had a special sanctuary and priest, and was worshipped with divine
+honours, the story of his death was denied. He was said to have been
+rescued by the gods at the critical moment, and to have been placed
+amongst the stars as the Charioteer (Auriga). It was also the custom of
+the Troezenian maidens to cut off a lock of their hair and to dedicate
+it to Hippolytus before marriage (see Frazer on Pausanias ii. 32. 1).
+Well-known classical parallels to the main theme are Bellerophon and
+Antea (or Stheneboea) and Peleus and Astydamia. The story was the
+subject of two plays by Euripides (the later of which is extant), of a
+tragedy by Seneca and of Racine's _Phèdre_. A trace of it has survived
+in the legendary death of the apocryphal martyr Hippolytus, a Roman
+officer who was torn to pieces by wild horses as a convert to
+Christianity (see J. J. Döllinger, _Hippolytus and Callistus_, Eng. tr.
+by A. Plummer, 1876, pp. 28-39, 51-60).
+
+According to the older explanations, Hippolytus represented the sun,
+which sets in the sea (cf. the scene of his death and the story of
+Phaëthon), and Phaedra the moon, which travels behind the sun, but is
+unable to overtake it. It is more probable, however, that he was a local
+hero famous for his chastity, perhaps originally a priest of Artemis,
+worshipped as a god at Troezen, where he was closely connected and
+sometimes confounded with Asclepius. It is noteworthy that, in a speech
+put into the mouth of Theseus by Euripides, the father, who of course
+believes his wife's story and regards Hippolytus as a hypocrite, throws
+his son's pretended misogyny and asceticism (Orphism) in his teeth. This
+seems to point to a struggle between a new ritual and that of Poseidon,
+the chief deity of Troezen, in which the representative of the intruding
+religion meets his death through the agency of the offended god, as
+Orpheus (q.v.) was torn to pieces by the votaries of the jealous
+Dionysus. According to S. Reinach (_Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_,
+x., 1907, p. 47), the Troezenian Hippolytus was a horse, the hypostasis
+of an equestrian divinity periodically torn to pieces by the faithful,
+who called themselves, and believed themselves to be, horses. Death was
+followed by resuscitation, as in the similar myths of Adonis (the sacred
+boar), Orpheus (the fox), Pentheus (the fawn), Phaëthon (the white
+sun-horse).
+
+  See Wilamowitz-Möllendorff's Introduction to his German translation of
+  Euripides' _Hippolytus_ (1891); A. Kalkmann, _De Hippolytis
+  Euripideis_ (Bonn, 1882); and (for representations in art) "Über
+  Darstellung der Hippolytussage" in _Archäologische Zeitung_ (xli.
+  1883); J. E. Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_
+  (1890), cl.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOLYTUS, a writer of the early Church. The mystery which enveloped
+the person and writings of Hippolytus,[1] one of the most prolific
+ecclesiastical writers of early times, had some light thrown upon it for
+the first time about the middle of the 19th century by the discovery of
+the so-called _Philosophumena_ (see below). Assuming this writing to be
+the work of Hippolytus, the information given in it as to the author and
+his times can be combined with other traditional dates to form a
+tolerably clear picture. Hippolytus must have been born in the second
+half of the 2nd century, probably in Rome. Photius describes him in his
+_Bibliotheca_ (cod. 121) as a disciple of Irenaeus, and from the context
+of this passage it is supposed that we may conclude that Hippolytus
+himself so styled himself. But this is not certain, and even if it were,
+it does not necessarily imply that Hippolytus enjoyed the personal
+teaching of the celebrated Gallic bishop; it may perhaps merely refer to
+that relation of his theological system to that of Irenaeus which can
+easily be traced in his writings. As a presbyter of the church at Rome
+under Bishop Zephyrinus (199-217), Hippolytus was distinguished for his
+learning and eloquence. It was at this time that Origen, then a young
+man, heard him preach (Hieron. _Vir. ill._ 61; cp. Euseb. _H.E._ vi. 14,
+10). It was probably not long before questions of theology and church
+discipline brought him into direct conflict with Zephyrinus, or at any
+rate with his successor Calixtus I. (q.v.). He accused the bishop of
+favouring the Christological heresies of the Monarchians, and, further,
+of subverting the discipline of the Church by his lax action in
+receiving back into the Church those guilty of gross offences. The
+result was a schism, and for perhaps over ten years Hippolytus stood as
+bishop at the head of a separate church. Then came the persecution under
+Maximinus the Thracian. Hippolytus and Pontius, who was then bishop,
+were transported in 235 to Sardinia, where it would seem that both of
+them died. From the so-called chronograph of the year 354 (_Catalogus
+Liberianus_) we learn that on the 13th of August, probably in 236, the
+bodies of the exiles were interred in Rome and that of Hippolytus in the
+cemetery on the Via Tiburtina. So we must suppose that before his death
+the schismatic was received again into the bosom of the Church, and this
+is confirmed by the fact that his memory was henceforth celebrated in
+the Church as that of a holy martyr. Pope Damasus I. dedicated to him
+one of his famous epigrams, and Prudentius (_Peristephanon_, 11) drew a
+highly coloured picture of his gruesome death, the details of which are
+certainly purely legendary: the myth of Hippolytus the son of Theseus
+was transferred to the Christian martyr. Of the historical Hippolytus
+little remained in the memory of after ages. Neither Eusebius (_H.E._
+vi. 20, 2) nor Jerome (_Vir. ill._ 61) knew that the author so much read
+in the East and the Roman saint were one and the same person. The notice
+in the _Chronicon Paschale_ preserves one slight reminiscence of the
+historical facts, namely, that Hippolytus's episcopal see was situated
+at Portus near Rome. In 1551 a marble statue of a seated man was found
+in the cemetery of the Via Tiburtina: on the sides of the seat were
+carved a paschal cycle, and on the back the titles of numerous writings.
+It was the statue of Hippolytus, a work at any rate of the 3rd century;
+at the time of Pius IX. it was placed in the Lateran Museum, a record in
+stone of a lost tradition.
+
+Hippolytus's voluminous writings, which for variety of subject can be
+compared with those of Origen, embrace the spheres of exegesis,
+homiletics, apologetics and polemic, chronography and ecclesiastical
+law. His works have unfortunately come down to us in such a fragmentary
+condition that it is difficult to obtain from them any very exact notion
+of his intellectual and literary importance. Of his exegetical works the
+best preserved are the _Commentary on the Prophet Daniel_ and the
+_Commentary on the Song of Songs_. In spite of many instances of a want
+of taste in his typology, they are distinguished by a certain sobriety
+and sense of proportion in his exegesis. We are unable to form an
+opinion of Hippolytus as a preacher, for the _Homilies on the Feast of
+Epiphany_ which go under his name are wrongly attributed to him. He
+wrote polemical words directed against the pagans, the Jews and
+heretics. The most important of these polemical treatises is the
+_Refutation of all Heresies_, which has come to be known by the
+inappropriate title of the _Philosophumena_. Of its ten books, the
+second and third are lost; Book i. was for a long time printed (with the
+title _Philosophumena_) among the works of Origen; Books iv.-x. were
+found in 1842 by the Greek Minoides Mynas, without the name of the
+author, in a MS. at Mount Athos. It is nowadays universally admitted
+that Hippolytus was the author, and that Books i. and iv.-x. belong to
+the same work. The importance of the work has, however, been much
+overrated; a close examination of the sources for the exposition of the
+Gnostic system which is contained in it has proved that the information
+it gives is not always trustworthy. Of the dogmatic works, that on
+_Christ and Antichrist_ survives in a complete state. Among other things
+it includes a vivid account of the events preceding the end of the
+world, and it was probably written at the time of the persecution under
+Septimius Severus, i.e. about 202. The influence of Hippolytus was felt
+chiefly through his works on chronographic and ecclesiastical law. His
+chronicle of the world, a compilation embracing the whole period from
+the creation of the world up to the year 234, formed a basis for many
+chronographical works both in the East and West. In the great
+compilations of ecclesiastical law which arose in the East since the 4th
+century (see below: also APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS) much of the material
+was taken from the writings of Hippolytus; how much of this is genuinely
+his, how much of it worked over, and how much of it wrongly attributed
+to him, can no longer be determined beyond dispute even by the most
+learned investigation.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The edition of J. A. Fabricius, _Hippolyti opera graece
+  et latine_ (2 vols., Hamburg, 1716-1718, reprinted in Gallandi,
+  _Bibliotheca veterum patrum_ (vol. ii., 1766), and Migne, _Cursus
+  patrol. ser. Graeca_, vol. x.) is out of date. The preparation of a
+  complete critical edition has been undertaken by the Prussian Academy
+  of Sciences. The task is one of extraordinary difficulty, for the
+  textual problems of the various writings are complex and confused: the
+  Greek original is extant in a few cases only (the _Commentary on
+  Daniel_, the _Refutation, on Antichrist_, parts of the _Chronicle_,
+  and some fragments); for the rest we are dependent on fragments of
+  translations, chiefly Slavonic, all of which are not even published.
+  Of the Academy's edition one volume was published at Berlin in 1897,
+  containing the _Commentaries on Daniel_ and on the _Song of Songs_,
+  the treatise on _Antichrist_, and the _Lesser Exegetical_ and
+  _Homiletic Works_, edited by Nathanael Bonwetsch and Hans Achelis. The
+  _Commentary on the Song of Songs_ has also been published by Bonwetsch
+  (Leipzig, 1902) in a German translation based on a Russian translation
+  by N. Marr of the Grusian (Georgian) text, and he added to it
+  (Leipzig, 1904) a translation of various small exegetical pieces,
+  which are preserved in a Georgian version only (_The Blessing of
+  Jacob_, _The Blessing of Moses_, _The Narrative of David and
+  Goliath_). A great part of the original of the _Chronicle_ has been
+  published by Adolf Bauer (Leipzig, 1905) from the _Codex Matritensis
+  Graecus_, 221. For the _Refutation_ we are still dependent on the
+  editions of Miller (Oxford, 1851), Duncker and Schneidewin (Göttingen,
+  1859), and Cruice (Paris, 1860). An English translation is to be found
+  in the _Ante-Nicene Christian Library_ (Edinburgh, 1868-1869).
+
+  See Bunsen, _Hippolytus and his Age_ (1852, 2nd ed., 1854; Ger. ed.,
+  1853); Döllinger, _Hippolytus und Kallistus_ (Regensb. 1853; Eng.
+  transl., Edinb., 1876); Gerhard Ficker, _Studien zur Hippolytfrage_
+  (Leipzig, 1893); Hans Achelis, _Hippolytstudien_ (Leipzig, 1897); Karl
+  Johannes Neumann, _Hippolytus von Rom in seiner Stellung zu Staat und
+  Welt_, part i. (Leipzig, 1902); Adhémar d'Alès, _La Théologie de Saint
+  Hippolyte_ (Paris, 1906).     (G. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to the legend St Hippolytus was a Roman soldier who was
+    converted by St Lawrence.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF. This book stands at the head of a series of
+Church Orders, which contain instructions in regard to the choice and
+ordination of Christian ministers, regulations as to widows and virgins,
+conditions of reception of converts from heathenism, preparation for and
+administration of baptism, rules for the celebration of the eucharist,
+for fasting, daily prayers, charity suppers, memorial meals,
+first-fruits, &c. We shall give (1) a description of the book as we have
+it at present; (2) a brief statement of its relation to allied
+documents; (3) some remarks on the evidence for its date and authorship.
+
+1. We possess the _Canons of Hippolytus_ only in an Arabic version,
+itself made from a Coptic version of the original Greek. Attention was
+called to the book by Wansleben and Ludolf towards the end of the 17th
+century, but it was only in 1870 that it was edited by Haneberg, who
+added a Latin translation, and so made it generally accessible. In 1891
+H. Achelis reproduced this translation in a revised form, embodying it
+in a synopsis of allied documents. He suspected much interpolation and
+derangement of order, and consequently rearranged its contents with a
+free hand. In 1900 a German translation was made by H. Riedel, based on
+fresh MSS. These showed that the book, as hitherto edited, had been
+thrown into disorder by the displacement of two pages near the end; they
+also removed other difficulties upon which the theory of interpolation
+had been based. Further discoveries, to be spoken of presently, have
+added to our materials for the study of the book.
+
+  The book is attributed to "Hippolytus, the chief of the bishops of
+  Rome," and is divided into thirty-eight canons, to which short
+  headings are prefixed. This division is certainly not original, but it
+  is convenient for purposes of reference. Canon 1 is prefatory; it
+  contains a brief confession of faith in the Trinity, and especially in
+  the Word, the Son of God; and it speaks of the expulsion of heretics
+  from the Church. Canons 2-5 give regulations for the selection and
+  ordination of bishops, presbyters and deacons. The bishop is chosen by
+  the whole congregation: "one of the bishops and presbyters" is to lay
+  hands upon him and say a prayer which follows (3): he is at once to
+  proceed with "the offering," taking up the eucharistic service at the
+  point where the _sursum corda_ comes in. A presbyter (4) is to be
+  ordained with the same prayer as a bishop, "with the exception of the
+  word bishop"; but he is given no power of ordination (this appears to
+  be inconsistent with c. 2). The duties of a deacon are described, and
+  the prayer of his ordination follows (5). Canons 6-9 deal with various
+  classes in the Church. One who has suffered punishment for the faith
+  (6) is to be counted a presbyter without ordination: "his confession
+  is his ordination." Readers and sub-deacons (7) are given the Gospel,
+  but are not ordained by laying-on of hands. A claim to ordination on
+  the ground of gifts of healing (8) is to be admitted, if the facts are
+  clear and the healing is from God. Widows are not ordained (9):
+  "ordination is for men only." Canons 10-15 describe conditions for the
+  admission of converts. Certain occupations are incompatible with
+  Christian life: only under compulsion may a Christian be a soldier.
+  Canons 16-18 deal chiefly with regulations concerning women. Canon 19
+  is a long one dealing with catechumens, preparation for baptism,
+  administration of that sacrament, and of the eucharist for the newly
+  baptized. The candidate is twice anointed: first, with the oil of
+  exorcism, after he has said, with his face westward, "I renounce thee,
+  O devil, and all thy following"; and, again, immediately after the
+  baptism. As he stands in the water, he declares his faith in response
+  to an interrogatory creed; and after each of the three clauses he is
+  immersed. After the second anointing the bishop gives thanks "for that
+  Thou hast made them worthy that they should be born again, and hast
+  poured out Thy Holy Ghost upon them, so that they may belong, each one
+  of them, to the body of the Church": he signs them with the cross on
+  their foreheads, and kisses them. The eucharist then proceeds: "the
+  bishop gives them of the body of Christ and says, This is the body of
+  Christ, and they answer Amen"; and similarly for the cup. Milk and
+  honey are then given to them as being "born a second time as little
+  children." A warning is added against eating anything before
+  communicating. Canons 20-22 deal with fast-days, daily services in
+  church, and the fast of the passover-week. Canon 23 seems as if it
+  closed the series, speaking, as it does, of "our brethren the bishops"
+  who in their cities have made regulations "according to the commands
+  of our fathers the apostles": "let none of our successors alter them;
+  because it saith that the teaching is greater than the sea, and hath
+  no end." We pass on, however, to regulations about the sick (24) who
+  are to be visited by the bishop, "because it is a great thing for the
+  sick that the high-priest should visit them (for the shadow of Peter
+  healed the sick)." Canons 25-27 deal again with prayers and
+  church-services. The "seven hours" are specified, with reasons for
+  their observance (25): attendance at sermons is urged (26), "for the
+  Lord is in the place where his lordship is proclaimed" (comp.
+  _Didachè_ 4, part of the _Two Ways_). When there are no prayers in
+  church, reading at home is enjoined (27): "let the sun each morning
+  see the book upon thy knees" (comp. Ath. _Ad virg._, § 12, "Let the
+  sun when he ariseth see the book in thy hands"). Prayer must be
+  preceded by the washing of the hands. "No believer must take food
+  before communicating, especially on fast-days": only believers may
+  communicate (28). The sacred elements must be guarded, "lest anything
+  fall into the cup, and it be a sin unto death for the presbyters." No
+  crumb must be dropped, "lest an evil spirit get possession of it."
+  Canons 30-35 contain various rules, and specially deal with suppers
+  for the poor (i.e. _agapae_) and memorial feasts. Then we have a
+  prayer for the offering of first-fruits (36); a direction that
+  ministers shall wear fair garments at "the mysteries" (37); and a
+  command to watch during the night of the resurrection (38). The last
+  canon hereupon passes into a general exhortation to right living,
+  which forms a sixth part of the whole book. In Riedel's translation we
+  read this for the first time as a connected whole. It falls into two
+  parts, and describes, first, the true life of ordinary Christians,
+  warning them against an empty profession, and laying down many
+  precepts of morality; and then it addresses itself to the "ascete" who
+  "wishes to belong to the rank of the angels," and who lives a life of
+  solitude and poverty. He is encouraged by an exposition, on somewhat
+  strange lines, of the temptations of our Lord, and is specially warned
+  against spiritual pride and contempt of other men. The book closes
+  with an appeal for love and mutual service, based on the parables in
+  St Matthew xxv.
+
+2. It is impossible to estimate the position of the Canons of Hippolytus
+without some reference to allied documents (see APOSTOLICAL
+CONSTITUTIONS). (a) The most important of these is what is now commonly
+called the _Egyptian Church Order_. This is preserved to us in Coptic
+and Aethiopic versions, of which Achelis, in his synopsis, gives German
+translations. The subject-matter and arrangement of these canons
+correspond generally to those of Hippolytus; but many of the details are
+modified to bring them into accord with a later practice. A new light
+was thrown on the criticism of this work by Hauler's discovery (1900) of
+a Latin version (of which, unfortunately, about half is missing) in the
+Verona palimpsest, from which he has also given us large Latin fragments
+of the _Didascalia_ (which underlies books i.-vi. of the Apostolic
+Constitutions, and which hitherto we have only known from the Syriac).
+The Latin of the Egyptian Church Order is somewhat more primitive than
+the Coptic, and approaches more nearly, at some points, to the _Canons
+of Hippolytus_. It has a preface which refers to a treatise _Concerning
+Spiritual Gifts_, as having immediately preceded it; but neither this
+nor the Coptic-Aethiopic form has either the introduction or concluding
+exhortation which is found in the _Canons of Hippolytus_. (b) _The
+Testament of the Lord_ is a document in Syriac, of which the opening
+part had been published by Lagarde, and of which Rahmani (1899) has
+given us the whole. It professes to contain instructions given by our
+Lord to the apostles after the resurrection. After an introduction
+containing apocalyptical matter, it passes on to give elaborate
+directions for the ordering of the Church, embodying, in a much-expanded
+form, the Egyptian Church Order, and showing a knowledge of the preface
+to that document which appears in the Latin version. It cannot be placed
+with probability earlier than the latter part of the 4th century. (c)
+The _Apostolic Constitutions_ is a composite document, which probably
+belongs to the end of the 4th century. Its first six books are an
+expanded edition of a _Didascalia_ which we have already mentioned: its
+seventh book similarly expands and modifies the _Didachè_ its eighth
+book begins by treating of "spiritual gifts," and then in c. 3 passes on
+to expand in like manner the Egyptian Church Order. The hand which has
+wrought up all these documents has been shown to be that of the
+interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek recension. (d)
+The _Canons of Basil_ is the title of an Arabic work, of which a German
+translation has been given us by Riedel, who thinks that they have come
+through Coptic from an original Greek book. They embody, in a modified
+form, considerable portions of the Canons of Hippolytus.
+
+3. We now approach the difficult questions of date and authorship. Much
+of the material has been quite recently brought to light, and criticism
+has not had time to investigate and pronounce upon it. Some provisional
+remarks, therefore, are all that can prudently be made. It seems plain
+that we have two lines of tradition: (1) The Canons of Hippolytus,
+followed by the Canons of Basil; (2) the Egyptian Church Order, itself
+represented (a) by the Latin version, the Testament of the Lord, and the
+Apostolic Constitutions, which are linked together by the same preface
+(or portions of it); (b) by the Coptic and Aethiopic versions. Now, the
+preface of the Latin version points to a time when the canons were
+embodied in a _corpus_ of similar materials, or, at the least, were
+preceded by a work on "Spiritual Gifts." The Canons of Hippolytus have a
+wholly different preface, and also a long exhortation at the close. The
+question which criticism must endeavour to answer is, whether the Canons
+of Hippolytus are the original from which the Egyptian Church Order is
+derived, or whether an earlier body of canons lies behind them both. At
+present it is probably wise to assume that the latter is the true
+explanation. For the Canons of Hippolytus appear to contain
+contradictory regulations (e.g. cc. 2 and 4 of the presbyters), and also
+suggest that they have received a considerable supplement (after c. 23).
+There is, however, no doubt that they present us with a more primitive
+stage of Church life than we find in the Egyptian Church Order. The
+mention of sub-deacons (which, after Riedel's fresh manuscript evidence,
+cannot now be dismissed as due to interpolation) makes it difficult to
+assign a date much earlier than the middle of the 3rd century.
+
+The Puritan severity of the canons well accords with the temper of the
+writer to whom the Arabic title attributes them; and it is to be noted
+that the exhortation at the close contains a quotation from 2 Peter
+actually attributed to the apostle, and Hippolytus is perhaps the
+earliest author who can with certainty be said to have used this
+epistle. But the general style of Hippolytus, which is simple,
+straight-forward and strong, is in marked contrast with that of the
+closing passage of the canons; moreover, his mind, as presented to us in
+his extant writings, appears to be a much larger one than that of the
+writer of these canons; it is as difficult to think of Hippolytus as it
+would be to think of Origen in such a connexion. How, then, are we to
+account for the attribution? There is evidence to show that Hippolytus
+was highly reverenced throughout the East: his writings, which were in
+Greek, were known, but his history was entirely unknown. He was supposed
+to be "a pupil ([Greek: gnôrimos]) of apostles" (Palladius, 4th
+century), and the Arabic title calls him "chief of the bishops of Rome,"
+i.e. archbishop of Rome. It is hard to trust this attribution more than
+the attribution of a Coptic discourse on the _Dormitio Mariae_ to
+"Evodius, archbishop of the great city Rome, who was the second after
+Peter the apostle" (_Texts and Studies_, iv. 2-44)--Evodius being by
+tradition first bishop of Antioch. A whole group of books on Church
+Order bears the name of Clement of Rome; and the attribution of our
+canons to Hippolytus may be only an example of the same tendency. The
+fact that Hippolytus wrote a treatise _Concerning Spiritual Gifts_, and
+that some such treatise is not only referred to in the Latin preface to
+the Egyptian Church Order, but is actually found at the beginning of
+book viii. of the Apostolic Constitutions, introduces an interesting
+complication; but we cannot here pursue the matter further. Dom Morin's
+ingenious attribution of the canons to Dionysius of Alexandria (on the
+ground of Eusebius, _H.E._ vi. 46., 5) cannot be accepted in view of the
+broader church policy which that writer represents. If the Hippolytean
+authorship be given up, it is probable that Egypt will make the
+strongest claim to be the locality in which the canons were compiled in
+their present form.
+
+  The authorities of chief practical importance are H. Achelis, _Texte
+  u. Unters._ vi. 4 (1891); Rahmani, _Testamentum Domini_ (1899);
+  Hauler, _Didascaliae Apostolorum_ (1900); Riedel,
+  _Kirchenrechtsquellen des Patriarchats Alexandrien_ (1900).
+       (J. A. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HIPPONAX, of Ephesus, Greek iambic poet. Expelled from Ephesus in 540
+B.C. by the tyrant Athenagoras, he took refuge in Clazomenae, where he
+spent the rest of his life in poverty. His deformed figure and malicious
+disposition exposed him to the caricature of the Chian sculptors Bupalus
+and Athenis, upon whom he revenged himself by issuing against them a
+series of satires. They are said to have hanged themselves like Lycambes
+and his daughters when assailed by Archilochus, the model and
+predecessor of Hipponax. His coarseness of thought and feeling, his rude
+vocabulary, his want of grace and taste, and his numerous allusions to
+matters of merely local interest prevented his becoming a favourite in
+Attica. He was considered the inventor of parody and of a peculiar
+metre, the _scazon_ or _choliambus_, which substitutes a spondee for the
+final iambus of an iambic senarius, and is an appropriate form for the
+burlesque character of his poems.
+
+  Fragments in Bergk, _Poëtae lyrici Graeci_; see also B. J. Peltzer,
+  _De parodica Graecorum poèsi_ (1855), containing an account of
+  Hipponax and the fragments.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOPOTAMUS ("river-horse," Gr. [Greek: hippos], horse and [Greek:
+potamos], river), the name of the largest representative of the
+non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mammals, and its living and extinct
+relatives. The common hippopotamus (_Hippopotamus amphibius_), which
+formerly inhabited all the great rivers of Africa but whose range has
+now been much restricted, is most likely the _behemoth_ of Scripture,
+and may very probably in Biblical times have been found in the Jordan
+valley, since at a still earlier (Pleistocene) epoch it ranged over a
+large part of Europe. It typifies not only a genus, but likewise a
+family, _Hippopotamidae_, distinguished from its relatives the pigs and
+peccaries, or _Suidae_, by the following assemblage of characters:
+Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, with four subequal
+toes, bearing short rounded hoofs, and all reaching the ground in
+walking. Incisors not rooted but continuously growing; those of the
+upper jaw curved and directed downwards; those of the lower straight and
+procumbent. Canines very large, curved, continuously growing; upper ones
+directed downwards. Premolars 4/4; molars 3/3. Stomach complex. No
+caecum.
+
+[Illustration: The Hippopotamus (_Hippopotamus amphibius_).]
+
+In form the hippopotamus is a huge, unwieldy creature, measuring in the
+largest specimens fully 14 ft. from the extremity of the upper lip to
+the tip of the tail, while it ordinarily attains a length of 12 ft.,
+with a height of 5 ft. at the shoulders, and a girth round the thickest
+part of the body almost equal to its length. The small ears are
+exceedingly flexible, and kept in constant motion when the animal is
+seeking to catch a distant sound; the eyes are placed high up on the
+head, but little below the level of the ears; while the gape is wide,
+and the upper lip thick and bulging so as to cover over even its large
+tusks when the mouth is closed. The molars, which show trefoil-shaped
+grinding-surfaces are well adapted for masticating vegetable substances,
+while the formidable array of long spear-like incisors and curved
+chisel-edged canines or tusks root up rank grass like an agricultural
+implement. The legs are short, so that the body is but little elevated
+above the ground; and the feet, which are small in proportion to the
+size of the animal, terminate in four short toes each bearing a small
+hoof. With the exception of a few tufts of hair on the lips, on the
+sides of the head and neck, and at the extremity of the short robust
+tail, the skin of the hippopotamus, some portions of which are 2 in. in
+thickness, is destitute of covering. Hippopotamuses are gregarious
+animals, living in herds of from 20 to 40 individuals on the banks and
+in the beds of rivers, in the neighbourhood of which they most readily
+find appropriate food. This consists chiefly of grass and of aquatic
+plants, of which these animals consume enormous quantities, the stomach
+being capable of containing from 5 to 6 bushels. They feed principally
+by night, remaining in the water during the day, although in districts
+where they are little disturbed they are less exclusively aquatic. In
+such remote quarters, they put their heads boldly out of the water to
+blow, but when rendered suspicious they become exceedingly cautious in
+this respect, only exposing their nostrils above the water, and even
+this they prefer doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of
+their enormous size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and
+divers, and can remain easily under the water from five to eight
+minutes. They walk on the bottoms of rivers, beneath at least 1 ft. of
+water. At nightfall they come on land to feed; and when, as often
+happens on the banks of the Nile, they reach cultivated ground, they do
+immense damage to growing crops, destroying by their ponderous tread
+even more than they devour. To scare away these unwelcome visitors the
+natives in such districts are in the habit of kindling fires at night.
+Although hippopotamuses do not willingly go far from the water on which
+their existence depends, they occasionally travel long distances by
+night in search of food, and in spite of their clumsy appearance are
+able to climb steep banks and precipitous ravines with ease. Of a
+wounded hippopotamus which Sir S. Baker saw leaving the water and
+galloping inland, he writes: "I never could have imagined that so
+unwieldy an animal could have exhibited such speed. No man could have
+had a chance of escape." The hippopotamus does not confine itself to
+rivers and lakes, but has been known to prefer the waters of the ocean
+as its home during the day. Of a mild and inoffensive disposition, it
+seeks to avoid collision with man; when wounded, however, or in defence
+of its young, it exhibits great ferocity, and native canoes are capsized
+and occasionally demolished by its infuriated attacks; the bellowing
+grunt then becoming loud enough to be heard a mile away. As among
+elephants, so also among hippopotamuses there are "rogues"--old bulls
+which have become soured in solitude, and are at all times dangerous.
+Assuming the offensive on every occasion, they attack all and sundry
+without shadow of provocation; and the natives avoid their haunts, which
+are usually well known.
+
+The only other living species is the pygmy hippopotamus, _H.
+(Choeropsis) liberiensis_, of West Africa, an animal not larger than a
+clumsily made pig of full dimensions, and characterized by having
+generally one (in place of two) pair of incisors. It is much less
+aquatic than its giant relative, having, in fact, the habits of a pig.
+
+A small extinct species (_H. lemerlei_) inhabited Madagascar at a
+comparatively recent date; while other dwarf kinds were natives of Crete
+(_H. minutus_) and Malta and Sicily (_H. pentlandi_) during the
+Pleistocene. A large form of the ordinary species (_H. amphibius major_)
+was distributed over Europe as far north as Yorkshire at the same epoch;
+while an allied species (_H. palaeindicus_) inhabited Pleistocene India.
+Contemporary with the latter was, however, a species (_H. namadicus_)
+with three pairs of incisors; and "hexaprotodont" hippopotamuses are
+also characteristic of the Pliocene of India and Burma (_H. sivalensis_
+and _H. iravadicus_), and of Algeria, Egypt and southern Europe (_H.
+hipponensis_).
+
+  For the ancestral genera of the hippopotamus line, see ARTIODACTYLA.
+       (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+HIPPURIC ACID (Gr. [Greek: hippos], horse, [Greek: ouron], urine),
+benzoyl glycocoll or benzoyl amidoacetic acid, C9H9NO3 or
+C6H5CO·NH·CH2·CO2H, an organic acid found in the urine of horses and
+other herbivorae. It is excreted when many aromatic compounds, such as
+benzoic acid and toluene, are taken internally. J. v. Liebig in 1829
+showed that it differed from benzoic acid, and in 1839 determined its
+constitution, while in 1853 V. Dessaignes (_Ann._ 87, p. 325)
+synthesized it by acting with benzoyl chloride on zinc glycocollide. It
+is also formed by heating benzoic anhydride with glycocoll (Th. Curtius,
+_Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 1662), and by heating benzamide with
+monochloracetic acid. It crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are
+readily soluble in hot water, melt at 187° C. and decompose at about
+240° C. It is readily hydrolysed by hot caustic alkalis to benzoic acid
+and glycocoll. Nitrous acid converts it into benzoyl glycollic acid,
+C6H5CO·O·CH2·CO2H. Its ethyl ester reacts with hydrazine to form
+hippuryl hydrazine, C6H5CO·NH·CH2·CO·NH·NH2, which was used by Curtius
+for the preparation of azoimide (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+HIPURNIAS, a tribe of South American Indians, 2000 or 3000 in number,
+living on the river Purus, western Brazil. Their houses are long, low
+and narrow: the side walls and roof are one, poles being fixed in the
+ground and then bent together so as to meet and form a pointed arch for
+the cross-sections. They use small bark canoes. Their chief weapons are
+poisoned arrows. They have a native god called Guintiniri.
+
+
+
+
+HIRA, the capital of an Arabian kingdom, founded in the 2nd century
+A.D., on the western edge of Irak, was situated at 32° N., 44° 20´ E.,
+about 4 m. S.E. of modern Nejef, by the Sa'ade canal, on the shore of
+the Bahr Nejef or Assyrium Stagnum. Its kings governed the western shore
+of the lower Euphrates and of the Persian Gulf, their kingdom extending
+inland to the confines of the Nejd. This Lakhmid kingdom was more or
+less dependent, during the four centuries of its existence, on the
+Sassanian empire, to which it formed a sort of buffer state towards
+Arabia. After the battle of Kadesiya and the founding of Kufa by the
+Arabs, Hira lost its importance and fell into decay. The ruin mounds
+covering the ancient site, while extensive, are insignificant in
+appearance and give no indications of the existence of important
+buildings.
+
+
+
+
+HIRADO, an island belonging to Japan, 19½ m. long and 6 m. wide, lying
+off the west coast of the province of Hizen, Kiushiu, in 33° 15´ N. and
+129° 25´ E. It is celebrated as the site of the original Dutch
+factory--often erroneously written Firando--and as the place where one
+of the finest blue-and-white porcelains of Japan (_Hiradoyaki_) was
+produced in the 17th and 18th centuries. The kilns are still active.
+
+
+
+
+HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT, in the law of contract, a form of bailment of
+goods, on credit, which has extended very considerably of late years.
+Originally applied to the sale of the more expensive kinds of goods,
+such as pianos and articles of furniture, the hire-purchase agreement
+has now been extended to almost every description. The agreement is
+usually in writing, with a stipulation that the payments to purchase
+shall be by weekly, monthly or other instalments. The agreement is
+virtually one to purchase, but in order that the vendor may be able to
+recover the goods at any time on non-payment of an instalment, it is
+treated as an agreement to let and hire, with a provision that when the
+last instalment has been paid the goods shall become the property of the
+hirer. A clause provides that in case of default of any instalment, or
+breach of any part of the agreement, all previous payments shall be
+forfeited to the lender, who can forcibly recover the goods. Such
+agreements, therefore, do not pass the property in the goods, which
+remains in the lender until all the instalments have been paid. But the
+terms of the agreement may sometimes purposely obscure the nature of the
+transaction between the parties, where, for example, the hire-purchase
+is merely to create a security for money. In such a case a judge will
+look to the true nature of the transaction. If it is not a real letting
+and hiring, the agreement will require registration under the Bills of
+Sale Acts. If the agreement contains words to the effect that a person
+has "bought or agreed to buy" goods, the transaction comes under the
+Factors Act 1889, and the person in possession of the goods may dispose
+of them and give a good title. The doctrine of reputed ownership, by
+which a bankrupt is deemed the reputed owner of goods in his apparent
+possession, has been somewhat modified by trade customs, in accordance
+with which property is frequently let out on the hire-purchase system
+(see BANKRUPTCY).
+
+
+
+
+HIRING (from O. Eng. _hýrian_, a word common to many Teutonic languages
+cf. Ger. _heuern_, Dutch _huren_, &c.), in law, a contract by which one
+man grants the use of a thing to another in return for a certain price.
+It corresponds to the _locatio-conductio_ of Roman law. That contract
+was either a letting of a thing (_locatio-conductio rei_) or of labour
+(_locatio operarum_). The distinguishing feature of the contract was
+the price. Thus the contracts of _mutuum_, _commodatum_, _depositum_
+and _mandatum_, which are all gratuitous contracts, become, if a price
+is fixed, cases of _locatio-conductio_. In modern English law the term
+can scarcely be said to be used in a strictly technical sense. The
+contracts which the Roman law grouped together under the head of
+_locatio-conductio_--such as those of landlord and tenant, master and
+servant, &c.--are not in English law treated as cases of hiring but as
+independent varieties of contract. Neither in law books nor in ordinary
+discourse could a tenant farmer be said to hire his land. Hiring would
+generally be applied to contracts in which the services of a man or the
+use of a thing are engaged for a short time.
+
+_Hiring Fairs_, or _Statute Fairs_, still held in Wales and some parts
+of England, were formerly an annual fixture in every important country
+town. These fairs served to bring together masters and servants. The men
+and maids seeking work stood in rows, the males together and the females
+together, while masters and mistresses walked down the lines and
+selected those who suited them. Originally these hiring-fairs were
+always held on Martinmas Day (11th of November). Now they are held on
+different dates in different towns, usually in October or November. In
+Cumberland the men seeking work stood with straws in their mouths. In
+Lincolnshire the bargain between employer and employed was closed by the
+giving of the "fasten-penny," the earnest money, usually a shilling,
+which "fastened" the contract for a twelvemonth. Some few days after the
+Statute Fair it was customary to hold a second called a Mop Fair or
+Runaway Mop. "Mop" (from Lat. _mappa_, napkin, or small cloth) meant in
+Old English a tuft or tassel, and the fair was so called, it is
+suggested, in allusion to tufts or badges worn by those seeking
+employment. Thus the carter wore whipcord on his hat, the cowherd a tuft
+of cow's hair, and so on. Another possible explanation would be to take
+the word "mop" in its old provincial slang sense of "a fool," mop fair
+being the fools' fair, a sort of last chance offered to those who were
+too dull or slovenly-looking to be hired at the statute fair. Perhaps
+"runaway" suggests the idea of those absent through drunkenness, or
+those who simply feared to face the ordeal of the larger hiring and so
+ran away.
+
+
+
+
+HIROSAKI, a town of Japan in the province of Michmoku or Rikuchiu, north
+Nippon, 22 m. S.W. of Aomori by rail. Pop. about 37,000. The fine
+isolated cone of Iwakisan, a mountain of pilgrimage, rises to the west.
+Hirosaki is a very old place, formerly residence of a great daimio (or
+daimyo) and capital of a vast principality, and still the seat of a high
+court with jurisdiction over the surrounding districts of Aomori and
+Akita. Like most places in north Nippon, it is built with continuous
+verandas extending from house to house, and affording a promenade
+completely sheltered from the snows of winter. Apples of fine flavour
+grow in the district, which also enjoys some reputation for its peculiar
+green lacquer-ware.
+
+
+
+
+HIROSHIGE (1797-1858), Japanese artist, was one of the principal members
+of that branch of the _Ukiyo-ye_ or Popular School of Painting in Japan,
+a school which chiefly made colour-prints. His family name was Ando
+Tokitaro; that under which he is known having been, in accordance with
+Japanese practice, adopted by him in recognition of the fact that he was
+a pupil of Toyohiro. The earliest reference to him is in the account
+given by an inhabitant of the Lu-chu islands of a visit to Japan; where
+a sketch of a procession drawn with great skill by Hiroshige at the age
+of ten years only is mentioned as one of the remarkable sights seen. At
+the age of fifteen he applied unsuccessfully to be admitted to the
+studio of the elder Toyokuni; but was eventually received by Toyohiro.
+On the death of the latter in 1828, he began to practise on his own
+account, but finding small encouragement at Yedo (Tokyo) he removed to
+Kioto, where he published a set of landscapes. He soon returned to Yedo,
+where his work soon became popular, and was imitated by other artists.
+He died in that city on the 6th day of the 9th month of the year, Ansei
+5th, at the age of sixty-two, and was buried at Asakusa. One of his
+pupils, Hironobu, received from him the name of Hiroshige II. and
+another, Ando Tokubei, that of Hiroshige III. All three were closely
+associated with the work signed with the name of the master. Hiroshige
+II. some time after the year 1863 fell into disgrace and was compelled
+to leave Yedo for Nagasaki, where he died; Hiroshige III. then called
+himself Hiroshige II. He died in 1896. The earlier prints by these
+artists, whose work can hardly be separated, are of extraordinary merit.
+They applied the process of colour block printing to the purposes of
+depicting landscape, with a breadth, skill and suitability of convention
+that has been equalled only by Hokusai in Japan, and by no European.
+Most of their subjects were derived from the neighbourhood of Yedo, or
+were scenes on the old high road--the Tokaido--that ran from that city
+to Kioto. The two elder of the name were competent painters, and
+pictures and drawings by them are occasionally to be met with.
+
+  See E. F. Strange, "Japanese Colour-prints" (_Victoria and Albert
+  Museum Handbook_, 1904).     (E. F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HIROSHIMA, a city and seaport of Japan, capital of the government of its
+name in central Nippon. Pop. (1903) 113,545. It is very beautifully
+situated on a small plain surrounded by hills, the bay being studded
+with islands. In its general aspect it resembles Osaka, from which it is
+190 m. W. by rail, and next to that place and Hiogo it is the most
+important commercial centre on the Inland Sea. The government has an
+area of about 3000 sq. m., with a population of about 1,500,000.
+Hiroshima is famous all over Japan owing to its association with the
+neighbouring islet of Itaku-Shima, "Island of Light," which is dedicated
+to the goddess Bentin and regarded as one of the three wonders of Japan.
+The chief temple dates from the year 587, and the island, which is
+inhabited largely by priests and their attendants, is annually visited
+by thousands of pilgrims. But the hallowed soil is never tilled, so that
+all provisions have to be brought from the surrounding districts.
+
+
+
+
+HIRPINI (from an Oscan or Sabine stem _hirpo-_, "wolf"), an inland
+Samnite tribe in the south of Italy, whose territory was bounded by that
+of the Lucani on the S., the Campani on the S.W., the Appuli (Apuli) and
+Frentani on the E. and N.E. On the N. we find them, politically
+speaking, identified with the Pentri and Caraceni, and with them
+constituting the Samnite alliance in the wars of the 4th century B.C.
+(see SAMNITES). The Roman policy of separation cut them off from these
+allies by the foundation of Beneventum in 268 B.C., and henceforward
+they are a separate unit; they joined Hannibal in 216 B.C., and retained
+their independence until, after joining in the Social war, which in
+their part of Italy can hardly be said to have ceased till the final
+defeat of the Samnites by Sulla in 83 B.C., they received the Roman
+franchise. Of their Oscan speech, besides the evidence of their
+place-names, only a few fragments survive (R. S. Conway, _The Italic
+Dialects_, pp. 170 ff.; and for _hirpo-_, ib. p. 200). In the ethnology
+of Italy the Hirpini appear from one point of view as the purest type of
+Safine stock, namely, that in which the proportion of ethnica formed
+with the suffix _-no-_ is highest, thirty-three out of thirty-six tribal
+or municipal epithets being formed thereby (e.g. _Caudini_, _Compsani_)
+and only one with the suffix -_ti_- (_Abellinates_), where it is
+clearly secondary. On the significance of this see SABINI.     (R. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HIRSAU (formerly _Hirschau_), a village of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Württemberg, on the Nagold and the Pforzheim-Horb railway, 2 m. N. of
+Calw. Pop. 800. Hirsau has some small manufactures, but it owes its
+origin and historical interest to its former Benedictine monastery,
+_Monasterium Hirsaugiense_, at one period one of the most famous in
+Europe. Its picturesque ruins, of which only the chapel with the library
+hall are still in good preservation, testify to the pristine grandeur of
+the establishment. It was founded about 830 by Count Erlafried of Calw,
+at the instigation of his son, Bishop Notting of Vercelli, who enriched
+it with, among other treasures, the body of St Aurelius. Its first
+occupants (838) were a colony of fifteen monks from Fulda, disciples of
+Hrabanus Maurus and Walafrid Strabo, headed by the abbot Liudebert.
+During about a century and a half, under the fostering care of the
+counts of Calw, it enjoyed great prosperity, and became an important
+seat of learning; but towards the end of the 10th century the ravages of
+the pestilence combined with the rapacity of its patrons, and the
+selfishness and immorality of its inmates, to bring it to the lowest
+ebb. After it had been desolate and in ruins for upwards of sixty years
+it was rebuilt in 1059, and under Abbot William--Wilhelm von
+Hirsau--abbot from 1069 to 1091, it more than regained its former
+splendour. By his _Constitutiones Hirsaugienses_, a new religious order,
+the Ordo Hirsaugiensis, was formed, the rule of which was afterwards
+adopted by many monastic establishments throughout Germany, such as
+those of Blaubeuren, Erfurt and Schaffhausen. The friend and
+correspondent of Pope Gregory VII., and of Anselm of Canterbury, Abbot
+William took active part in the politico-ecclesiastical controversies of
+his time; while a treatise from his pen, _De musica et tonis_, as well
+as the _Philosophicarum et astronomicarum institutionum libri iii._,
+bears witness to his interest in science and philosophy. About the end
+of the 12th century the material and moral welfare of Hirsau was again
+very perceptibly on the decline; and it never afterwards again rose into
+importance. In consequence of the Reformation it was secularized in
+1558; in 1692 it was laid in ruins by the French. The _Chronicon
+Hirsaugiense_, or, as in the later edition it is called, _Annales
+Hirsaugienses_ of Abbot Trithemius (Basel, 1559; St Gall, 1690), is,
+although containing much that is merely legendary, an important source
+of information, not only on the affairs of this monastery, but also on
+the early history of Germany. The _Codex Hirsaugiensis_ was edited by A.
+F. Gfrörer and printed at Stuttgart in 1843.
+
+  See Steck, _Das Kloster Hirschau_ (1844); Helmsdörfer, _Forschungen
+  zur Geschichte des Abts Wilhelm von Hirschau_ (Göttingen, 1874);
+  Weizsäcker, _Führer durch die Geschichte des Klosters Hirschau_
+  (Stuttgart, 1898); Süssmann, _Forschungen zur Geschichte des Klosters
+  Hirschau_ (Halle, 1903); Giseke, _Die Hirschauer während des
+  Investiturstreits_ (Gotha, 1883); C. H. Klaiber, _Das Kloster
+  Hirschau_ (Tübingen, 1886); and Baer, _Die Hirsauer Bauschule_
+  (Freiburg, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+HIRSCH, MAURICE DE, BARON HIRSCH AUF GEREUTH, in the baronage of Bavaria
+(1831-1896), capitalist and philanthropist (German by birth,
+Austro-Hungarian by domicile), was born at Munich, 9th December 1831.
+His grandfather, the first Jewish landowner in Bavaria, was ennobled
+with the _prädikat_ "auf Gereuth" in 1818; his father, who was banker to
+the Bavarian king, was created a baron in 1869. The family for
+generations has occupied a prominent position in the German Jewish
+community. At the age of thirteen young Hirsch was sent to Brussels to
+school, but when seventeen years old he went into business. In 1855 he
+became associated with the banking house of Bischoffsheim & Goldschmidt,
+of Brussels, London and Paris. He amassed a large fortune, which he
+increased by purchasing and working railway concessions in Austria,
+Turkey and the Balkans, and by speculations in sugar and copper. While
+living in great splendour in Paris and London and on his estates in
+Hungary, he devoted much of his time to schemes for the relief of his
+Hebrew co-religionists in lands where they were persecuted and
+oppressed. He took a deep interest in the educational work of the
+Alliance Israélite Universelle, and on two occasions presented the
+society with gifts of a million francs. For some years he regularly
+paid the deficits in the accounts of the Alliance, amounting to several
+thousand pounds a year. In 1889 he capitalized his donations and
+presented the society with securities producing an annual income of
+£16,000. On the occasion of the fortieth anniversary of the emperor
+Francis Joseph's accession to the Austrian throne he gave £500,000 for
+the establishment of primary and technical schools in Galicia and the
+Bukowina. The greatest charitable enterprise on which he embarked was in
+connexion with the persecution of the Jews in Russia (see
+ANTI-SEMITISM). He gave £10,000 to the funds raised for the repatriation
+of the refugees in 1882, but, feeling that this was a very lame
+conclusion to the efforts made in western Europe for the relief of the
+Russian Jews, he offered the Russian Government £2,000,000 for the
+endowment of a system of secular education to be established in the
+Jewish pale of settlement. The Russian Government was willing to accept
+the money, but declined to allow any foreigner to be concerned in its
+control or administration. Thereupon Baron de Hirsch resolved to devote
+the money to an emigration and colonization scheme which should afford
+the persecuted Jews opportunities of establishing themselves in
+agricultural colonies outside Russia. He founded the Jewish Colonization
+Association as an English society, with a capital of £2,000,000, and in
+1892 he presented to it a further sum of £7,000,000. On the death of his
+wife in 1899 the capital was increased to £11,000,000, of which
+£1,250,000 went to the Treasury, after some litigation, in death duties.
+This enormous fund, which is probably the greatest charitable trust in
+the world, is now managed by delegates of certain Jewish societies,
+chiefly the Anglo-Jewish Association of London and the Alliance
+Israélite Universelle of Paris, among whom the shares in the association
+have been divided. The association, which is prohibited from working for
+profit, possesses large colonies in South America, Canada and Asia
+Minor. In addition to its vast agricultural work it has a gigantic and
+complex machinery for dealing with the whole problem of Jewish
+persecution, including emigration and distributing agencies, technical
+schools, co-operative factories, savings and loan banks and model
+dwellings in the congested Russian jewries. It also subventions and
+assists a large number of societies all over the world whose work is
+connected with the relief and rehabilitation of Jewish refugees. Besides
+this great organization, Baron de Hirsch founded in 1891 a benevolent
+trust in the United States for the benefit of Jewish immigrants, which
+he endowed with £493,000. His minor charities were on a princely scale,
+and during his residence in London he distributed over £100,000 among
+the local hospitals. It was in this manner that he disposed of the whole
+gross proceeds derived from his successes on the English turf, of which
+he was a lavish patron. He raced, as he said himself, "for the London
+hospitals," and in 1892, when his filly, La Flêche, won the Oaks, St
+Leger and One Thousand Guineas, his donations from this source amounted
+to about £40,000. Baron de Hirsch married on 28th June 1855 Clara,
+daughter of Senator Bischoffsheim of Brussels (b. 1833), by whom he had
+a son and daughter, both of whom predeceased him. He died at Ogyalla,
+near Komorn, in Hungary, 21st April 1896. The baroness, who seconded her
+husband's charitable work with great munificence--their total
+benefactions have been estimated at £18,000,000,--died at Paris on the
+1st of April 1899.
+
+  For details of Baron de Hirsch's chief charities see the annual
+  reports of the Alliance Israélite Universelle and of the
+  "Administration Centrale" of the Jewish Colonization Association.
+       (L. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL (1808-1888), Jewish theologian, was born in
+Hamburg in 1808 and died at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1888. He opposed
+the reform tendency of Geiger (q.v.), and presented Jewish orthodoxy in
+a new and attractive light. His philosophical conception of tradition,
+associated as it was with conservatism in ritual practice, created what
+is often known as the Frankfort "Neo-Orthodoxy." Hirsch exercised a
+profound influence on the Synagogue and undoubtedly stemmed the tide of
+liberalism. His famous _Nineteen Letters_ (1836), with which the
+Neo-Orthodoxy began, were translated into English by Drachmann (New
+York, 1899). Other works by Hirsch were _Horeb_, and commentaries on
+the Pentateuch and Psalms. These are marked by much originality, but
+their exegesis is fanciful. Three volumes of his essays have been
+published (1902-1908); these were collected as _Gesammelte Schriften_
+from his periodical _Jeschurun_.
+
+  For Hirsch's religious philosophy see S. A. Hirsch, _A Book of Essays_
+  (London, 1905).     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HIRSCHBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia,
+beautifully situated at the confluence of the Bober and Zacken, 1120 ft.
+above the sea-level, 48 m. S.E. of Görlitz, on the railway to Glatz,
+with branches to Grünthal and Schmiedeberg. Pop. (1905) 19,317. It is
+surrounded by pleasant promenades occupying the site of its former
+fortifications. It possesses an Evangelical church, the church of the
+Holy Cross, one of the six _Gnaden Kirchen_ for the Silesian Protestants
+stipulated for in the agreement at Altranstädt between Charles XII. of
+Sweden and the emperor Joseph I. in 1707, four Roman Catholic churches,
+one of which dates from the 14th century, a synagogue, several schools,
+an orphanage and an asylum. The town is the principal emporium of
+commerce in the Silesian mountains, and its industries include the
+carding and spinning of wool, and the manufacture of linen and cotton
+fabrics, yarn, artificial flowers, paper, cement, porcelain,
+sealing-wax, blacking, chemicals and cider. There is also a lively trade
+in corn, wine and agricultural produce. The town is celebrated for its
+romantic surroundings, including the Cavalierberg, from which there is a
+splendid view, the Hausberg, the Helicon, crowned by a small Doric
+temple, the Kreuzberg, with walks commanding beautiful views, and the
+Sattler ravine, over which there is a railway viaduct. Hirschberg was in
+existence in the 11th century, and obtained town rights in 1108 from
+Duke Boleslaus of Poland. It withstood a siege by the Hussites in 1427,
+and an attack of the imperial troops in 1640. The foundation of its
+prosperity was laid in the 16th century by the introduction of the
+manufacture of linen and veils.
+
+Hirschberg is also the name of a town of Thuringia on the Saale with
+manufactures of leather and knives. Pop. 2000.
+
+
+
+
+HIRSON, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne, 35 m. by
+rail N.E. of Laon, on the Oise. Pop. (1906) 8335. It occupies an
+important strategic position close to the point of intersection of
+several railway lines, and not far from the Belgian frontier. For its
+defence there are a permanent fort and two batteries, near the railway
+junction. The town carries on the manufacture of glass bottles, tiles,
+iron and tin goods, wool-spinning and brewing.
+
+
+
+
+HIRTIUS, AULUS (c. 90-43 B.C.), Roman historian and statesman. He was
+with Julius Caesar as legate in Gaul, but after the civil war broke out
+in 49 he seems to have remained in Rome to protect Caesar's interests.
+He was also a personal friend of Cicero. He was nominated with C. Vibius
+Pansa by Caesar for the consulship of 43; and after the dictator's
+assassination in March 44, he and his colleague supported the senatorial
+party against M. Antonius, with whom Hirtius had at first sided. The
+consuls set out for Mutina, where Antonius was besieging Decimus Brutus.
+On the 15th of April, Pansa was attacked by Antonius at Forum Gallorum,
+about 8 m. from Mutina, and lost his life in the engagement. Hirtius,
+however, compelled Antonius to retire on Mutina, where another battle
+took place on the 25th (or 27th) of April, in which Hirtius was slain.
+Of the continuations of Caesar's _Commentaries_--the eighth book of the
+Gallic war, the history of the Alexandrian, African and Spanish
+wars--the first is generally allowed to be by Hirtius; the Alexandrian
+war is perhaps by him (or Oppius); the last two are supposed to have
+been written at his request, by persons who had taken part in the events
+described, with a view to subsequent revision and incorporation in his
+proposed work on military commanders. The language of Hirtius is good,
+but his style is monotonous and lacks vigour.
+
+  Hirtius and the other continuators of Caesar are discussed in M.
+  Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen Literatur_, i.; also R. Schneider,
+  _Bellum Africanum_ (1905). For the history of the period see under
+  ANTONIUS; Cicero's _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier,
+  _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng. trans., 1897).
+
+
+
+
+HISHAM IBN AL-KALBI [Abu-l Mundhir Hisham ibn Mahommed ibn us-Sa'b
+ul-Kalb] (d. c. 819), Arabic historian, was born in Kufa, but spent
+much of his life in Bagdad. Like his father, on whose authority he
+relied largely, he collected information about the genealogies and
+history of the ancient Arabs. According to the _Fihrist_ (see NADIM) he
+wrote 140 works. As independent works they have almost entirely ceased
+to exist, but his account of the genealogies of the Arabs is continually
+quoted in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_.
+
+  Large extracts from another of his works, the _Kitab ul-Asnam_, are
+  contained in the _Khizanat ul-Adab_ (iii. 242-246) and in the
+  geography of Yaqut (q.v.). These latter have been translated with
+  comments by J. Wellhausen in his _Reste des arabischen Heidentums_
+  (2nd ed., Berlin, 1897).     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+HISPELLUM (mod. Spello, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, 3 m. N.
+of Fulginiae, on the road between it and Perusia, 1030 ft. above
+sea-level. It does not appear to be mentioned before the time of
+Augustus, who founded a colony there (_Colonia Iulia Hispellum_) and
+extended its territory to the springs of the Clitumnus, which had
+originally belonged to the territory of Mevania. It received the name of
+Flavia Constans by a rescript of the emperor Constantine, a copy of
+which on a marble tablet is still preserved at Spello. The gate by which
+the town is entered is ancient and has three portrait statues above it;
+two other gates and a part of the city wall, built of rectangular blocks
+of local limestone, may still be seen, as also the ruins of what is
+possibly a triumphal arch (attributed to Augustus) and an amphitheatre,
+and perhaps of a theatre, close to the modern high-road, outside the
+town.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+HISSAR, a district in Central Asia, lying between 66° 30´ and 70° E. and
+39° 15´ and 37° N. and dependent on the amir of Bokhara. It forms that
+part of the basin of the Amu-darya or Oxus which lies on the north side
+of the river, opposite the Afghan province of Balkh. The western
+prolongation of the Tian-shan, which divides the basin of the Zarafshan
+from that of the upper Amu, after rising to a height of 12,300 ft.,
+bifurcates in 67° 45´ E. The main chain, the southern arm of this
+bifurcation, designated the Hissar range, but sometimes called also
+Koh-i-tau, forms the N. and N.W. boundaries of Hissar. On the W. it is
+wholly bounded by the desert; the Amu limits it on the S. and S.E.; and
+Karateghin and Darvaz complete the boundary on the E. Until 1875 it was
+one of the least known tracts of Central Asia. Hissar is traversed from
+north to south by four tributaries of the Amu, viz. the Surkhab or
+Vakhsh, Kafirnihan, Surkhan and Shirabad-darya, which descend from the
+snowy mountains to the north and form a series of fertile valleys,
+disposed in a fan-shape, within which lie the principal towns. In the
+N.W. boundary range between Khuzar and Derbent is situated the defile
+formerly called the Iron Gate (Caspian Gates, Bab-al-Hadid, Dar Ahanin
+and in Chinese T'ie-men-kuan) but now styled Buzghol-khana or the
+Goat-house. It was also called Kohluga, said to be a Mongol word meaning
+barrier. This pass is described as a deep but narrow chasm in a
+transverse range, whose rocks overhang and threaten to choke the
+tortuous and gloomy corridor (in places but five paces wide) which
+affords the only exit from the valley. In ancient times it was a vantage
+point of much importance and commanded one of the chief routes between
+Turkestan and India. Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese traveller, who passed
+through it in the 7th century, states that there were then two folding
+doors or gates, cased with iron and hung with bells, placed across the
+pass. Clavijo, the Spanish ambassador to the court of Timur, heard of
+this when he passed through the defile nearly 800 years later, but the
+gates had then disappeared.
+
+The Surkhan valley is highly cultivated, especially in its upper
+portion. It supplies Bokhara with corn and sheep, but its chief products
+are rice and flax. The town of Hissar (pop. 15,000) commands the
+entrance into the fertile valleys of the Surkhan and Kafirnihan, just as
+Kabadian at the southern end of the latter defends them from the south.
+Hissar was long famous for its damascened swords and its silk goods.
+Kulab produces wheat in abundance, and gold is brought thither from the
+surrounding districts. Kabadian is a large, silk-producing town, and is
+surrounded with rice-fields.
+
+The population consists principally of Uzbegs and Tajiks, the former
+predominating and gradually pushing the Tajiks into the hills. On the
+banks of the Amu there are Turkomans who work the ferries, drive sheep
+and accompany caravans. Lyuli (gipsies), Jews, Hindus and Afghans are
+other elements of the population. The climate of the valleys of Hissar
+and Kulab is pleasant, as they are protected by mountains to the north
+and open towards the south. They produce all the cereals and garden
+plants indigenous to Central Asia. Cotton is grown in the district of
+Shirabad; and cotton, wheat, flax, sheep and rock-salt are all exported.
+
+_History._--This country was anciently part of the Persian empire of the
+Achaemenidae, and probably afterwards of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom,
+and then subject to the invading Asiatic tribes who broke up that
+kingdom, e.g. the Yue-chi. It was afterwards conquered by the
+Ephthalites or White Huns, who were subdued by the Turks in the early
+part of the 7th century. It then became subject successively to the
+Mahommedan invaders from Persia, and after to the Mongol dynasty of
+Jenghiz Khan, and to Timur and his successors. It subsequently became a
+cluster of Uzbeg states and was annexed by the amir of Bokhara (q.v.) in
+1869-1870, soon after the Russian occupation of Samarkand.
+     (J. T. Be.; C. El.)
+
+
+
+
+HISSAR, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of
+the Punjab. The town is situated on the Rajputana railway and the
+Western Jumna canal, 102 m. W.N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901) 17,647. It was
+founded in 1356 by the emperor Feroz Shah, who constructed the canal to
+supply it with water; but this fell into decay during the 18th century,
+owing to the constant inroads of marauders. Hissar was almost completely
+depopulated during the famine of 1783, but was afterwards occupied by
+the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who built a fort and
+collected inhabitants. It is now chiefly known for its cattle and horse
+fairs, and has a cotton factory.
+
+The DISTRICT comprises an area of 5217 sq. m. It forms the western
+border district of the great Bikanir desert, and consists for the most
+part of sandy plains dotted with shrub and brushwood, and broken by
+undulations towards the south, which rise into hills of rock like
+islands out of a sea of sand. The Ghaggar is its only river, whose
+supply is uncertain, depending much on the fall of rain in the lower
+Himalayas; its overflow in times of heavy rain is caught by _jhils_,
+which dry up in the hot season. The Western Jumna canal crosses the
+district from east to west, irrigating many villages. The soil is in
+places hard and clayey, and difficult to till; but when sufficiently
+irrigated it is highly productive. Old mosques and other buildings exist
+in parts of the district. Hissar produces a breed of large milk-white
+oxen, which are in great request for the carriages of natives. The
+district has always been subject to famine. The first calamity of this
+kind of which there is authentic record was in 1783; and Hissar has
+suffered severely in more recent famines. Its population in 1901 was
+781,717, showing practically no increase in the decade, whereas in the
+previous decade there had been an increase of 15%. The climate is very
+dry, hot westerly winds blowing from the middle of March till July.
+Cotton weaving, ginning and pressing are carried on. The district is
+served by the Rajputana-Malwa, the Southern Punjab and the
+Jodhpur-Bikanir railways. The chief trading centres are Bhiwani, Hansi,
+Hissar and Sirsa.
+
+Before the Mahommedan conquest, the semi-desert tract of which Hissar
+district now forms part was the retreat of Chauhan Rajputs. Towards the
+end of the 18th century the Bhattis of Bhattiana gained ascendancy after
+bloody struggles. To complete the ruin brought on by these conflicts,
+nature lent her aid in the great famine of 1783. Hissar passed nominally
+to the British in 1803, but they could not enforce order till 1810.
+Early in the mutiny of 1857 Hissar was wholly lost for a time to British
+rule, and all Europeans were either murdered or compelled to fly. The
+Bhattis rose under their hereditary chiefs, and the majority of the
+Mahommedan population followed their example. Before Delhi had been
+recovered, the rebels were utterly routed.
+
+
+
+
+HISTIAEUS (d. 494 B.C.), tyrant of Miletus under the Persian king Darius
+Hystaspis. According to Herodotus he rendered great service to Darius
+while he was campaigning in Scythia by persuading his fellow-despots not
+to destroy the bridge over the Danube by which the Persians must return.
+Choosing his own reward for this service, he became possessor of
+territory near Myrcinus (afterwards Amphipolis), rich in timber and
+minerals. The success of his enterprise led to his being invited to
+Susa, where in the midst of every kind of honour he was virtually a
+prisoner of Darius, who had reason to dread his growing power in Ionia.
+During this period the Greek cities were left under native despots
+supported by Persia, Aristagoras, son-in-law of Histiaeus, being ruler
+of Miletus in his stead. This prince, having failed against Naxos in a
+joint expedition with the satrap Artaphernes, began to stir up the
+Ionians to revolt, and this result was brought to pass, according to
+Herodotus, by a secret message from Histiaeus. The revolt assumed a
+formidable character and Histiaeus persuaded Darius that he alone could
+quell it. He was allowed to leave Susa, but on his arrival at the coast
+found himself suspected by the satrap, and was ultimately driven to
+establish himself (Herodotus says as a pirate; more probably in charge
+of the Bosporus route) at Byzantium. After the total failure of the
+revolt at the battle of Lade, he made various attempts to re-establish
+himself, but was captured by the Persian Harpagus and crucified by
+Artaphernes at Sardis. His head was embalmed and sent to Darius, who
+gave it honourable burial. The theory of Herodotus that the Ionian
+revolt was caused by the single message of Histiaeus is incredible;
+there is evidence to show that the Ionians had been meditating since
+about 512 a patriotic revolt against the Persian domination and the
+"tyrants" on whom it rested (see Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, ed. 1907,
+especially p. 122 note; art. IONIA, and authorities; also S. Heinlein in
+_Klio_, 1909, pp. 341-351).
+
+
+
+
+HISTOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: histos], web, tissue, properly the web-beam of
+the loom, from [Greek: histanai], to make to stand), the science which
+deals with the structure of the tissues of plants and animals (see
+CYTOLOGY).
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY. The word "history" is used in two senses. It may mean either
+the record of events, or events themselves. Originally (see below)
+limited to inquiry and statement, it was only in comparatively modern
+times that the meaning of the word was extended to include the phenomena
+which form or might form their subject. It was perhaps by a somewhat
+careless transference of ideas that this extension was brought about.
+Now indeed it is the commoner meaning. We speak of the "history of
+England" without reference to any literary narrative. We term kings and
+statesmen the "makers of history," and sometimes say that the historian
+only records the history which they make. History in this connexion is
+obviously not the record, but the thing to be recorded. It is
+unfortunate that such a double meaning of the word should have grown up,
+for it is productive of not a little confusion of thought.
+
+History in the wider sense is all that has happened, not merely all the
+phenomena of human life, but those of the natural world as well. It
+includes everything that undergoes change; and as modern science has
+shown that there is nothing absolutely static, therefore the whole
+universe, and every part of it, has its history. The discovery of ether
+brought with it a reconstruction of our ideas of the physical universe,
+transferring the emphasis from the mathematical expression of static
+relationships to a dynamic conception of a universe in constant
+transformation; matter in equipoise became energy in gradual
+readjustment. Solids are solids no longer. The universe is in motion in
+every particle of every part; rock and metal merely a transition stage
+between crystallization and dissolution. This idea of universal activity
+has in a sense made physics itself a branch of history. It is the same
+with the other sciences--especially the biological division, where the
+doctrine of evolution has induced an attitude of mind which is
+distinctly historical.
+
+But the tendency to look at things historically is not merely the
+attitude of men of science. Our outlook upon life differs in just this
+particular from that of preceding ages. We recognize the unstable
+nature of our whole social fabric, and are therefore more and more
+capable of transforming it. Our institutions are no longer held to be
+inevitable and immutable creations. We do not attempt to fit them to
+absolute formulae, but continually adapt them to a changing environment.
+Even modern architecture, notably in America, reflects the consciousness
+of change. The permanent character of ancient or medieval buildings was
+fitted only to a society dominated by static ideals. Now the architect
+builds, not for all time, but for a set of conditions which will
+inevitably cease in the not distant future. Thus our whole society not
+only bears the marks of its evolution, but shows its growing
+consciousness of the fact in the most evident of its arts. In
+literature, philosophy and political science, there is the same
+historical trend. Criticism no longer judges by absolute standards; it
+applies the standards of the author's own environment. We no longer
+condemn Shakespeare for having violated the ancient dramatic laws, nor
+Voltaire for having objected to the violations. Each age has its own
+expression, and in judging each we enter the field of history. In
+ethics, again, the revolt against absolute standards limits us to the
+relative, and morals are investigated on the basis of history, as
+largely conditioned by economic environment and the growth of
+intellectual freedom. Revelation no longer appeals to scientific minds
+as a source of knowledge. Experience on the other hand is history. As
+for political science, we do not regard the national state as that
+ultimate and final product which men once saw in the Roman Empire. It
+has hardly come into being before forces are evident which aim at its
+destruction. Internationalism has gained ground in Europe in recent
+years; and Socialism itself, which is based upon a distinct
+interpretation of history, is regarded by its followers as merely a
+stage in human progress, like those which have gone before it. It is
+evident that Freeman's definition of history as "past politics" is
+miserably inadequate. Political events are mere externals. History
+enters into every phase of activity, and the economic forces which urge
+society along are as much its subject as the political result.
+
+In short the historical spirit of the age has invaded every field. The
+world-picture presented in this encyclopaedia is that of a dynamic
+universe, of phenomena in process of ceaseless change. Owing to this
+insistent change all things which happen, or seem to happen, are history
+in the broader sense of the word. The encyclopaedia itself is a history
+of them in the stricter sense,--the description and record of this
+universal process. This narrower meaning is the subject of the rest of
+this article.
+
+The word "history" comes from the Gr. [Greek: historia], which was used
+by the Ionians in the 6th century B.C. for the search for knowledge in
+the widest sense. It meant inquiry, investigation, not narrative. It was
+not until two centuries later that the historikos, the reciter of
+stories, superseded the _historeon_ ([Greek: historeôn]), the seeker
+after knowledge. Thus history began as a branch of scientific
+research,--much the same as what the Athenians later termed philosophy.
+Herodotus himself was as much a scientific explorer as a reciter of
+narrative, and his life-long investigation was _historie_ in his Ionian
+speech. Yet it was Herodotus himself who first hinted at the new use of
+the word, applied merely to the details accumulated during a long search
+for knowledge. It is not until Aristotle, however, that we have it
+definitely applied to the literary product instead of the inquiry which
+precedes it. From Aristotle to modern times, history (Lat. _historia_)
+has been a form of literature. It is only in the scientific environment
+of to-day that we recognize once more, with those earliest of the
+forerunners of Herodotus, that history involves two distinct operations,
+one of which, investigation, is in the field of science, while the
+other, the literary presentation, is in the field of art.
+
+The history of history itself is therefore two-fold. History as art
+flourishes with the arts. It calls upon the imagination and the literary
+gifts of expression. Its history does not run parallel with the
+scientific side, but rather varies in inverse ratio with scientific
+activity. Those periods which have been dominated by the great masters
+of style have been less interested in the criticism of the historian's
+methods of investigation than in the beauty of his rhetoric. The
+scientific historian, deeply interested in the search for truth, is
+generally but a poor artist, and his uncoloured picture of the past will
+never rank in literature beside the splendid distortions which glow in
+the pages of a Michelet or Macaulay. History the art, in so far as it is
+conditioned upon genius, has no single traceable line of development.
+Here the product of the age of Pericles remains unsurpassed still; the
+works of Herodotus and Thucydides standing along with those of Pheidias
+as models for all time. On the other hand, history the science has
+developed so that it has not only gained recognition among historians as
+a distinct subject, but it has raised with it a group of auxiliary
+sciences which serve either as tools for investigation or as a basis for
+testing the results. The advance in this branch of history in the 19th
+century was one of its greatest achievements. The vast gulf which lies
+between the history of Egypt by Herodotus and that by Flinders Petrie is
+the measure of its achievement. By the mechanism now at his disposal the
+scientific explorer can read more history from the dust-heaps of Abydos
+than the greatest traveller of antiquity could gather from the priests
+of Saïs. In tracing the history of history we must therefore keep in
+mind the double aspect.
+
+History itself, this double subject, the science and the art combined,
+begins with the dawn of memory and the invention of speech. It is wrong
+to term those ages _pre-historic_ whose history has not come down to us,
+including in one category the pre-literary age and the literary whose
+traces have been lost. Even the pre-literary had its history, first in
+myth and then in saga. The saga, or epos, was a great advance upon the
+myth, for in it the deeds of men replace or tend to replace the deeds of
+the gods. But we are still largely in the realm of imagination. Poetry,
+as Thucydides complained, is a most imperfect medium for fact. The bard
+will exaggerate or distort his story. True history, as a record of what
+really has happened, first reached maturity in prose. Therefore,
+although much of the past has been handed down to us in epic, in ballad
+and in the legends of folk-lore, we must turn from them to what became
+history in the narrower sense.
+
+The earliest prose origins of history are the inscriptions. Their
+inadequacy is evident from two standpoints. Their permanence depends not
+upon their importance, but upon the durability of the substance on which
+they are inscribed. A note for a wedding ring baked into the clay of
+Babylon has been preserved, while the history of the greatest events has
+perished. In the second place they are sealed to all but those who know
+how to read them, and so they lie forgotten for centuries while oral
+tradition flourishes,--being within the reach of every man. It is only
+recently that archaeology, turning from the field of art, has undertaken
+to interpret for us this first written history. The process by which the
+modern fits together all the obtainable remains of an antiquity, and
+reconstructs even that past which left no written record, lies outside
+the field of this article. But such enlargement of the field of history
+is a modern scientific product, and is to be distinguished from the
+imperfect beginnings of history-writing which the archaeologist is able
+to decipher.
+
+Next to the inscriptions,--sometimes identical with them,--are the early
+chronicles. These are of various kinds. Family chronicles preserved the
+memory of heroic ancestors whose deeds in the earliest age would have
+passed into the keeping of the bards. Such family archives were perhaps
+the main source for Roman historians. But they are not confined to Rome
+or Greece. Genealogies also pass from the bald verse, which was the
+vehicle for oral transmission, to such elaborate tables as those in
+which Manetho has preserved the dynasties of Egyptian Pharaohs.
+
+In this field the priest succeeds the poet. The temple itself became the
+chief repository of records. There were simple religious annals, votive
+tablets recording miracles accomplished at a shrine, lists of priests
+and priestesses, accounts of benefactions, of prodigies and portents. In
+some cases, as in Rome, the pontiffs kept a kind of register, not merely
+of religious history, but of important political events as well. Down to
+the time of the Gracchi (131 B.C.) the Pontifex Maximus inscribed the
+year's events upon annual tablets of wood which were preserved in the
+Regia, the official residence of the pontiff in the Forum. These
+pontifical "annals" thus came to be a sort of civic history. Chronicles
+of the Greek cities were commonly ascribed to mythical authors, as for
+instance that of Miletus, the oldest, to Cadmus the inventor of letters.
+But they were continued and edited by men in whom the critical spirit
+was awakening, as when the chroniclers of Ionian towns began the
+criticism of Homer.
+
+The first historians were the logographi of these Ionian cities; men who
+carried their inquiry (_historie_) beyond both written record and oral
+tradition to a study of the world around them. Their "saying" (_logos_)
+was gathered mostly from contemporaries; and upon the basis of a widened
+experience they became critics of their traditions. The opening lines of
+Hecataeus of Miletus begin the history of the true historic spirit in
+words which read like a sentence from Voltaire. "Hecataeus of Miletus
+thus speaks: I write as I deem true, for the traditions of the Greeks
+seem to me manifold and laughable." Those words mark an epoch in the
+history of thought. They are the introduction to historical criticism
+and scientific investigation. Whatever the actual achievement of
+Hecataeus may have been, from his time onward the scientific movement
+was set going. Herodotus of Heraclea struggled to rationalize mythology,
+and established chronology on a solid basis. And finally Herodotus, a
+professional story-teller, rose to the height of genuine scientific
+investigation. Herodotus' inquiry was not simply that of an idle
+tourist. He was a critical observer, who tested his evidence. It is easy
+for the student now to show the inadequacy of his sources, and his
+failure here or there to discriminate between fact and fable. But given
+the imperfect medium for investigation and the absence of an
+archaeological basis for criticism, the work of Herodotus remains a
+scientific achievement, as remarkable for its approximation to truth as
+for the vastness of its scope. Yet it was Herodotus' chief glory to have
+joined to this scientific spirit an artistic sense which enabled him to
+cast the material into the truest literary form. He gathered all his
+knowledge of the ancient world, not simply for itself, but to mass it
+around the story of the war between the east and west, the Greeks and
+the Persians. He is first and foremost a story-teller; his theme is like
+that of the bards, a heroic event. His story is a vast prose epos, in
+which science is to this extent subordinated to art. "This is the
+showing forth of the Inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, to the end
+that neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse of time, nor the
+works, great and marvellous, which have been produced, some by Hellenes,
+some by Barbarians, may lose their renown, and especially that the
+causes may be remembered for which these waged war with one another"
+(i.e. the Persian war).
+
+In Thucydides a higher art than that of Herodotus was combined with a
+higher science. He scorned the story-teller "who seeks to please the ear
+rather than to speak the truth," and yet his rhetoric is the culmination
+of Greek historical prose. He withdrew from vulgar applause, conscious
+that his narrative would be considered "disappointing to the ear," yet
+he recast the materials out of which he constructed it in order to lift
+that narrative into the realm of pure literature. Speeches, letters and
+documents are reworded to be in tone with the rest of the story. It was
+his art, in fact, which really created the Peloponnesian war out of its
+separate parts. And yet this art was merely the language of a scientist.
+The "laborious task" of which he speaks is that of consulting all
+possible evidence, and weighing conflicting accounts. It is this which
+makes his rhetoric worth while, "an everlasting possession, not a prize
+competition which is heard and forgotten."
+
+From the sublimity of Thucydides, and Xenophon's straight-forward story,
+history passed with Theopompus and Ephorus into the field of rhetoric. A
+revival of the scientific instinct of investigation is discernable in
+Timaeus the Sicilian, at the end of the 4th century, but his attack upon
+his predecessors was the text of a more crushing attack upon himself by
+Polybius, who declares him lacking in critical insight and biased by
+passion. Polybius' comments upon Timaeus reach the dignity of a treatise
+upon history. He protests against its use for controversial pamphlets
+which distort the truth. "Directly a man assumes the moral attitude of
+an historian he ought to forget all considerations, such as love of
+one's friends, hatred of one's enemies.... He must sometimes praise
+enemies and blame friends. For as a living creature is rendered useless
+if deprived of its eyes, so if you take truth from History, what is left
+but an improfitable tale" (bk. xii. 14). These are the words of a Ranke.
+Unfortunately Polybius, like most modern scientific historians, was no
+artist. His style is the very opposite of that of Isocrates and the
+rhetoricians. It is often only clear in the light of inscriptions, so
+closely does it keep to the sources. The style found no imitator;
+history passed from Greece to Rome in the guise of rhetoric. In
+Dionysius of Halicarnassus the rhetoric was combined with an extensive
+study of the sources; but the influence of the Greek rhetoricians upon
+Roman prose was deplorable from the standpoint of science. Cicero,
+although he said that the duty of the historian is to conceal nothing
+true, to say nothing false, would in practice have written the kind of
+history that Polybius denounced. He finds fault with those who are _non
+exornatores rerum sed tantum narratores_. History for him is the mine
+from which to draw argument in oratory and example in education. It is
+not the subject of a scientific curiosity.
+
+It should be noted before we pass to Rome that with the expansion of
+Hellenism the subject of historians expanded as well. Universal history
+was begun by Ephorus, the rhetorician, and formed the theme of Polybius
+and Deodorus. Exiled Greeks were the first to write histories of Rome
+worthy of the name. The Alexandrian Eratosthenes placed chronology upon
+the scientific basis of astronomy, and Apollodorus drew up the most
+important _chronica_ of antiquity.
+
+History-writing in Rome,--except for the Greek writers resident
+there,--was until the first half of the 1st century B.C. in the form of
+annals. Then came rhetorical ornamentation,--and the Ciceronian era. The
+first Roman historian who rose to the conception of a science and art
+combined was Sallust, the student of Thucydides. The Augustan age
+produced in Livy a great popular historian and natural artist and a
+trained rhetorician (in the speeches),--but as uncritical and inaccurate
+as he was brilliant. From Livy to Tacitus the gulf is greater than from
+Herodotus to Thucydides. Tacitus is at least a consummate artist. His
+style ranges from the brilliancy of his youth to the sternness and
+sombre gravity of age, passing almost to poetic expression in its
+epigrammatic terseness. Yet in spite of his searching study of
+authorities, his keen judgment of men, and his perception of underlying
+principles of moral law, his view was warped by the heat of faction,
+which glows beneath his external objectivity. After him Roman
+history-writing speedily degenerated. Suetonius' _Lives of the Caesars_
+is but a superior kind of journalism. But his gossip of the court became
+the model for historians, whose works, now lost, furnish the main source
+for the _Historia Augusta_. The importance to us of this uncritical
+collection of biographies is sufficient comment on the decline of
+history-writing in the latter empire. Finally, from the 4th century the
+epitomes of Eutropius and Festus served to satisfy the lessening
+curiosity in the past and became the handbooks for the middle ages. The
+single figure of Ammianus Marcellinus stands out of this age like a
+belated disciple of Tacitus. But the world was changing from antique to
+Christian ideals just as he was writing, and with him we leave this
+outline of ancient history.
+
+The 4th and 5th centuries saw a great revolution in the history of
+history. The story of the pagan past slipped out of mind, and in its
+place was set, by the genius of Eusebius, the story of the world force
+which had superseded it, Christianity, and of that small fraction of
+antiquity from which it sprang,--the Jews. Christianity from the first
+had forced thinking men to reconstruct their philosophy of history, but
+it was only after the Church's triumph that its point of view became
+dominant in historiography. Three centuries more passed before the pagan
+models were quite lost to sight. But from the 7th century to the
+17th--from Isidore of Seville and the English Bede for a thousand
+years,--mankind was to look back along the line of Jewish priests and
+kings to the Creation. Egypt was of interest only as it came into
+Israelite history, Babylon and Nineveh were to illustrate the judgments
+of Yahweh, Tyre and Sidon to reflect the glory of Solomon. The process
+by which the "gentiles" have been robbed of their legitimate history was
+the inevitable result of a religion whose sacred books make them lay
+figures for the history of the Jews. Rejected by the Yahweh who became
+the Christian God, they have remained to the present day, in Sunday
+schools and in common opinion, not nations of living men, with the
+culture of arts and sciences, but outcasts who do not enter into the
+divine scheme of the world's history. When a line was drawn between
+pagan and Christian back to the creation of the world, it left outside
+the pale of inquiry nearly all antiquity. But it must be remembered that
+that antiquity was one in which the German nations had no personal
+interest. Scipio and the Gracchi were essentially unreal to them. The
+one living organization with which they came into touch was the Church.
+So Cicero and Pompey paled before Joshua and Paul. Diocletian, the
+organizing genius, became a bloodthirsty monster, and Constantine, the
+murderer, a saint.
+
+Christian history begins with the triumph of the Church. With Eusebius
+of Caesarea the apologetic pamphlets of the age of persecutions gave way
+to a calm review of three centuries of Christian progress. Eusebius'
+biography of Constantine shows what distortion of fact the father of
+Church history permitted himself, but the Ecclesiastical History was
+fortunately written for those who wanted to know what really happened,
+and remains to-day an invaluable repository of Christian antiquities.
+With the continuations of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and the Latin
+manual which Cassiodorus had woven from them (the _Historia
+tripartita_), it formed the body of Church history during all the middle
+ages. An even greater influence, however, was exercised by Eusebius'
+_Chronica_. Through Jerome's translation and additions, this scheme of
+this world's chronology became the basis for all medieval world
+chronicles. It settled until our own day the succession of years from
+the Creation to the birth of Christ,--fitting the Old Testament story
+into that of ancient history. Henceforth the Jewish past,--that one path
+back to the beginning of the world,--was marked out by the absolute laws
+of mathematics and revelation. Jerome had marked it out; Sulpicius
+Severus, the biographer of St Martin, in his _Historia sacra_, adorned
+it with the attractions of romance. Sulpicius was admirably fitted to
+interpret the miraculous Bible story to the middle ages. But there were
+few who could write like him, and Jerome's _Chronicle_ itself, or rather
+portions of it, became, in the age which followed, a sort of universal
+preface for the monastic chronicler. For a time there were even attempts
+to continue "imperial chronicles," but they were insignificant compared
+with the influence of Eusebius and Jerome.
+
+From the first, Christianity had a philosophy of history. Its earliest
+apologists sought to show how the world had followed a divine plan in
+its long preparation for the life of Christ. From this central fact of
+all history, mankind should continue through war and suffering until the
+divine plan was completed at the judgment day. The fate of nations is in
+God's hands; history is the revelation of His wisdom and power. Whether
+He intervenes directly by miracle, or merely sets His laws in operation,
+He is master of men's fate. This idea, which has underlain all Christian
+philosophy of history, from the first apologists who prophesied the fall
+of the Empire and the coming of the millennium, down to our own day,
+received its classic statement in St Augustine's _City of God_. The
+terrestrial city, whose eternity had been the theme of pagan history,
+had just fallen before Alaric's Goths. Augustine's explanation of its
+fall passes in review not only the calamities of Roman history--combined
+with a pathetic perception of its greatness,--but carries the survey
+back to the origin of evil at the creation. Then over against this
+_civitas terrena_ he sets the divine city which is to be realized in
+Christendom. The Roman Empire,--the last general form of the earthly
+city,--gives way slowly to the heavenly. This is the main thread of
+Augustine's philosophy of history. The mathematical demonstration of its
+truth was left by Augustine for his disciple, Paulus Orosius.
+
+Orosius' _Seven Books of Histories against the Pagans_, written as a
+supplement to the _City of God_, is the first attempt at a Christian
+"World History." This manual for the middle ages arranged the rise and
+fall of empires with convincing exactness. The history of antiquity,
+according to it, begins with Ninus. His realm was overthrown by the
+Medes in the same year in which the history of Rome began. From the
+first year of Ninus' reign until the rebuilding of Babylon by Semiramis
+there were sixty-four years; the same between the first of Procas and
+the building of Rome. Eleven hundred and sixty-four years after each
+city was built, it was taken,--Babylon by Cyrus, Rome by Alaric, and
+Cyrus' conquest took place just when Rome began the Republic. But before
+Rome becomes a world empire, Macedon and Carthage intervene, guardians
+of Rome's youth (_tutor curatorque_). This scheme of the four
+world-monarchies, which was to prevail through all the middle ages, was
+developed through seven books filled with the story of war and
+suffering. As it was Orosius' aim to show that the world had improved
+since the coming of Christ, he used Trogus Pompeius' war history,
+written to exalt Roman triumphs, to show the reverse of
+victory,--disaster and ruin. Livy, Caesar, Tacitus and Suetonius were
+plundered for the story of horrors; until finally even the Goths in
+Spain shine by contrast with the pagan heroes; and through the confusion
+of the German invasions one may look forward to Christendom,--and its
+peace.
+
+The commonest form of medieval historical writing was the chronicle,
+which reaches all the way from monastic annals, mere notes on Easter
+tables, to the dignity of national monuments. Utterly lacking in
+perspective, and dominated by the idea of the miraculous, they are for
+the most part a record of the trivial or the marvellous. Individual
+historians sometimes recount the story of their own times with sober
+judgment, but seldom know how to test their sources when dealing with
+the past. Contradictions are often copied down without the writer
+noticing them; and since the middle ages forged and falsified so many
+documents,--monasteries, towns and corporations gaining privileges or
+titles of possession by the bold use of them,--the narrative of medieval
+writers cannot be relied upon unless we can verify it by collateral
+evidence. Some historians, like Otto of Freising, Guibert of Nogent or
+Bernard Gui, would have been scientific if they had had our appliances
+for comparison. But even men like Roger Bacon, who deplored the
+inaccuracy of texts, had worked out no general method to apply in their
+restoration. Toward the close of the middle ages the vernacular
+literatures were adorned with Villani's and Froissart's chronicles. But
+the merit of both lies in their journalistic qualities of contemporary
+narrative. Neither was a history in the truest sense.
+
+The Renaissance marked the first great gain in the historic sense, in
+the efforts of the humanists to realize the spirit of the antique world.
+They did not altogether succeed; antiquity to them meant largely Plato
+and Cicero. Their interests were literary, and the un-Ciceronian
+centuries were generally ignored. Those in which the foundations of
+modern Europe were laid, which produced parliaments, cathedrals, cities,
+Dante and Chaucer, were grouped alike on one dismal level and christened
+the middle ages. The perspective of the humanists was only one degree
+better than that of the middle ages. History became the servant to
+literature, an adjunct to the classics. Thus it passed into the schools,
+where text-books still in use devote 200 pages to the Peloponnesian war
+and two to the Athens of Pericles.
+
+But if the literary side of humanism has been a barrier to the progress
+of scientific history, the discovery and elucidation of texts first made
+that progress possible. Historical criticism soon awoke. Laurentius
+Valla's brilliant attack on the "Donation of Constantine" (1440), and
+Ulrich von Hutten's rehabilitation of Henry IV. from monkish tales mark
+the rise of the new science. One sees at a glance what an engine of
+controversy it was to be; yet for a while it remained but a phase of
+humanism. It was north of the Alps that it parted company with the
+grammarians. Classical antiquity was an Italian past, the German
+scholars turned back to the sources of their national history. Aeneas
+Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had discovered Otto of Freising and
+Jordanes. Maximilian I. encouraged the search for manuscripts, and
+Vienna became a great humanistic centre. Conrad Celtes left his
+_Germania illustrata_ unfinished, but he had found the works of
+Hroswitha. Conrad Peutinger gathered all sorts of Chronicles in his room
+in Vienna, and published several,--among them Gregory of Tours. This
+national movement of the 15th century was not paralleled in France or
+England, where the classical humanities reigned. The Reformation
+meanwhile gave another turn to the work of German scholars.
+
+The Reformation, with its heated controversies, seems a strange
+starting-point for science, yet it, even more than the Renaissance,
+brought out scientific methods of historical investigation. It not only
+sobered the humanist tendency to sacrifice truth for aesthetic effect,
+it called for the documents of the Church and subjected them to the most
+hostile criticism. Luther himself challenged them. Then in the
+_Magdeburg Centuries_ (1559-1574) Protestantism tried to make good its
+attack on the medieval Church by a great collection of sources
+accompanied with much destructive criticism. This gigantic work is the
+first monument of modern historical research. The reply of Cardinal
+Baronius (_Annales ecclesiastici_, 1588-1697) was a still greater
+collection, drawn from archives which till then had not been used for
+scientific history. Baronius' criticism and texts are faulty, though far
+surpassing anything before his day, and his collection is the basis for
+most subsequent ones,--in spite of J. J. Scaliger's refutation, which
+was to contain an equal number of volumes of the errors in Baronius.
+
+The movement back to the sources in Germany until the Thirty Years' War
+was a notable one. Collections were made by Simon Schard (1535-1573),
+Johannes Pistorius (1576-1608), Marquard Freher (1565-1614), Melchior
+Goldast (1576-1635) and others. After the war Leibnitz began a new
+epoch, both by his philosophy with its law of continuity in phenomena,
+and by his systematic attempt to collect sources through an association
+(1670). His plan to have documents printed as they were, instead of
+"correcting" them, was a notable advance. But from Leibnitz until the
+19th century German national historiography made little
+progress,--although church historians like Mosheim and Neander stand out
+among the greatest historians of all time.
+
+France had not paralleled the activity of Maximilian's Renaissance
+historians. The father of modern French history, or at least of
+historical research, was André Duchesne (1584-1640), whose splendid
+collections of sources are still in use. Jean Bodin wrote the first
+treatise on scientific history (_Methodus ad facilem historiarum
+cognitionem_, 1566), but he did not apply his own principles of
+criticism; and it was left for the Benedictine monks of the Congregation
+of St Maur to establish definitely the new science. The place of this
+school in the history of history is absolutely without a parallel. Few
+of those in the audiences of Molière, returning home under the grey
+walls of St Germain-des-Près, knew that within that monastery the men
+whose midnight they disturbed were laying the basis for all scientific
+history; and few of the later historians of that age have been any
+wiser. But when Luc d'Achery turned from exegetics to patristics and the
+lives of the saints, as a sort of Christian humanist, he led the way to
+that vast work of collection and comparison of texts which developed
+through Mabillon, Montfaucon, Ruinart, Martène, Bouquet and their
+associates, into the indispensable implements of modern historians.
+Here, as in the Reformation, controversy called out the richest product.
+Jean Mabillon's treatise, _De re diplomatica_ (1681), was due to the
+criticisms of that group of Belgian Jesuits whose _Acta Sanctorum
+quotquot toto orbe coluntur_ (1643, &c., see BOLLANDISTS) was destined
+to grow into the greatest repository of legend and biography the world
+has seen. In reply to D. Papebroch's criticisms of the chronicle of St
+Denis, Mabillon prepared this manual for the testing of medieval
+documents. Its canons are the basis, indeed, almost the whole, of the
+science of diplomatic (q.v.), the touchstone of truth for medieval
+research. Henceforth even the mediocre scholar had a body of technical
+rules by which to sort out the vast mass of apocrypha in medieval
+documentary sources. Scientific history depends upon implements.
+Without manuals, dictionaries, and easy access to texts, we should go as
+far astray as any medieval chronicler. The France of the Maurists
+supplied the most essential of these instruments. The great "glossary"
+of Ducange is still in enlarged editions the indispensable encyclopaedia
+of the middle ages. Chronology and palaeography were placed on a new
+footing by Dom Bernard de Montfaucon's _Palaeographia graeca_ (1708),
+the monumental _Art de vérifier les dates_ (3rd ed., 1818-1831, in 38
+vols.), and the _Nouveau Traité de diplomatique_ (1750-1765) of Dom
+Tassin and Dom Toustain. The collections of texts which the Maurists
+published are too many and too vast to be enumerated here (see C.
+Langlois, _Manuel de bibliographie historique_, pp. 293 ff.). Dom
+Bouquet's _Historiens de la Gaule et de la France_--the national
+repertory for French historians--is but one of a dozen tasks of similar
+magnitude. During the 18th century this deep under-work of scientific
+history continued to advance, though for the most part unseen by the
+brilliant writers whose untrustworthy generalities passed for history in
+the salons of the old régime. Interrupted by the Revolution, it revived
+in the 19th century, and the roll of honour of the French École des
+Chartes has almost rivalled that of St Germain-des-Prés.
+
+The father of critical history in Italy was L. A. Muratori (1672-1750),
+the Italian counterpart of Leibnitz. His vast collection of sources
+(_Rerum Italicarum scriptores_), prepared amid every discouragement,
+remains to-day the national monument of Italian history; and it is but
+one of his collections. His output is perhaps the greatest of any
+isolated worker in the whole history of historiography. The same haste,
+but much less care, marked the work of J. D. Mansi (d. 1769), the
+compiler of the fullest collection of the Councils. Spain, stifled by
+the Inquisition, produced no national collection of sources during the
+17th and 18th centuries, although Nicolas Antonio (d. 1684) produced a
+national literary history of the first rank.
+
+England in the 16th century kept pace with Continental historiography.
+Henry VIII.'s chaplain, John Leland, is the father of English
+antiquaries. Three of the most precious collections of medieval
+manuscripts still in existence were then begun by Thomas Bodley (the
+Bodleian at Oxford), Archbishop Matthew Parker (Corpus Christi at
+Cambridge), and Robert Cotton (the Cottonian collection of the British
+Museum). In Elizabeth's reign a serious effort was made to arrange the
+national records, but until the end of the 18th century they were
+scattered in not less than fifteen repositories. In the 17th and 18th
+centuries English scholarship was enriched by such monuments of research
+as William Dugdale's _Monasticon_, Thomas Madox's _History of the
+Exchequer_, Wilkins's _Concilia_, and Thomas Rymer's _Foedera_. But
+these works, important as they were, gave but little idea of the wealth
+of historical sources which the 19th century was to reveal in England.
+
+In the 19th century the science of history underwent a sort of
+industrial revolution. The machinery of research, invented by the genius
+of men like Mabillon, was perfected and set going in all the archives of
+Europe. Isolated workers or groups of workers grew into national or
+international associations, producing from archives vast collections of
+material to be worked up into the artistic form of history. The result
+of this movement has been to revolutionize the whole subject. These men
+of the factory--devoting their lives to the cataloguing of archives and
+libraries, to the publication of material, and then to the gigantic task
+of indexing what they have produced--have made it possible for the
+student in an American or Australian college to master in a few hours in
+his library sources of history which baffled the long years of research
+of a Martène or Rymer. The texts themselves have mostly become as
+correct as they can ever be, and manuals and bibliographies guide one to
+and through them, so that no one need go astray who takes the trouble to
+make use of the mechanism which is at his hand. For example, since the
+papal archives were opened, so many _regesta_ have appeared that soon it
+will be possible to follow the letter-writing of the medieval popes day
+by day for century after century.
+
+The apparatus for this research is too vast to be described here.
+Archives have been reformed, their contents catalogued or calendared;
+government commissions have rescued numberless documents from oblivion
+or destruction, and learned societies have supplemented and criticized
+this work and co-ordinated the results. Every state in Europe now has
+published the main sources for its history. The "Rolls" series, the
+_Monumenta Germaniae historica_, and the _Documents inédits_ are but the
+more notable of such national products. A series of periodicals keeps
+watch over this enormous output. The files and indices of the _English
+Historical Review_, _Historische Zeitschrift_, _Revue historique_, or
+_American Historical Review_ will alone reveal the strength and
+character of historical research in the later 19th century.
+
+Every science which deals with human phenomena is in a way an implement
+in this great factory system, in which the past is welded together
+again. Psychology has been drawn upon to interpret the movements of
+revolutions or religions, anthropology and ethnology furnish a clue to
+problems to which the key of documents has been lost. Genealogy,
+heraldry and chronology run parallel with the wider subject. But the
+real auxiliary sciences to history are those which deal with those
+traces of the past that still exist, the science of language
+(philology), of writing (palaeography), of documents (diplomatic), of
+seals (sphragistics), of coins (numismatics), of weights and measures,
+and archaeology in the widest sense of the word. These sciences underlie
+the whole development of scientific history. Dictionaries and manuals
+are the instruments of this industrial revolution. Without them the
+literary remains of the race would still be as useless as Egyptian
+inscriptions to the fellaheen. Archaeology itself remained but a minor
+branch of art until the machinery was perfected which enabled it to
+classify and interpret the remains of the "pre-historic" age.
+
+This is the most remarkable chapter in the whole history of history--the
+recovery of that past which had already been lost when our literary
+history began. The perspective stretches out as far the other side of
+Homer as we are this. The old "providential" scheme of history
+disintegrates before a new interest in the "gentile" nations to whose
+high culture Hebrew sources bore unwilling testimony. Biblical criticism
+is a part of the historic process. The Jewish texts, once the infallible
+basis of history, are now tested by the libraries of Babylon, from which
+they were partly drawn, and Hebrew history sinks into its proper place
+in the wide horizon of antiquity. The finding of the Rosetta stone left
+us no longer dependent upon Greek, Latin or Hebrew sources, and now
+fifty centuries of Egyptian history lie before us. The scientific
+historian of antiquity works on the hills of Crete, rather than in the
+quiet of a library with the classics spread out before him. There he can
+reconstruct the splendour of that Minoan age to which Homeric poems look
+back, as the Germanic epics looked back to Rome or Verona. His
+discoveries, co-ordinated and arranged in vast _corpora inscriptionum_,
+stand now alongside Herodotus or Livy, furnishing a basis for their
+criticism. Medieval archaeology has, since Quicherat, revealed how men
+were living while the monks wrote chronicles, and now cathedrals and
+castles are studied as genuine historic documents.
+
+The immense increase in available sources, archaeological and literary,
+has remade historical criticism. Ranke's application of the principles
+of "higher criticism" to works written since the invention of printing
+(_Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber_) was an epoch-making challenge of
+narrative sources. Now they are everywhere checked by contemporary
+evidence, and a clearer sense of what constitutes a primary source has
+discredited much of what had been currently accepted as true. This is
+true not only of ancient history, where last year's book may be a
+thousand years out of date, but of the whole field. Hardly an "old
+master" remains an authoritative book of reference. Gibbon, Grote,
+Giesebrecht, Guizot stand to-day by reason of other virtues than their
+truth. Old landmarks drop out of sight--e.g. the fall of the Western
+Empire in 476, the coming of the Greeks to Italy in 1450, dates which
+once enclosed the middle ages. The perspective changes--the Renaissance
+grows less and the middle ages more; the Protestant Revolution becomes
+a complex of economics and politics and religion; the French Revolution
+a vast social reform in which the Terror was an incident, &c., &c. The
+result has been a complete transformation of history since the middle of
+the 19th century.
+
+In the 17th century the Augustinian scheme of world history received its
+last classic statement in Bossuet's _Histoire universelle_. Voltaire's
+reply to it in the 18th (_Essai sur les moeurs_) attacked its
+limitations on the basis of deism, and its miraculous procedure on that
+of science. But while there are foreshadowings of the evolutionary
+theory in this work, neither the _philosophe_ historians nor Hume nor
+Gibbon arrived at a constructive principle in history which could take
+the place of the Providence they rejected. Religion, though false, might
+be a real historic force. History became the tragic spectacle of a game
+of dupes--the real movers being priests, kings or warriors. The pawns
+slowly acquired reason, and then would be able to regulate the moves
+themselves. But all this failed to give a satisfactory explanation of
+the laws which determine the direction of this evolution. Giovanni
+Battista Vico (1668-1744) was the first to ask why there is no science
+of human history. But his lonely life and unrecognized labours leave him
+apart from the main movement, until his works were discovered again in
+the 19th century. It was A. L. H. Heeren who, at the opening of the 19th
+century, first laid that emphasis upon the economic factors in history
+which is to-day slowly replacing the Augustinian explanation of its
+evolution. Heeren's own influence, however, was slight. The first half
+of the century (apart from the scientific activity of Pertz, Guizot,
+&c.) was largely dominated by the romanticists, with their exaggeration
+of the individual. Carlyle's "great man theory of history" is logically
+connected with the age of Scott. It was a philosophy of history which
+lent itself to magnificent dramatic creations; but it explained nothing.
+It substituted the work of the genius for the miraculous intervention of
+Providence, but, apart from certain abstract formulae such as Truth and
+Right, knew nothing of why or how. It is but dealing in words to say
+that the meaning of it all is God's revelation of Himself. Granting
+that, what is the process? Why does it so slowly reveal the Right of the
+middle ages (as in slavery for instance) to be the Wrong to-day? Carlyle
+stands to Bossuet as the sage to the myth. Hegel got no closer to
+realities. His idealistic scheme of history, which makes religion the
+keynote of progress, and describes the function of each--Judaism to
+typify duty, Confucianism order, Mahommedanism justice, Buddhism
+patience, and Christianity love--does not account for the facts of the
+history enacted by the devotees. It characterizes, not the real process
+of evolution, but an ideal which history has not realized. Besides, it
+does not face the question how far religion itself is a product or a
+cause, or both combined.
+
+In the middle of the century two men sought to incorporate in their
+philosophy the physical basis which Hegel had ignored in his
+spiritism--recognizing that life is conditioned by an environment and
+not an abstraction for metaphysics. H. T. Buckle, in his _History of
+Civilization in England_ (1857), was the first to work out the
+influences of the material world upon history, developing through a
+wealth of illustration the importance of food, soil and the general
+aspect of nature upon the formation of society. Buckle did not, as is
+generally believed, make these three factors dominate all history. He
+distinctly stated that "the advance of European civilization is
+characterized by a diminishing influence of physical laws and an
+increasing influence of mental laws," and "the measure of civilization
+is the triumph of mind over external agents." Yet his challenge, not
+only to the theologian, but also to those "historians whose indolence of
+thought" or "natural incapacity" prevented them from attempting more
+than the annalistic record of events, called out a storm of protest from
+almost every side. Now that the controversy has cleared away, we see
+that in spite of Buckle's too confident formulation of his laws, his
+pioneer work in a great field marks him out as the Augustine of the
+scientific age. Among historians, however, Buckle's theory received but
+little favour for another generation. Meanwhile the economists had
+themselves taken up the problem, and it was from them that the
+historians of to-day have learned it. Ten years before Buckle published
+his history, Karl Marx had already formulated the "economic theory of
+history." Accepting with reservation Feuerbach's attack on the Hegelian
+"absolute idea," based on materialistic grounds (_Der Mensch ist, was er
+isst_), Marx was led to the conclusion that the causes of that process
+of growth which constitutes the history of society are to be found in
+the economic conditions of existence. From this he went on to socialism,
+which bases its militant philosophy upon this interpretation of history.
+But the truth or falseness of socialism does not affect the theory of
+history. In 1845 Marx wrote of the Young-Hegelians that to separate
+history from natural science and industry was like separating the soul
+from the body, and "finding the birthplace of history, not in the gross
+material production on earth, but in the misty cloud formation of
+heaven" (_Die heilige Familie_, p. 238). In his _Misère de la
+philosophie_ (1847) he lays down the principle that social relationships
+largely depend upon modes of production, and therefore the principles,
+ideas and categories which are thus evolved are no more eternal than the
+relations they express, but are historical and transitory products. In
+the famous _Manifesto of the Communist Party_ (1848) the theory was
+applied to show how the industrial revolution had replaced feudal with
+modern conditions. But it had little vogue, except among Socialists,
+until the third volume of _Das Kapital_ was published in 1894, when its
+importance was borne in upon continental scholars. Since then the
+controversy has been almost as heated as in the days of the Reformation.
+It is an exaggeration of the theory which makes it an explanation of all
+human life, but the whole science of dynamic sociology rests upon the
+postulate of Marx.
+
+The content of history always reflects the interests of the age in which
+it is written. It was so in Herodotus and in medieval chronicles. Modern
+historians began with politics. But as the complex nature of society
+became more evident in the age of democracy, the economic or
+sociological history gained ground. Histories of commerce and cities now
+rank beside those on war and kings, although there are readers still who
+prefer to follow the pennants of robber barons rather than to watch the
+slow evolution of modern conditions. The drum-and-trumpet history has
+its place like that of art, jurisprudence, science or philosophy. Only
+now we know that no one of these is more than a single glimpse at a vast
+complex of phenomena, most of which lie for ever beyond our ken.
+
+This expansion of interest has intensified specialization. Historians no
+longer attempt to write world histories; they form associations of
+specialists for the purpose. Each historian chooses his own epoch or
+century and his own subject, and spends his life mastering such traces
+of it as he can find. His work there enables him to judge of the methods
+of his fellows, but his own remains restricted by the very wealth of
+material which has been accumulated on the single subject before him.
+Thus the great enterprises of to-day are co-operative--the _Cambridge
+Modern History_, Lavisse and Rambaud's _Histoire générale_, or Lavisse's
+_Histoire de France_, like Hunt and Poole's _Political History of
+England_, and Oncken's _Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen_.
+But even these vast sets cover but the merest fraction of their
+subjects. The Cambridge history passes for the most part along the
+political crust of society, and seldom glances at the social forces
+within. This limitation of the professed historian is made up for by the
+growingly historical treatment of all the sciences and arts--a tendency
+noted before, to which this edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ is
+itself a notable witness. Indeed, for a definition of that limitless
+subject which includes all the phenomena that stand the warp and stress
+of change, one might adapt a famous epitaph--_si historiam requiris,
+circumspice_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Ch. V. Langlois, _Manuel de bibliographie
+  historique_ (2 vols., 1904). This forms the logical bibliography of
+  this article. It is a general survey of the whole apparatus of
+  historical research, and is the indispensable guide to the subject.
+  Similar bibliographies covering sections of history are noted with the
+  articles where they properly belong, e.g. in English medieval history
+  the manual of Chas. Gross, _Sources and Literature of English
+  History_; in German history the _Quellenkunde_ of Dahlmann-Waitz (7th
+  ed.); for France the _Bibliographie de l'histoire de France_ of G.
+  Monod (antiquated, 1888), or the _Sources de l'histoire de France_ so
+  ably begun by A. Molinier's volumes on the medieval period. Perhaps
+  the sanest survey of the present scientific movement in history is the
+  clear summary of Ch. V. Langlois and Ch. Seignobos, _Introduction to
+  the Study of History_ (trans. with preface by F. York Powell, London,
+  1898). Much more ambitious is E. Bernheim's _Lehrbuch der historischen
+  Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie mit Nachweis der wichtigsten
+  Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Studium der Geschichte_ (3rd and 4th ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1903).     (J. T. S.*)
+
+
+
+
+HIT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Bagdad, on the west
+bank of the Euphrates, 70 m. W.N.W. of Bagdad, in 33° 38´ 8´´ N., 42°
+52´ 15´´ E. It is picturesquely situated on a line of hills, partly
+natural, but in large part certainly artificial, the accumulation of
+centuries of former habitation, from 30 to 100 ft. in height, bordering
+the river. The houses are built of field stones and mud. A striking
+feature of the town is a lofty and well-proportioned minaret, which
+leans quite perceptibly. Behind and around Hit is an extensive but
+utterly barren plain, through which flow several streams of bitter
+water, coming from mineral springs. Directly behind the town are two
+bitumen springs, one cold and one hot, within 30 ft. of one another. The
+gypsum cliffs on the edge of the plain, and the rocks which crop out
+here and there in the plain, are full of seams of bitumen, and the whole
+place is redolent of sulphuretted hydrogen. Across the river there are
+naphtha springs. Indeed, the entire region is one possessing great
+potential wealth in mineral oils and the like. Hit, with its fringe of
+palms, is like an oasis in the desert occasioned by the outcrop of these
+deposits. From time immemorial it has been the chief source of supply of
+bitumen for Babylonia, the prosperity of the town depending always upon
+its bitumen fountains, which are still the property of the government,
+but are rented out to any one who wishes to use them. There is also a
+shipyard at Hit, where the characteristic Babylonian boats are still
+made, smeared within and without with bitumen. Hit is the head of
+navigation on the Euphrates. It is also the point from which the
+camel-post starts across the desert to Damascus. About 8 m. inland from
+Hit, on a bitter stream, lies the small town of Kubeitha. Hit is
+mentioned, under the name of Ist, in the Karnak inscription as paying
+tribute to Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. In the Bible (Ezra viii. 15) it is
+called Ahava; the original Babylonian name seems to have been _Ihi_,
+which becomes in the Talmud _Ihidakira_, in Ptolemy [Greek: Idikara],
+and in Zosimus and Ammianus [Greek: Dakira] and Diacira.
+
+  See Geo. Rawlinson's _Herodotus_, i. 179, and note by H. C. Rawlinson;
+  J. P. Peters, _Nippur_ (1897); H. V. Geere, _By Nile and Euphrates_
+  (1904).     (J. P. Pe.)
+
+
+
+
+HITA, GINÉS PEREZ DE (1544?-1605?), Spanish novelist and poet, was born
+at Mula (Murcia) about the middle of the 16th century. He served in the
+campaign of 1569-1571 against the Moriscos, and in 1572 wrote a rhymed
+history of the city of Lorca which remained unpublished till 1889. He
+owes his wide celebrity to the _Historia de los bandos de Zegríes y
+Abencerrajes_ (1595-1604), better known as the _Guerras civiles de
+Granada_, which purports to be a chronicle based on an Arabic original
+ascribed to a certain Aben-Hamin. Aben-Hamin is a fictitious personage,
+and the _Guerras de Granada_ is in reality a historical novel, perhaps
+the earliest example of its kind, and certainly the first historical
+novel that attained popularity. In the first part the events which led
+to the downfall of Granada are related with uncommon brilliancy, and
+Hita's sympathetic transcription of life at the Emir's court has clearly
+suggested the conventional presentation of the picturesque, chivalrous
+Moor in the pages of Mlle de Scudéry, Mme de Lafayette, Châteaubriand
+and Washington Irving. The second part is concerned with the author's
+personal experiences, and the treatment is effective; yet, though
+Calderón's play, _Amar después de la muerte_, is derived from it, the
+second part has never enjoyed the vogue or influence of the first. The
+exact date of Hita's death is unknown. His blank verse rendering of the
+_Crónica Troyana_, written in 1596, exists in manuscript.
+
+
+
+
+HITCHCOCK, EDWARD (1793-1864), American geologist, was born of poor
+parents at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the 24th of May 1793. He owed
+his education chiefly to his own exertions, and was preparing himself
+to enter Harvard College when he was compelled to interrupt his studies
+from a weakness in his eyesight. In 1815 he became principal of the
+academy of his native town; but he resigned this office in 1818 in order
+to study for the ministry. Having been ordained in 1821 pastor of the
+Congregational church of Conway, Mass., he employed his leisure in
+making a scientific survey of the western counties of the state. From
+1825 to 1845 he was professor of chemistry and natural history, from
+1845 to 1864 was professor of natural theology and geology at Amherst
+College, and from 1845 to 1854 was president; the college owed its early
+success largely to his energetic efforts, especially during the period
+of his presidency. In 1830 he was appointed state geologist of
+Massachusetts, and in 1836 was made geologist of the first district of
+the state of New York. In 1840 he received the degree of LL.D. from
+Harvard, and in 1846 that of D.D. from Middlebury College, Vermont.
+Besides his constant labours in geology, zoology and botany, Hitchcock
+took an active interest in agriculture, and in 1850 he was sent by the
+Massachusetts legislature to examine into the methods of the
+agricultural schools of Europe. In geology he made a detailed
+examination and exposition of the fossil footprints from the Triassic
+sandstones of the Connecticut valley. His collection is preserved in the
+Hitchcock Ichnological Museum of Amherst College, and a description of
+it was published in 1858 in his report to the Massachusetts legislature
+on the ichnology of New England. The footprints were regarded as those
+of reptiles, amphibia and birds (?). In 1857 he undertook, with the aid
+of his two sons, the geological survey of Vermont, which was completed
+in 1861. As a writer on geological science, Hitchcock was largely
+concerned in determining the connexion between it and religion, and
+employing its results to explain and support what he regarded as the
+truths of revelation. He died at Amherst, on the 27th of February 1864.
+
+His son, CHARLES HENRY HITCHCOCK (1836-   ), did good service in geology,
+in Vermont, New Hampshire (1868-1878), and other parts of America, and
+became professor of geology at Dartmouth in 1868.
+
+  The following are Edward Hitchcock's principal works: _Geology of the
+  Connecticut Valley_ (1823); _Catalogue of Plants growing without
+  cultivation in the vicinity of Amherst_ (1829); _Reports on the
+  Geology of Massachusetts_ (1833-1841); _Elementary Geology_ (1840; ed.
+  2, 1841; and later ed. with C. H. Hitchcock, 1862); _Fossil Footmarks
+  in the United States_ (1848); _Outline of the Geology of the Globe and
+  of the United States in particular_ (1853); _Illustrations of Surface
+  Geology_ (1856); _Ichnology of New England_ (1858); _The Religion of
+  Geology and its Connected Sciences_ (1851; new ed., 1869);
+  _Reminiscences of Amherst College_ (1863); and various papers in the
+  _American Journal of Science_, and other periodicals.
+
+
+
+
+HITCHCOCK, GEORGE (1850-   ), American artist, was born at Providence,
+Rhode Island, in 1850. He graduated from Brown University in 1872 and
+from the law school of Harvard University in 1874; then turned his
+attention to art and became a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris.
+He attracted notice in the Salon of 1885 with his "Tulip Growing," a
+Dutch garden which he painted in Holland. He had for years a studio at
+Egmond, in the Netherlands. He became a Chevalier of the Legion of
+Honour, France; a member of the Vienna Academy of Arts, the Munich
+Secession Society, and other art bodies; and is represented in the
+Dresden gallery; the imperial collection, Vienna; the Chicago Art
+Institute, and the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts.
+
+
+
+
+HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT (1817-1887), American divine, was born at East
+Machias, Maine, on the 15th of August 1817, graduated at Amherst College
+in 1836, and later studied at Andover Theological Seminary, Mass. After
+a visit to Germany he was a tutor at Amherst in 1839-1842, and was
+minister of the First (Congregational) Church, Exeter, New Hampshire, in
+1845-1852. He became professor of natural and revealed religion in
+Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1852, and in 1855 professor of
+church history in the Union Theological Seminary in New York, of which
+he was president in 1880-1887. He died at Somerset, Mass., on the 16th
+of June 1887.
+
+  Among his works are: _Life of Edward Robinson_ (1863); _Socialism_
+  (1879); _Carmina Sanctorum_ (with Z. Eddy and L. W. Mudge, 1885); and
+  _Eternal Atonement_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+HITCHIN, a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary division of
+Hertfordshire, England, on the small river Hiz, 32 m. N. from London by
+the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 10,072. It is
+the junction of the main line with the Cambridge branch, and with a
+branch of the Midland railway to Bedford. The church of St Mary is
+Perpendicular, with a fine porch, a painting of the Adoration of the
+Magi, attributed to Rubens, a small crypt said to have been used by
+Cromwell as a prison for the Royalists, and many interesting monuments.
+Hitchin Priory is a mansion on the site of a Carmelite foundation of the
+early 14th century. A Gilbertine nunnery, founded later in the same
+century, stood adjacent to the church, and portions of the buildings
+appear in an existing block of almshouses. The grammar school (1632) was
+reconstituted in 1889 for boys and girls. Straw-plaiting, malting,
+brewing, and the cultivation and distillation of lavender and peppermint
+are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+HITTITES, an ancient people, alluded to frequently in the earlier
+records of Israel, and also, under slightly variant names, in Egyptian
+records of the XVIIIth, XIXth and XXth Dynasties, and in Assyrian from
+about 1100 to 700 B.C. They appear also in the Vannic cuneiform texts,
+and are believed to be the authors of a class of monuments bearing
+inscriptions in a peculiar pictographic character, and widely
+distributed over Asia Minor and N. Syria, around which much controversy
+has raged during the past thirty years.
+
+1. _The Bible._--In the Old Testament the name of the race is written
+_Heth_ (with initial aspirate), members of it being _Hitti_, _Hittim_,
+which the Septuagint renders [Greek: chet], [Greek: chettaios], [Greek:
+chettein] or [Greek: chetteim], keeping, it will be noted, [epsilon] in
+the stem throughout. The race appears in two connexions, (a) In
+pre-Israelite Palestine, it is resident about Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 3),
+and in the central uplands (Num. xiii. 29). To Joshua (i. 4) is promised
+"from the wilderness and this Lebanon even unto the great river, the
+river Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites." The term "wilderness"
+here is of geographical ambiguity; but the promise is usually taken to
+mean that Palestine itself was part of the Hittite land before the
+coming of Israel; and an apostrophe of Ezekiel (xvi. 3) to Jerusalem,
+"thy mother (was) an Hittite," is quoted in confirmation. Under the
+monarchy we hear frequently of Hittites within the borders of Israel,
+but either as a small subject people, coupled with other petty tribes,
+or as individuals in the Jewish service (e.g. Uriah, in the time of
+David). It appears, therefore, that there survived in Palestine to late
+times a detached Hittite population, with which Hebrews sometimes
+intermarried (Judges iii. 5-6; Gen. xxvi. 34) and lived in relations now
+amicable, now tyrannical (e.g. Hittites were made tributary bondsmen by
+Solomon, 1 Kings ix. 20, 21; 2 Chron. viii. 7, 8). (b) An independent
+and powerful Hittite people was domiciled N. of Palestine proper,
+organized rather as a confederacy of tribes than a single monarchy (1
+Kings x. 28; 2 Kings vii. 6). Presumably it was a daughter of these
+Hittites that Solomon took to wife. If the emendation of 2 Sam. xxiv.
+64, "Tahtim-hodshi," based on the Septuagint version [Greek: gên
+chetteim kadês] be accepted, we hear of them at Kadesh on Orontes; and
+some minor Hittite cities are mentioned, e.g. Luz; but no one capital
+city of the race is clearly indicated. Carchemish, on the Euphrates,
+though mentioned three times (2 Chron. xxxv. 20; Isa. x. 9; Jer. xlvi.
+2), is not connected explicitly with Hittites, a fact which is not
+surprising, since that city was no longer under a Hatti dynasty at the
+epoch of the Old Testament references. So far as the Old Testament goes,
+therefore, we gather that the Hittites were a considerable people,
+widely spread in Syria, in part subdued and to some extent assimilated
+by Israel, but in part out of reach. The latter portion was not much
+known to the Hebrews, but was vaguely feared as a power in the early
+days of the monarchy, though not in the later pre-Captivity period. The
+identification of the northern and southern Hittites, however, presents
+certain difficulties not yet fully explained; and it seems that we must
+assume Heth to have been the name both of a country in the north and of
+a tribal population not confined to that country.
+
+2. _Egyptian Records._--The decipherment of the inscriptions of the
+XVIIIth Theban Dynasty led, before the middle of the 19th century, to
+the discovery of the important part played in the Syrian campaigns of
+Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. by the H-t8 (vulgarly transliterated _Kheta_,
+though the vocalization is uncertain). The coincidence of this name,
+beginning with an aspirate, led H. K. Brugsch to identify the Kheta with
+Heth. That identification stands, and no earlier Egyptian mention of the
+race has been found. Tethmosis III. found the Kheta ("Great" and
+"Little") in N. Syria, not apparently at Kadesh, but at Carchemish,
+though they had not been in possession of the latter place long (not in
+the epoch of Tethmosis I.'s Syrian campaign). They were a power strong
+enough to give the Pharaoh cause to vaunt his success (see also EGYPT:
+_Ancient History_, § "The New Empire"). Though he says he levied tribute
+upon them, his successors in the dynasty nearly all record fresh wars
+with the Kheta who appear as the northernmost of Pharaoh's enemies, and
+Amenophis or Amenhotep III. saw fit to take to wife Gilukhipa, a Syrian
+princess, who may or may not have been a Hittite. This queen is by some
+supposed to have introduced into Egypt certain exotic ideas which
+blossomed in the reign of Amenophis IV. The first Pharaoh of the
+succeeding dynasty, Rameses I., came to terms with a Kheta king called
+Saplel or Saparura; but Seti I. again attacked the Kheta (1366 B.C.),
+who had apparently pushed southwards. Forced back by Seti, the Kheta
+returned and were found holding Kadesh by Rameses II., who, in his fifth
+year, there fought against them and a large body of allies, drawn
+probably in part from beyond Taurus, the battle which occasioned the
+monumental poem of Pentaur. After long struggles, a treaty was concluded
+in Rameses's twenty-first year, between Pharaoh and "Khetasar" (i.e.
+Kheta-king), of which we possess an Egyptian copy. The discovery of a
+cuneiform tablet containing a copy of this same treaty, in the
+Babylonian language, was reported from Boghaz Keui in Cappadocia by H.
+Winckler in 1907. It argues the Kheta a people of considerable
+civilization. The Kheta king subsequently visited Pharaoh and gave him
+his daughter to wife. Rameses' successor, Mineptah, remained on terms
+with the Kheta folk; but in the reign of Rameses III. (Dyn. XX.) the
+latter seem to have joined in the great raid of northern tribes on Egypt
+which was checked by the battle of Pelusium. From this point (c. 1150
+B.C.)--the point at which (roughly) the monarchic history of Israel in
+Palestine opens--Egyptian records cease to mention Kheta; and as we know
+from other sources that the latter continued powerful in Carchemish for
+some centuries to come, we must presume that the rise of the Israelite
+state interposed an effective political barrier.
+
+3. _Assyrian Records._--In an inscription of Tiglath Pileser I. (about
+1100 B.C.), first deciphered in 1857, a people called _Khatti_ is
+mentioned as powerful in Girgamish on Euphrates (i.e. Carchemish); and
+in other records of the same monarch, subsequently read, much mention is
+made of this and of other N. Syrian names. These Khatti appear again in
+the inscriptions of Assur-nazir-pal (early 9th century B.C.), in whose
+time Carchemish was very wealthy, and the Khatti power extended far over
+N. Syria and even into Mesopotamia. Shalmaneser II. (d. 825 B.C.) raided
+the Khatti and their allies year after year; and at last Sargon III., in
+717 B.C., relates that he captured Carchemish and its king, Pisiris, and
+put an end to its independence. We hear no more of it thenceforward.
+These _Khatti_, there is no reasonable doubt, are identical with
+_Kheta_. (For the chronology see further under BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.)
+
+4. _Other Cuneiform Records._--The name of the race appears in certain
+of the Tel-el-Amarna letters, tablets written in Babylonian script to
+Amenophis (Amenhotep) IV. and found in 1892 on the site of his capital.
+Some of his governors in Syrian districts (e.g. one Aziru of Phoenicia)
+report movements of the Hittites, who were then pursuing an aggressive
+policy (about 1400 B.C.). There are also other letters from rulers of
+principalities in N. Syria (Mitanni) and E. Asia Minor (Arzawa), who
+write in non-Semitic tongues and are supposed to have been Hittites.
+
+Certain _Khate_ or _Khati_ are mentioned in the Vannic inscriptions
+(deciphered partially by A. H. Sayce and others) as attacked by kings
+of Bianas (Van), and apparently domiciled on the middle Euphrates N. of
+Taurus in the 9th century B.C. This name again may safely be identified
+with _Khatti-Kheta_.
+
+The Khatti also appear on a "prophecy-tablet," referring ostensibly to
+the time of Sargon of Agadé (middle of 4th millennium B.C.); but the
+document is probably of very much later date. Lastly, a fragmentary
+chronicle of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty mentions an invasion of Akkad by
+them about 1800 B.C.
+
+From all these various sources we should gather that the Hittites were
+among the more important racial elements in N. Syria and S.E. Asia Minor
+for at least a thousand years. The limits at each end, however, are very
+ill defined, the superior falling not later than 2000 B.C. and the
+inferior not earlier than 600 B.C. This people was militant, aggressive
+and unsettled in the earlier part of that time; commercial, wealthy and
+enervated in the latter. A memorial of its trading long remained in Asia
+in the shape of the weight-measure called in cuneiform records the
+_maneh_ "of Carchemish." These Hittites had close relations with other
+Asia Minor peoples, and at times headed a confederacy. During the later
+part of their history they were in continual contact with Assyria, and,
+as a Syrian power, and perhaps also as a Cappadocian one, they finally
+succumbed to Assyrian pressure.
+
+_The "Hittite" Monuments._--It remains to consider in the light of the
+foregoing evidence a class of monuments to which attention began to be
+called about 1870. In that year two Americans, Consul J. A. Johnson and
+the Rev. S. Jessup, rediscovered, at Hamah (Hamath) on Orontes, five
+basaltic blocks bearing pictographic inscriptions in relief, one of
+which had been reported by J. L. Burckhardt in 1812. In spite of their
+efforts and subsequent attempts made by Tyrwhitt Drake and Richard
+Burton, when consul at Damascus, proper copies could not be obtained;
+and it was not till the end of 1872 that, thanks to W. Wright of Beirut,
+casts were taken and the stones themselves sent to Constantinople by
+Subhi Pasha of Damascus. As usually happens when a new class of
+antiquities is announced, it was soon found that the "Hamathite"
+inscriptions did not stand alone. A monument in the same script had been
+seen in Aleppo by Tyrwhitt Drake and George Smith in 1872. It still
+exists, built into a mosque on the western wall of the city. Certain
+clay sealings, eight of which bore pictographic signs, found by A. H.
+Layard in the palace of Assur-bani-pal at Kuyunjik (Nineveh), as long
+ago as 1851 and noticed then as in a "doubtful character," were compared
+by Hayes Ward and found to be of the Hamathite class. A new copy of the
+long known rock-sculpture at Ivriz[1] in S.W. Cappadocia was published
+by E. J. Davis in 1876, and clearly showed Hamathite characters
+accompanying the figures. Davis also reported, but did not see, a
+similar inscription at Bulgar Maden, not far away. Sculptures seen by W.
+Skene and George Smith at Jerablus, on the middle Euphrates, led to
+excavations being undertaken there, in 1878, by the British Museum, and
+to the discovery of certain Hamathite inscriptions accompanying
+sculptures, a few of which were brought to London. The conduct of these
+excavations, owing to the death of George Smith, devolved on Consul
+Henderson of Aleppo, and was not satisfactorily carried out. Meanwhile
+Wright, Ward and Sayce had all suggested "Hittite" as a substitute for
+"Hamathite," because no other N. Syrian people loomed so large in
+ancient records as did the Hittites, and the suggestion began to find
+acceptance. Jerablus was confidently identified with Carchemish (but
+without positive proof to this day), and the occurrence of Hamathite
+monuments there was held to confirm the Hittite theory.
+
+In 1876 Sayce pointed out the resemblance between certain Hittite signs
+and characters in the lately deciphered Cypriote syllabary, and
+suggested that the comparison might lead to a beginning of decipherment;
+but the hope has proved vain. To this scholar, however, is owed the
+next great step ahead. In 1879 it first occurred to him to compare the
+rock-monuments at Boghaz Keui (see PTERIA) and Euyuk in N. Cappadocia,
+discovered by Texier and Hamilton in 1835 and subsequently explored by
+G. Perrot and E. Guillaume. These, he now saw, bore Hittite pictographs.
+Other rock-sculptures at Giaur Kalessi, in Galatia, and in the Karabel
+pass near Smyrna, he suspected of belonging to the same class[2]; and
+visiting the last-named locality in the autumn, he found Hittite
+pictographs accompanying one of the two figures.[3] He announced his
+discoveries in 1880, and proclaimed the fact that a great Hittite
+empire, extending from Kadesh to Smyrna, had risen from the dead. A
+month later he had the good fortune to recover copies of a silver boss,
+or hilt-top, offered to various museums about 1860, but rejected by them
+as a meaningless forgery and for a long time lost again to sight. Round
+the rim was a cuneiform legend, and in the field a Hittite figure with
+six Hittite symbols engraved twice over on either hand of it. Reading
+the cuneiform as _Tarqu-dimme sar mat Erme_ (i.e. "T. king of the
+country E."), Sayce distributed phonetic values, corresponding to the
+syllables of the two proper names, among four of the Hittite characters,
+reserving two as "ideograms" of "king" and "country," and launched into
+the field of decipherment. But he subsequently recognized that this was
+a false start, and began afresh from another basis. Since then a number
+of other monuments have been found, some on new sites, others on sites
+already known to be Hittite, the distribution of which can be seen by
+reference to the accompanying map. It will be observed that, so far as
+at present known, they cluster most closely in Commagene, Cappadocia and
+S. Phrygia.
+
+  The following notes supplement the map:--
+
+  A. WEST ASIA MINOR.--"_Niobe_" (_Suratlu Tash_) and _Karabel_ (two);
+  rock-cut figures with much defaced hieroglyphs in relief. Remains of
+  buildings, not yet explored, lie near the "Niobe" figure. Nothing
+  purely Hittite has been found at Sardis or in any W. Asian excavation;
+  but small Hittite objects have been sold in Smyrna and Aidin.
+
+  B. PHRYGIA.--_Giaur-Kalessi_; rock-cut figures and remains of a
+  stronghold, but no inscriptions. _Doghanlüdere_ and _Beikeui_ in the
+  Phrygian rock-monument country; at the first is a sculptured
+  rock-panel with a few pictographs in relief; at the latter a fragment
+  of an inscription in relief was disinterred from a mound. _Kolitolu
+  Yaila_, near Ilghin; block inscribed in relief, disinterred from
+  mounds apparently marking a camp or palace-enclosure. _Eflatun Bunar_
+  (= Plato's Spring), W. of Konia; megalithic building with rude and
+  greatly defaced reliefs, not certainly Hittite: no inscription.
+  Fassiler, W. of Konia; gigantic _stela_, or composite statue (figure
+  on animals), not certainly Hittite; no inscription. _Konia_; relief of
+  warrior, drawn by Texier in 1835 and since lost; of very doubtful
+  Hittite character. A gold inscribed Hittite ring, now at Oxford, was
+  bought there in 1903. _Emirghazi_ (anc. _Ardistama_?); three
+  inscriptions in relief (two on altars) and large mounds. Evidently an
+  important Hittite site. _Kara-Dagh_; hill-sanctuary with incised
+  carving of seated figure and inscriptions, found by Miss G. L. Bell
+  and Sir W. M. Ramsay in 1907 (see their _Thousand and One Churches_,
+  1909).
+
+  C. NORTH CAPPADOCIA.--_Boghaz Keui_ (see PTERIA); large city with
+  remains of palace, citadel, walls, &c. Long rock-cut inscription of
+  ten lines in relief, two short relief inscriptions cut on blocks, and
+  also cuneiform tablets in Babylonian and also in a native language,
+  first found in situ in 1893, and showing the site to be the capital of
+  Arzawa, whence came two of the Tell el-Amarna letters. Near the site
+  are the rock reliefs of _Yasili Kaya_ in two hypaethral galleries,
+  showing, in the one, two processions composed of over sixty figures
+  meeting at the head of the gallery; in the other, isolated groups of
+  figures, fifteen in number (see for detailed description _Murray's
+  Guide to Asia Minor_, 1895, pp. 23 ff.). Pictographs accompany many of
+  the figures. The whole makes the most extensive group of Hittite
+  remains yet known. Boghaz Keui was never thoroughly explored until
+  1907, the survey of Perrot and Guillaume having been superficial only
+  and the excavations of E. Chantre (1894) very slight. In 1906 a German
+  expedition under Professor H. Winckler undertook the work, and great
+  numbers of cuneiform tablets were found. These refer to the reigns of
+  at least four kings from Subbiluliuma (= Saplel, see above) to
+  Hattusil II. or Khartusil (= Khetasar, see above). The latter was an
+  ally of Katashmanturgu of Babylon, and powerful enough to write to
+  the Babylonian court as a sovereign of equal standing. His letter
+  shows that he considered the rise of Assyria a menace to himself.
+  Winckler claims to read _Hatti_ as the name of the possessors of
+  Boghaz Keui, and to find in this name the proof of the Hittite
+  character of Syro-Cappadocian power and of the imperial predominance
+  of the city. But it remains to be proved whether these tablets were
+  written there, and not rather, being in a foreign script, abroad, like
+  most of the Tell el-Amarna archives. O. Puchstein has cleared and
+  studied important architectural remains. _Euyuk_; large mound with
+  remains of palace entered between sphinxes. Sculptured wall-dados, but
+  no Hittite inscriptions. Cuneiform tablets; some Babylonian, others in
+  a native language. Also inscriptions in early Phrygian character and
+  language, found in 1894. The most famous of Hittite reliefs is here--a
+  double-headed eagle "displayed" on the flank of one of the gateway
+  sphinxes. This is supposed to have suggested to the Seljuks of Konia
+  their heraldic device adopted in the 13th century, which, brought to
+  Europe by the Crusaders, became the emblem of Teutonic empire in 1345.
+  This derivation must be taken, however, _cum grano_, proof of its
+  successive steps being wanting. Kara-Euyuk; a mound near Dedik,
+  partially excavated by E. Chantre in 1894. Cuneiform tablets and small
+  objects possibly, but not certainly, Hittite. A colossal eagle was
+  found on a deserted site near _Yamuli_ on the middle Halys, in 1907 by
+  W. Attmore Robinson.
+
+  [Illustration: Map of Hittite remains.]
+
+  D. SOUTH CAPPADOCIA.--_Karaburna_; long, incised rock-inscription.
+  _Bogja_, eight hours west of Kaisariye; four-sided _stela_ with
+  incised inscription. _Assarjik_, on the side of Mt. Argaeus; incised
+  rock-inscription. _Ekrek_; a fragmentary inscription in relief and an
+  incised inscription on a _stela_ of very late appearance. _Fraktin_ or
+  _Farakdin_ (probably anc. _Das-tarkon_); sculptured rock-panel showing
+  two groups of figures in act of cult, with hieroglyphs in relief.
+  _Arslan Tash_, near Comana (Cappadocia), on the Soghan Dagh; two
+  colossal lions, one with incised inscription. _Tashji_ in the Zamanti
+  valley; rock-relief with rudely incised inscription. _Andaval_ and
+  _Bor_; inscriptions incised on sculptured _stelae_ of kings (?),
+  probably from Tyana (_Ekuzli Hissar_). All are now in Constantinople.
+  A silver seal with hieroglyphs, now at Oxford, came also from Bor.
+  _Nigdeh_; basalt drum or altar with incised inscription. _Ivriz_;
+  rock-sculpture of king adoring god, with three inscriptions in relief.
+  A second sculpture, similar in subject but smaller and much defaced,
+  was found hard by in 1906. _Bulgar Maden_; long incised rock
+  inscription, near silver-mines. _Gorun_ (Gurun); two rock-inscriptions
+  in relief, much damaged. _Arslan-Tepe_, near Ordasu (two hours from
+  Malatia); large mound whence two sculptured _stelae_ or wall-blocks
+  with inscriptions in relief have been unearthed (now in Constantinople
+  and the Louvre). Four other reliefs, reported found near Malatia and
+  published by J. Garstang in _Annals Arch. and Anthrop._, 1908,
+  probably came also from Arslan Tepe. _Palanga_; lower aniconic half of
+  draped statue with incised inscription, now in Constantinople. Also a
+  small basalt lion. _Arslan Tash_, near Palanga; two rude gateway
+  lions, uninscribed. _Yapalak_; defaced inscription, reported by J. S.
+  Sterrett but never copied. _Izgin_; obelisk with long inscription in
+  relief on all four faces, now in Constantinople. These last four
+  places seem to lie on a main road leading from Cappadocia to Marash
+  and the Syrian sites. The expedition sent out by Cornell University in
+  1907 found several Hittite inscriptions on rocks near _Darende_ in the
+  valley of the Tokhma Su.
+
+  E. NORTH SYRIA.--_Marash_; several monuments (_stelae_, wall-blocks
+  and two lions) with inscriptions, both in relief and incised (part are
+  now at Constantinople, part in Berlin and America); evidently one of
+  the most important of Hittite sites. _Karaburshlu_, _Arbistan_,
+  _Gerchin_, _Sinjerli_; mounds about the head-waters of the Kara Su.
+  The last-named mound, brought to O. Puchstein's notice in 1882 by the
+  chance discovery of sculptured wall-dados, now in Constantinople, was
+  the scene of extensive German excavations in 1893-1894, directed by F.
+  v. Luschan and K. Koldewey, and was found to cover a walled town with
+  central fortified palace. Hittite, cuneiform and old Aramaean
+  monuments were found with many small objects, most of which have been
+  taken to Berlin; but no Hittite inscriptions came to light.
+  _Sakchegeuzu_ (Sakchegözu), a site with several mounds between
+  Sinjerli and Aintab; series of reliefs, once wall-dados, now in Berlin
+  and Constantinople. This site is in process of excavation by Professor
+  J. Garstang of the University of Liverpool. A sculptured portico has
+  come to light in the smallest of the five mounds, and much pottery,
+  with incised and painted decoration, has been recovered. _Aintab_;
+  fragment of relief inscription. _Samsat_ (Samosata); sculptured stela
+  with incised inscription much defaced. _Jerablus_; see above. Several
+  Hittite objects sent from Birejik and Aintab to Europe probably came
+  from Jerablus, others from _Tell Bashar_ on the Sajur. _Kellekli_,
+  near Jerablus; two _stelae_, one with relief inscription. _Iskanderun_
+  (Alexandretta); source of a long inscription cut on both sides of a
+  spheroidal object of unknown origin. _Kirchoglu_, a site on the Afrin,
+  whence a fragmentary draped statue with incised inscription was sent
+  to Berlin. _Aleppo_; inscription in relief (see above). _Tell Ahmar_
+  (on left bank of Euphrates); large _stela_ with sculpture and long
+  relief inscription, found in 1908 with several sculptured slabs and
+  two gateway lions, inscribed in cuneiform. Two hours south, a lion and
+  a fragment of a relief inscription were found in 1909 by Miss G. L.
+  Bell. _Tell Halaf_ in Mid-Mesopotamia, near Ras el-Ain; sculptures on
+  portico of a temple or palace; cuneiform inscriptions and large
+  mounds, explored in 1902 by Oppenheim. _Hamah_; five blocks inscribed
+  in relief (see above).
+
+  F. OUTLYING SITES.--_Erzerum_; source of an incised inscription,
+  perhaps not originally found there. _Kedabeg_; metal boss or hilt-top
+  with pictographs, found in a tomb and stated by F. Hommel to be
+  Hittite, but doubtful. _Toprak Kaleh_; bronze fragments with two
+  pictographs; doubtful if Hittite. _Nineveh_; sealings, see above.
+  Babylon; a bowl and a stela of storm-god, both with incised
+  inscriptions; doubtless spoil of war or tribute brought from Syria.
+  The bowl is inscribed round the outside, the _stela_ on the back.
+
+  (For a detailed description of the subjects of the reliefs, &c., with
+  the necessary illustrations, see the works indicated in the
+  bibliography.)
+
+_Structures._--The structural remains found as yet on Hittite sites are
+few, scanty and far between. They consist of: (a) Ground plans of a
+palatial building and three temples and fortifications with sculptured
+gate at Boghaz Keui. The palace was built round a central court, flanked
+by passages and entered by a doorway of three _battants_ hung on two
+columns. The whole plan bears more than a superficial resemblance to
+those of Cretan palaces in the later Minoan period. Only the rough core
+of the walls is standing to a height of about 3 ft. The fortifications
+of the citadel have an elaborate double gate with flanking towers, (b)
+Fortifications, palace, &c., at Sinjerli. The gates here are more
+elaborate than at Boghaz Keui, but planned with the same idea--that of
+entrapping in an enclosed space, barred by a second door, an enemy who
+may have forced the first door, while flanking towers would add to his
+discomfiture. The palace plan is again rectangular, with a central
+pillared hall, and very similar in plan to that of Boghaz Keui. The
+massive walls are also of similar construction. Dados of
+relief-sculpture run round the inner walls; this feature seems to have
+been common to Hittite buildings of a sumptuous kind, and accounts for
+most of the sculptured blocks that have been found, e.g. at Jerablus,
+Sakhchegeuzu, Euyuk, Arslan Tepe, &c. Columns, probably of wood, rested
+on bases carved as winged lions, (c) Gate with sculptured approach at
+Euyuk. The ground plan of the gate is practically the same in idea as
+that at Sinjerli. Structures were found at Jerablus, but never properly
+uncovered or planned, (d) Sculptured porticoes of temples or palaces
+uncovered at Sakchegeuzu and Tell Halaf (see above). On other sites,
+e.g. Arslan Tepe (Ordasu), Arbistan, Marash (above the modern town and
+near the springs), Beikeui, mounds, doubtless covering structures, may
+be seen, and sculptured slabs have been recovered. The mounds, probably
+Hittite, in N. Syria alone are to be counted by hundreds. No tombs
+certainly Hittite have been found,[4] though it is possible that some of
+the reliefs (e.g. at Fraktin) are of funerary character.
+
+_Sculptures and other Objects of Art._--The sculptures hitherto found
+consist of reliefs on rocks and on _stelae_, either honorific or
+funerary; reliefs on blocks forming parts of wall-dados; and a few
+figures more or less in the round, though most of these (e.g. the
+sphinxes of Euyuk and the lions of Arslan Tash and Marash) are not
+completely disengaged from the block. The most considerable sculptured
+rock-panels are at Boghaz Keui (see Pteria); the others (Ivriz, Fraktin,
+Karabel, Giaur Kalessi, Doghanlüdere), it should be observed, all lie N.
+of Taurus--a fact of some bearing on the problem of the origin and local
+domicile of the art, since rock-reliefs, at any rate, cannot be
+otherwise than _in situ_. Sculptured _stelae_, honorific or funerary,
+all with pyramidal or slightly rounded upper ends, and showing a single
+regal or divine figure or two figures, have come to light at Bor,
+Marash, Sinjerli, Jerablus, Babylon, &c. These, like most of the
+rock-panels, are all marked as Hittite by accompanying pictographic
+inscriptions. The wall-blocks are seldom inscribed, the exceptions (e.g.
+the Arslan Tepe lion-hunt and certain blocks from Marash and Jerablus)
+being not more certainly wall-dados than _stelae_. The only fairly
+complete anthropoid statue known is the much-defaced "Niobe" at Suratlu
+Tash, engaged in the rock behind. The aniconic lower part of an
+inscribed statue wholly in the round was found at Palanga, and parts of
+others at Kirchoglu and Marash. Despite considerable differences in
+execution and details, all these sculptures show one general type of
+art, a type which recalls now Babylonian, now Assyrian, now Egyptian,
+now archaic Ionian, style, but is always individual and easily
+distinguishable from the actual products of those peoples. The figures,
+whether of men or beasts, are of a squat, heavy order, with internal
+features (e.g. bones, muscles, &c.) shown as if external, as in some
+Mesopotamian sculptures. The human type is always very brachycephalic,
+with brow receding sharply and long nose making almost one line with the
+sloping forehead. In the sculptures of the Commagene and the Tyana
+districts, the nose has a long curving tip, of very Jewish appearance,
+but not unlike the outline given to Kheta warriors in Egyptian scenes.
+The lips are full and the chin short and shaven. The whole physiognomy
+is fleshy and markedly distinct from that of other Syrians. At Boghaz
+Keui, Euyuk and Jerablus, the facial type is very markedly non-Semitic.
+But not much stress can be laid on these differences owing to (1) great
+variety of execution in different sculptures, which argues artists of
+very unequal capacity; (2) doubt whether individual portraits are
+intended in some cases and not in others. The hair of males is
+sometimes, but not always, worn in pigtail. The fashions of
+head-covering and clothes are very various, but several of them--e.g.
+the horned cap of the Ivriz god; the conical hat at Boghaz Keui,
+Fraktin, &c; the "jockey-cap" on the Tarkudimme boss; the broad-bordered
+over-robe, and the upturned shoes--are not found on other Asiatic
+monuments, except where Hittites are portrayed. Animals in profile are
+represented more naturalistically than human beings, e.g. at Yasili
+Kaya, and especially in some pictographic symbols in relief (e.g. at
+Hamah). This, however, is a feature common to Mesopotamian and Egyptian,
+and perhaps to all primitive art.
+
+The subjects depicted are processions of figures, human and divine
+(Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Giaur Kalessi); scenes of sacrifice or adoration,
+or other cult-practice (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Fraktin, Ivriz, and perhaps
+the figures seated beside tables at Marash Sakchegeuzu, Sinjerli, &c.);
+of the chase (Arslan Tepe, Sakchegeuzu); but not, as known at present,
+of battle. Both at Euyuk and Yasili Kaya reliefs in one and the same
+series are widely separated in artistic conception and execution, some
+showing the utmost _naïveté_, others expressing both outline and motion
+with fair success. The fact warns us against drawing hasty inductions as
+to relative dates from style and execution.
+
+Besides sculptures, well assured, Hittite art-products include a few
+small objects in metal (e.g. heavy, inscribed gold ring bought by Sir W.
+M. Ramsay at Konia; base silver seal, supported on three lions' claws,
+bought by D. G. Hogarth at Bor; inscribed silver boss of "Tarkudimme,"
+mentioned above, &c. &c.); many intaglios in various stones (chiefly in
+steatite), mostly either spheroidal or gable-shaped, but a few
+scarabaeoid, conical or cylindrical, bearing sometimes pictographic
+symbols, sometimes divine, human or animal figures. The best collection
+is at Oxford. The majority are of very rude workmanship, bodies and
+limbs being represented by mere skeleton lines or unfilled outlines; a
+few vessels (e.g. inscribed basalt bowl found at Babylon) and fragments
+of ware painted with dark ornament on light body-clay, or in polychrome
+on a cream-white slip, or black burnished, found on N. Cappadocian
+sites, &c. The bronzes hitherto claimed as Hittite have been bought on
+the Syrian coast or come from not certainly Hittite sites in Cappadocia
+(see E. Chantre, _Mission en Cappadocie_). A great many small objects
+were found in the excavations at Sinjerli, including carved ivories,
+seals, toilet-instruments, implements, &c., but these have not been
+published. Nor, except provisionally, has the pottery, found at
+Sakchegeuzu.
+
+_Inscriptions._--These, now almost sixty in number (excluding seals),
+are all in a pictographic character which employed symbols somewhat
+elaborately depicted in relief, but reduced to conventional and
+"shorthand" representations in the incised texts. So far, the majority
+of our Hittite inscriptions, like those first found at Hamah, are in
+relief (cameo); but the incised characters, first observed in the Tyana
+district, have since been shown, by discoveries at Marash, Babylon, &c.,
+to have had a wider range. It has usually been assumed that the incised
+inscriptions, being the more conventionalized, are all of later date
+than those in relief; but comparison of Egyptian inscriptions, wherein
+both incised and cameo characters coexisted back to very early times,
+suggests that this assumption is not necessarily correct. The Hittite
+symbols at present known show about two hundred varieties; but new
+inscriptions continually add to the list, and great uncertainty remains
+as to the distinction of many symbols (i.e. whether mere variants or
+not), and as to many others which are defaced or broken in our texts.
+The objects represented by these symbols have been certainly identified
+in only a few instances. A certain number are heads (human and animal)
+detached from bodies, in a manner not known in the Egyptian hieroglyphic
+system, with which some of the other symbols show obvious analogies.
+Articles of dress, weapons, tools, &c., also appear. The longer
+inscriptions are disposed in horizontal zones or panels, divided by
+lines, and, it seems, they were to be read _boustrophedon_, not only as
+regards the lines (which begin right to left) but also the words, which
+are written in columnar fashion, syllable _below_ syllable, and read
+downwards and upwards alternately. The direction of reading is towards
+any faces which may be shown among the pictographs. The words are
+perhaps distinguished in some texts by punctuation marks.
+
+Long and patient efforts have been made to decipher this script, ever
+since it was first restored to our knowledge; and among the would-be
+decipherers honourable mention must be made, for persistence and
+courage, of Professor A. H. Sayce and of Professor P. Jensen. Other
+interpretations have been put forward by F. E. Peiser (based on
+conjectures as to the names on the Nineveh sealings), C. R. Conder
+(based largely on Cypriote comparisons and phonetic values transferred
+from these) and C. J. Ball (based on Hittite names recorded on Egyptian
+and Assyrian monuments, and applied to word-groups on the Hittite
+monuments). These, however, as having arbitrary and inadequate
+foundations, and for other reasons, have not been accepted. F. Hommel,
+J. Halévy and J. Menant have done useful work in distinguishing
+word-groups, and have essayed partial interpretations. No other
+decipherers call for mention. A. H. Sayce and P. Jensen alone have
+enlisted any large body of adherents; and the former, who has worked
+upon his system for thirty years and published in the _Proceedings of
+the Society for Biblical Archaeology_ for 1907 a summary of his method
+and results, has proceeded on the more scientific plan. His system,
+however, like all others, is built in the main upon hypotheses incapable
+at present of quite satisfactory verification, such, for example, as the
+conjectural reading "Gargamish" for a group of symbols which recurs in
+inscriptions from Jerablus and elsewhere. In this case, to add to the
+other obvious elements of uncertainty, it must be borne in mind that the
+location of Carchemish at Jerablus is not proved, though it is very
+probable. Other conjectural identifications of groups of symbols with
+the place-names Hamath, Marash, Tyana are bases of Sayce's system.
+Jensen's system may be said to have been effectually demolished by L.
+Messerschmidt in his _Bemerkungen_ (1898); but Sayce's system, which has
+been approved by Hommel and others, is probably in its main lines
+correct. Its frequent explanation, however, of incompatible symbols by
+the doctrines of phonetic variation and interchange, or by alternative
+values of the same symbol used as ideograph, determinative or phonetic
+complement, and the occasional use of circular argument in the process
+of "verification," do not inspire confidence in other than its broader
+results. Sayce's phonetic values and interpretations of determinatives
+are his best assured achievements. But the words thus arrived at
+represent a language on which other known tongues throw little or no
+light, and their meaning is usually to be guessed only. In some
+significant cases, however, the Boghaz Keui tablets appear to give
+striking confirmation of Sayce's conjectures.
+
+Writing in 1903 L. Messerschmidt, editor of the best collection of
+Hittite texts up to date, made a _tabula rasa_ of all systems of
+decipherment, asserting that only one sign out of two hundred--the
+bisected oval, determinative of divinity--had been interpreted with any
+certainty; and in view of this opinion, coupled with the steady refusal
+of historians to apply the results of any Hittite decipherment, and the
+obvious lack of satisfactory verification, without which the piling of
+hypothesis on hypothesis may only lead further from probability, there
+is no choice but to suspend judgment for some time longer as to the
+inscriptions and all deductions drawn from them.
+
+_Are the Monuments Hittite?_--It is time to ask this question, although
+a perfectly satisfactory answer can only be expected when the
+inscriptions themselves have been deciphered. Almost all "Hittitologues"
+assume a connexion between the monuments and the Kheta-Khatti-Hittites,
+but in various degrees; e.g. while Sayce has said roundly that common
+sense demands the acceptance of all as the work of the Hittites, who
+were the dominant caste throughout a loosely-knit empire extending at
+one time from the Orontes to the Aegean, Messerschmidt has stated with
+equal dogmatism that the Hittites proper were only one people out of
+many[5] in N. Syria and Asia Minor who shared a common civilization, and
+that therefore they were authors of a part of the monuments
+only--presumably the N. Syrian, Commagenian and Cataonian groups. O.
+Puchstein[6] has denied to the Hittites some of the N. Syrian monuments,
+holding these of too late a date (judged by their Assyrian analogies)
+for the flourishing period of the Kheta-Khatti, as known from Egyptian
+and Assyrian records. He would ascribe them to the Kummukh
+(Commagenians), who seem to have succeeded the Khatti as the strongest
+opponents of Assyria in these parts. He was possibly right as regards
+the Sinjerli and Sakchegeuzu sculptures, which are of provincial
+appearance. The following considerations, however, may be stated in
+favour of the ascription of the monuments to the Hittites:--
+
+(1) The monuments in question are found frequently whereever, from other
+records, we know the Hittites to have been domiciled at some period,
+i.e. throughout N. Syria and in Cataonia. (2) It was under the Khatti
+that Carchemish was a flourishing commercial city; and if Jerablus be
+really Carchemish, it is significant that apparently the most numerous
+and most artistic of the monuments occur there. (3) Among all the early
+peoples of N. Syria and Asia Minor known to us from Egyptian and
+Assyrian records, the Kheta-Khatti alone appear frequently as leading to
+war peoples from far beyond Taurus. (4) The Kheta certainly had a system
+of writing and a glyptic art in the time of Rameses II., or else the
+Egyptian account of their copy of the treaty would be baseless. (5) The
+physiognomy given to Kheta warriors by Egyptian artists is fairly
+representative of the prevailing type shown in the Hittite sculptures.
+
+Furthermore, the Boghaz Keui tablets, though only partially deciphered
+as yet, go far to settle the question. They show that whether Boghaz
+Keui was actually the capital of the Hatti or not, it was a great city
+of the Hatti, and that the latter were an important element in
+Cappadocia from very early times. Before the middle of the 16th century
+B.C. the Cappadocian Hatti were already in relations, generally more or
+less hostile, with a rival power in Syria, that of Mitanni; and
+Subbiluliuma (= Saplel or Saparura), king of these Hatti, a contemporary
+of Amenophis IV. and Rameses I., seems to have obtained lasting dominion
+in Syria by subduing Dushratta of Mitanni. Carchemish thenceforward
+became a Hatti city and the southern capital of Cappadocian power. Since
+all the Syrian monuments of the Hittite class, so far known, seem
+comparatively late (most show such strong Assyrian, influence that they
+must fall after 1100 B.C. and probably even considerably later), while
+the North Cappadocian monuments (as Sayce, Ramsay, Perrot and others saw
+long ago) are the earlier in style, we are bound to ascribe the origin
+of the civilization which they represent to the Cappadocian Hatti.
+
+Whether the Mitanni had shared in that civilization while independent,
+and whether they were racially kin to the Hatti, cannot be determined at
+present. Winckler has adduced evidence from names of local gods to show
+that there was an Indo-European racial element in Mitanni; but none for
+a similar element in the Hatti, whose chief god was Teshub. The majority
+of scholars has always regarded the Hittites proper as, at any rate,
+non-Semitic, and some leading authorities have called them
+proto-Armenian, and believed that they have modern descendants in the
+Caucasus. This racial question can hardly be determined till those Hatti
+records, whether in cuneiform or pictographic script, which are couched
+in a native tongue, not in Babylonian, are read. In the meantime we have
+proper names to argue from; and these give us at least the significant
+indication that the Hittite nominative ended in _s_ and the accusative
+in _m_. In any case the connexion of the Hatti with the peculiar class
+of monuments which we have been describing, can hardly be further
+questioned; and it has become more than probable that the Hatti of
+Cappadocia were responsible in the beginning for the art and script of
+those monuments and for the civilization of which they are memorials.
+Other peoples of north Syria and Asia Minor (e.g. the Kummukh or
+Commagenians and the Muski or Phrygians) came no doubt under the
+influence of this civilization and imitated its monuments, while subject
+to or federated with the Hatti. Through Phrygia and Lydia (q.v.)
+influences of this same Cappadocian civilization passed towards the
+west; and indeed, before the Greek colonization of Asia Minor, a loosely
+knit Hatti empire may have stretched even to the Aegean. The Nymphi
+(Kara Bel) and Niobe sculptures near Smyrna are probably memorials of
+that extension. Certainly some inland Anatolian power seems to have kept
+Aegean settlers and culture away from the Ionian coast during the Bronze
+Age, and that power was in all likelihood the Hatti kingdom of
+Cappadocia. Owing perhaps to Assyrian aggression, this power seems to
+have begun to suffer decay about 1000 B.C. and thereafter to have shrunk
+inwards, leaving the coasts open. The powers of Phrygia and Lydia rose
+successively out of its ruins, and continued to offer westward passage
+to influences of Mesopotamian culture till well into historic times. The
+Greeks came too late to Asia to have had any contact with Hatti power
+obscured from their view by the intermediate and secondary state of
+Phrygia. Their earliest writers regarded the latter as the seat of the
+oldest and most godlike of mankind. Only one Greek author, Herodotus,
+alludes to the pre-historic Cappadocian power and only at the latest
+moment of its long decline. At the same time, some of the Greek legends
+seem to show that peoples, with whom the Greeks came into early contact,
+had vivid memories of the Hatti. Such are the Amazon stories, whose
+local range was very extensive, and the myths of Memnon and Pelops. The
+real reference of these stories, however, was forgotten, and it has been
+reserved to our own generation to rediscover the records of a power and
+a civilization which once dominated Asia Minor and north Syria and
+occupied all the continental roads of communication between the East and
+the West of the ancient world. The credit of having been the first to
+divine this importance of the Hittites should always be ascribed to
+Sayce.
+
+The history of the Hatti and their civilization, then, would appear to
+have been, very briefly, this. They belonged to an ethnic scattered
+widely over Eastern Asia Minor and Syria at an early period (Khatti
+invaded Akkad about 1800 B.C. in the reign of Samsuditana); but they
+first formed a strong state in Cappadocia late in the 16th century B.C.
+Subbiluliuma became their first great king, though he had at least one
+dynastic predecessor of the name of Hattusil. The Hatti now pushed
+southwards in force, overcame the kingdom of Mitanni and proceeded
+partly to occupy and partly to make tributary both north Syria and
+western Mesopotamia where some of their congeners were already settled.
+They came early into collision with Egypt, and at the height of their
+power under Hattusil II. fought the battle of Kadesh with Rameses II.,
+on at least equal terms. Both now and previously the diplomatic
+correspondence of the Hatti monarchs shows that they treated on terms
+of practical equality with both the Babylonian and the Egyptian courts;
+and that they waged constant wars in Syria, mainly with the Amorite
+tribes. At this time the Hatti empire or confederacy probably included,
+on the west, both Phrygia and Lydia. The Boghaz Keui correspondence
+ceases to be important with the generation following Hattusil II., and
+in the Assyrian records, which begin about a couple of centuries later,
+we find Carchemish the chief Hatti city and N. Syria called the
+Hatti-land. It is possible therefore that a change of imperial centre
+took place after the Hatti had ceased to fear Egypt in north Syria. If
+so, the continuation of Hittite history will have to be sought among the
+remains at Jerablus and other middle Euphratean sites, rather than in
+those at Boghaz Keui. The establishment of the Hatti at Carchemish not
+only made them a commercial people and probably sapped their highland
+vigour, but also brought them into closer proximity to the rising North
+Semitic power of Assyria, whose advent had been regarded with
+apprehension by Hattusil II. (see above). One of his successors,
+Arnaunta (late 13th century?), was already feeling the effect of
+Assyrian pressure, and with the accession of Tiglath Pileser I., about a
+century later, a long but often interrupted series of Assyrian efforts
+to break up the Hatti power began. A succession of Ninevite armies
+raided north Syria and even south-east Asia Minor, and gradually reduced
+the Hatti. But the resistance of the latter was sturdy and prolonged.
+They remained the strongest power in Syria and eastern Asia Minor till
+well into the first millennium B.C., and their Syrian seat was not lost
+finally till after the great extension of Assyrian power which took
+place in the latter part of the 9th century. What had been happening to
+their Cappadocian province meanwhile we do not yet know; but the
+presence of Phrygian inscriptions at Euyuk and Tyana, ancient seats of
+their power, suggests that the client monarchy in the Sangarius valley
+shook itself free during the early part of the Hittite struggle with
+Assyria, and in the day of Hatti weakness extended its dominion over the
+home territory of its former suzerain. "White Syrians," however, were
+still in Cappadocia even after the Cimmerians had destroyed the Phrygian
+monarchy, allowing Lydia to become independent under the Mermnad
+dynasty. Croesus found them centred at Pteria in the 6th century and
+dealt them a final blow. But much of their secular or religious custom
+lived on to be recorded by Greek writers, and regarded by modern
+scholars as typically "Anatolian."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--General summaries: L. Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_
+  ("Ancient East" series, vi., 1903); A. H. Sayce, _The Hittites_
+  ("Bypaths of Biblical Knowledge" series, xii., 2nd ed. 1892); G.
+  Perrot and C. Chipiez, _History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea, Syria and
+  Asia Minor_ (Eng. trans., vol. ii., 1890); L. Lantsheere, _De la race
+  et de la langue des Hétéens_ (1891); P. Jensen, _Hittiter und
+  Armenier_ (1898); M. Jastrow, final chapter in H. V. Hilprecht,
+  _Exploration in Bible Lands_ (1903); W. Wright, _Empire of the
+  Hittites_ (1884); F. Hommel, _Hettiter und Skythen_ (1898); D. G.
+  Hogarth, _Ionia and the East_ (1909); W. Max Müller, _Asien und
+  Europa_, chap. xxv. (1893). See also authorities for Egyptian and
+  Assyrian history.
+
+  Inscriptions: L. Messerschmidt, "Corpus inscr. Hettiticarum,"
+  _Zeitsch. d. d. morgenländ. Gesellschaft_ (1900, 1902, 1906, &c.), and
+  "Bemerkungen zu d. Heth. Inschriften," _Mitteil. d. vorderasiat.
+  Gesellschaft_ (1898); P. Jensen, "Grundlagen für eine Entzifferung der
+  (Hat. oder) Cilicischen Inschriften," _Zeitschr. d. d. morgenländ.
+  Gesellschaft_ (1894); F. E. Peiser, _Die Hettitischen Inschriften_
+  (1892); A. H. Sayce, "Decipherment of the Hittite Inscriptions,"
+  _Proc. Soc. of Bibl. Archaeology_ (1903), and "Hittite Inscriptions,
+  translated and annotated," ibid. (1905, 1907); J. Menant, "Études
+  Hétéennes," _Recueil de travaux rel. à la philologie, &c._, and _Mém.
+  de l'Acad. Inscr._, vol. xxxiv. (1890); J. Halévy in _Revue
+  sémitique_, vol. i. Also divers articles by A. H. Sayce, F. Hommel and
+  others in _Proc._ and _Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch._ since 1876, and in
+  _Recueil de travaux, &c._, since its beginning.
+
+  Exploration: G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, _Exploration arch. de la
+  Galatie_, &c. (1862-1872); E. Chantre, _Mission en Cappadocie_ (1898);
+  Sir W. M. Ramsay, "Syro-Cappadocian Monuments," in _Athen.
+  Mitteilungen_ (1889), with D. G. Hogarth, "Pre-Hellenic Monuments of
+  Cappadocia," in _Recueil de travaux_, &c. (1892-1895); and with Miss
+  Gertrude Bell, _The Thousand and One Churches_ (1909); C. Humann and
+  O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Nord-Syrien_, &c. (1890). J. Garstang in
+  _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, i. (1908) and following
+  numbers. Reports on excavations at Sinjerli in _Berl. Philol.
+  Wochenschrift_ (1891), pp. 803, 951; and F. von Luschan, and others,
+  "Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli" in _Mitteil. Orient-Sammlungen_ (Berlin
+  Museum, 1893 ff.); and on excavations at Boghaz-Keui, H. Winckler in
+  _Orient. Literaturzeitung_ (Berlin, 1907); _Mitteil.
+  Orient-Gesellschaft_ (Dec. 1907). See also s.v. PTERIA.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] First described by the Turk, Hajji Khalifa, in the 17th century;
+    first seen by the Swedish traveller Otter in 1736, and first
+    published in 1840 in Ritter's _Erdkunde_, iii., after a drawing by
+    Major Fischer, made in 1837.
+
+  [2] The "Niobe" statue near Manisa was not definitely known for
+    "Hittite" till 1882, when G. Dennis detected pictographs near it.
+
+  [3] The "pseudo-Sesostres" of Herodotus, already demonstrated
+    non-Egyptian by Rosellini. The second figure was unknown, till found
+    by Dr Beddoe in 1856.
+
+  [4] Five intramural graves were explored at Sinjerli, but whether of
+    the Hittite or of the Assyrian occupation is doubtful.
+
+  [5] The Assyrian records, as well as the Egyptian, distinguish many
+    peoples in both areas from the Kheta-Khatti; and the most we can
+    infer from these records is that there was an occasional league
+    formed under the Hittites, not any imperial subjection or even a
+    continuous federation.
+
+  [6] _Pseudo-Hethitische Kunst_ (Berlin, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE (1792-1867), French architect, was born at
+Cologne on the 20th of August 1792. After serving an apprenticeship to a
+mason in his native town, he went in 1810 to Paris, and studied for some
+years at the Academy of Fine Arts, where he was a favourite pupil of
+Bélanger, the government architect, who in 1814 appointed him his
+principal inspector. Succeeding Bélanger as government architect in
+1818, he designed many important public and private buildings in Paris
+and also in the south of France. From 1819 to 1830 in collaboration with
+le Cointe he directed the royal fêtes and ceremonials. After making
+architectural tours in Germany, England, Italy and Sicily, he published
+the result of his observations in the latter country in the work
+_Architecture antique de la Sicile_ (3 vols., 1826-1830; new edition,
+1866-1867), and also in _Architecture moderne de la Sicile_ (1826-1835).
+One of his important discoveries was that colour had been made use of in
+ancient Greek architecture, a subject which he especially discussed in
+_Architecture polychrome chez les Grecs_ (1830) and in _Restitution du
+temple d'Empédocle à Sélinunte_ (1851); and in accordance with the
+doctrines enunciated in these works he was in the habit of making colour
+an important feature in most of his architectural designs. His principal
+building is the church of St Vincent de Paul in the basilica style,
+which was constructed between 1830 and 1844. He also designed the two
+fountains in the Place de la Concorde, the Circus of the Empress, the
+Rotunda of the panoramas, many cafés and restaurants of the Champs
+Elysées, the houses forming the circle round the Arc de Triomphe de
+l'Étoile, besides many embellishments of the Bois de Boulogne and other
+places. In 1833 he was elected a member of the Academy of Fine Arts. He
+died in Paris on the 25th of March 1867.
+
+
+
+
+HITZACKER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover at the
+influx of the Jeetze into the Elbe, 33 m. N.E. of Lüneburg by the
+railway to Wittenberge. Pop. (1905) 1106. It has an Evangelical church
+and an old castle and numerous medieval remains. There are chalybeate
+springs and a hydropathic establishment in the town. The famous library
+now in Wolfenbüttel was originally founded here by Augustus, duke of
+Brunswick (d. 1666) and was removed to its present habitation in 1643.
+
+
+
+
+HITZIG, FERDINAND (1807-1875), German biblical critic, was born at
+Hauingen, Baden, where his father was a pastor, on the 23rd of June
+1807. He studied theology at Heidelberg under H. E. G. Paulus, at Halle
+under Wilhelm Gesenius and at Göttingen under Ewald. Returning to
+Heidelberg he became _Privatdozent_ in theology in 1829, and in 1831
+published his _Begriff der Kritik am Alten Testamente praktisch
+erörtert_, a study of Old Testament criticism in which he explained the
+critical principles of the grammatico-historical school, and his _Des
+Propheten Jonas Orakel über Moab_, an exposition of the 15th and 16th
+chapters of the book of Isaiah attributed by him to the prophet Jonah
+mentioned in 2 Kings xiv. 25. In 1833 he was called to the university of
+Zürich as professor ordinarius of theology. His next work was a
+commentary on Isaiah with a translation (_Übersetzung u. Auslegung des
+Propheten Jesajas_), which he dedicated to Heinrich Ewald, and which
+Hermann Hupfeld (1796-1866), well known as a commentator on the Psalms
+(1855-1861), pronounced to be his best exegetical work. At Zürich he
+laboured for a period of twenty-eight years, during which, besides
+commentaries on _The Psalms_ (1835-1836; 2nd ed., 1863-1865), _The Minor
+Prophets_ (1838; 3rd ed., 1863), _Jeremiah_ (1841; 2nd ed., 1866),
+_Ezekiel_ (1847), _Daniel_ (1850), _Ecclesiastes_ (1847), _Canticles_
+(1855), and _Proverbs_ (1858), he published a monograph, _Über Johannes
+Markus u. seine Schriften_ (1843), in which he maintained the
+chronological priority of the second gospel, and sought to prove that
+the Apocalypse was written by the same author. He also published various
+treatises of archaeological interest, of which the most important are
+_Die Erfindung des Alphabets_ (1840), _Urgeschichte u. Mythologie der
+Philistäer_ (1845), and _Die Grabschrift des Eschmunezar_(1855). After
+the death of Friedrich Umbreit (1795-1860), one of the founders of the
+well-known _Studien und Kritiken_, he was called in 1861 to succeed him
+as professor of theology at Heidelberg. Here he wrote his _Geschichte
+des Volkes Israel_ (1869-1870), in two parts, extending respectively to
+the end of the Persian domination and to the fall of Masada, A.D. 72, as
+well as a work on the Pauline epistles, _Zur Kritik Paulinischer Briefe_
+(1870), on the Moabite Stone, _Die Inschrift des Mescha_ (1870), and on
+Assyrian, _Sprache u. Sprachen Assyriens_ (1871), besides revising the
+commentary on Job by Ludwig Hirzel (1801-1841), which was first
+published in 1839. He was also a contributor to the _Monatsschrift des
+wissenschaftlichen Vereins in Zürich_, the _Zeitschrift der deutschen
+morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, the _Theologische Studien u. Kritiken_,
+Eduard Zeller's _Theologische Jahrbücher_, and Adolf Hilgenfeld's
+_Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie_. Hitzig died at Heidelberg
+on the 22nd of January 1875. As a Hebrew philologist he holds high rank;
+and as a constructive critic he is remarkable for acuteness and
+sagacity. As a historian, however, some of his speculations have been
+considered fanciful. "He places the cradle of the Israelites in the
+south of Arabia, and, like many other critics, makes the historical
+times begin only with Moses" (F. Lichtenberger, _History of German
+Theology_, p. 569).
+
+  His lectures on biblical theology (_Vorlesungen über biblische
+  Theologie u. messianische Weissagungen_) were published in 1880 after
+  his death, along with a portrait and biographical sketch by his pupil,
+  J. J. Kneucker (b. 1840), professor of theology at Heidelberg. See
+  Heinrich Steiner, _Ferdinand Hitzig_ (1882); and Adolf Kamphausen's
+  article in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+HIUNG-NU, HIONG-NU, HEUNG-NU, a people who about the end of the 3rd
+century B.C. formed, according to Chinese records, a powerful empire
+from the Great Wall of China to the Caspian. Their ethnical affinities
+have been much discussed; but it is most probable that they were of the
+Turki stock, as were the Huns, their later western representatives. They
+are the first Turkish people mentioned by the Chinese. A theory which
+seems plausible is that which assumes them to have been a heterogenous
+collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki and perhaps even Finnish hordes
+under a Mongol military caste, though the Mongolo-Tungus element
+probably predominated. Towards the close of the 1st century of the
+Christian era the Hiung-nu empire broke up. Their subsequent history is
+obscure. Some of them seem to have gone westward and settled on the Ural
+river. These, de Guiques suggests, were the ancestors of the Huns, and
+many ethnologists hold that the Hiung-nu were the ancestors of the
+modern Turks.
+
+  See _Journal Anthropological Institute_ for 1874; Sir H. H. Howorth,
+  _History of the Mongols_ (1876-1880); 6th Congress of Orientalists,
+  Leiden, 1883 (_Actes_, part iv. pp. 177-195); de Guiques, _Histoire
+  générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongoles, et des autres Tartares
+  occidentaux_ (1756-1758).
+
+
+
+
+HIVITES, an ancient tribe of Palestine driven out by the invading
+Israelites. In Josh. ix. 7, xi. 19 they are connected with Gibeon. The
+meaning of the name is uncertain; Wellhausen derives it from [Hebrew:
+Hava] "Eve," or "serpent," in which case the Hivites were originally the
+snake clan; others explain it from the Arabic _hayy_, "family," as
+meaning "dwellers in (Bedouin) encampments." (See PALESTINE; JEWS.)
+
+
+
+
+HJÖRRING, an ancient town of Denmark, capital of the _amt_ (county) of
+its name, in the northern insular part of the peninsula of Jutland. Pop.
+(1901) 7901. It lies 7 m. inland from the shore of Jammer Bay, a stretch
+of coast notoriously dangerous to shipping. On the coast is Lönstrup, a
+favoured seaside resort. In this neighbourhood as well as to the
+south-east of Hjörring, slight elevations are seen, deserving the name
+of hills in this low-lying district. Hjörring is on the northern railway
+of Jutland, which here turns eastward to the Cattegat part of
+Frederikshavn (23 m.), a harbour of refuge.
+
+
+
+
+HKAMTI LÔNG (called Kantigyi by the Burmese, and Bor Hkampti by the
+peoples on the Assam side), a collection of seven Shan states
+subordinate to Burma, but at present beyond the administrative border.
+Estimated area, 900 sq. m.; estimated pop. 11,000. It lies between 27°
+and 28° N. and 97° and 98° E., and is bordered by the Mishmi country on
+the N., by the Patkai range on the W., by the Hukawng valley on the S.
+and E., and indeed all round by various Chingpaw or Kachin communities.
+The country is little known. It was visited by T. T. Cooper, the Chinese
+traveller and political agent at Bhamo, where he was murdered; by
+General Woodthorpe and Colonel Macgregor in 1884, by Mr Errol Grey in
+the following year, and by Prince Henry of Orleans in 1895. All of
+these, however, limited their explorations to the valley of the
+Mali-hka, the western branch of the Irrawaddy river. Hkamti has shrunk
+very much from its old size. It was no doubt the northernmost province
+of the Shan kingdom, founded at Mogaung by Sam Long-hpa, the brother of
+the ruler of Kambawsa, when that empire had reached its greatest
+extension. The irruption of Kachins or Chingpaw from the north has now
+completely hemmed the state in. Prince Henry of Orleans described it as
+"a splendid territory, fertile in soil and abundant in water, where
+tropical and temperate culture flourish side by side, and the
+inhabitants are protected on three fronts by mountains." According to
+him the Kiutze, the people of the hills between the Irrawaddy and the
+Salween, call it the kingdom of Moam.
+
+
+
+
+HLOTHHERE, king of Kent, succeeded his brother Ecgberht in 673, and
+appears for a time to have reigned jointly with his nephew Eadric, son
+of Ecgberht, as a code of laws still extant was issued under both names.
+Neither is mentioned in the account of the invasion of Æthelred in 676.
+In 685 Eadric, who seems to have quarrelled with Hlothhere, went into
+exile and led the South Saxons against him. Hlothhere was defeated and
+died of his wounds.
+
+  See Bede, _Hist. eccl._ (Plummer), iv. 5, 17, 26, v. 24; _Saxon
+  Chronicle_ (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 685; Schmid, _Gesetze_, pp. 10
+  sqq.; Thorpe, _Ancient Laws_, i. 26 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+HOACTZIN, or HOATZIN, a bird of tropical South America, thought by
+Buffon to be that indicated by Hernandez or Fernandez under these names,
+the _Opisthocomus hoazin_ or _O. cristatus_ of modern ornithologists--a
+very curious and remarkable form, which has long exercised the ingenuity
+of classifiers. Placed by Buffon among his "_Hoccos_" (Curassows), and
+then by P. L. S. Müller and J. F. Gmelin in the Linnaean genus
+_Phasianus_, some of its many peculiarities were recognized by J. K. W.
+Illiger in 1811 as sufficient to establish it as a distinct genus,
+_Opisthocomus_; but various positions were assigned to it by subsequent
+systematic authors. L'Herminier was the first to give any account of its
+anatomy (_Comptes rendus_, 1837, v. 433), and from his time our
+knowledge of it has been successively increased by Johannes Müller
+(_Ber. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin_, 1841, p. 177), Deville (_Rev. et mag.
+de zoologie_, 1852, p. 217), Gervais (Castelnau, _Expéd. Amérique du
+Sud, zoologie, anatomie_, p. 66), Huxley (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1868,
+p. 304), Perrin (_Trans. Zool. Society_, ix. p. 353), and A. H. Garrod
+(_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1879, p. 109). After a minute description of the
+skeleton of _Opisthocomus_, with the especial object of determining its
+affinities, Huxley declared that it "resembles the ordinary gallinaceous
+birds and pigeons more than it does any others, and that when it
+diverges from them it is either sui generis or approaches the
+_Musophagidae_." He accordingly regarded it as the type and sole member
+of a group, named by him _Heteromorphae_, which sprang from the great
+Carinate stem later than the _Tinamomorphae_, _Turnicomorphae_, or
+_Charadriomorphae_, but before the _Peristeromorphae_, _Pteroclomorphae_
+or _Alectoromorphae_. This conclusion is substantially the same as that
+at which A. H. Garrod subsequently arrived after closely examining and
+dissecting specimens preserved in spirit; but the latter has gone
+further and endeavoured to trace more particularly the descent of this
+peculiar form and some others, remarking that the ancestor of
+_Opisthocomus_ must have left the parent stem very shortly before the
+true _Gallinae_ first appeared, and at about the same time as the
+independent pedigree of the _Cuculidae_ and _Musophagidae_
+commenced--these two groups being, he believed, very closely related,
+and _Opisthocomus_ serving to fill the gap between them.
+
+The first thing that strikes the observer of its skeleton is the
+extraordinary structure of the sternal apparatus, which is wholly unlike
+that of any other bird known. The keel is only developed on the
+posterior part of the sternum--the fore part being, as it were, cut
+away, while the short furcula at its symphysis meets the manubrium, with
+which it is firmly consolidated by means of a prolonged and straight
+hypocleidium, and anteriorly ossifies with the coracoids. This unique
+arrangement seems to be correlated with the enormously capacious crop,
+which rests upon the furcula and fore part of the sternum, and is also
+received in a cavity formed on the surface of each of the great pectoral
+muscles. Furthermore this crop is extremely muscular, so as more to
+resemble a gizzard, and consists of two portions divided by a partial
+constriction, after a fashion of which no other example is known among
+birds. The true gizzard is greatly reduced.
+
+[Illustration: Hoactzin.]
+
+The hoactzin appears to be about the size of a small pheasant, but is
+really a much smaller bird. The beak is strong, curiously denticulated
+along the margin of the maxilla near the base, and is beset by diverging
+bristles. The eyes, placed in the middle of a patch of bare skin, are
+furnished with bristly lashes, resembling those of horn-bills and some
+few other birds. The head bears a long pendant crest of loose yellowish
+feathers. The body is olive-coloured, varied with white above, and
+beneath is of a dull bay. The wings are short and rounded. The tail is
+long and tipped with yellow. The legs are rather short, the feet stout,
+the tarsi reticulated, and the toes scutellated; the claws long and
+slightly curved. According to all who have observed the habits of this
+bird, it lives in bands on the lower trees and bushes bordering the
+streams and lagoons, feeding on leaves and various wild fruits,
+especially, says H. W. Bates (_Naturalist on the River Amazons_, i. 120),
+those of a species of _Psidium_, and it is also credited with eating
+those of an arum (_Caladium arborescens_), which grows plentifully in its
+haunts. "Its voice is a harsh, grating hiss," continues the same
+traveller, and "it makes the noise when alarmed, all the individuals
+sibilating as they fly heavily away from tree to tree, when disturbed by
+passing canoes." It exhales a very strong odour--wherefore it is known in
+British Guiana as the "stink-bird"--compared by Bates to "musk combined
+with wet hides," and by Deville to that of a cow-house. The species is
+said to be polygamous; the nest is built on trees, of sticks placed above
+one another, and softer materials atop. Therein the hen lays her eggs to
+the number of three or four, of a dull-yellowish white, somewhat
+profusely marked with reddish blotches and spots, so as to resemble those
+of some of the _Rallidae_ (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1867, pl. xv. fig. 7.
+p. 164). The young are covered only with very scanty hair, like down, and
+have well-developed claws on the first and second fingers of the wing,
+which they use in clambering about the twigs in a quadrupedal manner; if
+placed in the water they swim and dive well, although the adults seem to
+be not at all aquatic.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+HOADLY, BENJAMIN (1676-1761), English divine, was born at Westerham,
+Kent, on the 14th of November 1676. In 1691 he entered Catharine Hall,
+Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. and was for two years tutor, after
+which he held from 1701 to 1711 the lectureship of St Mildred in the
+Poultry, and along with it from 1704 the rectory of St Peter-le-Poer,
+London. His first important appearance as a controversialist was against
+Edmund Calamy "the younger" in reference to conformity (1703-1707), and
+after this he came into conflict with Francis Atterbury, first on the
+interpretation of certain texts and then on the whole Anglican doctrine
+of non-resistance. His principal treatises on this subject were the
+_Measures of Submission to the Civil Magistrate_ and _The Origin and
+Institution of Civil Government discussed_; and his part in the
+discussion was so much appreciated by the Commons that in 1709 they
+presented an address to the queen praying her to "bestow some dignity in
+the church on Mr Hoadly for his eminent services both to church and
+state." The queen returned a favourable answer, but the dignity was not
+conferred. In 1710 he was presented by a private patron to the rectory
+of Streatham in Surrey. In 1715 he was appointed chaplain to the king,
+and the same year he obtained the bishopric of Bangor. He held the see
+for six years, but never visited the diocese. In 1716, in reply to
+George Hickes (q.v.), he published a _Preservative against the
+Principles and Practices of Nonjurors in Church and State_, and in the
+following year preached before the king his famous sermon on the
+_Kingdom of Christ_, which was immediately published by royal command.
+These works were attacks on the divine authority of kings and of the
+clergy, but as the sermon dealt more specifically and distinctly with
+the power of the church, its publication caused an ecclesiastical
+ferment which in certain aspects has no parallel in religious history.
+It was at once resolved to proceed against him in convocation, but this
+was prevented by the king proroguing the assembly, a step which had
+consequences of vital bearing on the history of the Church of England,
+since from that period the great Anglican council ceased to transact
+business of a more than formal nature. The restrained sentiments of the
+council in regard to Hoadly found expression in a war of pamphlets known
+as the Bangorian Controversy, which, partly from a want of clearness in
+the statements of Hoadly, partly from the disingenuousness of his
+opponents and the confusion resulting from exasperated feelings,
+developed into an intricate and bewildering maze of side discussions in
+which the main issues of the dispute were concealed almost beyond the
+possibility of discovery. But however vague and uncertain might be the
+meaning of Hoadly in regard to several of the important bearings of the
+questions around which he aroused discussion, he was explicit in denying
+the power of the Church over the conscience, and its right to determine
+the condition of men in relation to the favour of God. The most able of
+his opponents was William Law; others were Andrew Snape, provost of
+Eton, and Thomas Sherlock, dean of Chichester. So exercised was the mind
+of the religious world over the dispute that in July 1717 as many as
+seventy-four pamphlets made their appearance; and at one period the
+crisis became so serious that the business of London was for some days
+virtually at a stand-still. Hoadly, being not unskilled in the art of
+flattery, was translated in 1721 to the see of Hereford, in 1723 to
+Salisbury and in 1734 to Winchester. He died at his palace at Chelsea on
+the 17th of April 1761. His controversial writings are vigorous if
+prolix and his theological essays have little merit. He must have been a
+much hated man, for his latitudinarianism offended the high church party
+and his rationalism the other sections. He was an intimate friend of Dr
+Samuel Clarke, of whom he wrote a life.
+
+Hoadly's brother, JOHN HOADLY (1678-1746), was archbishop of Dublin from
+1730 to 1742 and archbishop of Armagh from the latter date until his
+death on the 19th of July 1746. In early life the archbishop was very
+intimate with Gilbert Burnet, then bishop of Salisbury, and in later
+life he was a prominent figure in Irish politics.
+
+  The works of Benjamin Hoadly were collected and published by his son
+  John in 3 vols. (1773). To the first volume was prefixed the article
+  "Hoadly" from the supplement to the _Biographia Britannica_. See also
+  L. Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th Century_.
+
+
+
+
+HOAR, SAMUEL (1778--1856), American lawyer, was born in Lincoln,
+Massachusetts, on the 18th of May 1778. He was the son of Samuel Hoar,
+an officer in the American army during the War of Independence, for many
+years a member of the Massachusetts General Court, and a member in
+1820-1821 of the state Constitutional Convention. The son graduated at
+Harvard in 1802, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1805 and began
+practice at Concord. His success in his profession was immediate, and
+for a half-century he was one of the leading lawyers of Massachusetts.
+He was in early life a Federalist and was later an ardent Whig in
+politics. He was a member of the state senate in 1825, 1832 and 1833,
+and of the national house of representatives in 1835-1837, during which
+time he made a notable speech in favour of the constitutional right of
+congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. In November
+1844, having retired from active legal practice some years before, he
+went to Charleston, S.C., at the request of Governor George Nixon Briggs
+(1796-1861), to test in the courts of South Carolina the
+constitutionality of the state law which provided that "it shall not be
+lawful for any free negro, or person of color, to come into this state
+on board any vessel, as a cook, steward or mariner, or in any other
+employment," and that such free negroes should be seized and locked up
+until the vessels on which they had come were ready for sea, when they
+should be returned to such vessels. His visit aroused great excitment,
+he was threatened with personal injury, the state legislature passed
+resolutions calling for his expulsion, and he was compelled to leave
+early in December. In 1848 he was prominent in the Free Soil movement in
+Massachusetts, and subsequently assisted in the organization of the
+Republican Party. In 1850 he served in the Massachusetts house of
+representatives. He married a daughter of Roger Sherman of Connecticut.
+He died at Concord, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of November 1856.
+
+  See a memoir by his son G. F. Hoar in _Memorial Biographies of the New
+  England Historic Genealogical Society_, vol. iii. (Boston, 1883); the
+  estimate by R. W. Emerson in _Lectures and Biographical Sketches_
+  (Boston, 1903); and "Samuel Hoar's Expulsion from Charleston," _Old
+  South Leaflets_, vol. vi. No. 140.
+
+His son, EBENEZER ROCKWOOD HOAR (1816-1895), was born at Concord,
+Massachusetts, on the 21st of February 1816. He graduated at Harvard in
+1835 and at the Harvard Law School in 1839, and was admitted to the
+Massachusetts bar in 1840. From 1849 to 1855 he was a judge of the
+Massachusetts court of common pleas, from 1859 to 1869 a judge of the
+state supreme court, and in 1869-1870 attorney-general of the United
+States in the cabinet of President Grant, and in that position fought
+unmerited "machine" appointments to offices in the civil service until
+at the pressure of the "machine" Grant asked for his resignation from
+the cabinet. The Senate had already shown its disapproval of Hoar's
+policy of civil service reform by its failure in 1870 to confirm the
+President's nomination of Hoar as associate-justice of the supreme
+court. In 1871 he was a member of the Joint High Commission which drew
+up the Treaty of Washington. In 1872 he was a presidential elector on
+the Republican ticket, and in 1873-1875 was a representative in
+Congress. He was a member of the Board of Overseers of Harvard
+University from 1868 to 1880 and from 1881 to 1887, and was president of
+the Board in 1878-1880 and in 1881-1887. He was also prominent in the
+affairs of the Unitarian church. He was a man of high character and
+brilliant wit. He died at Concord on the 31st of January 1895.
+
+Another son, GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR (1826-1904), was born in Concord,
+Massachusetts, on the 29th of August 1826. He graduated at Harvard in
+1846 and at the Harvard Law School in 1849. He settled in the practice
+of law in Worcester, Massachusetts, where in 1852 he became a partner of
+Emory Washburn (1800-1877). In 1852 he was elected as a Free-Soiler to
+the Massachusetts House of Representatives, and during his single term
+of service became the leader of his party in that body. He was active in
+the organization of the Republican party in Massachusetts, and in 1857
+was elected to the State senate, but declined a re-election. During
+1856-1857 he was active in behalf of the Free-State cause in Kansas. He
+was a member of the National House of Representatives from 1869 until
+1877, and in this body took high rank as a ready debater and a
+conscientious committee worker. He was prominent as a defender and
+supporter of the Freedman's Bureau, took a leading part in the later
+reconstruction legislation and in the investigation of the Crédit
+Mobilier scandal, and in 1876 was one of the House managers of the
+impeachment of General W. W. Belknap, Grant's secretary of war. In 1877
+he was a member of the Electoral Commission which settled the disputed
+Hayes-Tilden election. From 1877 until his death he was a member of the
+United States senate. In the senate almost from the start he took rank
+as one of the most influential leaders of the Republican party; he was a
+member from 1882 until his death of the important Judiciary Committee,
+of which he was chairman in 1891-1893 and in 1895-1904. His most
+important piece of legislation was the Presidential Succession Act of
+1886. He was a delegate to every Republican National Convention from
+1876 to 1904, and presided over that at Chicago in 1880. He was a
+conservative by birth and training, and although he did not leave his
+party he disagreed with its policy in regard to the Philippines, and
+spoke and voted against the ratification of the Spanish Treaty. He was
+regent of the Smithsonian Institution in 1880-1881, and long served as
+an overseer of Harvard University (1896-1904) and as president of its
+alumni association. He was also president of the American Historical
+Association (1894-1895) and of the American Antiquarian Society
+(1884-1887). Like his brother, he was a leading Unitarian, and was
+president of its National Conference from 1894 to 1902. He died at
+Worcester, Massachusetts, on the 30th of September 1904. A memorial
+statue has been erected there.
+
+  See his _Recollections of Seventy Years_ (New York, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT, BART. (1758-1838), English antiquary, was the
+eldest son of Richard Hoare, who was created a baronet in 1786, and was
+born on the 9th of December 1758. He was descended from Sir Richard
+Hoare (1648-1718), lord mayor of London, the founder of the family
+banking business. An ample allowance from his grandfather, Henry Hoare,
+enabled him to pursue the archaeological studies for which he had
+already shown an inclination. In 1783 he married Hester, daughter of
+William Henry, Lord Lyttelton, and after her death in 1785 he paid a
+prolonged visit to France, Italy and Switzerland. He succeeded to the
+baronetcy in 1787, and in 1788 made a second continental tour, the
+record of his travels appearing in 1819 under the title _A Classical
+Tour through Italy and Sicily_. A journey through Wales was followed by
+a translation of the _Itinerarium Cambriae_ and of the _Descriptio
+Cambriae of_ Giraldus Cambrensis, Hoare adding notes and a life of
+Giraldus to the translation. This was first published in 1804, and has
+been revised by T. Wright (London, 1863). Sir Richard died at Stourhead,
+Wiltshire, on the 19th of May 1838, being succeeded in the baronetcy by
+his half-brother, Henry Hugh Hoare. Hoare's most important work was his
+_Ancient History of North and South Wiltshire_ (1812-1819); he also did
+some work on the large _History of Modern Wiltshire_ (1822-1844).
+
+  For notices of him and a list of his works, many of which were printed
+  privately, see the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for July 1838, and the
+  _Dict. Nat. Biog._ vol. xxvii. (1891). See also E. Hoare, _History of
+  the Hoare Family_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS (1844-1899), Vice-President of the United States
+1897-1899, was born at Long Branch, N.J., on the 3rd of June 1844. He
+graduated at Rutgers College in 1863, was admitted to the bar in 1869,
+practised law at Paterson, N.J., and rose to prominence in the State. He
+was long conspicuous in the State Republican organization, was chairman
+of the New Jersey State Republican Committee from 1880 to 1890, became a
+member in 1884 of the Republican National Committee, and was the
+delegate-at-large from New Jersey to five successive Republican national
+nominating conventions. He served in the New Jersey Assembly in
+1873-1874, and in the New Jersey Senate in 1877-1882, and was speaker of
+the Assembly in 1874 and president of the Senate in 1881 and 1882. He
+was also prominent and successful in business and accumulated a large
+fortune. He accepted the nomination as Vice-President in 1896, on the
+ticket with President McKinley, and was elected; but while still in
+office he died at Paterson, N.J., on the 21st of November 1899.
+
+  See the _Life_ (New York, 1910) by David Magie.
+
+
+
+
+HOBART, JOHN HENRY (1775-1830), American Protestant Episcopal bishop,
+was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 14th of September 1775,
+being fifth in direct descent from Edmund Hobart, a founder of Hingham,
+Massachusetts. He was educated at the Philadelphia Latin School, the
+College of Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania), and
+Princeton, where he graduated in 1793. After studying theology under
+Bishop William White at Philadelphia, he was ordained deacon in 1798,
+and priest two years later. He was elected assistant bishop of New York,
+with the right of succession, in 1811, and was acting diocesan from that
+date because of the ill-health of Bishop Benjamin Moore, whom he
+formally succeeded on the latter's death in February 1816. He was one of
+the founders of the General Theological Seminary, became its professor
+of pastoral theology in 1821, and as bishop was its governor. In his
+zeal for the historic episcopacy he published in 1807 _An Apology for
+Apostolic Order and its Advocates_, a series of letters to Rev. John M.
+Mason, who, in _The Christian's Magazine_, of which he was editor, had
+attacked the Episcopacy in general and in particular Hobart's
+_Collection of Essays on the Subject of Episcopacy_ (1806). Hobart's
+zeal for the General Seminary and the General Convention led him to
+oppose the plan of Philander Chase, bishop of Ohio, for an Episcopal
+seminary in that diocese; but the Ohio seminary was made directly
+responsible to the House of Bishops, and Hobart approved the plan. His
+strong opposition to "dissenting churches" was nowhere so clearly shown
+as in a pamphlet published in 1816 to dissuade all Episcopalians from
+joining the American Bible Society, which he thought the Protestant
+Episcopal Church had not the numerical or the financial strength to
+control. In 1818, to counterbalance the influence of the Bible Society
+and especially of Scott's _Commentaries_, he began to edit with selected
+notes the _Family Bible_ of the Society for Promoting Christian
+Knowledge. He delivered episcopal charges to the clergy of Connecticut
+and New York entitled _The Churchman_ (1819) and _The High Churchman
+Vindicated_ (1826), in which he accepted the name "high churchman," and
+stated and explained his principles "in distinction from the corruptions
+of the Church of Rome and from the Errors of Certain Protestant Sects."
+He exerted himself greatly in building up his diocese, attempting to
+make an annual visit to every parish. His failing health led him to
+visit Europe in 1823-1825. Upon his return he preached a characteristic
+sermon entitled _The United States of America compared with some
+European Countries, particularly England_ (published 1826), in which,
+although there was some praise for the English church, he so boldly
+criticized the establishment, state patronage, cabinet appointment of
+bishops, lax discipline, and the low requirements of theological
+education, as to rouse much hostility in England, where he had been
+highly praised for two volumes of _Sermons on the Principal Events and
+Truths of Redemption_ (1824). He died at Auburn, New York, on the 12th
+of September 1830. He was able, impetuous, frank, perfectly fearless in
+controversy, a speaker and preacher of much eloquence, a supporter of
+missions to the Oneida Indians in his diocese, and the compiler of the
+following devotional works: _A Companion for the Altar_ (1804),
+_Festivals and Fasts_ (1804), _A Companion to the Book of Common Prayer_
+(1805), and _A Clergyman's Companion_ (1805).
+
+  See _Memorial of Bishop Hobart_, containing a _Memoir_ (New York,
+  1831); John McVickar, _The Early Life and Professional Years of Bishop
+  Hobart_ (New York, 1834), and _The Closing Years of Bishop Hobart_
+  (New York, 1836).
+
+
+
+
+HOBART PASHA, AUGUSTUS CHARLES HOBART-HAMPDEN (1822-1886), English naval
+captain and Turkish admiral, was born in Leicestershire on the 1st of
+April 1822, being the third son of the 6th Earl of Buckinghamshire. In
+1835 he entered the Royal Navy and served as a midshipman on the coast
+of Brazil in the suppression of the slave trade, displaying much
+gallantry in the operations. In 1855 he took part, as captain of the
+"Driver," in the Baltic Expedition, and was actively engaged at
+Bomarsund and Abo. In 1862 he retired from the navy with the rank of
+post-captain; but his love of adventure led him, during the American
+Civil War, to take the command of a blockade-runner. He had the good
+fortune to run the blockade eighteen times, conveying war material to
+Charleston and returning with a cargo of cotton. In 1867 Hobart entered
+the Turkish service, and was immediately nominated to the command of
+that fleet, with the rank of "Bahrie Limassi" (rear-admiral). In this
+capacity he performed splendid service in helping to suppress the
+insurrection in Crete, and was rewarded by the Sultan with the title of
+Pasha (1869). In 1874 Hobart, whose name had, on representations made by
+Greece, been removed from the British Navy List, was reinstated; his
+restoration did not, however, last long, for on the outbreak of the
+Russo-Turkish war he again entered Turkish service. In command of the
+Turkish squadron he completely dominated the Black Sea, blockading the
+ports of South Russia and the mouths of the Danube, and paralysing the
+action of the Russian fleet. On the conclusion of peace Hobart still
+remained in the Turkish service, and in 1881 was appointed Mushir, or
+marshal, being the first Christian to hold that high office. His
+achievements as a blockade-runner, his blockade of Crete, and his
+handling of the Turkish fleet against the torpedo-lined coasts of
+Russia, showed him to be a daring, resourceful, and skilful commander,
+worthy to be ranked among the illustrious names of British naval heroes.
+He died at Milan on the 19th of June 1886.
+
+  See his _Sketches of My Life_ (1886), which must, however, be used
+  with caution, since it contains many proved inaccuracies.
+
+
+
+
+HOBART, the capital of Tasmania, in the county of Buckingham, on the
+southern coast of the island. It occupies a site of great beauty,
+standing on a series of low hills at the foot of Mount Wellington, a
+lofty peak (4166 ft.) which is snow-clad for many months in the year.
+The town fronts Sullivan's Cove, a picturesque bay opening into the
+estuary of the river Derwent, and is nearly square in form, laid out
+with wide streets intersecting at right angles, the chief of which are
+served by electric tramways. It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of
+Tasmania, and of the Roman Catholic archbishop of Hobart. The Anglican
+cathedral of St David dates from 1873, though its foundations were laid
+as early as 1817. St Mary's Roman Catholic cathedral is a beautiful
+building; but perhaps the most notable ecclesiastical building in Hobart
+is the great Baptist tabernacle in Upper Elizabeth Street. The most
+prominent public buildings are the Houses of Parliament, to which an
+excellent library is attached; the town hall, a beautiful building of
+brown and white Tasmanian freestone in Italian style; the museum and
+national art gallery, and the general post office (1904) with its lofty
+clock-tower. Government House, the residence of the governor of
+Tasmania, a handsome castellated building, stands in its domain on the
+banks of the Derwent, to the north of the town. The botanical gardens
+adjoin. Of the parks and public gardens, the most extensive is the
+Queen's Domain, covering an area of about 700 acres, while the most
+central is Franklin Square, adorned with a statue of Sir John Franklin,
+the famous Arctic explorer, who was governor of Tasmania from 1837 to
+1843. The university of Tasmania, established in 1890, and opened in
+1893, has its headquarters at Hobart. The town is celebrated for its
+invigorating climate, and its annual regatta on the Derwent attracts
+numerous visitors. The harbour is easy of access, well sheltered and
+deep, with wharf accommodation for vessels of the largest tonnage. It is
+a regular port of call for several intercolonial lines from Sydney and
+Melbourne, and for lines from London to New Zealand. The exports, of an
+average value of £850,000 annually, consist mainly of fruit, hops,
+grain, timber and wool. The industries comprise brewing, saw-milling,
+iron-founding, flour-milling, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery
+and woollen goods. Hobart is the centre of a large fruit-growing
+district, the produce of which, for the most part, is exported to London
+and Sydney. The city was founded in 1804 and takes its name from Lord
+Hobart (see BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF), then secretary of state for the
+colonies. It was created a municipality in 1853, and a city in 1857; and
+in 1881 its name was changed from Hobart Town to the present form. The
+chief suburbs are Newton, Sandy Bay, Wellington, Risdon, Glenorchy,
+Bellerive and Beltana. The population of the city proper in 1901 was
+24,652, or including suburbs, 34,182.
+
+
+
+
+HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT (c. 1638-1709), the greatest landscape painter of the
+Dutch school after Ruysdael, lived at Amsterdam in the second half of
+the 17th century. The facts of his life are somewhat obscure. Nothing is
+more disappointing than to find that in Hobbema's case chronology and
+signed pictures substantially contradict each other. According to the
+latter his practice lasted from 1650 to 1689; according to the former
+his birth occurred in 1638, his death as late as 1709. If the
+masterpiece formerly in the Bredel collection, called "A Wooded Stream,"
+honestly bears the date of 1650, or "The Cottages under Trees" of the
+Ford collection the date of 1652, the painter of these canvases cannot
+be Hobbema, whose birth took place in 1638, unless indeed we admit that
+Hobbema painted some of his finest works at the age of twelve or
+fourteen. For a considerable period it was profitable to pass Hobbemas
+as Ruysdaels, and the name of the lesser master was probably erased from
+several of his productions. When Hobbema's talent was recognized, the
+contrary process was followed, and in this way the name, and perhaps
+fictitious dates, reappeared by fraud. An experienced eye will note the
+differences which occur in Hobbema's signatures in such well-known
+examples as adorn the galleries of London and Rotterdam, or the
+Grosvenor and van der Hoop collections. Meanwhile, we must be content to
+know that, if the question of dates could be brought into accordance
+with records and chronology, the facts of Hobbema's life would be as
+follows.
+
+Meyndert Hobbema was married at the age of thirty to Eeltije Vinck of
+Gorcum, in the Oudekerk or old church at Amsterdam, on the 2nd of
+November 1668. Witnesses to the marriage were the bride's brother
+Cornelius Vinck and Jacob Ruysdael. We might suppose from this that
+Hobbema and Ruysdael, the two great masters of landscape, were united at
+this time by ties of friendship, and accept the belief that the former
+was the pupil of the latter. Yet even this is denied to us, since
+records tell us that there were two Jacob Ruysdaels, cousins and
+contemporaries, at Amsterdam in the middle of the 17th century--one a
+framemaker, the son of Solomon, the other a painter, the son of Isaac
+Ruysdael. Of Hobbema's marriage there came between 1668 and 1673 four
+children. In 1704 Eeltije died, and was buried in the pauper section of
+the Leiden cemetery at Amsterdam. Hobbema himself survived till December
+1709, receiving burial on the 14th of that month in the pauper section
+of the Westerkerk cemetery at Amsterdam. Husband and wife had lived
+during their lifetime in the Rozengracht, at no great distance from
+Rembrandt, who also dwelt there in his later and impoverished days.
+Rembrandt, Hals, Jacob Ruysdael, and Hobbema were in one respect alike.
+They all died in misery, insufficiently rewarded perhaps for their toil,
+imprudent perhaps in the use of the means derived from their labours.
+Posterity has recognized that Hobbema and Ruysdael together represent
+the final development of landscape art in Holland. Their style is so
+related that we cannot suppose the first to have been unconnected with
+the second. Still their works differ in certain ways, and their
+character is generally so marked that we shall find little difficulty in
+distinguishing them, nor indeed shall we hesitate in separating those of
+Hobbema from the feebler productions of his imitators and
+predecessors--Isaac Ruysdael, Rontbouts, de Vries, Dekker, Looten,
+Verboom, du Bois, van Kessel, van der Hagen, even Philip de Koningk. In
+the exercise of his craft Hobbema was patient beyond all conception. It
+is doubtful whether any one ever so completely mastered as he did the
+still life of woods and hedges, or mills and pools. Nor can we believe
+that he obtained this mastery otherwise than by constantly dwelling in
+the same neighbourhood, say in Guelders or on the Dutch Westphalian
+border, where day after day he might study the branching and foliage of
+trees and underwood embowering cottages and mills, under every variety
+of light, in every shade of transparency, in all changes produced by the
+seasons. Though his landscapes are severely and moderately toned,
+generally in an olive key, and often attuned to a puritanical grey or
+russet, they surprise us, not only by the variety of their leafage, but
+by the finish of their detail as well as the boldness of their touch.
+With astonishing subtlety light is shown penetrating cloud, and
+illuminating, sometimes transiently, sometimes steadily, different
+portions of the ground, shining through leaves upon other leaves, and
+multiplying in an endless way the transparency of the picture. If the
+chance be given him he mirrors all these things in the still pool near a
+cottage, the reaches of a sluggish river, or the swirl of the stream
+that feeds a busy mill. The same spot will furnish him with several
+pictures. One mill gives him repeated opportunities of charming our eye;
+and this wonderful artist, who is only second to Ruysdael because he had
+not Ruysdael's versatility and did not extend his study equally to downs
+and rocky eminences, or torrents and estuaries--this is the man who
+lived penuriously, died poor, and left no trace in the artistic annals
+of his country! It has been said that Hobbema did not paint his own
+figures, but transferred that duty to Adrian van de Velde, Lingelbach,
+Barendt Gael, and Abraham Storck. As to this much is conjecture.
+
+  The best of Hobbema's dated pictures are those of the years 1663 to
+  1667. Of the former, several in the galleries of Brussels and St
+  Petersburg, and one in the Holford collection, are celebrated. Of 1665
+  fine specimens are at Grosvenor House and the Wallace collection. Of
+  seven pieces in the National Gallery, including the "Avenue at
+  Middelharnis," which some assign to 1689, and the "Ruins of Breberode
+  Castle," two are dated 1667. A sample of the last of these years is
+  also in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge. Amongst the masterpieces
+  in private hands in England may be noticed two landscapes in
+  Buckingham Palace, two at Bridgewater House, and one belonging to Mr
+  Walter of Bearwood. On the continent are a "Wooded Landscape" in the
+  Berlin gallery, a "Forest" belonging to the duchess of Sagan in Paris,
+  and a "Glade" in the Louvre. There are other fine Hobbemas in the
+  Antwerp Museum, the Arenberg gallery at Brussels, and the Belvedere at
+  Vienna.     (J. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1679), English philosopher, second son of Thomas
+Hobbes, was born at Westport (now part of Malmesbury, Wiltshire) on the
+5th of April 1588. His father, vicar of Charlton and Westport, an
+illiterate and choleric man, quarrelled, it is said, with a brother
+clergyman at the church door, and was forced to decamp, leaving his
+three children to the care of an elder brother Francis, a flourishing
+glover at Malmesbury. Thomas Hobbes was put to school at Westport church
+at the age of four, passed to the Malmesbury school at eight, and was
+taught again in Westport later at a private school kept by a young man
+named Robert Latimer, fresh from Oxford and "a good Grecian." He had
+begun Latin and Greek early, and under Latimer made such progress as to
+be able to translate the _Medea_ of Euripides into Latin iambic verse
+before he was fourteen. About the age of fifteen he was sent to Oxford
+and entered at Magdalen Hall. During his residence, the first principal
+of Magdalen Hall, John Hussee, was succeeded by John Wilkinson, who
+ruled in the interest of the Calvinistic party in the university. Thus
+early was he brought into contact with the aggressive Puritan spirit.
+Apart from this, Hobbes owed little to his university training, which
+was based on the scholastic logic then prevalent. We have from himself a
+lively record of his student life (_Vit. carm. exp._ p. lxxxv.), which,
+though penned in extreme old age, may be taken as trustworthy. He tells
+how, when he had slowly taken in the doctrine of logical figures and
+moods, he put it aside and would prove things only in his own way; how
+he then heard about bodies as consisting of matter and form, as throwing
+off species of themselves for perception, and as moved by sympathies and
+antipathies, with much else of a like sort, all beyond his
+comprehension; and how he therefore turned to his old books again, fed
+his mind on maps and charts of earth and sky, traced the sun in his
+path, followed Drake and Cavendish girdling the main, and gazed with
+delight upon pictured haunts of men and wonders of unknown lands. Very
+characteristic is the interest in men and things, and the disposition to
+cut through questions in the schools after a trenchant fashion of his
+own. He was little attracted by the scholastic learning, though it would
+be wrong to take his words as evidence of a precocious insight into its
+weakness. The truth probably is that he took no interest in studies
+which there was no risk in neglecting, and thought as little of
+rejecting as of accepting the traditional doctrines. He adds that he
+took his degree at the proper time; but in fact, upon any computation
+and from whatever cause, he remained at Magdalen Hall five, instead of
+the required four, years, not being admitted as bachelor till the 5th of
+February 1608.
+
+
+  Translation of Thucydides.
+
+In the same year Hobbes was recommended by Wilkinson as tutor to the son
+of William Cavendish, baron of Hardwick (afterwards 2nd earl of
+Devonshire), and thus began a lifelong connexion with a great and
+powerful family. Twice it was loosened--once, for a short time, after
+twenty years, and again, for a longer period, during the Civil War--but
+it never was broken. Hobbes spoke of the first years of his tutorship as
+the happiest of his life. Young Cavendish was hardly younger than
+Hobbes, and had been married, a few months before, at the instance of
+the king, to Christiana, the only daughter of Edward, Lord Bruce of
+Kinloss, though by reason of the bride's age, which was only twelve
+years, the pair had no establishment for some time. Hobbes was his
+companion rather than tutor (before becoming secretary); and, growing
+greatly attached to each other, they were sent abroad together on the
+grand tour in 1610. During this journey, the duration of which cannot be
+precisely stated, Hobbes acquired some knowledge of French and Italian,
+and also made the important discovery that the scholastic philosophy
+which he had learned in Oxford was almost universally neglected in
+favour of the scientific and critical methods of Galileo, Kepler and
+Montaigne. Unable at first to cope with their unfamiliar ideas, he
+determined to become a scholar, and until 1628 was engaged in a careful
+study of Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was his great
+translation of Thucydides. But when he had finished his work he kept it
+lying by him for years, being no longer so sure of finding appreciative
+readers; and when he did send it forth, in 1628, he was fain to be
+content with "the few and better sort."[1] That he was finally
+determined to publication by the political troubles of the year 1628 may
+be regarded as certain, not only from his own express declaration at a
+later time (_Vit. carm. exp._), but also from unmistakable hints in the
+account of the life and work of his author prefixed to the translation
+on its appearance. This was the year of the Petition of Right, extorted
+from the king in the third parliament he had tried within three years of
+his accession; and, in view of Hobbes's later activity, it is
+significant that he came forward just then, at the mature age of forty,
+with his version of the story of the Athenian democracy as the first
+production of his pen. Nothing else is known of his doings before 1628,
+except that through his connexion with young Cavendish he had relations
+with literary men of note like Ben Jonson, and also with Bacon and Lord
+Herbert of Cherbury. If he never had any sympathy with Herbert's
+intuitionalist principles in philosophy, he was no less eager, as he
+afterwards showed, than Herbert to rationalize in matters of religious
+doctrine, so that he may be called the second of the English deists, as
+Herbert has been called the first. With Bacon he was so intimate
+(Aubrey's _Lives_, pp. 222, 602) that some writers have described him as
+a disciple. The facts that he used to walk with Bacon at Gorhambury, and
+would jot down with exceptional intelligence the eager thinker's sudden
+"notions," and that he was employed to make the Latin version of some of
+the _Essays_, prove nothing when weighed against his own disregard of
+all Bacon's principles, and the other evidence that the impulse to
+independent thinking came to him not from Bacon, and not till some time
+after Bacon's death in 1626.[2]
+
+
+  Philosophic Inquiry.
+
+So far as we have any positive evidence, it was not before the year 1629
+that Hobbes entered on philosophical inquiry. Meanwhile a great change
+had been wrought in his circumstances. His friend and master, after
+about two years' tenure of the earldom of Devonshire, died of the plague
+in June 1628, and the affairs of the family were so disordered
+financially that the widowed countess was left with the task of righting
+them in the boyhood of the third earl. Hobbes went on for a time living
+in the household; but his services were no longer in demand, and,
+remaining inconsolable under his personal bereavement, he sought
+distraction, in 1629, in another engagement which took him abroad as
+tutor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, of an old Nottinghamshire
+family. This, his second, sojourn abroad appears to have been spent
+chiefly in Paris, and the one important fact recorded of it is that he
+then first began to look into Euclid. The engagement came to an end in
+1631, when he was recalled to train the young earl of Devonshire, now
+thirteen years old, son of his previous pupil. In the course of the next
+seven years in Derbyshire and abroad, Hobbes took his pupil over
+rhetoric,[3] logic, astronomy, and the principles of law, with other
+subjects. His mind was now full of the thought of motion in nature, and
+on the continent he sought out the philosophical speculators or
+scientific workers. In Florence in 1636 he saw Galileo, for whom he ever
+retained the warmest admiration, and spent eight months in daily
+converse with the members of a scientific circle in Paris, held together
+by Marin Mersenne (q.v.). From that time (the winter of 1636-1637) he
+too, as he tells us, was numbered among philosophers.
+
+  His introduction to Euclid took place accidentally in 1629 (Aubrey's
+  _Lives_, p. 604). Euclid's manner of proof became the model for his
+  own way of thinking upon all subjects. It is less easy to determine
+  when he awoke to an interest in the physical doctrine of motion. The
+  story told by himself (_Vit._ p. xx.) is that, hearing the question
+  asked "What is sense?" he fell to thinking often on the subject, till
+  it suddenly occurred to him that if bodies and their internal parts
+  were at rest, or were always in the same state of motion, there could
+  be no distinction of anything, and consequently no sense; the cause of
+  all things must therefore be sought in diversity of movements.
+  Starting from this principle he was driven to geometry for insight
+  into the ground and modes of motion. The biographies we possess do not
+  tell us where or when this great change of interest occurred. Nothing
+  is said, however, which contradicts a statement that on his third
+  journey in Europe he began to study the doctrine of motion more
+  seriously, being interested in it before; and as he claims more than
+  once (_L.W._ v. 303; _E.W._ vii. 468) to have explained light and
+  sound by a mechanical hypothesis as far back as 1630, the inspiration
+  may be assigned to the time of the second journey. But it was not till
+  the third journey that the new interest became an overpowering
+  passion, and the "philosopher" was on his way home before he had
+  advanced so far as to conceive the scheme of a system of thought to
+  the elaboration of which his life should henceforth be devoted.
+
+  Hobbes was able to carry out his plan in some twenty years or more
+  from the time of its conception, but the execution was so broken in
+  upon by political events, and so complicated with other labours, that
+  its stages can hardly be followed without some previous understanding
+  of the relations of the parts of the scheme, as there is reason to
+  believe they were sketched out from the beginning. His scheme was
+  first to work out, in a separate treatise _De corpore_, a systematic
+  doctrine of Body, showing how physical phenomena were universally
+  explicable in terms of motion, as motion or mechanical action was then
+  (through Galileo and others) understood--the theory of motion being
+  applied in the light of mathematical science, after quantity, the
+  subject-matter of mathematics, had been duly considered in its place
+  among the fundamental conceptions of philosophy, and a clear
+  indication had been given, at first starting, of the logical ground
+  and method of all philosophical inquiry. He would then single out Man
+  from the realm of nature, and, in a treatise _De homine_, show what
+  specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the
+  peculiar phenomena of sensation and knowledge, as also of the
+  affections and passions thence resulting, whereby man came into
+  relation with man. Finally he would consider, in a crowning treatise
+  _De cive_, how men, being naturally rivals or foes, were moved to
+  enter into the better relation of Society, and demonstrate how this
+  grand product of human wit must be regulated if men were not to fall
+  back into brutishness and misery. Thus he proposed to unite in one
+  coherent whole the separate phenomena of Body, Man and the State.
+
+Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country seething with discontent. The
+reign of "Thorough" was collapsing, and the forces pent up since 1629
+were soon to rend the fabric of the state. By these events Hobbes was
+distracted from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. The Short
+Parliament, as he tells us at a later time (_E.W._ iv. 414), was not
+dissolved before he had ready "a little treatise in English," in which
+he sought to prove that the points of the royal prerogative which the
+members were determined to dispute before granting supplies "were
+inseparably annexed to the sovereignty which they did not then deny to
+be in the king." Now it can be proved that at this time he had written
+not only his _Human Nature_ but also his _De corpore politico_, the two
+treatises (though published separately ten years later) having been
+composed as parts of one work;[4] and there cannot be the least question
+that together they make "the little treatise" just mentioned. We are
+therefore to understand, first, that he wrote the earliest draft of his
+political theory some years before the outbreak of the Civil War, and,
+secondly, that this earliest draft was not written till, in accordance
+with his philosophical conception, he had established the grounds of
+polity in human nature. The first point is to be noted, because it has
+often been supposed that Hobbes's political doctrine took its peculiar
+complexion from his revulsion against the state of anarchy before his
+eyes, as he wrote during the progress of the Civil War. The second point
+must be maintained against his own implied, if not express, statement
+some years later, when publishing his _De cive_ (_L.W._ ii. 151), that
+he wrote this third part of his system before he had been able to set
+down any finished representation of the fundamental doctrines which it
+presupposed. In the beginning of 1640, therefore, he had written out his
+doctrine of Man at least, with almost as much elaboration as it ever
+received from him.
+
+
+  In Paris.
+
+In November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded to the Short, and sent
+Laud and Strafford to the Tower, and Hobbes, who had become, or thought
+he had become, a marked man by the circulation of his treatise (of
+which, "though not printed, many gentlemen had copies"), hastened to
+Paris, "the first of all that fled." He was now for the fourth and last
+time abroad, and did not return for eleven years. Apparently he remained
+the greater part of the time in or about Paris. He was welcomed back
+into the scientific coterie about Mersenne, and forthwith had the task
+assigned him of criticizing the _Meditations_ of Descartes, which had
+been sent from Holland, before publication, to Mersenne with the
+author's request for criticism from the most different points of view.
+Hobbes was soon ready with the remarks that were printed as "Third"
+among the six (later seven) sets of "Objections" appended, with
+"Replies" from Descartes, to the _Meditations_, when published shortly
+afterwards in 1641 (reprinted in _L.W._ v. 249-274). About the same time
+also Mersenne sent to Descartes, as if they came from a friend in
+England, another set of objections which Hobbes had to offer on various
+points in the scientific treatises, especially the _Dioptrics_, appended
+by Descartes to his _Discourse on Method_ in 1637; to which Descartes
+replied without suspecting the common authorship of the two sets. The
+result was to keep the two thinkers apart rather than bring them
+together. Hobbes was more eager to bring forward his own philosophical
+and physical ideas than careful to enter into the full meaning of
+another's thought; and Descartes was too jealous, and too confident in
+his conclusions to bear with this kind of criticism. He was very curt in
+his replies to Hobbes's philosophical objections, and broke off all
+correspondence on the physical questions, writing privately to Mersenne
+that he had grave doubts of the Englishman's good faith in drawing him
+into controversy (_L.W._ v. 277-307).
+
+Meanwhile Hobbes had his thoughts too full of the political theory which
+the events of the last years had ripened within him to settle, even in
+Paris, to the orderly composition of his works. Though connected in his
+own mind with his view of human nature and of nature generally, the
+political theory, as he always declared, could stand by itself. Also,
+while he may have hoped at this time to be able to add much (though he
+never did) to the sketch of his doctrine of Man contained in the
+unpublished "little treatise," he might extend, but could hardly
+otherwise modify, the sketch he had there given of his carefully
+articulated theory of Body Politic. Possibly, indeed, before that sketch
+was written early in 1640, he may, under pressure of the political
+excitement, have advanced no small way in the actual composition of the
+treatise _De Cive_, the third section of his projected system. In any
+case, it was upon this section, before the others, that he set to work
+in Paris; and before the end of 1641 the book, as we know from the date
+of the dedication (November 1), was finished. Though it was forthwith
+printed in the course of the year 1642, he was content to circulate a
+limited number of copies privately[5]; and when he found his work
+received with applause (it was praised even by Descartes), he seems to
+have taken this recognition of his philosophical achievement as an
+additional reason for deferring publication till the earlier works of
+the system were completed. Accordingly, for the next three or four
+years, he remained steadily at work, and nothing appeared from him in
+public except a short treatise on optics (_Tractatus opticus, L.W._ v.
+217-248) included in the collection of scientific tracts published by
+Mersenne under the title _Cogitata physico-mathematica_ in 1644, and a
+highly compressed statement of his psychological application of the
+doctrine of motion (_L.W._ v. 309-318), incorporated with Mersenne's
+_Ballistica_, published in the same year. Thus or otherwise he had
+become sufficiently known by 1645 to be chosen as a referee, with
+Descartes, Roberval and others, in the famous controversy between John
+Pell (q.v.) and the Dane Longomontanus (q.v.) over that problem of the
+squaring of the circle which was seen later on to have such a fatal
+charm for himself. But though about this time he had got ready all or
+most of the materials for his fundamental work on Body, not even now was
+he able to make way with its composition, and when he returned to it
+after a number of years, he returned a different man.
+
+
+  Leviathan.
+
+The Civil War had broken out in 1642, and the royalist cause began to
+decline from the time of the defeat at Marston Moor, in the middle of
+1644. Then commenced an exodus of the king's friends. Newcastle himself,
+who was a cousin of Hobbes's late patron and to whom he dedicated the
+"little treatise" of 1640, found his way to Paris, and was followed by a
+stream of fugitives, many of whom were known to Hobbes. The sight of
+these exiles made the political interest once more predominant in
+Hobbes, and before long the revived feeling issued in the formation of a
+new and important design. It first showed itself in the publication of
+the _De cive_, of which the fame, but only the fame, had extended beyond
+the inner circle of friends and critics who had copies of the original
+impression. Hobbes now entrusted it, early in 1646, to his admirer, the
+Frenchman Samuel de Sorbière, by whom it was seen through the Elzevir
+press at Amsterdam in 1647--having previously inserted a number of notes
+in reply to objections, and also a striking preface, in the course of
+which he explained its relation to the other parts of the system not yet
+forthcoming, and the (political) occasion of its having been composed
+and being now published before them.[6] So hopeless, meanwhile, was he
+growing of being able to return home that, later on in the year, he was
+on the point of leaving Paris to take up his abode in the south with a
+French friend,[7] when he was engaged "by the month" as mathematical
+instructor to the young prince of Wales, who had come over from Jersey
+about the month of July. This engagement lasted nominally from 1646 to
+1648 when Charles went to Holland. Thus thrown more than ever into the
+company of the exiled royalists, it was then, if not earlier, that he
+conceived his new design of bringing all his powers of thought and
+expression to bear upon the production of an English book that should
+set forth his whole theory of civil government in relation to the
+political crisis resulting from the war. The _De cive_, presently to be
+published, was written in Latin for the learned, and gave the political
+theory without its foundation in human nature. The unpublished treatise
+of 1640 contained all or nearly all that he had to tell concerning human
+nature, but was written before the terrible events of the last years had
+disclosed how men might still be urged by their anti-social passions
+back into the abyss of anarchy. There was need of an exposition at once
+comprehensive, incisive and popular. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes,
+might be regarded as a great artificial man or monster (_Leviathan_),
+composed of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation
+through human reason under pressure of human needs to its dissolution
+through civil strife proceeding from human passions. This, we may
+suppose, was the presiding conception from the first, but the design may
+have been variously modified in the three or four years of its
+execution. Before the end, in 1650-1651, it is plain that he wrote in
+direct reference to the greatly changed aspect of affairs in England.
+The king being dead, and the royalist cause appearing to be hopelessly
+lost, he did not scruple, in closing the work with a general "Review and
+Conclusion," to raise the question of the subject's right to change
+allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect was irrecoverably
+gone. Also he took advantage of the rule of the Commonwealth to indulge
+much more freely than he might have otherwise dared in rationalistic
+criticism of religious doctrines; while, amid the turmoil of sects, he
+could the more forcibly urge that the preservation of social order, when
+again firmly restored, must depend on the assumption by the civil power
+of the right to wield all sanctions, supernatural as well as natural,
+against the pretensions of any clergy, Catholic, Anglican or
+Presbyterian, to the exercise of an _imperium in imperio_.
+
+We know the _Leviathan_ only as it finally emerged from Hobbes's pen.
+During the years of its composition he remained in or near Paris, at
+first in attendance on his royal pupil, with whom he became a great
+favourite. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by a serious illness which
+disabled him for six months. Mersenne begged him not to die outside the
+Roman Catholic Church, but Hobbes said that he had already considered
+the matter sufficiently and afterwards took the sacrament according to
+the rites of the Church of England. On recovering from this illness,
+which nearly proved fatal, he resumed his literary task, and carried it
+steadily forward to completion by the year 1650, having also within the
+same time translated into English, with characteristic force of
+expression, his Latin treatise. Otherwise the only thing known (from one
+or two letters) of his life in those years is that from the year 1648 he
+had begun to think of returning home; he was then sixty and might well
+be weary of exile. When 1650 came, as if to prepare the way for the
+reception of his _magnum opus_, he allowed the publication of his
+earliest treatise, divided into two separate small volumes (_Human
+Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policy, E.W._ iv. 1-76, and _De
+Corpore Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politic_, pp.
+77-228).[8] In 1651[9] he published his translation of the De Cive under
+the title of _Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society_
+(_E.W._ ii.). Meanwhile the printing of the greater work was proceeding,
+and finally it appeared about the middle of the same year, 1651, under
+the title of _Leviathan, or the Matter, Form and Power of a
+Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil_ (_E.W._ iii.), with a quaint
+frontispiece in which, from behind hills overlooking a fair landscape of
+town and country, there towered the body (above the waist) of a crowned
+giant, made up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and
+crozier in the two hands. It appeared, and soon its author was more
+lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time; but the first
+effect of its publication was to sever his connexion with the exiled
+royalist party, and to throw him for protection on the revolutionary
+Government. No sooner did copies of the book reach Paris than he found
+himself shunned by his former associates, and though he was himself so
+little conscious of disloyalty that he was forward to present a
+manuscript copy "engrossed in vellum in a marvellous fair hand"[10] to
+the young king of the Scots (who, after the defeat at Worcester, escaped
+to Paris about the end of October), he was denied the royal presence
+when he sought it shortly afterwards. Straightway, then, he saw himself
+exposed to a double peril. The exiles had among them desperadoes who
+could slay; and, besides exciting the enmity of the Anglican clergy
+about the king, who bitterly resented the secularist spirit of his book,
+he had compromised himself with the French authorities by his elaborate
+attack on the papal system. In the circumstances, no resource was left
+him but secret flight. Travelling with what speed he could in the depths
+of a severe winter and under the effects of a recent (second) illness,
+he managed to reach London, where, sending in his submission to the
+council of state, he was allowed to subside into private life.
+
+
+  Return to London.
+
+  Controversy with Bramhall.
+
+Though Hobbes came back, after his eleven years' absence, without having
+as yet publicly proved his title to rank with the natural philosophers
+of the age, he was sufficiently conscious of what he had been able to
+achieve in _Leviathan_; and it was in no humble mood that he now, at
+the age of sixty-four, turned to complete the fundamental treatise of
+his philosophical system. Neither those whom his masterpiece soon roused
+to enthusiasm, nor those whom it moved to indignation, were likely to be
+indifferent to anything he should now write, whether it lay near to or
+far from the region of practice. Taking up his abode in Fetter Lane,
+London, on his return, and continuing to reside there for the sake of
+intellectual society, even after renewing his old ties with the earl of
+Devonshire, who lived in the country till the Restoration,[11] he worked
+so steadily as to be printing the _De corpore_ in the year 1654.
+Circumstances (of which more presently), however, kept the book back
+till the following year, and meanwhile the readers of _Leviathan_ had a
+different excitement. In 1654 a small treatise, "Of Liberty and
+Necessity" (_E.W._ iv. 229-278), issued from the press, claiming to be
+an answer to a discourse on the same subject by Bishop Bramhall of
+Londonderry (afterwards archbishop of Armagh, d. 1663), addressed by
+Hobbes to the marquis of Newcastle.[12] It had grown out of an oral
+discussion between Hobbes and Bramhall in the marquis's presence at
+Paris in 1646. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had afterwards written down
+his views and sent them to Newcastle to be answered in this form by
+Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication, because he thought
+the subject a delicate one. But it happened that Hobbes had allowed a
+French acquaintance to have a private translation of his reply made by a
+young Englishman, who secretly took a copy of the original for himself;
+and now it was this unnamed purloiner who, in 1654, when Hobbes had
+become famous and feared, gave it to the world of his own motion, with
+an extravagantly laudatory epistle to the reader in its front. Upon
+Hobbes himself the publication came as a surprise, but, after his plain
+speaking in _Leviathan_, there was nothing in the piece that he need
+scruple to have made known, and he seems to have condoned the act. On
+the other hand, Bramhall, supposing Hobbes privy to the publication,
+resented the manner of it, especially as no mention was made of his
+rejoinder. Accordingly, in 1655, he printed everything that had passed
+between them (under the title of _A Defence of the True Liberty of Human
+Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity_), with loud complaint
+against the treatment he had received, and the promise added that, in
+default of others, he himself would stand forward to expose the deadly
+principles of _Leviathan_. About this time Hobbes had begun to be hard
+pressed by other foes, and, being never more sure of himself than upon
+the question of the will, he appears to have welcomed the opportunity
+thus given him of showing his strength. By 1656 he was ready with his
+_Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance_ (_E.W._ v.), in
+which he replied with astonishing force to the bishop's rejoinder point
+by point, besides explaining the occasion and circumstances of the whole
+debate, and reproducing (as Bramhall had done) all the pieces from the
+beginning. As perhaps the first clear exposition and defence of the
+_psychological_ doctrine of determinism, Hobbes's own two pieces must
+ever retain a classical importance in the history of the free-will
+controversy; while Bramhall's are still worth study as specimens of
+scholastic fence. The bishop, it should be added, returned to the charge
+in 1658 with ponderous _Castigations of Mr Hobbes's Animadversions_, and
+also made good his previous threat in a bulky appendix entitled _The
+Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale_. Hobbes never took any notice of
+the _Castigations_, but ten years later replied to the charges of
+atheism, &c., made in the non-political part of the appendix, of which
+he says he then heard for the first time (_E.W._ iv. 279-384). This
+_Answer_ was first published after Hobbes's death.[13]
+
+
+    Controversy with Wallis and Ward.
+
+  We may now follow out the more troublesome conflict, or rather series
+  of conflicts, in which Hobbes became entangled from the time of
+  publishing his _De corpore_ in 1655, and which checkered all his
+  remaining years. In _Leviathan_ he had vehemently assailed the system
+  of the universities, as originally founded for the support of the
+  papal against the civil authority, and as still working social
+  mischief by adherence to the old learning. The attack was duly noted
+  at Oxford, where under the Commonwealth a new spirit of scientific
+  activity had begun to stir. In 1654 Seth Ward (1617-1689), the
+  Savilian professor of astronomy, replying in his _Vindiciae
+  academiarum_ to some other assaults (especially against John Webster's
+  _Examen of Academies_) on the academic system, retorted upon Hobbes
+  that, so far from the universities being now what he had known them in
+  his youth, he would find his geometrical pieces, when they appeared,
+  better understood there than he should like. This was said in
+  reference to the boasts in which Hobbes seems to have been freely
+  indulging of having squared the circle and accomplished other such
+  feats; and, when a year later the _De corpore_ (_L.W._ i.) finally
+  appeared, it was seen how the thrust had gone home. In the chapter
+  (xx.) of that work where Hobbes dealt with the famous problem whose
+  solution he thought he had found, there were left expressions against
+  Vindex (Ward) at a time when the solutions still seemed to him good;
+  but the solutions themselves, as printed, were allowed to be all in
+  different ways halting, as he naively confessed he had discovered only
+  when he had been driven by the insults of malevolent men to examine
+  them more closely with the help of his friends. A strange conclusion
+  this, and reached by a path not less strange, as was now to be
+  disclosed by a relentless hand. Ward's colleague, the more famous John
+  Wallis (q.v.), Savilian professor of geometry from 1649, had been
+  privy to the challenge thrown out in 1654, and it was arranged that
+  they should critically dispose of the _De corpore_ between them. Ward
+  was to occupy himself with the philosophical and physical sections,
+  which he did in leisurely fashion, bringing out his criticism in the
+  course of next year (_In Th. Hobbii philosophiam exercitatio
+  epistolica_). Wallis was to confine himself to the mathematical
+  chapters, and set to work at once with characteristic energy.
+  Obtaining an unbound copy of the _De corpore_, he saw by the mutilated
+  appearance of the sheets that Hobbes had repeatedly altered his
+  demonstrations before he issued them at last in their actual form,
+  grotesque as it was, rather than delay the book longer. Obtaining also
+  a copy of the work as it had been printed before Hobbes had any doubt
+  of the validity of his solutions, Wallis was able to track his whole
+  course from the time of Ward's provocation--his passage from
+  exultation to doubt, from doubt to confessed impotence, yet still
+  without abandoning the old assumption of confident strength; and all
+  his turnings and windings were now laid bare in one of the most
+  trenchant pieces of controversial writing ever penned. Wallis's
+  _Elenchus geometriae Hobbianae_, published in 1655 about three months
+  after the _De corpore_, contained also an elaborate criticism of
+  Hobbes's whole attempt to relay the foundations of mathematical
+  science in its place within the general body of reasoned knowledge--a
+  criticism which, if it failed to allow for the merit of the
+  conception, exposed only too effectually the utter inadequacy of the
+  result. Taking up mathematics when not only his mind was already
+  formed but his thoughts were crystallizing into a philosophical
+  system, Hobbes had, in fact, never put himself to school and sought to
+  work up gradually to the best knowledge of the time, but had been more
+  anxious from the first to become himself an innovator with whatever
+  insufficient means. The consequence was that, when not spending
+  himself in vain attempts to solve the impossible problems that have
+  always waylaid the fancy of self-sufficient beginners, he took an
+  interest only in the elements of geometry, and never had any notion of
+  the full scope of mathematical science, undergoing as it then was (and
+  not least at the hands of Wallis) the extraordinary development which
+  made it before the end of the century the potent instrument of
+  physical discovery which it became in the hands of Newton. He was even
+  unable, in dealing with the elementary conceptions of geometry, to
+  work out with any consistency the few original thoughts he had, and
+  thus became the easy sport of Wallis. At his advanced age, however,
+  and with the sense he had of his powers, he was not likely to be
+  brought to a better mind by so insulting an opponent. He did indeed,
+  before allowing an English translation of the _De corpore_ (_E.W._
+  i.) to appear in 1656, take care to remove some of the worst mistakes
+  exposed by Wallis, and, while leaving out all the references to
+  Vindex, now profess to make, in altered form, a series of mere
+  "attempts" at quadrature; but he was far from yielding the ground to
+  the enemy. With the translation,[14] in the spring of 1656, he had
+  ready _Six Lessons to the Professors of Mathematics, one of Geometry,
+  the other of Astronomy, in the University of Oxford_ (_E.W._ vii.
+  181-356), in which, after reasserting his view of the principles of
+  geometry in opposition to Euclid's, he proceeded to repel Wallis's
+  objections with no lack of dialectical skill, and with an unreserve
+  equal to Wallis's own. He did not scruple, in the ardour of conflict,
+  even to maintain positions that he had resigned in the translation,
+  and he was not afraid to assume the offensive by a counter criticism
+  of three of Wallis's works then published. When he had thus disposed
+  of the "Paralogisms" of his more formidable antagonist in the first
+  five lessons, he ended with a lesson on "Manners" to the two
+  professors together, and set himself gravely at the close to show that
+  he too could be abusive. In this particular part of his task, it must
+  be allowed, he succeeded very well; his criticism of Wallis's works,
+  especially the great treatise _Arithmetica infinitorum_ (1655), only
+  showed how little able he was to enter into the meaning of the modern
+  analysis. Wallis, on his side, was not less ready to keep up the game
+  in English than he had been to begin it in Latin. Swift as before to
+  strike, in three months' time he had deftly turned his own word
+  against the would-be master by administering _Due Correction for Mr
+  Hobbes, or School Discipline for not saying his Lessons right_, in a
+  piece that differed from the _Elenchus_ only in being more biting and
+  unrestrained. Having an easy task in defending himself against
+  Hobbes's trivial criticism, he seized the opportunity given him by the
+  English translation of the _De corpore_ to track Hobbes again step by
+  step over the whole course, and now to confront him with his
+  incredible inconsistencies multiplied by every new utterance. But it
+  was no longer a fight over mathematical questions only. Wallis having
+  been betrayed originally by his fatal cleverness into the pettiest
+  carping at words, Hobbes had retorted in kind, and then it became a
+  high duty in the other to defend his Latin with great parade of
+  learning and give fresh provocation. One of Wallis's rough sallies in
+  this kind suggested to Hobbes the title of the next rejoinder with
+  which, in 1657, he sought to close the unseemly wrangle. Arguing in
+  the _Lessons_ that a mathematical point must have quantity, though
+  this were not reckoned, he had explained the Greek word [Greek:
+  stigmê], used for a point, to mean a visible mark made with a hot
+  iron; whereupon he was charged by Wallis with gross ignorance for
+  confounding [Greek: stigmê] and [Greek: stigma]. Hence the title of
+  his new piece: [Greek: Stigmai ageômetrias, agroikias, antipoliteias,
+  amatheias], or _Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language, Scottish
+  Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John Wallis, Professor of Geometry
+  and Doctor of Divinity_ (_E.W._ vii. 357-400). He now attacked more in
+  detail but not more happily than before Wallis's great work, while
+  hardly attempting any further defence of his own positions; also he
+  repelled with some force and dignity the insults that had been heaped
+  upon him, and fought the verbal points, but could not leave the field
+  without making political insinuations against his adversary, quite
+  irrelevant in themselves and only noteworthy as evidence of his own
+  resignation to Cromwell's rule. The thrusts were easily and nimbly
+  parried by Wallis in a reply (_Hobbiani puncti dispunctio_, 1657)
+  occupied mainly with the verbal questions. Irritating as it was, it
+  did not avail to shake Hobbes's determination to remain silent; and
+  thus at last there was peace for a time.
+
+  Before the strife flamed up again, Hobbes had published, in 1658, the
+  outstanding section of his philosophical system, and thus completed,
+  after a fashion, the scheme he had planned more than twenty years
+  before. So far as the treatise _De homine_ (_L.W._ ii. 11-32) was
+  concerned, the completion was more in name than in fact. It consisted
+  for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision which, though very
+  creditable to Hobbes's scientific insight, was out of place, or at
+  least out of proportion, in a philosophical consideration of human
+  nature generally. The remainder of the treatise, dealing cursorily
+  with some of the topics more fully treated in the _Human Nature_ and
+  the _Leviathan_, has all the appearance of having been tagged in haste
+  to the optical chapters (composed years before)[15] as a makeshift
+  for the proper transition required in the system from questions of
+  Body Natural to questions of Body Politic. Hobbes had in fact spent
+  himself in his earlier constructive efforts, and at the age of
+  seventy, having nothing to add to his doctrine of Man as it was
+  already in one form or another before the world, was content with
+  anything that might stand for the fulfilment of his philosophical
+  purpose. But he had still in him more than twenty years of vigorous
+  vitality, and, not conscious to himself of any shortcoming, looked
+  forward, now his hands were free, to doing battle for his doctrines.
+  Rather than remain quiet, on finding no notice taken of his latest
+  production, he would himself force on a new conflict with the enemy.
+  Wallis having meanwhile published other works and especially a
+  comprehensive treatise on the general principles of calculus
+  (_Mathesis universalis_, 1657), he might take this occasion of
+  exposing afresh the new-fangled methods of mathematical analysis and
+  reasserting his own earlier positions. Accordingly, by the spring of
+  1660, he had managed to put his criticism and assertions into five
+  dialogues under the title _Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae
+  hodiernae qualis explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii_, with a sixth
+  dialogue so called, consisting almost entirely of seventy or more
+  propositions on the circle and cycloid.[16] Wallis, however, would not
+  take the bait. Hobbes then tried another tack. Next year, having
+  solved, as he thought, another ancient _crux_, the duplication of the
+  cube, he had his solution brought out anonymously at Paris in French,
+  so as to put Wallis and other critics off the scent and extort a
+  judgment that might be withheld from a work of his. The artifice was
+  successful, and no sooner had Wallis publicly refuted the solution
+  than Hobbes claimed the credit of it, and went more wonderfully than
+  ever astray in its defence. He presently republished it (in modified
+  form), with his remarks, at the end of a new Latin dialogue which he
+  had meanwhile written in defence of another part of his philosophical
+  doctrine. This was the _Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aëris_
+  (_L.W._ iv. 233-296), fulminated in 1661 against Boyle and other
+  friends of Wallis who, as he fancied, under the influence of that
+  malevolent spirit, were now in London, after the Restoration, forming
+  themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in 1662)
+  for experimental research, to the exclusion of himself personally, and
+  in direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry enjoined in
+  the _De corpore_.[17] All the laborious manipulation recorded in
+  Boyle's _New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air_ (1660), which
+  Hobbes chose, without the least warrant, to take as the manifesto of
+  the new "academicians," seemed to him only to confirm the conclusions
+  he had reasoned out years before from speculative principles, and he
+  warned them that if they were not content to begin where he had left
+  off their work would come to nought. To as much of this diatribe as
+  concerned himself Boyle quickly replied with force and dignity, but it
+  was from Hobbes's old enemy that retribution came, in the scathing
+  satire _Hobbius heauton-timorumenos_ (1662). Wallis, who had deftly
+  steered his course amid all the political changes of the previous
+  years, managing ever to be on the side of the ruling power, was now
+  apparently stung to fury by a wanton allusion in Hobbes's latest
+  dialogue to a passage of his former life (his deciphering for the
+  parliament the king's papers taken at Naseby), whereof he had once
+  boasted but after the Restoration could not speak or hear too little.
+  The revenge he took was crushing. Professing to be roused by the
+  attack on his friend Boyle, when he had scorned to lift a finger in
+  defence of himself against the earlier dialogues, he tore them all to
+  shreds with an art of which no general description can give an idea.
+  He got, however, upon more dangerous ground when, passing wholly by
+  the political insinuation against himself, he roundly charged Hobbes
+  with having written _Leviathan_ in support of Oliver's title, and
+  deserted his royal master in distress. Hobbes seems to have been
+  fairly bewildered by the rush and whirl of sarcasm with which Wallis
+  drove him anew from every mathematical position he had ever taken up,
+  and did not venture forth into the field of scientific controversy
+  again for some years, when he had once followed up the physical
+  dialogue of 1661 by seven shorter ones, with the inevitable appendix,
+  entitled _Problemata physica, una cum magnitudine circuli_ (_L.W._ iv.
+  297-384), in 1662.[18] But all the more eagerly did he take advantage
+  of Wallis's loose calumny to strike where he felt himself safe. His
+  answer to the personal charges took the form of a letter about himself
+  in the third person addressed to Wallis in 1662, under the title of
+  _Considerations upon the Reputation, Loyalty, Manners and Religion of
+  Thomas Hobbes_ (_E.W._ iv. 409-440). In this piece, which is of great
+  biographical value, he told his own and Wallis's "little stories
+  during the time of the late rebellion" with such effect that Wallis,
+  like a wise man, attempted no further reply. Thus ended the second
+  bout.
+
+  After a time Hobbes took heart again and began a third period of
+  controversial activity, which did not end, on his side, till his
+  ninetieth year. Little need be added to the simple catalogue of the
+  untiring old man's labours in this last stage of his life. The first
+  piece, published in 1666, _De principiis et ratiocinatione
+  geometrarum_ (_L.W._ iv. 385-484), was designed, as the sub-title
+  declared, to lower the pride of geometrical professors by showing that
+  there was no less uncertainty and error in their works than in those
+  of physical or ethical writers. Wallis replied shortly in the
+  _Philosophical Transactions_ (August 1666). Three years later he
+  brought his three great achievements together in compendious form,
+  _Quadratura circuli, Cubatio sphaerae, Duplicatio cubi_, and as soon
+  as they were once more refuted by Wallis, reprinted them with an
+  answer to the objections, in compliment to the grand-duke of Tuscany,
+  who paid him attentions on a visit to England in 1669 (_L.W._ iv.
+  485-522). Wallis, who had promised to leave him alone henceforward,
+  refuted him again before the year was out. In 1671 he worked up his
+  propositions over again in _Rosetum geometricum_ (_L.W._ v. 1-50), as
+  a fragrant offering to the geometrical reader, appending a criticism
+  (_Censura brevis_, pp. 50-88) on the first part of Wallis's treatise
+  _De motu_, published in 1669; also he sent _Three Papers_ to the Royal
+  Society on selected points treated very briefly, and when Wallis,
+  still not weary of confuting, shortly replied, published them
+  separately with triumphant _Considerations on Dr Wallis's Answer to
+  them_ (_E.W._ vii. 429-448). Next year (1672), having now, as he
+  believed, established himself with the Royal Society, he proceeded to
+  complete the discomfiture of Wallis by a public address to the Society
+  on all the points at issue between them from the beginning, _Lux
+  Mathematica excussa collisionibus Johannis Wallisii et Thomae
+  Hobbesii_ (_L.W._ v. 89-150), the light, as the author R. R. (Roseti
+  Repertor) added, being here "increased by many very brilliant rays."
+  Wallis replied in the _Transactions_, and then finally held his hand.
+  Hobbes's energy was not yet exhausted. In 1674, at the age of
+  eighty-six, he published his _Principia et problemata aliquot
+  geometrica, ante desperata nunc breviter explicata et demonstrata_
+  (_L.W._ v. 150-214), containing in the chapters dealing with questions
+  of principle not a few striking observations, which ought not to be
+  overlooked in the study of his philosophy. His last piece of all,
+  _Decameron physiologicum_ (_E.W._ vii. 69-180), in 1678, was a new set
+  of dialogues on physical questions, most of which he had treated in a
+  similar fashion before; but now, in dealing with gravitation, he was
+  able to fire a parting shot at Wallis; and one more demonstration of
+  the equality of a straight line to the arc of a circle, thrown in at
+  the end, appropriately closed the strangest warfare in which perverse
+  thinker ever engaged.[19]
+
+
+  Later Years.
+
+We must now turn back to trace the fortunes of Hobbes and his other
+doings in the last twenty years of his life. All these controversial
+writings on mathematics and physics represent but one half of his
+activity after the age of seventy; though, as regards the other half, it
+is not possible, for a reason that will be seen, to say as definitely in
+what order the works belonging to the period were produced. From the
+time of the Restoration he acquired a new prominence in the public eye.
+No year had passed since the appearance of _Leviathan_ without some
+indignant protest against the influence which its trenchant doctrine was
+calculated to produce upon minds longing above everything for civil
+repose; but after the Restoration "Hobbism" became a fashionable creed,
+which it was the duty of every lover of true morality and religion to
+denounce. Two or three days after Charles's arrival in London, Hobbes
+drew in the street the notice of his former pupil, and was at once
+received into favour. The young king, if he had ever himself resented
+the apparent disloyalty of the "Conclusion" of _Leviathan_, had not
+retained the feeling long, and could appreciate the principles of the
+great book when the application of them happened, as now, to be turned
+in his own favour. He had, besides, a relish for Hobbes's wit (as he
+used to say, "Here comes the bear to be baited"), and did not like the
+old man the less because his presence at court scandalized the bishops
+or the prim virtue of Chancellor Hyde. He even went the length of
+bestowing on Hobbes (but not always paying) a pension of £100, and had
+his portrait hung up in the royal closet. These marks of favour,
+naturally, did not lessen Hobbes's self-esteem, and perhaps they
+explain, in his later writings, a certain slavishness toward the regal
+authority, which is wholly absent from his rational demonstration of
+absolutism in the earlier works. At all events Hobbes was satisfied with
+the rule of a king who had appreciated the author of _Leviathan_, and
+protected him when, after a time, protection in a very real sense became
+necessary. His eagerness to defend himself against Wallis's imputation
+of disloyalty, and his apologetic dedication of the _Problemata physica_
+to the king, are evidence of the hostility with which he was being
+pressed as early as 1662; but it was not till 1666 that he felt himself
+seriously in danger. In that year the Great Fire of London, following on
+the Great Plague, roused the superstitious fears of the people, and the
+House of Commons embodied the general feeling in a bill against atheism
+and profaneness. On the 17th of October it was ordered that the
+committee to which the bill was referred "should be empowered to receive
+information touching such books as tend to atheism, blasphemy and
+profaneness, or against the essence and attributes of God, and in
+particular the book published in the name of one White,[20] and the book
+of Mr Hobbes called the _Leviathan_, and to report the matter with their
+opinion to the House." Hobbes, then verging upon eighty, was terrified
+at the prospect of being treated as a heretic, and proceeded to burn
+such of his papers as he thought might compromise him. At the same time
+he set himself, with a very characteristic determination, to inquire
+into the actual state of the law of heresy. The results of his
+investigation were first announced in three short Dialogues added (in
+place of the old "Review and Conclusion," for which the day had passed)
+as an Appendix to his Latin translation of _Leviathan_ (_L.W._ iii.),
+included with the general collection of his works published at Amsterdam
+in 1668. In this appendix, as also in the posthumous tract, published in
+1680, _An Historical Narration concerning Heresy and the Punishment
+thereof_ (_E.W._ iv. 385-408), he aimed at showing that, since the High
+Court of Commission had been put down, there remained no court of heresy
+at all to which he was amenable, and that even when it stood nothing was
+to be declared heresy but what was at variance with the Nicene Creed, as
+he maintained the doctrine of _Leviathan_ was not.
+
+The only consequence that came of the parliamentary scare was that
+Hobbes could never afterwards get permission to print anything on
+subjects relating to human conduct. The collected edition of his Latin
+works (in two quarto volumes) appeared at Amsterdam in 1668, because he
+could not obtain the censor's licence for its publication at London,
+Oxford or Cambridge. Other writings which he had finished, or on which
+he must have been engaged about this time, were not made public till
+after his death--the king apparently having made it the price of his
+protection that no fresh provocation should be offered to the popular
+sentiment. The most important of the works composed towards 1670, and
+thus kept back, is the extremely spirited dialogue to which he gave the
+title _Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England
+and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the
+year 1640 to the year 1660_.[21] To the same period probably belongs the
+unfinished _Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common
+Laws of England_ (_E.W._ vi. 1-160), a trenchant criticism of the
+constitutional theory of English government as upheld by Coke. Aubrey
+takes credit for having tried to induce Hobbes to write upon the subject
+in 1664 by presenting him with a copy of Bacon's _Elements of the Laws
+of England_, and though the attempt was then unsuccessful, Hobbes later
+on took to studying the statute-book, with _Coke upon Littleton_. One
+other posthumous production also (besides the tract on Heresy before
+mentioned) may be referred to this, if not, as Aubrey suggests, an
+earlier time--the two thousand and odd elegiac verses in which he gave
+his view of ecclesiastical encroachment on the civil power; the quaint
+verses, disposed in his now favourite dialogue-form, were first
+published, nine years after his death, under the title _Historia
+ecclesiastica_ (_L.W._ v. 341-408), with a preface by Thomas Rymer.
+
+For some time Hobbes was not even allowed to utter a word of protest,
+whatever might be the occasion that his enemies took to triumph over
+him. In 1669 an unworthy follower--Daniel Scargil by name, a fellow of
+Corpus Christi College, Cambridge--had to recant publicly and confess
+that his evil life had been the result of Hobbist doctrines. In 1674
+John Fell, the dean of Christ Church, who bore the charges of the Latin
+translation of Anthony Wood's _History and Antiquities of the University
+of Oxford_ (1670), struck out all the complimentary epithets in the
+account of his life, and substituted very different ones; but this time
+the king did suffer him to defend himself by publishing a dignified
+letter (_Vit. Auct._ pp. xlvii.-l.), to which Fell replied by adding to
+the translation when it appeared a note full of the grossest insults.
+And, amid all his troubles, Hobbes was not without his consolations. No
+Englishman of that day stood in the same repute abroad, and foreigners,
+noble or learned, who came to England, never forgot to pay their
+respects to the old man, whose vigour and freshness of intellect no
+progress of the years seemed able to quench. Among these was the
+grand-duke of Tuscany (Ferdinand II.), who took away some works and a
+portrait to adorn the Medicean library.
+
+His pastimes in the latest years were as singular as his labours. The
+autobiography in Latin verse, with its playful humour, occasional pathos
+and sublime self-complacency, was thrown off at the age of eighty-four.
+At eighty-five, in the year 1673, he sent forth a translation of four
+books of the _Odyssey_ (ix.-xii.) in rugged but not seldom happily
+turned English rhymes; and, when he found this _Voyage of Ulysses_
+eagerly received, he had ready by 1675 a complete translation of both
+_Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ (_E.W._ x.), prefaced by a lively dissertation
+"Concerning the Virtues of an Heroic Poem," showing his unabated
+interest in questions of literary style. After 1675, he passed his time
+at his patron's seats in Derbyshire, occupied to the last with
+intellectual work in the early morning and in the afternoon hours, which
+it had long been his habit to devote to thinking and to writing. Even as
+late as August 1679 he was promising his publisher "somewhat to print in
+English." The end came very soon afterwards. A suppression of urine in
+October, in spite of which he insisted upon being conveyed with the
+family from Chatsworth to Hardwick Hall towards the end of November, was
+followed by a paralytic stroke, under which he sank on the 4th of
+December, in his ninety-second year. He lies buried in the neighbouring
+church of Ault Hucknall.
+
+
+  Personal characteristics.
+
+He was tall and erect in figure, and lived on the whole a temperate
+life, though he used to say that he had been drunk about a hundred
+times. His favourite exercise was tennis, which he played regularly even
+after the age of seventy. Socially he was genial and courteous, though
+in argument he occasionally lost his temper. As a friend he was generous
+and loyal. Intellectually bold in the extreme, he was curiously timid in
+ordinary life, and is said to have had a horror of ghosts. He read
+little, and often boasted that he would have known as little as other
+men if he had read as much. He appears to have had an illegitimate
+daughter for whom he made generous provision. In the National Portrait
+Gallery there is a portrait of him by J. M. Wright, and two others are
+in the possession of the Royal Society.
+
+
+  Place in English thought.
+
+As already suggested, it cannot be allowed that Hobbes falls into any
+regular succession from Bacon; neither can it be said that he handed on
+the torch to Locke. He was the one English thinker of the first rank in
+the long period of two generations separating Locke from Bacon, but,
+save in the chronological sense, there is no true relation of succession
+among the three. It would be difficult even to prove any ground of
+affinity among them beyond a desposition to take sense as a prime factor
+in the account of subjective experience: their common interest in
+physical science was shared equally by rationalist thinkers of the
+Cartesian school, and was indeed begotten of the time. Backwards,
+Hobbes's relations are rather with Galileo and the other inquirers who,
+from the beginning of the 17th century, occupied themselves with the
+physical world in the manner that has come later to be distinguished by
+the name of science in opposition to philosophy. But even more than in
+external nature, Hobbes was interested in the phenomena of social life,
+presenting themselves so impressively in an age of political revolution.
+So it came to pass that, while he was unable, by reason of imperfect
+training and too tardy development, with all his pains, to make any
+contribution to physical science or to mathematics as instrumental in
+physical research, he attempted a task which no other adherent of the
+new "mechanical philosophy" conceived--nothing less than such a
+universal construction of human knowledge as would bring Society and Man
+(at once the matter and maker of Society) within the same principles of
+scientific explanation as were found applicable to the world of Nature.
+The construction was, of course, utterly premature, even supposing it
+were inherently possible; but it is Hobbes's distinction, in his
+century, to have conceived it, and he is thereby lifted from among the
+scientific workers with whom he associated to the rank of those
+philosophical thinkers who have sought to order the whole domain of
+human knowledge. The effects of his philosophical endeavour may be
+traced on a variety of lines. Upon every subject that came within the
+sweep of his system, except mathematics and physics, his thoughts have
+been productive of thought. When the first storm of opposition from
+smaller men had begun to die down, thinkers of real weight, beginning
+with Cumberland and Cudworth, were moved by their aversion to his
+analysis of the moral nature of man to probe anew the question of the
+natural springs and the rational grounds of human action; and thus it
+may be said that Hobbes gave the first impulse to the whole of that
+movement of ethical speculation that, in modern times, has been carried
+on with such remarkable continuity in England. In politics the revulsion
+from his particular conclusions did not prevent the more clear-sighted
+of his opponents from recognizing the force of his supreme demonstration
+of the practical irresponsibility of the sovereign power, wherever
+seated, in the state; and, when in a later age the foundations of a
+positive theory of legislation were laid in England, the school of
+Bentham--James Mill, Grote, Molesworth--brought again into general
+notice the writings of the great publicist of the 17th century, who,
+however he might, by the force of temperament, himself prefer the rule
+of one, based his whole political system upon a rational regard to the
+common weal. Finally, the psychology of Hobbes, though too undeveloped
+to guide the thoughts or even perhaps arrest the attention of Locke,
+when essaying the scientific analysis of knowledge, came in course of
+time (chiefly through James Mill) to be connected with the theory of
+associationism developed from within the school of Locke, in different
+ways, by Hartley and Hume; nor is it surprising that the later
+associationists, finding their principle more distinctly formulated in
+the earlier thinker, should sometimes have been betrayed into
+affiliating themselves to Hobbes rather than to Locke. For his ethical
+theories see Ethics.
+
+  Sufficient information is given in the _Vitae Hobbianae auctarium_
+  (_L.W._ i. p. lxv. ff.) concerning the frequent early editions of
+  Hobbes's separate works, and also concerning the works of those who
+  wrote against him, to the end of the 17th century. In the 18th
+  century, after Clarke's _Boyle Lectures_ of 1704-1705, the opposition
+  was less express. In 1750 _The Moral and Political Works_ were
+  collected, with life, &c., by Dr Campbell, in a folio edition,
+  including in order, _Human Nature_, _De corpore politico_,
+  _Leviathan_, _Answer to Bramhall's Catching of the Leviathan_,
+  _Narration concerning Heresy_, _Of Liberty and Necessity_, _Behemoth_,
+  _Dialogue of the Common Laws_, the Introduction to the _Thucydides_,
+  _Letter to Davenant and two others_, the Preface to the _Homer_, _De
+  mirabilibus Pecci_ (with English translation), _Considerations on the
+  Reputation, &., of T. H._ In 1812 the _Human Nature_ and the _Liberty
+  and Necessity_ (with supplementary extracts from the _Questions_ of
+  1656) were reprinted in a small edition of 250 copies, with a
+  meritorious memoir (based on Campbell) and dedication to Horne Tooke,
+  by Philip Mallet. Molesworth's edition (1839-1845), dedicated to
+  Grote, has been referred to in a former note. Of translations may be
+  mentioned _Les Élémens philosophiques du citoyen_ (1649) and _Le Corps
+  politique_ (1652), both by S. de Sorbière, conjoined with _Le Traité
+  de la nature humaine_, by d'Holbach, in 1787, under the general title
+  _Les Oeuvres philosophiques et politiques de Thomas Hobbes_; a
+  translation of the first section, "Computatio sive logica," of the _De
+  corpore_, included by Destutt de Tracy with his _Élémens d'idéologie_
+  (1804); a translation of _Leviathan_ into Dutch in 1678, and another
+  (anonymous) into German--_Des Engländers Thomas Hobbes Leviathan oder
+  der kirchliche und bürgerliche Staat_ (Halle, 1794, 2 vols.); a
+  translation of the _De cive_ by J. H. v. Kirchmann--_T. Hobbes:
+  Abhandlung über den Bürger, &c._ (Leipzig, 1873). Important later
+  editions are those of Ferdinand Tönnies, _Behemoth_ (1889), on which
+  see Croom Robertson's _Philosophical Remains_ (1894), p. 451;
+  _Elements of Law_ (1889).
+
+  _Biographical and Critical Works._--There are three accounts of
+  Hobbes's life, first published together in 1681, two years after his
+  death, by R. B. (Richard Blackbourne, a friend of Hobbes's admirer,
+  John Aubrey), and reprinted, with complimentary verses by Cowley and
+  others, at the beginning of Sir W. Molesworth's collection of the
+  _Latin Works_: (1) _T. H. Malmesb. vita_ (pp. xiii.-xxi.), written by
+  Hobbes himself, or (as also reported) by T. Rymer, at his dictation;
+  (2) _Vitae Hobbianae auctarium_ (pp. xxii.-lxxx.), turned into Latin
+  from Aubrey's English; (3) _T. H. Malmesb. vita carmine expressa_ (pp.
+  lxxxi.-xcix.), written by Hobbes at the age of eighty-four (first
+  published by itself in 1680). The _Life of Mr T. H. of Malmesburie_,
+  printed among the _Lives of Eminent Men_, in 1813, from Aubrey's
+  papers in the Bodleian, &c. (vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 593-637), contains
+  some interesting particulars not found in the _Auctarium_. All that is
+  of any importance for Hobbes's life is contained in G. Croom
+  Robertson's _Hobbes_ (1886) in Blackwood's Philosophical Classics, and
+  Sir Leslie Stephen's _Hobbes_ (1904) in the "English Men of Letters"
+  series, both of which deal fully with his philosophy also. See also F.
+  Tönnies, _Hobbes Leben und Lehre_ (1896), _Hobbes-Analekten_ (1904
+  foll.); G. Zart, _Einfluss der englischen Philosophie seit Bacon auf
+  die deutsche Philosophie des 18ten Jahrh._ (Berlin, 1881); G. Brandt,
+  _Thomas Hobbes: Grundlinien seiner Philosophie_ (1895); G. Lyon, _La
+  Philos. de Hobbes_ (1893); J. M. Robertson, _Pioneer Humanists_
+  (1907); J. Rickaby, _Free Will and Four English Philosophers_ (1906),
+  pp. 1-72; J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories_ (1895); W. Graham, _English
+  Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine_ (1899); W. J. H. Campion,
+  _Outlines of Lectures on Political Science_ (1895).     (G. C. R.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The translation, under the title _Eight Books of the
+    Peloponnesian War, written by Thucydides the son of Olorus,
+    interpreted with faith and diligence immediately out of the Greek by
+    Thomas Hobbes, secretary to the late Earl of Devonshire_, appeared in
+    1628 (or 1629), after the death of the earl, to whom touching
+    reference is made in the dedication. It reappeared in 1634, with the
+    date of the dedication altered, as if then newly written. Though
+    Hobbes claims to have performed his work "with much more diligence
+    than elegance," his version is remarkable as a piece of English
+    writing, but is by no means accurate. It fills vols. viii. and ix. in
+    Molesworth's collection (11 vols., including index vol.) of Hobbes's
+    _English Works_ (London, Bohn, 1839-1845). The volumes of this
+    collection will here be cited as E. W. Molesworth's collection of the
+    Latin _Opera philosophica_ (5 vols., 1839-1845) will be cited as
+    _L.W._ The five hundred and odd Latin hexameters under the title _De
+    mirabilibus Pecci_ (_L.W._ v. 323-340), giving an account of a short
+    excursion from Chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the Derbyshire
+    Peak, were written before 1628 (in 1626 or 1627), though not
+    published till 1636. It was a New Year's present to his patron, who
+    gave him £5 in return. A later edition, in 1678, included an English
+    version by another hand.
+
+  [2] Hobbes, in minor works dealing with physical questions (L.W. iv.
+    316; _E.W._ vii. 112), makes two incidental references to Bacon's
+    writings, but never mentions Bacon as he mentions Galileo, Kepler,
+    Harvey, and others (_De corpore_, ep. ded.), among the lights of the
+    century. The word "Induction," which occurs in only three or four
+    passages throughout all his works (and these again minor ones), is
+    never used by him with the faintest reminiscence of the import
+    assigned to it by Bacon; and, as will be seen, he had nothing but
+    scorn for experimental work in physics.
+
+  [3] The free English abstract of Aristotle's _Rhetoric_, published in
+    1681, after Hobbes's death, as _The Whole Art of Rhetoric_ (_E.W._
+    vi. 423-510), corresponds with a Latin version dictated to his young
+    pupil. Among Hobbes's papers preserved at Hardwick, where he died,
+    there remains the boy's dictation-book, interspersed with headings,
+    examples, &c. in Hobbes's hand.
+
+  [4] Among the Hardwick papers there is preserved a MS. copy of the
+    work, under the title _Elementes of Law Naturall and Politique_, with
+    the dedication to the earl of Newcastle, written in Hobbes's own
+    hand, and dated May 9, 1640. This dedication was prefixed to the
+    first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves, under
+    the title _Human Nature_ in 1650.
+
+  [5] The book, of which the copies are rare (one in Dr Williams's
+    library in London and one in the Bodleian), was printed in quarto
+    size (Paris, 1642), with a pictorial title-page (not afterwards
+    reproduced) of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions,
+    "Libertas," "Imperium," "Religio." The title _Elementorum
+    philosophiae sectio tertia, De Cive_, expresses its relation to the
+    unwritten sections, which also comes out in one or two
+    back-references in the text.
+
+  [6] _L.W._ ii. 133-134. In this first public edition (12mo), the
+    title was changed to _Elementa philosophica de cive_, the references
+    in the text to the previous sections being omitted. The date of the
+    dedication to the young earl of Devonshire was altered from 1641 to
+    1646.
+
+  [7] Described as "nobilis Languedocianus" in _Vit._; doubtless the
+    same with the "Dominus Verdusius, nobilis Aquitanus," to whom was
+    dedicated the _Exam. et emend. math. hod._ (_L.W._ iv.) in 1660. Du
+    Verdus was one of Hobbes's profoundest admirers and most frequent
+    correspondents in later years; there are many of his letters among
+    Hobbes's papers at Hardwick.
+
+  [8] _The Human Nature_ corresponds with cc. i.-xiii. of the first
+    part of the original treatise. The remaining six chapters of the part
+    stand now as Part I. of the _De Corpore Politico_. Part II. of the
+    _D.C.P._ corresponds with the original second part of the whole work.
+
+  [9] At the beginning of this year he wrote and published in Paris a
+    letter on the nature and conditions of poetry, chiefly epic, in
+    answer to an appeal to his judgment made in the preface to Sir W.
+    Davenant's heroic poem, _Gondibert_ (_E.W._ iv. 441-458). The letter
+    is dated Jan. 10, 1650 (1650/1).
+
+  [10] This presentation copy, so described by Clarendon (_Survey of
+    the Leviathan_, 1676, p. 8), is doubtless the beautifully written and
+    finely bound MS. now to be found in the British Museum (Egerton MSS.
+    1910).
+
+  [11] During all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive
+    from his patron a yearly pension of £80, and they remained in steady,
+    correspondence. The earl, having sided with the king in 1642, was
+    declared unfit to sit in the House of Peers, and though, by
+    submission to Parliament, he recovered his estates when they were
+    sequestered later on, he did not sit again till 1660. Among Hobbes's
+    friends at this time are specially mentioned John Selden and William
+    Harvey, who left him a legacy of £10. According to Aubrey, Selden
+    left him an equal bequest, but this seems to be a mistake. Harvey
+    (not Bacon) is the only Englishman he mentions in the dedicatory
+    epistle prefixed to the _De corpore_, among the founders, before
+    himself, of the new natural philosophy.
+
+  [12] The treatise bore the date, "Rouen, Aug. 20, 1652," but it
+    should have been 1646, as afterwards explained by Hobbes himself
+    (_E.W._ v. 25).
+
+  [13] "The _Vit. auct._ refers to 1676, a 'Letter to William duke of
+    Newcastle on the Controversy about Liberty and Necessity, held with
+    Benjamin Laney, bishop of Ely.' In that year there did appear a
+    (confused) little tract written by Laney against Hobbes's concluding
+    statement of his own 'Opinion' in the 'Liberty and Necessity' of 1654
+    (1646), but I can find no trace of any further writing by Hobbes on
+    the subject" (G. Croom Robertson, _Hobbes_, p. 202).
+
+  [14] This translation, _Concerning Body_, though not made by Hobbes,
+    was revised by him; but it is far from accurate, and not seldom, at
+    critical places (e.g. c. vi. § 2), quite misleading. Philosophical
+    citations from the _De corpore_ should always be made in the original
+    Latin. Molesworth reprints the Latin, not from the first edition of
+    1655, but from the modified edition of 1668--modified, in the
+    mathematical chapters, in general (not exact) keeping with the
+    English edition of 1656. The Vindex episode, referred to in the _Six
+    Lessons_, becomes intelligible only by going beyond Molesworth to the
+    original Latin edition of 1655.
+
+  [15] They were composed originally, in a somewhat different and
+    rather more extended form, as the second part of an English treatise
+    on Optics, completed by the year 1646. Of this treatise, preserved in
+    Harleian MSS. 3360, Molesworth otherwise prints the dedication to the
+    marquis of Newcastle, and the concluding paragraphs (_E.W._ vii.
+    467-471).
+
+  [16] _L.W._ iv. 1-232. The propositions on the circle, forty-six in
+    number (shattered by Wallis in 1662), were omitted by Hobbes when he
+    republished the _Dialogues_ in 1668, in the collected edition of his
+    Latin works from which Molesworth reprints. In the part omitted, at
+    p. 154 of the original edition, Hobbes refers to his first
+    introduction to Euclid, in a way that confirms the story in Aubrey
+    quoted in an earlier paragraph.
+
+  [17] Remaining at Oxford, Wallis, in fact, took no active part in the
+    constitution of the new society, but he had been, from 1645, one of
+    the originators of an earlier association in London, thus continued
+    or revived. This earlier society had been continued also at Oxford
+    after the year 1649, when Wallis and others of its members received
+    appointments there.
+
+  [18] The _Problemata physica_ was at the same time put into English
+    (with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical
+    appendix), and presented to the king, to whom the work was dedicated
+    in a remarkable letter apologizing for _Leviathan_. In its English
+    form, as _Seven Philosophical Problems and Two Propositions of
+    Geometry_ (_E.W._ vii. 1-68), the work was first published in 1682,
+    after Hobbes's death.
+
+  [19] Wallis's pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his
+    works (1693-1697), and have become extremely rare.
+
+  [20] The De medio animarum statu of Thomas White, a heterodox
+    Catholic priest, who contested the natural immortality of the soul.
+    White (who died 1676) and Hobbes were friends.
+
+  [21] _E.W._ vi. 161-418. Though _Behemoth_ was kept back at the
+    king's express desire, it saw the light, without Hobbes's leave, in
+    1679, before his death.
+
+
+
+
+HOBBY, a small horse, probably from early quotations, of Irish breed,
+trained to an easy gait so that riding was not fatiguing. The common use
+of the word is for a favourite pursuit or occupation, with the idea
+either of excessive devotion or of absence of ulterior motive or of
+profit, &c., outside the occupation itself. This use is probably not
+derived from the easy ambling gait of the Irish "hobby," but from the
+"hobby-horse," the mock horse of the old morris-dances, made of a
+painted wooden horse's head and tail, with a framework casing for an
+actor's body, his legs being covered by a cloth made to represent the
+"housings" of the medieval tilting-horse. A hobby or hobby-horse is thus
+a toy, a diversion. The O. Fr. _hobin_, or _hobi_, Mod. _aubin_, and
+Ital. _ubina_ are probably adaptations of the English, according to the
+_New English Dictionary_. The O. Fr. hober, to move, which is often
+taken to be the origin of all these words, is the source of a use of
+"hobby" for a small kind of falcon, _falco subbuteo_, used in hawking.
+
+
+
+
+HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE, 1ST BARON (1819-1904), English judge, fourth
+son of Henry Hobhouse, permanent under-secretary of state in the Home
+Office, was born at Hadspen, Somerset, on the 10th of November 1819.
+Educated at Eton and Balliol, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn
+in 1845, and rapidly acquired a large practice as a conveyancer and
+equity draftsman; he became Q.C. in 1862, and practised in the Rolls
+Court, retiring in 1866. He was an active member of the charity
+commission and urged the appropriation of pious bequests to educational
+and other purposes. In 1872 he began a five years' term of service as
+legal member of the council of the governor-general of India, his
+services being acknowledged by a K.C.S.I.; and in 1881 he was appointed
+a member of the judicial committee of the privy council, on which he
+served for twenty years. He was made a peer in 1885, and consistently
+supported the Liberal party in the House of Lords. He died on the 6th of
+December 1904, leaving no heir to the barony.
+
+  His papers read before the Social Science Association on the subject
+  of property were collected in 1880 under the title of _The Dead Hand_.
+
+
+
+
+HOBOKEN, a small town of Belgium on the right bank of the Scheldt about
+4 m. above Antwerp. It is only important on account of the shipbuilding
+yard which the Cockerill firm of Seraing has established at Hoboken.
+Many wealthy Antwerp merchants have villas here, and it is the
+headquarters of several of the leading rowing clubs on the Scheldt. Pop.
+(1904) 12,816.
+
+
+
+
+HOBOKEN, a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Hudson
+river, adjoining Jersey City on the S. and W. and opposite New York
+city, with which it is connected by ferries and by two subway lines
+through tunnels under the river. Pop. (1890) 43,648; (1900) 59,364, of
+whom 21,380 were foreign-born, 10,843 being natives of Germany; (1910
+census) 70,324. Of the total population in 1900, 48,349 had either one
+or both parents foreign-born, German being the principal racial element.
+The city is served by the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lackawanna &
+Western railways, being the eastern terminus of the latter, and is
+connected by electric railway with the neighbouring cities of
+north-eastern New Jersey. In Hoboken are the piers of the North German
+Lloyd, the Hamburg American, the Netherlands American, the Scandinavian
+and the Phoenix steamship lines. Hoboken occupies a little more than 1
+sq. m. and lies near the foot of the New Jersey Palisades, which rise
+both on the W. and N. to a height of nearly 200 ft. Much of its surface
+has had to be filled in to raise it above high tide, but Castle Point,
+in the N.E., rises from the generally low level about 100 ft. On this
+Point are the residence and private estate of the founder of the city,
+John Stevens (1749-1838), Hudson Park, and facing it the Stevens
+Institute of Technology, an excellent school of mechanical engineering
+endowed by Edwin A. Stevens (1795-1868), son of John Stevens, opened in
+1871, and having in 1909-1910 34 instructors and 390 students. The
+institute owes much to its first president, Henry Morton (1836-1902), a
+distinguished scientist, whose aim was "to offer a course of instruction
+in which theory and practice were carefully balanced and thoroughly
+combined," and who gave to the institute sums aggregating $175,000 (see
+_Morton Memorial, History of Stevens Institute_, ed. by Furman, 1905).
+In connexion with the institute there is a preparatory department, the
+Stevens School (1870). The city maintains a teachers' training school.
+Among the city's prominent buildings are the Delaware, Lackawanna &
+Western station, the Hoboken Academy (1860), founded by German
+Americans, and the public library. The city has an extensive coal trade
+and numerous manufactures, among which are lead pencils, leather goods,
+silk goods, wall-paper and caskets. The value of the manufactured
+product increased from $7,151,391 in 1890 to $12,092,872 in 1900, or
+69.1%. The factory product in 1905 was valued at $14,077,305, an
+increase of 34.3% over that for 1900. The site of Hoboken (originally
+"Hobocanhackingh," the place of the tobacco pipe) was occupied about
+1640 as a Dutch farm, but in 1643 the stock and all the buildings except
+a brew-house were destroyed by the Indians. In 1711 title to the place
+was acquired by Samuel Bayard, a New York merchant, who built on Castle
+Point his summer residence. During the War of Independence his
+descendant, William Bayard, was a loyalist, and his home was burned and
+his estate confiscated. In 1784 the property was purchased by John
+Stevens, the inventor, who in 1804 laid it out as a town. For the next
+thirty-five years its "Elysian Fields" were a famous pleasure resort of
+New York City. Hoboken was incorporated as a town in 1849 and as a city
+in 1855. On the 30th of June 1900 the wharves of the North German Lloyd
+Steamship Company and three of its ocean liners were almost completely
+destroyed by a fire, which caused a loss of more than 200 lives and over
+$5,000,000.
+
+
+
+
+HOBSON'S CHOICE, i.e. "this or nothing," an expression that arose from
+the fact that the Cambridge-London carrier, Thomas Hobson (1544-1630),
+refused, when letting his horses on hire, to allow any animal to leave
+the stable out of its turn. Among other bequests made by Hobson, and
+commemorated by Milton, was a conduit for the Cambridge market-place,
+for which he provided the perpetual maintenance. See _Spectator_, No.
+509 (14th of October 1712).
+
+
+
+
+HOBY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1566), English diplomatist and translator, son of
+William Hoby of Leominster, was born in 1530. He entered St John's
+College, Cambridge, in 1545, but in 1547 he went to Strassburg, where he
+was the guest of Martin Bucer, whose _Gratulation ... unto the Church of
+Englande for the restitution of Christes Religion_ he translated into
+English. He then proceeded to Italy, visiting Padua and Venice, Florence
+and Siena, and in May 1550 he had settled at Rome, when he was summoned
+by his half-brother, Sir Philip Hoby (1505-1558), then ambassador at the
+emperor's court, to Augsburg. The brothers returned to England at the
+end of the year, and Thomas attached himself to the service of the
+marquis of Northampton, whom he accompanied to France on an embassy to
+arrange a marriage between Edward VI. and the princess Elizabeth.
+Shortly after he returned to England he started once more for Paris, and
+in 1552 he was engaged on his translation of _The Courtyer of Count
+Baldessar Castilio_. His work was probably completed in 1554, and the
+freedom of the allusions to the Roman church probably accounts for the
+fact that it was withheld from publication until 1561. The _Cortegiano_
+of Baldassare Castiglione, which Dr Johnson called "the best book that
+ever was written upon good breeding," is a book as entirely typical of
+the Italian Renaissance as Machiavelli's _Prince_ in another direction.
+It exercised an immense influence on the standards of chivalry
+throughout Europe, and was long the recognized authority for the
+education of a nobleman. The accession of Mary made it desirable for the
+Hobys to remain abroad, and they were in Italy until the end of 1555.
+Thomas Hoby married in 1558 Elizabeth, the learned daughter of Sir
+Anthony Cook, who wrote a Latin epitaph on her husband. He was knighted
+in 1566 by Elizabeth, and was sent to France as English ambassador. He
+died on the 13th of July in the same year in Paris, and was buried in
+Bisham Church.
+
+His son, SIR EDWARD HOBY (1560-1617), enjoyed Elizabeth's favour, and he
+was employed on various confidential missions. He was constable of
+Queenborough Castle, Kent, where he died on the 1st of March 1617. He
+took part in the religious controversies of the time, publishing many
+pamphlets against Theophilus Higgons and John Fludd or Floyd. He
+translated, from the French of Mathieu Coignet, _Politique Discourses on
+Trueth and Lying_ (1586).
+
+  The authority for Thomas Hoby's biography is a MS. "Booke of the
+  Travaile and lief of me Thomas Hoby, with diverse things worth the
+  noting." This was edited for the Royal Historical Society by Edgar
+  Powell in 1902. Hoby's translation of _The Courtyer_ was edited (1900)
+  by Professor Walter Raleigh for the "Tudor Translations" series.
+
+
+
+
+HOCHE, LAZARE (1768-1797), French general, was born of poor parents near
+Versailles on the 24th of June 1768. At sixteen years of age he enlisted
+as a private soldier in the _Gardes françaises_. He spent his entire
+leisure in earning extra pay by civil work, his object being to provide
+himself with books, and this love of study, which was combined with a
+strong sense of duty and personal courage, soon led to his promotion.
+When the _Gardes françaises_ were broken up in 1789 he was a corporal,
+and thereafter he served in various line regiments up to the time of his
+receiving a commission in 1792. In the defence of Thionville in that
+year Hoche earned further promotion, and he served with credit in the
+operations of 1792-1793 on the northern frontier of France. At the
+battle of Neerwinden he was aide-de-camp to General le Veneur, and when
+Dumouriez deserted to the Austrians, Hoche, along with le Veneur and
+others, fell under suspicion of treason; but after being kept under
+arrest and unemployed for some months he took part in the defence of
+Dunkirk, and in the same year (1793) he was promoted successively _chef
+de brigade_, general of brigade, and general of division. In October
+1793 he was provisionally appointed to command the Army of the Moselle,
+and within a few weeks he was in the field at the head of his army in
+Lorraine. His first battle was that of Kaiserslautern (28th-30th of
+November) against Prussians. The French were defeated, but even in the
+midst of the Terror the Committee of Public Safety continued Hoche in
+his command. Pertinacity and fiery energy in their eyes outweighed
+everything else, and Hoche soon showed that he possessed these
+qualities. On the 22nd of December he stormed the lines of Fröschweiler,
+and the representatives of the Convention with his army at once added
+the Army of the Rhine to his sphere of command. On the 26th of December
+the French carried by assault the famous lines of Weissenburg, and
+Hoche pursued his success, sweeping the enemy before him to the middle
+Rhine in four days. He then put his troops into winter quarters. Before
+the following campaign opened, he married Anne Adelaïde Dechaux at
+Thionville (March 11th, 1794). But ten days later he was suddenly
+arrested, charges of treason having been preferred by Pichegru, the
+displaced commander of the Army of the Rhine, and by his friends. Hoche
+escaped execution, however, though imprisoned in Paris until the fall of
+Robespierre. Shortly after his release he was appointed to command
+against the Vendéans (21st of August 1794). He completed the work of his
+predecessors in a few months by the peace of Jaunaye (15th of February
+1795), but soon afterwards the war was renewed by the Royalists. Hoche
+showed himself equal to the crisis and inflicted a crushing blow on the
+Royalist cause by defeating and capturing de Sombreuil's expedition at
+Quiberon and Penthièvre (16th-21st of July 1795). Thereafter, by means
+of mobile columns (which he kept under good discipline) he succeeded
+before the summer of 1796 in pacifying the whole of the west, which had
+for more than three years been the scene of a pitiless civil war. After
+this he was appointed to organize and command the troops destined for
+the invasion of Ireland, and he started on this enterprise in December
+1796. A tempest, however, separated Hoche from the expedition, and after
+various adventures the whole fleet returned to Brest without having
+effected its purpose. Hoche was at once transferred to the Rhine
+frontier, where he defeated the Austrians at Neuwied (April), though
+operations were soon afterwards brought to an end by the Preliminaries
+of Leoben. Later in 1797 he was minister of war for a short period, but
+in this position he was surrounded by obscure political intrigues, and,
+finding himself the dupe of Barras and technically guilty of violating
+the constitution, he quickly laid down his office, returning to his
+command on the Rhine frontier. But his health grew rapidly worse, and he
+died at Wetzlar on the 19th of September 1797 of consumption. The belief
+was widely spread that he had been poisoned, but the suspicion seems to
+have been without foundation. He was buried by the side of his friend
+Marceau in a fort on the Rhine, amidst the mourning not only of his army
+but of all France.
+
+  See Privat, _Notions historiques sur la vie morale, politique et
+  militaire du général Hoche_ (Strassburg, 1798); Daunou, _Éloge du
+  général Hoche_ (1798), delivered on behalf of the Institut at Hoche's
+  funeral; Rousselin, _Vie de Lazare Hoche, général des armées de la
+  république française_ (Paris, 1798; this work was printed at the
+  public expense and distributed to the schools); Dubroca, _Éloge
+  funèbre du général Hoche_ (Paris, 1800); _Vie et pensées du général
+  Hoche_ (Bern); Champrobert, _Notice historique sur Lazare Hoche, le
+  pacificateur de la Vendée_ (Paris, 1840); Dourille, _Histoire de
+  Lazare Hoche_ (Paris, 1844); Desprez, _Lazare Hoche d'après sa
+  correspondance_ (Paris, 1858; new ed., 1880); Bergounioux, _Essai sur
+  la vie de Lazare Hoche_ (1852); É. de Bonnechose, _Lazare Hoche_
+  (1867); H. Martin, _Hoche et Bonaparte_ (1875); Dutemple, _Vie
+  politique et militaire du général Hoche_ (1879); Escaude, _Hoche en
+  Irlande_ (1888); Cunéo d'Ornano, _Hoche_ (1892); A. Chuquet, _Hoche et
+  la lutte pour l'Alsace_ (a volume of this author's series on the
+  campaigns of the Revolution, 1893); E. Charavaray, _Le Général Hoche_
+  (1893); A. Duruy, _Hoche et Marceau_ (1885).
+
+
+
+
+HOCHHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
+situated on an elevation not far from the right bank of the Main, 3 m.
+above its influx into the Rhine and 3 m. E. of Mainz by the railway from
+Cassel to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 3779. It has an Evangelical and
+a Roman Catholic church, and carries on an extensive trade in wine, the
+English word "Hock," the generic term for Rhine wine, being derived from
+its name. Hochheim is mentioned in the chronicles as early as the 7th
+century. It is also memorable as the scene of a victory gained here, on
+the 7th of November 1813 by the Austrians over the French.
+
+  See Schüler, _Geschichte der Stadt Hochheim am Main_ (Hochheim, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HÖCHST, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau on
+the Main, 6 m. by rail W. of Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 14,121. It
+is a busy industrial town with large dye-works and manufactures of
+machinery, snuff, tobacco, waxcloth, gelatine, furniture and biscuits.
+Brewing is carried on and there is a considerable river trade. The
+Roman Catholic church of St Justinus is a fine basilica originally built
+in the 9th century; it has been restored several times, and a Gothic
+choir was added in the 15th century. The town has also an Evangelical
+church and a synagogue, and a statue of Bismarck by Alois Mayer. Höchst
+belonged formerly to the electors of Mainz who had a palace here; this
+was destroyed in 1634 with the exception of one fine tower which still
+remains. In 1622 Christian, duke of Brunswick, was defeated here by
+Count Tilly, and in 1795 the Austrians gained a victory here over the
+French.
+
+Höchst is also the name of a small town in Hesse. This has some
+manufactures, and was formerly the seat of a Benedictine monastery.
+
+
+
+
+HÖCHSTÄDT, a town of Bavaria, Germany, in the district of Swabia, on the
+left bank of the Danube, 34 m. N.E. of Ulm by rail. Pop. (1905) 2305. It
+has three Roman Catholic churches, a castle flanked by walls and towers
+and some small industries, including malting and brewing. Höchstädt,
+which came into the possession of Bavaria in 1266, has been a place of
+battles. Here Frederick of Hohenstaufen, vicegerent of the Empire for
+Henry IV., was defeated by Henry's rival, Hermann of Luxemburg, in 1081;
+in 1703 the Imperialists were routed here by Marshal Villars in command
+of the French; in August 1704 Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the
+French and Bavarians commanded by Max Emanuel, the elector of Bavaria
+and Marshal Tallard, this battle being usually known as that of
+Blenheim; and in June 1800 an engagement took place here between the
+Austrians and the French.
+
+There is another small town in Bavaria named Höchstadt. Pop. 2000. This
+is on the river Aisch, not far from Bamberg, to which bishopric it
+belonged from 1157 to 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria.
+
+
+
+
+HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON, BARON (1829-1884), Austrian
+geologist, was born at Esslingen, Würtemberg, on the 30th of April 1829.
+He was the son of Christian Ferdinand Hochstetter (1787-1860), a
+clergyman and professor at Brünn, who was also a botanist and
+mineralogist. Having received his early education at the evangelical
+seminary at Maulbronn, he proceeded to the university of Tübingen; there
+under F. A. Quenstedt the interest he already felt in geology became
+permanently fixed, and there he obtained his doctor's degree and a
+travelling scholarship. In 1852 he joined the staff of the Imperial
+Geological Survey of Austria and was engaged until 1856 in parts of
+Bohemia, especially in the Böhmerwald, and in the Fichtel and Karlsbad
+mountains. His excellent reports established his reputation. Thus he
+came to be chosen as geologist to the Novara expedition (1857-1859), and
+made numerous valuable observations in the voyage round the world. In
+1859 he was engaged by the government of New Zealand to make a rapid
+geological survey of the islands. On his return he was appointed in 1860
+professor of mineralogy and geology at the Imperial Polytechnic
+Institute in Vienna, and in 1876 he was made superintendent of the
+Imperial Natural History Museum. In these later years he explored
+portions of Turkey and eastern Russia, and he published papers on a
+variety of geological, palaeontological and mineralogical subjects. He
+died at Vienna on the 18th of July 1884.
+
+  PUBLICATIONS.--_Karlsbad, seine geognostischen Verhältnisse und seine
+  Quellen_ (1858); _Neu-Seeland_ (1863); _Geological and Topographical
+  Atlas of New Zealand_ (1864); _Leitfaden der Mineralogie und Geologie_
+  (with A. Bisching) (1876, ed. 8, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HOCKEY (possibly derived from the "hooked" stick with which it is
+played; cf. O. Fr. _hoquet_, shepherd's crook), a game played with a
+ball or some similar object by two opposing sides, using hooked or bent
+sticks, with which each side attempts to drive it into the other's goal.
+In one or more of its variations Hockey was known to most northern
+peoples in both Europe and Asia, and the Romans possessed a game of
+similar nature. It was played indiscriminately on the frozen ground or
+the ice in winter. In Scotland it was called "shinty," and in Ireland
+"hurley," and was usually played on the hard, sandy sea-shore with
+numerous players on each side. The rules were simple and the play very
+rough.
+
+Modern Hockey, properly so called, is played during the cold season on
+the hard turf, and owes its recent vogue to the formation of "The Men's
+Hockey Association" in England in 1875. The rules drawn up by the
+Wimbledon Club in 1883 still obtain in all essentials. Since 1895
+"international" matches at hockey have been played annually between
+England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales; and in 1907 a match was played
+between England and France, won by England by 14 goals to nil. In 1890
+Divisional Association matches (North, South, West, Midlands) and
+inter-university matches (Oxford and Cambridge) were inaugurated, and
+have since been played annually. County matches are also now regularly
+played in England, twenty-six counties competing in 1907. Of other
+hockey clubs playing regular matches in 1907, there were eighty-one in
+the London district, and fifty-nine in the provinces.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram of Hockey Field.
+
+  G, Goal.          RW, Right Wing.
+  RB, Right Back.   RI, Inside Right.
+  LB, Left Back.    CF, Centre Forward.
+  RH, Right Half.   LI, Inside Left.
+  CH, Centre Half.  LW, Left Wing.]
+  LH, Left Half.
+
+  The game is played by teams of eleven players on a ground 100 yds.
+  long and 50 to 60 yds. wide. The goals are in the centre of each
+  end-line, and consist of two uprights 7 ft. high surmounted by a
+  horizontal bar, enclosing a space 12 ft. wide. In front of each goal
+  is a space enclosed by a curved line, its greatest diameter from the
+  goal-line being 15 ft., called the _striking-circle_. The positions of
+  the players on each side may be seen on the accompanying diagram. Two
+  umpires, one on each side of the centre-line, officiate.
+
+  The ball is an ordinary cricket-ball painted white. The stick has a
+  hard-wood curved head, and a handle of cork or wrapped cane. It must
+  not exceed 2 in. in diameter nor 28 oz. in weight. At the start of the
+  game, which consists of two thirty or thirty-five minute periods, the
+  two centre-forwards "bully off" the ball in the middle of the field.
+  In "bullying off" each centre must strike the ground on his own side
+  of the ball three times with his stick and strike his opponent's stick
+  three times alternately; after which either may strike the ball. Each
+  side then endeavours, by means of striking, passing and dribbling, to
+  drive the ball into its opponents' goal. A player is "off side" if he
+  is nearer the enemy's goal than one of his own side who strikes the
+  ball, and he may not strike the ball himself until it has been touched
+  by one of the opposing side. The ball may be caught (but not held) or
+  stopped by any part of the body, but may not be picked up, carried,
+  kicked, thrown or knocked except with the stick. An opponent's stick
+  may be hooked, but not an opponent's person, which may not be
+  obstructed in any way. No left-handed play is allowed. Penalties for
+  infringing rules are of two classes; "free hits" and "penalty
+  bullies," to be taken where the foul occurred. For flagrant fouls
+  penalty goals may also be awarded. A "corner" occurs when the ball
+  goes behind the goal-line, but not into goal. If it is hit by the
+  attacking side, or unintentionally by the defenders, it must be
+  brought out 25 yds., in a direction at right angles to the goal-line
+  from the point where it crossed the line, and there "bullied." But if
+  the ball is driven from within the 25-yd. line unintentionally behind
+  the goal-line by the defenders, a member of the attacking side is
+  given a free hit from a point within 3 yds. of a corner flag, the
+  members of the defending side remaining behind their goal-line. If the
+  ball is hit intentionally behind the goal-line by the attacking side,
+  the free hit is taken from the point where the ball went over. No goal
+  can be scored from a free hit directly.
+
+_Ice Hockey_ (or _Bandy_, to give it its original name) is far more
+popular than ordinary Hockey in countries where there is much ice; in
+fact in America "Hockey" means Ice Hockey, while the land game is called
+Field Hockey. Ice Hockey in its simplest form of driving a ball across a
+given limit with a stick or club has been played for centuries in
+northern Europe, attaining its greatest popularity in the Low Countries,
+and there are many 16th- and 17th-century paintings extant which
+represent games of Bandy, the players using an implement formed much
+like a golf club.
+
+  In England Bandy is controlled by the "National Bandy Association." A
+  team consists of eleven players, wearing skates, and the proper space
+  for play is 200 yds. by 100 yds. in extent. The ball is of solid
+  india-rubber, between 2¼ and 2¾ in. in diameter. The bandies are 2 in.
+  in diameter and about 4 ft. long. The goals, placed in the centre of
+  each goal-line, consist of two upright posts 7 ft. high and 12 ft.
+  apart, connected by a lath. A match is begun by the referee throwing
+  up the ball in the centre of the field, after which it must not be
+  touched other than with the bandy until a goal is scored or the ball
+  passes the boundaries of the course, in which case it is hit into the
+  field in any direction excepting forward from the point where it went
+  out by the player who touched it last. If the ball is hit across the
+  goal-line but not into a goal, it is hit out by one of the defenders
+  from the point where it went over, the opponents not being allowed to
+  approach nearer than 25 yds. from the goal-line while the hit is made.
+
+  [Illustration: Hockey Stick.]
+
+  In America the development of the modern game is due to the Victoria
+  Hockey Club and McGill University (Montreal). About 1881 the secretary
+  of the former club made the first efforts towards drawing up a
+  recognized code of laws, and for some time afterwards playing rules
+  were agreed upon from time to time whenever an important match was
+  played, the chief teams being, besides those already mentioned, the
+  Ottawa, Quebec, Crystal and Montreal Hockey Clubs, the first general
+  tournament taking place in 1884. Three years later the "Amateur Hockey
+  Association of Canada" was formed, and a definite code of rules drawn
+  up. Soon afterwards, in consequence of exhibitions given by the best
+  Canadian teams in some of the larger cities of the United States, the
+  new game was taken up by American schools, colleges and athletic
+  clubs, and became nearly as popular in the northern states as in the
+  Dominion. The rules differ widely from those of English Bandy. The
+  rink must be at least 112 ft. long by 58 ft. wide, and seven players
+  form a side. The goals are 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. high and are provided
+  with goal-nets. Instead of the English painted cricket-ball a puck is
+  used, made of vulcanized rubber in the form of a draught-stone, 1 in.
+  thick, and 3 in. in diameter. The sticks are made of one piece of hard
+  wood, and may not be more than 3 in. wide at any part. The game is
+  played for two half-hour or twenty-minute periods with an intermission
+  of ten minutes. At the beginning of a match, and also when a goal has
+  been made, the puck is _faced_, i.e. it is placed in the middle of the
+  rink between the sticks of the two left-centres, and the referee calls
+  "play." Whichever side then secures the ball endeavours by means of
+  passing and dribbling to get the puck into a position from which a
+  goal may be _shot_. The puck may be stopped by any part of the person
+  but not carried or knocked except with the stick. No stick may be
+  raised above the shoulder except when actually striking the puck. When
+  the puck is driven off the rink or behind the goal, or a foul has been
+  made behind the goal, it is faced 5 yds. inside the rink. The
+  goal-keeper must maintain a standing position.
+
+  There are a number of Hockey organizations in America, all under the
+  jurisdiction of the "American Amateur Hockey League" in the United
+  States and the "Canadian Amateur Athletic League" in Canada.
+
+  _Ice Polo_, a winter sport similar to Ice Hockey, is almost
+  exclusively played in the New England states. A rubber-covered ball is
+  used and the stick is heavier than that used in Ice Hockey. The
+  radical difference between the two games is that, in Ice Polo, there
+  is no strict off-side rule, so that passes and shots at goal may come
+  from any and often the most unexpected direction. Five men constitute
+  a team: a goal-tend, a half-back, a centre and two rushers. The
+  rushers must be rapid skaters, adepts in dribbling and passing and
+  good goal shots. The centre supports the rushers, passing the ball to
+  them or trying for goal himself. The half-back is the first defence
+  and the goal-tend the last. The rink is 150 ft. long.
+
+  _Ring Hockey_ may be played on the floor of any gymnasium or large
+  room by teams of six, comprising a goal-keeper, a quarter, three
+  forwards and a centre. The goals consist of two uprights 3 ft. high
+  and 4 ft. apart. The ring, which takes the place of the ball or puck,
+  is made of flexible rubber, and is 5 in. in diameter with a 3-in.
+  opening through the centre. It weighs between 12 and 16 oz. The stick
+  is a wand of light but tough wood, between 36 and 40 in. long, about ¾
+  in. in diameter, provided with a 5-in. guard 20 in. from the lower
+  end. The method of shooting is to insert the end of the stick in the
+  hole of the ring and drive it towards the goal. A goal shot from the
+  field counts one point, a goal from a foul ½ point. When a foul is
+  called by the referee a player of the opposing side is allowed a free
+  shot for goal from any point on the quarter line.
+
+  _Roller Polo_, played extensively during the winter months in the
+  United States, is practically Ice Polo adapted to the floors of
+  gymnasiums and halls, the players, five on a side, wearing
+  roller-skates. The first professional league was organized in 1883.
+
+
+
+
+HOCK-TIDE, an ancient general holiday in England, celebrated on the
+second Monday and Tuesday after Easter Sunday. Hock-Tuesday was an
+important term day, rents being then payable, for with Michaelmas it
+divided the rural year into its winter and summer halves. The derivation
+of the word is disputed: any analogy with Ger. _hoch_, "high," being
+generally denied. No trace of the word is found in Old English, and
+"hock-day," its earliest use in composition, appears first in the 12th
+century. The characteristic pastime of hock-tide was called binding. On
+Monday the women, on Tuesday the men, stopped all passers of the
+opposite sex and bound them with ropes till they bought their release
+with a small payment, or a rope was stretched across the highroads, and
+the passers were obliged to pay toll. The money thus collected seems to
+have gone towards parish expenses. Many entries are found in parish
+registers under "Hocktyde money." The hock-tide celebration became
+obsolete in the beginning of the 18th century. At Coventry there was a
+play called "The Old Coventry Play of Hock Tuesday." This, suppressed at
+the Reformation owing to the incidental disorder, and revived as part of
+the festivities on Queen Elizabeth's visit to Kenilworth in July 1575,
+depicted the struggle between Saxons and Danes, and has given colour to
+the suggestion that hock-tide was originally a commemoration of the
+massacre of the Danes on St Brice's Day, the 13th of November A.D. 1002,
+or of the rejoicings at the death of Hardicanute on the 8th of June 1042
+and the expulsion of the Danes. But the dates of these anniversaries do
+not bear this out.
+
+
+
+
+HOCUS, a shortened form of "hocus pocus," used in the 17th century in
+the sense of "to play a trick on any one," to "hoax," which is generally
+taken to be a derivative. "Hocus pocus" appears to have been a mock
+Latin expression first used as the name of a juggler or conjurer. Thus
+in Ady's _Candle in the Dark_ (1655), quoted in the _New English
+Dictionary_, "I will speak of one man ... that went about in King James
+his time ... who called himself, The Kings Majesties most excellent
+Hocus Pocus, and so was called, because that at the playing of every
+Trick, he used to say, _Hocus pocus, tontus talontus, vade celeriter
+jubeo_, a dark composure of words, to blinde the eyes of the beholders,
+to make his Trick pass the more currantly without discovery."
+Tillotson's guess (_Sermons_, xxvi.) that the phrase was a corruption of
+_hoc est corpus_ and alluded to the words of the Eucharist, "in
+ridiculous imitation of the priests of the Church of Rome in their trick
+of Transubstantiation," has frequently been accepted as a serious
+derivation, but has no foundation. A connexion with a supposed demon of
+Scandinavian mythology, called "Ochus Bochus," is equally unwarranted.
+"Hocus" is used as a verb, meaning to drug, stupefy with opium, &c., for
+a criminal purpose. This use dates from the beginning of the 19th
+century.
+
+
+
+
+HODDEN (a word of unknown origin), a coarse kind of cloth made of undyed
+wool, formerly much worn by the peasantry of Scotland. It was usually
+made on small hand-looms by the peasants themselves. Grey hodden was
+made by mixing black and white fleeces together in the proportion of one
+to twelve when weaving.
+
+
+
+
+HODDESDON, an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary division of
+Hertfordshire, England, near the river Lea, 17 m. N. from London by the
+Great Eastern railway (Broxbourne and Hoddesdon station on the Cambridge
+line). Pop. (1901), 4711. This is the northernmost of a series of
+populous townships extending from the suburbs of London along the Lea
+valley as far as its junction with the Stort, which is close to
+Hoddesdon. They are in the main residential. Hoddesdon was a famous
+coaching station on the Old North Road; and the Bull posting-house is
+mentioned in Matthew Prior's "Down Hall." The Lea has been a favourite
+resort of anglers (mainly for coarse fish in this part) from the time of
+Izaak Walton, in whose book Hoddesdon is specifically named. The church
+of St Augustine, Broxbourne, is a fine example of Perpendicular work,
+and contains interesting monuments, including an altar tomb with
+enamelled brasses of 1473. Hoddesdon probably covers the site of a
+Romano-British village.
+
+
+
+
+HODEDA (_Hodeida_, _Hadeda_), a town in Arabia situated on the Red Sea
+coast 14° 48´ N. and 42° 57´ E. It lies on a beach of muddy sand exposed
+to the southerly and westerly winds. Steamers anchor more than a mile
+from shore, and merchandize has to be transhipped by means of _sambuks_
+or native boats. But Hodeda has become the chief centre of the maritime
+trade of Turkish Yemen, and has superseded Mokha as the great port of
+export of South Arabian coffee. The town is composed of stone-built
+houses of several storeys, and is surrounded, except on the sea face, by
+a fortified enceinte. The population is estimated at 33,000, and
+contains, besides the Arab inhabitants and the Turkish officials and
+garrison, a considerable foreign element, Greeks, Indians and African
+traders from the opposite coast. There are consulates of Great Britain,
+United States, France, Germany, Italy and Greece. The steam tonnage
+entering and clearing the port in 1904 amounted to 78,700 tons, the
+highest hitherto recorded. Regular services are maintained with Aden,
+and with Suez, Massowa and the other Red Sea ports. Large dhows bring
+dates from the Persian Gulf, and occasional steamers from Bombay call on
+their way to Jidda with cargoes of grain. The imports for 1904 amounted
+in value to £467,000, the chief items being piece goods, food grains and
+sugar; the exports amounted to £451,000, including coffee valued at
+£229,000.
+
+
+
+
+HODENING, an ancient Christmas custom still surviving in Wales, Kent,
+Lancashire and elsewhere. A horse's skull or a wooden imitation on a
+pole is carried round by a party of youths, one of whom conceals himself
+under a white cloth to simulate the horse's body, holding a lighted
+candle in the skull. They make a house-to-house visitation, begging
+gratuities. The "Penitential" of Archbishop Theodore (d. 690) speaks of
+"any who, on the kalands of January, clothe themselves with the skins of
+cattle and carry heads of animals." This, coupled with the fact that
+among the primitive Scandinavians the horse was often the sacrifice made
+at the winter solstice to Odin for success in battle, has been thought
+to justify the theory that hodening is a corruption of Odining.
+
+
+
+
+HODGE, CHARLES (1797-1878), American theologian, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of December 1797. He graduated
+at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) in 1815, and in 1819 at the
+Princeton Theological seminary, where he became an instructor in 1820,
+and the first professor of Oriental and Biblical literature in 1822.
+Meanwhile, in 1821, he had been ordained as a Presbyterian minister.
+From 1826 to 1828 he studied under de Sacy in Paris, under Gesenius and
+Tholuck in Halle, and under Hengstenberg, Neander and Humboldt in
+Berlin. In 1840 he was transferred to the chair of exegetical and
+didactic theology, to which subjects that of polemic theology was added
+in 1854, and this office he held until his death. In 1825 he established
+the quarterly _Biblical Repertory_, the title of which was changed to
+_Biblical Repertory and Theological Review_ in 1830 and to _Biblical
+Repertory and Princeton Review_ in 1837. With it, in 1840, was merged
+the _Literary and Theological Review_ of New York, and in 1872 the
+American Presbyterian Review of New York, the title becoming
+_Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review_ in 1872 and _Princeton
+Review_ in 1877. He secured for it the position of theological organ of
+the Old School division of the Presbyterian church, and continued its
+principal editor and contributor until 1868, when the Rev. Lyman H.
+Atwater became his colleague. His more important essays were republished
+under the titles _Essays and Reviews_ (1857), _Princeton Theological
+Essays, and Discussions in Church Polity_ (1878). He was moderator of
+the General Assembly (O.S.) in 1846, a member of the committee to revise
+the _Book of Discipline_ of the Presbyterian church in 1858, and
+president of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1868-1870.
+The 24th of April 1872, the fiftieth anniversary of his election to his
+professorship, was observed in Princeton as his jubilee by between 400
+and 500 representatives of his 2700 pupils, and $50,000 was raised for
+the endowment of his chair. He died at Princeton on the 19th of June
+1878. Hodge was one of the greatest of American theologians.
+
+  Besides his articles in the _Princeton Review_, he published a
+  _Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_ (1835, abridged 1836,
+  rewritten and enlarged 1864, new ed. 1886), _Constitutional History of
+  the Presbyterian Church in the United States_ (2 vols., 1839-1840);
+  _The Way of Life_ (1841); _Commentaries on Ephesians_ (1856); 1
+  _Corinthians_ (1857); 2 _Corinthians_ (1859); _Systematic Theology_ (3
+  vols., 2200 pp., 1871-1873), probably the best of all modern
+  expositions of Calvinistic dogmatic; and _What is Darwinism?_ (1874),
+  in which he opposed "Atheistic Evolutionism." After his death a volume
+  of _Conference Papers_ (1879) was published. His life, by his son, was
+  published in 1880.
+
+His son, ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER HODGE (1823-1886), also famous as a
+Presbyterian theologian, was born at Princeton on the 18th of July 1823.
+He graduated at the College of New Jersey in 1841, and at the Princeton
+Theological seminary in 1846, and was ordained in 1847. From 1847 to
+1850 he was a missionary at Allahabad, India, and was then pastor of
+churches successively at Lower West Nottingham, Maryland (1851-1855); at
+Fredericksburg, Virginia (1855-1861), and at Wilkes-Barré, Pennsylvania
+(1861-1864). From 1864 to 1877 he was professor of didactic and
+polemical theology in the Allegheny Theological seminary at Allegheny,
+Pennsylvania, where he was also from 1866 to 1877 pastor of the North
+Church (Presbyterian). In 1878 he succeeded his father as professor of
+didactic theology at the Princeton seminary. He died on the 11th of
+November 1886. Besides writing the biography of his father, he was the
+author of _Outlines of Theology_ (1860, new ed. 1875; enlarged, 1879);
+_The Atonement_ (1867); _Exposition of the Confession of Faith_ (1869);
+and _Popular Lectures on Theological Themes_ (1887).
+
+  See C. A. Salmond's _Charles and A. A. Hodge_ (New York, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HODGKIN, THOMAS (1831-   ), British historian, son of John Hodgkin
+(1800-1875), barrister, was born in London on the 29th of July 1831.
+Having been educated as a member of the Society of Friends and taken the
+degree of B.A. at London University, he became a partner in the banking
+house of Hodgkin, Barnett & Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne, a firm afterwards
+amalgamated with Lloyds' Bank. While continuing in business as a banker,
+Hodgkin devoted a good deal of time to historical study, and soon became
+a leading authority on the history of the early middle ages, his books
+being indispensable to all students of this period. His chief works are,
+_Italy and her Invaders_ (8 vols., Oxford, 1880-1899); _The Dynasty of
+Theodosius_ (Oxford, 1889); _Theodoric the Goth_ (London, 1891); and an
+introduction to the _Letters_ of Cassiodorus (London, 1886). He also
+wrote a _Life of Charles the Great_ (London, 1897); _Life of George Fox_
+(Boston, 1896); and the opening volume of Longman's _Political History
+of England_ (London, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HODGKINSON, EATON (1789-1861), English engineer, the son of a farmer,
+was born at Anderton near Northwich, Cheshire, on the 26th of February
+1789. After attending school at Northwich, he began to help his widowed
+mother on the farm, but to escape from that uncongenial occupation he
+persuaded her in 1811 to remove to Manchester and start a pawnbroking
+business. There he made the acquaintance of John Dalton, and began those
+inquiries into the strength of materials which formed the work of his
+life. He was associated with Sir William Fairbairn in an important
+series of experiments on cast iron, and his help was sought by Robert
+Stephenson in regard to the forms and dimensions of the tubes for the
+Britannia bridge. A paper which he communicated to the Royal Society on
+"Experimental Researches on the Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron and
+other Materials," in 1840 gained him a Royal medal in 1841, and he was
+also elected a fellow. In 1847 he was appointed professor of the
+mechanical principles of engineering in University College, London, and
+at the same time he was employed as a member of the Royal Commission
+appointed to inquire into the application of iron to railway structures.
+In 1848 he was chosen president of the Manchester Philosophical Society,
+of which he had been a member since 1826, and to which, both previously
+and subsequently, he contributed many of the more important results of
+his discoveries. For several years he took an active part in the
+discussions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, of which he was
+elected an honorary member in 1851. He died at Eaglesfield House, near
+Manchester, on the 18th of June 1861.
+
+
+
+
+HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894), English administrator, ethnologist
+and naturalist, was born at Lower Beech, Prestbury, Cheshire, on the 1st
+of February 1800. His father, Brian Hodgson, came of a family of country
+gentlemen, and his mother was a daughter of William Houghton of
+Manchester. In 1816 he obtained an East Indian writership. After passing
+through the usual course at Haileybury, he went out to India in 1818,
+and after a brief service at Kumaon as assistant-commissioner was in
+1820 appointed assistant to the Resident at Katmandu, the capital of
+Nepal. In 1823 he obtained an under-secretaryship in the foreign
+department at Calcutta, but his health failed, and in 1824 he returned
+to Nepal, to which the whole of his life, whether in or out of India,
+may be said to have been thenceforth given. He devoted himself
+particularly to the collection of Sanskrit MSS. relating to Buddhism,
+and hardly less so to the natural history and antiquities of the
+country, and by 1839 had contributed eighty-nine papers to the
+_Transactions_ of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. His investigations of
+the ethnology of the aboriginal tribes were especially important. In
+1833 he became Resident in Nepal, and passed many stormy years in
+conflict with the cruel and faithless court to which he was accredited.
+He succeeded, nevertheless, in concluding a satisfactory treaty in 1839;
+but in 1842 his policy, which involved an imperious attitude towards the
+native government, was upset by the interference of Lord Ellenborough,
+but just arrived in India and not unnaturally anxious to avoid trouble
+in Nepal during the conflict in Afghanistan. Hodgson took upon himself
+to disobey his instructions, a breach of discipline justified to his own
+mind by his superior knowledge of the situation, but which the
+governor-general could hardly be expected to overlook. He was,
+nevertheless, continued in office for a time, but was recalled in 1843,
+and resigned the service. In 1845 he returned to India and settled at
+Darjeeling, where he devoted himself entirely to his favourite pursuits,
+becoming the greatest authority on the Buddhist religion and on the
+flora of the Himalayas. It was he who early suggested the recruiting of
+Gurkhas for the Indian army, and who influenced Sir Jung Bahadur to lend
+his assistance to the British during the mutiny in 1857. In 1858 he
+returned to England, and lived successively in Cheshire and
+Gloucestershire, occupied with his studies to the last. He died at his
+seat at Alderley Grange in the Cotswold Hills on the 23rd of May 1894.
+No man has done so much to throw light on Buddhism as it exists in
+Nepal, and his collections of Sanskrit manuscripts, presented to the
+East India Office, and of natural history, presented to the British
+Museum, are unique as gatherings from a single country. He wrote
+altogether 184 philological and ethnological and 127 scientific papers,
+as well as some valuable pamphlets on native education, in which he took
+great interest. His principal work, _Illustrations of the Literature and
+Religion of Buddhists_ (1841), was republished with the most important
+of his other writings in 1872-1880.
+
+  His life was written by Sir W. W. Hunter in 1896.
+
+
+
+
+HÓDMEZÖ-VÁSÁRHELY, a town of Hungary, in the county of Csongrád, 135 m.
+S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 60,824 of which about two-thirds
+are Protestants. The town, situated on Lake Hód, not far from the right
+bank of the Tisza, has a modern aspect. The soil of the surrounding
+country, of which 383 sq. m. belong to the municipality, is exceedingly
+fertile, the chief products being wheat, mangcorn, barley, oats, millet,
+maize and various descriptions of fruit, especially melons. Extensive
+vineyards, yielding large quantities of both white and red grapes,
+skirt the town, and the horned cattle and horses of Hódmezö-Vásárhely
+have a good reputation; sheep and pigs are also extensively reared. The
+commune is protected from inundations of the Tisza by an enormous dike,
+but the town, nevertheless, sometimes suffers considerable damage during
+the spring floods.
+
+
+
+
+HODOGRAPH (Gr. [Greek: hodos], a way, and [Greek: graphein], to write),
+a curve of which the radius vector is proportional to the velocity of a
+moving particle. It appears to have been used by James Bradley, but for
+its practical development we are mainly indebted to Sir William Rowan
+Hamilton, who published an account of it in the _Proceedings of the
+Royal Irish Academy_, 1846. If a point be in motion in any orbit and
+with any velocity, and if, at each instant, a line be drawn from a fixed
+point parallel and equal to the velocity of the moving point at that
+instant, the extremities of these lines will lie on a curve called the
+hodograph. Let PP1P2 be the path of the moving point, and let OT, OT1,
+OT2, be drawn from the fixed point O parallel and equal to the
+velocities at P, P1, P2 respectively, then the locus of T is the
+hodograph of the orbits described by P (see figure). From this
+definition we have the following important fundamental property which
+belongs to all hodographs, viz. that at any point the tangent to the
+hodograph is parallel to the direction, and the velocity in the
+hodograph equal to the magnitude of the resultant acceleration at the
+corresponding point of the orbit. This will be evident if we consider
+that, since radii vectores of the hodograph represent velocities in the
+orbit, the elementary arc between two consecutive radii vectores of the
+hodograph represents the velocity which must be compounded with the
+velocity of the moving point at the beginning of any short interval of
+time to get the velocity at the end of that interval, that is to say,
+represents the change of velocity for that interval. Hence the
+elementary arc divided by the element of time is the rate of change of
+velocity of the moving-point, or in other words, the velocity in the
+hodograph is the acceleration in the orbit.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  Analytically thus (Thomson and Tait, _Nat. Phil._):--Let x, y, z be
+  the coordinates of P in the orbit, [xi], [eta], [zeta] those of the
+  corresponding point T in the hodograph, then
+
+    [xi] = dx/dt, [eta] = dy/dt, [zeta] = dz/dt;
+
+  therefore
+
+      d[xi]      d[eta]      d[zeta]
+    -------- = --------- =  ---------     (1).
+   (d²x/dt²)   (d²y/dt²)    (d²z/dt²)
+
+  Also, if s be the arc of the hodograph,
+
+    ds         / /d[xi]\²    /d[eta]\²    /d[zeta]\²
+    -- = v =  / ( ----- ) + ( ------ ) + ( ------- )
+    dt      \/   \ dt  /     \  dt  /     \   dt  /
+
+               / /d²x\²    /d²y\²    /d²z\²
+           =  / ( --- ) + ( --- ) + ( --- )   (2).
+            \/   \dt²/     \dt²/     \dt²/
+
+  Equation (1) shows that the tangent to the hodograph is parallel to
+  the line of resultant acceleration, and (2) that the velocity in the
+  hodograph is equal to the acceleration.
+
+  Every orbit must clearly have a hodograph, and, conversely, every
+  hodograph a corresponding orbit; and, theoretically speaking, it is
+  possible to deduce the one from the other, having given the other
+  circumstances of the motion.
+
+  For applications of the hodograph to the solution of kinematical
+  problems see MECHANICS.
+
+
+
+
+HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES (1821-1858), known as "Hodson of Hodson's
+Horse," British leader of light cavalry during the Indian Mutiny, third
+son of the Rev. George Hodson, afterwards archdeacon of Stafford and
+canon of Lichfield, was born on the 19th of March 1821 at Maisemore
+Court, near Gloucester. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and
+accepted a cadetship in the Indian army at the advanced age for those
+days of twenty-three. Joining the 2nd Bengal Grenadiers he went through
+the first Sikh War, and was present at the battles of Moodkee,
+Ferozeshah and Sobraon. In one of his letters home at this period he
+calls the campaign a "tissue of mismanagement, blunders, errors,
+ignorance and arrogance", and outspoken criticism such as this brought
+him many bitter enemies throughout his career, who made the most of
+undeniable faults of character. In 1847, through the influence of Sir
+Henry Lawrence, he was appointed adjutant of the corps of Guides, and in
+1852 was promoted to the command of the Guides with the civil charge of
+Yusafzai. But his brusque and haughty demeanour to his equals made him
+many enemies. In 1855 two separate charges were brought against him. The
+first was that he had arbitrarily imprisoned a Pathan chief named Khadar
+Khan, on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of Colonel Mackeson.
+The man was acquitted, and Lord Dalhousie removed Hodson from his civil
+functions and remanded him to his regiment on account of his lack of
+judgment. The second charge was more serious, amounting to an accusation
+of malversation in the funds of his regiment. He was tried by a court of
+inquiry, who found that his conduct to natives had been "unjustifiable
+and oppressive," that he had used abusive language to his native
+officers and personal violence to his men, and that his system of
+accounts was "calculated to screen peculation and fraud." Subsequently
+another inquiry was carried out by Major Reynell Taylor, which dealt
+simply with Hodson's accounts and found them to be "an honest and
+correct record ... irregularly kept." At this time the Guides were split
+up into numerous detachments, and there was a system of advances which
+made the accounts very complicated. The verdicts of the two inquiries
+may be set against each other, and this particular charge declared "not
+proven." It is possible that Hodson was careless and extravagant in
+money matters rather than actually dishonest; but there were several
+similar charges against him. During a tour through Kashmir with Sir
+Henry Lawrence he kept the purse and Sir Henry could never obtain an
+account from him; subsequently Sir George Lawrence accused him of
+embezzling the funds of the Lawrence Asylum at Kasauli; while Sir
+Neville Chamberlain in a published letter says of the third brother,
+Lord Lawrence, "I am bound to say that Lord Lawrence had no opinion of
+Hodson's integrity in money matters. He has often discussed Hodson's
+character in talking to me, and it was to him a regret that a man
+possessing so many fine gifts should have been wanting in a moral
+quality which made him untrustworthy." Finally, on one occasion Hodson
+spent £500 of the pay due to Lieutenant Godby, and under threat of
+exposure was obliged to borrow the money from a native banker through
+one of his officers named Bisharat Ali.
+
+It was just at the time when Hodson's career seemed ruined that the
+Indian Mutiny broke out, and he obtained the opportunity of
+rehabilitating himself. At the very outset of the campaign he made his
+name by riding with despatches from General Anson at Karnal to Meerut
+and back again, a distance of 152 m. in all, in seventy-two hours,
+through a country swarming with the rebel cavalry. This feat so pleased
+the commander-in-chief that he empowered him to raise a regiment of 2000
+irregular horse, which became known to fame as Hodson's Horse, and
+placed him at the head of the Intelligence Department. In his double
+rôle of cavalry leader and intelligence officer, Hodson played a large
+part in the reduction of Delhi and consequently in saving India for the
+British empire. He was the finest swordsman in the army, and possessed
+that daring recklessness which is the most useful quality of leadership
+against Asiatics. In explanation of the fact that he never received the
+Victoria Cross it was said of him that it was because he earned it every
+day of his life. But he also had the defects of his qualities, and could
+display on occasion a certain cruelty and callousness of disposition.
+Reference has already been made to Bisharat Ali, who had lent Hodson
+money. During the siege of Delhi another native, said to be an enemy of
+Bisharat Ali's, informed Hodson that he had turned rebel and had just
+reached Khurkhouda, a village near Delhi. Hodson thereupon took out a
+body of his sowars, attacked the village, and shot Bisharat Ali and
+several of his relatives. General Crawford Chamberlain states that this
+was Hodson's way of wiping out the debt. Again, after the fall of Delhi,
+Hodson obtained from General Wilson permission to ride out with fifty
+horsemen to Humayun's tomb, 6 m. out of Delhi, and bring in Bahadur
+Shah, the last of the Moguls. This he did with safety in the face of a
+large and threatening crowd, and thus dealt the mutineers a heavy blow.
+On the following day with 100 horsemen he went out to the same tomb and
+obtained the unconditional surrender of the three princes, who had been
+left behind on the previous occasion. A crowd of 6000 persons gathered,
+and Hodson with marvellous coolness ordered them to disarm, which they
+proceeded to do. He sent the princes on with an escort of ten men, while
+with the remaining ninety he collected the arms of the crowd. On
+galloping after the princes he found the crowd once more pressing on the
+escort and threatening an attack; and fearing that he would be unable to
+bring his prisoners into Delhi he shot them with his own hand. This is
+the most bitterly criticized action in his career, but no one but the
+man on the spot can judge how it is necessary to handle a crowd; and in
+addition one of the princes, Abu Bukt, heir-apparent to the throne, had
+made himself notorious for cutting off the arms and legs of English
+children and pouring the blood into their mothers' mouths. Considering
+the circumstances of the moment, Hodson's act at the worst was one of
+irregular justice. A more unpleasant side to the question is that he
+gave the king a safe conduct, which was afterwards seen by Sir Donald
+Stewart, before he left the palace, and presumably for a bribe; and he
+took an armlet and rings from the bodies of the princes. He was freely
+accused of looting at the time, and though this charge, like that of
+peculation, is matter for controversy, it is very strongly supported.
+General Pelham Burn said that he saw loot in Hodson's boxes when he
+accompanied him from Fatehgarh to take part in the siege of Lucknow, and
+Sir Henry Daly said that he found "loads of loot" in Hodson's boxes
+after his death, and also a file of documents relating to the Guides
+case, which had been stolen from him and of which Hodson denied all
+knowledge. On the other hand the Rev. G. Hodson states in his book that
+he obtained the inventory of his brother's possessions made by the
+Committee of Adjustment and it contained no articles of loot, and Sir
+Charles Gough, president of the committee, confirmed this evidence. This
+statement is totally incompatible with Sir Henry Daly's and is only one
+of many contradictions in the case. Sir Henry Norman stated that to his
+personal knowledge Hodson remitted several thousand pounds to Calcutta
+which could only have been obtained by looting. On the other hand,
+again, Hodson died a poor man, his effects were sold for £170, his widow
+was dependent on charity for her passage home, was given apartments by
+the queen at Hampton Court, and left only £400 at her death.
+
+Hodson was killed on the 11th of March 1858 in the attack on the Begum
+Kotee at Lucknow. He had just arrived on the spot and met a man going to
+fetch powder to blow in a door; instead Hodson, with his usual
+recklessness, rushed into the doorway and was shot. On the whole, it can
+hardly be doubted that he was somewhat unscrupulous in his private
+character, but he was a splendid soldier, and rendered inestimable
+services to the empire.
+
+  The controversy relating to Hodson's moral character is very
+  complicated and unpleasant. Upon Hodson's side see Rev. G. Hodson,
+  _Hodson of Hodson's Horse_ (1883), and L. J. Trotter, _A Leader of
+  Light Horse_ (1901); against him, R. Bosworth Smith, _Life of Lord
+  Lawrence_, appendix to the 6th edition of 1885; T. R. E. Holmes,
+  _History of the Indian Mutiny_, appendix N to the 5th edition of 1898,
+  and _Four Famous Soldiers_ by the same author, 1889; and General Sir
+  Crawford Chamberlain, _Remarks on Captain Trotter's Biography of Major
+  W. S. R. Hodson_ (1901).
+
+
+
+
+HODY, HUMPHREY (1659-1707), English divine, was born at Odcombe in
+Somersetshire in 1659. In 1676 he entered Wadham College, Oxford, of
+which he became fellow in 1685. In 1684 he published _Contra historiam
+Aristeae de LXX. interpretibus dissertatio_, in which he showed that the
+so-called letter of Aristeas, containing an account of the production of
+the Septuagint, was the late forgery of a Hellenist Jew originally
+circulated to lend authority to that version. The dissertation was
+generally regarded as conclusive, although Isaac Vossius published an
+angry and scurrilous reply to it in the appendix to his edition of
+Pomponius Mela. In 1689 Hody wrote the _Prolegomena_ to the Greek
+chronicle of John Malalas, published at Oxford in 1691. The following
+year he became chaplain to Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester,
+and for his support of the ruling party in a controversy with Henry
+Dodwell regarding the non-juring bishops he was appointed chaplain to
+Archbishop Tillotson, an office which he continued to hold under
+Tenison. In 1698 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford,
+and in 1704 was made archdeacon of Oxford. In 1701 he published _A
+History of English Councils and Convocations_, and in 1703 in four
+volumes _De Bibliorum textis originalibus_, in which he included a
+revision of his work on the Septuagint, and published a reply to
+Vossius. He died on the 20th of January 1707.
+
+  A work, _De Graecis Illustribus_, which he left in manuscript, was
+  published in 1742 by Samuel Jebb, who prefixed to it a Latin life of
+  the author.
+
+
+
+
+HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886), American inventor, was born in New York
+City on the 12th of September 1812. He was the son of Robert Hoe
+(1784-1833), an English-born American mechanic, who with his
+brothers-in-law, Peter and Matthew Smith, established in New York City a
+manufactory of printing presses, and used steam to run his machinery.
+Richard entered his father's manufactory at the age of fifteen and
+became head of the firm (Robert Hoe & Company) on his father's death. He
+had considerable inventive genius and set himself to secure greater
+speed for printing presses. He discarded the old flat-bed model and
+placed the type on a revolving cylinder, a model later developed into
+the well-known Hoe rotary or "lightning" press, patented in 1846, and
+further improved under the name of the Hoe web perfecting press (see
+PRINTING). He died in Florence, Italy, on the 7th of June 1886.
+
+  See _A Short History of the Printing Press_ (New York, 1902) by his
+  nephew Robert Hoe (1839-1909), who was responsible for further
+  improvements in printing, and was an indefatigable worker in support
+  of the New York Metropolitan Museum.
+
+
+
+
+HOE (through Fr. _houe_ from O.H.G. _houwâ_, mod. Ger. _Haue_; the root
+is seen in "hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from
+"hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe,
+Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c.; this is the same as Northern
+English "heugh" and is connected with "hang"), an agricultural and
+gardening implement used for extirpating weeds, for stirring the
+surface-soil in order to break the capillary channels and so prevent the
+evaporation of moisture, for singling out turnips and other root-crops
+and similar purposes. Among common forms of hoe are the ordinary
+garden-hoe (numbered _1_ in fig. 1), which consists of a flat blade set
+transversely in a long wooden handle; the Dutch or thrust-hoe (_2_),
+which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion of a spade;
+and the swan-neck hoe (_3_), the best manual hoe for agricultural
+purposes, which has a long curved neck to attach the blade to the
+handle; the soil falls back over this, blocking is thus avoided and a
+longer stroke obtained. Several types of horse-drawn hoe capable of
+working one or more rows at a time are used among root and grain crops.
+The illustrations show two forms of the implement, the blades of which
+differ in shape from those of the garden-hoe. Fig. 2 is in ordinary use
+for hoeing between two lines of beans or turnips or other "roots." Fig.
+3 is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also convertible
+into a root-hoe. In the lever-hoe, which is largely used in grain crops,
+the blades may be raised and lowered by means of a lever. The
+horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles in the rear, but its
+successful working depends on accurate drilling of the seed, because
+unless the rows are parallel the roots of the plants are liable to be
+cut and the foliage injured. Thus Jethro Tull (17th century), with whose
+name the beginning of the practice of horse-hoeing is principally
+connected, used the drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in
+the so-called "Horse-hoeing Husbandry" (see AGRICULTURE).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Three Forms of Manual Hoe.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Martin's One-Row Horse Hoe.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Martin's General Purpose Steerage Horse Hoe.]
+
+
+
+
+HOEFNAGEL, JORIS (1545-1601), Dutch painter and engraver, the son of a
+diamond merchant, was born at Antwerp. He travelled abroad, making
+drawings from archaeological subjects, and was a pupil of Jan Bol at
+Mechlin. He was afterwards patronized by the elector of Bavaria at
+Munich, where he stayed eight years, and by the Emperor Rudolph at
+Prague. He died at Vienna in 1601. He is famous for his miniature work,
+especially on a missal in the imperial library at Vienna; he painted
+animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history; and his
+engravings (especially for Braun's _Civitates orbis terrarum_, 1572, and
+Ortelius's _Theatrum orbis terrarum_, 1570) give him an interesting
+place among early topographical draughtsmen.
+
+
+
+
+HOF, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper Franconia,
+beautifully situated on the Saale, on the north-eastern spurs of the
+Fichtelgebirge, 103 m. S.W. of Leipzig on the main line of railway to
+Regensburg and Munich. Pop. (1885) 22,257; (1905) 36,348. It has one
+Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches (among the latter that of
+St Michael, which was restored in 1884), a town hall of 1563, a
+gymnasium with an extensive library, a commercial school and a hospital
+founded in 1262. It is the seat of various flourishing industries,
+notably woollen, cotton and jute spinning, jute weaving, and the
+manufacture of cotton and half-woollen fabrics. It has also dye-works,
+flour-mills, saw-mills, breweries, iron-works, and manufactures of
+machinery, iron and tin wares, chemicals and sugar. In the neighbourhood
+there are large marble quarries and extensive iron mines. Hof,
+originally called Regnitzhof, was built about 1080. It was held for some
+time by the dukes of Meran, and was sold in 1373 to the burgraves of
+Nuremberg. The cloth manufacture introduced into it in the 15th century,
+and the manufacture of veils begun in the 16th century, greatly promoted
+its prosperity, but it suffered severely in the Albertine and Hussite
+wars as well as in the Thirty Years' War. In 1792 it came into the
+possession of Prussia; in 1806 it fell to France; and in 1810 it was
+incorporated with Bavaria. In 1823 the greater part of the town was
+destroyed by fire.
+
+  See Ernst, _Geschichte und Beschreibung des Bezirks und der Stadt Hof_
+  (1866); Tillmann, _Die Stadt Hof und ihre Umgebung_ (Hof, 1899), and
+  C. Meyer, _Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hof_ (1894-1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOFER, ANDREAS (1767-1810), Tirolese patriot, was born on the 22nd of
+November 1767 at St Leonhard, in the Passeier valley. There his father
+kept an inn known as "am Sand," which Hofer inherited, and on that
+account he was popularly known as the "Sandwirth." In addition to this
+he carried on a trade in wine and horses with the north of Italy,
+acquiring a high reputation for intelligence and honesty. In the wars
+against the French from 1796 to 1805 he took part, first as a
+sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia. By the treaty of
+Pressburg (1805) Tirol was transferred from Austria to Bavaria, and
+Hofer, who was almost fanatically devoted to the Austrian house, became
+conspicuous as a leader of the agitation against Bavarian rule. In 1808
+he formed one of a deputation who went to Vienna, at the invitation of
+the archduke John, to concert a rising; and when in April 1809 the
+Tirolese rose in arms, Hofer was chosen commander of the contingent from
+his native valley, and inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the Bavarians
+at Sterzing (April 11). This victory, which resulted in the temporary
+reoccupation of Innsbruck by the Austrians, made Hofer the most
+conspicuous of the insurgent leaders. The rapid advance of Napoleon,
+indeed, and the defeat of the main Austrian army under the archduke
+Charles, once more exposed Tirol to the French and Bavarians, who
+reoccupied Innsbruck. The withdrawal of the bulk of the troops, however,
+gave the Tirolese their chance again; after two battles fought on the
+Iselberg (May 25 and 29) the Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the
+country, and Hofer entered Innsbruck in triumph. An autograph letter of
+the emperor Francis (May 29) assured him that no peace would be
+concluded by which Tirol would again be separated from the Austrian
+monarchy, and Hofer, believing his work accomplished, returned to his
+home. Then came the news of the armistice of Znaim (July 12), by which
+Tirol and Vorarlberg were surrendered by Austria unconditionally and
+given up to the vengeance of the French. The country was now again
+invaded by 40,000 French and Bavarian troops, and Innsbruck fell; but
+the Tirolese once more organized resistance to the French "atheists and
+freemasons," and, after a temporary hesitation, Hofer--on whose head a
+price had been placed--threw himself into the movement. On the 13th of
+August, in another battle on the Iselberg, the French under Marshal
+Lefebvre were routed by the Tirolese peasants, and Hofer once more
+entered Innsbruck, which he had some difficulty in saving from sack.
+Hofer was now elected _Oberkommandant_ of Tirol, took up his quarters in
+the Hofburg at Innsbruck, and for two months ruled the country in the
+emperor's name. He preserved the habits of a simple peasant, and his
+administration was characterized in part by the peasant's shrewd common
+sense, but yet more by a pious solicitude for the minutest details of
+faith and morals. On the 29th of September Hofer received from the
+emperor a chain and medal of honour, which encouraged him in the belief
+that Austria did not intend again to desert him; the news of the
+conclusion of the treaty of Schönbrunn (October 14), by which Tirol was
+again ceded to Bavaria, came upon him as an overwhelming surprise. The
+French in overpowering force at once pushed into the country, and, an
+amnesty having been stipulated in the treaty, Hofer and his companions,
+after some hesitation, gave in their submission. On the 12th of
+November, however, urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant
+leaders and deceived by false reports of Austrian victories, Hofer again
+issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms. The summons met
+with little response; the enemy advanced in irresistible force, and
+Hofer, a price once more set on his head, had to take refuge in the
+mountains. His hiding-place was betrayed by one of his neighbours, named
+Josef Raffl, and on the 27th of January 1810 he was captured by Italian
+troops and sent in chains to Mantua. There he was tried by
+court-martial, and on the 20th of February was shot, twenty-four hours
+after his condemnation. This crime, which was believed to be due to
+Napoleon's direct orders, caused an immense sensation throughout Germany
+and did much to inflame popular sentiment against the French. At the
+court of Austria, too, which was accused of having cynically sacrificed
+the hero, it produced a painful impression, and Metternich, when he
+visited Paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess Marie
+Louise to Napoleon, was charged to remonstrate with the emperor.
+Napoleon expressed his regret, stating that the execution had been
+carried out against his wishes, having been hurried on by the zeal of
+his generals. In 1823 Hofer's remains were removed from Mantua to
+Innsbruck, where they were interred in the Franciscan church, and in
+1834 a marble statue was erected over his tomb. In 1893 a bronze statue
+of him was also set up on the Iselberg. At Meran his patriotic deeds of
+heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually in the
+open air. In 1818 the patent of nobility bestowed upon him by the
+Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his family.
+
+  See _Leben und Thaten des ehemaligen Tyroler Insurgenten-Chefs Andr.
+  Hofer_ (Berlin, 1810); _Andr. Hofer und die Tyroler Insurrection im
+  Jahre 1809_ (Munich, 1811); Hormayr, _Geschichte Andr. Hofer's
+  Sandwirths auf Passeyr_ (Leipzig, 1845); B. Weber, _Das Thal Passeyr
+  und seine Bewohner mit besonderer Rücksicht auf Andreas Hofer und das
+  Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck, 1851); Rapp, _Tirol im Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck,
+  1852); Weidinger, _Andreas Hofer und seine Kampfgenossen_ (3rd ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1861); Heigel, _Andreas Hofer_ (Munich, 1874); Stampfer,
+  _Sandwirt Andreas Hofer_ (Freiburg, 1874); Schmölze, _Andreas Hofer
+  und seine Kampfgenossen_ (Innsbruck, 1900). His history has supplied
+  the materials for tragedies to B. Auerbach and Immermann, and for
+  numerous ballads, of which some remain very popular in Germany (see
+  Franke, _Andreas Hofer im Liede_, Innsbruck, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+HÖFFDING, HARALD (1843-   ), Danish philosopher, was born and educated in
+Copenhagen. He became a schoolmaster, and ultimately in 1883 professor
+in the university of Copenhagen. He was much influenced by Sören
+Kierkegaard in the early development of his thought, but later became a
+positivist, retaining, however, and combining with it the spirit and
+method of practical psychology and the critical school. His best-known
+work is perhaps his _Den nyere Filosofis Historie_ (1894), translated
+into English from the German edition (1895) by B. E. Meyer as _History
+of Modern Philosophy_ (2 vols., 1900), a work intended by him to
+supplement and correct that of Hans Bröchner, to whom it is dedicated.
+His _Psychology, the Problems of Philosophy_ (1905) and _Philosophy of
+Religion_ (1906) also have appeared in English.
+
+  Among Höffding's other writings, practically all of which have been
+  translated into German, are: _Den engelske Filosofi i vor Tid_ (1874);
+  _Etik_ (1876; ed. 1879); _Psychologi i Omrids paa Grundlag of
+  Erfaring_ (ed. 1892); _Psykologiske Undersogelser_ (1889); _Charles
+  Darwin_ (1889); _Kontinuiteten i Kants filosofiske Udviklingsgang_
+  (1893); _Det psykologiske Grundlag for logiske Domme_ (1899);
+  _Rousseau und seine Philosophie_ (1901); _Mindre Arbejder_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1798-1874), known as HOFFMANN VON
+FALLERSLEBEN, German poet, philologist and historian of literature, was
+born at Fallersleben in the duchy of Lüneburg, Hanover, on the 2nd of
+April 1798, the son of the mayor of the town. He was educated at the
+classical schools of Helmstedt and Brunswick, and afterwards at the
+universities of Göttingen and Bonn. His original intention was to study
+theology, but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature. In 1823 he
+was appointed custodian of the university library at Breslau, a post
+which he held till 1838. He was also made extraordinary professor of the
+German language and literature at that university in 1830, and ordinary
+professor in 1835; but he was deprived of his chair in 1842 in
+consequence of his _Unpolitische Lieder_ (1840-1841), which gave much
+offence to the authorities in Prussia. He then travelled in Germany,
+Switzerland and Italy, and lived for two or three years in Mecklenburg,
+of which he became a naturalized citizen. After the revolution of 1848
+he was enabled to return to Prussia, where he was restored to his
+rights, and received the _Wartegeld_--the salary attached to a promised
+office not yet vacant. He married in 1849, and during the next ten years
+lived first in Bingerbrück, afterwards in Neuwied, and then in Weimar,
+where together with Oskar Schade (1826-1906) he edited the _Weimarische
+Jahrbuch_ (1854-1857). In 1860 he was appointed librarian to the Duke of
+Ratibor at the monasterial castle of Corvey near Höxter on the Weser,
+where he died on the 19th of January 1874. Fallersleben was one of the
+best popular poets of modern Germany. In politics he ardently
+sympathized with the progressive tendencies of his time, and he was
+among the earliest and most effective of the political poets who
+prepared the way for the outbreak of 1848. As a poet, however, he
+acquired distinction chiefly by the ease, simplicity and grace with
+which he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life.
+Although he had not been scientifically trained in music, he composed
+melodies for many of his songs, and a considerable number of them are
+sung by all classes in every part of Germany. Among the best known is
+the patriotic _Deutschland, Deutschland über Alles_, composed in 1841 on
+the island of Heligoland, where a monument was erected in 1891 to his
+memory (subsequently destroyed).
+
+  The best of his poetical writings is his _Gedichte_ (1827; 9th ed.,
+  Berlin, 1887); but there is great merit also in his _Alemannische
+  Lieder_ (1826; 5th ed., 1843), _Soldatenlieder_ (1851),
+  _Soldatenleben_ (1852), _Rheinleben_ (1865), and in his _Fünfzig
+  Kinderlieder_, _Fünfzig neue Kinderlieder_, and _Alte und neue
+  Kinderlieder_. His _Unpolitische Lieder_, _Deutsche Lieder aus der
+  Schweiz_ and _Streiflichter_ are not without poetical value, but they
+  are mainly interesting in relation to the movements of the age in
+  which they were written. As a student of ancient Teutonic literature
+  Hoffmann von Fallersleben ranks among the most persevering and
+  cultivated of German scholars, some of the chief results of his
+  labours being embodied in his _Horae Belgicae_, _Fundgruben für
+  Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur_, _Altdeutsche Blätter_,
+  _Spenden zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte_ and _Findlinge_. Among his
+  editions of particular works may be named _Reineke Vos_, _Monumenta
+  Elnonensia_ and _Theophilus_. _Die deutsche Philologie im Grundriss_
+  (1836) was at the time of its publication a valuable contribution to
+  philological research, and historians of German literature still
+  attach importance to his _Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes bis
+  auf Luther_ (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), _Unsere volkstümlichen Lieder_ (3rd
+  ed., 1869) and _Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder des 16. und 17.
+  Jahrh._ (2nd ed., 1860). In 1868-1870 Hoffmann published in 6 vols. an
+  autobiography, _Mein Leben: Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen_ (an
+  abbreviated ed. in 2 vols., 1894). His _Gesammelte Werke_ were edited
+  by H. Gerstenberg in 8 vols. (1891-1894); his _Ausgewählte Werke_ by
+  H. Benzmann (1905, 4 vols.). See also _Briefe von Hoffmann von
+  Fallersleben und Moritz Haupt an Ferdinand Wolf_ (1874); J. M. Wagner,
+  _Hoffmann von Fallersleben, 1818-1868_ (1869-1870), and R. von
+  Gottschall, _Porträts und Studien_ (vol. v., 1876).
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM (1776-1822), German romance-writer, was
+born at Königsberg on the 24th of January 1776. For the name Wilhelm he
+himself substituted Amadeus in homage to Mozart. His parents lived
+unhappily together, and when the child was only three they separated.
+His bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understanding nor
+sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament. Hoffmann showed more
+talent for music and drawing than for books. In 1792, when little over
+sixteen years old, he entered the university of Königsberg, with a view
+to preparing himself for a legal career. The chief features of interest
+in his student years were an intimate friendship for Theodor Gottlieb
+von Hippel (1775-1843), a nephew of the novelist Hippel, and an unhappy
+passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons; the latter found its
+outlet, not merely in music, but also in two novels, neither of which he
+was able to have published. In the summer of 1795 he began his practical
+career as a jurist in Königsberg, but his mother's death and the
+complications in which his love-affair threatened to involve him made
+him decide to leave his native town and continue his legal
+apprenticeship in Glogau. In the autumn of 1798 he was transferred to
+Berlin, where the beginnings of the new Romantic movement were in the
+air. Music, however, had still the first place in his heart, and the
+Berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests.
+
+In 1800 further promotion brought him to Posen, where he gave himself up
+entirely to the pleasures of the hour. Unfortunately, however, his
+brilliant powers of caricature brought him into ill odour, and instead
+of receiving the hoped-for preferment in Posen itself, he found himself
+virtually banished to the little town of Plozk on the Vistula. Before
+leaving Posen he married, and his domestic happiness alleviated to some
+extent the monotony of the two years' exile. His leisure was spent in
+literary studies and musical composition. In 1804 he was transferred to
+Warsaw, where, through J. E. Hitzig (1780-1849), he was introduced to
+Zacharias Werner, and began to take an interest in the later Romantic
+literature; now, for the first time, he discovered how writers like
+Novalis, Tieck, and especially Wackenroder, had spoken out of his own
+heart. But in spite of this literary stimulus, his leisure in Warsaw was
+mainly occupied by composition; he wrote music to Brentano's _Lustige
+Musikanten_ and Werner's _Kreuz an der Ostsee_, and also an opera _Liebe
+und Eifersucht_, based on Calderón's drama _La Banda y la Flor_.
+
+The arrival of the French in Warsaw and the consequent political changes
+put an end to Hoffmann's congenial life there, and a time of tribulation
+followed. A position which he obtained in 1808 as musical director of a
+new theatre in Bamberg availed him little, as within a very short time
+the theatre was bankrupt and Hoffmann again reduced to destitution. But
+these misfortunes induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out
+the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving music
+lessons. The editor of the _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ expressed
+his willingness to accept contributions from Hoffmann, and here appeared
+for the first time some of the musical sketches which ultimately passed
+over into the _Phantasiestücke in Callots Manier_. This work appeared in
+four volumes in 1814 and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer.
+Meanwhile, Hoffmann had again been for some time attached, in the
+capacity of musical director, to a theatrical company, whose
+headquarters were at Dresden. In 1814 he gladly embraced the opportunity
+that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in Berlin, and two
+years later he was appointed councillor of the Court of Appeal
+(_Kammergericht_). Hoffmann had the reputation of being an excellent
+jurist and a conscientious official; he had leisure for literary
+pursuits and was on the best of terms with the circle of Romantic poets
+and novelists who gathered round Fouqué, Chamisso and his old friend
+Hitzig. Unfortunately, however, the habits of intemperance which, in
+earlier years, had thrown a shadow over his life, grew upon him, and his
+health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the wine-house,
+in company unworthy of him. He was struck down by locomotor ataxy, and
+died on the 24th of July 1822.
+
+The _Phantasiestücke_, which had been published with a commendatory
+preface by Jean Paul, were followed in 1816 by the gruesome novel--to
+some extent inspired by Lewis's _Monk--Die Elixiere des Teufels_, and
+the even more gruesome and grotesque stories which make up the
+_Nachtstücke_ (1817, 2 vols.). The full range of Hoffmann's powers is
+first clearly displayed in the collection of stories (4 vols.,
+1819-1821) _Die Serapionsbrüder_, this being the name of a small club of
+Hoffmann's more intimate literary friends. _Die Serapionsbrüder_
+includes not merely stories in which Hoffmann's love for the mysterious
+and the supernatural is to be seen, but novels in which he draws on his
+own early reminiscences (_Rat Krespel_, _Fermate_), finely outlined
+pictures of old German life (_Der Artushof_, _Meister Martin der Küfner
+und seine Gesellen_), and vivid and picturesque incidents from Italian
+and French history (_Doge und Dogaressa_, the story of Marino Faliero,
+and _Das Fräulein von Scuderi_). The last-mentioned story is usually
+regarded as Hoffmann's masterpiece. Two longer works also belong to
+Hoffmann's later years and display to advantage his powers as a
+humorist; these are _Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober_ (1819), and
+_Lebensansichten des Katers Murr, nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des
+Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler_ (1821-1822).
+
+Hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the Romantic movement in
+Germany. He combined with a humour that reminds us of Jean Paul the warm
+sympathy for the artist's standpoint towards life, which was enunciated
+by early Romantic leaders like Tieck and Wackenroder; but he was
+superior to all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination. His
+works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes--in this respect they mark
+a descent from the high ideals of the Romantic school; but the gruesome
+was only one outlet for Hoffmann's genius, and even here the secret of
+his power lay not in his choice of subjects, but in the wonderfully
+vivid and realistic presentation of them. Every line he wrote leaves the
+impression behind it that it expresses something felt or experienced;
+every scene, vision or character he described seems to have been real
+and living to him. It is this realism, in the best sense of the word,
+that made him the great artist he was, and gave him so extraordinary a
+power over his contemporaries.
+
+  The first collected edition of Hoffmann's works appeared in ten
+  volumes (_Ausgewählte Schriften_, 1827-1828); to these his widow added
+  five volumes in 1839 (including the 3rd edition of J. E. Hitzig's _Aus
+  Hoffmanns Leben und Nachlass_, 1823). Other editions of his works
+  appeared in 1844-1845, 1871-1873, 1879-1883, and, most complete of
+  all, _Sämtliche Werke_, edited by E. Grisebach, in 15 vols. (1900).
+  There are many editions of selections, as well as cheap reprints of
+  the more popular stories. All Hoffmann's important works--except
+  _Klein Zaches_ and _Kater Murr_--have been translated into English:
+  _The Devil's Elixir_ (1824), _The Golden Pot_ by Carlyle (in _German
+  Romance_, 1827), _The Serapion Brethren_ by A. Ewing (1886-1892), &c.
+  In France Hoffmann was even more popular than in England. Cp. G.
+  Thurau, _Hoffmanns Erzählungen in Frankreich_ (1896). An edition of
+  his _Oeuvres complètes_ appeared in 12 vols. in Paris in 1830. The
+  best monograph on Hoffmann is by G. Ellinger, _E. T. A. Hoffmann_
+  (1894); see also O. Klinke, _Hoffmanns Leben und Werke vom Standpunkte
+  eines Irrenarztes_ (1903); and the exhaustive bibliography in
+  Goedeke's _Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_, 2nd ed.,
+  vol. viii. pp. 468 ff. (1905).     (J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, FRANÇOIS BENOÎT (1760-1828), French dramatist and critic, was
+born at Nancy on the 11th of July 1760. He studied law at the university
+of Strassburg, but a slight hesitation in his speech precluded success
+at the bar, and he entered a regiment on service in Corsica. He served,
+however, for a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, he wrote some
+poems which brought him into notice at the little court of Lunéville
+over which the marquise de Boufflers then presided. In 1784 he went to
+Paris, and two years later produced the opera _Phèdre_. His opera
+_Adrien_ (1792) was objected to by the government on political grounds,
+and Hoffmann, who refused to make the changes proposed to him, ran
+considerable risk under the revolutionary government. His later operas,
+which were numerous, were produced at the Opéra Comique. In 1807 he was
+invited by Étienne to contribute to the _Journal de l'Empire_
+(afterwards the _Journal des débats_). Hoffmann's wide reading qualified
+him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned, apparently with no
+difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine to violent attacks on the
+Jesuits. His severe criticism of Chateaubriand's _Martyrs_ led the
+author to make some changes in a later edition. He had the reputation of
+being an absolutely conscientious and incorruptible critic and thus
+exercised wide influence. Hoffmann died in Paris on the 25th of April
+1828. Among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent one-act
+comedy, _Le Roman d'une heure_ (1803), and an amusing one-act opera _Les
+Rendez-vous bourgeois_.
+
+  See Sainte-Beuve, "M. de Feletz et la critique littéraire sous
+  l'Empire" in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH (1660-1742), German physician, a member of a family
+that had been connected with medicine for 200 years before him, was born
+at Halle on the 19th of February 1660. At the gymnasium of his native
+town he acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he
+attributed much of his after success. At the age of eighteen he went to
+study medicine at Jena, whence in 1680 he passed to Erfurt, in order to
+attend Kasper Cramer's lectures on chemistry. Next year, returning to
+Jena, he received his doctor's diploma, and, after publishing a thesis,
+was permitted to teach. Constant study then began to tell on his
+health, and in 1682, leaving his already numerous pupils, he proceeded
+to Minden in Westphalia to recruit himself, at the request of a relative
+who held a high position in that town. After practising at Minden for
+two years, Hoffmann made a journey to Holland and England, where he
+formed the acquaintance of many illustrious chemists and physicians.
+Towards the end of 1684 he returned to Minden, and during the next three
+years he received many flattering appointments. In 1688 he removed to
+the more promising sphere of Halberstadt, with the title of physician to
+the principality of Halberstadt; and on the founding of Halle university
+in 1693, his reputation, which had been steadily increasing, procured
+for him the primarius chair of medicine, while at the same time he was
+charged with the responsible duty of framing the statutes for the new
+medical faculty. He filled also the chair of natural philosophy. With
+the exception of four years (1708-1712), which he passed at Berlin in
+the capacity of royal physician, Hoffmann spent the rest of his life at
+Halle in instruction, practice and study, interrupted now and again by
+visits to different courts of Germany, where his services procured him
+honours and rewards. His fame became European. He was enrolled a member
+of many learned societies in different foreign countries, while in his
+own he became privy councillor. He died at Halle on the 12th of November
+1742.
+
+  Of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in Haller's
+  _Bibliotheca medicinae practicae_. The chief is _Medicina rationalis
+  systematica_, undertaken at the age of sixty, and published in 1730.
+  It was translated into French in 1739, under the title of _Médecine
+  raisonnée d'Hoffmann_. A complete edition of Hoffmann's works, with a
+  life of the author, was published at Geneva in 1740, to which
+  supplements were added in 1753 and 1760. Editions appeared also at
+  Venice in 1745 and at Naples in 1753 and 1793. (See also MEDICINE.)
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH (1805-1878), German scholar, was born at
+Würzburg on the 16th of February 1805. After studying at Würzburg he
+went on the stage in 1825; but owing to an accidental meeting with the
+German traveller, Dr Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796-1866), in July
+1830, his interest was diverted to Oriental philology. From Siebold he
+acquired the rudiments of Japanese, and in order to take advantage of
+the instructions of Ko-ching-chang, a Chinese teacher whom Siebold had
+brought home with him, he made himself acquainted with Malay, the only
+language except Chinese which the Chinaman could understand. In a few
+years he was able to supply the translations for Siebold's _Nippon_; and
+the high character of his work soon attracted the attention of older
+scholars. Stanislas Julien invited him to Paris; and he would probably
+have accepted the invitation, as a disagreement had broken out between
+him and Siebold, had not M. Baud, the Dutch colonial minister, appointed
+him Japanese translator with a salary of 1800 florins (£150). The Dutch
+authorities were slow in giving him further recognition; and he was too
+modest a man successfully to urge his claims. It was not till after he
+had received the offer of the professorship of Chinese in King's
+College, London, that the authorities made him professor at Leiden and
+the king allowed him a yearly pension. In 1875 he was decorated with the
+order of the Netherlands Lion, and in 1877 he was elected corresponding
+member of the Berlin Academy. He died at the Hague on the 23rd of
+January 1878.
+
+  Hoffmann's chief work was his unfinished Japanese Dictionary, begun in
+  1839 and afterwards continued by L. Serrurier. Unable at first to
+  procure the necessary type, he set himself to the cutting of punches,
+  and even when the proper founts were obtained he had to act as his own
+  compositor as far as Chinese and Japanese were concerned. His Japanese
+  grammar (_Japanische Sprachlehre_) was published in Dutch and English
+  in 1867, and in English and German in 1876. Of his miscellaneous
+  productions it is enough to mention "Japans Bezüge mit der koraischen
+  Halbinsel und mit Schina" in _Nippon_, vii.; _Yo-San-fi-Rok_, _L'Art
+  d'élever les vers à soie au Japon, par Ouckaki Mourikouni_ (Paris,
+  1848); "Die Heilkunde in Japan" in _Mittheil. d. deutsch. Gesellsch.
+  für Natur- und Völkerk. Ost-Asiens_ (1873-1874); and _Japanische
+  Studien_ (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1818-1892), German chemist, was born at
+Giessen on the 8th of April 1818. Not intending originally to devote
+himself to physical science, he first took up the study of law and
+philology at Göttingen, and the general culture he thus gained stood him
+in good stead when he turned to chemistry, the study of which he began
+under Liebig. When, in 1845, a school of practical chemistry was started
+in London, under the style of the Royal College of Chemistry, Hofmann,
+largely through the influence of the Prince Consort, was appointed its
+first director. It was with some natural hesitation that he, then a
+_Privatdozent_ at Bonn, accepted the position, which may well have
+seemed rather a precarious one; but the difficulty was removed by his
+appointment as extraordinary professor at Bonn, with leave of absence
+for two years, so that he could resume his career in Germany if his
+English one proved unsatisfactory. Fortunately the college was more or
+less successful, owing largely to his enthusiasm and energy, and many of
+the men who were trained there subsequently made their mark in chemical
+history. But in 1864 he returned to Bonn, and in the succeeding year he
+was selected to succeed E. Mitscherlich as professor of chemistry and
+director of the laboratory in Berlin University. In leaving England, of
+which he used to speak as his adopted country, Hofmann was probably
+influenced by a combination of causes. The public support extended to
+the college of chemistry had been dwindling for some years, and before
+he left it had ceased to have an independent existence and had been
+absorbed into the School of Mines. This event he must have looked upon
+as a curtailment of its possibilities of usefulness. But, in addition,
+there is only too much reason to suppose that he was disappointed at the
+general apathy with which his science was regarded in England. No man
+ever realized more fully than he how entirely dependent on the advance
+of scientific knowledge is the continuation of a country's material
+prosperity, and no single chemist ever exercised a greater or more
+direct influence upon industrial development. In England, however,
+people cared for none of these things, and were blind to the commercial
+potentialities of scientific research. The college to which Hofmann
+devoted nearly twenty of the best years of his life was starved; the
+coal-tar industry, which was really brought into existence by his work
+and that of his pupils under his direction at that college, and which
+with a little intelligent forethought might have been retained in
+England, was allowed to slip into the hands of Germany, where it is now
+worth millions of pounds annually; and Hofmann himself was compelled to
+return to his native land to find due appreciation as one of the
+foremost chemists of his time. The rest of his life was spent in Berlin,
+and there he died on the 5th of May 1892. That city possesses a
+permanent memorial to his name in Hofmann House, the home of the German
+Chemical Society (of which he was the founder), which was formally
+opened in 1900, appropriately enough with an account of that great
+triumph of German chemical enterprise, the industrial manufacture of
+synthetical indigo.
+
+Hofmann's work covered a wide range of organic chemistry, though with
+inorganic bodies he did but little. His first research, carried out in
+Liebig's laboratory at Giessen, was on coal-tar, and his investigation
+of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha established the nature of
+aniline. This substance he used to refer to as his first love, and it
+was a love to which he remained faithful throughout his life. His
+perception of the analogy between it and ammonia led to his famous work
+on the amines and ammonium bases and the allied organic phosphorus
+compounds, while his researches on rosaniline, which he first prepared
+in 1858, formed the first of a series of investigations on colouring
+matters which only ended with quinoline red in 1887. But in addition to
+these and numberless other investigations for which he was responsible
+the influence he exercised through his pupils must also be taken into
+account. As a teacher, besides the power of accurately gauging the
+character and capabilities of those who studied under him, he had the
+faculty of infecting them with his own enthusiasm, and thus of
+stimulating them to put forward their best efforts. In the lecture-room
+he laid great stress on the importance of experimental demonstrations,
+paying particular attention to their selection and arrangement, though,
+since he himself was a somewhat clumsy manipulator, their actual
+exhibition was generally entrusted to his assistants. He was the
+possessor of a clear and graceful, if somewhat florid, style, which
+showed to special advantage in his numerous obituary notices or
+encomiums (collected and published in three volumes _Zur Erinnerung an
+vorangegangene Freunde_, 1888). He also excelled as a speaker,
+particularly at gatherings of an international character, for in
+addition to his native German he could speak English, French and Italian
+with fluency.
+
+  See _Memorial Lectures delivered before the Chemical Society,
+  1893-1900_ (London, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON (1810-1877), Lutheran theologian
+and historian, was born on the 21st of December 1810 at Nuremberg, and
+studied theology and history at the university of Erlangen. In 1829 he
+went to Berlin, where Schleiermacher, Hengstenberg, Neander, Ranke and
+Raumer were among his teachers. In 1833 he received an appointment to
+teach Hebrew and history in the gymnasium of Erlangen. In 1835 he became
+_Repetent_, in 1838 _Privatdozent_ and in 1841 _professor
+extraordinarius_ in the theological faculty at Erlangen. In 1842 he
+became _professor ordinarius_ at Rostock, but in 1845 returned once more
+to Erlangen as the successor of Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless
+(1806-1879), founder of the _Zeitschrift für Protestantismus und
+Kirche_, of which Hofmann became one of the editors in 1846, J. F.
+Höfling (1802-1853) and Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) being his
+collaborators. He was a conservative in theology, but an enthusiastic
+adherent of the progressive party in politics, and sat as member for
+Erlangen and Fürth in the Bavarian second chamber from 1863 to 1868. He
+died on the 20th of December 1877.
+
+He wrote _Die siebzig Jahre des Jeremias u. die siebzig Jahrwochen des
+Daniel_ (1836); _Geschichte des Aufruhrs in den Cevennen_ (1837);
+_Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte für Gymnasien_ (1839), which became a
+text-book in the Protestant gymnasia of Bavaria; _Weissagung u.
+Erfüllung im alten u. neuen Testamente_ (1841-1844; 2nd ed., 1857-1860);
+_Der Schriftbeweis_ (1852-1856; 2nd ed., 1857-1860); _Die heilige
+Schrift des neuen Testaments zusammenhängend untersucht_ (1862-1875);
+_Schutzschriften_ (1856-1859), in which he defends himself against the
+charge of denying the Atonement; and _Theologische Ethik_ (1878). His
+most important works are the five last named. In theology, as in
+ecclesiastical polity, Hofmann was a Lutheran of an extreme type,
+although the strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid
+him open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy. He was the head of what
+has been called the Erlangen School, and "in his day he was
+unquestionably the chief glory of the University of Erlangen"
+(Lichtenberger).
+
+  See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ and the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and cf. F. Lichtenberger, _History
+  of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889) pp. 446-458.
+
+
+
+
+HOFMANN, MELCHIOR (c. 1498-1543-4), anabaptist, was born at Hall, in
+Swabia, before 1500 (Zur Linden suggests 1498). His biographers usually
+give his surname as above; in his printed works it is Hoffman, in his
+manuscripts Hoffmann. He was without scholarly training, and first
+appears as a furrier at Livland. Attracted by Luther's doctrine, he came
+forward as a lay preacher, combining business travels with a religious
+mission. Accompanied by Melchior Rinck, also a skinner or furrier, and a
+religious enthusiast, he made his way to Sweden. Joined by Bernard
+Knipperdolling, the party reached Stockholm in the autumn of 1524. Their
+fervid attacks on image worship led to their expulsion. By way of
+Livonia, Hofmann arrived at Dorpat in November 1524, but was driven
+thence in the following January. Making his way to Riga, and thence to
+Wittenberg, he found favour with Luther; his letter of the 22nd of June
+1525 appears in a tract by Luther of that year. He was again at Dorpat
+in May 1526; later at Magdeburg. Returning to Wittenberg, he was coldly
+received; he wrote there his exposition of Daniel xii. (1527). Repairing
+to Holstein, he got into the good graces of Frederick I. of Denmark, and
+was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the Gospel at Kiel. He was
+extravagant in denunciation, and developed a Zwinglian view of the
+Eucharist. Luther was alarmed. At a colloquy of preachers in Flensburg
+(8th April 1529) Hofmann, John Campanus and others were put on their
+defence. Hofmann maintained (against the "magic" of the Lutherans) that
+the function of the Eucharist, like that of preaching, is an appeal for
+spiritual union with Christ. Refusing to retract, he was banished. At
+Strassburg to which he now turned, he was well received (1529) till his
+anabaptist development became apparent. He was in relations with
+Schwenkfeld and with Carlstadt, but assumed a prophetic rôle of his own.
+Journeying to East Friesland, (1530) he founded a community at Emden
+(1532), securing a large following of artisans. Despite the warning of
+John Trypmaker, who prophesied for him "six months" in prison, he
+returned in the spring of 1533 to Strassburg, where we hear of his wife
+and child. He gathered from the Apocalypse a vision of "resurrections"
+of apostolic Christianity, first under John Hus, and now under himself.
+The year 1533 was to inaugurate the new era; Strassburg was to be the
+seat of the New Jerusalem. In May 1533 he and others were arrested.
+Under examination, he denied that he had made common cause with the
+anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet, a mere witness of the Most
+High, but refused the articles of faith proposed to him by the
+provincial synod. Hofmann and Claus Frey, an anabaptist, were detained
+in prison, a measure due to the terror excited by the Münster episode of
+1533-1534. The synod, in 1539, made further effort to reclaim him. The
+last notice of his imprisonment is on the 19th of November 1543; he
+probably died soon after.
+
+Two of his publications, with similar titles, in 1530, are noteworthy as
+having influenced Menno Simons and David Joris (_Weissagung vsz heiliger
+götlicher geschrifft_, and _Prophecey oder Weissagung vsz warer heiliger
+götlicher schrifft_). Bock treats him as an antitrinitarian, on grounds
+which Wallace rightly deems inconclusive. With better reason Trechsel
+includes him among pioneers of some of the positions of Servetus. His
+Christology was Valentinian. While all are elected to salvation, only
+the regenerate may receive baptism, and those who sin after regeneration
+sin against the Holy Ghost, and cannot be saved. His followers were
+known as Hofmannites or Melchiorites.
+
+  See G. Herrmann, _Essai sur la vie et les écrits de M. Hofmann_
+  (1852); F. O. zur Linden, _M. Hofmann, ein Prophet der Wiedertäufer_
+  (1885); H. Holtzmann, in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1880);
+  Hegler in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1900); Bock, _Hist. Antitrin._
+  (1776), ii.; Wallace, _Antitrin. Biography_ (1850) iii., app. iii.;
+  Trechsel, _Prot. Antitrin. vor F. Socin_ (1839) i.; Barclay, _Inner
+  Life of Rel. Societies_ (1876). An alleged portrait, from an engraving
+  of 1608, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross, _Pansebeia_ (1655).
+       (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT (1824-1877), German botanist, was
+born at Leipzig on the 18th of May 1824. He came of a family engaged in
+trade, and after being educated at the _Realschule_ of Leipzig he
+entered business as a music-dealer. Much of his botanical work was done
+while he was so employed, till in 1863 he was nominated, without
+intermediate academic steps, to the chair in Heidelberg; thence he was
+transferred in 1872 to Tübingen, in succession to H. von Mohl. His first
+work was on the distribution of the Coniferae in the Himalaya, but his
+attention was very soon devoted to studying the sexuality and origin of
+the embryo of Phanerogams. His contributions on this subject extended
+from 1847 till 1860, and they finally settled the question of the origin
+of the embryo from an ovum, as against the prevalent pollen-tube theory
+of M. J. Schleiden, for he showed that the pollen-tube does not itself
+produce the embryo, but only stimulates the ovum already present in the
+ovule. He soon turned his attention to the embryology of Bryophytes and
+Pteridophytes, and gave continuous accounts of the germination of the
+spores and fertilization in _Pilularia_, _Salvinia_, _Selaginella_. Some
+of the main facts of the life of ferns and mosses were already known;
+these, together with his own wider observations, were worked into that
+great general pronouncement published in 1851 under the title,
+_Vergleichende Untersuchungen der Keimung, Entfaltung und Fruchtbildung
+köherer Kryptogamen und der Samenbildung der Coniferen_. This work will
+always stand in the first rank of botanical books. It antedated the
+_Origin of Species_ by eight years, but contained facts and comparisons
+which could only become intelligible on some theory of descent. The plan
+of life-story common to them all, involving two alternating generations,
+was demonstrated for Liverworts, Mosses, Ferns, Equiseta, Rhizocarps,
+Lycopodiaceae, and even Gymnosperms, with a completeness and certainty
+which must still surprise those who know the botanical literature of the
+author's time. The conclusions of Hofmeister remain in their broad
+outlines unshaken, but rather strengthened by later-acquired details. In
+the light of the theory of descent the common plan of life-history in
+plants apparently so diverse as those named acquires a special
+significance; but it is one of the remarkable features of this great
+work that the writer himself does not theorize--with an unerring insight
+he points out his comparisons and states his homologies, but does not
+indulge in explanatory surmises. It is the typical work of an heroic age
+of plant-morphology. From 1857 till 1862 Hofmeister wrote occasionally
+on physiological subjects, such as the ascent of sap, and curvatures of
+growing parts, but it was in morphology that he found his natural
+sphere. In 1861, in conjunction with other botanists, a plan was drawn
+up of a handbook of physiological botany, of which Hofmeister was to be
+editor. Though the original scheme was never completed, the editor
+himself contributed two notable parts, _Die Lehre von der Pflanzenzelle_
+(1867) and _Allgemeine Morphologie der Gewächse_ (1868). The former
+gives an excellent summary of the structure and relations of the
+vegetable cell as then known, but it did not greatly modify current
+views. The latter was notable for its refutation of the spiral theory of
+leaf arrangement in plants, founded by C. F. Schimper and A. Braun.
+Hofmeister transferred the discussion from the mere study of mature form
+to the observation of the development of the parts, and substituted for
+the "spiral tendency" a mechanical theory based upon the observed fact
+that new branchings appear over the widest gaps which exist between next
+older branchings of like nature. With this important work Hofmeister's
+period of active production closed; he fell into ill-health, and retired
+from his academic duties some time before his death at Lindenau, near
+Leipzig, on the 12th of January 1877.     (F. O. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK (1845-1909), South African politician, was born at
+Cape Town on the 4th of July 1845. He was educated at the South African
+College, and at an early age turned his attention to politics, first as
+a journalist. He was editor of the _Zuid Afrikaan_ till its
+incorporation with _Ons Land_, and of the _Zuid Afrikaansche
+Tijdschrift_. By birth, education and sympathies a typical Dutch
+Afrikander, he set himself to organize the political power of his
+fellow-countrymen. This he did very effectively, and when in 1879 he
+entered the Cape parliament as member for Stellenbosch, he became the
+real leader of the Dutch party. Yet he only held office for six
+months--as minister without portfolio in the Scanlen ministry from May
+to November 1881. He held no subsequent official post in the colony,
+though he shared with Sir Thomas Upington and Sir Charles Mills the
+honour of representing the Cape at the intercolonial conference of 1887.
+Here he supported the proposal for entrusting the defence of Simon's
+Town to Cape Colony, leaving only the armament to be provided by the
+imperial government, opposed trans-oceanic penny postage, and moved a
+resolution in favour of an imperial customs union. At the colonial
+conference of 1894 at Ottawa he was again one of the Cape
+representatives. In 1888 and in 1889 he was a member of the South
+African customs conference.
+
+His chief importance as a public man was, however, derived from his
+power over the Dutch in Cape Colony, and his control of the Afrikander
+Bond. In 1878 he had himself founded the "Farmers' Association," and as
+the Cape farmers were almost entirely Dutch the Association became a
+centre of Dutch influence. When the Bond was formed in 1882, with purely
+political aims, Hofmeyr made haste to obtain control of it, and in 1883
+amalgamated the Farmers' Association with it. Under his direction the
+constitution of the Bond was modified by the elimination of the
+provisions inconsistent with loyalty to the British crown. But it
+remained an organization for obtaining the political supremacy of the
+Cape Dutch. (See CAPE COLONY: _History_.) His control over the Bond
+enabled him for many years, while free from the responsibilities of
+office, to make and unmake ministers at his will, and earned for him the
+name of "Cabinet-maker of South Africa." Although officially the term
+"Afrikander" was explained by Hofmeyr to include white men of whatever
+race, yet in practice the influence of the Bond was always exerted in
+favour of the Dutch, and its power was drawn from the Dutch districts of
+Cape Colony. The sympathies of the Bond were thus always strongly with
+the Transvaal, as the chief centre of Dutch influence in South Africa;
+and Hofmeyr's position might in many respects be compared with that of
+Parnell at the head of the Irish Nationalist party in Great Britain. In
+the Bechuanaland difficulty of 1884 Hofmeyr threw all the influence of
+the Bond into the scale in favour of the Transvaal. But in the course of
+the next few years he began to drift away from President Kruger. He
+resented the reckless disregard of Cape interests involved in Kruger's
+fiscal policy; he feared that the Transvaal, after its sudden leap into
+prosperity upon the gold discoveries of 1886, might overshadow all other
+Dutch influences in South Africa; above all he was convinced, as he
+showed by his action at the London conference, that the protection of
+the British navy was indispensable to South Africa, and he set his face
+against Kruger's intrigues with Germany, and his avowed intention of
+acquiring an outlet to the sea in order to get into touch with foreign
+powers.
+
+In 1890 Hofmeyr joined forces with Cecil Rhodes, who became premier of
+Cape Colony with the support of the Bond. Hofmeyr's influence was a
+powerful factor in the conclusion of the Swaziland convention of 1890,
+as well as in stopping the "trek" to Banyailand (Rhodesia) in 1891--a
+notable reversal of the policy he had pursued seven years before. But
+the reactionary elements in the Bond grew alarmed at Rhodes's
+imperialism, and in 1895 Hofmeyr resigned his seat in parliament and the
+presidency of the Bond. Then came the Jameson Raid, and in its wake
+there rolled over South Africa a wave of Dutch and anti-British feeling
+such as had not been known since the days of Majuba. (The proclamation
+issued by Sir Hercules Robinson disavowing Jameson was suggested by
+Hofmeyr, who helped to draw up its terms.) Once more Hofmeyr became
+president of the Bond. By an alteration of the provincial constitution,
+all power in the Cape branch of the Bond was vested in the hands of a
+vigilance committee of three, of whom Hofmeyr and his brother were two.
+As the recognized leader of the Cape Dutch, he protested against such
+abuses as the dynamite monopoly in the Transvaal, and urged Kruger even
+at the eleventh hour to grant reasonable concessions rather than plunge
+into a war that might involve Cape Afrikanderdom and the Transvaal in a
+common ruin. In July 1899 he journeyed to Pretoria, and vainly supported
+the proposal of a satisfactory franchise law, combined with a limited
+representation of the Uitlanders in the Volksraad, and in September
+urged the Transvaal to accede to the proposed joint inquiry. During the
+negotiations of 1899, and after the outbreak of war, the official organ
+of the Bond, _Ons Land_, was conspicuous for its anti-British attitude,
+and its violence forced Lord Roberts to suppress it in the Cape Colony
+district under martial law. Hofmeyr never associated himself publicly
+with the opinions expressed by _Ons Land_, but neither did he repudiate
+them. The tide of race sympathy among his Dutch supporters made his
+position one of great difficulty, and shortly after the outbreak of war
+he withdrew to Europe, and refused to act as a member of the
+"Conciliation Committee" which came to England in 1901 in the interests
+of the Boer republics.
+
+Towards the close of the war Hofmeyr returned to South Africa and
+organized the Bond forces for the general election held in Cape Colony
+at the beginning of 1904, which resulted in the defeat of the Bond
+party. Hofmeyr retained his ascendancy over the Cape Dutch, but now
+began to find himself somewhat out of sympathy with the larger outlook
+on South African affairs taken by the younger leaders of the Boers in
+the Transvaal. During 1906 he gave offence to the extreme section of the
+Bond by some criticisms of the _taal_ and his use of English in public
+speeches. At the general election in 1908 the Bond, still largely under
+his direction, gained a victory at the polls, but Hofmeyr himself was
+not a candidate. In the renewed movement for the closer union of the
+South African colonies he advocated federation as opposed to
+unification. When, however, the unification proposals were ratified by
+the Cape parliament, Hofmeyr procured his nomination as one of the Cape
+delegates to England in the summer of 1909 to submit the draft act of
+union to the imperial government. He attended the conferences with the
+officials of the Colonial Office for the preparation of the draft act,
+and after the bill had become law went to Germany for a "cure." He
+returned to London in October 1909, where he died on the 16th of that
+month. His body was taken to Cape Town for burial.
+
+
+
+
+HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS (1802-1886), Dutch theologian, was born at
+Leer in East Friesland, Prussia, on the 8th of October 1802, and was
+educated at the Gymnasium and university of Groningen. For three years
+(1826-1829) he was pastor of the Reformed Church at Ulrum, and then
+entered upon his lifelong duties as professor of theology at Groningen.
+With his colleagues L. G. Pareau, J. F. van Vordt, and W. Muurling he
+edited from 1837 to 1872 the _Waarheid in Liefde_. In this review and in
+his numerous books he vigorously upheld the orthodox faith against the
+Dutch "modern theology" movement. Many of his works were written in
+Latin, including _Disputatio, qua ep. ad Hebraeos cum Paulin. epistolis
+comparatur_ (1826), _Institutiones historiae ecclesiae_ (1835),
+_Institutio theologiae naturalis_ (1842), _Encyclopaedia theologi
+christiani_ (1844). Others, in Dutch, were: _The Divine Education of
+Humanity up to the Coming of Jesus Christ_ (3 vols., 1846), _The Nature
+of the Gospel Ministry_ (1858), _The "Modern Theology" of the
+Netherlands_ (1869), _The Old Catholic Movement_ (1877). He became
+professor emeritus in 1872, and died at Groningen on the 5th of December
+1886.
+
+
+
+
+HOGARTH, WILLIAM (1697-1764), the great English painter and pictorial
+satirist, was born at Bartholomew Close in London on the 10th of
+November 1697, and baptized on the 28th in the church of St Bartholomew
+the Great. He had two younger sisters, Mary, born in 1699, and Ann, born
+in 1701. His father, Richard Hogarth, who died in 1718, was a
+schoolmaster and literary hack, who had come to the metropolis to seek
+that fortune which had been denied to him in his native Westmorland. The
+son seems to have been early distinguished by a talent for drawing and
+an active perceptive faculty rather than by any close attention to the
+learning which he was soon shrewd enough to see had not made his parent
+prosper. "Shows of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when an infant,"
+he says, "and mimicry, common to all children, was remarkable in me....
+My exercises when at school were more remarkable for the ornaments which
+adorned them than for the exercise itself." This being the case, it is
+no wonder that, by his own desire, he was apprenticed to a silver-plate
+engraver, Mr Ellis Gamble, at the sign of the "Golden Angel" in
+Cranbourne Street or Alley, Leicester Fields. For this master he
+engraved a shop-card which is still extant. When his apprenticeship
+began is not recorded; but it must have been concluded before the
+beginning of 1720, for in April of that year he appears to have set up
+as engraver on his own account. His desires, however, were not limited
+to silver-plate engraving. "Engraving on copper was, at twenty years of
+age, my utmost ambition." For this he lacked the needful skill as a
+draughtsman; and his account of the means which he took to supply this
+want, without too much interfering with his pleasure, is thoroughly
+characteristic, though it can scarcely be recommended as an example.
+"Laying it down," he says, "first as an axiom, that he who could by any
+means acquire and retain in his memory, perfect ideas of the subjects he
+meant to draw, would have as clear a knowledge of the figure as a man
+who can write freely hath of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet and
+their infinite combinations (each of these being composed of lines),
+and would consequently be an accurate designer, ... I therefore
+endeavoured to habituate myself to the exercise of a sort of technical
+memory, and by repeating in my own mind, the parts of which objects were
+composed, I could by degrees combine and put them down with my pencil."
+This account, it is possible, has something of the complacency of the
+old age in which it was written; but there is little doubt that his
+marvellous power of seizing expression owed less to patient academical
+study than to his unexampled eye-memory and tenacity of minor detail.
+But he was not entirely without technical training, since, by his own
+showing, he occasionally "took the life" to correct his memories, and is
+known to have studied at Sir James Thornhill's then recently opened art
+school.
+
+"His first employment" (i.e. after he set up for himself) "seems," says
+John Nichols, in his _Anecdotes_, "to have been the engraving of arms
+and shop bills." After this he was employed in designing "plates for
+booksellers." Of these early and mostly insignificant works we may pass
+over "The Lottery, an Emblematic Print on the South Sea Scheme," and
+some book illustrations, to pause at "Masquerades and Operas" (1724),
+the first plate he published on his own account. This is a clever little
+satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades of the Swiss
+adventurer Heidegger, the popular Italian opera-singers, Rich's
+pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and last, but by no means least, the
+exaggerated popularity of Lord Burlington's protégé, the architect
+painter William Kent, who is here represented on the summit of
+Burlington Gate, with Raphael and Michelangelo for supporters. This
+worthy, Hogarth had doubtless not learned to despise less in the school
+of his rival Sir James Thornhill. Indeed almost the next of Hogarth's
+important prints was aimed at Kent alone, being that memorable burlesque
+of the unfortunate altarpiece designed by the latter for St Clement
+Danes, which, in deference to the ridicule of the parishioners, Bishop
+Gibson took down in 1725. Hogarth's squib, which appeared subsequently,
+exhibits it as a very masterpiece of confusion and bad drawing. In 1726
+he prepared twelve large engravings for Butler's _Hudibras_. These he
+himself valued highly, and they are the best of his book illustrations.
+But he was far too individual to be the patient interpreter of other
+men's thoughts, and it is not in this direction that his successes are
+to be sought.
+
+To 1727-1728 belongs one of those rare occurrences which have survived
+as contributions to his biography. He was engaged by Joshua Morris, a
+tapestry worker, to prepare a design for the "Element of Earth." Morris,
+however, having heard that he was "an engraver, and no painter,"
+declined the work when completed, and Hogarth accordingly sued him for
+the money in the Westminster Court, where, on the 28th of May 1728, the
+case was decided in his (Hogarth's) favour. It may have been the
+aspersion thus early cast on his skill as a painter (coupled perhaps
+with the unsatisfactory state of print-selling, owing to the
+uncontrolled circulation of piratical copies) that induced him about
+this time to turn his attention to the production of "small conversation
+pieces" (i.e. groups in oil of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in.
+high), many of which are still preserved in different collections.
+"This," he says, "having novelty, succeeded for a few years." Among his
+other efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were "The Wanstead
+Conversation," "The House of Commons examining Bambridge," an infamous
+warden of the Fleet, and several pictures of the chief actors in Gay's
+popular _Beggar's Opera_.
+
+On the 23rd of March 1729 he was married at old Paddington church to
+Jane Thornhill, the only daughter of Kent's rival above mentioned. The
+match was a clandestine one, although Lady Thornhill appears to have
+favoured it. We next hear of him in "lodgings at South Lambeth," where
+he rendered some assistance to the then well-known Jonathan Tyers, who
+opened Vauxhall in 1732 with an entertainment styled a _ridotto al
+fresco_. For these gardens Hogarth painted a poor picture of Henry VIII.
+and Anne Boleyn, and he also permitted Hayman to make copies of the
+later series of the "Four Times of the Day." In return, the grateful
+Tyers presented him with a gold pass ticket "_In perpetuam Beneficii
+Memoriam_." It was long thought that Hogarth designed this himself. Mr
+Warwick Wroth (_Numismatic Chronicle_, vol. xviii.) doubts this,
+although he thinks it probable that Hogarth designed some of the silver
+Vauxhall passes which are figured in Wilkinson's _Londina illustrata_.
+The only engravings between 1726 and 1732 which need be referred to are
+the "Large Masquerade Ticket" (1727), another satire on masquerades, and
+the print of "Burlington Gate" (1731), evoked by Pope's _Epistle to Lord
+Burlington_, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This
+print gave great offence, and was, it is said, suppressed.
+
+By 1731 Hogarth must have completed the earliest of the series of moral
+works which first gave him his position as a great and original genius.
+This was "A Harlot's Progress," the paintings for which, if we may trust
+the date in the last of the pictures, were finished in that year. Almost
+immediately afterwards he must have begun to engrave them--a task he had
+at first intended to leave to others. From an advertisement in the
+_Country Journal; or, the Craftsman_, 29th of January 1732, the pictures
+were then being engraved, and from later announcements it seems clear
+that they were delivered to the subscribers early in the following
+April, on the 21st of which month an unauthorized prose description of
+them was published. We have no record of the particular train of thought
+which prompted these story-pictures; but it may perhaps be fairly
+assumed that the necessity for creating some link of interest between
+the personages of the little "conversation pieces" above referred to,
+led to the further idea of connecting several groups or scenes so as to
+form a sequent narrative. "I wished," says Hogarth, "to compose pictures
+on canvas, similar to representations on the stage." "I have
+endeavoured," he says again, "to treat my subject as a dramatic writer;
+my picture is my stage, and men and women my players, who by means of
+certain actions and gestures are to exhibit _a dumb show_." There was
+never a more eloquent dumb show than this of the "Harlot's Progress." In
+six scenes the miserable career of a woman of the town is traced out
+remorselessly from its first facile beginning to its shameful and
+degraded end. Nothing of the detail is softened or abated; the whole is
+acted out _coram populo_, with the hard, uncompassionate morality of the
+age the painter lived in, while the introduction here and there of one
+or two well-known characters such as Colonel Charteris and Justice
+Gonson give a vivid reality to the satire. It had an immediate success.
+To say nothing of the fact that the talent of the paintings completely
+reconciled Sir James Thornhill to the son-in-law he had hitherto refused
+to acknowledge, more than twelve hundred names of subscribers to the
+engravings were entered in the artist's book. On the appearance of plate
+iii. the lords of the treasury trooped to the print shop for Sir John
+Gonson's portrait which it contained. The story was made into a
+pantomime by Theophilus Cibber, and by some one else into a ballad
+opera; and it gave rise to numerous pamphlets and poems. It was painted
+on fan-mounts and transferred to cups and saucers. Lastly, it was freely
+pirated. There could be no surer testimony to its popularity.
+
+From the MSS. of George Vertue in the British Museum (Add. MSS.
+23069-98) it seems that during the progress of the plates, Hogarth was
+domiciled with his father-in-law, Sir James Thornhill, in the Middle
+Piazza, Covent Garden (the "second house eastward from James Street"),
+and it must have been thence that set out the historical expedition from
+London to Sheerness of which the original record still exists at the
+British Museum. This is an oblong MS. volume entitled _An Account of
+what seem'd most Remarkable in the Five Days' Peregrination of the Five
+Following Persons, vizt., Messieurs Tothall, Scott, Hogarth, Thornhill
+and Forrest. Begun on Saturday May 27th 1732 and Finish'd On the 31st of
+the Same Month. Abi tu et fac similiter. Inscription on Dulwich College
+Porch_. The journal, which is written by Ebenezer, the father of
+Garrick's friend Theodosius Forrest, gives a good idea of what a
+"frisk"--as Johnson called it--was in those days, while the
+illustrations were by Hogarth and Samuel Scott the landscape painter.
+John Thornhill, Sir James's son, made the map. This version (in prose)
+was subsequently run into rhyme by one of Hogarth's friends, the Rev.
+Wm. Gostling of Canterbury, and after the artist's death both versions
+were published. In the absence of other biographical detail, they are of
+considerable interest to the student of Hogarth. In 1733 Hogarth moved
+into the "Golden Head" in Leicester Fields, which, with occasional
+absences at Chiswick, he continued to occupy until his death. By
+December of this year he was already engaged upon the engravings of a
+second Progress, that of a Rake. It was not as successful as its
+predecessor. It was in eight plates in lieu of six. The story is
+unequal; but there is nothing finer than the figure of the desperate
+hero in the Covent Garden gaming-house, or the admirable scenes in the
+Fleet prison and Bedlam, where at last his headlong career comes to its
+tragic termination. The plates abound with allusive suggestion and
+covert humour; but it is impossible to attempt any detailed description
+of them here.
+
+"A Rake's Progress" was dated June 25, 1735, and the engravings bear the
+words "according to Act of Parliament." This was an act (8 Geo. II. cap.
+13) which Hogarth had been instrumental in obtaining from the
+legislature, being stirred thereto by the shameless piracies of rival
+printsellers. Although loosely drawn, it served its purpose; and the
+painter commemorated his success by a long inscription on the plate
+entitled "Crowns, Mitres, &c.," afterwards used as a subscription ticket
+to the Election series. These subscription tickets to his engravings,
+let us add, are among the brightest and most vivacious of the artist's
+productions. That to the "Harlot's Progress" was entitled "Boys peeping
+at Nature," while the Rake's Progress was heralded by the delightful
+etching known as "A Pleased Audience at a Play, or The Laughing
+Audience."
+
+We must pass more briefly over the prints which followed the two
+Progresses, noting first "A Modern Midnight Conversation," an admirable
+drinking scene which comes between them in 1733, and the bright little
+plate of "Southwark Fair," which, although dated 1733, was published
+with "A Rake's Progress" in 1735. Between these and "Marriage _à la
+mode_," upon the pictures of which the painter must have been not long
+after at work, come the small prints of the "Consultation of Physicians"
+and "Sleeping Congregation" (1736), the "Scholars at a Lecture" (1737);
+the "Four Times of the Day" (1738), a series of pictures of 18th century
+life, the earlier designs for which have been already referred to; the
+"Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn" (1738), which Walpole held to
+be, "for wit and imagination, without any other end, the best of all the
+painter's works"; and finally the admirable plates of the Distrest Poet
+painfully composing a poem on "Riches" in a garret, and the Enraged
+Musician fulminating from his parlour window upon a discordant orchestra
+of knife-grinders, milk-girls, ballad-singers and the rest upon the
+pavement outside. These are dated respectively 1736 and 1741. To this
+period also (i.e. the period preceding the production of the plates of
+"Marriage _à la mode_") belong two of those history pictures to which,
+in emulation of the Haymans and Thornhills, the artist was continually
+attracted. "The Pool of Bethesda" and the "Good Samaritan," "with
+figures seven feet high," were painted _circa_ 1736, and presented by
+the artist to St Bartholomew's Hospital, where they remain. They were
+not masterpieces; and it is pleasanter to think of his connexion with
+Captain Coram's recently established Foundling Hospital (1739), which he
+aided with his money, his graver and his brush, and for which he painted
+that admirable portrait of the good old philanthropist which is still,
+and deservedly, one of its chief ornaments.
+
+In "A Harlot's Progress" Hogarth had not strayed much beyond the lower
+walks of society, and although, in "A Rake's Progress," his hero was
+taken from the middle classes, he can scarcely be said to have quitted
+those fields of observation which are common to every spectator. It is
+therefore more remarkable, looking to his education and antecedents,
+that his masterpiece, "Marriage _à la mode_," should successfully
+depict, as the advertisement has it, "a variety of modern occurrences in
+high life." Yet, as an accurate delineation of upper class 18th century
+society, his "Marriage _à la mode_" has never, we believe, been
+seriously assailed. The countess's bedroom, the earl's apartment with
+its lavish coronets and old masters, the grand saloon with its marble
+pillars and grotesque ornaments, are fully as true to nature as the
+frowsy chamber in the "Turk's Head Bagnio," the quack-doctor's museum in
+St Martin's Lane, or the mean opulence of the merchant's house in the
+city. And what story could be more vividly, more perspicuously, more
+powerfully told than this godless alliance of _sacs et parchemins_--this
+miserable tragedy of an ill-assorted marriage? There is no defect of
+invention, no superfluity of detail, no purposeless stroke. It has the
+merit of a work by a great master of fiction, with the additional
+advantages which result from the pictorial fashion of the narrative; and
+it is matter for congratulation that it is still to be seen by all the
+world in the National Gallery in London, where it can tell its own tale
+better than pages of commentary. The engravings of "Marriage _à la
+mode_" were dated April 1745. Although by this time the painter found a
+ready market for his engravings, he does not appear to have been equally
+successful in selling his pictures. The people bought his prints; but
+the richer and not numerous connoisseurs who purchased pictures were
+wholly in the hands of the importers and manufacturers of "old masters."
+In February 1745 the original oil paintings of the two Progresses, the
+"Four Times of the Day" and the "Strolling Actresses" were still unsold.
+On the last day of that month Hogarth disposed of them by an ill-devised
+kind of auction, the details of which may be read in Nichols's
+_Anecdotes_, for the paltry sum of £427, 7s. No better fate attended
+"Marriage _à la mode_," which six years later became the property of Mr
+Lane of Hillingdon for 120 guineas, being then in Carlo Maratti frames
+which had cost the artist four guineas a piece. Something of this was no
+doubt due to Hogarth's impracticable arrangements, but the fact shows
+conclusively how completely blind his contemporaries were to his merits
+as a painter, and how hopelessly in bondage to the all-powerful
+picture-dealers. Of these latter the painter himself gave a graphic
+picture in a letter addressed by him under the pseudonym of "Britophil"
+to the _St James's Evening Post_, in June 1737.
+
+But if Hogarth was not successful with his dramas on canvas, he
+occasionally shared with his contemporaries in the popularity of
+portrait painting. For a picture, executed in 1746, of Garrick as
+Richard III. he was paid £200, "which was more," says he, "than any
+English artist ever received for a single portrait." In the same year a
+sketch of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill,
+had an exceptional success.
+
+We must content ourselves with a brief enumeration of the most important
+of his remaining works. These are "The Stage Coach or Country Inn Yard"
+(1747); the series of twelve plates entitled "Industry and Idleness"
+(1747), depicting the career of two London apprentices; the "Gate of
+Calais" (1749), which had its origin in a rather unfortunate visit paid
+to France by the painter after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the "March
+to Finchley" (1750); "Beer Street," "Gin Lane" and the "Four Stages of
+Cruelty" (1751); the admirable representations of election humours in
+the days of Sir Robert Walpole, entitled "Four Prints of an Election"
+(1755-1758); and the plate of "Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism, a
+Medley" (1762), adapted from an earlier unpublished design called
+"Enthusiasm Delineated." Besides these must be chronicled three more
+essays in the "great style of history painting," viz. "Paul before
+Felix," "Moses brought to Pharaoh's Daughter" and the Altarpiece for St
+Mary Redcliffe at Bristol. The first two were engraved in 1751-1752, the
+last in 1794. A subscription ticket to the earlier pictures, entitled
+"Paul before Felix Burlesqued," had a popularity far greater than that
+of the prints themselves.
+
+In 1745 Hogarth painted that admirable portrait of himself with his dog
+Trump, which is now in the National Gallery. In a corner of this he had
+drawn on a palette a serpentine curve with the words "The Line of
+Beauty." Much inquiry ensued as to the meaning of this hieroglyphic; and
+in an unpropitious hour the painter resolved to explain himself in
+writing. The result was the well-known _Analysis of Beauty_ (1753), a
+treatise to fix "the fluctuating ideas of Taste," otherwise a desultory
+essay having for pretext the precept attributed to Michelangelo that a
+figure should be always "Pyramidall, Serpent like and multiplied by one
+two and three." The fate of the book was what might have been expected.
+By the painter's adherents it was praised as a final deliverance upon
+aesthetics; by his enemies and professional rivals, its obscurities, and
+the minor errors which, notwithstanding the benevolent efforts of
+literary friends, the work had not escaped, were made the subject of
+endless ridicule and caricature. It added little to its author's fame,
+and it is perhaps to be regretted that he ever undertook it. Moreover,
+there were further humiliations in store for him. In 1759 the success of
+a little picture called "The Lady's Last Stake," painted for Lord
+Charlemont, procured him a commission from Sir Richard Grosvenor to
+paint another picture "upon the same terms." Unhappily on this occasion
+he deserted his own field of genre and social satire, to select the
+story from Boccaccio (or rather Dryden) of Sigismunda weeping over the
+heart of her murdered lover Guiscardo, being the subject of a picture in
+Sir Luke Schaub's collection by Furini which had recently been sold for
+£400. The picture, over which he spent much time and patience, was not
+regarded as a success; and Sir Richard rather meanly shuffled out of his
+bargain upon the plea that "the constantly having it before one's eyes,
+would be too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one's mind."
+Sigismunda, therefore, much to the artist's mortification, and the
+delight of the malicious, remained upon his hands. As, by her husband's
+desire, his widow valued it at £500, it found no purchaser until after
+her death, when the Boydells bought it for 56 guineas. It was exhibited,
+with others of Hogarth's pictures, at the Spring Gardens exhibition of
+1761, for the catalogue of which Hogarth engraved a Head-piece and a
+Tail-piece which are still the delight of collectors; and finally, by
+the bequest of Mr J. H. Anderdon, it passed in 1879 to the National
+Gallery, where, in spite of theatrical treatment and a repulsive theme,
+it still commands admiration for its colour, drawing and expression.
+
+In 1761 Hogarth was sixty-five years of age, and he had but three years
+more to live. These three years were embittered by an unhappy quarrel
+with his quondam friends, John Wilkes and Churchill the poet, over which
+most of his biographers are contented to pass rapidly. Having succeeded
+John Thornhill in 1757 as serjeant painter (to which post he was
+reappointed at the accession of George III.), an evil genius prompted
+him in 1762 to do some "timed" thing in the ministerial interest, and he
+accordingly published the indifferent satire of "The Times, plate i."
+This at once brought him into collision with Wilkes and Churchill, and
+the immediate result was a violent attack upon him, both as a man and an
+artist, in the opposition _North Briton_, No. 17. The alleged decay of
+his powers, the miscarriage of Sigismunda, the cobbled composition of
+the _Analysis_, were all discussed with scurrilous malignity by those
+who had known his domestic life and learned his weaknesses. The old
+artist was deeply wounded, and his health was failing. Early in the next
+year, however, he replied by that portrait of Wilkes which will for ever
+carry his squinting features to posterity. Churchill retaliated in July
+by a savage _Epistle to William Hogarth_, to which the artist rejoined
+by a print of Churchill as a bear, in torn bands and ruffles, not the
+most successful of his works. "The pleasure, and pecuniary advantage,"
+writes Hogarth manfully, "which I derived from these two engravings" (of
+Wilkes and Churchill), "together with occasionally riding on horseback,
+restored me to as much health as can be expected at my time of life." He
+produced but one more print, that of "Finis, or The Bathos," March 1764,
+a strange jumble of "fag ends," intended as a tail-piece to his
+collected prints; and on the 26th October of the same year he died of an
+aneurism at his house in Leicester Square. His wife, to whom he left his
+plates as a chief source of income, survived him until 1789. He was
+buried in Chiswick churchyard, where a tomb was erected to him by his
+friends in 1771, with an epitaph by Garrick. Not far off, on the road
+to Chiswick Gardens, still stands the little red-brick Georgian villa
+in which from September 1749 until his death he spent the summer
+seasons. After many vicissitudes and changes of ownership it was
+purchased in 1902 by Lieut.-Colonel Shipway of Chiswick, who turned it
+into a Hogarth museum and preserved it to the nation.
+
+From such records of him as survive, Hogarth appears to have been much
+what from his portrait one might suppose him to have been--a blue-eyed,
+honest, combative little man, thoroughly insular in his prejudices and
+antipathies, fond of flattery, sensitive like most satirists, a good
+friend, an intractable enemy, ambitious, as he somewhere says, in all
+things to be singular, and not always accurately estimating the extent
+of his powers. With the art connoisseurship of his day he was wholly at
+war, because, as he believed, it favoured foreign mediocrity at the
+expense of native talent; and in the heat of argument he would probably,
+as he admits, often come "to utter blasphemous expressions against the
+divinity even of Raphael Urbino, Correggio and Michelangelo." But it was
+rather against the third-rate copies of third-rate artists--the
+"ship-loads of dead Christs, Holy Families and Madonnas"--that his
+indignation was directed; and in speaking of his attitude with regard to
+the great masters of art, it is well to remember his words to Mrs
+Piozzi:--"The connoisseurs and I are at war, you know; and because I
+hate _them_, they think I hate _Titian_--and let them!"
+
+But no doubt it was in a measure owing to this hostile attitude of his
+towards the all-powerful picture-brokers that his contemporaries failed
+to recognize adequately his merits as a painter, and persisted in
+regarding him as an ingenious humorist alone. Time has reversed that
+unjust sentence. He is now held to have been a splendid painter, pure
+and harmonious in his colouring, wonderfully dexterous and direct in his
+handling, and in his composition leaving little or nothing to be
+desired. As an engraver his work is more conspicuous for its vigour,
+spirit and intelligibility than for finish and beauty of line. He
+desired that it should tell its own tale plainly, and bear the distinct
+impress of his individuality, and in this he thoroughly succeeded. As a
+draughtsman his skill has sometimes been debated, and his work at times
+undoubtedly bears marks of haste, and even carelessness. If, however, he
+is judged by his best instead of his worst, he will not be found wanting
+in this respect. But it is not after all as a draughtsman, an engraver
+or a painter that he claims his unique position among English
+artists--it is as a humorist and a satirist upon canvas. Regarded in
+this light he has never been equalled, whether for his vigour of realism
+and dramatic power, his fancy and invention in the decoration of his
+story, or his merciless anatomy and exposure of folly and wickedness. If
+we regard him--as he loved to regard himself--as "author" rather than
+"artist," his place is with the great masters of literature--with the
+Thackerays and Fieldings, the Cervantes and Molières.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The main body of Hogarth literature is to be found in
+  the autobiographical _Memoranda_ published by John Ireland in 1798,
+  and in the successive _Anecdotes_ of the antiquary John Nichols. Much
+  minute information has also been collected in F. G. Stephens's
+  _Catalogue of the Satirical Prints and Drawings in the British
+  Museum_. But a copious bibliography of books, pamphlets, &c., relating
+  to Hogarth, together with detailed catalogues of his paintings and
+  prints, will be found in the _Memoir_ of Hogarth by Austin Dobson.
+  First issued in 1879, this was reprinted and expanded in 1891, 1897,
+  1902 and finally in 1907. Pictures by Hogarth from private collections
+  are constantly to be found at the annual exhibitions of the Old
+  Masters at Burlington House; but most of the best-known works have
+  permanent homes in public galleries. "Marriage _à la mode_."
+  "Sigismunda," "Lavinia Fenton," the "Shrimp Girl," the "Gate of
+  Calais," the portraits of himself, his sister and his servants, are
+  all in the National Gallery; the "Rake's Progress" and the Election
+  Series, in the Soane Museum; and the "March to Finchley" and "Captain
+  Coram" in the Foundling. There are also notable pictures in the
+  Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge and the National Portrait Gallery. At
+  the Print Room in the British Museum there is also a very interesting
+  set of sixteen designs for the series called "Industry and Idleness,"
+  the majority of which formerly belonged to Horace Walpole.     (A. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HOGG, JAMES (1770-1835), Scottish poet, known as the "Ettrick Shepherd,"
+was baptized at Ettrick in Selkirkshire on the 9th of December 1770.
+His ancestors had been shepherds for centuries. He received hardly any
+school training, and seems to have had difficulty in getting books to
+read. After spending his early years herding sheep for different
+masters, he was engaged as shepherd by Mr Laidlaw, tenant of Blackhouse,
+in the parish of Yarrow, from 1790 till 1799. He was treated with great
+kindness, and had access to a large collection of books. When this was
+exhausted he subscribed to a circulating library in Peebles. While
+attending to his flock, he spent a great deal of time in reading. He
+profited by the company of his master's sons, of whom William Laidlaw is
+known as the friend of Scott and the author of _Lucy's Flittin'_. Hogg's
+first printed piece was "The Mistakes of a Night" in the _Scots
+Magazine_ for October 1794, and in 1801 he published his _Scottish
+Pastorals_. In 1802 Hogg became acquainted with Sir Walter Scott, who
+was then collecting materials for his _Border Minstrelsy_. On Scott's
+recommendation Constable published Hogg's miscellaneous poems (_The
+Mountain Bard_) in 1807. By this work, and by _The Shepherd's Guide,
+being a Practical Treatise on the Diseases of Sheep_, Hogg realized
+about £300. With this money he unfortunately embarked in farming in
+Dumfriesshire, and in three years was utterly ruined, having to abandon
+all his effects to his creditors. He returned to Ettrick, only to find
+that he could not even obtain employment as a shepherd; so he set off in
+February 1810 to push his fortune in Edinburgh as a literary adventurer.
+In the same year he published a collection of songs, _The Forest
+Minstrel_, to which he was the largest contributor. This book, being
+dedicated to the countess of Dalkeith (afterwards duchess of Buccleuch),
+and recommended to her notice by Scott, was rewarded with a present of
+100 guineas. He then began a weekly periodical, _The Spy_, which he
+continued from September 1810 till August 1811. The appearance of _The
+Queen's Wake_ in 1813 established Hogg's reputation as a poet; Byron
+recommended it to John Murray, who brought out an English edition. The
+scene of the poem is laid in 1561; the queen is Mary Stuart; and the
+"wake" provides a simple framework for seventeen poems sung by rival
+bards. It was followed by the _Pilgrims of the Sun_ (1815), and _Mador
+of the Moor_ (1816). The duchess of Buccleuch, on her death-bed (1814),
+had asked her husband to do something for the Ettrick bard; and the duke
+gave him a lease for life of the farm of Altrive in Yarrow, consisting
+of about 70 acres of moorland, on which the poet built a house and spent
+the last years of his life. In order to obtain money to stock his farm
+Hogg asked various poets to contribute to a volume of verse which should
+be a kind of poetic "benefit" for himself. Failing in his applications
+he wrote a volume of parodies, published in 1816, as _The Poetic Mirror,
+or the Living Bards of Great Britain_. He took possession of his farm in
+1817; but his literary exertions were never relaxed. Before 1820 he had
+written the prose tales of _The Brownie of Bodsbeck_ (1818) and two
+volumes of _Winter Evening Tales_ (1820), besides collecting, editing
+and writing part of two volumes of _The Jacobite Relics of Scotland_
+(1819-1821), and contributing largely to _Blackwood's Magazine_. "The
+Chaldee MS.," which appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_ (October 1817),
+and gave such offence that it was immediately withdrawn, was largely
+Hogg's work.
+
+In 1820 he married Margaret Phillips, a lady of a good Annandale family,
+and found himself possessed of about £1000, a good house and a
+well-stocked farm. Hogg's connexion with _Blackwood's Magazine_ kept him
+continually before the public; his contributions, which include the best
+of his prose works, were collected in the _Shepherd's Calendar_ (1829).
+The wit and mischief of some of his literary friends made free with his
+name as the "Shepherd" of the _Noctes Ambrosianae_, and represented him
+in ludicrous and grotesque aspects; but the effect of the whole was
+favourable to his popularity. "Whatever may be the merits of the picture
+of the Shepherd [in the _Noctes Ambrosianae_]--and no one will deny its
+power and genius," writes Professor Veitch--"it is true, all the same,
+that this Shepherd was not the Shepherd of Ettrick or the man James
+Hogg. He was neither a Socrates nor a Falstaff, neither to be credited
+with the wisdom and lofty idealizings of the one, nor with the
+characteristic humour and coarseness of the other." _The Three Perils of
+Woman_ (1820), and _The Three Perils of Man_ (1822), were followed in
+1825 by an epic poem, _Queen Hynde_, which was unfavourably received. He
+visited London in 1832, and was much lionized. On his return a public
+dinner was given to him in Peebles,--Professor Wilson in the chair,--and
+he acknowledged that he had at last "found fame." His health, however,
+was seriously impaired. With his pen in his hand to the last, Hogg in
+1834 published a volume of _Lay Sermons_, and _The Domestic Manners and
+Private Life of Sir Walter Scott_, a book which Lockhart regarded as an
+infringement on his rights. In 1835 appeared three volumes of _Tales of
+the Wars of Montrose_. Hogg died on the 21st of November 1835, and was
+buried in the churchyard of his native parish Ettrick. His fame had
+seemed to fill the whole district, and was brightest at its close; his
+presence was associated with all the border sports and festivities; and
+as a man James Hogg was ever frank, joyous and charitable. It is mainly
+as a great peasant poet that he lives in literature. Some of his lyrics
+and minor poems--his "Skylark," "When the Kye comes Hame," his verses on
+the "Comet" and "Evening Star," and his "Address to Lady Ann Scott"--are
+exquisite. _The Queen's Wake_ unites his characteristic excellences--his
+command of the old romantic ballad style, his graceful fairy mythology
+and his aerial flights of imagination. In the fairy story of Kilmeny in
+this work Hogg seems completely transformed; he is absorbed in the ideal
+and supernatural, and writes under direct and immediate inspiration.
+
+  See Hogg's "Memoir of the Author's Life, written by himself," prefixed
+  to the 3rd edition (1821) of _The Mountain Bard_, also _Memorials of
+  James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd_, edited by his daughter, Mrs M. G.
+  Garden (enlarged edition with preface by Professor Veitch, 1903), and
+  Sir G. B. S. Douglas, _James Hogg_ (1899) in the "Famous Scots"
+  series; also _The Poems of James Hogg_, selected by William Wallace
+  (1903). John Wilson ("Christopher North") had a real affection for
+  Hogg, but for some reason or other made no use of the materials placed
+  in his hands for a biography of the poet. The memoir mentioned on the
+  title-page of the _Works_ (1838-1840) never appeared, and the memoir
+  prefixed to the edition of Hogg's works published by Blackie & Co.
+  (1865) was written by the Rev. Thomas Thompson. See also Wilson's
+  _Noctes Ambrosianae_; Mrs Oliphant's _Annals of a Publishing House_,
+  vol. i. chap. vii.; Gilfillan's _First Gallery of Literary Portraits_;
+  Cunningham's _Biog. and Crit. Hist. of Lit._; and the general index to
+  _Blackwood's Magazine_. A collected edition of Hogg's Tales appeared
+  in 1837 in 6 vols., and a second in 1851; his _Poetical Works_ were
+  published in 1822, 1838-1840 and 1865-1866. For an admirable account
+  of the social entertainments Hogg used to give in Edinburgh, see
+  _Memoir of Robert Chambers_ (1874), by Dr William Chambers, pp.
+  263-270.
+
+
+
+
+HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1792-1862), English man of letters, was born at
+Norton, Durham, on the 24th of May 1792. He was educated at Durham
+grammar school and at University College, Oxford. Here he became the
+intimate friend of the poet Shelley, with whom in 1811 he was expelled
+from the university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the
+authorship of the pamphlet _The Necessity for Atheism_. He was then sent
+to study law at York, where he remained for six months. Hogg's behaviour
+to Harriet Shelley interrupted his relations with her husband for some
+time, but in 1813 the friendship was renewed in London. In 1817 Hogg was
+called to the bar, and became later a revising barrister. In 1844 he
+inherited £2000 under Shelley's will, and in 1855, in accordance with
+the wishes of the poet's family, began to write Shelley's biography. The
+first two volumes of it were published in 1858, but they proved to be
+far more an autobiography than a biography, and Shelley's
+representatives refused Hogg further access to the materials necessary
+for its completion. Hogg died on the 27th of August 1862.
+
+
+
+
+HOGMANAY, the name in Scotland and some parts of the north of England
+for New Year's Eve, as also for the cake then given to the children. On
+the morning of the 31st of December the children in small bands go from
+door to door singing:
+
+                      "Hogmanay
+                      Trollolay
+  Gie's o' your white bread and nane o' your grey";
+
+
+and begging for small gifts or alms. These usually take the form of an
+oaten cake. The derivation of the term has been much disputed. Cotgrave
+(1611) says: "It is the voice of the country folks begging small
+presents or New Year's gifts ... an ancient term of rejoicing derived
+from the Druids, who were wont the first of each January to go into the
+woods, where, having sacrificed and banquetted together, they gathered
+mistletoe, esteeming it excellent to make beasts fruitful and most
+soverayne against all poyson." And he connects the word, through such
+Norman French forms as _hoguinané_, with the old French _aguilanneuf_,
+which he explains as _au gui-l'an-neuf_, "to the mistletoe! the New
+Year!"--this being (on his interpretation) the Druidical salutation to
+the coming year as the revellers issued from the woods armed with boughs
+of mistletoe. But though this explanation may be accepted as containing
+the truth in referring the word to a French original, Cotgrave's
+detailed etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists, and the
+identical French _aguilanneuf_ remains, like it, in obscurity.
+
+
+
+
+HOGSHEAD, a cask for holding liquor or other commodities, such as
+tobacco, sugar, molasses, &c.; also a liquid measure of capacity,
+varying with the contents. As a measure for beer, cider, &c., it equals
+54 gallons. A statute of Richard III. (1483) fixed the hogshead of wine
+at 63 wine-gallons, i.e. 52½ imperial gallons. The etymology of the word
+has been much discussed. According to Skeat, the origin is to be found
+in the name for a cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in
+several Teutonic languages, in Dutch _oxhooft_ (modern _okshoofd_), Dan.
+_oxehoved_, O. Swed. _oxhufvod_, &c. The word should therefore be
+"oxhead," and "hogshead" is a mere corruption. It has been suggested
+that the name arose from the branding of such a measure with the head of
+an ox (see _Notes and Queries_, series iv. 2, 46, note by H. Tiedeman).
+The _New English Dictionary_ does not attempt any explanation of the
+term, and takes "hogshead" as the original form, from which the forms in
+other languages have been corrupted. The earlier Dutch forms
+_hukeshovet_ and _hoekshoot_ are nearer to the English form, and,
+further, the Dutch for "ox" is os.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENASPERG, an ancient fortress of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Württemberg, 10 m. N. of Stuttgart, is situated on a conical hill, 1100
+ft. high, overlooking the town of Asperg. It was formerly strongly
+fortified and was long the state prison of the kingdom of Württemberg.
+Among the many who have been interned here may be mentioned the
+notorious Jew financier, Joseph Süss-Oppenheimer (1692-1738) and the
+poet C. F. D. Schubart (1739-1791). It is now a reformatory. Hohenasperg
+originally belonged to the counts of Calw; it next passed to the counts
+palatine of Tübingen and from them was acquired in 1308 by Württemberg.
+In 1535 the fortifications were extended and strengthened, and in 1635
+the town was taken by the Imperialists, who occupied it until 1649.
+
+  See Schön, _Die Staatsgefangenen von Hohenasperg_ (Stuttgart, 1899);
+  and Biffart, _Geschichte der Württembergischen Feste Hohenasperg_
+  (Stuttgart, 1858).
+
+
+
+
+HOHENFRIEDBERG, or HOHENFRIEDEBERG, a village of Silesia, about 6 m.
+from the small town of Striegau. It gives its name to a battle (also
+called the battle of Striegau) in the War of the Austrian Succession,
+fought on the 3rd of June 1745 between the Prussians under Frederick the
+Great and the Austrians and Saxons commanded by Prince Charles of
+Lorraine. In May the king, whose army had occupied extended winter
+quarters in Silesia, had drawn it together into a position about Neisse
+whence he could manoeuvre against the Austrians, whether they invaded
+Silesia by Troppau or Glatz, or joined their allies (who, under the duke
+of Weissenfels, were on the upper Elbe), and made their advance on
+Schweidnitz, Breslau or Liegnitz. On the Austrians concentrating towards
+the Elbe, Frederick gradually drew his army north-westward along the
+edge of the mountain country until on the 1st of June it was near
+Schweidnitz. At that date the Austro-Saxons were advancing (very slowly
+owing to the poorness of the roads and the dilatoriness of the Saxon
+artillery train) from Waldenburg and Landshut through the mountains,
+heading for Striegau. After a few minor skirmishes at the end of May,
+Frederick had made up his mind to offer no opposition to the passage of
+the Allies, but to fall upon them as they emerged, and the Prussian army
+was therefore kept concentrated out of sight, while only selected
+officers and patrols watched the debouches of the mountains. On the
+other hand the Allies had no intention of delivering battle, but meant
+only, on emerging from the mountains, to take up a suitable camping
+position and thence to interpose between Breslau and the king, believing
+that "the king was at his wits' end, and, once the army really began its
+retreat on Breslau, there would be frightful consternation in its
+ranks." But in fact, as even the coolest observers noticed, the Prussian
+army was in excellent spirits and eager for the "decisive affair"
+promised by the king. On the 3rd of June, watched by the invisible
+patrols, the Austrians and Saxons emerged from the hills at
+Hohenfriedberg with bands playing and colours flying. Their advanced
+guard of infantry and cavalry spread out into the plain, making for a
+line of hills spreading north-west from Striegau, where the army was to
+encamp. But the main body moved slowly, and at last Prince Charles and
+Weissenfels decided to put off the occupation of the line of hills till
+the morrow. The army bivouacked therefore in two separate wings, the
+Saxons (with a few Austrian regiments) between Günthersdorf and
+Pilgramshain, the Austrians near Hausdorf. They were about 70,000
+strong, Frederick 65,000.
+
+[Illustration: Hohenfriedberg, June 4, 1745.]
+
+The king had made his arrangements in good time, aided by the enemy's
+slowness, and in the evening he issued simple orders to move. About 9
+P.M. the Prussians marched off from Alt-Jauernigk towards Striegau, the
+guns on the road, the infantry and cavalry, in long open columns of
+companies and squadrons, over the fields on either side--a night march
+well remembered by contrast with others as having been executed in
+perfect order. Meanwhile General Dumoulin, who commanded an advanced
+detachment between Striegau and Stanowitz, broke camp silently and moved
+into position below the hill north-west of Striegau, which was found to
+be occupied by Saxon light infantry outposts. The king's orders were for
+Dumoulin and the right wing of the main army to deploy and advance
+towards Häslicht against the Saxons, and for the left wing infantry to
+prolong the line from the marsh to Günthersdorf, covered by the
+left-wing cavalry on the plain near Thomaswaldau. On the side of the
+Austrians, the outlying hussars are said to have noticed and reported
+the king's movement, for the night was clear and starlit, but their
+report, if made, was ignored.
+
+At 4 A.M. Dumoulin advanced on Pilgramshain, neglecting the fire of the
+Saxon outpost on the Spitzberg, whereupon this promptly retired in
+order to avoid being surrounded. Dumoulin then posted artillery on the
+slope of the hill and deployed his six grenadier battalions facing the
+village. The leading cavalry of the main army came up and deployed on
+Dumoulin's left front in open rolling ground. Meantime the duke of
+Weissenfels had improvised a line of defence, posting his infantry in
+the marshy ground and about Pilgramshain, and his cavalry, partly in
+front of Pilgramshain and partly on the intervening space, opposite that
+of the Prussians. But before the marshy ground was effectively occupied
+by the duke's infantry, his cavalry had been first shaken by the fire of
+Dumoulin's guns on the Spitzberg and a heavy battery that was brought up
+on to the Gräbener Fuchsberg, and then charged by the Prussian
+right-wing cavalry, and in the mêlée the Allies were gradually driven in
+confusion off the battlefield. The cavalry battle was ended by 6.30
+A.M., by which time Dumoulin's grenadiers, stiffened by the line
+regiment Anhalt (the "Old Dessauer's" own), were vigorously attacking
+the garden hedges and walls of Pilgramshain, and the Saxon and Austrian
+infantry in the marsh was being attacked by Prince Dietrich of Dessau
+with the right wing of the king's infantry. The line infantry of those
+days, however, did not work easily in bad ground, and the Saxons were
+steady and well drilled. After an hour's fight, well supported by the
+guns and continually reinforced as the rest of the army closed up, the
+prince expelled the enemy from the marsh, while Dumoulin drove the light
+troops out of Pilgramshain. By 7 A.M. the Saxons, forming the left wing
+of the allied army, were in full retreat.
+
+While his allies were being defeated, Prince Charles of Lorraine had
+done nothing, believing that the cannonade was merely an outpost affair
+for the possession of the Spitzberg. His generals indeed had drawn out
+their respective commands in order of battle, the infantry south of
+Günthersdorf, the cavalry near Thomaswaldau, but they had no authority
+to advance without orders, and stood inactive, while, 1 m. away, the
+Prussian columns were defiling over the Striegau Water. This phase of
+the king's advance was the most delicate of all, and the moment that he
+heard from Prince Dietrich that the marsh was captured he stopped the
+northward flow of his battalions and swung them westward, the left wing
+cavalry having to cover their deployment. But when one-third of this
+cavalry only had crossed at Teichau the bridge broke. For a time the
+advanced squadrons were in great danger. But they charged boldly, and a
+disjointed cavalry battle began, during which (Ziethen's hussars having
+discovered a ford) the rest of the left-wing cavalry was able to cross.
+At last 25 intact squadrons under Lieut.-General von Nassau charged and
+drove the Austrians in disorder towards Hohenfriedberg. This action was
+the more creditable to the victors in that 45 squadrons in 3 separate
+fractions defeated a mass of 60 squadrons that stood already deployed to
+meet them.
+
+Meanwhile the Prussian infantry columns of the centre and left had
+crossed Striegau Water and deployed to their left, and by 8.30 they were
+advancing on Günthersdorf and the Austrian infantry south of that place.
+Frederick's purpose was to roll up the enemy from their inner flank, and
+while Prince Dietrich, with most of the troops that had forced the
+Saxons out of the marsh, pursued Weissenfels, two regiments of his and
+one of Dumoulin's were brought over to the left wing and sent against
+the north side of Günthersdorf. In the course of the general forward
+movement, which was made in what was for those days a very irregular
+line, a wide gap opened up between the centre and left, behind which 10
+squadrons of the Bayreuth dragoon regiment, with Lieut.-General von
+Gessler, took up their position. Thus the line advanced. The grenadiers
+on the extreme left cleared Thomaswaldau, and their fire galled the
+Austrian squadrons engaged in the cavalry battle to the south. Then
+Günthersdorf, attacked on three sides, was also evacuated by the enemy.
+But although Frederick rode back from the front saying "the battle is
+won," the Prussian infantry, in spite of its superior fire discipline,
+failed for some time to master the defence, and suffered heavily from
+the eight close-range volleys they received, one or two regiments losing
+40 and 50% of their strength. The Austrians, however, suffered still
+more; feeling themselves isolated in the midst of the victorious enemy,
+they began to waver, and at the psychological moment Gessler and the
+Bayreuth dragoons charged into their ranks and "broke the equilibrium."
+These 1500 sabres scattered twenty battalions of the enemy and brought
+in 2500 prisoners and 66 Austrian colours, and in this astounding charge
+they themselves lost no more than 94 men. By nine o'clock the battle was
+over, and the wrecks of the Austro-Saxon army were retreating to the
+mountains. The Prussians, who had been marching all night, were too far
+spent to pursue.
+
+  The loss of the allies was in all 15,224, 7985 killed and wounded, and
+  7239 prisoners, as well as 72 guns and 83 standards and colours. The
+  Prussians lost 4666 killed and wounded, 71 missing.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENHEIM, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, 7 m. S.
+of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. 300. It came in 1768 from the counts of
+Hohenheim to the dukes of Württemberg, and in 1785 Duke Karl Eugen built
+a country house here. This house with grounds is now the seat of the
+most important agricultural college in Germany; it was founded in 1817,
+was raised to the position of a high school in 1865, and now ranks as a
+technical high school with university status.
+
+  See Fröhlich, _Das Schloss und die Akademie Hohenheim_ (Stuttgart,
+  1870).
+
+
+
+
+HOHENLIMBURG, a town of Germany, on the Lenne, in the Prussian prov. of
+Westphalia, 30 m. by rail S.E. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 12,790. It has
+two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. The
+town is the seat of various iron and metal industries, while dyeing,
+cloth-making and linen-weaving are also carried on here. It is the chief
+town of the county of Limburg, and formerly belonged to the counts of
+Limburg, a family which became extinct in 1508. Later it passed to the
+counts of Bentheim-Tecklenburg. The castle of Hohenlimburg, which
+overlooks the town, is now the residence of Prince Adolf of
+Bentheim-Tecklenburg.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENLOHE, a German princely family which took its name from the
+district of Hohenlohe in Franconia. At first a countship, its two
+branches were raised to the rank of principalities of the Empire in 1744
+and 1764 respectively; in 1806 they lost their independence and their
+lands now form part of the kingdoms of Bavaria and of Württemberg. At
+the time of the mediatization the area of Hohenlohe was 680 sq. m. and
+its estimated population was 108,000. The family is first mentioned in
+the 12th century as possessing the castle of Hohenloch, or Hohenlohe,
+near Uffenheim, and its influence was soon perceptible in several of the
+Franconian valleys, including those of the Kocher, the Jagst and the
+Tauber. Henry I. (d. 1183) was the first to take the title of count of
+Hohenlohe, and in 1230 his grandsons, Gottfried and Conrad, supporters
+of the emperor Frederick II., founded the lines of Hohenlohe-Hohenlohe
+and Hohenlohe-Brauneck, names taken from their respective castles. The
+latter became extinct in 1390, its lands passing later to Brandenburg,
+while the former was divided into several branches, only two of which,
+however, Hohenlohe-Weikersheim and Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld, need
+be mentioned here. Hohenlohe-Weikersheim, descended from Count Kraft I.
+(d. 1313), also underwent several divisions, that which took place after
+the deaths of Counts Albert and George in 1551 being specially
+important. At this time the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and
+Hohenlohe-Waldenburg were founded by the sons of Count George.
+Meanwhile, in 1412, the family of Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld had
+become extinct, and its lands had passed through the marriages of its
+heiresses into other families.
+
+The existing branches of the Hohenlohe family are descended from the
+lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg, established in
+1551. The former of these became Protestant, while the latter remained
+Catholic. Of the family of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, which underwent several
+partitions and inherited Gleichen in 1631, the senior line became
+extinct in 1805, while in 1701 the junior line divided itself into
+three branches, those of Langenburg, Ingelfingen and Kirchberg.
+Kirchberg died out in 1861, but members of the families of
+Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen are still alive, the
+latter being represented by the branches of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen and
+Hohenlohe-Öhringen. The Roman Catholic family of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg
+was soon divided into three branches, but two of these had died out by
+1729. The surviving branch, that of Schillingsfürst, was divided into
+the lines of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein; other
+divisions followed, and the four existing lines of this branch of the
+family are those of Waldenburg, Schillingsfürst, Jagstberg and
+Bartenstein. The family of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst possesses the
+duchies of Ratibor and of Corbie inherited in 1824.
+
+The principal members of the family are dealt with below.
+
+I. FRIEDRICH LUDWIG, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1746-1818),
+Prussian general, was the eldest son of Prince Johann Friedrich (d.
+1796) of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, and began his military career as a boy,
+serving against the Prussians in the last years of the Seven Years' War.
+Entering the Prussian army after the peace (1768), he was on account of
+his rank at once made major, and in 1775 he became lieutenant-colonel;
+in 1778 he took part in the War of the Bavarian Succession and about the
+same time was made a colonel. Shortly before the death of Frederick the
+Great he was promoted to the rank of major-general and appointed chief
+of a regiment. For some years the prince did garrison duty at Breslau,
+until in 1791 he was made governor of Berlin. In 1794 he commanded a
+corps in the Prussian army on the Rhine and distinguished himself
+greatly in many engagements, particularly in the battle of
+Kaiserslautern on the 20th of September. He was at this time the most
+popular soldier in the Prussian army. Blücher wrote of him that "he was
+a leader of whom the Prussian army might well be proud." He succeeded
+his father in the principality, and acquired additional lands by his
+marriage with a daughter of Count von Hoym. In 1806 Hohenlohe, now a
+general of infantry, was appointed to command the left-wing army of the
+Prussian forces opposing Napoleon, having under him Prince Louis
+Ferdinand of Prussia; but, feeling that his career had been that of a
+prince and not that of a scientific soldier, he allowed his
+quartermaster-general Massenbach to influence him unduly. Disputes soon
+broke out between Hohenlohe and the commander-in-chief, the duke of
+Brunswick, the armies marched hither and thither without effective
+results, and finally Hohenlohe's army was almost destroyed by Napoleon
+at Jena (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The prince displayed his usual
+personal bravery in the battle, and managed to rally a portion of his
+corps near Erfurt, whence he retired into Prussia. But the pursuers
+followed him up closely, and, still acting under Massenbach's advice, he
+surrendered the remnant of his army at Prenzlau on the 28th of October,
+a fortnight after Jena and three weeks after the beginning of
+hostilities. Hohenlohe's former popularity and influence in the army had
+now the worst possible effect, for the commandants of garrisons
+everywhere lost heart and followed his example. After two years spent as
+a prisoner of war in France Hohenlohe retired to his estates, living in
+self-imposed obscurity until his death on the 15th of February 1818. He
+had, in August 1806, just before the outbreak of the French War,
+resigned the principality to his eldest son, not being willing to become
+a "mediatized" ruler under Württemberg suzerainty.
+
+II. LUDWIG ALOYSIUS, prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Bartenstein
+(1765-1829), marshal and peer of France, was born on the 18th of August
+1765. In 1784 he entered the service of the Palatinate, which he quitted
+in 1792 in order to take the command of a regiment raised by his father
+for the service of the emigrant princes of France. He greatly
+distinguished himself under Condé in the campaigns of 1792-1793,
+especially at the storming of the lines of Weissenburg. Subsequently he
+entered the service of Holland, and, when almost surrounded by the army
+of General Pichegru, conducted a masterly retreat from the island of
+Bommel. From 1794 to 1799 he served as colonel in the Austrian
+campaigns; in 1799 he was named major-general by the archduke Charles;
+and after obtaining the rank of lieutenant-general he was appointed by
+the emperor governor of the two Galicias. Napoleon offered to restore to
+him his principality on condition that he adhered to the confederation
+of the Rhine, but as he refused, it was united to Württemberg. After
+Napoleon's fall in 1814 he entered the French service, and in 1815 he
+held the command of a regiment raised by himself, with which he took
+part in the Spanish campaign of 1823. In 1827 he was created marshal and
+peer of France. He died at Lunéville on the 30th of May 1829.
+
+III. ALEXANDER LEOPOLD FRANZ EMMERICH, prince of
+Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (1794-1849), priest and reputed
+miracle-worker, was born at Kupferzell, near Waldenburg, on the 17th of
+August 1794. By his mother, the daughter of an Hungarian nobleman, he
+was from infancy destined for the church; and she entrusted his early
+education to the ex-Jesuit Riel. In 1804 he entered the "Theresianum" at
+Vienna, in 1808 the academy at Bern, in 1810 the archiepiscopal seminary
+at Vienna, and afterwards he studied at Tyrnau and Ellwangen. He was
+ordained priest in 1815, and in the following year he went to Rome,
+where he entered the society of the "Fathers of the Sacred Heart."
+Subsequently, at Munich and Bamberg, he was blamed for Jesuit and
+obscurantist tendencies, but obtained considerable reputation as a
+preacher. His first co-called miraculous cure was effected, in
+conjunction with a peasant, Martin Michel, on a princess of
+Schwarzenberg who had been for some years paralytic. Immediately he
+acquired such fame as a performer of miraculous cures that multitudes
+from various countries flocked to partake of the beneficial influence of
+his supposed supernatural gifts. Ultimately, on account of the
+interference of the authorities with his operations, he went in 1821 to
+Vienna and then to Hungary, where he became canon at Grosswardein and in
+1844 titular bishop of Sardica. He died at Vöslau near Vienna on the
+17th of November 1849. He was the author of a number of ascetic and
+controversial writings, which were collected and published in one
+edition by S. Brunner in 1851.
+
+IV. KRAFT, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1827-1892), soldier and
+military writer, son of Prince Adolf of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
+(1797-1873), was born at Koschentin in Upper Silesia. He was a nephew of
+the Prince Hohenlohe noticed above, who commanded the Prussians at Jena.
+Educated with great rigour, owing to the impoverishment of the family
+estates during the Napoleonic wars, he was sent into the Prussian army,
+and commissioned to the artillery at the least expensive arm of the
+service. He joined the Prussian Guard artillery in 1845, and it was soon
+discovered that he had unusual aptitudes as an artillery officer. For a
+time his brother officers resented the presence of a prince, until it
+was found that he made no attempt to use his social position to secure
+advancement. After serving as a military attaché in Vienna and on the
+Transylvanian frontier during the Crimean War, he was made a captain on
+the general staff, and in 1856 personal aide-de-camp to the king,
+remaining, however, in close touch with the artillery. In 1864, having
+become in the meanwhile successively major and lieut.-colonel, he
+resigned the staff appointments to become commander of the new Guard
+Field Artillery regiment and in the following year he became colonel. In
+1866 he saw his first real active service. In the bold advance of the
+Guard corps on the Austrian right wing at Königgratz (see SEVEN WEEKS'
+WAR), he led the Guard reserve artillery with the greatest dash and
+success, and after the short war ended he turned his energies, now
+fortified by experience, to the better tactical training of the Prussian
+artillery. In 1868 he was made a major-general and assigned to command
+the Guard artillery brigade. In this capacity he gained great
+distinction during the Franco-German war and especially at Gravelotte
+and Sedan; he was in control of the artillery attack on the
+fortifications of Paris. In 1873 he was placed in command of an infantry
+division, and three years later was promoted lieutenant-general. He
+retired in 1879, was made general of infantry in 1883 and general of
+artillery in 1889. His military writings were numerous, and amongst
+them several have become classics. These are _Briefe über Artillerie_
+(Eng. trans. _Letters on Artillery_, 1887); _Briefe über Strategie_
+(1877; Eng. trans. _Letters on Strategy_, 1898); and _Gespräche über
+Reiterei_ (1887; Eng. trans. _Conversations on Cavalry_). The _Briefe
+über Infanterie_ and _Briefe über Kavallerie_ (translated into English,
+_Letters on Infantry_, _Letters on Cavalry_, 1889) are of less
+importance, though interesting as a reflection of prevailing German
+ideas. His memoirs (_Aus meinem Leben_) were prepared in retirement near
+Dresden, and the first volume (1897) created such a sensation that eight
+years were allowed to elapse before the publication was continued.
+Prince Kraft died near Dresden on the 16th of January 1892.
+     (C. F. A.)
+
+V. CHLODWIG KARL VICTOR, prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst
+(1819-1901), statesman, was born on the 31st of March 1819 at
+Schillingsfürst in Bavaria. His father, Prince Franz Joseph (1787-1841),
+was a Catholic, his mother, Princess Konstanze of Hohenlohe-Langenburg,
+a Protestant. In accordance with the compromise customary at the time,
+Prince Chlodwig and his brothers were brought up in the religion of
+their father, while his sisters followed that of their mother. In spite
+of the difference of creed the family was very united, and it was to the
+spirit that rendered this possible that the prince owed his liberal and
+tolerant point of view, which was to exercise an important influence on
+his political activity. As the younger son of a cadet line of his house
+it was necessary for Prince Chlodwig to follow a profession. For a while
+he thought of obtaining a commission in the British army through the
+influence of his aunt, Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (_née_
+princess of Leiningen), Queen Victoria's half-sister. He decided,
+however, to enter the Prussian diplomatic service. His application to be
+excused the preliminary steps, which involved several years' work in
+subordinate positions in the Prussian civil service, was refused by
+Frederick William IV., and the prince, with great good sense, decided to
+sacrifice his pride of rank and to accept the king's conditions. As
+auscultator in the courts at Coblenz he acquired a taste for
+jurisprudence, became a _Referendar_ in September 1843, and after some
+months of travel in France, Switzerland and Italy went to Potsdam as a
+civil servant (May 13, 1844). These early years were invaluable, not
+only as giving him experience of practical affairs but as affording him
+an insight into the strength and weakness of the Prussian system. The
+immediate result was to confirm his Liberalism. The Prussian principle
+of "propagating enlightenment with a stick" did not appeal to him; he
+"recognized the confusion and want of clear ideas in the highest
+circles," the tendency to make agreement with the views of the
+government the test of loyalty to the state; and he noted in his journal
+(June 25, 1844) four years before the revolution of '48, "a slight cause
+and we shall have a rising." "The free press," he notes on another
+occasion, "is a necessity, progress the condition of the existence of a
+state." If he was an ardent advocate of German unity, and saw in Prussia
+the instrument for its attainment, he was throughout opposed to the
+"Prussification" of Germany, and ultimately it was he who made the
+unification of Germany possible by insisting at once on the principle of
+union with the North German states and at the same time on the
+preservation of the individuality of the states of the South.
+
+On the 12th of November 1834 the landgrave Viktor Amadeus of
+Hesse-Rotenburg died, leaving to his nephews, the princes Viktor and
+Chlodwig Hohenlohe, his allodial estates: the duchy of Ratibor in
+Silesia, the principality of Corvey in Westphalia, and the lordship of
+Treffurt in the Prussian governmental district of Erfurt. On the death
+of Prince Franz Joseph on the 14th of January 1841 it was decided that
+the principality of Schillingsfürst should pass to the third brother,
+Philipp Ernst, as the two elder sons, Viktor and Chlodwig, were provided
+for already under their uncle's will, the one with the duchy of Ratibor,
+the other with Corvey and Treffurt. The youngest son, Gustav (b.
+February 28, 1823), the future cardinal, was destined for the Church. On
+the death of Prince Philipp Ernst (May 3, 1845) a new arrangement was
+made: Prince Chlodwig became prince of Schillingsfürst, while Corvey was
+assigned to the duke of Ratibor; Treffurt was subsequently sold by
+Prince Chlodwig, who purchased with the price large estates in Posen.
+This involved a complete change in Prince Chlodwig's career. His new
+position as a "reigning" prince and hereditary member of the Bavarian
+Upper House was incompatible with that of a Prussian official. On the
+18th of April 1846 he took his seat as a member of the Bavarian
+_Reichsrath_, and on the 26th of June received his formal discharge from
+the Prussian service.
+
+Save for the interlude of 1848 the political life of Prince Hohenlohe
+was for the next eighteen years not eventful. During the revolutionary
+years his sympathies were with the Liberal idea of a united Germany, and
+he compromised his chances of favour from the king of Bavaria by
+accepting the task (November 1, 1848) of announcing to the courts of
+Rome, Florence and Athens the accession to office of the Archduke John
+of Austria as regent of Germany. But he was too shrewd an observer to
+hope much from a national parliament which "wasted time in idle babble,"
+or from a democratic victory which had stunned but not destroyed the
+German military powers. On the 16th of February 1847 he had married the
+Princess Marie of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, the heiress to vast
+estates in Russia.[1] This led to a prolonged visit to Werki in
+Lithuania (1851-1853) in connexion with the management of the property,
+a visit repeated in 1860. In general this period of Hohenlohe's life was
+occupied in the management of his estates, in the sessions of the
+Bavarian _Reichsrath_ and in travels. In 1856 he visited Rome, during
+which he noted the baneful influence of the Jesuits. In 1859 he was
+studying the political situation at Berlin, and in the same year he paid
+a visit to England. The marriage of his brother Konstantin in 1859 to
+another princess of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg led also to frequent
+visits to Vienna. Thus Prince Hohenlohe was brought into close touch
+with all the most notable people in Europe. At the same time, during
+this period (1850-1866) he was endeavouring to get into relations with
+the Bavarian government, with a view to taking a more active part in
+affairs. Towards the German question his attitude at this time was
+tentative. He had little hope of a practical realization of a united
+Germany, and inclined towards the tripartite divisions under Austria,
+Prussia and Bavaria--the so-called "Trias." He attended the _Fürstentag_
+at Frankfort in 1863, and in the Schleswig-Holstein question was a
+supporter of the prince of Augustenburg. It was at this time that, at
+the request of Queen Victoria, he began to send her regular reports on
+the political condition of Germany.
+
+Prince Hohenlohe's importance in history, however, begins with the year
+1866. In his opinion the war was a blessing. It had demonstrated the
+insignificance of the small and middle states, "a misfortune for the
+dynasties"--with whose feelings a mediatized prince could scarcely be
+expected to be over-sympathetic--but the best possible good fortune for
+the German nation. In the Bavarian _Reichsrath_ Hohenlohe now began to
+make his voice heard in favour of a closer union with Prussia; clearly,
+if such a union were desirable, he was the man in every way best fitted
+to prepare the way for it. One of the main obstacles in the way was the
+temperament of Louis II. of Bavaria, whose ideas of kingship were very
+remote from those of the Hohenzollerns, whose pride revolted from any
+concession to Prussian superiority, and who--even during the crisis of
+1866--was more absorbed in operas than in affairs of state. Fortunately
+Richard Wagner was a politician as well as a composer, and equally
+fortunately Hohenlohe was a man of culture capable of appreciating "the
+master's" genius. It was Wagner, apparently, who persuaded the king to
+place Hohenlohe at the head of his government (_Denkwürdigkeiten_, i.
+178, 211), and on the 31st of December 1866 the prince was duly
+appointed minister of the royal house and of foreign affairs and
+president of the council of ministers.
+
+As head of the Bavarian government Hohenlohe's principal task was to
+discover some basis for an effective union of the South German states
+with the North German Confederation, and during the three critical years
+of his tenure of office he was, next to Bismarck, the most important
+statesman in Germany. He carried out the reorganization of the Bavarian
+army on the Prussian model, brought about the military union of the
+southern states, and took a leading share in the creation of the customs
+parliament (_Zollparlament_), of which on the 28th of April 1868 he was
+elected a vice-president. During the agitation that arose in connexion
+with the summoning of the Vatican council Hohenlohe took up an attitude
+of strong opposition to the ultramontane position. In common with his
+brothers, the duke of Ratibor and the cardinal, he believed that the
+policy of Pius IX.--inspired by the Jesuits (that "devil's society," as
+he once called it)--of setting the Church in opposition to the modern
+State would prove ruinous to both, and that the definition of the dogma
+of papal infallibility, by raising the pronouncements of the Syllabus of
+1864 into articles of faith, would commit the Church to this policy
+irrevocably. This view he embodied into a circular note to the Catholic
+powers (April 9, 1869), drawn up by Döllinger, inviting them to exercise
+the right of sending ambassadors to the council and to combine to
+prevent the definition of the dogma. The greater powers, however, were
+for one reason or another unwilling to intervene, and the only practical
+outcome of Hohenlohe's action was that in Bavaria the powerful
+ultramontane party combined against him with the Bavarian "patriots" who
+accused him of bartering away Bavarian independence to Prussia. The
+combination was too strong for him; a bill which he brought in for
+curbing the influence of the Church over education was defeated, the
+elections of 1869 went against him, and in spite of the continued
+support of the king he was forced to resign (March 7, 1870).
+
+Though out of office, his personal influence continued very great both
+at Munich and Berlin and had not a little to do with favourable terms of
+the treaty of the North German Confederation with Bavaria, which
+embodied his views, and with its acceptance by the Bavarian
+parliament.[2] Elected a member of the German Reichstag, he was on the
+23rd of March 1871 chosen one of its vice-presidents, and was
+instrumental in founding the new groups which took the name of the
+Liberal Imperial party (_Liberale Reichspartei_), the objects of which
+were to support the new empire, to secure its internal development on
+Liberal lines, and to oppose clerical aggression as represented by the
+Catholic Centre. Like the duke of Ratibor, Hohenlohe was from the first
+a strenuous supporter of Bismarck's anti-papal policy, the main lines of
+which (prohibition of the Society of Jesus, &c.) he himself suggested.
+Though sympathizing with the motives of the Old Catholics, however, he
+realized that they were doomed to sink into a powerless sect, and did
+not join them, believing that the only hope for a reform of the Church
+lay in those who desired it remaining in her communion.[3] In 1872
+Bismarck proposed to appoint Cardinal Hohenlohe Prussian envoy at the
+Vatican, but his views were too much in harmony with those of his
+family, and the pope refused to receive him in this capacity.[4]
+
+In 1873 Bismarck chose Prince Hohenlohe to succeed Count Harry Arnim as
+ambassador in Paris, where he remained for seven years. In 1878 he
+attended the congress of Berlin as third German representative, and in
+1880, on the death of Bernhardt Ernst von Bülow (October 20), secretary
+of state for foreign affairs, he was called to Berlin as temporary head
+of the Foreign Office and representative of Bismarck during his absence
+through illness. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed Manteuffel as governor
+of Alsace-Lorraine. In this capacity he had to carry out the coercive
+measures introduced by the chancellor in 1887-1888, though he largely
+disapproved of them;[5] his conciliatory disposition, however, did much
+to reconcile the Alsace-Lorrainers to German rule. He remained at
+Strassburg till October 1894, when, at the urgent request of the
+emperor, he consented, in spite of his advanced years, to accept the
+chancellorship in succession to Caprivi. The events of his
+chancellorship belong to the general history of Germany (q.v.); as
+regards the inner history of this time the editor of his memoirs has
+very properly suppressed the greater part of the detailed comments which
+the prince left behind him. In general, during his term of office, the
+personality of the chancellor was less conspicuous in public affairs
+than in the ease of either of his predecessors. His appearances in the
+Prussian and German parliaments were rare, and great independence was
+left to the secretaries of state. What influence the tact and experience
+of Hohenlohe exercised behind the scenes on the masterful will and
+impulsive character of the emperor cannot as yet be generally known.
+
+Prince Hohenlohe resigned the chancellorship on the 17th of October
+1900, and died at Ragaz on the 6th of July 1901. On the 16th of February
+1897 he had celebrated his golden wedding; on the 21st of December of
+the same year the princess died. There were six children of the
+marriage: Elizabeth (b. 1847); Stephanie (b. 1851); Philipp Ernst,
+reigning prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst (b. 1853), who married
+Princess Charielée Ypsilanti; Albert (1857-1866); Moritz and Alexander,
+twins (b. 1862).
+
+  All other authorities for the life of Prince Hohenlohe have been
+  superseded by the _Denkwürdigkeiten_ (2 vols., Stuttgart and Leipzig,
+  1906). With the exception noted above these are singularly full and
+  outspoken, the latter quality causing no little scandal in Germany and
+  bringing down on Prince Alexander, who was responsible for their
+  publication, the disfavour of the emperor. They form not only the
+  record of a singularly full and varied life, but are invaluable to the
+  historian for the wealth of material they contain and for
+  appreciations of men and events by an observer who had the best
+  opportunities for forming a judgment. The prince himself they reveal
+  not only as a capable man of affairs, though falling short of
+  greatness, but as a personality of singular charm, tenacious of his
+  principles, tolerant, broad-minded, and possessed of a large measure
+  of the saving grace of humour.
+
+  See generally A. F. Fischer, _Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe_
+  (1866-1871); K. Weller, _Hohenlohisches Urkundenbuch_, 1153-1350
+  (Stuttgart, 1899-1901), and _Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe_
+  (Stuttgart, 1904).     (W. A. P.; C. F. A.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Through her mother, _née_ Princess Stephanie Radziwill (d. 1832).
+    Before Prince Wittgenstein's death (1887) a new law had forbidden
+    foreigners to hold land in Russia. Prince Hohenlohe appears, however,
+    to have sold one of his wife's estates and to have secured certain
+    privileges from the Russian court for the rest.
+
+  [2] Speech of December 30, 1870, in the _Reichsrath_.
+    _Denkwürdigkeiten_, ii. 36.
+
+  [3] "If I wished to leave the Church because of all the scandalous
+    occurrences in the Catholic Church, I should have had to secede while
+    studying Church history," _op. cit._ ii. 92.
+
+  [4] Dr Johann Friedrich (q.v.), afterwards one of the Old Catholic
+    leaders, was his secretary at the time of the Vatican council, and
+    supplied historical and theological material to the opposition
+    bishops.
+
+  [5] He protested against the passport system as likely to lead to a
+    war with France, for which he preferred not to be responsible (Letter
+    to Wilmowski, _Denkw._ ii. 433), but on the chancellor taking full
+    responsibility consented to retain office.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENSTAUFEN, the name of a village and ruined castle near Lorsch in
+Swabia, now in the kingdom of Württemberg, which gave its name to a
+celebrated Swabian family, members of which were emperors or German
+kings from 1138 to 1208, and again from 1214 to 1254. The earliest known
+ancestor was Frederick, count of Büren (d. 1094), whose son Frederick
+built a castle at Staufen, or Hohenstaufen, and called himself by this
+name. He was a firm supporter of the emperor Henry IV., who rewarded his
+fidelity by granting him the dukedom of Swabia in 1079, and giving him
+his daughter Agnes in marriage. In 1081 he remained in Germany as
+Henry's representative, but only secured possession of Swabia after a
+struggle lasting twenty years. In 1105 Frederick was succeeded by his
+son Frederick II., called the One-eyed, who, together with his brother
+Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III., held south-west Germany
+for their uncle the emperor Henry V. Frederick inherited the estates of
+Henry V. in 1125, but failed to secure the throne, and took up an
+attitude of hostility towards the new emperor, Lothair the Saxon, who
+claimed some of the estates of the late emperor as crown property. A war
+broke out and ended in the complete submission of Frederick at Bamberg.
+He retained, however, his dukedom and estates. In 1138 Conrad of
+Hohenstaufen was elected German king, and was succeeded in 1152, not by
+his son but by his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, son of his brother
+Frederick (d. 1147). Conrad's son Frederick inherited the duchy of
+Franconia which his father had received in 1115, and this was retained
+by the Hohenstaufen until the death of Duke Conrad II. in 1196. In 1152
+Frederick received the duchy of Swabia from his cousin the German king
+Frederick I., and on his death in 1167 it passed successively to
+Frederick's three sons Frederick, Conrad and Philip. The second
+Hohenstaufen emperor was Frederick Barbarossa's son, Henry VI., after
+whose death a struggle for the throne took place between Henry's brother
+Philip, duke of Swabia, and Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor
+Otto IV. Regained for the Hohenstaufen by Henry's son, Frederick II., in
+1214, the German kingdom passed to his son, Conrad IV., and when
+Conrad's son Conradin was beheaded in Italy in 1268, the male line of
+the Hohenstaufen became extinct. Daughters of Philip of Swabia married
+Ferdinand III., king of Castile and Leon, and Henry II., duke of
+Brabant, and a daughter of Conrad, brother of the emperor Frederick I.,
+married into the family of Guelph. The castle of Hohenstaufen was
+destroyed in the 16th century during the Peasants' War, and only a few
+fragments now remain.
+
+  See F. von Raumer, _Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit_
+  (Leipzig, 1878); B. F. W. Zimmermann, _Geschichte der Hohenstaufen_
+  (Stuttgart, 1st ed., 1838; 2nd ed., 1865); F. W. Schirrmacher, _Die
+  letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Göttingen, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+HOHENSTEIN (Hohenstein-Ernstthal), a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Saxony, on the slopes of the Erzgebirge, and on the railway
+Reichenbach-Chemnitz, 12 m. N.E. of Zwickau. Pop. (1905) 13,903.
+Hohenstein possesses two fine Evangelical churches, a town hall,
+restored in 1876, and several monuments to famous men. The principal
+industries are the spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of
+machines, stockings, gloves and woollen and silk fabrics, cotton
+printing and dyeing. Many of the inhabitants are also employed in the
+neighbouring copper and arsenic mines. Not far from Hohenstein there is
+a mineral spring, connected with which there are various kinds of baths.
+Hohenstein is the birthplace of the physicist G. H. von Schubert and of
+C. G. Schröter (1699-1782), one of the inventors of the pianoforte.
+Hohenstein consists of two towns, Hohenstein and Ernstthal, which were
+united in 1898.
+
+Another place of the same name is a town in East Prussia. Pop. (1900)
+2467. This Hohenstein, which was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1359,
+has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, a synagogue and several
+educational establishments.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENZOLLERN, the name of a castle which stood on the hill of Zollern
+about 1½ m. south of Hechingen, and gave its name to the family to which
+the present German emperor belongs. A vague tradition connects the house
+with the Colonna family of Rome, or the Colalto family of Lombardy; but
+one more definite unites the Hohenzollerns with the Burkhardingers, who
+were counts in Raetia during the early part of the 10th century, and two
+of whom became dukes of Swabia. Tassilo, a member of this family, is
+said to have built a castle at Zollern early in the 9th century; but the
+first historical mention of the name is in the _Chronicon_ of a certain
+Berthold (d. 1088), who refers to Burkhard and Wezil, or Werner, of
+Zollern, or Zolorin. These men appear to have been counts of Zollern,
+and to have met their death in 1061. The family of Wezil died out in
+1194, and the existing branches of the Hohenzollerns are descended from
+Burkhard and his son Frederick, whose eldest son, Frederick II., was in
+great favour with the German kings, Lothair the Saxon and Conrad III.
+Frederick II. died about 1145, and his son and successor, Frederick
+III., was a constant supporter of the Hohenstaufen. This count married
+Sophia, daughter and heiress of Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, and about
+1192 he succeeded his father-in-law as burgrave, obtaining also some
+lands in Austria and Franconia. He died about 1200, and his sons, Conrad
+and Frederick, ruled their lands in common until 1227, when an important
+division took place. Conrad became burgrave of Nuremberg, and, receiving
+the lands which had come into the family through his mother, founded
+the Franconian branch of the family, which became the more important of
+the two; while Frederick, receiving the county of Zollern and the older
+possessions of the family, was the ancestor of the Swabian branch.
+
+Early in the 12th century Burkhard, a younger son of Frederick I.,
+secured the county of Hohenberg, and this district remained in the
+possession of the Hohenzollerns until the death of Count Sigismund in
+1486. Its rulers, however, with the exception of Count Albert II. (d.
+1298), played an unimportant part in German history. Albert, who was a
+Minnesinger, was loyal to the declining fortunes of the Hohenstaufen,
+and afterwards supported his brother-in-law, Rudolph of Habsburg, in his
+efforts to obtain the German throne. He shared in the campaigns of
+Rudolph and fell in battle in 1298, during the struggle between Adolph
+of Nassau and Albert of Habsburg (afterwards King Albert I.). When this
+family became extinct in 1486 Hohenberg passed to the Habsburgs.
+
+The Franconian branch of the Hohenzollerns was represented in 1227 by
+Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, whom the emperor Frederick II. appointed
+guardian of his son Henry, and administrator of Austria. After a short
+apostasy, during which he supported Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia,
+Conrad returned to the side of the Hohenstaufen and aided Conrad IV. He
+died in 1261, when his son and successor, the burgrave Frederick III.,
+had already obtained Bayreuth through his marriage with Elizabeth,
+daughter of Otto of Meran (d. 1234). Frederick took a leading part in
+German affairs, and it is interesting to note that he had a considerable
+share in securing the election of his uncle, Rudolph of Habsburg, as
+German king in 1273. He died in 1297 and was succeeded by his son,
+Frederick IV. This burgrave fought for King Albert I. in Thuringia, and
+supported Henry VII. in his efforts to secure Bohemia for his son John;
+but in 1314, forsaking his father's policy, he favoured Louis,
+afterwards the emperor Louis IV., in his struggle with Frederick, duke
+of Austria, and by his conduct at the battle of Mühldorf in 1322 and
+elsewhere earned the designation of "saviour of the empire." Frederick,
+however, did not neglect his hereditary lands. He did something for the
+maintenance of peace and the security of traders, gave corporate
+privileges to villages, and took the Jews under his protection. His
+services to Louis were rewarded in various ways, and, using part of his
+wealth to increase the area of his possessions, he bought the town and
+district of Ansbach in 1331. Dying in 1332, Frederick was succeeded by
+his son, John II., who, after one of his brothers had died and two
+others had entered the church, ruled his lands in common with his
+brother Albert. About 1338 John bought Culmbach and Plassenburg, and on
+the strength of a privilege granted to him in 1347 he seized many
+robber-fortresses and held the surrounding lands as imperial fiefs. In
+general he continued his father's policy, and when he died in 1357 was
+succeeded by his son, Frederick V., who, after the death of his uncle
+Albert in 1361, became sole ruler of Nuremberg, Ansbach and Bayreuth.
+Frederick lived in close friendship with the emperor Charles IV., who
+formally invested him with Ansbach and Bayreuth and made him a prince of
+the empire in 1363. In spite of the troubled times in which he lived,
+Frederick was a successful ruler, and introduced a regular system of
+public finance into his lands. In 1397 he divided his territories
+between his sons John and Frederick, and died in the following year. His
+elder son, John III., who had married Margaret, a daughter of the
+emperor Charles IV., was frequently in the company of his
+brothers-in-law, the German kings Wenceslaus and Sigismund. He died
+without sons in 1420.
+
+Since 1397 the office of burgrave of Nuremberg had been held by John's
+brother, Frederick, who in 1415 received Brandenburg from King
+Sigismund, and became margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I. (q.v.). On
+his brother's death in 1420 he reunited the lands of his branch of the
+family, but in 1427 he sold his rights as burgrave to the town of
+Nuremberg. The subsequent history of this branch of the Hohenzollerns is
+identified with that of Brandenburg from 1415 to 1701, and with that of
+Prussia since the latter date, as in this year the elector Frederick
+III. became king of Prussia. In 1871 William, the seventh king, took the
+title of German emperor. While the electorate of Brandenburg passed
+according to the rule of primogeniture, the Franconian possessions of
+the Hohenzollerns, Ansbach and Bayreuth, were given as appanages to
+younger sons, an arrangement which was confirmed by the _dispositio
+Achillea_ of 1473. These principalities were ruled by the sons and
+descendants of the elector Albert Achilles from 1486 to 1603; and, after
+reverting to the elector of Brandenburg, by the descendants of the
+elector John George from 1603 to 1791. In 1791 Prince Charles Alexander
+(d. 1806), who had inherited both districts, sold his lands to Prussia.
+
+The influence of the Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns was weakened by
+several partitions of its lands; but early in the 16th century it rose
+to some eminence through Count Eitel Frederick II. (d. 1512), a friend
+and adviser of the emperor Maximilian I. Eitel received from this
+emperor the district of Haigerloch, and in 1534 his grandson Charles (d.
+1576) was granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vöhringen by the
+emperor Charles V. In 1576 the sons of Charles divided their lands, and
+founded three branches of the family, one of which is still flourishing.
+Eitel Frederick IV. took Hohenzollern with the title of
+Hohenzollern-Hechingen; Charles II. Sigmaringen and Vöhringen and the
+title of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; and Christopher took Haigerloch.
+Christopher's family died out in 1634, but the remaining lines are of
+some importance. Count John George of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was made a
+prince in 1623, and John of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen soon received the
+same honour. In 1695 these two branches of the family entered conjointly
+into an agreement with Brandenburg, which provided that, in case of the
+extinction of either of the Swabian branches, the remaining branch
+should inherit its lands; and if both branches became extinct the
+principalities should revert to Brandenburg. During the 17th and 18th
+centuries and during the period of the Napoleonic wars the history of
+these lands was very similar to that of the other small estates of
+Germany. In consequence of the political troubles of 1848 Princes
+Frederick William of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Charles Anton of
+Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen resigned their principalities, and accordingly
+these fell to the king of Prussia, who took possession on the 12th of
+March 1850. By a royal decree of the 20th of May following the title of
+"highness," with the prerogatives of younger sons of the royal house,
+was conferred on the two princes. The proposal to raise Prince Leopold
+of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1835-1905) to the Spanish throne in 1870
+was the immediate cause of the war between France and Germany. In 1908
+the head of this branch of the Hohenzollerns, the only one existing
+besides the imperial house, was Leopold's son William (b. 1864), who,
+owing to the extinction of the family of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1869,
+was called simply prince of Hohenzollern. In 1866 Prince Charles of
+Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Rumania, becoming king in
+1881.
+
+The modern Prussian province of Hohenzollern is a long, narrow strip of
+territory bounded on the S.W. by Baden and in other directions by
+Württemberg. It was divided into two principalities,
+Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen, until 1850, when
+these were united. They now form the government of Sigmaringen (q.v.).
+
+The castle of Hohenzollern was destroyed in 1423, but it has been
+restored several times. Some remains of the old building may still be
+seen adjoining the present castle, which was built by King Frederick
+William IV.
+
+  See _Monumenta Zollerana_, edited by R. von Stillfried and T. Märker
+  (Berlin, 1852-1890); _Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des
+  Hauses Hohenzollern_, edited by E. Berner (Berlin, 1901 fol.); R. von
+  Stillfried, _Altertümer und Kunstdenkmale des erlauchten Hauses von
+  Hohenzollern_ (Berlin, 1852-1867) and _Stammtafeln des Gesamthauses
+  Hohenzollern_ (Berlin, 1869); L. Schmid, _Die älteste Geschichte des
+  erlauchten Gesamthauses der königlichen und fürstlichen Hohenzollern_
+  (Tübingen, 1884-1888); E. Schwartz, _Stammtafel des preussischen
+  Königshauses_ (Breslau 1898); _Hohenzollernsche Forschungen, Jahrbuch
+  für die Geschichte der Hohenzollern_, edited by C. Meyer (Berlin,
+  1891-1902); _Hohenzollern Jahrbuch, Forschungen und Abbildungen zur
+  Geschichte der Hohenzollern in Brandenburg-Freussen_, edited by Seidel
+  (Leipzig, 1897-1903), and T. Carlyle, _History of Frederick the Great_
+  (London, 1872-1873).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOKKAIDO, the Japanese name for the northern division of the empire
+(_Hoku_ = north, _kai_ = sea, and _do_ = road), including Yezo, the
+Kuriles and their adjacent islets.
+
+
+
+
+HOKUSAI (1760-1849), the greatest of all the Japanese painters of the
+Popular School (_Ukiyo-ye_), was born at Yedo (Tokyo) in the 9th month
+of the 10th year of the period Horeki, i.e. October-November 1760. He
+came of an artisan family, his father having been a mirror-maker,
+Nakajima Issai. After some practice as a wood-engraver he, at the age of
+eighteen, entered the studio of Katsugawa Shunsho, a painter and
+designer of colour-prints of considerable importance. His disregard for
+the artistic principles of his master caused his expulsion in 1785; and
+thereafter--although from time to time Hokusai studied various styles,
+including especially that of Shiba Gokan, from whom he gained some
+fragmentary knowledge of European methods--he kept his personal
+independence. For a time he lived in extreme poverty, and, although he
+must have gained sums for his work which might have secured him comfort,
+he remained poor, and to the end of his life proudly described himself
+as a peasant. He illustrated large numbers of books, of which the
+world-famous _Mangwa_, a pictorial encyclopaedia of Japanese life,
+appeared in fifteen volumes from 1812 to 1875. Of his colour-prints the
+"Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji" (the whole set consisting of forty-six
+prints) were made between 1823 and 1829; "Views of Famous Bridges" (11),
+"Waterfalls" (8), and "Views of the Lu-chu Islands" (8), are the best
+known of those issued in series; but Hokusai also designed some superb
+broadsheets published separately, and his _surimono_ (small prints made
+for special occasions and ceremonies) are unequalled for delicacy and
+beauty. The "Hundred Views of Mount Fuji" (1834-1835), 3 vols., in
+monochrome, are of extraordinary originality and variety. As a painter
+and draughtsman Hokusai is not held by Japanese critics to be of the
+first rank, but this verdict has never been accepted by Europeans, who
+place him among the greatest artists of the world. He possessed great
+powers of observation and characterization, a singular technical skill,
+an unfailing gift of good humour, and untiring industry. He was an eager
+student to the end of his long life, and on his death-bed said, "If
+Heaven had lent me but five years more, I should have become a great
+painter." He died on the 10th of May 1849.
+
+  See E. de Goncourt, _Hokousaï_ (1896); M. Revon, _Étude sur Hokusaï_
+  (1896); E. F. Fenollosa, _Catalogue of the Exhibition of Paintings by
+  Hokusai at Tokyo_ (1901); E. F. Strange, Hokusai (1906).     (E. F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH, BARON D' (1723-1789), French
+philosopher and man of letters, of German origin, was born at
+Heidelsheim in the palatinate in 1723. Of his family little is known;
+according to J. J. Rousseau his father was a rich parvenu, who brought
+his son at an early age to Paris, where the latter spent most of his
+life. Much of Holbach's fame is due to his intimate connexion with the
+brilliant coterie of bold thinkers and polished wits whose creed, the
+new philosophy, is concentrated in the famous _Encyclopédie_. Possessed
+of easy means and being of hospitable disposition, he kept open house
+for Helvétius, D'Alembert, Diderot, Condillac, Turgot, Buffon, Grimm,
+Hume, Garrick, Wilkes, Sterne, and for a time J. J. Rousseau, guests
+who, while enjoying the intellectual pleasure of their host's
+conversation, were not insensible to his excellent cuisine and costly
+wines. For the _Encyclopédie_ he compiled and translated a large number
+of articles on chemistry and mineralogy, chiefly from German sources. He
+attracted more attention, however, in the department of philosophy. In
+1767 _Christianisme dévoilé_ appeared, in which he attacked Christianity
+and religion as the source of all human evils. This was followed up by
+other works, and in 1770 by a still more open attack in his most famous
+book, _Le Système de la nature_, in which it is probable he was
+assisted by Diderot. Denying the existence of a deity, and refusing to
+admit as evidence all a priori arguments, Holbach saw in the universe
+nothing save matter in spontaneous movement. What men call their souls
+become extinct when the body dies. Happiness is the end of mankind. "It
+would be useless and almost unjust to insist upon a man's being virtuous
+if he cannot be so without being unhappy. So long as vice renders him
+happy, he should love vice." The restraints of religion were to be
+replaced by an education developing an enlightened self-interest. The
+study of science was to bring human desires into line with their natural
+surroundings. Not less direct and trenchant are his attacks on political
+government, which, interpreted by the light of after events, sound like
+the first distant mutterings of revolution. Holbach exposed the logical
+consequences of the theories of the Encyclopaedists. Voltaire hastily
+seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the Système in the article
+"Dieu" in his _Dictionnaire philosophique_, while Frederick the Great
+also drew up an answer to it. Though vigorous in thought and in some
+passages clear and eloquent, the style of the Système is diffuse and
+declamatory, and asserts rather than proves its statements. Its
+principles are summed up in a more popular form in _Bon Sens, ou idées
+naturelles opposées aux idées surnaturelles_ (Amsterdam, 1772). In the
+Système social (1773), the _Politique naturelle_ (1773-1774) and the
+_Morale universelle_ (1776) Holbach attempts to rear a system of
+morality in place of the one he had so fiercely attacked, but these
+later writings had not a tithe of the popularity and influence of his
+earlier work. He published his books either anonymously or under
+borrowed names, and was forced to have them printed out of France. The
+uprightness and sincerity of his character won the friendship of many to
+whom his philosophy was repugnant. J. J. Rousseau is supposed to have
+drawn his portrait in the virtuous atheist Wolmar of the _Nouvelle
+Héloïse_. He died on the 21st of January 1789.
+
+  Holbach is also the author of the following and other works: _Esprit
+  du clergé_ (1767); _De l'imposture sacerdotale_ (1767); _Prêtres
+  démasqués_ (1768); _Examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de St
+  Paul_ (1770); _Histoire critique de Jésus-Christ_ (1770), and
+  _Ethocratie_ (1776). For further particulars as to his life and
+  doctrines see Grimm's _Correspondance littéraire_, &c. (1813);
+  Rousseau's _Confessions_; Morellet's _Mémoires_ (1821); Madame de
+  Genlis, _Les Dîners du Baron Holbach_; Madame d'Épinay's _Mémoires_;
+  Avezac-Lavigne, _Diderot et la société du Baron d'Holbach_ (1875), and
+  Morley's _Diderot_ (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HOLBEACH, a market town in the Holland or Spalding parliamentary
+division of Lincolnshire, England, on the Midland and Great Northern
+joint railway, 23½ m. N.E. of Peterborough. Pop. of urban district
+(1901), 4755. All Saints' Church, with a lofty spire, is a fine specimen
+of late Decorated work. The grammar school, founded in 1669, occupies a
+building erected in 1877. Other public buildings are the assembly rooms
+and a market house. Roman and Saxon remains have been found, and the
+market dates from the 13th century.
+
+
+
+
+HOLBEIN, HANS, the elder (c. 1460-1524), belonged to a celebrated family
+of painters in practice at Augsburg and Basel from the close of the 15th
+to the middle of the 16th century. Though closely connected with Venice
+by her commercial relations, and geographically nearer to Italy than to
+Flanders, Augsburg at the time of Maximilian cultivated art after the
+fashion of the Flemings, and felt the influence of the schools of Bruges
+and Brussels, which had branches at Cologne and in many cities about the
+headwaters of the Rhine. It was not till after the opening of the 16th
+century, and between that and the era of the Reformation, that Italian
+example mitigated to some extent the asperity of South German painting.
+Flemish and German art was first tempered with Italian elements at
+Augsburg by Hans Holbein the elder. Hans first appears at Augsburg as
+partner to his brother Sigismund, who survived him and died in 1540 at
+Berne. Sigismund is described as a painter, but his works have not come
+down to us. Hans had the lead of the partnership at Augsburg, and signed
+all the pictures which it produced. In common with Herlen, Schöngauer,
+and other masters of South Germany, he first cultivated a style akin to
+that of Memlinc and other followers of the schools of Brussels and
+Bruges, but he probably modified the systems of those schools by
+studying the works of the masters of Cologne. As these early impressions
+waned, they were replaced by others less favourable to the expansion of
+the master's fame; and as his custom increased between 1499 and 1506, we
+find him relying less upon the teaching of the schools than upon a mere
+observation and reproduction of the quaintnesses of local passion plays.
+Most of his early works indeed are taken from the Passion, and in these
+he obviously marshalled his figures with the shallow stage effect of the
+plays, copying their artificial system of grouping, careless to some
+extent of proportion in the human shape, heedless of any but the coarser
+forms of expression, and technically satisfied with the simplest methods
+of execution. If in any branch of his art he can be said to have had a
+conscience at this period, we should say that he showed it in his
+portrait drawings. It is seldom that we find a painted likeness worthy
+of the name. The drawings of which numbers are still preserved in the
+galleries of Basel, Berlin and Copenhagen show extraordinary quickness
+and delicacy of hand, and a wonderful facility for seizing character;
+and this happily is one of the features which Holbein bequeathed to his
+more famous son, Hans the younger. It is between 1512 and 1522 that
+Holbein tempered the German quality of his style with some North Italian
+elements. A purer taste and more pleasing realism mark his work, which
+in drapery, dress and tone is as much more agreeable to the eye as in
+respect of modelling and finish it is smoother and more carefully
+rounded. Costume, architecture, ornament and colour are applied with
+some knowledge of the higher canons of art. Here, too, advantage accrued
+to Hans the younger, whose independent career about this time began.
+
+The date of the elder Holbein's birth is unknown. But his name appears
+in the books of the tax-gatherers of Augsburg in 1494, superseding that
+of Michael Holbein, who is supposed to have been his father. Previous to
+that date, and as early as 1493, he was a painter of name, and he
+executed in that year, it is said, for the abbey at Weingarten, the
+wings of an altarpiece representing Joachim's Offering, the Nativity of
+the Virgin, Mary's Presentation in the Temple, and the Presentation of
+Christ, which now hang in separate panels in the cathedral of Augsburg.
+In these pieces and others of the same period, for instance in two
+Madonnas in the Moritz chapel and castle of Nuremberg, we mark the clear
+impress of the schools of Van der Weyden and Memlinc; whilst in later
+works, such as the Basilica of St Paul (1504) in the gallery of
+Augsburg, the wane of Flemish influence is apparent. But this
+altarpiece, with its quaint illustrations of St Paul's life and
+martyrdom, is not alone of interest because its execution is
+characteristic of old Holbein. It is equally so because it contains
+portraits of the master himself, accompanied by his two sons, the
+painters Ambrose (c. 1494-c. 1519) and Hans the younger. Later pictures,
+such as the Passion series in the Fürstenberg gallery at Donaueschingen,
+or the Martyrdom of St Sebastian in the Munich Pinakothek, contain
+similar portraits, the original drawings of which are found in old
+Holbein's sketch-book at Berlin, or in stray leaves like those possessed
+by the duke of Aumale in Paris. Not one of these fails to give us an
+insight into the character, or a reflex of the features, of the members
+of this celebrated family. Old Holbein seems to ape Leonardo, allowing
+his hair and beard to grow wildly, except on the upper lip. Hans the
+younger is a plain-looking boy. But his father points to him with his
+finger, and hints that though but a child he is clearly a prodigy.
+
+After 1516 Hans Holbein the elder appears as a defaulter in the
+registers of the tax-gatherers at Augsburg; but he willingly accepts
+commissions abroad. At Issenheim in Alsace, where Grünewald was employed
+in 1516, old Holbein also finds patrons, and contracts to complete an
+altarpiece. But misfortune or a bailiff pursues him, and he leaves
+Issenheim, abandoning his work and tools. According to Sandrart, he
+wanders to Basel and takes the freedom of its gild. His brother
+Sigismund and others are found suing him for debt before the courts of
+Augsburg. Where he lived when he executed the altarpiece, of which two
+wings with the date of 1522 are in the gallery of Carlsruhe, is
+uncertain; where he died two years later is unknown. He slinks from ken
+at the close of a long life, and disappears at last heeded by none but
+his own son, who claims his brushes and paints from the monks of
+Issenheim without much chance of obtaining them. His name is struck off
+the books of the Augsburg gild in 1524.
+
+  The elder Holbein was a prolific artist, who left many pictures behind
+  him. Earlier than the Basilica of St Paul, already mentioned, is the
+  Basilica of St Mary Maggiore, and a Passion in eleven pieces, in the
+  Augsburg gallery, both executed in 1499. Another Passion, with the
+  root of Jesse and a tree of the Dominicans, is that preserved in the
+  Staedel, Saalhof, and church of St Leonard at Frankfort. It was
+  executed in 1501. The Passion of Donaueschingen was finished after
+  1502, in which year was completed the Passion of Kaisheim, a
+  conglomerate of twenty-seven panels, now divided amongst the galleries
+  of Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Schleissheim. An altarpiece of the
+  same class, commissioned for the monastery of St Moritz at Augsburg in
+  1504-1508, has been dispersed and lost. 1512 is the date of a
+  Conception in the Augsburg gallery, long assigned, in consequence of a
+  forged inscription, to Hans Holbein the younger. A diptych, with a
+  Virgin and Child, and a portrait of an old man, dated 1513, came in
+  separate parts into the collections of Mr Posonyi and Count
+  Lanckoronski at Vienna. The sketch-books of Berlin, Copenhagen and
+  Augsburg give a lively picture of the forms and dress of Augsburg
+  residents at the beginning of the 16th century. They comprise
+  portraits of the emperor Maximilian, the future Charles V., Kunz von
+  der Rosen, the fool of Maximilian, the Fuggers, friars, merchants, and
+  at rare intervals ladies.
+
+  See also the biography by Stödtner (Berlin, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOLBEIN, HANS, the younger (1497-1543), German painter, favourite son of
+Hans Holbein the elder, was probably born at Augsburg about the year
+1497. Though Sandrart and Van Mander declare that they do not know who
+gave him the first lessons, he doubtless received an artist's education
+from his father. About 1515 he left Augsburg with Ambrose, his elder
+brother, to seek employment as an illustrator of books at Basel. His
+first patron is said to have been Erasmus, for whom, shortly after his
+arrival, he illustrated with pen-and-ink sketches an edition of the
+_Encomium Moriae_, now in the museum of Basel. But his chief occupation
+was that of drawing titlepage-blocks and initials for new editions of
+the Bible and classics issued from the presses of Froben and other
+publishers. His leisure hours, it is supposed, were devoted to the
+production of rough painter's work, a schoolmaster's sign in the Basel
+collection, a table with pictures of St Nobody in the library of the
+university at Zürich. In contrast with these coarse productions, the
+portraits of Jacob Meyer and his wife in the Basel museum, one of which
+purports to have been finished in 1516, are miracles of workmanship. It
+has always seemed difficult indeed to ascribe such excellent creations
+to Holbein's nineteenth year; and it is hardly credible that he should
+have been asked to do things of this kind so early, especially when it
+is remembered that neither he nor his brother Ambrose were then allowed
+to matriculate in the guild of Basel. Not till 1517 did Ambrose, whose
+life otherwise remains obscure, join that corporation; Hans, not
+overburdened with practice, wandered into Switzerland, where (1517) he
+was employed to paint in the house of Jacob Hertenstein at Lucerne. In
+1519 Holbein reappeared at Basel, where he matriculated and, there is
+every reason to think, married. Whether, previous to this time, he took
+advantage of his vicinity to the Italian border to cross the Alps is
+uncertain. Van Mander says that he never was in Italy; yet the large
+wall-paintings which he executed after 1519 at Basel, and the series of
+his sketches and pictures which is still extant, might lead to the
+belief that Van Mander was misinformed. The spirit of Holbein's
+compositions for the Basel town hall, the scenery and architecture of
+his numerous drawings, and the cast of form in some of his imaginative
+portraits, make it more likely that he should have felt the direct
+influence of North Italian painting than that he should have taken
+Italian elements from imported works or prints. The Swiss at this period
+wandered in thousands to swell the ranks of the French or imperial
+armies fighting on Italian soil, and the road they took may have been
+followed by Hans on a more peaceful mission. He shows himself at all
+events familiar with Italian examples at various periods of his career;
+and if we accept as early works the "Flagellation," and the "Last
+Supper" at Basel, coarse as they are, they show some acquaintance with
+Lombard methods of painting, whilst in other pieces, such as the series
+of the Passion in oil in the same collection, the modes of Hans Holbein
+the elder are agreeably commingled with a more modern, it may be said
+Italian, polish. Again, looking at the "Virgin" and "Man of Sorrows" in
+the Basel museum, we shall be struck by a searching metallic style akin
+to that of the Ferrarese; and the "Lais" or the "Venus and Amor" of the
+same collection reminds us of the Leonardesques of the school of Milan.
+When Holbein settled down to an extensive practice at Basel in 1519, he
+decorated the walls of the house "Zum Tanz" with simulated architectural
+features of a florid character after the fashion of the Veronese; and
+his wall paintings in the town-hall, if we can truly judge of them by
+copies, reveal an artist not unfamiliar with North Italian composition,
+distribution, action, gesture and expression. In his drawings too,
+particularly in a set representing the Passion at Basel, the
+arrangement, and also the perspective, form and decorative ornament, are
+in the spirit of the school of Mantegna. Contemporary with these,
+however, and almost inexplicably in contrast with them as regards
+handling, are portrait-drawings such as the likenesses of Jacob Meyer,
+and his wife, which are finished with German delicacy, and with a power
+and subtlety of hand seldom rivalled in any school. Curiously enough,
+the same contrast may be observed between painted compositions and
+painted portraits. The "Bonifacius Amerbach" of 1519 at Basel is
+acknowledged to be one of the most complete examples of smooth and
+transparent handling that Holbein ever executed. His versatility at this
+period is shown by a dead Christ (1521), a corpse in profile on a
+dissecting table, and a set of figures in couples; the "Madonna and St
+Pantalus," and "Kaiser Henry with the Empress Kunigunde" (1522),
+originally composed for the organ loft of the Basel cathedral, now in
+the Basel museum. Equally remarkable, but more attractive, though
+injured, is the "Virgin and Child between St Ursus and St Nicholas" (not
+St Martin) giving alms to a beggar, in the gallery of Solothurn. This
+remarkable picture is dated 1522, and seems to have been ordered for an
+altar in the minster of St Ursus of Solothurn by Nicholas Conrad, a
+captain and statesman of the 16th century, whose family allowed the
+precious heirloom to fall into decay in a chapel of the neighbouring
+village of Grenchen. Numerous drawings in the spirit of this picture,
+and probably of the same period in his career, might have led Holbein's
+contemporaries to believe that he would make his mark in the annals of
+Basel as a model for painters of altarpieces as well as a model for
+pictorial composition and portrait. The promise which he gave at this
+time was immense. He was gaining a freedom in draughtsmanship that gave
+him facility to deal with any subject. Though a realist, he was sensible
+of the dignity and severity of religious painting. His colour had almost
+all the richness and sweetness of the Venetians. But he had fallen on
+evil times, as the next few years undoubtedly showed. Amongst the
+portraits which he executed in these years are those of Froben, the
+publisher, known only by copies at Basel and Hampton Court, and Erasmus,
+who sat in 1523, as he likewise did in 1530, in various positions,
+showing his face threequarters as at Longford, Basel, Turin, Parma, the
+Hague and Vienna, and in profile as in the Louvre or at Hampton Court.
+Besides these, Holbein made designs for glass windows, and for woodcuts,
+including subjects of every sort, from the Virgin and Child with saints
+of the old time to the Dance of Death, from gospel incidents extracted
+from Luther's Bible to satirical pieces illustrating the sale of
+indulgences and other abuses denounced by Reformers. Holbein, in this
+way, was carried irresistibly with the stream of the Reformation, in
+which, it must now be admitted, the old traditions of religious painting
+were wrecked, leaving nothing behind but unpictorial elements which
+Cranach and his school vainly used for pictorial purposes.
+
+Once only, after 1526, and after he had produced the "Lais" and "Venus
+and Amor," did Holbein with impartial spirit give his services and
+pencil to the Roman Catholic cause. The burgomaster Meyer, whose
+patronage he had already enjoyed, now asked him to represent himself and
+his wives and children in prayer before the Virgin; and Holbein produced
+the celebrated altarpiece now in the palace of Prince William of Hesse
+at Darmstadt, the shape and composition of which are known to all the
+world by its copy in the Dresden museum. The drawings for this
+masterpiece are amongst the most precious relics in the museum of Basel.
+The time now came when art began to suffer from unavoidable depression
+in all countries north of the Alps. Holbein, at Basel, was reduced to
+accept the smallest commissions--even for scutcheons. Then he saw that
+his chances were dwindling to nothing, and taking a bold resolution,
+armed with letters of introduction from Erasmus to More, he crossed the
+Channel to England, where in the one-sided branch of portrait painting
+he found an endless circle of clients. Eighty-seven drawings by Holbein
+in Windsor Castle, containing an equal number of portraits, of persons
+chiefly of high quality, testify to his industry in the years which
+divide 1528 from 1543. They are all originals of pictures that are still
+extant, or sketches for pictures that were lost or never carried out.
+Sir Thomas More, with whom he seems to have had a very friendly
+connexion, sat to him for likenesses of various kinds. The drawing of
+his head is at Windsor. A pen-and-ink sketch, in which we see More
+surrounded by all the members of his family, is now in the gallery of
+Basel, and numerous copies of a picture from it prove how popular the
+lost original must once have been. At the same period were executed the
+portraits of Warham (Lambeth and Louvre), Wyatt (Louvre), Sir Henry
+Guildford and his wife (Windsor), all finished in 1527, the astronomer
+Nicholas Kratzer (Louvre), Thomas Godsalve (Dresden), and Sir Bryan Tuke
+(Munich) in 1528. In this year, 1528, Holbein returned to Basel, taking
+to Erasmus the sketch of More's family. With money which he brought from
+London he purchased a house at Basel wherein to lodge his wife and
+children, whose portraits he now painted with all the care of a husband
+and father (1528). He then witnessed the flight of Erasmus and the fury
+of the iconoclasts, who destroyed in one day almost all the religious
+pictures at Basel. The municipality, unwilling that he should suffer
+again from the depression caused by evil times, asked him to finish the
+frescoes of the town-hall, and the sketches from these lost pictures are
+still before us to show that he had not lost the spirit of his earlier
+days, and was still capable as a composer. His "Rehoboam receiving the
+Israelite Envoys," and "Saul at the Head of his Array meeting Samuel,"
+testify to Holbein's power and his will, also proved at a later period
+by the "Triumphs of Riches and Poverty," executed for the Steelyard in
+London (but now lost), to prefer the fame of a painter of history to
+that of a painter of portraits. But the reforming times still remained
+unfavourable to art. With the exception of a portrait of Melanchthon
+(Hanover) which he now completed, Holbein found little to do at Basel.
+The year 1530, therefore, saw him again on the move, and he landed in
+England for the second time with the prospect of bettering his fortunes.
+Here indeed political changes had robbed him of his earlier patrons. The
+circle of More and Warham was gone. But that of the merchants of the
+Steelyard took its place, for whom Holbein executed the long and
+important series of portraits that lie scattered throughout the
+galleries and collections of England and the Continent, and bear date
+after 1532. Then came again the chance of practice in more fashionable
+circles. In 1533 the "Ambassadors" (National Gallery), and the "Triumphs
+of Wealth and Poverty" were executed, then the portraits of Leland and
+Wyatt (Longford), and (1534) the portrait of Thomas Cromwell. Through
+Cromwell Holbein probably became attached to the court, in the pay of
+which he appears permanently after 1537. From that time onwards he was
+connected with all that was highest in the society of London. Henry
+VIII. invited him to make a family picture of himself, his father and
+family, which obtained a post of honour at Whitehall. The beautiful
+cartoon of a part of this fine piece at Hardwicke Hall enables us to
+gauge its beauty before the fire which destroyed it in the 17th century.
+Then Holbein painted Jane Seymour in state (Vienna), employing some
+English hand perhaps to make the replicas at the Hague, Sion House and
+Woburn; he finished the Southwell of the Uffizi (copy at the Louvre),
+the jeweller Morett at Dresden, and last, not least, Christine of
+Denmark, who gave sittings at Brussels in 1538. During the journey which
+this work involved Holbein took the opportunity of revisiting Basel,
+where he made his appearance in silk and satin, and _pro forma_ only
+accepted the office of town painter. He had been living long and
+continuously away from home, not indeed observing due fidelity to his
+wife, who still resided at Basel, but fairly performing the duties of
+keeping her in comfort. His return to London in autumn enabled him to do
+homage to the king in the way familiar to artists. He presented to Henry
+at Christmas a portrait of Prince Edward. Again abroad in the summer of
+1539, he painted with great fidelity the princess Anne of Cleves, at
+Düren near Cologne, whose form we still see depicted in the great
+picture of the Louvre. That he could render the features of his sitter
+without flattery is plain from this one example. Indeed, habitual
+flattery was contrary to his habits. His portraits up to this time all
+display that uncommon facility for seizing character which his father
+enjoyed before him, and which he had inherited in an expanded form. No
+amount of labour, no laboriousness of finish--and of both he was ever
+prodigal--betrayed him into loss of resemblance or expression. No
+painter was ever quicker at noting peculiarities of physiognomy, and it
+may be observed that in none of his faces, as indeed in none of the
+faces one sees in nature, are the two sides alike. Yet he was not a
+child of the 16th century, as the Venetians were, in substituting touch
+for line. We must not look in his works for modulations of surface or
+subtle contrasts of colour in juxtaposition. His method was to the very
+last delicate, finished and smooth, as became a painter of the old
+school.
+
+Amongst the more important creations of Holbein's later time we should
+note his "Duke of Norfolk" at Windsor, the hands of which are so
+perfectly preserved as to compensate for the shrivel that now disfigures
+the head. Two other portraits of 1541 (Berlin and Vienna), the Falconer
+at the Hague, and John Chambers at Vienna (1542), are noble specimens of
+portrait art; most interesting and of the same year are the likenesses
+of Holbein himself, of which several examples are extant--one
+particularly good at Fähna, the seat of the Stackelberg family near
+Riga, and another at the Uffizi in Florence. Here Holbein appears to us
+as a man of regular features, with hair just turning grey, but healthy
+in colour and shape, and evidently well to do in the world. Yet a few
+months only separated him then from his death-bed. He was busy painting
+a picture of Henry the VIII. confirming the Privileges of the Barber
+Surgeons (Lincoln's Inn Fields), when he sickened of the plague and died
+after making a will about November 1543. His loss must have been
+seriously felt in England. Had he lived his last years in Germany, he
+would not have changed the current which decided the fate of painting in
+that country; he would but have shared the fate of Dürer and others who
+merely prolonged the agony of art amidst the troubles of the
+Reformation.     (J. A. C.)
+
+  The early authorities are Karel Van Mander's _Het Schilder Boek_
+  (1604), and J. von Sandrart, _Accademia Todesca_ (1675). See also R.
+  N. Wornum, _Life and Work of Holbein_ (1867); H. Knackfuss, _Holbein_
+  (1899); G. S. Davies, _Holbein_ (1903); A. F. G. A. Woltmann, _Holbein
+  und seine Zeit_ (1876).
+
+
+
+
+HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG, BARON (1684-1754), the great Scandinavian
+writer, was born at Bergen, in Norway, on the 3rd of December 1684. Both
+Holberg's parents died in his childhood, his father first, leaving a
+considerable property; and in his eleventh year he lost his mother also.
+Before the latter event, however, the family had been seriously
+impoverished by a great fire, which destroyed several valuable
+buildings, but notwithstanding this, the mother left to each of her six
+children some little fortune. In 1695 the boy Holberg was taken into the
+house of his uncle, Peder Lem, who sent him to the Latin school, and
+prepared him for the profession of a soldier; but soon after this he was
+adopted by his cousin Otto Munthe, and went to him up in the mountains.
+His great desire for instruction, however, at last induced his family
+to send him back to Bergen, to his uncle, and there he remained, eagerly
+studying, until the destruction of that city by fire in 1702, when he
+was sent to the university of Copenhagen. But he soon exhausted his
+resources, and, having nothing to live upon, was glad to hurry back to
+Norway, where he accepted the position of tutor in the house of a rural
+dean at Voss. He soon returned to Copenhagen, where in 1704 he took his
+degree, and worked hard at French, English and Italian. But he had to
+gain his living, and accordingly he accepted the post of tutor once
+more, this time in the house of Dr Smith, vice-bishop of Bergen. The
+good doctor had travelled much, and the reading of his itineraries and
+note-books awakened such a longing for travel in the young Holberg that
+at last, at the close of 1704, having scraped together 60 dollars, he
+went on board a ship bound for Holland. He proceeded as far as
+Aix-la-Chapelle, where he fell sick of a fever, and suffered so much
+from weakness and poverty, that he made his way on foot to Amsterdam,
+and came back to Norway. Ashamed to be seen so soon in Bergen, he
+stopped at Christianssand, where he lived through the winter, supporting
+himself by giving lessons in French. In the spring of 1706 he travelled,
+in company with a student named Brix, through London to Oxford, where he
+studied for two years, gaining his livelihood by giving lessons on the
+violin and the flute. He mentions, with gratitude, the valuable
+libraries of Oxford, and it is pleasant to record that it was while he
+was there that it first occurred to him, as he says, "how splendid and
+glorious a thing it would be to take a place among the authors." Through
+London and Elsinore he reached Copenhagen a third time, and began to
+lecture at the university; his lectures were attended, but he got no
+money. He was asked in 1709 to conduct a rich young gentleman to
+Dresden, and on his return journey he lectured at Leipzig, Halle and
+Hamburg. Once more in Copenhagen, he undertook to teach the children of
+Admiral Gedde. Weary with this work, he took a post at Borch College in
+1710, where he wrote, and printed in 1711, his first work, _An
+Introduction to the History of the Nations of Europe_, and was permitted
+to present to King Frederick IV. two manuscript essays on Christian IV.
+and Frederick III. The king soon after presented him with the title of
+Professor, and with the Rosenkrantz grant of 100 dollars for four years,
+the holder of which was expected to travel. Holberg accordingly started
+in 1714, and visited, chiefly on foot, a great portion of Europe. From
+Amsterdam he walked through Rotterdam to Antwerp, took a boat to
+Brussels, and on foot again reached Paris. Walking and skating, he
+proceeded in the depth of winter to Marseilles, and on by sea to Genoa.
+On the last-mentioned voyage he caught a fever, and nearly died in that
+city. On his recovery he pushed on to Civita Vecchia and Rome. When the
+spring had come, being still very poor and in feeble health, he started
+homewards on foot by Florence, across the Apennines, through Bologna,
+Parma, Piacenza, Turin, over the Alps, through Savoy and Dauphiné to
+Lyons, and finally to Paris, where he arrived in excellent health. After
+spending a month in Paris, he walked on to Amsterdam, took sail to
+Hamburg, and so went back to Denmark in 1716. He spent the next two
+years in extreme poverty, and published his _Introduction to Natural and
+Popular Law_. But at last, in 1718, his talents were recognized by his
+appointment as professor of metaphysics at the university of Copenhagen;
+and in 1720 he was promoted to the lucrative chair of public eloquence,
+which gave him a seat in the consistory. His pecuniary troubles were now
+at an end. Hitherto he had written only on law, history and philology,
+although in a Latin controversy with the jurist Andreas Hojer of
+Flensborg his satirical genius had flashed out. But now, and until 1728,
+he created an entirely new class of humorous literature under the
+pseudonym of Hans Mikkelsen. The serio-comic epic of _Peder Paars_, the
+earliest of the great classics of the Danish language, appeared In 1719.
+This poem was a brilliant satire on contemporary manners, and enjoyed an
+extraordinary success. But the author had offended in it several
+powerful persons who threatened his life, and if Count Danneskjold had
+not personally interested the king in him, Holberg's career might have
+had an untimely close. During the next two years he published five
+shorter satires, all of which were well received by the public. The
+great event of 1721 was the erection of the first Danish theatre in
+Grönnegade, Copenhagen; Holberg took the direction of this house, in
+which was played, in September 1722, a Danish translation of L'Avare.
+Until this time no plays had been acted in Denmark except in French and
+German, but Holberg now determined to use his talent in the construction
+of Danish comedy. The first of his original pieces performed was _Den
+politiske Kandestöber_ (The Pewterer turned Politician); he wrote other
+comedies with miraculous rapidity, and before 1722 was closed, there had
+been performed in succession, and with immense success, _Den
+Vaegelsindede_ (The Waverer), _Jean de France_, _Jeppe paa Bjerget_, and
+_Gert the Westphalian_. Of these five plays, four at least are
+masterpieces; and they were almost immediately followed by others.
+Holberg took no rest, and before the end of 1723 the comedies of
+_Barselstuen_ (The Lying-in Room), _The Eleventh of July_, _Jakob von
+Thyboe_, _Den Bundeslöse_ (The Fidget), _Erasmus Montanus_, _Don
+Ranudo_, _Ulysses of Ithaca_, _Without Head or Tail_, _Witchcraft_ and
+_Melampe_ had all been written, and some of them acted. In 1724 the most
+famous comedy that Holberg produced was _Henrik and Pernille_. But in
+spite of this unprecedented blaze of dramatic genius the theatre fell
+into pecuniary difficulties, and had to be closed, Holberg composing for
+the last night's performance, in February 1727, a _Funeral of Danish
+Comedy_. All this excessive labour for the stage had undermined the
+great poet's health, and in 1725 he had determined to take the baths at
+Aix-la-Chapelle; but instead of going thither he wandered through
+Belgium to Paris, and spent the winter there. In the spring he returned
+to Copenhagen with recovered health and spirits, and worked quietly at
+his protean literary labours until the great fire of 1728. In the period
+of national poverty and depression that followed this event, a
+puritanical spirit came into vogue which was little in sympathy with
+Holberg's dramatic or satiric genius. He therefore closed his career as
+a dramatic poet by publishing in 1731 his acted comedies, with the
+addition of five which he had no opportunity of putting on the stage.
+With characteristic versatility, he adopted the serious tone of the new
+age, and busied himself for the next twenty years with historical,
+philosophical and statistical writings. During this period he published
+his poetical satire called _Metamorphosis_ (1726), his _Epistolae ad
+virum perillustrem_ (1727), his _Description of Denmark and Norway_
+(1729), _History of Denmark_, _Universal Church History_, _Biographies
+of Famous Men_, _Moral Reflections_, _Description of Bergen_ (1737), _A
+History of the Jews_, and other learned and laborious compilations. The
+only poem he published at this time was the famous _Nicolai Klimii iter
+subterraneum_ (1741), afterwards translated into Danish by Baggesen.
+When Christian VI. died in 1747, pietism lost its sway; the theatre was
+reopened and Holberg was appointed director, but he soon resigned this
+arduous post. The six comedies he wrote in his old age did not add to
+his reputation. His last published work was his _Epistles_, in 5 vols.
+the last of them posthumous (1754). In 1747 he was created by the new
+king Baron of Holberg. In August 1753 he took to his bed, and he died at
+Copenhagen on the 28th of January 1754, in the seventieth year of his
+age. He was buried at Sorö, in Zealand. He had never married, and he
+bequeathed all his property, which was considerable, to Sorö College.
+
+Holberg was not only the founder of Danish literature and the greatest
+of Danish authors, but he was, with the exception of Voltaire, the first
+writer in Europe during his own generation. Neither Pope nor Swift, who
+perhaps excelled him in particular branches of literary production,
+approached him in range of genius, or in encyclopaedic versatility.
+Holberg found Denmark provided with no books, and he wrote a library for
+her. When he arrived in the country, the Danish language was never heard
+in a gentleman's house. Polite Danes were wont to say that a man wrote
+Latin to his friends, talked French to the ladies, called his dogs in
+German, and only used Danish to swear at his servants. The single genius
+of Holberg revolutionized this system. He wrote poems of all kinds in a
+language hitherto employed only for ballads and hymns; he instituted a
+theatre, and composed a rich collection of comedies for it; he filled
+the shelves of the citizens with works in their own tongue on history,
+law, politics, science, philology and philosophy, all written in a true
+and manly style, and representing the extreme attainment of European
+culture at the moment. Perhaps no author who ever lived has had so vast
+an influence over his countrymen, an influence that is still at work
+after 200 years.
+
+  The editions of Holberg's works are legion. Complete editions of the
+  _Comedies_ are too numerous to be quoted; the best is that brought out
+  in 3 vols. by F. I. Lichtenberg, in 1870. Of _Peder Paars_ there exist
+  at least twenty-three editions, besides translations in Dutch, German
+  and Swedish. The _Iter subterraneum_ has been three several times
+  translated into Danish, ten times into German, thrice into Swedish,
+  thrice into Dutch, thrice into English, twice into French, twice into
+  Russian and once into Hungarian. The life of Holberg was written by
+  Welhaven in 1858 and by Georg Brandes in 1884. Among works on his
+  genius by foreigners may be mentioned an exhaustive study by Robert
+  Prutz (1857), and _Holberg considéré comme imitateur de Molière_, by
+  A. Legrelle (Paris, 1864).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLBORN, a central metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N.W.
+by St Pancras, N.E. by Finsbury, S.E. by the City of London, S. and W.
+by the City of Westminster and St Marylebone. Pop. (1901), 59,405. Area
+405.1 acres. Its main thoroughfare is that running E. and W. under the
+names of Holborn Viaduct, High Holborn and New Oxford Street.
+
+The name of Holborn was formerly derived from Old Bourne, a tributary of
+the Fleet, the valley of which is clearly seen where Holborn Viaduct
+crosses Farringdon Street. Of the existence of this tributary, however,
+there is no evidence, and the origin of the name is found in
+_Hole-bourne_, the stream in the hollow, in allusion to the Fleet
+itself. The fall and rise of the road across the valley before the
+construction of the viaduct (1869) was abrupt and inconvenient. In
+earlier times a bridge here crossed the Fleet, leading from Newgate,
+while a quarter of a mile west of the viaduct is the site of Holborn
+Bars, at the entrance to the City, where tolls were levied. The better
+residential district of Holborn, which extends northward to Euston Road
+in the borough of St Pancras, is mainly within the parish of St George,
+Bloomsbury. The name of Bloomsbury is commonly derived from William
+Blemund, a lord of the manor in the 15th century. A dyke called
+Blemund's Ditch, of unknown origin, bounded it on the south, where the
+land was marshy. During the 18th century Bloomsbury was a fashionable
+and wealthy residential quarter. The reputation of the district
+immediately to the south, embraced in the parish of St Giles in the
+Fields, was far different. From the 17th century until modern times this
+was notorious as a home of crime and poverty. Here occurred some of the
+earliest cases of the plague which spread over London in 1664-1665. The
+opening of the thoroughfares of New Oxford Street (1840) and Shaftesbury
+Avenue (1855) by no means wholly destroyed the character of the
+district. The circus of Seven Dials, east of Shaftesbury Avenue, affords
+a typical name in connexion with the lowest aspect of life in London. A
+similar notoriety attached to Saffron Hill on the eastern confines of
+the borough. By a singular contrast, the neighbouring thoroughfare of
+Hatton Garden, leading north from Holborn Circus, is a centre of the
+diamond trade.
+
+Of the ecclesiastical buildings of Holborn that of first interest is the
+chapel of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, opening from Holborn Circus. Ely
+Place takes its name from a palace of the bishops of Ely, who held land
+here as early as the 13th century. Here died John of Gaunt in 1399. The
+property was acquired by Sir Christopher Hatton, Lord Chancellor under
+Queen Elizabeth, after whom Hatton Garden is named; though the bishopric
+kept some hold upon it until the 18th century. The chapel, the only
+remnant of the palace, is a beautiful Decorated structure with a vaulted
+crypt, itself above ground-level. Both are used for worship by Roman
+Catholics, by whom the chapel was acquired in 1874 and opened five years
+later after careful restoration. The present parish church of St Giles
+in the Fields, between Shaftesbury Avenue and New Oxford Street, dates
+from 1734, but here was situated a leper's hospital founded by Matilda,
+wife of Henry I., in 1101. Its chapel became the parish church on the
+suppression of the monasteries. The church of St Andrew, the parish of
+which extends into the City, stands near Holborn Viaduct. It is by Wren,
+but there are traces of the previous Gothic edifice in the tower.
+Sacheverell was among its rectors (1713-1724), and Thomas Chatterton
+(1770) was interred in the adjacent burial ground, no longer extant, of
+Shoe Lane Workhouse; the register recording his Christian name as
+William. Close to this church Is the City Temple (Congregational).
+
+Two of the four Inns of Court, Lincoln's Inn and Gray's Inn, lie within
+the borough. Of the first the Tudor gateway opens upon Chancery Lane.
+The chapel, hall and residential buildings surrounding the squares
+within, are picturesque, but of later date. To the west lie the fine
+square, with public gardens, still called, from its original character,
+Lincoln's Inn Fields. Gray's Inn, between High Holborn and Theobald's
+Road, and west of Gray's Inn Road, is of similar arrangement. The fabric
+of the small chapel is apparently of the 14th century, and may have been
+attached to the manor house of Portpool, held at that period by the
+Lords Grey of Wilton. Of the former Inns of Chancery attached to these
+Inns of Court the most noteworthy buildings remaining are those of
+Staple Inn, of which the timbered and gabled Elizabethan front upon High
+Holborn is a unique survival of its character in a London thoroughfare;
+and of Barnard's Inn, occupied by the Mercer's School. Both these were
+attached to Gray's Inn. Of Furnival's and Thavies Inns, attached to
+Lincoln's Inn, only the names remain. The site of the first is covered
+by the fine red brick buildings of the Prudential Assurance Company,
+Holborn Viaduct. Among other institutions in Holborn, the British
+Museum, north of New Oxford Street, is pre-eminent. The varied
+collections of Sir John Soane, accumulated at his house in Lincoln's Inn
+Fields, are open to view as the Soane Museum. There may also be
+mentioned the Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn Fields, with
+museum; the Royal Colleges of Organists, and of Veterinary Surgeons, the
+College of Preceptors, the Jews' College, and the Metropolitan School of
+Shorthand. Among hospitals are the Italian, the Homoeopathic, the
+National for the paralysed and epileptic, the Alexandra for children
+with hip disease, and the Hospital for sick children. The Foundling
+Hospital, Guilford Street, was founded by Thomas Coram in 1739.
+
+
+
+
+HOLCROFT, THOMAS (1745-1809), English dramatist and miscellaneous
+writer, was born on the 10th of December 1745 (old style) in Orange
+Court, Leicester Fields, London. His father, besides having a
+shoemaker's shop, kept riding horses for hire; but having fallen into
+difficulties was reduced ultimately to the necessity of hawking pedlary.
+The son accompanied his parents in their tramps, and succeeded in
+procuring the situation of stable boy at Newmarket, where he spent his
+evenings chiefly in miscellaneous reading and the study of music.
+Gradually he obtained a knowledge of French, German and Italian. At the
+end of his term of engagement as stable boy he returned to assist his
+father, who had again resumed his trade of shoemaker in London; but
+after marrying in 1765, he became a teacher in a small school in
+Liverpool. He failed in an attempt to set up a private school, and
+became prompter in a Dublin theatre. He acted in various strolling
+companies until 1778, when he produced _The Crisis; or, Love and
+Famine_, at Drury Lane. _Duplicity_ followed in 1781. Two years later he
+went to Paris as correspondent of the _Morning Herald_. Here he attended
+the performances of Beaumarchais's _Mariage de Figaro_ until he had
+memorized the whole. The translation of it, with the title _The Follies
+of the Day_, was produced at Drury Lane in 1784. _The Road to Ruin_, his
+most successful melodrama, was produced in 1792. A revival in 1873 ran
+for 118 nights. Holcroft died on the 23rd of March 1809. He was a member
+of the Society for Constitutional Information, and on that account was,
+in 1794, indicted of high treason, but was discharged without a trial.
+Among his novels may be mentioned _Alwyn_ (1780), an account, largely
+autobiographical, of a strolling comedian, and _Hugh Trevor_
+(1794-1797). He also was the author of _Travels from Hamburg through
+Westphalia, Holland and the Netherlands to Paris_, of some volumes of
+verse and of translations from the French and German.
+
+  His _Memoirs written by Himself and continued down to the Time of his
+  Death, from his Diary, Notes and other Papers_, by William Hazlitt,
+  appeared in 1816, and was reprinted, in a slightly abridged form, in
+  1852.
+
+
+
+
+HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON (1822-1896), English classical scholar, came of an
+old Staffordshire family. He was educated at King Edward's school,
+Birmingham, and Trinity College, Cambridge (senior classic, 1845;
+fellow, 1847). He was vice-principal of Cheltenham College (1853-1858),
+and headmaster of Queen Elizabeth's school, Ipswich (1858-1883). He died
+in London on the 1st of December 1896. In addition to several school
+editions of portions of Cicero, Thucydides, Xenophon and Plutarch, he
+published an expurgated text of Aristophanes with a useful onomasticon
+(re-issued separately, 1902) and larger editions of Cicero's _De
+officiis_ (revised ed., 1898) and of the _Octavius_ of Minucius Felix
+(1853). His chief works, however, were his _Foliorum silvula_ (1852), a
+collection of English extracts for translation into Greek and Latin
+verse; _Folia silvulae_ (translations of the same); and _Foliorum
+centuriae_, a companion volume of extracts for Latin prose translation.
+In English schools these books have been widely used for the teaching of
+Latin and Greek composition.
+
+
+
+
+HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC, BART. (1807-1897), English inventor and manufacturer,
+was the son of Isaac Holden, a native of Cumberland, and was born at
+Hurlet, a village between Paisley and Glasgow, on the 7th of May 1807.
+His early life was passed in very straitened circumstances, but his
+father spared no pains to give him as much elementary education as
+possible. At the age of ten he began to work as weaver's draw-boy, and
+afterwards was employed in a cotton mill. Meanwhile his education was
+continued at the night schools, and from time to time, as funds allowed,
+he was taken from work and sent to the grammar-school, to which he at
+last went regularly for a year or two until he was fifteen, when his
+father removed to Paisley and apprenticed him to an uncle, a
+shawl-weaver there. This proving too much for his strength, in 1823 he
+became assistant teacher in a school at Paisley, and in 1828 he was
+appointed mathematical teacher in the Queen's Square Academy, Leeds. At
+the end of six months he was transferred to Lingard's grammar school,
+near Huddersfield, and shortly afterwards became classical master at
+Castle Street Academy, Reading. It was here that in 1829 he invented a
+lucifer match by adopting sulphur as the medium between the explosive
+material and the wood, but he refused to patent the invention. In 1830
+his health again failed, and he returned to Scotland, where a Glasgow
+friend set up a school for him. After six months, however, he was
+recommended for the post of bookkeeper to Messrs. Townend Brothers,
+worsted manufacturers, of Cullingworth, where his interest in machinery
+soon led to his transfer from the counting-house to the mill. There his
+experiments led him to the invention of his square motion wool-comber
+and of a process for making genappe yarns, a patent for which was taken
+out by him in conjunction with S. C. Lister (Lord Masham) in 1847. The
+firm of Lister & Holden, which established a factory near Paris in 1848,
+carried on a successful business, and in 1859, when Lister retired, was
+succeeded by Isaac Holden and Sons, which became the largest
+wool-combing business in the world, employing upwards of 4000
+workpeople. In 1865 Holden's medical advisers insisted on complete
+change of occupation, and he entered parliament as Liberal member for
+Knaresborough. From 1868 to 1882 he was without a seat, but in the
+latter year he was elected for the northern division of the West Riding,
+and in 1885 for Keighley. He was created a baronet in 1893, and died
+suddenly at Oakworth House, near Keighley, on the 13th of August 1897.
+
+His son and heir, Sir Angus Holden, was in 1908 created a peer with the
+title of Baron Holden of Alston.
+
+
+
+
+HÖLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1770-1843), German poet, was born
+on the 20th of March 1770, at Lauffen on the Neckar. His mother
+removing, after a second marriage, to Nürtingen, he began his education
+at the classical school there. He was destined by his relations for the
+church, and with this view was later admitted to the seminaries at
+Denkendorf and Maulbronn. At the age of eighteen he entered as a student
+of theology the university of Tübingen, where he remained till 1793. He
+was already the writer of occasional verses, and had begun to sketch his
+novel _Hyperion_, when he was introduced in this year to Schiller, and
+obtained through him the post of tutor to the young son of Charlotte von
+Kalb. A year later he left this situation to attend Fichte's lectures,
+and to be near Schiller in Jena. The latter recognized in the young poet
+something of his own genius, and encouraged him by publishing some of
+his early writings in his periodicals _Die neue Thalia_ and _Die Horen_.
+In 1796 Hölderlin obtained the post of tutor in the family of the banker
+J. F. Gontard in Frankfort-on-Main. For Gontard's beautiful and gifted
+wife, Susette, the "Diotima" of his _Hyperion_, he conceived a violent
+passion; and she became at once his inspiration and his ruin. At the end
+of two years, during which time the first volume of _Hyperion_ was
+published (1797), a crisis appears to have occurred in their relations,
+for the young poet suddenly left Frankfort. In spite of ill-health, he
+now completed _Hyperion_, the second volume of which appeared in 1799,
+and began a tragedy, _Der Tod des Empedokles_, a fragment of which is
+published among his works. His friends became alarmed at the alternate
+depression and nervous irritability from which he suffered, and he was
+induced to go to Switzerland, as tutor in a family at Hauptwill. There
+his health improved; and several of his poems, among which are _Der
+blinde Sänger_, _An die Hoffnung_ and _Dichtermut_, were written at this
+time. In 1801 he returned home to arrange for the publication of a
+volume of his poems; but, on the failure of this enterprise, he was
+obliged to accept a tutorship at Bordeaux. "Diotima" died a year later,
+in June 1802, and the news is supposed to have reached Hölderlin shortly
+afterwards, for in the following month he suddenly left Bordeaux, and
+travelled homewards on foot through France, arriving at Nürtingen
+destitute and insane. Kind treatment gradually alleviated his condition,
+and in lucid intervals he occupied himself by writing verses and
+translating Greek plays. Two of these translations--the _Antigone_ and
+_Oedipus rex_ of Sophocles--appeared in 1804, and several of his short
+poems were published by Franz K. L. von Seckendorff in his
+_Musenalmanach_, 1807 and 1808. In 1804 Hölderlin obtained the sinecure
+post of librarian to the landgrave Frederick V. of Hesse-Homburg, and
+went to live in Homburg under the supervision of friends; but two years
+later becoming irremediably but harmlessly insane, he was taken in the
+summer of 1807 to Tübingen, where he remained till his death on the 7th
+of June 1843.
+
+Hölderlin's writings are the production of a beautiful and sensitive
+mind; but they are intensely, almost morbidly, subjective, and they lack
+real human strength. Perhaps his strongest characteristic was his
+passion for Greece, the result of which was that he almost entirely
+discarded rhyme in favour of the ancient verse measures. His poems are
+all short pieces; of his tragedy only a fragment was written. _Hyperion,
+oder der Eremit in Griechenland_ (1797-1799), is a romance in letters,
+in which the stormy fervour of the "Sturm und Drang" is combined with a
+romantic enthusiasm for Greek antiquity. The interest centres not in the
+story, for the novel has little or none--Hyperion is a young Greek who
+takes part in the rising of his people against the Turks in 1770--but in
+its lyric subjectivity and the dithyrambic beauty of its language.
+
+  Hölderlin's lyrics, _Lyrische Gedichte_, were edited by L. Uhland and
+  G. Schwab in 1826. A complete edition of his works, _Sämtliche Werke_,
+  with a biography by C. T. Schwab, appeared in 1846; also _Dichtungen_
+  by K. Köstlin (Tübingen, 1884), and (the best edition) _Gesammelte
+  Dichtungen_ by B. Litzmann (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1897). For biography
+  and criticism, see C. C. T. Litzmann, _F. Hölderlins Leben_ (Berlin,
+  1890), A. Wilbrandt, _Hölderlin_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1891), and C.
+  Müller, _Friedrich Hölderlin, sein Leben und sein Dichten_ (Bremen,
+  1894).
+
+
+
+
+
+HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF, an English title borne by Sir John Ramsay and
+later by the family of Darcy. John Ramsay (c. 1580-1626), a member of
+the Scottish family of Ramsay of Dalhousie, was knighted for his share
+in rescuing James VI. from the hands of John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, in
+August 1600. In 1606 the king created him Viscount Haddington and Lord
+Ramsay of Barns, and in 1621 made him an English peer as earl of
+Holdernesse. Ramsay died without surviving issue in February 1626, when
+his titles became extinct. In 1644 Charles I. created his nephew, Prince
+Rupert, earl of Holdernesse, but when the prince died unmarried in
+November 1682 the earldom again became extinct. Conyers Darcy
+(1599-1689), who was made earl of Holdernesse in 1682 only a few days
+after the death of Rupert, was the son and heir of Conyers Darcy, Lord
+Darcy and Conyers (c. 1571-1654), and succeeded his father in these
+baronies in March 1654. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his only son
+Conyers (c. 1620-1692), who was member of parliament for Yorkshire
+during the reign of Charles II. In his turn he was succeeded by his
+grandson Robert (1681-1722). Robert's only son, Robert Darcy, 4th earl
+of Holdernesse (1718-1778), was a diplomatist and a politician. From
+1744 to 1746 he was ambassador at Venice and from 1749 to 1751 he
+represented his country at the Hague. In 1751 he became one of the
+secretaries of state, and he remained in office until March 1761, when
+he was dismissed by George III. From 1771 to 1776 he acted as governor
+to two of the king's sons, a "solemn phantom" as Horace Walpole calls
+him. He left no sons, and all his titles became extinct except the
+barony of Conyers, which had been created by writ in 1509 in favour of
+his ancestor Sir William Conyers (d. 1525). This descended to his only
+daughter Amelia (1754-1784), the wife of Francis Osborne, afterwards 5th
+duke of Leeds, and when the 7th duke of Leeds died in 1859 it passed to
+his nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling into abeyance
+on his death. Hornby castle in Yorkshire, now the principal seat of the
+dukes of Leeds, came to them through marriage of the 5th duke with the
+heiress of the families of Conyers and of Darcy.
+
+
+
+
+HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL (1806-1860), Jewish rabbi, a leader of reform in the
+German Synagogue, was born in Posen in 1806 and died in Berlin in 1860.
+In 1836 he was appointed rabbi at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in 1840 he was
+transferred to the rabbinate of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He then became
+prominent as an advocate on the one hand of religious freedom (much
+trammelled at the time by Prussian state laws) and on the other of
+reform within the Jewish community. Various rabbinical conferences were
+held, at Brunswick (1844), Frankfort-on-the-Main (1845) and Breslau
+(1846). At all of these Holdheim was a strong supporter of the policy of
+modifying ritual (especially with regard to Sabbath observance, marriage
+laws and liturgical customs). In 1846 he was chosen Rabbi of the new
+Berlin congregation and there exercised considerable influence on the
+course of Jewish reform.
+
+  See I. H. Ritter in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_, i. 202. The same
+  authority has written the life of Holdheim in vol. iii. of his
+  _Geschichte der jüdischen Reformation_ (Berlin, 1865). Graetz in his
+  _History_ passes an unfavourable judgment on Holdheim, and there were
+  admittedly grounds for opposition to Holdheim's attitude. A moderate
+  criticism is contained in Dr D. Philipson's _History of the Reform
+  Movement_ in Judaism (London, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HOLGUÍN, a town of the high plateau country in the interior of Oriente
+province, Cuba, about 65 m. N.W. of Santiago de Cuba. Pop. (1907) 7592.
+The town is near the Marañon and Jigüé rivers, on a plain from which
+hills rise on all sides except the E., on which side it is open to the
+winds of the plateau. Holguín was long the principal acclimatization
+station for Spanish troops. The oldest public buildings are two churches
+built in 1800 and 1809 respectively. Holguín has trade in cabinet woods,
+tobacco, Indian corn and cattle products, which it exports through its
+port Gibara, about 25 m. N.N.E., with which it is connected by railway.
+Holguín was settled about 1720 and became a _ciudad_ (city) in 1751. In
+the Ten Years' War of 1868-78 and in the revolution of 1895-98 Holguín
+was an insurgent centre.
+
+
+
+
+HOLIDAY, originally the "holy day," a festival set apart for religious
+observances as a memorial of some sacred event or sacred person; hence a
+day on which the ordinary work or business ceases. For the religious
+sense see FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, and SUNDAY. Apart from the use of the
+term for a single day of rest or enjoyment, it is commonly used in the
+plural for a recognized and regular period (as at schools, &c.) of
+absence from work. It is unnecessary here to deal with what may be
+regarded as private holidays, which are matters of agreement between
+employer and employed or between the authorities of this or that
+institution and those who attend it. In recent years there has been a
+notable tendency in most occupations to shorten the hours of labour, and
+make holidays more regular. It will suffice to deal here with public
+holidays, the observance of which is prescribed by the state. In one
+respect these have been diminished, in so far as saints' days are no
+longer regarded as entailing non-attendance at the government offices in
+England, as was the case at the beginning of the 19th century. But while
+the influence of religion in determining such holidays has waned, the
+importance of making some compulsory provision for social recreation has
+made itself felt. In England four days, known as Bank Holidays (q.v.),
+are set apart by statute to be observed as general holidays, while the
+sovereign may by proclamation appoint any day to be similarly observed.
+Endeavours have been made from time to time to get additional days
+recognized as general holidays, such as Empire Day (May 24th), Arbor
+Day, &c. In the British colonies there is no uniform practice. In Canada
+eight days are generally observed as public holidays: New Year's Day,
+Good Friday, Easter Monday, Christmas Day, the birthday of the
+sovereign, Victoria Day, Dominion Day and Labour Day. Some of the
+provinces have followed the American example by adding an Arbor Day.
+Alberta and Saskatchewan observe Ash Wednesday. In Quebec, where the
+majority of the population is Roman Catholic, the holy days are also
+holidays, namely, the Festival of the Epiphany, Ash Wednesday, Good
+Friday, Easter Monday, the Ascension, All Saint's Day, Conception Day,
+Christmas Day. In 1897 Labour Day was added. In New South Wales, the 1st
+of January, Good Friday, Easter Eve, Easter Monday, the birthday of the
+sovereign, the 1st of August, the birthday of the prince of Wales,
+Christmas Day and the 26th of December, are observed as holidays. In
+Victoria there are thirteen public holidays during the year, and in
+Queensland fourteen. In New Zealand the public holidays are confined to
+four, Christmas Day, New Year's Day, Good Friday and Labour Day. In most
+of the other British colonies the usual number of public holidays is
+from six to eight.
+
+In the United States there is no legal holiday in the sense of the
+English bank holidays. A legal holiday is dependent upon state and
+territorial legislation. It is usual for the president to proclaim the
+last Thursday in November as a day of thanksgiving; this makes it only a
+legal holiday in the District of Columbia, and in the territories, but
+most states make it a general holiday. Independence Day (July 4th) and
+Labour Day (first Monday in September) are legal holidays in most
+states. There are other days which, in connexion with particular events
+or in remembrance of particular persons, have been made legal holidays
+by particular states. For example, Lincoln's birthday, Washington's
+birthday, Memorial Day (May 30th), Patriots' Day (April 19th, Maine and
+Mass.), R. E. Lee's birthday (Jan. 19th, Ala., Fla., Ga., Va.),
+Pioneers' Day (July 24th, Utah), Colorado Day (Aug. 1st), Battle of New
+Orleans (Jan. 8th, La.), Bennington Battle Day (Aug. 16th, Vt.),
+Defender's Day (Sept, 12th, Md.), Arbor Day (April 22nd, Nebraska;
+second Friday in May R.I., &c.), Admission Day (September 9th, Cal.;
+Oct. 31st, Nev.), Confederate Memorial Day (April 26th, Ala., Fla., Ga.,
+Miss., May 10th, N. & S. Car., June 3rd, La., Miss., Texas), &c.
+
+  See M'Curdy, _Bibliography of Articles relating to Holidays_ (Boston,
+  1905).     (T. A. I.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLINSHED (or HOLLINGSHEAD), RAPHAEL (d. c. 1580), English chronicler,
+belonged probably to a Cheshire family, and according to Anthony Wood
+was educated at one of the English universities, afterwards becoming a
+"minister of God's Word." The authenticity of these facts is doubtful,
+although it is possible that Raphael was the Holinshed who matriculated
+from Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1544. About 1560 he came to London
+and was employed as a translator by Reginald or Reyner Wolfe, to whom he
+says he was "singularly beholden." Wolfe was already engaged in the
+preparation of a universal history, and Holinshed worked for some years
+on this undertaking; but after Wolfe's death in 1573 the scope of the
+work was abridged, and it appeared in 1578 as the _Chronicles of
+England, Scotland, and Ireland_. The work was in two volumes, which were
+illustrated, and although Holinshed did a great deal of the work he
+received valuable assistance from William Harrison (1534-1593) and
+others, while the part dealing with the history of Scotland is mainly a
+translation of Hector Boece's _Scotorum historiae_. Afterwards, as is
+shown by his will, Holinshed served as steward to Thomas Burdet of
+Bramcott, Warwickshire, and died about 1580.
+
+  A second edition of the _Chronicles_, enlarged and improved but
+  without illustrations, which appeared in 1587, contained statements
+  which were offensive to Queen Elizabeth and her advisers, and
+  immediately after publication some of the pages were excised by order
+  of the privy council. These excisions were published separately in
+  1723. An edition of the _Chronicles_, in accordance with the original
+  text, was published in six volumes in 1808. The work contains a large
+  amount of information, and shows that its compilers were men of great
+  industry; but its chief interest lies in the fact that it was largely
+  used by Shakespeare and other Elizabethan dramatists; Shakespeare, who
+  probably used the edition of 1587, obtaining from the _Chronicles_
+  material for most of his historical plays, and also for _Macbeth_,
+  _King Lear_ and part of _Cymbeline_. A single manuscript by Holinshed
+  is known to be extant. This is a translation of Florence of Worcester,
+  and is in the British Museum. See W. G. Boswell-Stone, _Shakspere's
+  Holinshed_. _The Chronicle and the historical plays compared_ (London,
+  1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOLKAR, the family name of the Mahratta ruler of Indore (q.v.), which
+has been adopted as a dynastic title. The termination -_kar_ implies
+that the founder of the family came from the village of Hol near Poona.
+
+
+
+
+HOLL, FRANK (1845-1888), English painter, was born in London on the 4th
+of July 1845, and was educated chiefly at University College School. He
+was a grandson of William Holl, an engraver of note, and the son of
+Francis Holl, A.R.A., another engraver, whose profession he originally
+intended to follow. Entering the Royal Academy schools as a probationer
+in painting in 1860, he rapidly progressed, winning silver and gold
+medals, and making his début as an exhibitor in 1864 with "A Portrait,"
+and "Turned out of Church," a subject picture. "A Fern Gatherer" (1865);
+"The Ordeal" (1866); "Convalescent" (the somewhat grim pathos of which
+attracted much attention), and "Faces in the Fire" (1867), succeeded.
+Holl gained the travelling studentship in 1868; the successful work was
+characteristic of the young painter's mood, being "The Lord gave, and
+the Lord hath taken away." His insatiable zeal for work of all kinds
+began early to undermine the artist's health, but his position was
+assured by the studentship picture, which created a sort of _furore_,
+although, as with most of his works, the blackness of its coloration,
+probably due to his training as an engraver, was even more decidedly
+against it than the sadness of its theme. Otherwise, this painting
+exhibited nearly all the best technical qualities to which he ever
+attained, except high finish and clearness, and a very sincere vein of
+pathos. Holl was much below Millais In portraiture, and far inferior In
+all the higher ways of design; in technical resources, relatively
+speaking, he was but scantily provided. The range of his studies and the
+manner of his painting were narrower than those of Josef Israels, with
+whom, except as a portrait-painter, he may better be compared than with
+Millais. In 1870 he painted "Better is a Dinner of Herbs where Love is,
+than a Stalled Ox and Hatred therewith"; "No Tidings from the Sea," a
+scene in a fisherman's cottage, in 1871--a story told with
+breath-catching pathos and power; "I am the Resurrection and the Life"
+(1872); "Leaving Home" (1873), "Deserted" (1874), both of which had
+great success; "Her First-born," girls carrying a baby to the grave
+(1876); and "Going Home" (1877). In 1877 he painted the two pictures
+"Hush" and "Hushed." "Newgate, Committed for Trial," a very sad and
+telling piece, first attested the breaking down of the painter's health
+in 1878. In this year he was elected A.R.A., and exhibited "The Gifts of
+the Fairies," "The Daughter of the House," "Absconded," and a very fine
+portrait of Samuel Cousins, the mezzotint engraver. This last canvas is
+a masterpiece, and deserved the success which attended the print
+engraved from it. Holl was overwhelmed with commissions, which he would
+not decline. The consequences of this strain upon a constitution which
+was never strong were more or less, though unequally, manifest in
+"Ordered to the Front," a soldier's departure (1880); "Home Again," its
+sequel, in 1883 (after which he was made R.A.). In 1886 he produced a
+portrait of Millais as his diploma work, but his health rapidly declined
+and he died at Hampstead, on the 31st of July 1888. Holl's better
+portraits, being of men of rare importance, attest the commanding
+position he occupied in the branch of art he so unflinchingly followed.
+They include likenesses of Lord Roberts, painted for queen Victoria
+(1882); the prince of Wales, Lord Dufferin, the duke of Cleveland
+(1885); Lord Overstone, Mr Bright, Mr Gladstone, Mr Chamberlain, Sir J.
+Tenniel, Earl Spencer, Viscount Cranbrook, and a score of other
+important subjects.     (F. G. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733-1769), English actor, was born in Chiswick, the
+son of a baker. He made his first appearance on the stage in the title
+rôle of _Oroonoko_ at Drury Lane in 1755, John Palmer, Richard Yates and
+Mrs Cibber being in the cast. He played under Garrick, and was the
+original Florizel in the latter's adaptation of Shakespeare's _Winter's
+Tale_. Garrick thought highly of him, and wrote a eulogistic epitaph for
+his monument in Chiswick church.
+
+His nephew, Charles Holland (1768-1849) was also an actor, who played
+with Mrs Siddons and Kean.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART. (1788-1873), English physician and author, was
+born at Knutsford, Cheshire, on the 27th of October 1788. His maternal
+grandmother was the sister of Josiah Wedgwood, whose grandson was
+Charles Darwin; and his paternal aunt was the mother of Mrs Gaskell.
+After spending some years at a private school at Knutsford, he was sent
+to a school at Newcastle-on-Tyne, whence after four years he was
+transferred to Dr J. P. Estlin's school near Bristol. There he at once
+took the position of head boy, in succession to John Cam Hobhouse,
+afterwards Lord Broughton, an honour which required to be maintained by
+physical prowess. On leaving school he became articled clerk to a
+mercantile firm in Liverpool, but, as the privilege was reserved to him
+of passing two sessions at Glasgow university, he at the close of his
+second session sought relief from his articles, and in 1806 began the
+study of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, where he graduated in
+1811. After several years spent in foreign travel, he began practice in
+1816 as a physician in London--according to his own statement, "with a
+fair augury of success speedily and completely fulfilled." This
+"success," he adds, "was materially aided by visits for four successive
+years to Spa, at the close of that which is called the London season."
+It must also, however, be in a great degree attributed to his happy
+temperament and his gifts as a conversationalist--qualities the
+influence of which, in the majority of cases belonging to his class of
+practice, is often of more importance than direct medical treatment. In
+1816 he was elected F.R.S., and in 1828 F.R.C.S. He became physician in
+ordinary to Prince Albert in 1840, and was appointed in 1852 physician
+in ordinary to the queen. In April 1853 he was created a baronet. He was
+also a D.C.L. of Oxford and a member of the principal learned societies
+of Europe. He was twice married, his second wife being a daughter of
+Sydney Smith, a lady of considerable literary talent, who published a
+biography of her father. Sir Henry Holland at an early period of his
+practice resolved to devote to his professional duties no more of his
+time than was necessary to secure an income of £5000 a year, and also to
+spend two months of every year solely in foreign travel. By the former
+resolution he secured leisure for a wide acquaintance with general
+literature, and for a more than superficial cultivation of several
+branches of science; and the latter enabled him, besides visiting, "and
+most of them repeatedly, every country of Europe," to make extensive
+tours in the other three continents, journeying often to places little
+frequented by European travellers. As, moreover, he procured an
+introduction to nearly all the eminent personages in his line of travel,
+and knew many of them in his capacity of physician, his acquaintance
+with "men and cities" was of a species without a parallel. The _London
+Medical Record_, in noticing his death, which took place on his
+eighty-fifth birthday, October 27, 1873, remarked that it "had occurred
+under circumstances highly characteristic of his remarkable career." On
+his return from a journey in Russia he was present, on Friday, October
+24th, at the trial of Marshal Bazaine in Paris, dining with some of the
+judges in the evening. He reached London on the Saturday, took ill the
+following day, and died quietly on the Monday afternoon.
+
+  Sir Henry Holland was the author of _General View of the Agriculture
+  of Cheshire_ (1807); _Travels in the Ionian Isles, Albania, Thessaly
+  and Greece_ (1812-1813, 2nd ed., 1819); _Medical Notes and
+  Reflections_ (1839); _Chapters on Mental Physiology_ (1852); _Essays
+  on Scientific and other Subjects contributed to the Edinburgh and
+  Quarterly Reviews_ (1862); and _Recollections of Past Life_ (1872).
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705-1774), English statesman, second son
+of Sir Stephen Fox, was born on the 28th of September 1705. Inheriting a
+large share of the riches which his father had accumulated, he
+squandered it soon after attaining his majority, and went to the
+Continent to escape from his creditors. There he made the acquaintance
+of a countrywoman of fortune, who became his patroness and was so lavish
+with her purse that, after several years' absence, he was in a position
+to return home and, in 1735, to enter parliament as member for Hindon in
+Wiltshire. He became the favourite pupil and devoted supporter of Sir
+Robert Walpole, achieving unequalled and unenviable proficiency in the
+worst political arts of his master and model. As a speaker he was fluent
+and self-possessed, imperturbable under attack, audacious in exposition
+or retort, and able to hold his own against Pitt himself. Thus he made
+himself a power in the House of Commons and an indispensable member of
+several administrations. He was surveyor-general of works from 1737 to
+1742, was member for Windsor from 1741 to 1761; lord of the treasury in
+1743, secretary at war and member of the privy council in 1746, and in
+1755 became leader of the House of Commons, secretary of state and a
+member of the cabinet under the duke of Newcastle. In 1757, in the
+rearrangements of the government, Fox was ultimately excluded from the
+cabinet, and given the post of paymaster of the forces. During the war,
+which Pitt conducted with extraordinary vigour, and in which the nation
+was intoxicated with glory, Fox devoted himself mainly to accumulating a
+vast fortune. In 1762 he again accepted the leadership of the House,
+with a seat in the cabinet, under the earl of Bute, and exercised his
+skill in cajolery and corruption to induce the House of Commons to
+approve of the treaty of Paris of 1763; as a recompense, he was raised
+to the House of Lords with the title of Baron Holland of Foxley,
+Wiltshire, on the 16th of April 1763. In 1765 he was forced to resign
+the paymaster generalship, and four years later a petition of the livery
+of the city of London against the ministers referred to him as "the
+public defaulter of unaccounted millions." The proceedings brought
+against him in the court of exchequer were stayed by a royal warrant;
+and in a statement published by him he proved that in the delays in
+making up the accounts of his office he had transgressed neither the law
+nor the custom of the time. From the interest on the outstanding
+balances he had, none the less, amassed a princely fortune. He strove,
+but in vain, to obtain promotion to the dignity of an earl, a dignity
+upon which he had set his heart, and he died at Holland House,
+Kensington, on the 1st of July 1774, a sorely disappointed man, with a
+reputation for cunning and unscrupulousness which cannot easily be
+matched, and with an unpopularity which justifies the conclusion that he
+was the most thoroughly hated statesman of his day. Lord Holland married
+in 1744 Lady Georgina Caroline Lennox, daughter of the duke of
+Richmond, who was created Baroness Holland, of Holland, Lincolnshire, in
+1762. There were four sons of the marriage: Stephen, 2nd Lord Holland
+(d. 1774); Henry (d. an infant); Charles James (the celebrated
+statesman); and Henry Edward (1755-1811), soldier and diplomatist.
+
+  See Walpole's and other memoirs of the time, also the article FOX,
+  CHARLES JAMES.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1590-1649), 2nd son of Robert, 1st
+earl of Warwick, and of Penelope, Sir Philip Sidney's "Stella," daughter
+of Walter Devereux, 1st earl of Essex, was baptized on the 19th of
+August 1590, educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, knighted on the
+3rd of June 1610, and returned to parliament for Leicester in 1610 and
+1614. In 1610 he was present at the siege of Juliers. Favours were
+showered upon him by James I. He was made gentleman of the bedchamber to
+Charles, prince of Wales, and captain of the yeomen of the guard; and on
+the 8th of March 1623 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Kensington.
+In 1624 he was sent to Paris to negotiate the marriage treaty between
+Charles and Henrietta Maria. On the 15th of September he was created
+earl of Holland, and in 1625 was sent on two further missions, first to
+Paris to arrange a treaty between Louis XIII. and the Huguenots, and
+later to the Netherlands in company with Buckingham. In October 1627 he
+was given command of the troops sent to reinforce Buckingham at Rhé, but
+through delay in starting only met the defeated troops on their return.
+He succeeded Buckingham as chancellor of Cambridge University; was
+master of the horse in 1628, and was appointed constable of Windsor and
+high steward to the queen in 1629. He interested himself, like his elder
+brother, Lord Warwick, in the plantations; and was the first governor of
+the Providence company in 1630, and one of the proprietors of
+Newfoundland in 1637. In 1631 he was made chief-justice-in-eyre south of
+the Trent, and in this capacity was responsible for the unpopular
+revival of the obsolete forest laws. He intrigued at court against
+Portland and against Strafford, who expressed for him the greatest
+contempt. In 1636 he was disappointed at not obtaining the great office
+of lord high admiral, but was made instead groom of the stole. In 1639
+he was appointed general of the horse, and drew ridicule upon himself by
+the fiasco at Kelso. In the second war against the Scots he was
+superseded in favour of Conway. He opposed the dissolution of the Short
+Parliament, joined the peers who supported the parliamentary cause, and
+gave evidence against Strafford. He was, however, won back to the king's
+side by the queen, and on the 16th of April 1641 made captain general
+north of the Trent. Dissatisfied, however, with Charles's refusal to
+grant him the nomination of a new baron, he again abandoned him, refused
+the summons to York, and was deprived of his office as groom of the
+stole at the instance of the queen, who greatly resented his
+ingratitude. He was chosen by the parliament in March and July 1642 to
+communicate its votes to Charles, who received him, much to his
+indignation, with studied coldness. He was appointed one of the
+committee of safety in July; made zealous speeches on behalf of the
+parliamentary cause to the London citizens; and joined Essex's army at
+Twickenham, where, it is said, he persuaded him to avoid a battle. In
+1643 he appeared as a peacemaker, and after failing to bring over Essex,
+he returned to the king. His reception, however, was not a cordial one,
+and he was not reinstated in his office of groom of the stole. After,
+therefore, accompanying the king to Gloucester and taking part in the
+first battle of Newbury, he once more returned to the parliament,
+declaring that the court was too much bent on continuing hostilities,
+and the influence of the "papists" too strong for his patriotism. He was
+restored to his estates, but the Commons obliged the Lords to exclude
+him from the upper house, and his petition in 1645 for compensation for
+his losses and for a pension was refused. His hopes being in this
+quarter also disappointed, he once again renewed his allegiance to the
+king's cause; and after endeavouring to promote the negotiations for
+peace in 1645 and 1647 he took up arms in the second Civil War, received
+a commission as general, and put himself at the head of 600 men at
+Kingston. He was defeated on the 7th of July 1647, captured at St Neots
+shortly afterwards, and imprisoned at Warwick Castle. He was tried
+before a "high court of justice" on the 3rd of February 1649, and in
+spite of his plea that he had received quarter was sentenced to death.
+He was executed together with Hamilton and Capel on the 9th of March.
+Clarendon styles him "a very well-bred man and a fine gentleman in good
+times."[1] He was evidently a man of shallow character, devoid of
+ability, raised far above his merits and hopelessly unfit for the great
+times in which he lived. Lord Holland married Elizabeth, daughter and
+heiress of Sir Walter Cope of Kensington, and, besides several
+daughters, had four sons, of whom the eldest, Robert, succeeded him as
+2nd earl of Holland, and inherited the earldom of Warwick in 1673.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, xi. 263.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD BARON (1773-1840), was the son
+of Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland, his mother, Lady Mary Fitzpatrick,
+being the daughter of the earl of Upper Ossory. He was born at
+Winterslow House in Wiltshire, on the 21st of November 1773, and his
+father died in the following year. He was educated at Eton and at Christ
+Church, Oxford, where he became the friend of Canning, of Hookham Frere,
+and of other wits of the time. Lord Holland did not take the same
+political side as his friends in the conflicts of the revolutionary
+epoch. He was from his boyhood deeply attached to his uncle, C. J. Fox,
+and remained steadily loyal to the Whig party. In 1791 he visited Paris
+and became acquainted with Lafayette and Talleyrand, and in 1793 he
+again went abroad to travel in France and Italy. At Florence he met with
+Lady Webster, wife of Sir Godfrey Webster, Bart., who left her husband
+for him. She was by birth Elizabeth Vassall (1770-1845), daughter of
+Richard Vassall, a planter in Jamaica. A son was born of their irregular
+union, a Charles Richard Fox (1796-1873), who after some service in the
+navy entered the Grenadiers, and was known in later life as a collector
+of Greek coins. His collection was bought for the royal museum of Berlin
+when he died in 1873. He married Lady Mary Fitzclarence, a daughter of
+William IV. by Mrs Jordan. Sir Godfrey Webster having obtained a
+divorce, Lord Holland was enabled to marry on the 6th of July 1797. He
+had taken his seat in the House of Lords on the 5th of October 1796.
+During several years he may be said almost to have constituted the Whig
+party in the Upper House. His protests against the measures of the Tory
+ministers were collected and published, as the _Opinions of Lord
+Holland_ (1841), by Dr Moylan of Lincoln's Inn. In 1800 he was
+authorized to take the name of Vassall, and after 1807 he signed himself
+Vassall Holland, though the name was no part of his title. In 1800 Lord
+and Lady Holland went abroad and remained in France and Spain till 1805,
+visiting Paris during the Peace of Amiens, and being well received by
+Napoleon. Lady Holland always professed a profound admiration of
+Napoleon, of which she made a theatrical display after his fall, and he
+left her a gold snuff-box by his will. In public life Lord Holland took
+a share proportionate to his birth and opportunities. He was appointed
+to negotiate with the American envoys, Monroe and W. Pinkney, was
+admitted to the privy council on the 27th of August 1806, and on the
+15th of October entered the cabinet "of all the talents" as lord privy
+seal, retiring with the rest of his colleagues in March 1807. He led the
+opposition to the Regency bill in 1811, and he attacked the "orders in
+council" and other strong measures of the government taken to counteract
+Napoleon's Berlin decrees. He was in fact in politics a consistent Whig,
+and in that character he denounced the treaty of 1813 with Sweden which
+bound England to consent to the forcible union of Norway, and he
+resisted the bill of 1816 for confining Napoleon in St Helena. His
+loyalty as a Whig secured recognition when his party triumphed in the
+struggle for parliamentary reform, by his appointment as chancellor of
+the duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne,
+and he was still in office when he died on the 22nd of October 1840.
+Lord Holland is notable, not for his somewhat insignificant political
+career, but as a patron of literature, as a writer on his own account,
+and because his house was the centre and the headquarters of the Whig
+political and literary world of the time; and Lady Holland (who died on
+the 16th of November 1845) succeeded in taking the sort of place in
+London which had been filled in Paris during the 18th century by the
+society ladies who kept "salons." Lord Holland's _Foreign Reminiscences_
+(1850) contain much amusing gossip from the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
+era. His _Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (1852) is an important contemporary
+authority. His small work on _Lope de Vega_ (1806) is still of some
+value. Holland had two legitimate sons, Stephen, who died in 1800, and
+Henry Edward, who became 4th Lord Holland. When this peer died in
+December 1859 the title became extinct.
+
+  See _The Journal of Elizabeth, Lady Holland_, edited by the earl of
+  Ilchester (1908); and Lloyd Sanders, _The Holland House Circle_
+  (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881), American author and editor, was
+born in Belchertown, Massachusetts, on the 24th of July 1819. He
+graduated in 1843 at the Berkshire Medical College (no longer in
+existence) at Pittsfield, Mass., and after practising medicine in
+1844-1847, and making an unsuccessful attempt, with Charles Robinson
+(1818-1894), later first governor of the state of Kansas, to establish a
+hospital for women, he taught for a brief period in Richmond, Virginia,
+and in 1848 was superintendent of schools in Vicksburg, Mississippi. In
+1849 he became assistant editor under Samuel Bowles, and three years
+later one of the owners, of the Springfield (Massachusetts)
+_Republican_, with which he retained his connexion until 1867. He then
+travelled for some time in Europe, and in 1870 removed to New York,
+where he helped to establish and became editor and one-third owner of
+_Scribner's Monthly_ (the title of which was changed in 1881 to _The
+Century_), which absorbed the periodicals _Hours at Home_, _Putnam's
+Magazine_ and the _Riverside Magazine_. He remained editor of this
+magazine until his death. Dr Holland's books long enjoyed a wide
+popularity. The earlier ones were published over the pseudonym "Timothy
+Titcomb." His writings fall into four classes: history and biography,
+represented by a _History of Western Massachusetts_ (1855), and a _Life
+of Abraham Lincoln_ (1865); fiction, of which _Miss Gilbert's Career_
+(1860) and _The Story of Sevenoaks_ (1875) remain faithful pictures of
+village life in eastern United States; poetry, of which _Bitter-Sweet_
+(1858) and _Kathrina, Her Life and Mine_ (1867) were widely read; and a
+series of homely essays on the art of living, of which the most
+characteristic were _Letters to Young People, Single and Married_
+(1858), _Gold Foil, hammered from Popular Proverbs_ (1859), _Letters to
+the Jonses_ (1863), and _Every-Day Topics_ (2 series, 1876 and 1882).
+While a resident of New York, where he died on the 12th of October 1881,
+he identified himself with measures for good government and school
+reform, and in 1872 became a member and for a short time in 1873 was
+president of the Board of Education.
+
+  See Mrs H. M. Plunkett's _Josiah Gilbert Holland_ (New York, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637), English scholar, "the translator-general
+in his age," was born at Chelmsford in Essex. He was the son of a
+clergyman, John Holland, who had been obliged to take refuge in Germany
+and Denmark with Miles Coverdale during the Marian persecution. Having
+become a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and taken the degree of
+M.A., he was incorporated at Oxford (July 11th, 1585). Having
+subsequently studied medicine, about 1595 he settled as a doctor in
+Coventry, but chiefly occupied himself with translations. In 1628 he was
+appointed headmaster of the free school, but, owing probably to
+advancing age, he held office for only eleven months. His latter days
+were oppressed by poverty, partly relieved by the generosity of the
+common council of Coventry, which in 1632 assigned him £3, 6s. 8d. for
+three years, "if he should live so long." He died on the 9th of
+February, 1636-1637. His fame is due solely to his translations, which
+included Livy, Pliny's _Natural History_, Plutarch's _Morals_,
+Suetonius, Ammianus Marcellinus and Xenophon's _Cyropaedia_. He
+published also an English version, with additions, of Camden's
+_Britannia_. His Latin translation of Brice Bauderon's _Pharmacopaea_
+and his _Regimen sanitatis Salerni_ were published after his death by
+his son, HENRY HOLLAND (1583-?1650), who became a London bookseller, and
+is known to bibliographers for his _Bazili[omega]logia; a Booke of
+Kings, beeing the true and liuely Effigies of all our English Kings from
+the Conquest_ (1618), and his _Her[omega]ologia Anglica_ (1620).
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450), Scottish writer,
+author of the _Buke of the Howlat_, was secretary or chaplain to the
+earl of Moray (1450) and rector of Halkirk, near Thurso. He was
+afterwards rector of Abbreochy, Loch Ness, and later held a chantry in
+the cathedral of Norway. He was an ardent partisan of the Douglases, and
+on their overthrow retired to Orkney and later to Shetland. He was
+employed by Edward IV. in his attempt to rouse the Western Isles through
+Douglas agency, and in 1482 was excluded from the general pardon granted
+by James III. to those who would renounce their fealty to the Douglases.
+
+The poem, entitled the _Buke of the Howlat_, written about 1450, shows
+his devotion to the house of Douglas:--
+
+  "On ilk beugh till embrace
+   Writtin in a bill was
+   O Dowglass, O Dowglass
+   Tender and trewe!"
+
+   (ii. 400-403).
+
+and is dedicated to the wife of a Douglas--
+
+  "Thus for ane Dow of Dunbar drew I this Dyte,
+   Dowit with ane Dowglass, and boith war thei dowis."
+
+but all theories of its being a political allegory in favour of that
+house may be discarded. Sir Walter Scott's judgment that the _Buke_ is
+"a poetical apologue ... without any view whatever to local or natural
+politics" is certainly the most reasonable. The poem, which extends to
+1001 lines written in the irregular alliterative rhymed stanza, is a
+bird-allegory, of the type familiar in the _Parlement of Foules_. It has
+the incidental interest of showing (especially in stanzas 62 and 63) the
+antipathy of the "Inglis-speaking Scot" to the "Scots-speaking Gael" of
+the west, as is also shown in Dunbar's _Flyting with Kennedy_.
+
+  The text of the poem is preserved in the Asloan and Bannatyne MSS.
+  Fragments of an early 16th century black-letter edition, discovered by
+  D. Laing, are reproduced in the _Adversaria_ of the Bannatyne Club.
+  The poem has been frequently reprinted, by Pinkerton, in his _Scottish
+  Poems_ (1792); by D. Laing (Bannatyne Club 1823; reprinted in "New
+  Club" series, Paisley, 1882); by the Hunterian Club in their edition
+  of the Bannatyne MS., and by A. Diebler (Chemnitz, 1893). The latest
+  edition is that by F. J. Amours in _Scottish Alliterative Poems_
+  (Scottish Text Society, 1897), pp. 47-81. (See also Introduction pp.
+  xx.-xxxiv.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, officially the kingdom of the Netherlands (_Koningrijk der
+Nederlanden_), a maritime country in the north-west of Europe. The name
+Holland is that of the former countship, which forms part of the
+political, as well as the geographical centre of the kingdom (see the
+next article).
+
+_Topography._--Holland is bounded on the E. by Germany, on the S. by
+Belgium, on the W. and N. by the North Sea, and at the N.E. corner by
+the Dollart. From Stevensweert southward to the extreme corner of
+Limburg the boundary line is formed by the river Maas or Meuse.[1] On
+the east a natural geographical boundary was formed by the long line of
+marshy fens extending along the borders of Overysel, Drente and
+Groningen. The kingdom extends from 53° 32´ 21´´ (Groningen Cape on
+Rottum Island) to 50° 45´ 49´´ N. (Mesch in the province of Limburg),
+and from 3° 23´ 27´´ (Sluis in the province of Zeeland) to 7° 12´ 20´´
+E. (Langakkerschans in the province of Groningen). The greatest length
+from north to south, viz. that from Rottum Island to Eisden near
+Maastricht is 164 m., and the greatest breadth from south-west to
+north-east, or from Zwin near Sluis to Losser in Overysel, 144 m. The
+area is subject to perpetual variation owing, on the one hand, to the
+erosion of the coasts, and, on the other, to reclamation of land by
+means of endiking and drainage operations. In 1889 the total area was
+calculated at 12,558 sq. m., and, including the Zuider Zee and the
+Wadden (2050 sq. m.) and the Dutch portion of the Dollart (23 sq. m.),
+14,613 sq. m. In no country in Europe has the character of the territory
+exercised so great an influence on the inhabitants as in the
+Netherlands; and, on the other hand, no people has so extensively
+modified the condition of its territory as the Dutch. The greatest
+importance attaches therefore to the physical conformation of the
+country.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  The coast-line extends in a double curve from south-west to
+  north-east, and is formed by a row of sand dunes, 171 m. in length,
+  fringed by a broad sandy beach descending very gradually into the sea.
+  In the north and south, however, this line is broken by the inlets of
+  the sea which form the Frisian and the South Holland and Zeeland
+  islands respectively; but the dunes themselves are found continued
+  along the seaward side of these islands, thus indicating the original
+  continuity of the coast-line. The breadth of the dunes naturally
+  varies greatly, the maximum width of about 4375 yds. being found at
+  Schoorl, north-west of Alkmaar. The average height of the individual
+  dune-tops is not above 33 ft., but attains a maximum of 197 ft. at the
+  High Blinkert, near Haarlem. The steepness of the dunes on the side
+  towards the sea is caused by the continual erosion, probably
+  traceable, in part at least, to the channel current (which at mean
+  tide has a velocity of 14 or 15 in. per second), and to the strong
+  west or north-west winds which carry off large quantities of material.
+  This alteration of coast-line appears at Loosduinen, where the moor or
+  fenland formerly developed behind the dunes now crops out on the shore
+  amid the sand, being pressed to the compactness of lignite by the
+  weight of the sand drifted over it. Again, the remains of the Roman
+  camp Brittenburg or Huis te Britten, which originally lay within the
+  dunes and, after being covered by them, emerged again in 1520, were,
+  in 1694, 1600 paces out to sea, opposite Katwijk; while, besides
+  Katwijk itself, several other villages of the west coast, as Domburg,
+  Scheveningen, Egmond, have been removed further inland. The tendency
+  of the dunes to drift off on the landward side is prevented by the
+  planting of bent-grass (_Arundo arenaria_), whose long roots serve to
+  bind the sand together. It must be further remarked that both the
+  "dune-pans," or depressions, which are naturally marshy through their
+  defective drainage, and the _geest_ grounds--that is, the grounds
+  along the foot of the downs--have been in various places either
+  planted with wood or turned into arable and pasture land; while the
+  numerous springs at the base of the dunes are of the utmost value to
+  the great cities situated on the marshy soil inland, the example set
+  by Amsterdam in 1853 in supplying itself with this water having been
+  readily followed by Leiden, the Hague, Flushing, &c.
+
+  As already remarked, the coast-line of Holland breaks up into a series
+  of islands at its northern and southern extremities. The principal
+  sea-inlets in the north are the Texel Gat or Marsdiep and the Vlie,
+  which lead past the chain of the Frisian Islands into the large inland
+  sea or gulf called the Zuider Zee, and the Wadden or "shallows," which
+  extend along the shores of Friesland and Groningen as far as the
+  Dollart and the mouth of the Ems. The inland sea-board thus formed
+  consists of low coasts of sea-clay protected by dikes, and of some
+  high diluvial strata which rise far enough above the level of the sea
+  to make dikes unnecessary, as in the case of the Gooi hills between
+  Naarden and the Eem, the Veluwe hills between Nykerk and Elburg, and
+  the steep cliffs of the Gaasterland between Oude Mirdum and Stavoren.
+  The Dollart was formed in 1277 by the inundation of the Ems basin,
+  more than thirty villages being destroyed at once. The Zuider Zee and
+  the bay in the Frisian coast known as the Lauwers Zee also gradually
+  came into existence in the 13th century. The extensive sea-arms
+  forming the South Holland and Zeeland archipelago are the Hont or West
+  Scheldt, the East Scheldt, the Grevelingen (communicating with Krammer
+  and the Volkerak) and the Haringvliet, which after being joined by the
+  Volkerak is known as the Hollandsch Diep. These inlets were formerly
+  of much greater extent than now, but are gradually closing up owing to
+  the accumulation of mud deposits, and no longer have the same freedom
+  of communication with one another. At the head of the Hollandsch Diep
+  is the celebrated railway bridge of the Moerdyk (1868-1871) 1607 yds.
+  in length; and above this bridge lies the Biesbosch ("reed forest"), a
+  group of marshy islands formed by a disastrous inundation in 1421,
+  when seventy-two villages and upwards of 100,000 lives were destroyed.
+
+
+    Relief and levels.
+
+  Besides the dunes the only hilly regions of Holland are the southern
+  half of the province of Limburg, the neighbourhood of Nijmwegen, the
+  hills of Utrecht, including the Gooi hills, the Veluwe region in
+  Gelderland, the isolated hills in the middle and east of Overysel and
+  the Hondsrug range in Drente. The remainder of the country is flat,
+  and shows a regular downward slope from south-east to north-west, in
+  which direction the rivers mainly flow. The elevation of the surface
+  of the country ranges between the extreme height of 1057 ft. near
+  Vaals in the farthest corner of Limburg, and 16-20 ft. below the
+  Amsterdam zero[2] in some of the drained lands in the western half of
+  the country. In fact, one quarter of the whole kingdom, consisting of
+  the provinces of North and South Holland, the western portion of
+  Utrecht as far as the Vaart Rhine, Zeeland, except the southern part
+  of Zeeland-Flanders, and the north-west part of North Brabant, lies
+  below the Amsterdam zero; and altogether 38% of the country, or all
+  that part lying west of a line drawn through Groningen, Utrecht and
+  Antwerp, lies within one metre above the Amsterdam zero and would be
+  submerged if the sea broke down the barrier of dunes and dikes. This
+  difference between the eastern and western divisions of Holland has
+  its counterpart in the landscape and the nature of the soil. The
+  western division consists of low fen or clay soil and presents a
+  monotonous expanse of rich meadow-land, carefully drained in regular
+  lines of canals bordered by stunted willows, and dotted over with
+  windmills, the sails of canal craft and the clumps of elm and poplar
+  which surround each isolated farm-house. The landscape of the eastern
+  division is considered less typical. Here the soil consists mainly of
+  sand and gravel, and the prevailing scenery is formed of waste heaths
+  and patches of wood, while here and there fertile meadows extend along
+  the banks of the streams, and the land is laid out in the highly
+  regular manner characteristic of fen reclamation (see DRENTE).
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  The entire drainage of Holland is into the North Sea. The three
+  principal rivers are the Rhine, the Maas (Meuse) and the Scheldt
+  (Schelde), and all three have their origin outside the country, whilst
+  the Scheldt has its mouth only in Holland, giving its name to the two
+  broad inlets of the sea which bound the Zeeland islands. The Rhine in
+  its course through Holland is merely the parent stream of several
+  important branches, splitting up into Rhine and Waal, Rhine and Ysel,
+  Crooked Rhine and Lek (which takes two-thirds of the waters), and at
+  Utrecht into Old Rhine and Vecht, finally reaching the sea through the
+  sluices at Katwijk as little more than a drainage canal. The Ysel and
+  the Vecht flow to the Zuider Zee; the other branches to the North Sea.
+  The Maas, whose course is almost parallel to that of the Rhine,
+  follows in a wide curve the general slope of the country, receiving
+  the Roer, the Mark and the Aa. Towards its mouth its waters find their
+  way into all the channels intersecting the South Holland archipelago.
+  The main stream joining the Waal at Gorinchem flows on to Dordrecht as
+  the Merwede, and is continued thence to the sea by the Old Maas, the
+  North, and the New Maas, the New Maas being formed by the junction of
+  the Lek and the North. From Gorinchem the New Merwede (constructed in
+  the second half of the 19th century) extends between dykes through the
+  marshes of the Biesbosch to the Hollandsch Diep. These great rivers
+  render very important service as waterways. The mean velocity of their
+  flow seldom exceeds 4.9 ft., but rises to 6.4 ft. when the river is
+  high. In the lower reaches of the streams the velocity and slope are
+  of course affected by the tides. In the Waal ordinary high water is
+  perceptible as far up as Zalt Bommel in Gelderland, in the Lek the
+  maximum limits or ordinary and spring tides are at Vianen and
+  Kuilenburg respectively, in the Ysel above the Katerveer at the
+  junction of the Willemsvaart and past Wyhe midway between Zwolle and
+  Deventer; and in the Maas near Heusden and at Well in Limburg. Into
+  the Zuider Zee there also flow the Kuinder, the Zwarte Water, with its
+  tributary the Vecht, and the Eem. The total length of navigable
+  channels is about 1150 m., but sand banks and shallows not
+  infrequently impede the shipping traffic at low water during the
+  summer. The smaller streams are often of great importance. Except
+  where they rise in the fens they call into life a strip of fertile
+  grassland in the midst of the barren sand, and are responsible for the
+  existence of many villages along their banks. Following the example of
+  the great Kampen irrigation canal in Belgium, artificial irrigation is
+  also practised by means of some of the smaller streams, especially in
+  North Brabant, Drente and Overysel, and in the absence of streams,
+  canals and sluices are sometimes specially constructed to perform the
+  same service. The low-lying spaces at the confluences of the rivers,
+  being readily laid under water, have been not infrequently chosen as
+  sites for fortresses. As a matter of course, the streams are also
+  turned to account in connexion with the canal system--the Dommel,
+  Berkel, Vecht, Regge, Holland Ysel, Gouwe, Rotte, Schie, Spaarne,
+  Zaan, Amstel, Dieze, Amer, Mark, Zwarte Water, Kuinder and the
+  numerous Aas in Drente and Groningen being the most important in this
+  respect.
+
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  It is unnecessary to mention the names of the numerous marshy lakes
+  which exist, especially in Friesland and Groningen, and are connected
+  with rivers or streamlets. Those of Friesland are of note for the
+  abundance of their fish and their beauty of situation, on which last
+  account the Uddelermeer in Gelderland is also celebrated. The Rockanje
+  Lake near Brielle is remarkable for the strong salty solution which
+  covers even the growing reeds with a hard crust. Many of the lakes
+  are nothing more than deep pits or marshes from which the peat has
+  been extracted.
+
+[Illustration: Holland Map.]
+
+_Dikes._--The circumstance that so much of Holland is below the
+sea-level necessarily exercises a very important influence on the
+drainage, the climate and the sanitary conditions of the country, as
+well as on its defence by means of inundation. The endiking of low lands
+against the sea which had been quietly proceeding during the first
+eleven centuries of the Christian era, received a fresh impetus in the
+12th and 13th centuries from the fact that the level of the sea then
+became higher in relation to that of the land. This fact is illustrated
+by the broadening of river mouths and estuaries at this time, and the
+beginning of the formation of the Zuider Zee. A new feature in diking
+was the construction of dams or sluices across the mouths of rivers,
+sometimes with important consequences for the villages situated on the
+spot. Thus the dam on the Amstel (1257) was the origin of Amsterdam, and
+the dam on the Ye gave rise to Edam. But Holland's chief protection
+against inundation is its long line of sand dunes, in which only two
+real breaches have been effected during the centuries of erosion. These
+are represented by the famous sea dikes called the Westkapelle dike and
+the Hondsbossche Zeewering, or sea-defence, which were begun
+respectively in the first and second halves of the 15th century. The
+first extends for a distance of over 4000 yds. between the villages of
+Westkapelle and Domburg in the island of Walcheren; the second is about
+4900 yds. long, and extends from Kamperduin to near Petten, whence it is
+continued for another 1100 yds. by the Pettemer dike. These two sea
+dikes were reconstructed by the state at great expense between the year
+1860 and 1884, having consisted before that time of little more than a
+protected sand dike. The earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and
+by piles, and at the more dangerous points also by _zinkstukken_
+(sinking pieces), artificial structures of brushwood laden with stones,
+and measuring some 400 yds. in circuit, by means of which the current is
+to some extent turned aside. The Westkapelle dike, 12,468 ft. long, has
+a seaward slope of 300 ft., and is protected by rows of piles and basalt
+blocks. On its ridge, 39 ft. broad, there is not only a roadway but a
+service railway. The cost of its upkeep is more than £6000 a year, and
+of the Hondsbossche Zeewering £2000 a year. When it is remembered that
+the woodwork is infested by the pile worm (_Teredo navalis_), the
+ravages of which were discovered in 1731, the labour and expense
+incurred in the construction and maintenance of the sea dikes now
+existing may be imagined. In other parts of the coast the dunes, though
+not pierced through, have become so wasted by erosion as to require
+artificial strengthening. This is afforded, either by means of a
+so-called sleeping dike (_slaperdyk_) behind the weak spot, as, for
+instance, between Kadzand and Breskens in Zeeland-Flanders, and again
+between 's Gravenzande and Loosduinen; or by means of piers or
+breakwaters (_hoofden_, heads) projecting at intervals into the sea and
+composed of piles, or brushwood and stones. The first of such
+breakwaters was that constructed in 1857 at the north end of the island
+of Goeree, and extends over 100 yds. into the sea at low water. Similar
+constructions are to be found on the seaward side of the islands of
+Walcheren, Schouwen and Voorne, and between 's Gravenzande and
+Scheveningen, and Katwijk and Noordwijk. Owing to the obstruction which
+they offer to drifting sands, artificial dunes are in course of time
+formed about them, and in this way they become at once more effective
+and less costly to maintain. The firm and regular dunes which now run
+from Petten to Kallantsoog (formerly an island), and thence northwards
+to Huisduinen, were thus formed about the Zyper (1617) and Koegras
+(1610) dikes respectively. From Huisduinen to Nieuwediep the dunes are
+replaced by the famous Helder sea-wall. The shores of the Zuider Zee and
+the Wadden, and the Frisian and Zuider Zee islands, are also partially
+protected by dikes. In more than one quarter the dikes have been
+repeatedly extended so as to enclose land conquered from the sea, the
+work of reclamation being aided by a natural process. Layer upon layer
+of clay is deposited by the sea in front of the dikes, until a new
+fringe has been added to the coast-line on which sea-grasses grasses
+begin to grow. Upon these clay-lands (_kwelders_) horses, cattle and
+sheep are at last able to pasture at low tide, and in course of time
+they are in turn endiked.
+
+River dikes are as necessary as sea dikes, elevated banks being found
+only in a few places, as on the Lower Rhine. Owing to the unsuitability
+of the foundations, Dutch dikes are usually marked by a great width,
+which at the crown varies between 13 and 26 ft. The height of the dike
+ranges to 40 in. above high water-level. Between the dikes and the
+stream lie "forelands" (_interwaarden_), which are usually submerged in
+winter, and frequently lie 1 or 2 yds, higher than the country within
+the dikes. These forelands also offer in course of time an opportunity
+for endiking and reclamation. In this way the towns of Rotterdam,
+Schiedam, Vlaardingen and Maasluis have all gradually extended over the
+Maas dike in order to keep in touch with the river, and the small town
+of Delftshaven is built altogether on the outer side of the same dike.
+
+  _Impoldering._--The first step in the reclamation of land is to
+  "impolder" it, or convert it into a "polder" (i.e. a section of
+  artificially drained land), by surrounding it with dikes or quays for
+  the two-fold purpose of protecting it from all further inundation from
+  outside and of controlling the amount of water inside. Impoldering for
+  its own sake or on a large scale was impossible as long as the means
+  of drainage were restricted. But in the beginning of the 15th century
+  new possibilities were revealed by the adaptation of the windmill to
+  the purpose of pumping water. It was gradually recognized that the
+  masses of water which collected wherever peat-digging had been carried
+  on were an unnecessary menace to the neighbouring lands, and also that
+  a more enduring source of profit lay in the bed of the fertile
+  sea-clay under the peat. It became usual, therefore, to make the
+  subsequent drainage of the land a condition of the extraction of peat
+  from it, this condition being established by proclamation in 1595.
+
+  _Drainage._--It has been shown that the western provinces of Holland
+  may be broadly defined as lying below sea-level. In fact the surface
+  of the sea-clay in these provinces is from 11½ to 16½ ft. below the
+  Amsterdam zero. The ground-water is, therefore, relatively very high
+  and the capacity of the soil for further absorption proportionately
+  low. To increase the reservoir capacity of the polder, as well as to
+  conduct the water to the windmills or engines, it is intersected by a
+  network of ditches cut at right angles to each other, the amount of
+  ditching required being usually one-twelfth of the area to be drained.
+  In modern times pumping engines have replaced windmills, and the
+  typical old Dutch landscape with its countless hooded heads and
+  swinging arms has been greatly transformed by the advent of the
+  chimney stacks of the pumping-stations. The power of the
+  pumping-engines is taken on the basis of 12 h.p. per 1000 hectares for
+  every metre that the water has to be raised, or stated in another
+  form, the engines must be capable of raising nearly 9 lb. of water
+  through 1 yd. per acre per minute. The main ditches, or canals,
+  afterwards also serve as a means of navigation. The level at which it
+  is desired to keep the water in these ditches constitutes the unit of
+  water measurement for the polder, and is called the polder's _zomer
+  peil_ (Z.P.) or summer water-level. In pasture-polders (_koepolders_)
+  Z.P. is 1 to 1½ ft. below the level of the polder, and in agricultural
+  polders 2½ to 3½ ft. below. Owing to the shrinkage of the soil in
+  reclaimed lands, however, that is, lands which have been drained after
+  fen or other reclamation, the sides of the polder are often higher
+  than the middle, and it is necessary by means of small dams or sluices
+  to make separate water-tight compartments (_afpolderingen_), each
+  having its own unit of measurement. Some polders also have a winter
+  peil as a precaution against the increased fall of water in that
+  season. The summer water-level of the pasture polders south of the
+  former Y is about 4 to 8 ft. below the Amsterdam zero, but in the
+  Noorderkwartier to the north, it reaches 10½ ft. below A. P. in the
+  Beschotel polder, and in reclaimed lands (_droogmakerijen_) may be
+  still lower, thus in the Reeuwyk polder north of Gouda it is 21¼ ft.
+  below.
+
+  The drainage of the country is effected by natural or artificial
+  means, according to the slope of the ground. Nearly all the polders of
+  Zeeland and South Holland are able to discharge naturally into the sea
+  at average low water, self-regulating sluices being used. But in North
+  Holland and Utrecht on the contrary the polder water has generally to
+  be raised. In some deep polders and drained lands where the water
+  cannot be brought to the required height at once, windmills are found
+  at two or even three different levels. The final removal of polder
+  water, however, is only truly effected upon its discharge into the
+  "outer waters" of the country, that is, the sea itself or the large
+  rivers freely communicating with it; and this happens with but a small
+  proportion of Dutch polders, such as those of Zeeland, the Holland
+  Ysel and the Noorderkwartier.
+
+  As the system of impoldering extended, the small sluggish rivers were
+  gradually cut off by dikes from the marshy lands through which they
+  flowed, and by sluices from the waters with which they communicated.
+  Their level ranges from about 1½ to 4 ft. above that of the pasture
+  polders. In addition, various kinds of canals and endiked or embanked
+  lakes had come into existence, forming altogether a vast network of
+  more or less stagnant waters. These waters are utilized as the
+  temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder water, each system of
+  reservoirs being termed a _boezem_ (bosom or basin), and all lands
+  watering into the same boezem being considered as belonging to it. The
+  largest boezem is that of Friesland, which embraces nearly the whole
+  province. It sometimes happens that a polder is not in direct contact
+  with the boezem to which it belongs, but first drains into an adjacent
+  polder, from which the water is afterwards removed. In the same way,
+  some boezems discharge first into others, which then discharge into
+  the sea or rivers. This is usually the case where there is a great
+  difference in height between the surface of the boezem and the outer
+  waters, and may be illustrated by the Alblasserwaard and the Rotte
+  boezems in the provinces of South and North Holland respectively. In
+  time of drought the water in the canals and boezems is allowed to run
+  back into the polders, and so serve a double purpose as
+  water-reservoirs. Boezems, like polders, have a standard water-level
+  which may hot be exceeded, and as in the polder this level may vary in
+  the different parts of an extended boezem. The height of the _boezem
+  peil_ ranges between 1(1/3) ft. above to 1(5/6) ft. below the
+  Amsterdam zero, though the average is about 1 to 1(2/3) ft. below.
+  Some boezems, again, which are less easily controlled, have a "danger
+  water-level" at which they refuse to receive any more water from the
+  surrounding polders. The Schie or Delflands boezem of South Holland is
+  of this kind, and such a boezem is termed _besloten_ or "sequestered,"
+  in contradistinction to a "free" boezem. A third kind of boezem is the
+  reserve or _berg-boezem_, which in summer may be made dry and used for
+  agriculture, while in winter it serves as a special reserve. The
+  centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this
+  complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclamation are
+  better imagined than described, and even at the present day the
+  evidences of the struggle are far less apparent than real.
+
+  _Geology._--Except in Limburg, where, in the neighbourhood of
+  Maastricht, the upper layers of the chalk are exposed and followed by
+  Oligocene and Miocene beds, the whole of Holland is covered by recent
+  deposits of considerable thickness, beneath which deep borings have
+  revealed the existence of Pliocene beds similar to the "Crags" of East
+  Anglia. They are divided into the _Diestien_, corresponding in part
+  with the English Coralline Crag, the _Scaldisien_ and _Poederlien_
+  corresponding with the Walton Crag, and the _Amstelien_ corresponding
+  with the Red Crag of Suffolk. In the south of Holland the total
+  thickness of the Pliocene series is only about 200 ft., and they are
+  covered by about 100 ft. of Quaternary deposits; but towards the north
+  the beds sink down and at the same time increase considerably in
+  thickness, so that at Utrecht a deep boring reached the top of the
+  Pliocene at a depth of 513 ft. and at 1198 ft. it had not touched the
+  bottom. At Amsterdam the top of the Pliocene lay 625 ft. below the
+  surface, but the boring, 1098 ft. deep, did not reach the base of the
+  uppermost division of the Pliocene, viz. the _Amstelien_. Eastward and
+  westward of Amsterdam, as well as southward, the Pliocene beds rise
+  slowly to the surface, and gradually decrease in thickness. They were
+  laid down in a broad bay which covered the east of England and nearly
+  the whole of the Netherlands, and was open to the North Sea. There is
+  evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the
+  deposition of these beds, until at length the Rhine flowed over to
+  England and entered the sea north of Cromer. The appearance of
+  northern shells in the upper divisions of the Pliocene series
+  indicates the approach of the Glacial period, and glacial drift
+  containing Scandinavian boulders now covers much of the country east
+  of the Zuider Zee. The more modern deposits of Holland consist of
+  alluvium, wind-blown sands and peat.[3]
+
+  _Climate._--Situated in the temperate zone between 50° and 53° N. the
+  climate of Holland shows a difference in the lengths of day and night
+  extending in the north to nine hours, and there is a correspondingly
+  wide range of temperature; it also belongs to the region of variable
+  winds. On an average of fifty years the mean annual temperature was
+  49.8° Fahr.; the maximum, 93.9° Fahr.; the minimum, -5.8° Fahr. The
+  mean annual barometric height is 29.93 in.; the mean annual moisture,
+  81%; the mean annual rainfall, 27.99 in. The mean annual number of
+  days with rain is 204, with snow 19, and with thunder-storms 18. The
+  increased rainfall from July to December (the summer and autumn
+  rains), and the increased evaporation in spring and summer (5.2 in.
+  more than the rainfall), are of importance as regards "poldering" and
+  draining operations. The prevalence of south-west winds during nine
+  months of the year and of north-west during three (April-June) has a
+  strong influence on the temperature and rainfall, tides, river mouths
+  and outlets, and also, geologically, on dunes and sand drifts, and on
+  fens and the accumulation of clay on the coast. The west winds of
+  course increase the moisture, and moderate both the winter cold and
+  the summer heat, while the east winds blowing over the continent have
+  an opposite influence. It cannot be said that the climate is
+  particularly good, owing to the changeableness of the weather, which
+  may alter completely within a single day. The heavy atmosphere
+  likewise, and the necessity of living within doors or in confined
+  localities, cannot but exercise an influence on the character and
+  temperament of the inhabitants. Only of certain districts, however,
+  can it be said that they are positively unhealthy; to this category
+  belong some parts of the Holland provinces, Zeeland, and Friesland,
+  where the inhabitants are exposed to the exhalations from the marshy
+  ground, and the atmosphere is often burdened with sea-fogs.
+
+  _Fauna._--In the densely populated Netherlands, with no extensive
+  forests, the fauna does not present any unusual varieties. The otter,
+  martin and badger may be mentioned among the rarer wild animals, and
+  the weasel, ermine and pole-cat among the more common. In the 18th
+  century wolves still roamed the country in such large numbers that
+  hunting parties were organized against them; now they are unknown.
+  Roebuck and deer are found in a wild state in Gelderland and Overysel,
+  foxes are plentiful in the dry wooded regions on the borders of the
+  country, and hares and rabbits in the dunes and other sandy stretches.
+  Among birds may be reckoned about two hundred and forty different
+  kinds which are regular inhabitants, although nearly two hundred of
+  these are migratory. The woodcock, partridge, hawk, water-ousel,
+  magpie, jay, raven, various kinds of owls, wood-pigeon, golden-crested
+  wren, tufted lark and titmouse are among the birds which breed here.
+  Birds of passage include the buzzard, kite, quail, wild fowl of
+  various kinds, golden thrush, wagtail, linnet, finch and nightingale.
+  Storks are plentiful in summer and might almost be considered the most
+  characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape.
+
+  _Flora._--The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four
+  physiographical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely, the
+  heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts. Heath (_Erica tetralix_)
+  and ling (_Calluna vulgaris_) cover all the waste sandy regions in the
+  eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the meadow-lands is
+  monotonous. In the more damp and marshy places the bottom is covered
+  with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth equisetum, and rush. In the ditches
+  and pools common yellow and white water-lilies are seen, as well as
+  water-soldier (_Stratiotes aloides_), great and lesser reed-mace,
+  sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant forms of the dunes are stunted and
+  meagre as compared with the same forms elsewhere. The most common
+  plant here is the stiff sand-reed (_Arundo arenaria_), called
+  sand-oats in Drente and Overysel, where it is much used for making
+  mats. Like the sand-reed, the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the
+  buckthorn (_Hippophae rhamnoides_) perform a useful service in helping
+  to bind the sand together. Furze and the common juniper are regular
+  dune plants, and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel
+  and Gelderland. Thyme and the small white dune-rose (_Rosa
+  pimpinellifolia_) also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (_Sedum
+  acre_), field fever-wort, reindeer moss, common asparagus, sheep's
+  fescue grass, the pretty Solomon-seal (_Polygonatum officinale_), and
+  the broad-leaved or marsh orchis (_Orchis latifolia_). The sea-plants
+  which flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly
+  assist the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated
+  in places. Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and
+  Groningen, the Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer
+  the shore to sandspurry (_Spergularia_), or sea-poa or floating meadow
+  grass (_Glyceria maritima_), which grows up to the dikes, and affords
+  pasture for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the
+  Biesbosch lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable
+  quantities for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (_Zostera
+  marina_) is found in large patches in the northern half of the Zuider
+  Zee, where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of
+  June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along the
+  rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the sand
+  and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common.
+
+_Population._--The following table shows the area and population in the
+eleven provinces of the Netherlands:--
+
+  +--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
+  |              |Area in|Population| Population |Density per|
+  |   Province   | sq. m.|   1890.  |   1900.    | sq. m. in |
+  |              |       |          |            |   1900.   |
+  +--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
+  | North Brabant| 1,980 |  509,628 |   553,842  |    280    |
+  | Gelderland   | 1,965 |  512,202 |   566,549  |    288    |
+  | South Holland| 1,166 |  949,641 | 1,144,448  |    981    |
+  | North Holland| 1,070 |  829,489 |   968,131  |    905    |
+  | Zeeland      |   690 |  199,234 |   216,295  |    313    |
+  | Utrecht      |   534 |  221,007 |   251,034  |    470    |
+  | Friesland    | 1,282 |  335,558 |   340,262  |    265    |
+  | Overysel     | 1,291 |  295,445 |   333,338  |    258    |
+  | Groningen    |   790 |  272,786 |   299,602  |    379    |
+  | Drente       | 1,030 |  130,704 |   148,544  |    144    |
+  | Limburg      |   850 |  255,721 |   281,934  |    332    |
+  |              +-------+----------+------------+-----------+
+  |   Total      |12,648 |4,511,415 | 5,104,137* |    404    |
+  +--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
+    * This total includes 158 persons assigned to no province.
+
+The extremes of density of population are found in the provinces of
+North Holland and South Holland on the one hand, and Drente on the
+other. This divergence is partly explained by the difference of
+soil--which in Drente comprises the maximum of waste lands, and in South
+Holland the minimum--and partly also by the greater facilities which the
+seaward provinces enjoy of earning a subsistence, and the greater
+variety of their industries. The largest towns are Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
+the Hague, Utrecht, Groningen, Haarlem, Arnhem, Leiden, Nijmwegen,
+Tilburg. Other considerable towns are Dordrecht, Maastricht, Leeuwarden,
+Zwolle, Delft, 's Hertogenbosch, Schiedam, Deventer, Breda, Apeldoorn,
+Helder, Enschedé, Gouda, Zaandam, Kampen, Hilversum, Flushing,
+Amersfoort, Middelburg, Zutphen and Alkmaar. Many of the smaller towns,
+such as Assen, Enschedé, Helmond, Hengelo, Tiel, Venlo, Vlaardingen,
+Zaandam, Yerseke, show a great development, and it is a noteworthy fact
+that the rural districts, taken as a whole, have borne an equal share in
+the general increase of population. This, taken in conjunction with the
+advance in trade and shipping, the diminution in emigration, and the
+prosperity of the savings banks, points to a favourable state in the
+condition of the people.
+
+
+    Roads.
+
+  _Communications._--The roads are divided into national or royal roads,
+  placed directly under the control of the _water-staat_ and supported
+  by the state; provincial roads, under the direct control of the states
+  of the provinces, and almost all supported by the provincial
+  treasuries; communal and polder roads, maintained by the communal
+  authorities and the polder boards; and finally, private roads. The
+  system of national roads, mainly constructed between 1821 and 1827,
+  but still in process of extension, brings into connexion nearly all
+  the towns.
+
+
+    Canals.
+
+  The canal system of Holland is peculiarly complete and extends into
+  every part of the country, giving to many inland towns almost a
+  maritime appearance. The united length of the canals exceeds 1500 m.
+  As a matter of course the smaller streams have been largely utilized
+  in their formation, while the necessity for a comprehensive drainage
+  system has also contributed in no small degree. During the years
+  1815-1830 a large part of the extensive scheme of construction
+  inaugurated by King William I. was carried out, the following canals,
+  among others, coming into existence in that period: the North Holland
+  ship canal (depth, 16½ ft.) from Amsterdam to den Helder, the Grift
+  canal between Apeldoorn and Hattem, the Willemsvaart connecting Zwolle
+  with the Ysel, the Zuid Willemsvaart, or South William's canal (6½
+  ft.), from 's Hertogenbosch to Maastricht, and the Ternuzen-Ghent ship
+  canal. After 1849 the canal programme was again taken up by the state,
+  which alone or in conjunction with the provincial authorities
+  constructed the Apeldoorn-Dieren canal (1859-1869), the drainage
+  canals of the "Peel" marsh in North Brabant, and of the eastern
+  provinces, namely, the Deurne canal (1876-1892) from the Maas to
+  Helenaveen, the Almelo (1851-1858) and Overysel (1884-1888) canals
+  from Zwolle, Deventer and Almelo to Koevorden, and the Stieltjes
+  (1880-1884), and Orange (1853-1858 and 1881-1889) canals in Drente,
+  the North Williams canal (1856-1862) between Assen and Groningen, the
+  Ems (1866-1876) ship canal from Groningen to Delfzyl, and the New
+  Merwede, and enlarged the canal from Harlingen by way of Leeuwarden to
+  the Lauwars Zee. The large ship canals to Rotterdam and Amsterdam,
+  called the New Waterway and the North Sea canal respectively, were
+  constructed in 1866-1872 and 1865-1876 at a cost of 2½ and 3 million
+  pounds sterling, the former by widening the channel of the Scheur
+  north of Rozenburg, and cutting across the Hook of Holland, the latter
+  by utilizing the bed of the Y and cutting through the dunes at
+  Ymuiden. In 1876 an agreement was arrived at with Germany for
+  connecting the important drainage canals in Overysel, Drente and
+  Groningen with the Ems canal system, as a result of which the
+  Almelo-Noordhorn (1884-1888) and other canals came into existence.
+
+  The canals differ in character in the different provinces. In Zeeland
+  they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the river
+  mouths; for example, the one from Middelburg to Veere and Flushing
+  (1866-1878), from Goes to the East Scheldt, and from Zierikzee also to
+  the East Scheldt. The South Beveland (1862-1866) canal connects the
+  East and West Scheldt; similarly in South Holland the Voorne canal
+  unites the Haringvliet with the New Maas, which does not allow the
+  passage of large vessels above Brielle; whilst owing lo the banks and
+  shallows in front of Hellevoetsluis the New Waterway was cut to
+  Rotterdam. Of another character is the Zederik canal, which unites the
+  principal river of central Holland, the Lek, at Vianen by means of the
+  Linge with the Merwede at Gorkum. Amsterdam is connected with the Lek
+  and the Zederik canal via Utrecht by the Vecht and the Vaart Rhine
+  (1881-1893; depth 10.2 ft.). Again, a totally different character
+  belongs to the canals in North Brabant, and the east and north-east of
+  Holland where, in the absence of great rivers, they form the only
+  waterways which render possible the drainage of the fens and the
+  export of peat; and unite the lesser streams with each other. Thus in
+  Overysel, in addition to the canals already mentioned, the Dedemsvaart
+  connects the Vecht with the Zwarte Water near Hasselt; in Drente the
+  Smildervaart and Drentsche Hoofdvaart unites Assen with Meppel, and
+  receives on the eastern side the drainage canals of the Drente fens,
+  namely, the Orange canal and the Hoogeveen Vaart (1850-1860;
+  1880-1893). Groningen communicates with the Lauwers Zee by the
+  Reitdiep (1873-1876), while the canal to Winschoten and the
+  Stadskanaal, or State canal (1877-1880), bring it into connexion with
+  the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the province and in
+  Drente. In Friesland, finally, besides the ship canal from Harlingen
+  to the Lauwers Zee there are canals from Leeuwarden to the Lemmer,
+  whence there is a busy traffic with Amsterdam; and the Caspar Robles
+  or Kolonels Diep, and the Hoendiep connect it with Groningen.
+
+
+    Railways.
+
+  The construction of railways was long deferred and slowly
+  accomplished. The first line was that between Amsterdam and Haarlem,
+  opened in 1839 by the Holland railway company (_Hollandsch Yzeren
+  Spoorweg Maatschappij_). In 1845 the state undertook to develop the
+  railway system, and a company of private individuals was formed to
+  administer it under the title of the _Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van
+  Staatspoorwegen_. In 1860, however, the total length of railways was
+  only 208 m., and in that year a parliamentary bill embodying a
+  comprehensive scheme of construction was adopted. By 1872 this
+  programme was nearly completed, and 542 m. of new railway had been
+  added. In 1873 and 1875 a second and a third bill provided for the
+  extension of the railway system at the cost of the state, and, in
+  1876, 1882 and 1890 laws were introduced readjusting the control of
+  the various lines, some of which were transferred to the Holland
+  railway. The state railway system was completed in 1892, and since
+  that time the utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new
+  undertakings. These include various local lines such as the line
+  Alkmaar-Hoorn (1898), Ede-Barneveld-Nykerk, Enschedé-Ahaus in Germany
+  (1902), Leeuwarden to Franeker, Harlingen and Dokkum, and the line
+  Zwolle-Almelo (junction at Marienberg)
+  Koevorden-Stadskanal-Veendam-Delfzyl, connecting all the fen countries
+  on the eastern borders. The electric railway Amsterdam-Zandvoort was
+  opened in 1904. The frame upon which the whole network of the Dutch
+  railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from north
+  and south and four transverse lines from west to east. The two
+  longitudinal lines are the railway den Helder via Haarlem
+  (1862-1867),[4] Rotterdam (1839-1847), and Zwaluwe (1869-1877) to
+  Antwerp (1852-1855), belonging to the Holland railway company, and the
+  State railway from Leeuwarden and Groningen (1870) (junction at
+  Meppel, 1867) Zwolle (1866)--Arnhem (1865)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Venlo
+  (1883)--Maastricht (1865). The four transverse lines belong to the
+  State and Holland railways alternately and are, beginning with the
+  State railway: (1) the line Flushing (1872)--Rozendaal (1860)--Tilburg
+  (1863)--Bokstel (whence there is a branch line belonging to the North
+  Brabant and Germany railway company via Vechel to Goch in Germany,
+  opened in 1873)--Eindhoven--Venlo and across Prussian border (1866);
+  (2) the line Hook of Holland--Rotterdam (1893)--Dordrecht
+  (1872-1877)--Elst (1882-1885)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Cleves, Germany
+  (1865); (3) the line Rotterdam--Utrecht (1866-1869) and
+  Amsterdam--Utrecht--Arnhem (1843-1845) to Emmerich in Germany (1856):
+  this line formerly belonged to the Netherlands-Rhine railway company,
+  but was bought by the state in 1890; and finally (4) the line
+  Amsterdam--Hilversum--Amersfoort--Apeldoorn (1875), whence it is
+  continued (a) via Deventer, Almelo and Hengelo to Salzbergen, Germany
+  (1865); (b) via Zutphen, Hengelo (1865), Enschedé (1866) to Gronau,
+  Germany; (c) via Zutphen (1876) and Ruurlo to Winterswyk (1878). Of
+  these (1) and (2) form the main transcontinental routes in connexion
+  with the steamboat service to England (ports of Queenborough and
+  Harwich respectively). Two other lines of railway, both belonging to
+  the state, also traverse the country west to east, namely, the line
+  Rozendaal--'s Hertogenbosch (1890)--Nijmwegen, and in the extreme
+  north, the line from Harlingen through Leeuwarden (1863) and Groningen
+  (1866) to the border at Nieuwe Schans (1869), whence it was connected
+  with the German railways in 1876. The northern and southern provinces
+  are further connected by the lines Amsterdam--Zaandam
+  (1878)--Enkhuizen (1885), whence there is a steam ferry across the
+  Zuider Zee to Stavoren, from where the railway is continued to
+  Leeuwarden (1883-1885); the Netherlands Central railway,
+  Utrecht--Amersfoort--Zwoole--Kampen (1863); and the line Utrecht--'s
+  Hertogenbosch (1868-1869) which is continued southward into Belgium by
+  the lines bought in 1898 from the Grand Central Beige railway, namely,
+  via Tilburg to Turnhout (1867), and via Eindhoven (1866) to Hasselt.
+  In 1892 Greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in the
+  post-offices, making a difference of twenty minutes with mean
+  Amsterdam time.
+
+
+    Tramways.
+
+  Since 1877 railway communication has been largely supplemented by
+  steam-tramways, which either run along the main roads or across the
+  country on special embankments, while one of them is carried across
+  the river Ysel at Doesburg on a pontoon bridge. The state first began
+  to encourage the construction of these local light railways by means
+  of subsidies in 1893, since when some of the most prominent lines have
+  come into existence, such as Purmerend--Alkmaar (1898),
+  Zutphen--Emmerich (1902), along the Dedemsvaart in Overysel (1902),
+  from 's Hertogenbosch via Utrecht and Eindhoven to Turnhout in Belgium
+  (1898), and especially those connecting the South Holland and Zeeland
+  islands with the railway, namely, between Rotterdam and Numansdorp on
+  the Hollandsch Diep (1898), and from Breda or Bergen-op-Zoom, via
+  Steenbergen to St Philipsland, Zierikzee and Brouwershaven (1900). An
+  electric tramway connects Haarlem and Zandvoort. The number of
+  passengers carried by the steam-tramways is relatively higher than
+  that of the railways. The value of the goods traffic is not so high,
+  owing, principally, to the want of intercommunication between the
+  various lines on account of differences in the width of the gauge.
+
+_Agriculture._--Waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren stretches
+of heaths found in Drente, Overysel, Gelderland and North Brabant. They
+formerly served to support large flocks of sheep and some cattle, but
+are gradually transformed by the planting of woods, as well as by
+strenuous efforts at cultivation. Zeeland and Groningen are the two
+principal agricultural provinces, and after them follow Limburg, North
+Brabant, Gelderland and South Holland. The chief products of cultivation
+on the heavy clay soil are oats, barley and wheat, and on the
+sand-grounds rye, buckwheat and potatoes. Flax and beetroot are also
+cultivated on the clay lands. Tobacco, hemp, hops, colza and chicory
+form special cultures. With the possible exception of oats, the cereals
+do not suffice for home consumption, and maize is imported in large
+quantities for cattle-feeding, and barley for the distilleries and
+breweries. Horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order, and
+flourish especially on the low fen soil and _geest_ grounds along the
+foot of the dunes in the provinces of North and South Holland. The
+principal market products are cauliflower, cabbage, onions, asparagus,
+gherkins, cucumbers, beans, peas, &c. The principal flowers are
+hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus and other bulbous plants, the
+total export of which is estimated at over £200,000. Fruit is everywhere
+grown, and there is a special cultivation of grapes and figs in the
+Westland of South Holland. The woods, or rather the plantations,
+covering 6%, consist of (1) the so-called forest timber (_opgaandhout_;
+Fr. _arbres de haute futaie_), including the beech, oak, elm, poplar,
+birch, ash, willow and coniferous trees; and (2) the copse wood
+(_akkermaal_ or _hakhout_), embracing the elder, willow, beech, oak, &c.
+This forms no unimportant branch of the national wealth.
+
+
+    Livestock.
+
+  With nearly 35% of the total surface of the country under permanent
+  pasture, cattle-breeding forms one of the most characteristic
+  industries of the country. The provinces of Friesland, North and South
+  Holland, and Utrecht take the lead as regards both quality and
+  numbers. A smaller, hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep
+  are kept upon the heath-lands in the eastern provinces, which also
+  favour the rearing of pigs and bee-culture. Horse-breeding is most
+  important in Friesland, which produces the well-known black breed of
+  horse commonly used in funeral processions. Goats are most numerous in
+  Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry, especially fowls, are generally
+  kept. Stock-breeding, like agriculture, has considerably improved
+  under the care of the government (state and provincial), which grants
+  subsidies for breeding, irrigation of pasture-lands, the importation
+  of finer breeds of cattle and horses, the erection of factories for
+  dairy produce, schools, &c.
+
+  _Fisheries._--The fishing industry of the Netherlands may be said to
+  have been in existence already in the 13th century, and in the
+  following century received a considerable impetus from the discovery
+  how to cure herring by William Beukelszoon, a Zeeland fisherman. It
+  steadily declined during the 17th and 18th centuries, however, but
+  again began to revive in the last half of the 19th century. The
+  fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas,
+  namely, the "deep-sea" fishery of the North Sea, and the "inner"
+  (_binnengaatsch_) fisheries of the Wadden, the Zuider Zee, and the
+  South Holland and Zeeland waters. The deep-sea fishery may be farther
+  divided into the so-called "great" or "salt-herring" fishery, mainly
+  carried on from Vlaardingen and Maasluis during the summer and autumn,
+  and the "fresh-herring" fishery, chiefly pursued at Scheveningen,
+  Katwijk and Noordwijk. The value of the herring fisheries is enhanced
+  by the careful methods of smoking and salting, the export of salted
+  fish being considerable. In the winter the largest boats are laid up
+  and the remainder take to line-fishing. Middelharnis, Pernis and
+  Zwartewaal are the centres of this branch of fishery, which yields
+  halibut, cod, ling and haddock. The trawl fisheries of the coast yield
+  sole, plaice, turbot, brill, skate, &c., of which a large part is
+  brought alive to the market. In the Zuider Zee small herring, flat
+  fish, anchovies and shrimps are caught, the chief fishing centres
+  being the islands of Texel, Urk and Wieringen, and the coast towns of
+  Helder, Bunschoten, Huizen, Enkhuizen, Vollendam, Kampen, Harderwyk,
+  Vollenhove. The anchovy fishing which takes place in May, June and
+  July sometimes yields very productive results. Oysters and mussels are
+  obtained on the East Scheldt, and anchovies at Bergen-op-Zoom; while
+  salmon, perch and pike are caught in the Maas, the Lek and the New
+  Merwede. The oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in the hands
+  of the state, which lets them to the highest bidder. Large quantities
+  of eels are caught in the Frisian lakes. The fisheries not only supply
+  the great local demand, but allow of large exports.
+
+_Manufacturing Industries._--The mineral resources of Holland give no
+encouragement to industrial activity, with the exception of the
+coal-mining in Limburg, the smelting of iron ore in a few furnaces in
+Overysel and Gelderland, the use of stone and gravel in the making of
+dikes and roads, and of clay in brickworks and potteries, the quarrying
+of stone at St Pietersberg, &c. Nevertheless the industry of the country
+has developed in a remarkable manner since the separation from Belgium.
+The greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry, which flourishes
+especially in the Twente district of Overysel, where jute is also worked
+into sacks. In the manufacture of woollen and linen goods Tilburg ranks
+first, followed by Leiden, Utrecht and Eindhoven; that of half-woollens
+is best developed at Roermond and Helmond. Other branches of industry
+include carpet-weaving at Deventer, the distillation of brandy, gin and
+liqueurs at Schiedam, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and beer-brewing in most
+of the principal towns; shoe-making and leather-tanning in the
+Langstraat district of North Brabant; paper-making at Apeldoorn, on the
+Zaan, and in Limburg; the manufacture of earthenware and faïence at
+Maastricht, the Hague and Delft, as well as at Utrecht, Purmerend and
+Makkum; clay pipes and stearine candles at Gouda; margarine at Osch;
+chocolate at Weesp and on the Zaan; mat-plaiting and broom-making at
+Genemuiden and Blokzyl; diamond-cutting and the manufacture of quinine
+at Amsterdam; and the making of cigars and snuff at Eindhoven,
+Amsterdam, Utrecht, Kampen, &c. Shipbuilding is of no small importance
+in Holland, not only in the greater, but also in the smaller towns along
+the rivers and canals. The principal shipbuilding yards are at
+Amsterdam, Kinderdijk, Rotterdam and at Flushing, where there is a
+government dockyard for building warships.
+
+  _Trade and Shipping._--To obtain a correct idea of the trade of
+  Holland, greater attention than would be requisite in the case of
+  other countries must be paid to the inland traffic. It is impossible
+  to state the value of this in definite figures, but an estimate may be
+  formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in the
+  rivers and canals, and from the quantity of produce brought to the
+  public market. In connexion with this traffic there is a large fleet
+  of tug boats; but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are becoming
+  more common. Some of the lighters used in the Rhine transport trade
+  have a capacity of 3000 tons. A great part of the commercial business
+  at Rotterdam belongs to the commission and transit trade. The other
+  principal ports are Flushing, Terneuzen (for Belgium), Harlingen,
+  Delfzyl, Dordrecht, Zaandam, Schiedam, Groningen, den Helder,
+  Middelburg, Vlaardingen. Among the national mail steamship services
+  are the lines to the East and West Indies, Africa and the United
+  States. An examination of its lists of exports and imports will show
+  that Holland receives from its colonies its spiceries, coffee, sugar,
+  tobacco, indigo, cinnamon; from England and Belgium its manufactured
+  goods and coals; petroleum, raw cotton and cereals from the United
+  States; grain from the Baltic provinces, Archangel, and the ports of
+  the Black Sea; timber from Norway and the basin of the Rhine, yarn
+  from England, wine from France, hops from Bavaria and Alsace; iron-ore
+  from Spain; while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to Germany,
+  its agricultural produce to the London market, its fish to Belgium and
+  Germany, and its cheese to France, Belgium and Hamburg, as well as
+  England. The bulk of trade is carried on with Germany and England;
+  then follow Java, Belgium, Russia, the United States, &c. In the last
+  half of the 19th century the total value of the foreign commerce was
+  more than trebled.
+
+_Constitution and Government._--The government of the Netherlands is
+regulated by the constitution of 1815, revised in 1848 and 1887, under
+which the sovereign's person is inviolable and the ministers are
+responsible. The age of majority of the sovereign is eighteen. The crown
+is hereditary in both the male and the female line according to
+primogeniture; but it is only in default of male heirs that females can
+come to the throne. The crown prince or heir apparent is the first
+subject of the sovereign, and bears the title of the prince of Orange.
+The sovereign alone has executive authority. To him belong the ultimate
+direction of foreign affairs, the power to declare war and peace, to
+make treaties and alliances, and to dissolve one or both chambers of
+parliament, the supreme command of the army and navy, the supreme
+administration of the state finances and of the colonies and other
+possessions of the kingdom, and the prerogative of mercy. By the
+provisions of the same constitution he establishes the ministerial
+departments, and shares the legislative power with the first and second
+chambers of parliament, which constitute the states-general and sit at
+the Hague. The heads of the departments to whom the especial executive
+functions are entrusted are eight in number--ministers respectively of
+the interior, of "water-staat," trade and industry (that is, of public
+works, including railways, post-office, &c.), of justice, of finance, of
+war, of marine, of the colonies and of foreign affairs. There is a
+department of agriculture, but without a minister at its head. The heads
+of departments are appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the
+sovereign, usually determined, however, as in all constitutional states,
+by the will of the nation as indicated by its representatives.
+
+The number of members in the first chamber is 50, South Holland sending
+10, North Holland 9, North Brabant and Gelderland each 6, Friesland 4,
+Overysel, Limburg and Groningen each 3, Zeeland, Utrecht and Drente each
+2. According to the fundamental law (_Grondwet_) of 1887, they are
+chosen by the provincial states, not only from amongst those who bear
+the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province, but also from
+amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank. Those deputies who
+are not resident in the Hague are entitled to receive 16s. 8d. a day
+during the session. The duration of parliament is nine years, a third of
+the members retiring every three years. The retiring members are
+eligible for re-election. The members of the second chamber are chosen
+in the electoral districts by all capable male citizens not under 23
+years of age, who pay one or more direct taxes, ranging from a minimum
+of one guilder (1s. 8d.) towards the income tax. The number of members
+is 100, Amsterdam returning 9, Rotterdam 5, the Hague 3, Groningen and
+Utrecht 2 members each. Members must be at least thirty years old, and
+receive an annual allowance of £166, besides travelling expenses. They
+only, and the government, have the right of initiating business, and of
+proposing amendments. Their term is four years, but they are
+re-eligible. All communications from the sovereign to the states-general
+and from the states to the sovereign, as well as all measures relating
+to internal administration or to foreign possessions, are first
+submitted to the consideration of the council of state, which consists
+of 14 members appointed by the sovereign, who is the president. The
+state council also has the right of making suggestions to the sovereign
+in regard to subjects of legislation and administration.
+
+  The provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial states,
+  which are returned by direct election by the same electors as vote for
+  the second chamber. The term is for six years, but one-half of the
+  members retire every three years subject to re-election or renewal.
+  The president of the assembly is the royal commissioner for the
+  province. As the provincial states only meet a few times in the year,
+  they name a committee of deputy-states which manages current general
+  business, and at the same time exercises the right of control over the
+  affairs of the communes. At the head of every commune stands a
+  communal council, whose members must be not under 23 years of age.
+  They are elected for six years (one-third of the council retiring
+  every two years) by the same voters as for the provincial states.
+  Communal franchise is further restricted, however, to those electors
+  who pay a certain sum to the communal rates. The number of councillors
+  varies according to the population between 7 and 45. One of the
+  special duties of the council is the supervision of education. The
+  president of the communal council is the burgomaster, who is named by
+  the sovereign in every instance for six years, and receives a salary
+  varying from £40 to over £600. Provision is made for paying the
+  councillors a certain fee--called "presence-money"--when required.
+  The burgomaster has the power to suspend any of the council's decrees
+  for 30 days. The executive power is vested in a college formed by the
+  burgomaster and two, three or four magistrates (_wethouders_) to be
+  chosen by and from the members of the council. The provinces are
+  eleven in number.
+
+  _National Defence._--The home defence system of Holland is a militia
+  with strong cadres based on universal service. Service in the
+  "militia" or 1st line force is for 8 years, in the 2nd line for 7.
+  Every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called up
+  for long or short periods of training, and the maximum peace strength
+  under arms in the summer is about 35,000, of whom half are permanent
+  cadres and half militiamen. In 1908 12,300 of the year's contingent
+  were trained for eight months and more, and 5200 for four months. The
+  war strength of the militia is 105,000, that of the second line or
+  reserve 70,000. The defence of the country is based on the historic
+  principle of concentrating the people and their resources in the heart
+  of the country, covered by a wide belt of inundations. The chosen line
+  of defence is marked by a series of forts which control the sluices,
+  extending from Amsterdam, through Muiden, thence along the Vecht and
+  through Utrecht to Gorinchem (Gorkum) on the Waal. The line continues
+  thence by the Hollandsche Diep and Volkerak to the sea, and the coast
+  also is fortified. The army in the colonies numbers in all about
+  26,000, all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily
+  enlisted European regulars. The military expenditure in 1908 was
+  £2,331,255. The Dutch navy at home and in Indian waters consists
+  (1909) of 9 small battleships, 6 small cruisers and 80 other vessels,
+  manned by 8600 officers and men of the navy and about 2250 marines.
+  Recruiting is by voluntary enlistment, with contingent powers of
+  conscription amongst the maritime population.
+
+  _Justice._--The administration of justice is entrusted (1) to the high
+  council (_hooge raad_) at the Hague, the supreme court of the whole
+  kingdom, and the tribunal for all high government officials and for
+  the members of the states-general; (2) to the five courts of justice
+  established at Amsterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, Leeuwarden and 's
+  Hertogenbosch; (3) to tribunals established in each arrondissement;
+  (4) to cantonal judges appointed over a group of communes, whose
+  jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount (under 200
+  guilders), and to breaches of police regulations, and who at the same
+  time look after the interest of minors. The high council is composed
+  of 12 to 14 councillors, a procureur-general and three
+  advocates-general. Criminal and correctional procedure were formerly
+  divided between the courts of justice and the arrondissement
+  tribunals; but this distinction was suppressed by the penal code of
+  1886, thereby increasing the importance of the arrondissement courts,
+  which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal courts.
+
+  Besides the prisons, which include one built on the cellular principle
+  at Breda, the state supports three penal workhouses for drunkards and
+  beggars. There are also the penal colonies at Veenhuizen in Drente,
+  which were brought from the Society of Charity (_Maatschappij van
+  Weldadigkeid_) in 1859. The inmates practise agriculture, as well as
+  various industries for supplying all the requirements of the colony.
+  The objection raised against these establishments is that the
+  prisoners do not represent the real vagabondage of the country, but a
+  class of more or less voluntary inmates. Children under 16 years of
+  age are placed in the three state reformatories, and there is an
+  institution for vagabond women at Rotterdam.
+
+  _Charitable and other Institutions._--Private charities have always
+  occupied a distinguished position in the Netherlands, and the
+  principle of the law of 1854 concerning the relief of the poor is,
+  that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails. All
+  private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they
+  can collect public funds. In some cases these institutions are
+  organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities. At
+  the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural
+  colonies belonging to the Society of Charity (see DRENTE). Of the
+  numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and the
+  fine arts, the following are strictly national--the Royal Academy of
+  Sciences (1855), the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
+  (1854), the National Academy of the Plastic Arts, the Royal School of
+  Music, the National Archives, besides various other national
+  collections and museums. Provincial scientific societies exist at
+  Middelburg, Utrecht, 's Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, and there are
+  private and municipal associations, institutions and collections in a
+  large number of the smaller towns. Among societies of general utility
+  are the Society for Public Welfare (_Maatschappij tot nut van't
+  algemeen_, 1785), whose efforts have been mainly in the direction of
+  educational reform; the Geographical Society at Amsterdam (1873);
+  Teyler's Stichting or foundation at Haarlem (1778), and the societies
+  for the promotion of industry (1777), and of sciences (1752) in the
+  same town; the Institute of Languages, Geography and Ethnology of the
+  Dutch Indies (1851), and the Indian Society at the Hague, the Royal
+  Institute of Engineers at Delft (1848), the Association for the
+  Encouragement of Music at Amsterdam, &c.
+
+  _Religion._--Religious conviction is one of the most characteristic
+  traits of the Dutch people, and finds expression in a large number of
+  independent religious congregations. The bond between church and
+  state which had been established by the synod of Dort (1618) and the
+  organization of the Low-Dutch Reformed Church (_Nederlandsche
+  Hervormde Kerk_) as the national Protestant church, practically came
+  to an end in the revolution of 1795, and in the revision of the
+  Constitution in 1848 the complete religious liberty and equality of
+  all persons and congregations was guaranteed. The present organization
+  of the Reformed Church dates from 1852. It is governed by a general
+  assembly or "synod" of deputies from the principal judicatures,
+  sitting once a year. The provinces are subdivided into "classes," and
+  the classes again into "circles" (_ringen_), each circle comprising
+  from 5 to 25 congregations, and each congregation being governed by a
+  "church council" or session. The provincial synods are composed of
+  ministers and elders deputed by the classes; and these are composed of
+  the ministers belonging to the particular class and an equal number of
+  elders appointed by the local sessions. The meetings of the circles
+  have no administrative character, but are mere brotherly conferences.
+  The financial management in each congregation is entrusted to a
+  special court (_kerk-voogdij_) composed of "notables" and church
+  wardens. In every province there is besides, in the case of the
+  Reformed Church, a provincial committee of supervision for the
+  ecclesiastical administration. For the whole kingdom this supervision
+  is entrusted to a common "collegium" or committee of supervision,
+  which meets at the Hague, and consists of 11 members named by the
+  provincial committee and 3 named by the synod. Some congregations have
+  withdrawn from provincial supervision, and have thus free control of
+  their own financial affairs. The oldest secession from the Orthodox
+  Church is that of the Remonstrants, who still represent the most
+  liberal thought in the country, and have their own training college at
+  Leiden. Towards 1840 a new congregation calling itself the Christian
+  Reformed Church (_Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk_) arose as a protest
+  against the government and the modern tendencies of the Reformed
+  Church; and for the same reason those who had founded the Free
+  University of Amsterdam (1880) formed themselves in 1886 into an
+  independent body called the _Nederlandsche Gereformeerde Kerk_. In
+  1892 these two churches united under the name of the Reformed Churches
+  (_Gereformeerde Kerken_) with the doctrine and discipline of Dort.
+  They have a theological seminary at Kampen. Other Protestant bodies
+  are the Walloons, who, though possessing an independent church
+  government, are attached to the Low-Dutch Reformed Church; the
+  Lutherans, divided into the main body of Evangelical Lutherans and a
+  smaller division calling themselves the Re-established or Old
+  Lutherans (_Herstelde Lutherschen_) who separated in 1791 in order to
+  keep more strictly to the Augsburg confession; the Mennonites founded
+  by Menno Simons of Friesland, about the beginning of the 16th century;
+  the Baptists, whose only central authority is the General Baptist
+  Society founded at Amsterdam in 1811; the Evangelical Brotherhood of
+  Hernhutters or Moravians, who have churches and schools at Zeist and
+  Haarlem; and a Catholic Apostolic Church (1867) at the Hague. There
+  are congregations of English Episcopalians at the Hague, Amsterdam and
+  Rotterdam, and German Evangelicals at the Hague (1857) and Rotterdam
+  (1861). In 1853 the Roman Catholic Church, which before had been a
+  mission in the hands of papal legates and vicars, was raised into an
+  independent ecclesiastical province with five dioceses, namely, the
+  archbishopric of Utrecht, and the suffragan bishoprics of Haarlem,
+  Breda, 's Hertogenbosch and Roermond, each with its own seminary. Side
+  by side with the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the
+  Old Catholics or Old Episcopalian Church (_Oud Bisschoppelijke
+  Clerezie_), and the Jansenists (see JANSENISM). The Old Catholics,
+  with whom the Jansenists are frequently confused, date from the 17th
+  century. Besides an archbishop at Utrecht, the Old Catholics have
+  bishops at Deventer and Haarlem, and a training college at Amersfoort.
+  They numbered in 1905 about 9000 (see UTRECHT). The large Jewish
+  population in Holland had its origin in the wholesale influx of
+  Portuguese Jews at the end of the 16th, and of German Jews in the
+  beginning of the 17th century. In 1870 they were reorganized under the
+  central authority of the Netherlands Israelite Church, and divided
+  into head and "ring" synagogues and associated churches. The Roman
+  Catholic element preponderates in the southern provinces of Limburg,
+  and North Brabant, but in Friesland, Groningen and Drente the Baptists
+  and Christian Reformed are most numerous.
+
+  _Education._--Every grade of education in the Netherlands is under the
+  control and supervision of the state, being administered by a special
+  department under the ministry for the interior. In 1889 the state
+  recognized private denominational schools, and in 1900 passed a law of
+  compulsory attendance. Infant schools, which are generally in the
+  hands of private societies or the municipal authorities, are not
+  interfered with by the state. According to the law of 1889 primary
+  education is carried on in the ordinary and in continuation schools
+  for boys and girls (co-education having been long in vogue). These
+  schools are established in every commune, the state contributing aid
+  at the rate of 25% of the total expenditure. The age of admission is
+  six; and the course is for six years, 7-13 being the legal age limits;
+  the fee, from which poverty exempts, is almost nominal. Nature-study,
+  continued in the secondary schools, is an essential part in the
+  curriculum of these schools, and elementary general history, English,
+  French and German are among the optional subjects. While the boys are
+  instructed in woodwork, needlework is taught to the girls, its
+  introduction in 1889 having been the first recognition of practical
+  instruction in any form. Continuation schools (_herhalingsscholen_)
+  must be organized wherever required, and are generally open for six
+  months in winter, pupils of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending.
+  Secondary schools were established by the law of 1863 and must be
+  provided by every commune of 10,000 inhabitants; they comprise the
+  Burgher-Day-and-Evening schools and the Higher-Burgher schools. The
+  first named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in
+  industrial or agricultural pursuits, the day classes gradually fell
+  into disuse. The length of the course as prescribed by law is two
+  years, but it is usually extended to three or four years, and the
+  instruction, though mainly theoretical, has regard to the special
+  local industries; the fees, if any, may not exceed one pound sterling
+  per annum. Special mention must be made in this connexion of the
+  school of engineering in Amsterdam (1878) and the Academy of Plastic
+  Arts at Rotterdam. The higher-burgher schools have either a three or a
+  five years' course, and the fees vary from £2, 10s. to £5 a year. The
+  instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific. In both
+  schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course, that of the
+  higher-burgher schools admitting to the natural science and medical
+  branches of university education, a supplementary examination in Greek
+  and Latin being required for other branches. The gymnasia, or
+  classical schools, fall legally speaking under the head of higher
+  education. By the law of 1876, every town of 20,000 inhabitants,
+  unless specially exempted, must provide a gymnasium. A large
+  proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to the extent
+  of half their net cost. The curriculum is classical and philological,
+  but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in favour of
+  scientific subjects for those who wish. The fees vary from £5 to £8 a
+  year, but, owing to the absence of scholarships and bursaries, are
+  sometimes remitted, as in the case of the higher-burgher schools.
+  Among the schools which give specialized instruction, mention must be
+  made of the admirable trade schools (_ambachtsscholen_) established in
+  1861, and the corresponding industrial schools for girls; the fishery
+  schools and schools of navigation; the many private schools of
+  domestic science, and of commerce and industry, among which the
+  municipal school at Enschedé (1886) deserves special mention; and the
+  school of social work, "Das Huis," at Amsterdam (1900). For the
+  education of medical practitioners, civil and military, the more
+  important institutions are the National Obstetrical College at
+  Amsterdam, the National Veterinary School at Utrecht, the National
+  College for Military Physicians at Amsterdam and the establishment at
+  Utrecht for the training of military apothecaries for the East and
+  West Indies. The organization of agricultural education under the
+  state is very complete, and includes a state professor of agriculture
+  for every province (as well as professors of horticulture in several
+  cases), "winter schools" of agriculture and horticulture, and a state
+  agricultural college at Wageningen (1876) with courses in home and
+  colonial agriculture. The total fees at this college, including board
+  and lodging, are about £50 a year. According to the law of 1898, the
+  state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or testing-stations.
+  Other schools of the same class are the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten
+  schools of agriculture, gardening and forestry in Drente, the school
+  of instruction in butter and cheese making (_zuivelbereiding_) at
+  Bolsward and the state veterinary college at Utrecht.
+
+  There are three state universities in Holland, namely, Leiden (1575),
+  Groningen (1585) and Utrecht (1634). The ancient athenaeums of
+  Franeker (1585) and Harderwyk (1603) were closed in 1811, but that of
+  Amsterdam was converted into a municipal university in 1877. In each
+  of these universities there are five faculties, namely, law, theology,
+  medicine, science and mathematics, and literature and philosophy, the
+  courses for which are respectively four, five, eight, and six or seven
+  years for the two last named. The fees amount to 200 florins (£16,
+  13s. 4d.) per annum and are payable for four years. Two kinds of
+  degrees are conferred, namely, the ordinary (_candidaats_) and the
+  "doctor's" degrees. Pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only
+  eligible for the first. There is also a free (Calvinistic) university
+  at Amsterdam founded in 1880 and enjoying, since 1905, the right of
+  conferring degrees. It has, however, no faculties of law or science.
+  The state polytechnic school at Delft (1864) for the study of
+  engineering in all its branches, architecture and naval construction,
+  has a nominal course of four years, and confers the degree of
+  "engineer." The fees are the same as those of the universities, and as
+  at the universities there are bursaries. A national institution at
+  Leiden for the study of languages, geography and ethnology of the
+  Dutch Indies has given place to communal institutions of the same
+  nature at Delft and at Leiden, founded in 1864 and 1877. The centre of
+  Dutch university life, which is non-residential, is the students'
+  corps, at the head of which is a "senate," elected annually from among
+  the students of four years' standing. Membership of the corps is
+  gained after a somewhat trying novitiate, but is the only passport to
+  the various social and sports societies.
+
+  All teachers in the Netherlands must qualify for their profession by
+  examination. Under the act of 1898 they are trained either in the
+  state training-colleges, or in state-aided municipal, and private
+  denominational colleges; or else by means of state or private
+  state-aided courses of instruction. The age of admission to this class
+  of training is from 14 to 18, and the course is for four years. In the
+  last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary "practice"
+  school attached to each college, and students are also taught to make
+  models explanatory of the various subjects of instruction after the
+  manner of the Swedish Sloyd (Slöjd) system. Assistant-teachers wishing
+  to qualify as head-teachers must have had two years' practical
+  experience. Pupil-teachers can only give instruction under the
+  supervision of a certificated teacher. The minimum salary of teachers
+  is determined by law. The teaching, which follows the so-called
+  "Heuristic" method, and the equipment of schools of every description,
+  are admirable.
+
+  _Finance._--The following statement shows the revenue and expenditure
+  of the kingdom for the years 1889, 1900-1901 and 1905:--
+
+    _Revenue._
+
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |         Source.         |   1889.   |   1901.   |   1905.   |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                         |     £     |     £     |     £     |
+    | Excise                  | 3,678,075 | 4,042,500 | 4,514,998 |
+    | Direct taxation         | 2,300,865 | 2,900,175 | 3,135,665 |
+    | Indirect taxation       | 2,004,745 | 1,805,583 | 1,946,666 |
+    | Post Office             |   539,405 |   865,750 | 1,103,333 |
+    | Government telegraphs   |   106,970 |   187,375 |   211,333 |
+    | Export and Import duties|   440,247 |   801,500 |   930,912 |
+    | State domains           |   213,186 |   147,000 |   139,000 |
+    | Pilot dues              |   106,079 |   191,667 |   200,000 |
+    | State lotteries         |    54,609 |    54,250 |    52,666 |
+    | Game and Fisheries      |    11,660 |    11,000 |    11,750 |
+    | Railways                |    ..     |   361,512 |   349,011 |
+    | Part paid by East Indies|           |           |           |
+    |  on account of interest |           |           |           |
+    |  and redemption of      |           |           |           |
+    |  public debt            |    ..     |    ..     |   321,916 |
+    | Netherland Bank         |           |           |           |
+    |  contribution           |    ..     |    ..     |   160,500 |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |     Total*              | 9,475,337 |11,394,220 |14,017,079 |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+      * Including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail.
+
+    _Expenditure._
+
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |         Object.         |   1889.   |   1901.   |   1905.   |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                         |     £     |     £     |     £     |
+    | National Debt           | 2,727,591 | 2,906,214 | 2,899,770 |
+    | Department of War       | 1,708,698 | 1,893,036 | 2,474,011 |
+    |     "         Waterstaat| 1,790,291 | 2,448,339 | 2,869,951 |
+    |     "         Finance   | 1,537,404 | 2,092,343 | 2,297,180 |
+    |     "         Marine    | 1,038,536 | 1,388,141 | 1,396,137 |
+    |     "         Interior  |   815,188 | 1,330,563 | 1,613,134 |
+    |     "         Justice   |   426,343 |   529,159 |   592,073 |
+    |     "         Colonies  |    93,829 |   109,768 |   251,150 |
+    | Dept. of Foreign Affairs|    57,312 |    71,101 |    82,403 |
+    | Royal Household         |    54,166 |    66,667 |    66,666 |
+    | Superior Authorities of |           |           |           |
+    |  the State              |    52,476 |    56,792 |    58,251 |
+    | Unforeseen Expenditure  |     1,745 |     4,166 |     4,166 |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |    Total*               |10,393,579 |12,896,289 |14,907,781 |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+      * Including, besides the ordinary budget, the outlays in payment
+        of annuities, in funding and discharging debt, in railway
+        extension, &c.
+
+  The total debt in 1905 amounted to £96,764,266, the annual interest
+  amounted to £3,396,590. During the years 1850-1905, £27,416,651 has
+  been devoted to the redemption of the public debt. The total wealth of
+  the kingdom is estimated at 900 millions sterling. The various
+  provinces and communes have separate budgets. The following table
+  gives a statement of the provincial and communal  finances:--
+
+    _Revenue._
+
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                     |   1889.   |   1900.   |   1905.   |
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                     |    £      |    £      |    £      |
+    | Provincial          |   722,583 |   445,333 |   718,199 |
+    | Communal            | 6,132,000 | 9,311,666 |12,750,083 |
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+    _Expenditure._
+
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                     |   1889.   |   1900.   |   1905.   |
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                     |     £     |     £     |     £     |
+    | Provincial          |   740,333 |   445,333 |   702,718 |
+    | Communal            | 5,683,800 | 8,503,250 |12,085,250 |
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+_Colonies._--The Dutch colonies in the Malay Archipelago have an area of
+600,000 sq. m., with a population of 23,000,000, among which are 35,000
+Europeans, 319,000 Chinese, 15,000 Arabs, and 10,000 other immigrant
+Asiatics. The West Indian possessions of Holland include Dutch Guiana or
+the government of Surinam, and the Dutch Antilles or the government of
+Curaçoa and its dependencies (St Eustatius, Saba, the southern half of
+St Martin, Curaçoa, Bonaire and Aruba), a total area of 60,000 sq. m.,
+with 90,000 inhabitants, of whom a small portion are Europeans, and the
+rest negroes and other people of colour, and Chinese.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief place is due to the following geographical
+  publications:--Dr H. Blink, _Nederland en zijne Bewoners_ (Amsterdam,
+  1888-1892), containing a copious bibliography; _Tegenwoordige Staat
+  van Nederland_ (Amsterdam, 1897); R. Schuiling, _Aardrijkskunde van
+  Nederland_ (Zwolle, 1884); A. A. Beekman, _De Strijd om het Bestaan_
+  (Zutphen, 1887), a manual on the characteristic hydrography of the
+  Netherlands; and E. Reclus' _Nouvelle géographie universelle_ (1879;
+  vol. iv.). The _Gedenboek uitgeven ter gelegenheid van het
+  fijftig-jarig bestaan van het Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs_,
+  1847-1897 ('s Gravenhage, 1898), is an excellent aid in studying
+  technically the remarkable works on Dutch rivers, canals, sluices,
+  railways and harbours, and drainage and irrigation works. The
+  _Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van Nederland_, by P. H. Witkamp (Arnhem,
+  1895), is a complete gazetteer with historical notes, and _Nomina
+  Geographica Neerlandica_, published by the Netherlands Geographical
+  Society (Amsterdam, 1885, &c.), contains a history of geographical
+  names. _Geschiedenis van den Boereastand en den landbouw in
+  Nederland_, H. Blink (Groningen, 1902), and the report on agriculture,
+  published at the Hague by the Royal Commission appointed in 1896,
+  furnish special information in connexion with this subject. Of more
+  general interest are: _Eene halve Eeuw, 1848-1898_, edited by Dr P. H.
+  Ritter (Amsterdam, 1898), containing a series of articles on all
+  subjects connected with the kingdom during the second half of the 19th
+  century, written by specialists; and _Les Pays Bas_ (Leiden, 1899),
+  and _La Hollande géographique, ethnologique, politique, &c._ (Paris,
+  1900), both works of the same class as the preceding.
+
+  Books of travel include some of considerable topographical as well as
+  literary interest, from Lodovico Guicciardini (1567) down to Edmondo
+  de Amicis (_Holland_, translated from the Italian, London, 1883); H.
+  Havard, _Dead Cities of the Zuider Zee, &c._ (translated from the
+  French, London 1876), and D. S. Meldrum, _Holland and the Hollanders_
+  (London, 1899) in the 19th century. Mention may also be made of _Old
+  Dutch Towns and Villages of the Zuider Zee_, by W. J. Tuyn (translated
+  from the Dutch, London, 1901), _Nieuwe Wandelingen door Nederland_, by
+  J. Craandijk and P. A. Schipperus (Haarlem, 1888); _Friesland Meres
+  and through the Netherlands_, by H. M. Doughty (London, 1887); _On
+  Dutch Waterways_, by G. C. Davis (London, 1887); _Hollande et
+  hollandais_, by H. Durand (Paris, 1893); and _Holland and Belgium_ by
+  Professor N. G. van Kampen (translated from the Dutch, London, 1860),
+  the last three being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations.
+  Works of historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are
+  _Merkwaardige Kasteelen in Nederland_, by J. van Lennep and W. J.
+  Hofdyk (Leiden, 1881-1884); _Noord-Hollandsche Oudheden_, by G. van
+  Arkel and A. W. Weisman, published by the Royal Antiquarian Society
+  (Amsterdam, 1891); and _Oud Holland_, edited by A. D. de Vries and N.
+  de Roever (Amsterdam, 1883-1886), containing miscellaneous
+  contributions to the history of ancient Dutch art, crafts and letters.
+  Natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the
+  Royal Zoological Society "Natura Artis Magistra" at Amsterdam, and the
+  _Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland_ (Haarlem, 1856-1863) written by
+  specialists, and including ethnology and flora. Military and naval
+  defence may be studied in _De vesting Holland_, by A. L. W. Seijffardt
+  (Utrecht, 1887), and the _Handbook of the Dutch Army_, by Major W. L.
+  White, R.A. (London, 1896); ecclesiastical history in _The Church in
+  the Netherlands_, by P. H. Ditchfield (London, 1893); and education in
+  vol. viii. of the _Special Reports on Educational Subjects_ issued by
+  the Board of Education, London. Statistics are furnished by the annual
+  publication of the Society for Statistics in the Netherlands,
+  Amsterdam.
+
+
+HISTORY FROM 1579 TO MODERN TIMES[5]
+
+
+  Consequences of the Union of Utrecht.
+
+  Sovereignty offered to the Duke of Anjou.
+
+  The Ban against William of Orange.
+
+  The Act of Abjuration.
+
+  The Apology.
+
+The political compact known as the Union of Utrecht differed from its
+immediate predecessors, the Pacification of Ghent, the Union of Brussels
+and the Perpetual Edict, in its permanence. The confederacy of the
+northern provinces of the Netherlands which was effected (29th of
+January 1579) by the exertions of John of Nassau, was destined to be the
+beginning of a new national life. The foundation was laid on which the
+Republic of the United Netherlands was to be raised. Its immediate
+results were far from promising. The falling away of the Walloon
+provinces and the Catholic nobles from the patriot cause threatened it
+with ruin. Nothing but the strong personal influence and indefatigable
+labours of the prince of Orange stood in the way of a more general
+defection. Everywhere, save in staunch and steadfast Holland and
+Zeeland, a feeling of wavering and hesitation was spreading through the
+land. In Holland and Zeeland William was supreme, but elsewhere his aims
+and his principles were misrepresented and misunderstood. He saw that
+unaided the patriotic party could not hope to resist the power of Philip
+II., and he had therefore resolved to gain the support of France by the
+offer of the sovereignty of the Netherlands to the duke of Anjou. But
+Anjou was a Catholic, and this fact aroused among the Protestants a
+feeling that they were being betrayed. But the prince persisted in the
+policy he felt to be a necessity, and (23rd of Jan. 1581) a treaty was
+concluded with the duke, by which he, under certain conditions, agreed
+to accept the sovereignty of the Netherlands provinces, except Holland
+and Zeeland. These two provinces were unwilling to have any sovereign
+but William himself, and after considerable hesitation he agreed to
+become their Count (24th of July 1581). He felt that he was justified in
+taking this step because of the Ban which Philip had published on the
+15th of March 1581, in which Orange had been proclaimed a traitor and
+miscreant, and a reward offered to any one who would take his life. His
+practical answer to the king was the act of Abjuration, by which at his
+persuasion the representatives of the provinces of Brabant, Flanders,
+Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland and Utrecht, assembled at the Hague,
+declared that Philip had forfeited his sovereignty over them, and that
+they held themselves henceforth absolved from their allegiance to him.
+In a written defence, the famous _Apology_, published later in the year,
+William replied at great length to the charges that had been brought
+against him, and carrying the war into the enemy's camp, endeavoured to
+prove that the course he had pursued was justified by the crimes and
+tyranny of the king.
+
+
+  Attempt on the Life of Orange by Jean Jaureguy.
+
+  The French Fury.
+
+  Assassination of William the Silent.
+
+The duke of Anjou was solemnly inaugurated as duke of Brabant (February
+1582), and shortly afterwards as duke of Gelderland, count of Flanders
+and lord of Friesland. William had taken up his residence at Antwerp in
+order to give the French prince his strongest personal support, and
+while there a serious attempt was made upon his life (March 18th) by a
+youth named Jean Jaureguy. He fired a pistol at the prince close to his
+head, and the ball passed under the right ear and out at the left jaw.
+It was a terrible wound, but fortunately not fatal. Meanwhile Anjou soon
+grew tired of his dependent position and of the limitations placed upon
+his sovereignty. He resolved by a secret and sudden attack (17th of
+January 1583) to make himself master of Antwerp and of the person of
+Orange. The assault was made, but it proved an utter failure. The
+citizens resisted stoutly behind barricades, and the French were routed
+with heavy loss. The "French Fury" as it was called, rendered the
+position of Anjou in the Netherlands impossible, and made William
+himself unpopular in Brabant. He accordingly withdrew to Delft. In the
+midst of his faithful Hollanders he felt that he could still organize
+resistance, and stem the progress made by Spanish arms and Spanish
+influence under the able leadership of Alexander of Parma. Antwerp, with
+St Aldegonde as its burgomaster, was still in the hands of the patriots
+and barred the way to the sea, and covered Zeeland from invasion. Never
+for one moment did William lose heart or relax his efforts and
+vigilance; he felt that with the two maritime provinces secure the
+national cause need not be despaired of. But his own days had now drawn
+to their end. The failure of Jaureguy did not deter a young Catholic
+zealot, by name Balthazar Gérard, from attempting to assassinate the man
+whom he looked upon as the arch-enemy of God and the king. Under the
+pretext of seeking a passport, Gérard penetrated into the Prinsenhof at
+Delft, and firing point blank at William as he left the dining hall,
+mortally wounded him (10th of July 1584). Amidst general lamentations
+"the Father of his Country," as he was called, was buried with great
+state in the Nieuwe Kerk at Delft at the public charge.
+
+
+  Maurice of Nassau.
+
+  The Sovereignty offered to Henry III. and declined.
+
+  Leicester Governor-general.
+
+But though the great leader was dead, he had not striven or worked in
+vain. The situation was critical, but there was no panic. Throughout the
+revolted provinces there was a general determination to continue the
+struggle to the bitter end. To make head, however, against the
+victorious advance of Parma, before whose arms all the chief towns of
+Brabant and Flanders, Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and lastly--after a
+valiant defence--Antwerp itself had fallen, it was necessary to look for
+the protection of a foreign ruler. The government, now that the
+commanding personal influence of William was no more, was without any
+central authority which could claim obedience. The States-General were
+but the delegates of a number of sovereign provinces, and amongst these
+Holland by its size and wealth (after the occupation by the Spaniards of
+Brabant and Flanders) was predominant. Maurice of Nassau, William's
+second son, had indeed on his father's death been appointed captain and
+admiral-general of the Union, president of the Council of State, and
+stadholder of Holland and Zeeland, but he was as yet too young, only
+seventeen, to take a leading part in affairs. Count Hohenloo took the
+command of the troops with the title of lieutenant-general. Two devoted
+adherents of William of Orange, Paul Buys, advocate of Holland, and
+Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, pensionary of Rotterdam, were the statesmen
+who at this difficult juncture took the foremost part in directing the
+policy of the confederacy. They turned first to France. The sovereignty
+of the provinces was offered to Henry III., but the king, harassed by
+civil discords in his own country, declined the dangerous honour (1585).
+Repelled in this direction, the States-General next turned themselves to
+England. Elizabeth was alarmed by the successes of the Spanish arms, and
+especially by the fall of Antwerp; and, though refusing the sovereignty,
+she agreed to send a force of 5000 foot and 1000 horse to the aid of the
+Provinces under the command of the earl of Leicester, her expenses being
+guaranteed by the handing over to her the towns of Flushing, Brill and
+Rammekens as pledges (10th of August 1585). Leicester, on landing in
+Holland, was in the presence of the States-General and of Maurice of
+Nassau invested with the title of governor-general and practically
+sovereign powers (February 1586).
+
+
+  Failure and withdrawal of Leicester.
+
+The new governor had great difficulties to contend with. He knew nothing
+of the language or the character of the people he was called upon to
+govern; his own abilities both as general and statesman were mediocre;
+and he was hampered constantly in his efforts by the niggardliness and
+changing whims of his royal mistress. In trying to consolidate the
+forces of the Provinces for united action and to centralize its
+government, he undoubtedly did his best, according to his lights, for
+the national cause. But he was too hasty and overbearing. His edict
+prohibiting all commercial intercourse with the enemy at once aroused
+against him the bitter hostility of the merchants of Holland and
+Zeeland, who thrived by such traffic. His attempts to pack the council
+of State, on which already two Englishmen had seats, with personal
+adherents and to override the opposition of the provincial states of
+Holland to his arbitrary acts, at last made his position impossible. The
+traitorous surrender of Deventer and Zutphen by their English governors,
+Stanley and York, both Catholics, rendered all Englishmen suspect. The
+States of Holland under the leadership of Johan van Oldenbarneveldt,
+took up an attitude of resolute hostility to him, and the States of
+Holland dominated the States-General. In the midst of these divided
+councils the important seaport of Sluis was taken by Parma. Utterly
+discredited, Leicester (6th of August 1587) abandoned the task, in
+which he had met with nothing but failure, and returned to England.
+
+
+  Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.
+
+  Maurice of Nassau.
+
+Nothing could have been worse than the position of the States at the
+beginning of 1588. Had Parma had a free hand, in all probability he
+would have crushed out the revolt and reconquered the northern
+Netherlands. But the attention of the Spanish king was at this time
+concentrated upon the success of the Invincible Armada. The army of
+Parma was held in readiness for the invasion of England, and the United
+Provinces had a respite. They were fortunately able to avail themselves
+of it. The commanding abilities of Oldenbarneveldt, now advocate of
+Holland, gradually gathered into his hands the entire administration of
+the Republic. He became indispensable and, as his influence grew, more
+and more did the policy of the provinces acquire unity and consistency
+of purpose. At the same time Maurice of Nassau, now grown to man's
+estate, began to display those military talents which were to gain for
+him the fame of being the first general of his time. But Maurice was no
+politician. He had implicit trust in the advocate, his father's faithful
+friend and counsellor, and for many years to come the statesman and the
+soldier worked in harmony together for the best interests of their
+country (see OLDENBARNEVELDT, and MAURICE, prince of Orange). At the
+side of Maurice, as a wise adviser, stood his cousin William Louis,
+stadholder of Friesland, a trained soldier and good commander in the
+field.
+
+
+  Campaign of 1591.
+
+  Death of Parma.
+
+  New province of Stadt en Landen.
+
+After the destruction of the Armada, Parma had been occupied with
+campaigns on the southern frontier against the French, and the
+Netherlanders had been content to stand on guard against attack. The
+surprise of Breda by a stratagem (8th of March 1590) was the only
+military event of importance up to 1591. But the two stadholders had not
+wasted the time. The States' forces had been reorganized and brought to
+a high state of military discipline and training. In 1591 the
+States-General, after considerable hesitation, were persuaded by Maurice
+to sanction an offensive campaign. It was attended by marvellous
+success. Zutphen was captured on the 20th of May, Deventer on the 20th
+of June. Parma, who was besieging the fort of Knodsenburg, was forced to
+retire with loss. Hulst fell after a three days' investment, and finally
+Nymegen was taken on the 21st of October. The fame of Maurice, a
+consummate general at the early age of twenty-four, was on all men's
+lips. The following campaign was signalized by the capture of Steenwyk
+and Koevorden. On the 8th of December 1592 Parma died, and the States
+were delivered from their most redoubtable adversary. In 1593 the
+leaguer of Geertruidenburg put the seal on Maurice's reputation as an
+invincible besieger. The town fell after an investment of three months.
+Groningen was the chief fruit of the campaign of 1594. With its
+dependent district it was formed into a new province under the name of
+Stadt en Landen. William Louis became the stadholder (see GRONINGEN).
+The soil of the northern Netherlands was at last practically free from
+the presence of Spanish garrisons.
+
+
+  Triple Alliance of France, England and the United Provinces.
+
+The growing importance of the new state was signalized by the
+conclusion, in 1596, of a triple alliance between England, France and
+the United Provinces. It was of short duration and purchased by hard
+conditions, but it implied the recognition by Henry IV. and Elizabeth of
+the States-General, as a sovereign power, with whom treaties could be
+concluded. Such a recognition was justified by the brilliant successes
+of the campaign of 1597. It began with the complete rout of a Spanish
+force of 4500 men at Turnhout in January, with scarcely any loss to the
+victors. Then in a succession of sieges Rheinberg, Meurs, Groenlo,
+Bredevoort, Enschedé, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal and Lingen fell into the
+hands of Maurice.
+
+
+  Albert and Isabel, Sovereigns of the Netherlands.
+
+The relations of the Netherlands to Spain were in 1598 completely
+changed. Philip II. feeling death approaching, resolved to marry his
+elder daughter, the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia, to her cousin, the
+Cardinal Archduke Albert of Austria, who had been governor-general of
+the Netherlands since 1596, and to erect the Provinces into an
+independent sovereignty under their joint rule. The instrument was
+executed in May; Philip died in September; the marriage took place in
+November. In case the marriage should have no issue, the sovereignty of
+the Netherlands was to revert to the king of Spain. The archdukes (such
+was their official title) did not make their _joyeuse entrée_ into
+Brussels until the close of 1599. The step was taken too late to effect
+a reconciliation with the rebel provinces. Peace overtures were made,
+but the conditions were unacceptable. The States-General never seriously
+considered the question of giving in their submission to the new
+sovereigns. The traders of Holland and Zeeland had thriven mightily by
+the war. Their ships had penetrated to the East and West Indies, and
+were to be found in every sea. The year 1600 saw the foundation of the
+Chartered East India Company (see DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY). The
+question of freedom of trade with the Indies had become no less vital to
+the Dutch people than freedom of religious worship. To both these
+concessions Spanish policy was irreconcilably opposed.
+
+
+  The Battle of Nieuport.
+
+  Siege of Ostend.
+
+Dunkirk, as a nest of freebooters who preyed upon Dutch commerce, was
+made the objective of a daring offensive campaign in 1600 by the orders
+of the States-General under the influence of Oldenbarneveldt in the
+teeth of the opposition of the stadholders Maurice and William Louis. By
+a bold march across Flanders, Maurice reached Nieuport on the 1st of
+July, and proceeded to invest it. The archduke Albert, however, followed
+hard on his steps with an army of seasoned troops, and Maurice, with his
+communications cut, was forced to fight for his existence. A desperate
+combat took place on the dunes between forces of equal strength and
+valour. Only by calling up his last reserves did victory declare for
+Maurice. The archduke had to fly for his life. Five thousand Spaniards
+were killed; seven hundred taken, and one hundred and five standards. To
+have thus worsted the dreaded Spanish infantry in open fight was a great
+triumph for the States troops and their general, but it was barren of
+results. Maurice refused to run further risks and led back his army to
+Holland. For the following three years all the energies alike of the
+archdukes and the States-General were concentrated on the siege of
+Ostend (15th of July 1601-20th of Sept. 1604), the solitary possession
+of the Dutch in Flanders. The heroic obstinacy of the defence was
+equalled by the perseverance of the attack, and there was a vast
+expenditure, especially on the side of the Spaniards, of blood and
+treasure. At last when reduced to a heap of ruins, Ostend fell before
+the resolution of Ambrosio de Spinola, a Genoese banker, to whom the
+command of the besiegers had been entrusted (see SPINOLA). A month
+before the surrender, however, another and more commodious seaport,
+Sluis, had fallen into the possession of the States army under Maurice,
+and thus the loss of Ostend was discounted.
+
+
+  Negotiations for Peace.
+
+  The Twelve Years' Truce.
+
+Spinola proved himself to be a general of a high order, and the
+campaigns of 1606 and 1607 resolved themselves into a duel of skill
+between him and Maurice without much advantage accruing to either side.
+But the archdukes' treasury was now empty, and their credit exhausted;
+both sides were weary of fighting, and serious negotiations for peace
+were set on foot. The disposition of the Spaniards to make concessions
+was further quickened by the destruction of their fleet at Gibraltar by
+the Dutch admiral Heemskerk, (April 1607). But there were many
+difficulties in the way. The peace party in the United Provinces headed
+by Oldenbarneveldt was opposed by the stadholders Maurice and William
+Louis, the great majority of the military and naval officers, the
+Calvinist preachers and many leading merchants. The Spaniards on their
+side were obdurate on the subjects of freedom of trade in the Indies and
+of freedom of religious worship. At last, after the negotiations had
+been repeatedly on the point of breaking off, a compromise was effected
+by the mediation of the envoys of France and England. On the 9th of
+April 1609 a truce for twelve years was agreed upon. On all points the
+Dutch demands were granted. The treaty was concluded with the Provinces,
+"in the quality of free States over whom the archdukes made no
+pretentions." The _uti possidetis_ as regards territorial possession was
+recognized. Neither the granting of freedom of worship to Roman
+Catholics nor the word "Indies" was mentioned, but in a secret treaty
+King Philip undertook to place no hindrance in the way of Dutch trade,
+wherever carried on.
+
+
+  Theological strife in Holland.
+
+  Arminius and Gomarus.
+
+  Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.
+
+  Waard-gelders.
+
+  Oldenbarneveldt executed.
+
+One of the immediate results of this triumph of his policy was the
+increase of Oldenbarneveldt's influence and authority in the government
+of the Republic. But though Maurice and his other opponents had
+reluctantly yielded to the advocate's skilful diplomacy and persuasive
+arguments, a soreness remained between the statesman and the stadholder
+which was destined never to be healed. The country was no sooner
+relieved from the pressure of external war than it was torn by internal
+discords. After a brief interference in the affairs of Germany, where
+the intricate question of the Cleves-Jülich succession was already
+preparing the way for the Thirty Years' War, the United Provinces became
+immersed in a hot and absorbing theological struggle with which were
+mixed up important political issues. The province of Holland was the
+arena in which it was fought out. Two professors of theology at Leiden,
+Jacobus Arminius (see ARMINIUS) and Franciscus Gomarus, became the
+leaders of two parties, who differed from one another upon certain
+tenets of the abstruse doctrine of predestination. Gomarus supported the
+orthodox Calvinist view; Arminius assailed it. The Arminians appealed to
+the States of Holland (1610) in a Remonstrance in which their
+theological position was defined. They were henceforth known as
+"Remonstrants"; their opponents were styled "Contra-Remonstrants." The
+advocate and the States of Holland took sides with the Remonstrants,
+Maurice and the majority of the States-General (four provinces out of
+seven) supported the Contra-Remonstrants. It became a question of the
+extent of the rights of sovereign princes under the Union. The
+States-General wished to summon a national synod, the States of Holland
+refused their assent, and made levies of local militia (_waard-gelders_)
+for the maintenance of order. The States-General (9th of July 1618) took
+up the challenge, and the prince of Orange, as captain-general, was
+placed at the head of a commission to go in the first place to Utrecht,
+which supported Oldenbarneveldt, and then to the various cities of
+Holland to insist on the disbanding of the _waard-gelders_. On the side
+of Maurice, whom the army obeyed, was the power of the sword. The
+opposition collapsed; the recalcitrant provincial states were purged;
+and the leaders of the party of state rights--the advocate himself, Hugo
+de Groot (see GROTIUS), pensionary of Rotterdam, and Hoogerbeets,
+pensionary of Leiden, were arrested and thrown into prison. The whole
+proceedings were illegal, and the illegality was consummated by the
+prisoners being brought before a special tribunal of 24 judges, nearly
+all of whom were personal enemies of the accused. The trial was merely a
+preliminary to condemnation. The advocate was sentenced to death, and
+executed (13th of May 1619) in the Binnenhof at the Hague. The sentences
+of Grotius and Hoogerbeets were commuted to perpetual imprisonment.
+
+
+  Synod of Dort.
+
+Meanwhile the National Synod had been summoned and had met at Dort on
+the 13th of November 1618. One hundred members, many of them foreign
+divines, composed this great assembly, who after 154 sittings gave their
+seal to the doctrines of the Netherlands Confession and the Heidelberg
+Catechism. The Arminians were condemned, their preachers deprived, and
+the Remonstrant party placed under a ban (6th of May 1619).
+
+
+  Renewal of the war.
+
+  Death of Maurice.
+
+  The period of Frederick Henry.
+
+  The East and West India Companies.
+
+In 1621 the Twelve Years' Truce came to an end, and war broke out once
+more with Spain. Maurice, after the death of Oldenbarneveldt, was
+supreme in the land, but he missed sorely the wise counsels of the old
+statesman whose tragic end he had been so largely instrumental in
+bringing about. He and Spinola found themselves once more at the head of
+the armies in the field, but the health of the stadholder was
+undermined, and his military genius was under a cloud. Deeply mortified
+by his failure to relieve Breda, which was blockaded by Spinola, Maurice
+fell seriously ill, and died on the 23rd of April 1625. He was succeeded
+in his dignities by his younger brother Frederick Henry (see FREDERICK
+HENRY, prince of Orange), who was appointed stadholder of Holland,
+Zeeland, Utrecht, Overyssel and Gelderland, captain and adjutant-general
+of the Union and head of the Council of State. Frederick Henry was as a
+general scarcely inferior to Maurice, and a far more able statesman. The
+moderation of his views and his conciliatory temper did much to heal the
+wounds left by civil and religious strife, and during his time the power
+and influence of the stadholderate attained their highest point. Such
+was his popularity and the confidence he inspired that in 1631 his great
+offices of state were declared hereditary, in favour of his
+five-year-old son, by the _Acte de Survivance_. He did much to justify
+the trust placed in him, for the period of Frederick Henry is the most
+brilliant in the history of the Dutch Republic. During his time the East
+India Company, which had founded the town of Batavia in Java as their
+administrative capital, under a succession of able governor-generals
+almost monopolized the trade of the entire Orient, made many conquests
+and established a network of factories and trade posts stretching from
+the Cape of Good Hope to Japan (see DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY). The West
+India Company, erected in 1621, though framed on the same model, aimed
+rather at waging war on the enemies' commerce than in developing their
+own. Their fleets for some years brought vast booty into the company's
+coffers. The Mexican treasure ships fell into the hands of Piet Heyn,
+the boldest of their admirals, in 1628; and they were able to send
+armies across the ocean, conquer a large part of Brazil, and set up a
+flourishing Dutch dominion in South America (see Dutch West India
+Company). The operations of these two great chartered companies occupy a
+place among memorable events of Frederick Henry's stadholderate; they
+are therefore mentioned here, but for further details the special
+articles must be consulted.
+
+
+  Policy of Frederick Henry.
+
+When Frederick Henry stepped into his brother's place, he found the
+United Provinces in a position of great danger and of critical
+importance. The Protestants of Germany were on the point of being
+crushed by the forces of the Austrian Habsburgs and the Catholic League.
+It lay with the Netherlands to create a diversion in the favour of their
+co-religionists by keeping the forces of the Spanish Habsburgs fully
+occupied. But to do so with their flank exposed to imperialist attack
+from the east, was a task involving grave risks and possible disaster.
+In these circumstances, Frederick Henry saw the necessity of securing
+French aid. It was secured by the skilful diplomacy of Francis van
+Aarssens (q.v.) but on hard conditions. Richelieu required the
+assistance of the Dutch fleet to enable him to overcome the resistance
+of the Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle. The far-sighted stadholder,
+despite popular opposition, by his powerful personal influence induced
+the States-General to grant the naval aid, and thus obtain the French
+alliance on which the safety of the republic depended.
+
+
+  Sieges of Hertogenbosch and Maestricht.
+
+  Death of the Infanta Isabel.
+
+The first great military success of Frederick Henry was in 1629. His
+capture of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-duc), hitherto supposed to be
+impregnable, after a siege of five months was a triumph of engineering
+skill. Wesel also was taken by surprise this same year. In 1631 a large
+Spanish fleet carrying a picked force of 6000 soldiers, for the invasion
+of Zeeland, was completely destroyed by the Dutch in the Slaak and the
+troops made prisoners. The campaign of the following year was made
+memorable by the siege of Maestricht. This important frontier town lying
+on both sides of the river Meuse was taken by the prince of Orange in
+the teeth of two relieving armies, Spanish and Imperialist, whose
+united forces were far larger than his own. This brilliant feat of arms
+was the prelude to peace negotiations, which led to a lengthy exchange
+of diplomatic notes. No agreement, however, was reached. The death of
+the Infanta Isabel in November 1633, and the reversion of the
+Netherlands to the sovereignty of the king of Spain, rendered all
+efforts to end the war, for the time being, fruitless.
+
+
+  Alliance with France.
+
+  Capture of Breda.
+
+  Battle of the Downs.
+
+At this juncture a strengthening of the French alliance seemed to the
+prince not merely expedient, but necessary. He had to contend against a
+strong peace party in Holland headed by the pensionary Pauw, but with
+the aid of the diplomatic skill of Aarssens all opposition was overcome.
+Pauw was replaced as pensionary by Jacob Cats, and the objections of
+Richelieu were met and satisfied. A defensive and offensive alliance
+with France was concluded early in 1635 against the king of Spain, and
+each party bound itself not to make a peace or truce without the assent
+of the other. A large French force was sent into the Netherlands and
+placed under the command of the prince of Orange. The military results
+of the alliance were during the first two campaigns inconsiderable. The
+Cardinal Infant Ferdinand had been appointed governor of the
+Netherlands, and he proved himself an excellent general, and there were
+dissensions in the councils of the allies. In 1637 the stadholder was
+able to add to his fame as an invincible besieger of cities. His failure
+to relieve Breda had hastened the death of Maurice. It fell in 1625 into
+the hands of Spinola after a blockade of eleven months; it was now
+retaken by Frederick Henry after a siege of eleven weeks, in the face of
+immense difficulties. The reluctance of the States of Holland, and of
+Amsterdam in particular, to grant adequate supplies caused the campaigns
+of 1638 and 1639 to be in the main defensive and dilatory. An attempted
+attack on Antwerp was foiled by the vigilance of the Cardinal Infant. A
+body of 6000 men under Count William of Nassau were surprised and
+utterly cut to pieces. The year 1639, which had begun with abortive
+negotiations, and in which the activity of the stadholder had been much
+hampered by ill-health, was not to end, however, without a signal
+triumph of the Dutch arms, but it was to be on sea and not on land. A
+magnificent Spanish armada consisting of 77 vessels, manned by 24,000
+soldiers and sailors under the command of Admiral Oquendo, were sent to
+the Channel in September with orders to drive the Dutch from the narrow
+seas and land a large body of troops at Dunkirk. Attacked by a small
+Dutch fleet under Admiral Marten Tromp, the Spaniards sheltered
+themselves under the English Downs by the side of an English squadron.
+Tromp kept watch over them until he had received large reinforcements,
+and then (21st of October) boldly attacked them as they lay in English
+waters. Oquendo himself with seven vessels escaped under cover of a fog;
+all the rest of the fleet was destroyed. This crushing victory assured
+to the Dutch the command of the sea during the rest of the war. The
+naval power of Spain never in fact recovered from the blow.
+
+
+  English and Dutch Commercial Rivalry.
+
+  Marriage of William and Mary.
+
+The triumph of Tromp had, however, a bad effect on public feeling in
+England. The circumstances under which the battle of the Downs was won
+were galling to the pride of the English people, and intensified the
+growing unfriendliness between two nations, one of whom possessed and
+the other claimed supremacy upon the seas. The prosperity of the
+world-wide Dutch commerce was looked upon with eyes of jealousy across
+the Channel. Disputes had been constantly recurring between Dutch and
+English traders in the East Indies and elsewhere, and the seeds were
+already sown of that stern rivalry which was to issue in a series of
+fiercely contested wars. But in 1639-1640 civil discords in England
+stood in the way of a strong foreign policy, and the adroit Aarssens was
+able so "to sweeten the bitterness of the pill" as to bring King Charles
+not merely to "overlook the scandal of the Downs," but to consent to the
+marriage of the princess royal with William, the only son of the
+stadholder. The wedding of the youthful couple (aged respectively 14 and
+10 years) took place on the 12th of May 1641 (see WILLIAM II., PRINCE OF
+ORANGE). This royal alliance gave added influence and position to the
+house of Orange-Nassau.
+
+
+  Changed relations of the United Provinces with France and Spain.
+
+About this time various causes brought about a change in the feelings
+which had hitherto prevented any possibility of peace between Spain and
+the United Netherlands. The revolt of Portugal (December 1640) weakened
+the Spanish power, and involved the loss to Spain of the Portuguese
+colonies. But it was in the Portuguese colonies that the conquests of
+the Dutch East and West India Companies had been made, and the question
+of the Indies as between Netherlander and Spaniard assumed henceforth
+quite a different complexion. Aarssens, the strongest advocate of the
+French alliance, passed away in 1641, and his death was quickly followed
+by those of Richelieu and Louis XIII. The victory of Condé at Rocroy
+opened the eyes of Frederick Henry to the danger of a French conquest of
+the Belgian provinces; and, feeling his health growing enfeebled, the
+prince became anxious before his death to obtain peace and security for
+his country by means of an accommodation with Spain. In 1643
+negotiations were opened which, after many delays and in the face of
+countless difficulties, were at length, four years later, to terminate
+successfully.
+
+
+  Death of Frederick Henry--his last campaigns.
+
+The course of the _pourparlers_ would doubtless have run more smoothly
+but for the infirm health and finally the death of the prince of Orange
+himself. Frederick Henry expired on the 14th of March 1647, and was
+buried by the side of his father and brother in Delft. In his last
+campaigns he had completed with signal success the task which, as a
+military commander, he had set himself,--of giving to the United
+Provinces a thoroughly defensible frontier of barrier fortresses. In
+1644 he captured Sas de Ghent; in 1645 Hulst. That portion of Flanders
+which skirts the south bank of the Scheldt thus passed into the
+possession of the States, and with it the complete control of all the
+waterways to the sea.
+
+
+  The Peace of Münster.
+
+  Complete triumph of the Dutch.
+
+The death of the great stadholder did not, however, long delay the
+carrying out of the policy on which he had set his heart, of concluding
+a separate peace with Spain behind the back of France, notwithstanding
+the compact of 1635 with that power. A provisional draft of a treaty had
+already been drawn up before the demise of Frederick Henry, and
+afterwards, despite the strenuous opposition of the new prince of Orange
+(who, under the _Acte de Survivance_, had inherited all his father's
+offices and dignities) and of two of the provinces, Zeeland and Utrecht,
+the negotiations were by the powerful support of the States of Holland
+and of the majority of the States-General, quickly brought to a
+successful issue. The treaty was signed at Münster on the 30th of
+January 1648. It was a peace practically dictated by the Dutch, and
+involved a complete surrender of everything for which Spain had so long
+fought. The United Provinces were recognized as free and independent,
+and Spain dropped all her claims; the _uti possidetis_ basis was adopted
+in respect to all conquests; the Scheldt was declared entirely closed--a
+clause which meant the ruin of Antwerp for the profit of Amsterdam; the
+right to trade in the East and West Indies was granted, and all the
+conquests made by the Dutch from the Portuguese were ceded to them; the
+two contracting parties agreed to respect and keep clear of each other's
+trading grounds; each was to pay in the ports of the other only such
+tolls as natives paid. Thus, triumphantly for the revolted provinces,
+the eighty years' war came to an end. At this moment the republic of the
+United Netherlands touched, perhaps, the topmost point of its prosperity
+and greatness.
+
+
+  The form of Government in the United Provinces.
+
+  The position of Holland and Amsterdam.
+
+No sooner was peace concluded than bitter disputes arose between the
+provincial States of Holland and the prince of Orange, supported by the
+other six provinces, upon the question of the disbanding of the military
+forces. William was a young man (he was twenty-one at the time of his
+father's death) of the highest abilities and of soaring ambition. He
+was totally opposed to the peace with Spain, and wished to bring about a
+speedy resumption of the war. With this view he entered into secret
+negotiations for a French alliance which, as far as can be gathered from
+extant records, had for its objects the conquest and partition by the
+allies of the Belgic provinces, and joint action in England on behalf of
+Charles II. As a preliminary step William aimed at a centralization of
+the powers of government in the United Provinces in his own person. He
+saw clearly the inherent defects of the existing federation, and he
+wished to remedy a system which was so complicated as to be at times
+almost unworkable. The States-General were but the delegates, the
+stadholders the servants, of a number of sovereign provinces, each of
+which had different historical traditions and a different form of
+government, and one of which--Holland--in wealth and importance
+outweighed the other six taken together. Between the States of Holland
+and the States-General there was constant jealousy and friction. And yet
+strangely enough the States of Holland themselves were not really
+representative of the people of that province, but only of the limited,
+self-coopting burgher aristocracies of certain towns, each of which with
+its rights and liberties had a quasi-independence of its own. Foremost
+among these was the great commercial capital, Amsterdam, whose rich
+burgher patriciate did not scruple on occasion to defy the authority of
+the States-General, the stadholder and even of the States of Holland
+themselves.
+
+
+  The position in 1650.
+
+  The question of disbanding the forces.
+
+  The Prisoners of Loevenstein.
+
+  Sudden Death of William II.
+
+The States of Holland had, in the years that followed the truce of 1609,
+measured their strength with that of the States-General, but the issue
+had been decided conclusively in favour of the federal authority by the
+sword of Maurice. The party and the principles of Oldenbarneveldt,
+however, though crushed, were not extinguished, and though Frederick
+Henry by his personal influence and prudent statesmanship had been able
+to surmount the difficulties placed in his way, he had had to encounter
+at times strong opposition, and had been much hampered in the conduct
+both of his campaigns and of his policy. With the conclusion of the
+peace of Münster and the death of the veteran stadholder the struggle
+for predominance in the Union between the Orange-federalist and the
+Hollander States-rights parties was certain to be renewed. The moment
+seemed to be favourable for the assertion of provincial sovereignty
+because of the youth and inexperience of the new prince of Orange. But
+William II., though little more than a boy, was endowed with singular
+capacity and great strength of will, and he was intent upon ambitious
+projects, the scope of which has been already indicated. The collision
+came, which was perhaps inevitable. The States-General in the disbanding
+of the forces wished to retain the _cadres_ of the regiments complete in
+case of a renewal of the war. The States of Holland objected, and,
+although the army was a federal force, gave orders for the general
+disbanding of the troops in the pay of the province. The officers
+refused to obey any orders but those of the council of State of the
+Union. The provincial states, on their part, threatened them with loss
+of pay. At this juncture the States-General, as in 1618, appointed a
+commission headed by the prince of Orange to visit the towns of Holland,
+and provide for the maintenance of order and the upholding of the Union.
+Both parties put themselves in the wrong, the province by refusing its
+quota to the federal war-sheet, the generality by dealing with
+individual towns instead of with the states of the province. The
+visitation was a failure. The town councils, though most of them willing
+to receive William in his capacity as stadholder, declined to give a
+hearing to the commission. Amsterdam refused absolutely to admit either
+stadholder or commission. In these circumstances William resolved upon
+strong measures. Six leading members of the States of Holland were
+seized (30th of July 1650) and imprisoned in Loevenstein Castle, and
+troops under the command of William Frederick, stadholder of Friesland,
+were sent to surprise Amsterdam. But the town council had been warned,
+and the gates were shut and guarded. The _coup d'état_ nevertheless was
+completely successful. The anti-Orange party, remembering the fate of
+Oldenbarneveldt, were stricken with panic at the imprisonment of their
+leaders. The States of Holland and the town council of Amsterdam gave in
+their submission. The prisoners were released, and public thanks were
+rendered to the prince by the various provincial states for "his great
+trouble, care and prudence." William appeared to be master of the
+situation but his plans for future action were never to be carried into
+effect. Busily engaged in secret negotiations with France, he had
+retired to his hunting seat at Dieren, when he fell ill with smallpox on
+the 27th of October. A few days later he expired at the Hague (6th of
+November), aged but twenty-four years. A week after his death, his
+widow, the princess Mary of England, gave birth to a son who, as William
+III., was to give added lustre to the house of Orange.
+
+
+  The Grand Assembly.
+
+The anti-Orange particularist party, which had just suffered decisive
+defeat, now lifted up its head again. At the instance of Holland a Grand
+Assembly was summoned, consisting of delegates from all the provinces,
+to consider the state of the Union, the army and religion. It met at the
+Hague on the 18th of January 1651. The conclusions arrived at were that
+all sovereign powers resided in the provinces, and that to them
+severally, each within its own borders, belonged the control of the
+military forces and of religion. There was to be no captain-general of
+the Union. All the provinces, except Friesland and Groningen, which
+remained true to William Frederick of Nassau-Dietz, agreed to leave the
+office of stadholder vacant. The practical result was the establishment
+of the hegemony of Holland in the Union, and the handing over of the
+control of its policy to the patrician oligarchies who formed the town
+councils of that province.
+
+
+  The office of Grand Pensionary.
+
+  John de Witt.
+
+Such a system would have been unworkable but for the fact that with the
+revival of the political principles of Oldenbarneveldt, there was found
+a statesman of commanding ability to fill the office in which the famous
+advocate of Holland had for so many years been "minister of all affairs"
+in the forming state. The title of advocate had indeed been replaced by
+that of grand pensionary (_Raad Pensionaris_), but the duties assigned
+to the office remained the same, the only change of importance being
+that the advocate was appointed for life, the grand pensionary for a
+term of five years. The grand pensionary was nominally the paid servant
+of the States of Holland, but his functions were such as to permit a man
+of talent and industry in the stadholderless republic to exercise
+control in all departments of policy and of government. All
+correspondence passed through his hands, he wrote all despatches,
+conducted the debates over which he presided, kept the minutes, drafted
+the resolutions, and was _ex officio_ the leader and spokesman of the
+delegates who represented the Province of Holland in the States-General.
+Such was the position to which John de Witt, a young man of twenty-eight
+years of age, belonging to one of the most influential patrician
+families of Dordrecht (his father, Jacob de Witt, was one of the
+prisoners of Loevenstein) was appointed in 1653. From that date until
+1672 it was his brain and his will that guided the affairs of the United
+Netherlands. He was supreme in the States of Holland, and Holland was
+dominant in the States-General (see JOHN DE WITT).
+
+
+  Disputes between English and Dutch Traders.
+
+  Naval struggle with England.
+
+  Peace of Westminster.
+
+  Act of Seclusion.
+
+The death of William II. had left the Dutch republic at the very highest
+point of commercial prosperity, based upon an almost universal carrying
+trade, and the strictest system of monopoly. Friction and disputes had
+frequently arisen between the Dutch and the English traders in different
+parts of the world, and especially in the East Indies, culminating in
+the so-called "Massacre of Amboyna"; and the strained relations between
+the two nations would, but for the civil discords in England, have
+probably led to active hostilities during the reign of Charles I. With
+the accession of Cromwell to power the breach was widened. A strong
+party in the Provinces were unfriendly to the Commonwealth, and insults
+were offered in the Hague to the English envoys. The parliament replied
+by passing the memorable Navigation Act (Oct. 1651), which struck a
+deadly blow at the Dutch carrying trade. It was the beginning of that
+struggle for supremacy upon the seas which was to end, after three great
+wars, in the defeat of the weaker country. The first English war lasted
+from May 1652 to April 1654, and within fifteen months twelve sea-fights
+took place, which were desperately contested and with varying success.
+The leaders on both sides--the Netherlanders Tromp (killed in action on
+the 10th of August 1653) and de Ruyter, the Englishmen Blake and
+Monk--covered themselves with equal glory. But the losses to Dutch trade
+were so serious that negotiations for peace were set on foot by the
+burgher party of Holland, and Cromwell being not unwilling, an agreement
+was reached in the Treaty of Westminster, signed on the 5th of April
+1654. The Dutch conceded the striking of the flag and compensation for
+English claims against the Dutch in the East Indies and elsewhere. The
+act of Seclusion, which barred the young prince of Orange from holding
+the office of stadholder and of captain-general, had been one of the
+conditions on which Cromwell had insisted. The consent of the
+States-General was refused, but by a secret treaty Holland, under the
+influence of de Witt, accepted it in their own name as a sovereign
+province. The popular feeling throughout the United Provinces was
+strongly antagonistic to the act of Seclusion, by which at the dictation
+of a foreign power a ban of exclusion was pronounced against the house
+of Orange-Nassau, to which the republic owed its independence.
+
+
+  War with Sweden.
+
+In 1658, the States-General interfered to save the Danes from Charles
+Gustavus of Sweden. In 1659 a treaty of peace was concluded between
+France, England and the United Provinces with a view to the settlement
+of the Dano-Swedish question, which ended in securing a northern peace
+in 1660, and in keeping the Baltic open for Dutch trade. The foreign
+affairs of the republic were throughout these years ably conducted by de
+Witt, and the position of Dutch colonial expansion in the Eastern seas
+made secure and firm. An advantageous peace with Portugal was made in
+1662.
+
+
+  Second English war.
+
+  Peace of Breda.
+
+  The Triple Alliance.
+
+Meanwhile the Commonwealth in England had been followed in 1660 by the
+restoration of the monarchy. To conciliate the new king the act of
+Seclusion was repealed, and the education of the young prince of Orange
+was undertaken by the States of Holland under the superintendence of de
+Witt. But Charles owed a grudge against Holland, and he was determined
+to gratify it. The Navigation Act was re-enacted, old grievances
+revived, and finally the Dutch colony of New Netherland was seized in
+time of peace (1664) and its capital, New Amsterdam, renamed New York.
+War broke out in 1665, and was marked by a series of terrific battles.
+On the 13th of June 1665 the Dutch admiral Obdam was completely defeated
+by the English under the duke of York. The four days' fight (11th-14th
+of June 1666) ended in a hard-won victory by de Ruyter over Monk, but
+later in this year (August 3rd) de Ruyter was beaten by Ayscue and
+forced to take refuge in the Dutch harbours. He had his revenge, for on
+the 22nd of June 1667 the Dutch fleet under de Ruyter and Cornelius de
+Witt made their way up the Medway as far as Chatham and burnt the
+English fleet as it lay at anchor. Negotiations between the two
+countries were already in progress and this event hastened a settlement.
+The peace of Breda was signed (31st of July 1667) on terms on the whole
+favourable to the Dutch. New Netherland was retained by England in
+exchange for Suriname. In the following year by the efforts of Sir
+William Temple the much vaunted Triple Alliance was concluded between
+Great Britain, the United Provinces and Sweden to check the ambitious
+designs of Louis XIV. The instability of Charles II., who sold himself
+to Louis by the treaty of Dover (1670), speedily rendered it of no
+effect, and left the United Provinces to face unaided the vengeance of
+the French king.
+
+
+  The French invasion.
+
+  William III. Stadholder and Captain-general.
+
+  The third English war.
+
+  Murder of the Brothers de Witt.
+
+From 1668 to 1672 Louis made ready to destroy the Dutch, and so well had
+his diplomacy served him that they were left without a friend in Europe.
+In 1672 the storm broke: the English without a declaration of war tried,
+unsuccessfully, to intercept the Dutch Mediterranean fleet; and the
+French at the same time set forth in apparently irresistible strength to
+overcome the despised traders of Holland. The States were ill-prepared
+on land though their fleet was strong and ready; party spirit had become
+intensely bitter as the prince of Orange (see WILLIAM III.) grew to
+man's estate, and the ruling burgher party, knowing how great was the
+popularity of William, especially in the army, had purposely neglected
+their land forces. Town after town fell before the French armies, and to
+de Witt and his supporters there seemed to be nothing left but to make
+submission and accept the best terms that Louis XIV. would grant. The
+young prince alone rose to the height of the occasion, and set his face
+against such cowardly counsels, and he had the enthusiastic support of
+the great majority of the people. Amidst general acclamation William was
+elected stadholder, first of Zeeland, then of Holland, and was appointed
+captain-general of the Union (June 1672). Meanwhile the fleet under de
+Ruyter had encountered a combined English and French force in Solebay
+(7th of June), and after a desperate fight, in which the French had but
+slackly supported their allies, had more then held its own. William, in
+his turn, with an army wholly insufficient to meet the French in the
+open field, was able to persuade his countrymen to open the dikes and by
+flooding the land to prevent its occupation by the enemy. The courage
+and resourcefulness of their youthful leader inspired the people to make
+heroic sacrifices for their independence, but unfortunately such was the
+revulsion of feeling against the grand pensionary, that he himself and
+his brother Cornelius were torn in pieces by an infuriated mob at the
+Hague (20th of August).
+
+
+  Peace of Westminster.
+
+  The war with France.
+
+  Death of de Ruyter.
+
+  Peace of Nymwegen.
+
+William, now supreme in the States, while on land struggling with
+chequered success against the superior forces of the French, strove by
+his diplomacy, and not in vain, to gain allies for the republic. The
+growing power of France caused alarm to her neighbours, and Sweden,
+Denmark, Spain and the emperor lent a willing ear to the persuasions of
+the stadholder and were ready to aid his efforts to curb the ambition of
+Louis. On sea in 1673 de Ruyter, in a series of fiercely contested
+battles, successfully maintained his strenuous and dogged conflict
+against the united English and French fleets. In England the war was
+exceedingly unpopular, and public opinion forced Charles II. to conclude
+peace. The treaty of Westminster, which provided that all conquests
+should be restored, was signed on the 14th of February 1674. The French
+now found themselves threatened on many sides, and were reduced to the
+defensive. The prince, however, suffered a defeat at Seneff, and was in
+1674 prevented from invading France. The war, nevertheless, during the
+following years was on the whole advantageous to the Dutch. In 1676 a
+Dutch squadron fought two hard but indecisive battles with a superior
+French force, off Stromboli (8th of January) and off Messina (22nd of
+April). In the last-named fight Admiral de Ruyter was badly wounded and
+died (29th of April). In 1677 negotiations for peace went on, and were
+forwarded by the marriage, at the close of the year, of William of
+Orange with his cousin the princess Mary, daughter of the duke of York.
+At last (August 1678) a peace was concluded at Nymwegen by which the
+Dutch secured the integrity and independence of their country. All the
+conquests made by the French were given up.
+
+
+  League of Augsburg.
+
+  Revolution of 1688.
+
+  The Grand Alliance.
+
+  William and Heinsius.
+
+The aggressive policy of Louis XIV. in the years that followed the peace
+of Nymwegen enabled William to lay the foundations of the famous
+confederacy which changed the whole aspect of European politics. The
+league of Augsburg (1686), which followed the revocation of the edict of
+Nantes, placed Orange at the head of the resistance to French
+domination. The league was formed by the emperor, Spain, Sweden, the
+United Provinces and by several German states. In England William and
+Mary were looked upon as the natural successors to the throne on the
+death of James II., and William kept up close relations with the
+malcontents in Church and State, who disliked the arbitrary and
+papistical policy of his father-in-law. But with the birth of a prince
+of Wales the situation was changed, and William determined to intervene
+actively in English affairs. His opportunity came when Louis XIV.,
+having declared war against the Empire, had invaded the Palatinate. The
+opposition of Amsterdam to an English expedition, in the absence of
+danger from the side of France, was overcome. The Revolution of 1688
+ensued, and England became, under William's strong rule, the chief
+member of the Great Coalition against French aggression. In the Grand
+Alliance of 1689-1690 he was accused of sacrificing Dutch to English
+interests, but there can be no doubt that William loved his native
+country better than his adopted one, and was a true patriot. If the
+United Provinces suffered in prosperity through their close relations
+with and subordination to Great Britain during a long series of years,
+it was due not to the policy of William, but to the fact that the
+territory of the republic was small, open to attack by great military
+powers, and devoid of natural resources. The stadholder's authority and
+popularity continued unimpaired, despite of his frequent absences in
+England. He had to contend, like his predecessors, with the perennial
+hostility of the burgher aristocracy of Amsterdam, and at times with
+other refractory town councils, but his power in the States during his
+life was almost autocratic. His task was rendered lighter by the
+influence and ability of Heinsius, the grand pensionary of Holland, a
+wise and prudent statesman, whose tact and moderation in dealing with
+the details and difficulties of internal administration were
+conspicuous. The stadholder gave to Heinsius his fullest confidence, and
+the pensionary on his part loyally supported William's policy and placed
+his services ungrudgingly at his disposal (see HEINSIUS).
+
+
+  War with France.
+
+  Peace of Ryswick.
+
+  Death of William III.
+
+The conduct of the war by the allies was far from successful. In 1690
+(July 1st) Waldeck was defeated by Luxemburg at Fleurus; and the
+Anglo-Dutch fleet was so severely handled by Tourville (10th July) off
+Beachy Head that for two years the command of the sea remained in the
+possession of the French. A striking victory off Cape la Hogue (29th of
+May 1692) restored, however, supremacy to the allies. On land the
+combined armies fared ill. In 1691 the French took Mons, and in 1692
+Namur, in which year after a hard-fought battle William was defeated at
+Steenkirk and in 1693 at Neerwinden. But William's military genius never
+shone so brightly as in the hour of defeat; he never knew what it was to
+be beaten, and in 1695 his recapture of Namur was a real triumph of
+skill and resolution. At last, after long negotiations, exhaustion
+compelled the French king to sign the peace of Ryswick in 1697, in which
+William was recognized by France as king of England, the Dutch obtaining
+a favourable commercial treaty, and the right to garrison the Netherland
+barrier towns. This peace, however, did no more than afford a breathing
+space during which Louis XIV. prepared for a renewal of the struggle.
+The great question of the Spanish succession was looming in all men's
+eyes, and though partition treaties between the interested powers were
+concluded in 1698 and 1700, it is practically certain that the French
+king held himself little bound by them. In 1701 he elbowed the Dutch
+troops out of the barrier towns; he defied England by recognizing James
+III. on the death of his father; and it was clear that another war was
+imminent when William III. died in 1702.
+
+
+  Stadholderless Government.
+
+In 1672 the stadholdership in five provinces had been made hereditary in
+the family of the prince of Orange, but William died childless, and the
+republican burgher party was strong enough to prevent the posts being
+filled up. William had wished that his cousin, Count John William Friso
+of Nassau, stadholder of Friesland and Groningen, should succeed him,
+but his extreme youth and the jealousy of Holland against a "Frisian"
+stood in the way of his election. The result was a want of unity in
+counsel and action among the provinces, Friesland and Groningen standing
+aloof from the other five, while Holland and Zeeland had to pay for
+their predominance in the Union by being left to bear the bulk of the
+charges. Fortunately there was no break of continuity in the policy of
+the States, the chief conduct of affairs remaining, until his death in
+1720, in the capable and tried hands of the grand pensionary Heinsius,
+who had at his side a number of exceptionally experienced and wise
+counsellors--among these Simon van Slingeland, for forty-five years
+(1680-1725) secretary of the council of state, and afterwards grand
+pensionary of Holland (1727-1736), and Francis Fagel, who succeeded his
+father in 1699 as recorder (_Griffier_) of the States-General, and held
+that important office for fifty years. The tradition of William III. was
+thus preserved, but with the loss of the firm hand and strong
+personality of that great ruler the United Provinces were relegated to a
+subordinate place in the councils of the nations, and with the gradual
+decadence of its navy the Dutch republic ceased to rank as a power to be
+reckoned with.
+
+
+  War of the Spanish Succession.
+
+  Treaty of Utrecht.
+
+In the War of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 1702, Dutch
+troops took part in the campaigns of Marlborough and Eugene, and had
+their share in winning the great victories of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies
+(1706), Oudenarde (1708) and Malplaquet (1709). At the peace of Utrecht,
+concluded in 1713, the interests of the Netherlands were but
+half-heartedly supported by the English plenipotentiaries, and the
+French were able to obtain far more favourable terms than they had the
+power to exact. But they were compelled to abandon all claim to the
+Spanish Netherlands, which were formally handed over to the United
+Provinces, as trustees, to be by them, after the conclusion of a
+satisfactory barrier treaty, given up to the emperor, and be known
+henceforth as the Austrian Netherlands. The peace of Utrecht taught the
+Dutch that the great powers around them, while ready to use their
+resources for war, would not scruple to abandon them when they wanted
+peace; they, therefore, determined henceforth to stand clear of all
+foreign complications. With 1713 the influence of the United Netherlands
+upon European politics comes almost to an end.
+
+
+  Peace policy.
+
+  Ostend East India Company.
+
+  War of the Austrian Succession.
+
+  Revolution of 1747.
+
+  William IV.
+
+The ruling party in the States took an active part in securing George I.
+on the throne of England; and they succeeded in coming to an agreement
+both with France and with Austria over the difficulties connected with
+the barrier towns, and were thus able in tranquillity to concentrate
+their energies upon furthering the interests of their trade. Under the
+close oligarchical rule of the patrician families, who filled all
+offices in the town councils, the States of Holland, in which the
+influence of Amsterdam was dominant, and which in their turn exercised
+predominance in the States-General, became more and more an assembly of
+"shopkeepers" whose policy was to maintain peace for the sake of the
+commerce on which they thrived. For thirty years after the peace of
+Utrecht the Provinces kept themselves free from entanglement in the
+quarrels of their neighbours. The foundation of the Ostend East India
+Company (see OSTEND COMPANY), however, by the emperor Joseph II. in
+1723, at once aroused the strong opposition of the Amsterdam merchants
+who looked upon this invasion of their monopoly with alarm, and declared
+that the Ostend Company had been set up in contravention to the terms of
+Article V. of the treaty of Münster. In maintaining this position the
+States had the support of England, but it was not until 1731 that they
+succeeded in obtaining the suppression of the company by consenting to
+guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. This step led in 1743 to
+their being involved in the War of the Austrian Succession, and thus
+being drawn into hostilities with France, which invaded the barrier
+country. In 1744 they formed with Great Britain, Austria and Saxony, a
+Quadruple Alliance, and put a contingent of troops in the field. The
+Dutch took an active part in the campaign of 1745 and suffered heavily
+at Fontenoy, after which battle Marshal Saxe overran the Austrian
+Netherlands. The French captured all the barrier towns, and in 1747
+entered Dutch Flanders and made an easy conquest. The United Provinces,
+as in 1672, seemed to lie at the mercy of their enemies, and as in that
+eventful year, popular feeling broke down the opposition of the burgher
+oligarchies, and turned to William IV., prince of Orange, as the saviour
+of the state. John William Friso had died young in 1711, leaving a
+posthumous son, William Charles Henry Friso, who was duly elected
+stadholder by the two provinces, Friesland and Groningen, which were
+always faithful to his family, and in 1722 he became also, though with
+very limited powers, stadholder of Gelderland. The other provinces,
+however, under pressure from Holland, bound themselves not to elect
+stadholders, and they refused to revive the office of captain-general of
+the Union. By the conquest of Dutch Flanders Zeeland was threatened, and
+the states of that province, in which there were always many Orange
+partisans, elected (April 1747) William stadholder, captain-general and
+admiral of Zeeland. The example once given was infectious, and was
+followed in rapid succession by Holland, Utrecht and Overysel. Finally
+the States-General (May 4) appointed the prince, who was the first
+member of his family to be stadholder of all the seven provinces,
+captain and admiral-general of the Union, and a little later these
+offices were declared hereditary in both the male and female lines.
+
+
+  Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.
+
+  Death of William IV.
+
+  Anne of England Regent.
+
+William IV., though not a man of great ability, was sincerely anxious to
+do his utmost for securing the maintenance of peace, and the development
+of the resources and commercial prosperity of the country, and his
+powerful dynastic connexions (he had married Anne, eldest daughter of
+George II.) gave him weight in the councils of Europe. The peace of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, in which the influence of Great Britain was
+exerted on behalf of the States, though it nominally restored the old
+condition of things, left the Provinces crippled by debt, and fallen low
+from their old position among the nations. At first the stadholder's
+efforts to promote the trade and welfare of the country were hampered by
+the distrust and opposition of Amsterdam, and other strongholds of
+anti-Orange feeling, and just as his good intentions were becoming more
+generally recognized, William unfortunately died, on the 22nd of October
+1751, aged forty years, leaving his three-year-old son, William V., heir
+to his dignities. The princess Anne of England became regent, but she
+had a difficult part to play, and on the outbreak of the Seven Years'
+War in which the Provinces were determined to maintain neutrality, her
+English leanings brought much unpopularity upon her. She died in 1759,
+and for the next seven years the regency passed into the hands of the
+States, and the government was practically stadholderless.
+
+
+  William V.
+
+  The Armed Neutrality.
+
+  War with England.
+
+  Peace of Paris.
+
+In 1766 William V. was declared to be of age; and his accession to power
+was generally welcomed. He was, however, a weak man, without energy or
+resolution, and he allowed himself to be entirely led by his old
+guardian the duke of Brunswick, and by his wife Frederica Wilhelmina of
+Prussia, a woman of marked ability, to whom he entirely deferred. In the
+American War of Independence William's sympathies were strongly on the
+English side, while those of the majority of the Dutch people were with
+the revolted colonies. It is, however, certain that nothing would have
+driven the Provinces to take part in the war but for the overbearing
+attitude of the British government with regard to the right of neutral
+shipping upon the seas, and the heavy losses sustained by Dutch commerce
+at the hands of British privateers. The famous agreement, known as the
+"Armed Neutrality," with which in 1780 the States of the continent at
+the instigation of Catherine II. of Russia replied to the maritime
+claims put forward by Great Britain drew the Provinces once more into
+the arena of European politics. Every effort was made by the English to
+prevent the Dutch from joining the league, and in this they were
+assisted by the stadholder, but at last the States-General, though only
+by the bare majority of four provinces against three, determined to
+throw in their lot with the opponents of England. Nothing could have
+been more unfortunate, for the country was not ready for war, and party
+spirit was too strong for united action to be taken or vigorous
+preparations to be made. When war broke out Dutch commerce was
+destroyed, and the Dutch colonies were at the mercy of the English fleet
+without the possibility of a blow being struck in their defence. An
+indecisive, but bravely fought action with Admiral Parker at the Dogger
+Bank showed, however, that the Dutch seamen had lost none of their old
+dogged courage, and did much to soothe the national sense of
+humiliation. In the negotiations of the Treaty of Paris (1783) the Dutch
+found themselves abandoned by their allies, and compelled to accept the
+disadvantageous but not ungenerous terms accorded to them by Great
+Britain. They had to sacrifice some of their East Indian possessions and
+to concede to the English freedom of trade in the Eastern seas.
+
+
+  The "Patriot" Party.
+
+  Intervention of the King of Prussia.
+
+  Difficulty with the Emperor.
+
+  Prussian Invasion.
+
+  Restoration to power of William V.
+
+One result of this humiliating and disastrous war was the strengthening
+of the hands of the anti-Orange burgher-regents, who had now arrogated
+to themselves the name of "patriots." It was they, and not the
+stadholder, who had been mainly responsible for the Provinces joining
+"the Armed Neutrality," but the consequences of the war, in which this
+act had involved them, was largely visited upon the prince of Orange.
+The "patriot" party did their utmost to curtail his prerogatives, and
+harass him with petty insults, and at last the Prussian king was obliged
+to interfere to save his niece, who was even more unpopular than her
+weak husband, from being driven from the country. In 1784 the emperor
+Joseph II. took advantage of the dissensions in the Provinces to raise
+the question of the opening of the Scheldt. He himself was, however, no
+more prepared for attack than the Republic for defence, but the Dutch
+had already sunk so low, that they agreed to pay a heavy indemnity to
+induce the Austrians to drop a demand they were unable to enforce. To
+hold the mouth of the Scheldt and prevent at all costs a revival of
+Antwerp as a commercial port had been for two centuries a cardinal point
+of Dutch policy. This difficulty removed, the agitation of the
+"patriots" against the stadholderate form of government increased in
+violence, and William speedily found his position untenable. An insult
+offered to the prince of Orange in 1787 led to an invasion of the
+country by a Prussian army. Amsterdam capitulated, the country was
+occupied, and the patriot leaders declared incapable of holding any
+office. The Orange party was completely triumphant, and William V.,
+under the protection of Prussia and England, with which states the
+United Provinces were compelled to ally themselves, was restored to
+power. It was, however, impossible to make the complicated and creaking
+machinery of the constitution of the worn-out republic of the United
+Netherlands work smoothly, and in all probability it would have been
+within a very short time replaced by an hereditary monarchy, had not the
+cataclysm of the French Revolution swept it away from its path, never to
+be revived.
+
+
+  The French invade the Netherlands.
+
+  Overthrow of the Stadholderate.
+
+  Flight of William V.
+
+  The Batavian Republic.
+
+  Changes of Government.
+
+When war broke out between the French revolutionary government and the
+coalition of kings, the Provinces remained neutral as long as they
+could. It was not till Dumouriez had overrun all the Austrian
+Netherlands in 1792, and had thrown open the passage of the Scheldt,
+that they were drawn into the war. The patriot party sided with the
+French, but for various reasons the conquest of the country was delayed
+until 1795. In the closing months of 1794 Pichegru, at the head of a
+large and victorious army, invaded the Provinces. The very severe frost
+of that winter gave his troops an easy passage over all the rivers and
+low-lying lands; town after town fell before him; he occupied Amsterdam,
+and crossing the ice with his cavalry took the Dutch fleet, as it lay
+frost-bound at the Texel. The stadholder and his family fled to England,
+and the disorganized remnants of the allied forces under the duke of
+York retreated into Germany. The "patriots," as the anti-Orange
+republicans still styled themselves, received the French with open arms
+and public rejoicings, and the government was reorganized so as to bring
+it into close harmony with that of Paris. The stadholderate, the offices
+of captain and admiral-general, and all the ancient organization of the
+United Netherlands were abolished, and were transformed into the
+Batavian Republic, in close alliance with France. But the Dutch had soon
+cause to regret their revolutionary ardour. French alliance meant French
+domination, and participation in the wars of the Revolution. Its
+consequences were the total ruin of Dutch commerce, and the seizure of
+all the Dutch colonies by the English. Internally one change of
+government succeeded another; after the States-General came a national
+convention; then in 1798 a constituent assembly with an executive
+directory; then chambers of representatives; then a return to the
+earlier systems under the names of the eight provincial and one central
+Commissions (1801). These changes were the outcome of a gradual reaction
+in a conservative direction.
+
+
+  Constitution of 1805.
+
+  Louis Bonaparte King of Holland.
+
+  The Sovereign Prince.
+
+  Creation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
+
+  The Hundred Days.
+
+  William I. crowned at Brussels.
+
+  Constitution of the Netherlands.
+
+The peace of Amiens gave the country a little rest, and the Dutch got
+back the Cape of Good Hope and their West Indian colonies; it was,
+however, but the brief and deceptive interlude between two storms; when
+war began again England once more took possession of all she had
+restored. In 1805 the autocratic will of Napoleon Bonaparte imposed upon
+them a new constitution, and Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck (1765-1825) was
+made, under the ancient title of grand pensionary, head of the
+government. In the next year the French emperor added Holland, as the
+United Provinces were now named, to the ring of dependent sovereignties,
+by means of which he sought to build up a universal empire, and he
+forced his brother Louis to be the unwilling king of an unwilling
+people. The new king was a man of excellent intentions and did his best
+to promote the interest of his subjects, but finding himself unable to
+protect them from the despotic overlordship of his brother, after a four
+years' reign, Louis abdicated. In 1810 the Northern Netherlands by
+decree of Napoleon were incorporated in the French empire, and had to
+bear the burdens of conscription and of a crushing weight of taxation.
+The defeat of Leipzig in 1813 was the signal for a general revolt in the
+Netherlands; the prince of Orange (son of William V.) was recalled, and
+amidst general rejoicing accepted at Amsterdam the offer of the
+sovereignty under a free constitution (Dec. 1, 1813), with the title of
+sovereign prince. On the downfall of Napoleon the great powers
+determined to create in the Low Countries a powerful state, and by the
+treaty of London (June 14, 1814) the Belgians were united with the Dutch
+provinces to form the kingdom of the Netherlands, which was also to
+include the bishopric of Liège and the duchy of Bouillon, and the prince
+of Orange was placed upon the throne on the 15th of March 1815 as
+William I., king of the Netherlands (see WILLIAM I., king of the
+Netherlands). The ancestral possessions of the House of Nassau were
+exchanged for Luxemburg, of which territory King William in his personal
+capacity became grand duke. The carrying out of the treaty was delayed
+by the Hundred Days' campaign, which for a short time threatened its
+very existence. The daring invasion of Napoleon, however, afforded the
+Dutch and Belgian contingents of the allied army the opportunity to
+fight side by side under the command of William, prince of Orange,
+eldest son of the new king, who highly distinguished himself by his
+gallantry at Quatre Bras, and afterwards at Waterloo where he was
+wounded (see WILLIAM II., king of the Netherlands). The Congress of
+Vienna confirmed the arrangements made by the treaty of London, and
+William I. was crowned king of the Netherlands at Brussels on the 27th
+of September 1815. Under the constitution the king, as hereditary
+sovereign, possessed full executive powers, and the initiative in
+proposing laws. He had the power of appointing his own council of state.
+The legislative body bore the time-honoured title of States-General, and
+was divided into an Upper Chamber nominated by the king, and a Lower
+Chamber elected by the people. Freedom of worship, freedom of the press,
+and political equality were principles of the constitution, guaranteed
+to all.
+
+
+  Difference between the Dutch and Belgic provinces.
+
+  The Belgian Revolution.
+
+  Reign of William II.
+
+  Accession of William III.
+
+  The Constitution of 1848.
+
+  Political parties in the Netherlands.
+
+The union of the Dutch and Belgian provinces, like so many of the
+territorial arrangements of the Congress of Vienna, was an attempt to
+create a strong state out of diverse and jarring elements. It was an
+artificial union, which nothing but consummate tact and statesmanship
+could have rendered permanent and solid. North and south were divided
+from one another by religious belief, by laws and usages, by material
+interests, and by two centuries and a half of widely severed national
+life. The Belgians were strict Catholics, the Dutch Calvinistic
+Protestants. The Dutch were chiefly a commercial and seafaring people,
+with interests in distant lands and colonial possessions; the Belgians
+were agriculturists, except where their abundance of minerals made them
+manufacturers. The national traits of the Dutch were a blend of German
+and English, the national leaning of the Belgians was towards France and
+French ideals. Nevertheless the materials were there out of which a
+really broad-minded and conciliatory handling of religion and racial
+difficulties might have gradually built up a Netherland nation able to
+hold from its population and resources a considerable place among
+European powers. For it must not be forgotten that some two-thirds of
+the Belgian people are by origin and language of the same race as the
+Dutch. But when difficulties and differences arose between North and
+South, as they were sure to arise, they were not dealt with wisely. The
+king had good intentions, but his mind was warped by Dutch prejudices,
+and he was ill-advised and acted unadvisedly. The consequences were the
+Belgian Revolution of 1830, which ended in the intervention of the great
+powers, and the setting up, in 1831, of Belgium as an independent
+kingdom. The final settlement of outstanding questions between the two
+countries was not reached till 1839 (for an account of the Belgian
+Revolution, see BELGIUM). King William I. in the following year, having
+become unpopular through his resistance to reform, resigned his crown to
+his son William II., who reigned in peace till his death in 1849, when
+he was succeeded by his eldest son William III. (see WILLIAM III., king
+of the Netherlands). His accession marked the beginning of
+constitutional government in the Netherlands. William I. had been to a
+large extent a personal ruler, but William II., though for a time
+following in his father's steps, had been moved by the revolutionary
+outbreaks of 1848 to concede a revision of the constitution. The
+fundamental law of 1848 enacted that the first chamber of the
+States-General should be elected by the Provincial Estates instead of
+being appointed by the king, and that the second chamber should be
+elected directly by all persons paying a certain amount in taxation.
+Ministers were declared responsible to the States-General, and a liberal
+measure of self-government was also granted. During the long reign of
+William III. (1849-1890) the chief struggles of parties in the
+Netherlands centred round religious education. On the one side are the
+liberals, divided into moderates and progressives, the representatives
+to a large extent of the commercial towns. Opposed to them is the
+coalition of the orthodox Protestant conservatives, styled
+anti-revolutionaries, supported by the Calvinistic peasantry, and the
+Catholics, who represent about one-third of the population and have
+their headquarters in Dutch Brabant, Dutch Flanders and Limburg. There
+is also in the Netherlands a small, but very strenuous socialist party,
+which was founded by the active propaganda of an ex-pastor
+Domela-Nieuwenhuis. It draws its chief strength from Amsterdam and
+certain country districts of Friesland.
+
+
+  Religious education.
+
+The liberals were in power from 1871 to 1888 continuously, but a
+Catholic-anti-revolutionary ministry under Baron Mackay held office from
+1888 to 1891, and again a coalition ministry was formed in 1901 with Dr
+Kuyper at its head. From 1894 to 1897 a ministry of moderate liberals
+supported by a large part of the Catholic and anti-revolutionary parties
+were in power. The constitution of 1848 made it the duty of the state to
+provide free primary secular education, but it allowed to members of all
+creeds the liberty of establishing private schools, and this was carried
+into effect by a law passed in 1857 by the joint efforts of the liberals
+and Catholics against the opposition of the orthodox Calvinists. But the
+long liberal ascendancy closed the ranks of the Catholic-Calvinist
+coalition, and united them against the neutral schools, and in 1889 they
+were able to pass a law enabling not only the unsectarian public
+schools, but all private schools organized by societies and bodies
+recognized by the law to receive subventions from the state. In 1890
+there were 3000 public schools with 450,000 scholars and 1300 private
+schools with 195,000 scholars.
+
+
+  Extension of the suffrage.
+
+  Military service.
+
+The subject of the extension of the franchise has also been the cause of
+violent party strife and controversy. It was taken in hand as early as
+1872, but as a revision of the constitution was necessary, no change was
+actually carried out till 1887. The law of that year lowered the
+qualification of the payer of a direct tax to 10 fl. Votes were given to
+all householders paying a certain _minimum_ house duty, and to all
+lodgers who had for a given time paid a _minimum_ of rent, also to all
+who possessed certain educational and social qualifications, whose
+definition was left to be specified by a later law. The passing of such
+a law was deferred by the coalition (Catholic-Orthodox) ministry of
+1888-1891. The liberal ministry of 1891 attempted to deal with the
+question, and a proposal was made by the minister Tak van Poortvliet,
+which almost amounted to universal suffrage. The educational
+qualification was to be able to write, the social that of not receiving
+charitable relief. This proposal caused a cleavage right through all
+parties. It was supported by the radical left, by a large portion of the
+Orthodox-Calvinists under Dr Kuyper, and by some Catholics; it had
+against it the moderate liberals, the aristocratic section of the
+Orthodox-Calvinists, the bulk of the Catholics, and a few radicals under
+an influential leader van Houten. After a fierce electoral fight the
+Takkians were victors at the first polls, but were beaten at the second
+ballots. Of the 46 Takkians, 35 were liberals; of the 54 anti-Takkians,
+24 were Catholics. A moderate liberal ministry was formed (1894) and in
+1896 carried into law what was known as the van Houten project. It gave
+the right of voting to all Dutchmen over twenty-five years of age, who
+paid 1 fl. in direct taxation; were householders or lodgers as defined
+in 1887, or tenants of a vessel of, at least, 24 tons; were the
+recipients of certain salaries or had certain deposits in the public
+funds or savings banks. By this reform the number of electors, which had
+been raised in 1887 from 140,000 to 300,000, was augmented to 700,000.
+The question of universal military service has also divided parties. The
+principle of personal service has been strongly opposed by the Catholics
+and conservatives, but became the law of the land in 1898, though
+exemptions were conceded in favour of ecclesiastics and certain classes
+of students.
+
+
+  The Achin war.
+
+The long-continued and costly wars with the sultan of Achin have during
+a series of years been a source of trouble to Dutch ministries. In
+1871-1872 Great Britain, in exchange for certain possessions of Holland
+on the coast of Guinea, agreed to recognize the right of the Dutch to
+occupy the north of Sumatra. The sultan of Achin opposed by force of
+arms the efforts of the Dutch to make their occupation effective, and
+has succeeded in maintaining a vigorous resistance, the Dutch colonial
+troops suffering severely from the effects of the insalubrious climate.
+Until 1871 the surplus derived from the colonial budget had been turned
+into a deficit, and the necessity of imposing fresh taxes to meet the
+war expenses has led to the downfall both of individual ministries and
+of cabinets.
+
+
+  Queen Wilhelmina.
+
+William III. dying in 1890 was succeeded by his only surviving child,
+Wilhelmina. The new queen being a minor, her mother, the queen-dowager
+Emma, became regent. One effect of the accession of Queen Wilhelmina was
+the severance of the bond between the Netherlands and Luxemburg. The
+grand duchy, being hereditary only in the male line, passed to the
+nearest agnate, the duke of Nassau. In 1898 the queen, having reached
+the age of eighteen, assumed the government. She married in 1901 Prince
+Henry of Mecklenburg. The outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 led to a
+strong outburst of sympathy among the Dutch on behalf of their kinsmen
+in South Africa, and there were times during the war, especially after
+President Kruger had fled from the Transvaal in a Dutch war vessel and
+had settled in Holland, when it was a task of some difficulty for the
+Dutch government to prevent the relations between Great Britain and the
+Netherlands from becoming strained. The ministry, however, under Dr
+Kuyper were able to keep the popular feeling in favour of the Boers in
+restraint, and to maintain towards Great Britain a correct attitude of
+strict neutrality. In 1903 the government took strong measures to
+prevent a threatened general strike of railway employees, the military
+were called out, and occupied the stations. A bill was passed by the
+States-General declaring railway strikes illegal. The elections of 1905
+for the Second Chamber gave the liberals a narrow majority of four. Dr
+Kuyper accordingly resigned, and a moderate liberal cabinet was formed
+by Th. H. de Meester. The fact that up to 1908 the queen had not become
+a mother gradually caused some public concern as to the succession; but
+in 1909 Queen Wilhelmina, amid national rejoicings, gave birth to a
+princess.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See (for the general history) J. Wagenaar,
+  _Vaderlandsche historie_, to 1751 (21 vols., 1749-1759); continuation
+  by Az. P. Loosjes, from 1751-1810 (48 vols., 1786-1811); W.
+  Bilderdijk, _Geschiedenis der Vaderlands_ (13 vols., 1832-1853); Groen
+  G. van Prinsterer, _Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland_ (6th
+  ed., 1895); (for particular periods): L. ab Aitzema, _Saken van spaet
+  en oorlogh in ende om trent de Vereenigde Nederlanden (1621-1668)_ (15
+  vols., 1657-1671); continuation by Lambert van den Bos (Lambertus
+  Sylvius) (4 vols., 1685-1699). The work of Aitzema contains a large
+  number of important diplomatic and other documents; A. de Wicquefort,
+  _Histoire des provinces des Pays-Bas depuis la paix de Munster_
+  (1648-1658) (2 vols., 1719-1743); in these volumes will be also found
+  a rich collection of original documents; R. Fruin, _Tien jaren uit den
+  tactig jarigen oorlog (1588-1598)_, (6th ed., 1905), a standard work;
+  J. L. Motley, _History of the United Netherlands (1584-1609)_, (4
+  vols., 1860-1868); P. J. Blok, _History of the People of the
+  Netherlands_, vol. iii. (1568-1621) (trans. by Ruth Putnam, 1900);
+  _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iii. ch. xix. and vol. iv. ch. xxv.
+  (see the bibliographies); Ant. L. Pontales, _Vingt années de
+  république parlementaire au 17me siècle. Jean de Witt, grand
+  pensionnaire de Hollande_ (1884); E. C. de Gerlache, _Histoire du
+  royaume des Pays-Bas 1814-1830_ (3 vols., 1859); Bosch J. de Kemper,
+  _Geschiedenis van Nederland na 1830_ (5 vols., 1873-1882); also the
+  following important works: Groen G. van Prinsterer, _Archives ou
+  correspondance inédite de la maison d'Orange-Nassau_, 2^e série
+  (1584-1688) (5 vols., 1857-1860); J. de Witt, _Brieven (1652-1669)_ (6
+  vols., 1723-1725); A. Kluit, _Historie der Hollandsche Staatsregering
+  tot 1795_ (5 vols., 1802-1805); G. W. Vreede, _Inleiding tot eene
+  geschiedenis der Nederlandsche diplomatic_ (6 vols., 1850-1865); J. C.
+  de Jonge, _Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewesen_, (6 vols.,
+  1833-1848); E. Luzac, _Holland's Rijkdom_ (4 vols., 1781); R. Fruin,
+  _Geschiedenis der Staatsinstellingen in Nederland tot den val der
+  Republick_, edn. Colenbrander (1901); N. G. van Kampen, _Geschiedenis
+  der Nederlanders buiten Europa_ (4 vols., 1833); W. J. A. Jonckbloet,
+  _Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde_ (2 vols. 1881); C. Busken
+  Hüet, _Het Land van Rembrandt-studien over de Nordnederlandsche
+  beschaving in de 17^e eeuw_ (2 vols., 1886); L. D. Petit, _Repertorium
+  der verhandelingen en bijdragen betreffende de geschiedenis des
+  Vaterlands in tijdschriften en mengel werken tot op 1900 verschenen_,
+  2 parts (1905); other parts of this valuable _repertorium_ are in
+  course of publication.     (G. E.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] At Maastricht, however, a portion lies on the left bank of the
+    river, measured, according to the treaty with Belgium, 19th of April
+    1839, art. 4, by an average radius of 1200 Dutch fathoms (7874 ft.)
+    from the outer glacis of the fortress.
+
+  [2] The datum plane, or basis of the measurement of heights, is
+    throughout Holland, and also in some of the border districts of
+    Germany, the _Amsterdamsch Peil_ (A.P.), or Amsterdam water-level,
+    and represents the average high water-level of the Y at Amsterdam at
+    the time when it was still open to the Zuider Zee. Local and
+    provincial "peils" are, however, also in use on some waterways.
+
+  [3] See J. Lorié, _Contributions à la géologie des Pays-bas_
+    (1885-1895), _Archives du Mus. Teyler_ (Haarlem), ser. 2, vol. ii.
+    pp. 109-240, vol. iii. pp. 1-160, 375-461, vol. iv. pp. 165-309 and
+    _Bull. soc. belge géol._ vol. iii. (1889); _Mém._ pp. 409-449; F. W.
+    Harmer, "On the Pliocene Deposits of Holland," &c., _Quart. Journ.
+    Geol. Soc., London_, vol. lii. (1896) pp. 748-781, pls. xxxiv., xxxv.
+
+  [4] The dates indicate the period of construction of the different
+    sections.
+
+  [5] For the history of the Netherlands previous to the confederacy of
+    the northern provinces in 1579 see NETHERLANDS.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF.--The first mention of Holland in any
+document is found in an imperial _gift brief_ dated May 2nd, 1064. In
+this the phrase "_omnis comitatus in Hollandt_" occurs, but without any
+further description of the locality indicated. A comparison with other
+documentary evidence, however, leads to the identification of Holland
+with the _forestum Merweda_, or the bush-grown fenland lying between the
+Waal, the old Meuse and the Merwe. It is the district surrounding the
+town of Dordrecht. A portion of the original Holland was submerged by a
+great inundation in 1421, and its modern appellation of Biesbosch
+(reed-forest) is descriptive of what must have been the condition of the
+entire district in early times. The word Holland is indeed by many
+authorities thought to be a corruption of Holt-land (it was sometimes so
+spelt by 13th-century writers) and to signify wood-land. The earliest
+spelling is, however, Holland, and it is more probable that it means
+lowlying-land (hol = hollow), a derivation which is equally applicable
+to the district in Lincolnshire which bears the same name.
+
+
+  The first Count of Holland.
+
+The title count of Holland appears to have been first borne by the
+Frisian count Dirk III., who founded Dordrecht (about 1015) and made it
+his residence (see below). It was not, however, till late in the 11th
+century that his successors adopted the style "_Hollandensis comes_" as
+their territorial designation (it is found for the first time on a seal
+of Dirk V. 1083), and that the name Holland became gradually extended
+northwards to connote all the land subject to the rule of the counts
+between Texel and the Maas.
+
+
+  Dirk I.
+
+  Dirk II.
+
+  Extent of his dominions.
+
+  Arnulf.
+
+  Dirk III.
+
+  Foundation of Dordrecht.
+
+  Defeat of Godfrey of Lorraine.
+
+  Beginning of the County of Holland.
+
+The beginnings of the history of this feudal state (the later Holland)
+centre round the abbey of Egmont in whose archives its records have been
+preserved. In 922 Charles the Simple gave in full possession to a count
+in Frisia, Dirk by name (a shortened form of Diederic, Latin
+Theodoricus), "the church of Egmont with all that belonged to it from
+Swithardeshage to Kinhem." This man, usually known as Dirk I., died
+about 939 and was succeeded by his son of the same name. Among the
+records of the abbey of Egmont is a document by which the emperor Arnulf
+gave to a certain count Gerolf the same land "between Swithardeshage and
+Kinhem," afterwards held by Dirk I. It is generally assumed that this
+Gerolf was his father, otherwise their deed of gift would not have been
+preserved among the family papers. Dirk II. was the founder of the abbey
+of Egmont. His younger son Egbert became archbishop of Treves. His elder
+son Arnulf married Liutgardis, daughter of Siegfried of Luxemburg and
+sister-in-law of the emperor Henry II. He obtained from the emperor Otto
+III., with whom he was in great favour in 983, a considerable extension
+of territory, that now covered by the Zuider Zee and southward down to
+Nijmwegen. In the deed of gift he is spoken of as holding the three
+countships of Maasland, Kinhem or Kennemerland and Texla or Texel; in
+other words his rule extended over the whole country from the right bank
+of the Maas or Meuse to the Vlie. He appears also to have exercised
+authority at Ghent. He died in 988. Arnulf was count till 993, when he
+was slain in battle against the west Frisians, and was succeeded by his
+twelve-year-old son Dirk III. During the guardianship of his mother,
+Liutgardis, the boy was despoiled of almost all his possessions, except
+Kennemerland and Maasland. But no sooner was he arrived at man's estate
+than Dirk turned upon his enemies with courage and vigour. He waged war,
+successfully with Adelbold, the powerful bishop of Utrecht, and made
+himself master not only of his ancestral possessions, but of the
+district on the Meuse known as the Bushland of Merweda (_forestum
+Merweda_), hitherto subject to the see of Utrecht. In the midst of this
+marshy tract, at a point commanding the courses of the Meuse and the
+Waal, he built a castle (about 1015) and began to levy tolls. Around
+this castle sprang up the town of Thuredrecht or Dordrecht. The
+possession of this stronghold was so injurious to the commerce of Tiel,
+Cologne and the Rhenish towns with England that complaints were made by
+the bishop of Utrecht and the archbishop of Cologne to the emperor.
+Henry II. took the part of the complainants and commissioned Duke
+Godfrey of Lorraine to chastise the young Frisian count. Duke Godfrey
+invaded Dirk's lands with a large army, but they were impeded by the
+swampy nature of the country and totally defeated with heavy loss (July
+29, 1018). The duke was himself taken prisoner. The result was that Dirk
+was not merely confirmed in his possession of Dordrecht and the Merweda
+Bushland (the later Holland) but also of the territory of a vassal of
+the Utrecht see, Dirk Bavo by name, which he conquered. This victory of
+1018 is often regarded as the true starting-point of the history of the
+county of Holland. Having thus established his rule in the south, Dirk
+next proceeded to bring into subjection the Frisians in the north. He
+appointed his brother Siegfrid or Sikka as governor over them. In his
+later years Dirk went upon a pilgrimage to the Holy Land from which he
+returned in 1034; and ruled in peace until his death in 1039.
+
+
+  Dirk IV.
+
+  Quarrel with Flanders about Zeeland.
+
+His son, Dirk IV., was one of the most enterprising of his warlike and
+strenuous race. He began the long strife with the counts of Flanders, as
+to the lordship over Walcheren and other islands of Zeeland; the quarrel
+was important, as dealing with the borderland between French and German
+overlordship. This strife, which lasted 400 years, did not at first
+break out into actual warfare, because both Dirk and Baldwin V. of
+Flanders had a common danger in the emperor Henry III., who in 1046
+occupied the lands in dispute. Dirk allied himself with Godfrey the
+Bearded of Lorraine, who was at war with the emperor, and his territory
+was invaded by a powerful imperial fleet and army (1047). But Dirk
+entrenched himself in his stronghold at Vlaardingen, and when winter
+came on he surrounded and cut off with his light boats a number of the
+enemy's ships, and destroyed a large part of their army as they made
+their way amidst the marches, which impeded their retreat. He was able
+to recover what he had lost and to make peace on his own terms. Two
+years later he was again assailed by a coalition headed by the
+archbishop of Cologne and the bishop of Utrecht. They availed themselves
+of a very hard winter to penetrate into the land over the frozen water.
+Dirk offered a stout resistance, but, according to the most trustworthy
+account, was enticed into an ambuscade and was killed in the fight
+(1049). He died unmarried and was succeeded by his brother Floris I.
+
+
+  Floris I.
+
+  Dirk V.
+
+  Robert the Frisian guardian to his stepson
+
+  Godfrey the Hunchback of Lorraine conquers Holland.
+
+  The Bishop of Utrecht surrenders it to Dirk V.
+
+  Floris II.
+
+  Dirk VI.
+
+Floris, like his predecessors, was hard-fighting and tenacious. He
+gradually recovered possession of his ancestral lands. He found a
+formidable adversary in the able and warlike William, who, becoming
+bishop of Utrecht in 1054, was determined to recover the lost
+possessions of his see; and in 1058, in alliance with Hanno, archbishop
+of Cologne, Egbert, margrave of Brandenburg, the bishop of Liége and
+others, invaded the Frisian territory. At first success attended the
+invaders and many places fell into their hands, but finally they were
+surprised and defeated near Dordrecht. The counts of Guelders and
+Louvain were among the prisoners that fell into the hands of Floris. The
+attack was renewed in 1061. In a battle at Nederhemert Floris met with
+his death in the hour of victory. He is said to have been killed as,
+wearied with pursuing, he lay asleep under a tree. He was succeeded by
+his son, Dirk V., a child, under the guardianship of his mother,
+Gertrude of Saxony. Bishop William seems now to have seized his
+opportunity and occupied all the territory that he claimed. In this he
+was confirmed by two charters of the emperor Henry IV. (April 30 and May
+2, 1064). Among the possessions thus assigned to him is found _comitatus
+omnis in Hollandt cum omnibus ad bannum regalem pertinentibus_. An
+examination of these documents shows the possessions of Dirk as _in
+Westflinge et circa oras Rheni_, i.e. west of the Vlie and around the
+mouths of the Rhine. Gertrude and her son appear to have withdrawn to
+the islands of Frisia (Zeeland), leaving William in undisturbed
+occupation of the disputed lands. In 1063 Gertrude contracted a marriage
+with Robert, the second son of Baldwin V. of Flanders, a man famous for
+his adventurous career (see FLANDERS). On his marriage his father
+invested him with Imperial Flanders, as an apanage including the islands
+of Frisia (Zeeland) west of the Scheldt. He now became guardian to his
+stepson, in whose inheritance lay the islands east of the Scheldt.
+Robert thus, in his own right and that of Dirk, was ruler of all Frisia
+(Zeeland), and thus became known among his Flemish countrymen as Robert
+the Frisian. The death of his brother Baldwin VI. in 1070 led to civil
+war in Flanders, the claim of Robert to the guardianship of his nephew
+Arnulf being disputed by Richilde, the widow of Baldwin. The issue was
+decided by the decisive victory of Robert at Cassel (February 1071) when
+Arnulf was killed and Richilde taken prisoner (see Flanders). While
+Robert was thus engaged in Flanders, an effort was made to recover "the
+County of Holland" and other lands now held by William of Utrecht. The
+people rose in revolt, but by command of the emperor Henry IV. were
+speedily brought back under episcopal rule by an army under the command
+of Godfrey the Hunchback, duke of Lower Lorraine. Again in 1076, at the
+request of the bishop, Duke Godfrey visited his domains in the Frisian
+borderland. At Delft, of which town tradition makes Godfrey the founder,
+the duke was treacherously murdered (February 26, 1076). William of
+Utrecht died on the 17th of the following April. Dirk V., now grown to
+man's estate, was not slow to take advantage of the favourable juncture.
+With the help of Robert (his stepfather) he raised an army, besieged
+Conrad, the successor of William, in the castle of Ysselmonde and took
+him prisoner. The bishop purchased his liberty by surrendering all claim
+to the disputed lands. Henceforth the Frisian counts became definitively
+known as counts of Holland. Dirk V. died in 1091 and was succeeded by
+his son Floris II. the Fat. This count had a peaceful and prosperous
+reign of thirty-one years. After his death (1122) his widow, Petronilla
+of Saxony, governed in the name of Dirk VI., who was a minor. The
+accession of her half-brother, Lothaire of Saxony, to the imperial
+throne on the death of Henry V. greatly strengthened her position. The
+East Frisian districts, Oostergoo and Westergoo, were by Lothaire
+transferred from the rule of the bishops of Utrecht to that of the
+counts of Holland (1125). These Frisians proved very troublesome
+subjects to Dirk VI. In 1132 they rose in insurrection under the
+leadership of Dirk's own brother, Floris the Black. The emperor Conrad
+III. (1138), who was of the rival house of Hohenstaufen, gave back these
+Frisian districts to the bishop; it was in truth somewhat of an empty
+gift. The Frisian peasants and fisher folk loved their independence, and
+were equally refractory to the rule of any distant overlord, whether
+count or bishop. Dirk VI. was succeeded in 1157 by Floris III.
+
+
+  Floris III.
+
+  Dirk VII.
+
+  William I.
+
+  Floris IV.
+
+Floris III. reversed the traditional policy of his house by allying
+himself with the Hohenstaufens. He became a devoted adherent and friend
+of Frederick Barbarossa. He had troubles with West Friesland and
+Groningen, and a war with the count of Flanders concerning their
+respective rights in West Zeeland, in which he was beaten. In 1170 a
+great flood caused immense devastation in the north and helped to form
+the Zuider Zee. In 1189 Floris accompanied Frederick Barbarossa upon the
+third Crusade, of which he was a distinguished leader. He died in 1190
+at Antioch of pestilence. His son, Dirk VII., had a stormy, but on the
+whole successful reign. Contests with the Flemings in West Zeeland and
+with the West Frisians, stirred up to revolt by his brother William,
+ended in his favour. The brothers were reconciled and William was made
+count of East Friesland. In 1202, however, Dirk was defeated and taken
+prisoner by the duke of Brabant, and had to purchase peace on
+humiliating terms. He only survived his defeat a short time and died
+early in 1204, leaving as his only issue a daughter, Ada, 17 years of
+age. The question of female succession thus raised was not likely to be
+accepted without a challenge by William. It had been the intention of
+Dirk VII. to secure the recognition of his daughter's rights by
+appointing his brother her guardian. His widow Alida, however, an
+ambitious woman of strong character, as soon as her husband was dead,
+hurried on a marriage between Ada and Count Louis of Loon; and attempted
+with the nobles of Holland, who now for the first time make their
+appearance as a power in the country, to oppose the claim which William
+had made to the countship as heir in the male line. A struggle ensued.
+William was supported by the Zeelanders and Ada was forced to fly to
+England. William, by a treaty concluded with Louis of Loon in 1206,
+became undisputed count. He took an active part in the events of his
+time. He fought by the side of the emperor Otto IV. in the great battle
+of Bouvines in 1214 (see PHILIP AUGUSTUS), and was taken prisoner. Two
+years later he accompanied Louis, the eldest son of Philip Augustus, in
+his expedition against King John of England. William is perhaps best
+known in history by his taking part in the fourth Crusade. He
+distinguished himself greatly at the capture of Damietta (1219). He did
+not long survive his return home, dying in 1222. The earliest charters
+conveying civic privileges in the county of Holland date from his
+reign--those of Geertruidenberg (1213) and of Dordrecht (1220). His son
+Floris IV., being a minor, succeeded him under the guardianship of his
+maternal uncle, Gerard III. of Gelderland. He maintained in later life
+close relations of friendship with Gerard, and supported him in his
+quarrel with the bishop of Utrecht (1224-1226). Floris was murdered in
+1235 at a tournament at Corbie in Picardy by the count of Clermont.
+Another long minority followed his death, during which his brother Otto,
+bishop of Utrecht, acted as guardian to his nephew William II.
+
+
+  William II.
+
+  Elected King of the Romans.
+
+  Floris V.
+
+  Alliance with Edward I. of England.
+
+  First Charter to Amsterdam.
+
+  Murder of Floris V.
+
+William II. became a man of mark. Pope Innocent IV., having deposed the
+emperor Frederick II., after several princes had refused to allow
+themselves to be nominated in the place of the Hohenstaufen, caused the
+young count of Holland to be elected king of the Romans (1247) by an
+assembly composed chiefly of German ecclesiastics. William took Aachen
+in 1248 and was there crowned king; and after Frederick's death in 1250,
+he had a considerable party in Germany. He brought a war with Margaret
+of Flanders (Black Margaret) to a successful conclusion (1253). He was
+on the point of proceeding to Rome to be crowned emperor, when in an
+expedition against the West Frisians he perished, going down, horse and
+armour, through the ice (1256). Like so many of his predecessors he left
+his inheritance to a child. Floris V. was but two years old on his
+father's death; and he was destined during a reign of forty years to
+leave a deeper impress upon the history of Holland than any other of its
+counts. Floris was a man of chivalrous character and high capacity, and
+throughout his reign he proved himself an able and beneficent ruler.
+Alike in his troubles with his turbulent subjects and in the perennial
+disputes with his neighbours he pursued a strong, far-sighted and
+successful policy. But his active interest in affairs was not limited to
+the Netherlands. He allied himself closely with Edward I. of England in
+his strife with France, and secured from the English king great trading
+advantages for his people; the staple of wool was placed at Dort
+(Dordrecht) and the Hollanders and Zeelanders got fishing rights on the
+English coast. So intimate did their relations become that Floris sent
+his son John to be educated at the court of Edward with a view to his
+marriage with an English princess. To balance the power of the nobles he
+granted charters to many of the towns. Floris made himself master of
+Amstelland and Gooiland; and Amsterdam, destined to become the chief
+commercial town of Holland, counts him the founder of its greatness. Its
+earliest extant charter dates from 1275. In 1296 Floris forsook the
+alliance of Edward I. for that of Philip IV. of France, probably because
+Edward had given support to Guy, count of Flanders, in his dynastic
+dispute with John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut, Floris's nephew (see
+FLANDERS). The real motives of his policy will, however, never be known,
+for shortly afterwards a conspiracy of disaffected nobles, headed by
+Gijsbrecht van Amstel, Gerard van Velzen and Wolfert van Borselen, was
+formed against him. He was by them basely murdered in the castle of
+Muiden (June 27, 1296). The tragic event has been immortalized in dramas
+from the pens of Holland's most famous writers (see VONDEL, HOOFT). The
+burghers and people, who knew him to be their best friend, took such
+vengeance on his slayers as permanently to reduce the power of the
+nobles.
+
+
+  John I.
+
+  Extinction of the first line of Counts. Their high character.
+
+John I., his son, was in England when his father was murdered; he was
+but 15 years of age, feeble in body and mind. He was married to Eleanor,
+daughter of Edward I. His reign was a struggle between John of Avesnes,
+the young count's guardian and next heir, and Wolfert van Borselen, who
+had a strong following in Zeeland. In 1299 van Borselen was killed, and
+a few months later John I. died. John of Avesnes was at once recognized
+as his successor by the Hollanders. Thus with John I. ended the first
+line of counts, after a rule of nearly 400 years. Europe has perhaps
+never seen an abler series of princes than these fourteen lineal
+descendants of Dirk I. Excepting the last there is not a weak man among
+them. Physically handsome and strong, model knights of the days of
+chivalry, hard fighters, wise statesmen, they were born leaders of men;
+always ready to advance the commerce of the country, they were the
+supporters of the growing towns, and likewise the pioneers in the task
+of converting a land of marshes and swamps into a fertile agricultural
+territory rich in flocks and herds. As individuals they had their
+failings, but one and all were worthy members of a high-souled race.
+
+
+  John II. of the House of Avesnes.
+
+  William III.
+
+  William IV.
+
+  The Empress Margaret.
+
+  William V. of the House of Bavaria.
+
+  Albert of Bavaria.
+
+  William VI.
+
+  Jacqueline of Bavaria.
+
+  Accession of the Burgundian Dynasty.
+
+  Philip the Good.
+
+  Flourishing state of Holland.
+
+  Charles the Bold.
+
+  Mary of Burgundy.
+
+John of Avesnes, who took the title of John II., was the son of John of
+Avesnes, count of Hainaut, and Alida, sister of William II. of Holland.
+On his succession to the countship the Hollanders were willing to
+receive him, but the Zeelanders were hostile; and a long struggle ensued
+before his authority was generally recognized. In 1301 Bishop William of
+Utrecht invaded Amstelland, but was killed in battle. John made use of
+his victory to secure the election of his brother Guy as bishop in his
+place. A war with the Flemings followed, in which the Flemings were at
+first victorious, but after a struggle of many vicissitudes they were at
+length driven out of Holland and Zeeland In 1304. John II. died in that
+year and was succeeded by his son William III., surnamed the Good
+(1304-1337). In his reign the long-standing quarrel with Flanders, which
+had during a century and a half caused so many wars, was finally settled
+by the treaty of 1323, by which the full possession of West Zeeland was
+granted to William, who on his part renounced all claim in Imperial
+Flanders. The Amstelland with its capital, Amsterdam, which had hitherto
+been held as a fief of Utrecht, was by William, on the death of his
+uncle Bishop Guy, finally annexed to Holland. This count did much to
+encourage civic life and to develop the resources of the country. He had
+close relations through marriage with the three principal European
+dynasties of his time. His wife was Jeanne of Valois, niece of the
+French king; in 1323 the emperor Louis the Bavarian wedded his daughter
+Margaret; and in 1328 his third daughter, Philippa of Hainaut, was
+married to Edward III. of England. By their alliance William III.
+occupied a position of much dignity and influence, which he used to
+further the interests and increase the welfare of his hereditary lands.
+He was in all respects a great prince and a wise and prudent statesman.
+He was succeeded by his son, William IV., who was the ally of his
+brother-in-law, Edward III., in his French wars. He was fond of
+adventure, and in 1343 made a journey to the Holy Land in disguise, and
+on his way took part in an expedition of the knights of the Teutonic
+Order against the infidel Wends and Lithuanians. He was killed in battle
+against the Frisians in 1345. He left no children, and the question as
+to the succession now brought on Holland a period of violent civil
+commotions. His inheritance was claimed by his eldest sister, the
+empress Margaret, as well as by Philippa of Hainaut, or in other words,
+by Edward III. of England. Margaret came in person and was duly
+recognized as countess in Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut; but returned to
+her husband after appointing her second son (the eldest, Louis,
+renounced his rights) Duke William of Bavaria, as stadholder in her
+place. William was but sixteen, and disorder and confusion soon reigned
+in the land. The sudden death of the emperor in 1347 added to the
+difficulties of his position. In 1349 Margaret was induced to resign her
+sovereignty, and the stadholder became count under the title of William
+V. This was the time of the formation of the famous parties in Holland,
+known as Kabbeljauws (Cods) and Hoeks (Hooks); the former, the burgher
+party, were the supporters of William (possibly the name was derived
+from the light blue, scaly looking Bavarian coat of arms), the latter
+the party of the disaffected nobles, who wanted to catch and devour the
+fat burgher fish. In 1350 such was the disorder in the land that
+Margaret, at the request of the nobles, came to Holland to take into her
+own hands the reins of government. The struggle between the nobles and
+the cities broke out into civil war. Edward III. came to Margaret's aid,
+winning a sea-fight off Veere in 1351; a few weeks later the Hooks and
+their English allies were defeated by William and the Cods at
+Vlaardingen--an overthrow which ruined Margaret's cause. Edward III.
+shortly afterwards changed sides, and the empress saw herself compelled
+(1354) to come to an understanding with her son, he being recognized as
+count of Holland and Zeeland, she of Hainaut. Margaret died two years
+later, leaving William, who had married Matilda of Lancaster, in
+possession of the entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance (July 1356). His
+tenure of power was, however, very brief. Before the close of 1357 he
+showed such marked signs of insanity that his wife, with his own consent
+and the support of both parties, invited Duke Albert of Bavaria, younger
+brother of William V., to be regent, with the title of Ruward (1358).
+William lived in confinement for 31 years. Albert died in 1404, having
+ruled the land well and wisely for 46 years, first as Ruward, then as
+count. Despite outbreaks from time to time of the Hook and Cod troubles,
+he was able to make his authority respected, and to help forward in many
+ways the social progress of the country. The influence of the towns was
+steadily on the increase, and their government began to fall into the
+hands of the burgher patrician class, who formed the Cod party. Opposed
+to them were the nobility and the lower classes, forming the Hook party.
+In Albert's latter years a fresh outbreak of civil war (1392-1395) was
+caused by the count's espousing the side of the Cods, while the Hooks
+had the support of his eldest son, William. Albert was afterwards
+reconciled to his son, who succeeded him as William VI. in 1404. On his
+accession to power William upheld the Hooks, and secured their
+ascendancy. His reign was much troubled with civil discords, but he was
+a brave soldier, and was generally successful in his enterprises. He
+died in 1417, leaving an only child, a daughter, Jacqueline (or Jacoba),
+who had in her early youth been married to John, heir to the throne of
+France. At a gathering held at the Hague (August 15, 1416) the nobles
+and representatives of the cities of Holland and Zeeland had promised at
+William's request to support his daughter's claims to the succession.
+But John of France died (April 1417), and William VI. about a month
+later, leaving the widowed Jacqueline at 17 years of age face to face
+with a difficult situation. She was at first welcomed in Holland and
+Zeeland, but found her claims opposed by her uncle, John of Bavaria,
+supported by the Cod party. Every one from whom she might have expected
+help betrayed her in turn, her second husband John IV. of Brabant, her
+third husband Humphrey of Gloucester, her cousin Philip the Good of
+Burgundy, all behaved shamefully to her. Her romantic and sad life has
+rendered the courageous and accomplished Jacqueline the most picturesque
+figure in the whole history of Holland. She struggled long against her
+powerful kinsfolk, nor did she know happiness till near the end of her
+life, when she abandoned the unequal strife, and found repose with
+Francis of Borselen, Ruward of Holland, her fourth husband. Him Philip
+the Good, duke of Burgundy, craftily seized; and thereby in 1433 the
+Duchess Jacqueline was compelled to cede her rights over the counties of
+Holland and Hainaut. Consequently at her death in 1436, as she left no
+children, Philip succeeded to the full and undisputed possession of her
+lands. He had already acquired by inheritance, purchase or force almost
+all the other Netherland states; and now, with the extinction of the
+Bavarian line of counts, Holland ceased to have an independent existence
+and became an outlying province of the growing Burgundian power (see
+BURGUNDY). During the years that followed the accession to the
+sovereignty of Duke Philip, Holland plays but an insignificant part. It
+was governed by a stadholder, and but small respect was shown for its
+chartered rights and privileges. The quarrels between the Hook and Cod
+factions still continued, but the outbreaks of civil strife were quickly
+repressed by the strong hand of Philip. Holland during this time
+contented herself with growing material prosperity. Her herring fishery,
+rendered more valuable by the curing process discovered or introduced by
+Benkelszoon, brought her increasing wealth, and her fishermen were
+already laying the foundations of her future maritime greatness. It was
+in the days of Duke Philip that Lorenz Koster of Haarlem contributed his
+share to the discovery of printing. During the reign of Charles the Bold
+(1467-1477) the Hollanders, like the other subjects of that warlike
+prince, suffered much from the burden of taxation An outbreak at Hoorn
+was by Charles sternly repressed. The Hollanders were much aggrieved by
+the establishment of a high court of justice for the entire Netherlands
+at Mechlin. (1474). This was regarded as a serious breach of their
+privileges. The succession of Mary of Burgundy led to the granting to
+Holland as to the other provinces of the Netherlands, of the Great
+Privilege of March 1477, which restored the most important of their
+ancient rights and liberties (see NETHERLANDS). A high court of justice
+was established for Holland, Zeeland and Friesland, and the use of the
+native language was made official. The Hook and Cod troubles again
+disturbed the country. Hook uprisings took place at Leiden and Dordrecht
+and had to be repressed by armed force.
+
+
+  Maximilian of Austria.
+
+  Philip II. the Fair.
+
+  The Emperor Charles V. (Charles III.).
+
+  Philip III.
+
+  William of Orange Stadholder.
+
+  The revolt of the Netherlands.
+
+  Union of Utrecht.
+
+  Abjuration of Philip's Sovereignty.
+
+By the sudden death of the Duchess Mary in 1482 her possessions,
+including the county of Holland, passed to her infant son Philip, under
+the guardianship of his father the Archduke Maximilian of Austria. Thus
+the Burgundian dynasty was succeeded by that of the Habsburgs. During
+the regency of Maximilian the turbulence of the Hooks caused much strife
+and unrest in Holland. Their leaders. Francis of Brederode and John of
+Naaldwijk, seized Rotterdam and other places. Their overthrow finally
+ended the strife between Hooks and Cods. The "Bread and Cheese War," an
+uprising of the peasants in North Holland caused by famine, is a proof
+of the misery caused by civil discords and oppressive taxation. In 1494,
+Maximilian having been elected emperor, Philip was declared of age. His
+assumption of the government was greeted with joy in Holland, and in his
+reign the province enjoyed rest and its fisheries benefited from the
+commercial treaty concluded with England. The story of Holland during
+the long reign of his son and successor Charles III. (1506-1555), better
+known as the emperor Charles V., belongs to the general history of the
+Netherlands (see NETHERLANDS). On the abdication of Charles, his son
+Philip II. of Spain became Philip III., count of Holland, the ruler
+whose arbitrary rule in church and state brought about the revolt of the
+Netherlands. His appointment of William, prince of Orange, as stadholder
+of Holland and Zeeland was destined to have momentous results to the
+future of those provinces (see WILLIAM THE SILENT). The capture of Brill
+and of Flushing in 1572 by the Sea-Beggars led to the submission of the
+greater part of Holland and Zeeland to the authority of the prince of
+Orange, who, as stadholder, summoned the states of Holland to meet at
+Dordrecht. This act was the beginning of Dutch independence. From this
+time forward William made Holland his home. It became the bulwark of the
+Protestant faith in the Netherlands, the focus of the resistance to
+Spanish tyranny. The sieges of Haarlem, Alkmaar and Leiden saved Holland
+from being overwhelmed by the armies of Alva and Requesens and stemmed
+the tide of Spanish victory. The act of federation between Holland and
+Zeeland brought about by the influence of William was the germ of the
+larger union of Utrecht between the seven northern provinces in 1579.
+But within the larger union the inner and closer union between Holland
+and Zeeland continued to subsist. In 1580, when the sovereignty of the
+Netherlands was offered to the duke of Anjou, the two maritime provinces
+refused to acquiesce, and forced William to accept the title of count of
+Holland and Zeeland. In the following year William in the name of the
+two provinces solemnly abjured the sovereignty of the Spanish king (July
+24). After the assassination of William (1584) the title of count of
+Holland was never revived.
+
+
+  Government of Holland.
+
+  Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.
+
+  Contest between the Principles of National and Provincial Sovereignty.
+
+In the long struggle of the united provinces with Spain, which followed
+the death of Orange, the brunt of the conflict fell upon Holland. More
+than half the burden of the charges of the war fell upon this one
+province; and with Zeeland it furnished the fleets which formed the
+chief defence of the country. Hence the importance attached to the vote
+of Holland in the assembly of the States-General. That vote was given by
+deputies at the head of whom was the advocate (in later times called the
+grand pensionary) of Holland, and who were responsible to, and the
+spokesmen of, the provincial states. These states, which met at the
+Hague in the same building as the States-General, consisted of
+representatives of the burgher oligarchies (regents) of the principal
+towns, together with representatives of the nobles, who possessed one
+vote only. The advocate was the paid minister of the states. He presided
+over their meetings, kept their minutes and conducted all
+correspondence, and, as stated above, was their spokesman in the
+States-General. The advocate (or grand pensionary) of Holland therefore,
+if an able man, had opportunities for exercising a very considerable
+influence, becoming in fact a kind of minister of all affairs. It was
+this influence as exerted by the successive advocates of Holland, Paul
+Buys and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, which rendered abortive the
+well-meant efforts of the earl of Leicester to centralize the government
+of the United Provinces. After his departure (1587) the advocate of
+Holland, Oldenbarneveldt, became the indispensable statesman of the
+struggling republic. The multiplicity of his functions gave to the
+advocate an almost unlimited authority in the details of administration,
+and for thirty years the conduct of affairs remained in his hands (see
+OLDENBARNEVELDT). This meant the undisputed hegemony of Holland in the
+federation, in other words of the burgher oligarchies who controlled the
+town corporations of the province, and especially of Amsterdam. This
+authority of Holland was, however, more than counterbalanced by the
+extensive powers with which the stadholder princes of Orange were
+invested; and the chief crises in the internal history of the Dutch
+republic are to be found in the struggles for supremacy between two, in
+reality, different principles of government. On the one side the
+principle of provincial sovereignty which gave to the voice of Holland a
+preponderating weight that was decisive; on the other side the principle
+of national sovereignty personified in the princes of Orange, to whom
+the States-General and the provincial states delegated executive powers
+that were little less than monarchical.
+
+
+  Maurice Prince of Orange and John of Oldenbarneveldt.
+
+  Frederick Henry Prince of Orange.
+
+  William II. Prince of Orange.
+
+  John de Witt.
+
+  William III. Prince of Orange.
+
+  William IV. Prince of Orange.
+
+The conclusion of the twelve years' truce in 1609 was a triumph for
+Oldenbarneveldt and the province of Holland over the opposition of
+Maurice, prince of Orange. In 1617 the outbreak of the religious dispute
+between the Remonstrant and Contra-remonstrant parties brought on a life
+and death struggle between the sovereign province of Holland and the
+States-General of the union. The sword of Maurice decided the issue in
+favour of the States-General. The claims of Holland were overthrown and
+the head of Oldenbarneveldt fell upon the scaffold (1619). The
+stadholder, Frederick Henry of Orange, ruled with well-nigh monarchical
+authority (1625-1647), but even he at the height of his power and
+popularity had always to reckon with the opposition of the states of
+Holland and of Amsterdam, and many of his plans of campaign were
+thwarted by the refusal of the Hollanders to furnish supplies. His son
+William II. was but 21 years of age on succeeding to the stadholdership,
+and the states of Holland were sufficiently powerful to carry through
+the negotiations for the peace of Münster (1648) in spite of his
+opposition. A life and death conflict again ensued, and once more in
+1650 the prince of Orange by armed force crushed the opposition of the
+Hollanders. The sudden death of William in the hour of his triumph
+caused a complete revolution in the government of the republic. He left
+no heir but a posthumous infant, and the party of the burgher regents of
+Holland was once more in the ascendant. The office of stadholder was
+abolished, and John de Witt, the grand pensionary (_Raad-Pensionaris_)
+of Holland, for two decades held in his hands all the threads of
+administration, and occupied the same position of undisputed authority
+in the councils of the land as Oldenbarneveldt had done at the beginning
+of the century. Amsterdam during this period was the centre and head of
+the United Provinces. The principle of provincial sovereignty was
+carried to its extreme point in the separate treaty concluded with
+Cromwell in 1654, in which the province of Holland agreed to exclude for
+ever the prince of Orange from the office of stadholder of Holland or
+captain-general of the union. In 1672 another revolution took place.
+John de Witt was murdered, and William III. was called to fill the
+office of dignity and authority which had been held by his ancestors of
+the house of Orange, and the stadholdership was declared to be
+hereditary in his family. But William died without issue (see WILLIAM
+III.) and a stadholderless period, during which the province of Holland
+was supreme in the union, followed till 1737. This change was effected
+smoothly, for though William had many differences with Amsterdam, he had
+in Anthony Heinsius (van der Heim), who was grand pensionary of Holland
+from 1690 to his death in 1720, a statesman whom he thoroughly trusted,
+who worked with him in the furtherance of his policy during life and who
+continued to carry out that policy after his death. In 1737 there was
+once more a reversion to the stadholdership in the person of William
+IV., whose powers were strengthened and declared hereditary both in the
+male and female line in 1747. But until the final destruction of the
+federal republic by the French armies, the perennial struggle went on
+between the Holland or federal party (_Staatsgesinden_) centred at
+Amsterdam--out of which grew the patriot party under William V.--and the
+Orange or unionist party (_Oranjegesinden_), which was strong in the
+smaller provinces and had much popular support among the lower classes.
+The French conquest swept away the old condition of things never to
+reappear; but allegiance to the Orange dynasty survived, and in 1813
+became the rallying point of a united Dutch people. At the same time the
+leading part played by the province of Holland in the history of the
+republic has not been unrecognized, for the country ruled over by the
+sovereigns of the house of Orange is always popularly, and often
+officially, known as Holland.
+
+
+  Constitution of the States of Holland.
+
+  The Grand Pensionary.
+
+  College of Deputed Councillors.
+
+The full title of the states of Holland in the 17th and 18th centuries
+was: _de Edele Groot Mogende Heeren Staaten van Holland en
+Westfriesland_. After 1608 this assembly consisted of nineteen members,
+one representing the nobility (_ridderschap_), and eighteen, the towns.
+The member for the nobles had precedence and voted first. The interests
+of the country districts (_het platte land_) were the peculiar charges
+of the member for the nobles. The nobles also retained the right of
+appointing representatives to sit in the College of Deputed Councillors,
+in certain colleges of the admiralty, and upon the board of directors of
+the East India Company, and to various public offices. The following
+eighteen towns sent representatives: South Quarter--(1) Dordrecht, (2)
+Haarlem, (3) Delft, (4) Leiden, (5) Amsterdam, (6) Gouda, (7) Rotterdam,
+(8) Gorinchem, (9) Schiedam, (10) Schoonhoven, (11) Brill; North
+Quarter:--(12) Alkmaar, (13) Hoorn, (14) Enkhuizen, (15) Edam, (16)
+Monnikendam, (17) Medemblik, (18) Purmerend. Each town (as did also the
+nobles) sent as many representatives as they pleased, but the nineteen
+members had only one vote each. Each town's deputation was headed by its
+pensionary, who was the spokesman on behalf of the representatives.
+Certain questions such as peace and war, voting of subsidies, imposition
+of taxation, changes in the mode of government, &c., required unanimity
+of votes. The grand pensionary (_Raad-Pensionaris_) was at once the
+president and chief administrative officer of the states. He presided
+over all meetings, conducted the business, kept the minutes, and was
+charged with the maintenance of the rights of the states, with the
+execution of their resolutions and with the entire correspondence. Nor
+were his functions only provincial. He was the head and the spokesman of
+the deputation of the states to the States-General of the union; and in
+the stadholderless period the influence of such grand pensionaries of
+Holland as John de Witt and Anthony Heinsius enabled the complicated and
+intricate machinery of government in a confederacy of many sovereign and
+semi-sovereign authorities without any recognized head of the state, to
+work with comparative smoothness and a remarkable unity of policy. This
+was secured by the indisputable predominance in the union of the
+province of Holland. The policy of the states of Holland swayed the
+policy of the generality, and historical circumstances decreed that the
+policy of the states of Holland during long and critical periods should
+be controlled by a succession of remarkable men filling the office of
+grand pensionary. The states of Holland sat at the Hague in the months
+of March, July, September and November. During the periods of
+prorogation the continuous oversight of the business and interests of
+the province was, however, never neglected. This duty was confided to a
+body called the College of Deputed Councillors (_het Kollegie der
+Gekommitteerde Raden_), which was itself divided into two sections, one
+for the south quarter, another for the north quarter. The more
+important--that for the south quarter--consisted of ten members, (1) the
+senior member of the nobility, who sat for life, (2) representatives
+(for periods of three years) of the eight towns: Dordrecht, Haarlem,
+Delft, Leiden, Amsterdam, Gouda, Rotterdam and Gorinchem, with a tenth
+member (usually elected biennially) for the towns of Schiedam,
+Schoonhoven and Brill conjointly. The grand pensionary presided over the
+meetings of the college, which had the general charge of the whole
+provincial administration, especially of finance, the carrying out of
+the resolutions of the states, the maintenance of defences, and the
+upholding of the privileges and liberties of the land. With particular
+regard to this last-named duty the college deputed two of its members to
+attend all meetings of the states-general, to watch the proceedings and
+report at once any proposals which they held to be contrary to the
+interests or to infringe upon the rights of the province of Holland. The
+institution of the College of Deputed Councillors might thus be
+described as a vigilance committee of the states in perpetual session.
+The existence of the college, with its many weighty and important
+functions, must never be lost sight of by students who desire to have a
+clear understanding of the remarkable part played by the province of
+Holland in the history of the United Netherlands.     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, a city of Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Macatawa Bay
+(formerly called Black Lake), near Lake Michigan, and 25 m. W.S.W. of
+Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 3945; (1900) 7790, of whom a large portion
+were of Dutch descent; (1904) 8966; (1910) 10,490. It is served by the
+Père Marquette Railroad, by steamboat lines to Chicago and other lake
+ports, and by electric lines connecting with Grand Rapids, Saugatuck,
+and the neighbouring summer resorts. On Macatawa Bay are Ottawa Beach,
+Macatawa Park, Jenison Park, Central Park, Castle Park and Waukezoo. In
+the city itself are Hope College (co-educational; founded in 1851 and
+incorporated as a college in 1866), an institution of the (Dutch)
+Reformed Church in America; and the Western Theological Seminary (1869;
+suspended 1877-1884) of the same denomination. Holland is a grain and
+fruit shipping centre, and among its manufactures are furniture,
+leather, grist mill products, iron, beer, pickles, shoes, beet sugar,
+gelatine, biscuit (Holland rusk), electric and steam launches, and
+pianos. In 1908 seven weekly, one daily, and two monthly papers (four
+denominational) were published at Holland, five of them in Dutch. The
+municipality owns its water-works and electric-lighting plant. Holland
+was founded in 1847 by Dutch settlers, under the leadership of the Rev.
+A. C. Van Raalte, and was chartered as a city in 1867. In 1871 much of
+it was destroyed by a forest fire.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, a cloth so called from the country where it was first made. It
+was originally a fine plain linen fabric of a brownish colour--unbleached
+flax. Several varieties are now made: hollands, pale hollands and fine
+hollands. They are used for aprons, blinds, shirts, blouses and dresses.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS [VACLAF HOLAR] (1607-1677), Bohemian etcher,
+was born at Prague on the 13th of July 1607, and died in London, being
+buried at St Margaret's church, Westminster, on the 28th of March 1677.
+His family was ruined by the capture of Prague in the Thirty Years' War,
+and young Hollar, who had been destined for the law, determined to become
+an artist. The earliest of his works that have come down to us are dated
+1625 and 1626; they are small plates, and one of them is a copy of a
+Virgin and Child by Dürer, whose influence upon Hollar's work was always
+great. In 1627 he was at Frankfort, working under Matthew Merian, an
+etcher and engraver; thence he passed to Strassburg, and thence, in 1633,
+to Cologne. It was there that he attracted the notice of the famous
+amateur Thomas, earl of Arundel, then on an embassy to the imperial
+court; and with him Hollar travelled to Vienna and Prague, and finally
+came in 1637 to England, destined to be his home for many years. Though
+he lived in the household of Lord Arundel, he seems to have worked not
+exclusively for him, but to have begun that slavery to the publishers
+which was afterwards the normal condition of his life. In his first year
+in England he made for Stent, the printseller, the magnificent View of
+Greenwich, nearly a yard long, and received thirty shillings for the
+plate,--perhaps a twentieth part of what would now be paid for a single
+good impression. Afterwards we hear of his fixing the price of his work
+at fourpence an hour, and measuring his time by a sandglass. The Civil
+War had its effect on his fortunes, but none on his industry. Lord
+Arundel left England in 1642, and Hollar passed into the service of the
+duke of York, taking with him a wife and two children. With other
+royalist artists, notably Inigo Jones and Faithorne, he stood the long
+and eventful siege of Basing House; and as we have some hundred plates
+from his hand dated during the years 1643 and 1644 he must have turned
+his enforced leisure to good purpose. Taken prisoner, he escaped or was
+released, and joined Lord Arundel at Antwerp, and there he remained eight
+years, the prime of his working life, when he produced his finest plates
+of every kind, his noblest views, his miraculous "muffs" and "shells,"
+and the superb portrait of the duke of York. In 1652 he returned to
+London, and lived for a time with Faithorne the engraver near Temple Bar.
+During the following years were published many books which he
+illustrated:--Ogilby's _Virgil_ and _Homer_, Stapylton's _Juvenal_, and
+Dugdale's _Warwickshire_, _St Paul's_ and _Monasticon_ (part i.). The
+booksellers continued to impose on the simple-minded foreigner,
+pretending to decline his work that he might still further reduce the
+wretched price he charged them. Nor did the Restoration improve his
+position. The court did nothing for him, and in the great plague he lost
+his young son, who, we are told, might have rivalled his father as an
+artist. After the great fire he produced some of his famous "Views of
+London"; and it may have been the success of these plates which induced
+the king to send him, in 1668, to Tangier, to draw the town and forts.
+During his return to England occurred the desperate and successful
+engagement fought by his ship the "Mary Rose," under Captain Kempthorne,
+against seven Algerine men-of-war,--a brilliant affair which Hollar
+etched for Ogilby's _Africa_. He lived eight years after his return,
+still working for the booksellers, and retaining to the end his wonderful
+powers; witness the large plate of Edinburgh (dated 1670), one of the
+greatest of his works. He died in extreme poverty, his last recorded
+words being a request to the bailiffs that they would not carry away the
+bed on which he was dying.
+
+Hollar's variety was boundless; his plates number some 2740, and include
+views, portraits, ships, religious subjects, heraldic subjects,
+landscapes, and still life in a hundred different forms. No one that
+ever lived has been able to represent fur, or shells, or a butterfly's
+wing as he has done. His architectural drawings, such as those of
+Antwerp and Strassburg cathedrals, and his views of towns, are
+mathematically exact, but they are pictures as well. He could reproduce
+the decorative works of other artists quite faultlessly, as in the
+famous chalice after Mantegna's drawing. His _Theatrum mulierum_ and
+similar collections reproduce for us with literal truth the outward
+aspects of the people of his day; and his portraits, a branch of art in
+which he has been unfairly disparaged, are of extraordinary refinement
+and power.
+
+  Almost complete collections of Hollar's works exist in the British
+  Museum and in the library at Windsor Castle. Two admirable catalogues
+  of his plates have been made, one in 1745 (2nd ed. 1759) by George
+  Vertue, and one in 1853 by Parthey. The latter, published at Berlin,
+  is a model of German thoroughness and accuracy.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES, BARON (1599-1680), English statesman and writer,
+second son of John Holles, 1st earl of Clare (c. 1564-1637), by Anne,
+daughter of Sir Thomas Stanhope, was born on the 31st of October 1599.
+The favourite son of his father and endowed with great natural
+abilities, Denzil Holles grew up under advantageous circumstances.
+Destined to become later one of the most formidable antagonists of King
+Charles's arbitrary government, he was in early youth that prince's
+playmate and intimate companion. The earl of Clare was, however, no
+friend to the Stuart administration, being especially hostile to the
+duke of Buckingham; and on the accession of Charles to the throne the
+king's offers of favour were rejected. In 1624 Holles was returned to
+parliament for Mitchell in Cornwall, and in 1628 for Dorchester. He had
+from the first a keen sense of the humiliations which attended the
+foreign policy of the Stuart kings. Writing to Strafford, his
+brother-in-law, on the 29th of November 1627, he severely censures
+Buckingham's conduct of the expedition to the Isle of Rhé; "since
+England was England," the declared, "it received not so dishonourable a
+blow"; and he joined in the demand for Buckingham's impeachment in 1628.
+To these discontents were now added the abuses arising from the king's
+arbitrary administration. On the 2nd of March 1629, when Sir John Finch,
+the speaker, refused to put Sir John Eliot's Protestations and was about
+to adjourn the House by the king's command, Holles with another member
+thrust him back into the chair and swore "he should sit still till it
+pleased them to rise." Meanwhile Eliot, on the refusal of the speaker to
+read the Protestations, had himself thrown them into the fire; the usher
+of the black rod was knocking at the door for admittance, and the king
+had sent for the guard. But Holles, declaring that he could not render
+the king or his country better service, put the Protestations to the
+House from memory, all the members rising to their feet and applauding.
+In consequence a warrant was issued for his arrest with others on the
+following day. They were prosecuted first in the Star Chamber and
+subsequently in the King's Bench. When brought upon his _habeas corpus_
+before the latter court Holles offered with the rest to give bail, but
+refused sureties for good behaviour, and argued that the court had no
+jurisdiction over offences supposed to have been committed in
+parliament. On his refusal to plead he was sentenced to a fine of 1000
+marks and to imprisonment during the king's pleasure. Holles had at
+first been committed and remained for some time a close prisoner in the
+Tower of London. The "close" confinement, however, was soon changed to a
+"safe" one, the prisoner then having leave to take the air and exercise,
+but being obliged to maintain himself at his own expense. On the 29th of
+October Holles, with Eliot and Valentine, was transferred to the
+Marshalsea. His resistance to the king's tyranny did not prove so stout
+as that of some of his comrades in misfortune. Among the papers of the
+secretary Sir John Coke is a petition of Holles, couched in humble and
+submissive terms, to be restored to the king's favour;[1] having given
+the security demanded for his good behaviour, he was liberated early in
+1630, and on the 30th of October was allowed bail. Being still banished
+from London he retired to the country, paying his fine in 1637 or 1638.
+The fine was repaid by the parliament in July 1644, and the judgment was
+revised on a writ of error in 1668. In 1638 we find him, notwithstanding
+his recent experiences, one of the chief leaders in his county of the
+resistance to ship money, though it would appear that he subsequently
+made submission.
+
+Holles was a member of the Short and Long Parliaments assembled in 1640.
+According to Laud he was now "one of the great leading men in the House
+of Commons," and in Clarendon's opinion he was "a man of more
+accomplished parts than any of his party" and of most authority. He was
+not, however, in the confidence of the republican party. Though he was
+at first named one of the managers for the impeachment of Strafford,
+Holles had little share in his prosecution. According to Laud he held
+out to Strafford hopes of saving his life if he would use his influence
+with the king to abolish episcopacy, but the earl refused, and Holles
+advised Charles that Strafford should demand a short respite, of which
+he would take advantage to procure a commutation of the death sentence.
+In the debate on the attainder he spoke on behalf of Strafford's family,
+and later obtained some favours from the parliament for his eldest son.
+In all other matters in parliament Holles took a principal part. He was
+one of the chief movers of the Protestation of the 3rd of May 1641,
+which he carried up to the Lords, urging them to give it their approval.
+Although, according to Clarendon, he did not wish to change the
+government of the church, he showed himself at this time decidedly
+hostile to the bishops. He took up the impeachment of Laud to the House
+of Peers, supported the Londoners' petition for the abolition of
+episcopacy and the Root and Branch Bill, and afterwards urged that the
+bishops impeached for their conduct in the affair of the late canons
+should be accused of treason. He showed equal energy in the affairs of
+Ireland at the outbreak of the rebellion, supported strongly the
+independence and purity of the judicial bench, and opposed toleration of
+the Roman Catholics. On the 9th of July 1641 he addressed the Lords on
+behalf of the queen of Bohemia, expressing great loyalty to the king and
+royal family and urging the necessity of supporting the Protestant
+religion everywhere. Together with Pym, Holles drew up the Grand
+Remonstrance, and made a vigorous speech in its support on the 22nd of
+November 1641, in which he argued for the right of one House to make a
+declaration, and asserted: "If kings are misled by their counsellors we
+may, we must tell them of it." On the 15th of December he was a teller
+in the division in favour of printing it. On the great subject of the
+militia he also showed activity. He supported Hesilriges' Militia Bill
+of the 7th of December 1641, and on the 31st of December he took up to
+the king the Commons' demand for a guard under the command of Essex.
+"Holles's force and reputation," said Sir Ralph Verney, "are the two
+things that give the success to all actions." After the failure of the
+attempt by the court to gain over Holles and others by offering them
+posts in the administration, he was one of the "five members" impeached
+by the king.[2] Holles at once grasped the full significance of the
+king's action, and after the triumphant return to the House of the five
+members, on the 11th of January, threw himself into still more
+pronounced opposition to the arbitrary policy of the crown. He demanded
+that before anything further was done the members should be cleared of
+their impeachment; was himself leader in the impeachment of the duke of
+Richmond; and on the 31st of January, when taking up the militia
+petition to the House of Lords, he adopted a very menacing tone, at the
+same time presenting a petition of some thousands of supposed starving
+artificers of London, congregated round the House. On the 15th of June
+he carried up the impeachment of the nine Lords who had deserted the
+parliament; and he was one of the committee of safety appointed on the
+4th of July.
+
+On the outbreak of the Civil War (see GREAT REBELLION) Holles, who had
+been made lieutenant of Bristol, was sent with Bedford to the west
+against the marquess of Hertford, and took part in the unsuccessful
+siege of the latter at Sherborne Castle. He was present at Edgehill,
+where his regiment of Puritans recruited in London was one of the few
+which stood firm and saved the day for the parliament. On the 13th of
+November his men were surprised at Brentford during his absence, and
+routed after a stout resistance. In December he was proposed for the
+command of the forces in the west, an appointment which he appears to
+have refused. Notwithstanding his activity in the field for the cause of
+the parliament, the appeal to arms had been distasteful to Holles from
+the first. As early as September he surprised the House by the marked
+abatement of his former "violent and fiery spirit," and his changed
+attitude did not escape the taunts of his enemies, who attributed it
+scornfully to his disaster at Brentford or to his new wife. He probably
+foresaw that, to whichever side victory fell, the struggle could only
+terminate in the suppression of the constitution and of the moderate
+party on which all his hopes were based. His feelings and political
+opinions, too, were essentially aristocratic, and he regarded with
+horror the transference of the government of the state from the king and
+the ruling families to the parliamentary leaders. He now advocated peace
+and a settlement of the disputes by concessions on both sides; a
+proposal full of danger because impracticable, and one therefore which
+could only weaken the parliamentary resistance and prolong the struggle.
+He warmly supported the peace negotiations on the 21st of November and
+the 22nd of December, and his attitude led to a breach with Pym and the
+more determined party. In June 1643 he was accused of complicity in
+Waller's plot, but swore to his innocency; and his arrest with others of
+the peace party was even proposed in August, when Holles applied for a
+pass to leave the country. The king's successes, however, for the moment
+put a stop to all hopes of peace; and in April 1644 Holles addressed the
+citizens of London at the Guildhall, calling upon them "to join with
+their purses, their persons, and their prayers together" to support the
+army of Essex. In November Holles and Whitelocke headed the commission
+appointed to treat with the king at Oxford. He endeavoured to convince
+the royalists of the necessity of yielding in time, before the "new
+party of hot men" should gain the upper hand. Holles and Whitelocke had
+a private meeting with the king, when at Charles's request they drew up
+the answer which they advised him to return to the parliament. This
+interview was not communicated to the other commissioners or to
+parliament, and though doubtless their motives were thoroughly
+patriotic, their action was scarcely compatible with their position as
+trustees of the parliamentary cause. Holles was also appointed a
+commissioner at Uxbridge in January 1645 and endeavoured to overcome the
+crucial difficulty of the militia by postponing its discussion
+altogether. As leader of the moderate (or Presbyterian) party Holles now
+came into violent antagonism with Cromwell and the army faction. "They
+hated one another equally"; and Holles would not allow any merit in
+Cromwell, accusing him of cowardice and attributing his successes to
+chance and good fortune. With the support of Essex and the Scottish
+commissioners Holles endeavoured in December 1644 to procure Cromwell's
+impeachment as an incendiary between the two nations, and "passionately"
+opposed the self-denying ordinance. In return Holles was charged with
+having held secret communications with the king at Oxford and with a
+correspondence with Lord Digby; but after a long examination by the
+House he was pronounced innocent on the 19th of July 1645. Determined on
+Cromwell's destruction, he refused to listen to the prudent counsels of
+Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, who urged that Cromwell was too strong to be
+resisted or provoked, and on the 29th of March 1647 drew up in
+parliament a hasty proclamation declaring the promoters of the army
+petition enemies to the state; in April challenging Ireton to a duel.
+
+The army party was now thoroughly exasperated against Holles. "They were
+resolved one way or other to be rid of him," says Clarendon. On the 16th
+of June 1647 eleven members including Holles were charged by the army
+with various offences against the state, followed on the 23rd by fresh
+demands for their impeachment and for their suspension, which was
+refused. On the 26th, however, the eleven members, to avoid violence,
+asked leave to withdraw. Their reply to the charges against them was
+handed into the House on the 19th of July, and on the 20th Holles took
+leave of the House in _A grave and learned speech..._. After the riot of
+the apprentices on the 26th, for which Holles disclaimed any
+responsibility, the eleven members were again (30th of July) recalled to
+their seats, and Holles was one of the committee of safety appointed. On
+the flight of the speaker, however, and part of the parliament to the
+army, and the advance of the latter to London, Holles, whose party and
+policy were now entirely defeated, left England on the 22nd of August
+for Sainte-Mère Eglise in Normandy. On the 26th of January 1648 the
+eleven members, who had not appeared when summoned to answer the charges
+against them, were expelled. Not long afterwards, however, on the 3rd of
+June, these proceedings were annulled; and Holles, who had then returned
+and was a prisoner in the Tower with the rest of the eleven members, was
+discharged. He returned to his seat on the 14th of August.
+
+Holles was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king at
+Newport on the 18th of September 1648. Aware of the plans of the extreme
+party, Holles threw himself at the king's feet and implored him not to
+waste time in useless negotiations, and he was one of those who stayed
+behind the rest in order to urge Charles to compliance. On the 1st of
+December he received the thanks of the House. On the occasion of Pride's
+Purge on the 6th of December Holles absented himself and escaped again
+to France. From his retirement there he wrote to Charles II. in 1651,
+advising him to come to terms with the Scots as the only means of
+effecting a restoration; but after the alliance he refused Charles's
+offer of the secretaryship of state. In March 1654 Cromwell, who in
+alarm at the plots being formed against him was attempting to reconcile
+some of his opponents to his government, sent Holles a pass "with
+notable circumstances of kindness and esteem." His subsequent movements
+and the date of his return to England are uncertain, but in 1656
+Cromwell's resentment was again excited against him as the supposed
+author of a tract, really written by Clarendon. He appears to have been
+imprisoned, for his release was ordered by the council on the 2nd of
+September 1659.
+
+Holles took part in the conference with Monk at Northumberland House,
+when the Restoration was directly proposed, and with the secluded
+members took his seat again in parliament on the 21st of February 1660.
+On the 23rd of February he was chosen one of the council to carry on the
+government during the interregnum; on the 2nd of March the votes passed
+against him and the sequestration of his estates were repealed, and on
+the 7th he was made custos rotulorum for Dorsetshire. He took a leading
+part in bringing about the Restoration, was chairman of the committee of
+seven appointed to prepare an answer to the king's letter, and as one of
+the deputed Lords and Commons he delivered at the Hague the invitation
+to Charles to return. He preceded Charles to England to prepare for his
+reception, and was sworn of the privy council on the 5th of June. He was
+one of the thirty-four commissioners appointed to try the regicides in
+September and October. On the 20th of April 1661 he was created Baron
+Holles of Ifield in Sussex, and became henceforth one of the leading
+members of the Upper House.
+
+Holles, who was a good French scholar, was sent as ambassador to France
+on the 7th of July 1663. He was ostentatiously English, and a zealous
+upholder of the national honour and interests; but his position was
+rendered difficult by the absence of home support. On the 27th of
+January 1666 war was declared, but Holles was not recalled till May.
+Pepys remarks on the 14th of November: "Sir G. Cartaret tells me that
+just now my Lord Holles had been with him and wept to think in what a
+condition we are fallen." Soon afterwards he was employed on another
+disagreeable mission in which the national honour was again at stake,
+being sent to Breda to make a peace with Holland in May 1667. He
+accomplished his task successfully, the articles being signed on the
+21st of June.
+
+On the 12th of December he protested against Lord Clarendon's banishment
+and was nearly put out of the council in consequence. In 1668 he was
+manager for the Lords in the celebrated Skinner's case, in which his
+knowledge of precedents was of great service, and on which occasion he
+published the tract _The Grand Question concerning the Judicature of the
+House of Peeres_ (1669). Holles, who was honourably distinguished by
+Charles as a "stiff and sullen man," and as one who would not yield to
+solicitation, now became with Halifax and Shaftesbury a leader in the
+resistance to the domestic and foreign policy of the court. Together
+with Halifax he opposed both the arbitrary Conventicle Act of 1670 and
+the Test Oath of 1675, his objection to the latter being chiefly founded
+on the invasion of the privileges of the peers which it involved; and he
+defended with vigour the right of the Peers to record their protests. On
+the 7th of January 1676 Holles with Halifax was summarily dismissed from
+the council. On the occasion of the Commons petitioning the king in
+favour of an alliance with the Dutch, Holles addressed a Letter to Van
+Beuninghen at Amsterdam on "Love to our Country and Hatred of a Common
+Enemy," enlarging upon the necessity of uniting in a common defence
+against French aggression and in support of the Protestant religion.
+"The People are strong but the Government is weak," he declares; and he
+attributes the cause of weakness to the transference of power from the
+nobility to the people, and to a succession of three weak princes. "Save
+what (the Parliament) did, we have not taken one true step nor struck
+one true stroke since Queen Elizabeth." He endeavoured to embarrass the
+government this year in his tract on _Some Considerations upon the
+Question whether the parliament is dissolved by its prorogation for 15
+months_. It was held by the Lords to be seditious and scandalous; while
+for publishing another pamphlet written by Holles entitled _The Grand
+Question concerning the Prorogation of this Parliament_ (otherwise _The
+Long Parliament dissolved_) the corrector of the proof sheets was
+committed to the Tower and fined £1000. In order to bring about the
+downfall of Danby (afterwards duke of Leeds) and the disbanding of the
+army, which he believed to be intended for the suppression of the
+national liberties, Holles at this time (1677-1679) engaged, as did many
+others, in a dangerous intrigue with Courtin and Barillon, the French
+envoys, and Louis XIV.; he refused, however, the latter's presents on
+the ground that he was a member of the council, having been appointed to
+Sir William Temple's new modelled cabinet in 1679. Barillon described
+him as at this period in his old age "the man of all England for whom
+the different cabals have the most consideration," and as firmly opposed
+to the arbitrary designs of the court. He showed moderation in the
+Popish Plot, and on the question of the exclusion followed Halifax
+rather than Shaftesbury. His long and eventful career closed by his
+death on the 17th of February 1680.
+
+The character of Holles has been drawn by Burnet, with whom he was on
+terms of friendship. "Hollis was a man of great courage and of as great
+pride.... He was faithful and firm to his side and never changed through
+the whole course of his life.... He argued well but too vehemently; for
+he could not bear contradiction. He had the soul of an old stubborn
+Roman in him. He was a faithful but a rough friend, and a severe but
+fair enemy. He had a true sense of religion; and was a man of an
+unblameable course of life and of a sound judgment when it was not
+biased by passion."[3] Holles was essentially an aristocrat and a Whig
+in feeling, making Cromwell's supposed hatred of "Lords" a special
+charge against him; regarding the civil wars rather as a social than as
+a political revolution, and attributing all the evils of his time to the
+transference of political power from the governing families to the
+"meanest of men." He was an authority on the history and practice of
+parliament and the constitution, and besides the pamphlets already
+mentioned was the author of _The Case Stated concerning the Judicature
+of the House of Peers in the Point of Appeals_ (1675); _The Case Stated
+of the Jurisdiction of the House of Lords in the point of Impositions_
+(1676); _Letter of a Gentleman to his Friend showing that the Bishops
+are not to be judges in Parliament in Cases Capital_ (1679); _Lord
+Holles his Remains, being a 2nd letter to a Friend concerning the
+judicature of the Bishops in Parliament..._.[4] He also published _A
+True Relation of the unjust accusation of certain French gentlemen_
+(1671), an account of Holles's intercession on their behalf and of his
+dispute with Lord Chief Justice Keeling; and he left _Memoirs_, written
+in exile in 1649, and dedicated "to the unparalleled Couple, Mr Oliver
+St John ... and Mr Oliver Cromwell...." published in 1699 and reprinted
+in Baron Maseres's _Select Tracts relating to the Civil Wars_, i. 189.
+Several speeches of Holles were printed and are extant, and his Letter
+to Van Beuninghen has been already quoted.
+
+Holles married (1) in 1628 Dorothy, daughter and heiress of Sir Francis
+Ashley; (2) in 1642 Jane, daughter and co-heiress of Sir John Shirley of
+Ifield in Sussex and widow of Sir Walter Covert of Slougham, Sussex; and
+(3) in 1666 Esther, daughter and co-heiress of Gideon Le Lou of
+Columbiers in Normandy, widow of James Richer. By his first wife he left
+one son, Francis, who succeeded him as 2nd baron. He had no children by
+his other wives, and the peerage became extinct in the person of his
+grandson Denzil, 3rd Baron Holles, in 1694, the estates devolving on
+John Holles (1662-1711), 4th earl of Clare and duke of Newcastle.
+
+Holles's brother, JOHN HOLLES, 2nd earl of Clare (1595-1666), was member
+of parliament for East Retford in three parliaments before succeeding to
+the peerage in 1637. He took some part in the Civil War, but "he was
+very often of both parties, and never advantaged either." The earldom of
+Clare, which had been granted in 1624 by James I. to his father, John
+Holles, in return for the payment of £5000, became merged in the dukedom
+of Newcastle in 1694, when John Holles, the 4th earl, was created duke
+of Newcastle.
+
+  Holles's Life has been written by C. H. Firth in the _Dictionary of
+  National Biography_; by Horace Walpole in _Royal and Noble Authors_,
+  ii. 28; by Guizot in _Monk's Contemporaries_ (Eng. trans., 1851); and
+  by A. Collins in _Historical Collections of Noble Families_ (1752),
+  and in the _Biographia Britannica_. See also S. R. Gardiner, _History
+  of England_ (1883-1884), and _History of the Great Civil War_ (1893);
+  Lord Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion_, edited by W. D. Macray; G.
+  Burnet, _History of His Own Time_ (1833); and B. Whitelock,
+  _Memorials_ (1732).     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Earl Cowper_, i. 422.
+
+  [2] The speech of January 5 attributed to him and printed in
+    _Thomason Tracts_, E 199 (55), is a forgery.
+
+  [3] Burnet's _History of His Own Times_, vi. 257, 268.
+
+  [4] The rough draft, apparently in Holles's handwriting, is in
+    _Egerton MSS._ ff. 136-149.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLOWAY, THOMAS (1800-1883), English patent-medicine vendor and
+philanthropist, was born at Devonport, on the 22nd of September 1800, of
+humble parents. Until his twenty-eighth year he lived at Penzance, where
+he assisted his mother and brother in the baker's shop which his father,
+once a warrant officer in a militia regiment, had left them at his
+death. On coming to London he made the acquaintance of Felix Albinolo,
+an Italian, from whom he obtained the idea for the ointment which was to
+carry his name all over the world. The secret of his enormous success in
+business was due almost entirely to advertisement, in the efficacy of
+which he had great faith. He soon added the sale of pills to that of the
+ointment, and began to devote the larger part of his profits to
+advertising. Holloway's first newspaper announcement appeared on the
+15th of October 1837, and in 1842 his yearly expenses for publicity had
+reached the sum of £5000; this expenditure went on steadily increasing
+as his sales increased, until it had reached the figure of £50,000 per
+annum at the time of his death. It is, however, chiefly by the two
+princely foundations--the Sanatorium and the College for Women at Egham
+(q.v.), endowed by Holloway towards the close of his life--that his name
+will be perpetuated, more than a million sterling having been set apart
+by him for the erection and permanent endowment of these institutions.
+In the deed of gift of the college the founder credited his wife, who
+died in 1875, with the advice and counsel that led him to provide what
+he hoped might ultimately become the nucleus of a university for women.
+The philanthropic and somewhat eccentric donor (he had an unconcealed
+prejudice against doctors, lawyers and parsons) died of congestion of
+the lungs at Sunninghill on the 26th of December 1883.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLY (_Ilex Aquifolium_), the European representative of a large genus
+of trees and shrubs of the natural order Ilicineae, containing about 170
+species. The genus finds its chief development in Central and South
+America; is well developed in Asia, especially the Chinese-Japanese
+area, and has but few species in Europe, Africa and Australia. In
+Europe, where _I. Aquifolium_ is the sole surviving species, the genus
+was richly represented during the Miocene period by forms at first South
+American and Asiatic, and later North American in type (Schimper,
+_Paléont. végét._ iii. 204, 1874). The leaves are generally leathery and
+evergreen, and are alternate and stalked; the flowers are commonly
+dioecious, are in axillary cymes, fascicles or umbellules, and have a
+persistent four- to five-lobed calyx, a white, rotate four- or rarely
+five- or six-cleft corolla, with the four or five stamens adherent to
+its base in the male, sometimes hypogynous in the female flowers, and a
+two- to twelve-celled ovary; the fruit is a globose, very seldom ovoid,
+and usually red drupe, containing two to sixteen one-seeded stones.
+
+[Illustration: _Ilex Aquifolium._ Shoot bearing leaves and fruit about ½
+nat. size.
+
+  1. Flower with abortive stamens.
+  2. Flower with abortive pistil.
+  3. Floral diagram showing arrangement of parts in horizontal section.
+  4. Fruit.
+  5. Fruit cut transversely showing the four one-seeded stones.]
+
+The common holly, or Hulver (apparently the [Greek: kêlastros] of
+Theophrastus;[1] Ang.-Sax. _holen_ or _holegn_; Mid. Eng. _holyn_ or
+_holin_, whence _holm_ and _holmtree_;[2] Welsh, _celyn_; Ger.
+_Stechpalme_, _Hulse_, _Hulst_; O. Fr. _houx_; and Fr. _houlx_),[3] _I.
+Aquifolium_, is an evergreen shrub or low tree, having smooth,
+ash-coloured bark, and wavy, pointed, smooth and glossy leaves, 2 to 3
+in. long, with a spinous margin, raised and cartilaginous below, or, as
+commonly on the upper branches of the older trees, entire--a peculiarity
+alluded to by Southey in his poem _The Holly Tree_. The flowers, which
+appear in May, are ordinarily dioecious, as in all the best of the
+cultivated varieties in nurseries (_Gard. Chron._, 1877, i. 149). Darwin
+(_Diff. Forms of Flow._, 1877, p. 297) says of the holly: "During
+several years I have examined many plants, but have never found one that
+was really hermaphrodite." Shirley Hibberd, however (_Gard. Chron._,
+1877, ii. 777), mentions the occurrence of "flowers bearing globose
+anthers well furnished with pollen, and also perfect ovaries." In his
+opinion, _I. Aquifolium_ changes its sex from male to female with age.
+In the female flowers the stamens are destitute of pollen, though but
+slightly or not at all shorter than in the male flowers; the latter are
+more numerous than the female, and have a smaller ovary and a larger
+corolla, to which the filaments adhere for a greater length. The corolla
+in male plants falls off entire, whereas in fruit-bearers it is broken
+into separate segments by the swelling of the young ovary. The holly
+occurs in Britain, north-east Scotland excepted, and in western and
+southern Europe, from as high as 62° N. lat. in Norway to Turkey and the
+Caucasus and in western Asia. It is found generally in forest glades or
+in hedges, and does not flourish under the shade of other trees. In
+England it is usually small, probably on account of its destruction for
+timber, but it may attain to 60 or 70 ft. in height, and Loudon mentions
+one tree at Claremont, in Surrey, of 80 ft. Some of the trees on Bleak
+Hill, Shropshire, are asserted to be 14 ft. in girth at some distance
+from the ground (_N. and Q._, 5th ser., xii. 508). The holly is abundant
+in France, especially in Brittany. It will grow in almost any soil not
+absolutely wet, but flourishes best in rather dry than moist sandy loam.
+Beckmann (_Hist. of Invent._, 1846, i. 193) says that the plant which
+first induced J. di Castro to search for alum in Italy was the holly,
+which is there still considered to indicate that its habitat is
+aluminiferous. The holly is propagated by means of the seeds, which do
+not normally germinate until their second year, by whip-grafting and
+budding, and by cuttings of the matured summer shoots, which, placed in
+sandy soil and kept under cover of a hand-glass in sheltered situations,
+generally strike root in spring. Transplantation should be performed in
+damp weather in September and October, or, according to some writers, in
+spring or on mild days in winter, and care should be taken that the
+roots are not dried by exposure to the air. It is rarely injured by
+frosts in Britain, where its foliage and bright red berries in winter
+render it a valuable ornamental tree. The yield of berries has been
+noticed to be less when a warm spring, following on a wet winter season,
+has promoted excess of growth. There are numerous varieties of the
+holly. Some trees have yellow, and others white or even black fruit. In
+the fruitless variety _laurifolia_, "the most floriferous of all
+hollies" (Hibberd), the flowers are highly fragrant; the form known as
+_femina_ is, on the other hand, remarkable for the number of its
+berries. The leaves in the unarmed varieties _aureo-marginata_ and
+_albo-marginata_ are of great beauty, and in _ferox_ they are studded
+with sharp prickles. The holly is of importance as a hedge-plant, and is
+patient of clipping, which is best performed by the knife. Evelyn's
+holly hedge at Say's Court, Deptford, was 400 ft. long, 9 ft. high and 5
+ft. in breadth. To form fences, for which Evelyn recommends the
+employment of seedlings from woods, the plants should be 9 to 12 in. in
+height, with plenty of small fibrous roots, and require to be set 1 to
+1½ ft. apart, in well-manured and weeded ground and thoroughly watered.
+
+The wood of the holly is even-grained and hard, especially when from the
+heartwood of large trees, and almost as white as ivory, except near the
+centre of old trunks, where it is brownish. It is employed in inlaying
+and turning, and, since it stains well, in the place of ebony, as for
+teapot handles. For engraving it is inferior to box. When dry it weighs
+about 47½ lb. per cub. ft. From the bark of the holly bird-lime is
+manufactured. From the leaves are obtainable a colouring matter named
+_ilixanthin_, _ilicic acid_, and a bitter principle, _ilicin_, which has
+been variously described by different analytical chemists. They are
+eaten by sheep and deer, and in parts of France serve as a winter fodder
+for cattle. The berries provoke in man violent vomiting and purging, but
+are eaten with immunity by thrushes and other birds. The larvae of the
+moths _Sphinx ligustri_ and _Phoxopteryx naevana_ have been met with on
+holly. The leaves are mined by the larva of a fly, _Phytomyza ilicis_,
+and both on them and the tops of the young twigs occurs the plant-louse
+_Aphis ilicis_ (Kaltenbach, _Pflanzenfeinde_, 1874, p. 427). The custom
+of employing holly and other plants for decorative purposes at Christmas
+is one of considerable antiquity, and has been regarded as a survival of
+the usages of the Roman Saturnalia, or of an old Teutonic practice of
+hanging the interior of dwellings with evergreens as a refuge for sylvan
+spirits from the inclemency of winter. A Border proverb defines an
+habitual story-teller as one that "lees never but when the hollen is
+green." Several popular superstitions exist with respect to holly. In
+the county of Rutland it is deemed unlucky to introduce it into a house
+before Christmas Eve. In some English rural districts the prickly and
+non-prickly kinds are distinguished as "he" and "she" holly; and in
+Derbyshire the tradition obtains that according as the holly brought at
+Christmas into a house is smooth or rough, the wife or the husband will
+be master. Holly that has adorned churches at that season is in
+Worcestershire and Herefordshire much esteemed and cherished, the
+possession of a small branch with berries being supposed to bring a
+lucky year; and Lonicerus mentions a notion in his time vulgarly
+prevalent in Germany that consecrated twigs of the plant hung over a
+door are a protection against thunder.
+
+  Among the North American species of _Ilex_ are _I. opaca_, which
+  resembles the European tree, the Inkberry, _I. (Prinos) glabra_, and
+  the American Black Alder, or Winterberry, _I. (Prinos) verticillata_.
+  Hooker (_Fl. of Brit. India_, i. 598, 606) enumerates twenty-four
+  Indian species of _Ilex_. The Japanese _I. crenata_, and _I.
+  latifolia_, a remarkably hardy plant, and the North American _I.
+  Cassine_, are among the species cultivated in Britain. The leaves of
+  several species of _Ilex_ are used by dyers. The member of the genus
+  most important economically is _I. paraguariensis_, the prepared
+  leaves of which constitute Paraguay tea, or MATÉ (q.v.). Knee holly is
+  _Ruscus aculeatus_, or butcher's broom (see BROOM); sea holly,
+  _Eryngium maritimum_, an umbelliferous plant; and the mountain holly
+  of America, _Nemopanthes canadensis_, also a member of the order
+  Ilicineae.
+
+  Besides the works above mentioned, see Louden, _Arboretum_, ii. 506
+  (1844).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Hist. Plant._ i. 9. 3, iii. 3. 1, and 4. 6, _et passim_. On the
+    _aquifolium_ or _aquifolia_ of Latin authors, commonly regarded as
+    the holly, see A. de Grandsagne, _Hist. Nat. de Pline_, bk. xvi.,
+    "Notes," pp. 199, 206.
+
+  [2] The term "holm," as indicative of a prevalence of holly, is
+    stated to have entered into the names of several places in Britain.
+    From its superficial resemblance to the holly, the tree _Quercus
+    Ilex_, the evergreen oak, received the appellation of "holm-oak."
+
+  [3] Skeat (_Etymolog. Dict._, 1879) with reference to the word holly
+    remarks: "The form of the base KUL (= Teutonic HUL) is probably
+    connected with Lat. _culmen_, a peak, _culmus_, a stalk; perhaps
+    because the leaves are 'pointed.'" Grimm (_Deut. Wörterb._ Bd. iv.)
+    suggests that the term _Hulst_, as the O.H.G. _Hulis_, applied to the
+    butcher's broom, or knee-holly, in the earliest times used for
+    hedges, may have reference to the holly as a protecting (_hüllender_)
+    plant.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLYHOCK (from M.E. _holi_--doubtless because brought from the Holy
+Land, where it is indigenous (Wedg.)--and A.-S. _hoc_, a mallow),
+_Althaea rosea_, a perennial plant of the natural order _Malvaceae_, a
+native of the East, which has been cultivated in Great Britain for about
+three centuries. The ordinary hollyhock is single-blossomed, but the
+florists' varieties have all double flowers, of white, yellow, rose,
+purple, violet and other tints, some being almost black. The plant is in
+its prime about August, but by careful management examples may be
+obtained in blossom from July to as late as November. Hollyhocks are
+propagated from seed, or by division of the root, or by planting out in
+rich sandy soil, in a close frame, with a gentle bottom heat, single
+eyes from woodshoots, or cuttings from outgrowths of the old stock or of
+the lateral offsets of the spike. The seed may be sown in October under
+cover, the plants obtained being potted in November, and kept under
+glass till the following April, or, if it be late-gathered, in May or
+June, in the open ground, whence, if required, the plants are best
+removed in October or April. In many gardens, when the plants are not
+disturbed, self-sown seedlings come up in abundance about April and May.
+Seedlings may also be raised in February or March, by the aid of a
+gentle heat, in a light and rich moist soil; they should not be watered
+till they have made their second leaves, and when large enough for
+handling should be pricked off in a cold frame; they are subsequently
+transferred to the flower-bed. Hollyhocks thrive best in a well-trenched
+and manured sandy loam. The spikes as they grow must be staked; and
+water and, for the finest blossoms, liquid manure should be liberally
+supplied to the roots. Plants for exhibition require the side growths to
+be pinched out; and it is recommended, in cold, bleak or northerly
+localities, when the flowering is over, and the stalks have been cut off
+4 to 6 in. above the soil, to earth up the crowns with sand. Some of the
+finest double-flowered kinds of hollyhock do not bloom well in Scotland.
+The plant is susceptible of great modification under cultivation. The
+forms now grown are due to the careful selection and crossing of
+varieties. It is found that the most diverse varieties may be raised
+with certainty from plants growing near together.
+
+The young shoots of the hollyhock are very liable to the attacks of
+slugs, and to a disease occasioned by a fungus, _Puccinia malvacearum_,
+which is a native of Chile, attained notoriety in the Australian
+colonies, and finally, reaching Europe in 1869, threatened the
+extermination of the hollyhock, the soft parts of the leaves of which it
+destroys, leaving the venation only remaining. It has been found
+especially hurtful to the plant in dry seasons. It is also parasitic on
+the wild mallows. The disease appears on the leaves as minute hard
+pale-brown pustules, filled with spores which germinate without a
+resting-period, but when produced late in the season may last as
+resting-spores until next spring. Spraying early in the season with
+Bordeaux mixture is an effective preventive, but the best means of
+treatment is to destroy all leaves as soon as they show signs of being
+attacked, and to prevent the growth of other host-plants such as
+mallows, in the neighbourhood. In hot dry seasons, red-spider injures
+the foliage very much, but may be kept at bay by syringing the plants
+frequently with plenty of clean water.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLY SPRINGS, a city and the county-seat of Marshall county,
+Mississippi, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, 45 m. S.E. of Memphis.
+Pop. (1890) 2246; (1900) 2815 (1559 negroes); (1910) 2192. Holly Springs
+is served by the Illinois Central and the Kansas City, Memphis &
+Birmingham (Frisco System) railways. The city has broad and well-shaded
+streets, and a fine court-house and court-house square. It is the seat
+of Rust University (opened in 1867), a Methodist Episcopal institution
+for negroes; of the Mississippi Synodical College (1905; Presbyterian),
+for white girls; and of the North Mississippi Agricultural Experiment
+Station. The principal industries are the ginning, compressing and
+shipping of cotton, and the manufacture of cotton-seed oil, but the city
+also manufactures pottery and brick from clay obtained in the vicinity,
+and has an ice factory, bottling works and marble works. The
+municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting
+plant. Holly Springs was founded in 1837 and was chartered as a city in
+1896. Early in December 1862 General Grant established here a large
+depot of supplies designed for the use of the Federal army while on its
+march toward Vicksburg, but General Earl Van Dorn, with a brigade of
+cavalry, surprised the post at daylight on the 20th of this month,
+burned the supplies and took 1500 prisoners. Holly Springs was the home
+and is the burial-place of Edward Cary Walthall (1831-1898), a
+Democratic member of the United States Senate in 1885-1894 and in
+1895-1898.
+
+
+
+
+HOLMAN, JAMES (1786-1857), known as the "Blind Traveller," was born at
+Exeter on the 15th of October 1786. He entered the British navy in 1798
+as first-class volunteer, and was appointed lieutenant in April 1807. In
+1810 he was invalided by an illness which resulted in total loss of
+sight. In consideration of his helpless circumstances he was in 1812
+appointed one of the royal knights of Windsor, but the quietness of such
+a life harmonized so ill with his active habits and keen interests that
+he requested leave of absence to go abroad, and in 1819, 1820 and 1821
+journeyed through France, Italy, Switzerland, the parts of Germany
+bordering on the Rhine, Belgium and the Netherlands. On his return he
+published _The Narrative of a Journey through France_, &c. (London,
+1822). He again set out in 1822 with the design of making the circuit of
+the world, but after travelling through Russia into Siberia, he was
+suspected of being a spy, was arrested when he had managed to penetrate
+1000 m. beyond Smolensk, and after being conducted to the frontiers of
+Poland, returned home by Austria, Saxony, Prussia and Hanover. He now
+issued _Travels through Russia, Siberia_, &c. (London, 1825). Shortly
+afterwards he again set out to accomplish by a somewhat different method
+the design which had been frustrated by the Russian authorities; and an
+account of his remarkable achievement was published in four volumes in
+1834-1835, under the title of _A Voyage round the World, including
+Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, &c., from 1827 to 1832_.
+His last journeys were through Spain, Portugal, Moldavia, Montenegro,
+Syria and Turkey; and he was engaged in preparing an account of this
+tour when he died in London on the 29th of July 1857.
+
+
+
+
+HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (1809-1894), American writer and physician, was
+born on the 29th of August 1809 at Cambridge, Mass. His father, Abiel
+Holmes (1763-1837), was a Calvinist clergyman, the writer of a useful
+history, _Annals of America_, and of much very dull poetry. His mother
+(the second wife of Abiel) was Sarah Wendell, of a distinguished New
+York family. Through her Dr Holmes was descended from Governors Thomas
+Dudley and Simon Bradstreet of Massachusetts, and from her he derived
+his cheerfulness and vivacity, his sympathetic humour and wit. From
+Phillips (Andover) Academy he entered Harvard in the "famous class of
+'29," made further illustrious by the charming lyrics which he wrote for
+the anniversary dinners from 1851 to 1889, closing with the touching
+"After the Curfew." After graduation he studied law perfunctorily for a
+year and dabbled in literature, winning the public ear by a spirited
+lyric called forth by the order to destroy the old frigate
+_Constitution_. These verses were sung all over the land, and induced
+the Navy Department to revoke its order and save the old ship. Turning
+next to medicine, and convinced by a brief experience in Boston that he
+liked it, he went to Paris in March 1833. He studied industriously under
+Louis and other famous physicians and surgeons in France, and in his
+vacations visited the Low Countries, England, Scotland and Italy.
+Returning to Boston at the close of 1835, filled with a high
+professional ambition, he sought practice, but achieved only moderate
+success. Social, brilliant in conversation, and a writer of gay little
+poems, he seemed to the grave Bostonians not sufficiently serious. He
+won prizes, however, for professional papers, and lectured on anatomy at
+Dartmouth College. He wrote two papers on homoeopathy, which he attacked
+with trenchant wit; also a valuable paper on the malarial fevers of New
+England. In 1843 he published his essay on the _Contagiousness of
+Puerperal Fever_, which stirred up a fierce controversy and brought upon
+him bitter personal abuse; but he maintained his position with dignity,
+temper and judgment; and in time he was honoured as the discoverer of a
+beneficent truth. The volume of his medical essays holds some of his
+most sparkling wit, his shrewdest observation, his kindliest humanity.
+In 1840 he married Amelia Lee Jackson, daughter of the Hon. Charles
+Jackson (1775-1855), formerly associate justice of the State supreme
+judicial court, a lady of rare charm alike of mind and character. She
+died in the winter of 1887-1888. Their first-born child, Oliver Wendell
+Holmes, afterwards became chief justice of that same bench on which his
+grandfather sat. In 1847 Dr Holmes was appointed professor of anatomy
+and physiology In the Medical School of Harvard University, the duties
+involving the giving of instruction also in kindred departments, so
+that, as he said, he occupied "not a chair, but a settee in the school."
+He delivered the anatomical lectures until November 1882, and in later
+years these were his only link with the medical profession. They were
+fresh, witty and lively; and the students were sent to him at the end of
+the day, when they were fagged, because he alone could keep them awake.
+In later years he made few finished contributions to medical knowledge;
+his eager and impetuous temperament caused him to leave more patient
+investigators to push to ultimate results the suggestions thrown out by
+his fertile and imaginative mind.
+
+In 1836, being in that year the Phi Beta Kappa poet at Harvard
+University, he published his first volume of _Poems_, which afterwards
+reached a second edition. Among these earlier lyrics was "The Last
+Leaf," one of the most delicate combinations of pathos and humour in
+literature. His collected poetry fills three volumes. In 1856-1857 a
+Boston publishing house (Phillips, Sampson, and Co.) invited James
+Russell Lowell to edit a new magazine, which he agreed to do on
+condition that he could secure the assistance of Dr Holmes. By this
+urgent invitation the Doctor was equally surprised and flattered, for
+heretofore he had stood rather outside the literary coterie of Cambridge
+and Boston. He accepted with pleasure, and at once threw himself into
+the enterprise with zeal. He christened it _The Atlantic Monthly_; and,
+as Mr Howells afterwards said, he "not only named but made" it, for in
+each number of its first volume there appeared one of the papers of the
+_Autocrat of the Breakfast Table_. The opening of the _Autocrat_--"I was
+just going to say when I was interrupted"--is explained by the fact that
+in the old _New England Magazine_ (1831 to 1833) the Doctor had
+published two _Autocrat_ papers, which, by his wish, have never been
+reprinted. In the commercial panic of 1857 the new magazine would
+inevitably have failed had it not been for these fascinating essays.
+Their originality of conception, their wit and humour, their suggestions
+of what then seemed bold ideas, and their expression of New Englandism,
+all combined to make them so popular that the most harassed merchant in
+that gloomy winter purchased them as a dose of cheering medicine. Thus
+Dr Holmes made _The Atlantic Monthly_, which in return made him. A
+success so immediate and so splendid settled the rest of his career; he
+ceased to be a physician and became an author. These twelve papers were
+immediately (1858) published as a volume. No sooner was the _Autocrat_
+silent than the _Professor_ (1859) succeeded him at the breakfast table.
+The _Professor_ was preferred by more thoughtful readers, though it has
+hardly been so widely popular as the _Autocrat_. Its theology, which
+seemed in those days audacious, frightened many of the strict and
+old-fashioned religionists of New England, though to-day it seems mild
+enough. Twelve years later, in 1871, the Landlady had another boarder,
+who took the vacant chair--the _Poet_ (published 1872). But here Holmes
+fell a little short. In these three books, especially in the _Autocrat_
+and the _Professor_, the Doctor wrote as he talked at many a dinner
+table in Boston, but less well. The animation and clash of talk roused
+him. The dinners of the Saturday Club are among Boston's proudest
+traditions, as they were the chief pleasure of Dr Holmes's life. There
+he met Emerson, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Sumner, Agassiz, Motley,
+and many other charming talkers, and among them all he was admitted to
+be the best.
+
+There were characters and incidents, but hardly a story, in the
+_Autocrat_ and the _Professor_. Holmes had an ambition for more
+sustained work, and in 1861 his novel, _Elsie Venner_, at first called
+_The Professor's Story_, was published. The book was illuminated
+throughout by admirable pictures of character and society in the typical
+New England town. But the rattlesnake element was unduly extravagant,
+and in other respects the book was open to criticism as a work of art.
+It was written with the same purpose which informed the greatest part of
+the Doctor's literary work, and which had already been scented and
+nervously condemned by the religious world. By heredity the Doctor was a
+theologian; no other topic enchained him more than did the stern and
+merciless dogmas of his Calvinist forefathers. His humanity revolted
+against them, his reason condemned them, and he set himself to their
+destruction as his task in literature. The religious world of his time
+was still so largely under the control of old ideas that he was assailed
+as a freethinker and a subverter of Christianity; though before his
+death opinions had so changed that the bitterness of the attacks upon
+him seemed incredible, even to some of those who had most vehemently
+made them. None the less, undaunted and profoundly earnest, he returned,
+six years later, to the same line of thought in his second novel, _The
+Guardian Angel_ (published 1867). This, though less well known than
+_Elsie Venner_, is in many respects better. No more lifelike and
+charming picture of the society of the New England country-town of the
+middle third of the 19th century has ever been drawn, and every page
+sparkles with wit and humour. In 1884 and 1885 it was followed, still in
+the same line, by _A Mortal Antipathy_, a production inferior to its
+predecessors.
+
+Holmes generally held himself aloof from politics, and from those
+"causes" of temperance, abolition and woman's rights which enthralled
+most of his contemporaries in New England. The Civil War, however,
+aroused him for the time; finding him first a strenuous Unionist, it
+quickly converted him into an ardent advocate of emancipation. His
+interest was enhanced by the career of his elder son Oliver (see below),
+who was three times severely wounded, and finally rose to the rank of
+lieut.-colonel in the Northern army. He wrote some ringing war lyrics,
+and in 1863 delivered the Fourth of July oration in Boston, which showed
+a masterly appreciation of the stirring public questions of the day. In
+1878 Dr Holmes wrote a memoir of the historian John Lothrop Motley, an
+affectionate tribute to one who had been his dear friend. In 1884 he
+contributed the life of Emerson to the American "Men of Letters" series.
+He admired the "Sage of Concord," but was not quite in intellectual
+sympathy with him. Both were Liberals in thought, but in widely
+different ways. But in spite of this handicap the volume proved very
+popular. In 1888 he began the papers which he happily christened _Over
+the Tea Cups_. As a _tour de force_ on the part of a man of nearly
+fourscore years they are very remarkable.
+
+After his return from Paris in 1835 Dr Holmes lived in Boston, with
+summer sojournings at Pittsfield and Beverly Farms, and occasional trips
+to neighbouring cities, until 1886. He then undertook a four months'
+journey in Europe, and in England had a sort of triumphal progress. On
+his return he wrote _Our Hundred Days in Europe_ (1887), a courteous
+recognition of the hospitality and praise which had been accorded to
+him. During this visit Cambridge University made him Doctor of Letters,
+Edinburgh University made him Doctor of Laws, and Oxford University made
+him Doctor of Civil Law. Already, in 1880, Harvard University had made
+him Doctor of Laws. He died on the 7th of October 1894, and was buried
+from King's Chapel, Boston, in the cemetery of Mount Auburn.
+
+His eldest son Oliver Wendell (b. 1841), who graduated from Harvard in
+1861 and fought in the Civil War, retiring from the army as brevet
+lieut.-colonel in 1864, took up the study of law and was admitted to the
+bar in Boston in 1866. He was for some years editor of the _American Law
+Review_, and after being professor in the Harvard Law School in 1882 was
+appointed in the same year a judge of the Massachusetts supreme court,
+rising to be chief justice in 1899. In 1902 he was made a judge of the
+United States Supreme Court. His work on _The Common Law_ (1881) and his
+edition (1873) of Kent's _Commentaries_ are his principal publications;
+and he became widely recognized as one of the great jurists of his day.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Holmes's _Complete Works_, in 13 volumes, were
+  published at Boston in 1891. See J. T. Morse, _Life and Letters of
+  Oliver Wendell Holmes_ (London, 1896); G. B. Ives, _Bibliography_
+  (Boston, 1907); and the bibliography in P. K. Foley's _American
+  Authors_ (Boston, 1897). An essay by Sir Leslie Stephen is prefixed to
+  the "Golden Treasury" edition (1903) of _The Autocrat of the Breakfast
+  Table_. See also monographs by William Sloane Kennedy (Boston, 1882);
+  Emma E. Brown (Boston, 1884).     (J. T. Mo.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLMFIRTH, an urban district in the Holmfirth parliamentary division of
+the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on and Holme and the Ribble, 6 m.
+S. of Huddersfield, and on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop.
+(1901) 8977. The valley, walled by bold hills, is very picturesque. In
+1852 great destruction was wrought in the town by the bursting of a
+reservoir in the vicinity. The large industrial population is employed
+in woollen manufactories, and in the neighbouring stone quarries.
+
+
+
+
+HOLOCAUST (Gr. [Greek: holokauston], or [Greek: holokauton], wholly
+burnt), strictly a sacrifice wholly destroyed by fire, such as the
+sacrifices of the Jews, described in the Pentateuch as "whole burnt
+offerings" (see SACRIFICE). The term is now often applied to a
+catastrophe on a large scale, whether by fire or not, or to a massacre
+or slaughter.
+
+
+
+
+HOLOCENE (from Gr. [Greek: holos], whole, [Greek: kainos], recent), in
+geology, the time division which embraces the youngest of all the
+formations; it is equivalent to the "Recent" of some authors. The name
+was proposed in 1860 by P. Gervais. The oldest deposits that may be
+included are those containing neolithic implements; deposits of historic
+times should also be grouped here; presumably the youngest are those to
+be chronicled by the last man. The Holocene formations obviously include
+all the varieties of deposits which are accumulating at the present day:
+the gravels and alluvia of rivers; boulder clays, moraines and
+fluvio-glacial deposits; estuarine, coastal and abyssal deposits of the
+seas, and their equivalents in lakes; screes, taluses, wind-borne dust
+and sand and desert formations; chemical deposits from saline waters;
+peat, diatomite, marls, foraminiferal and other oozes; coral, algal and
+shell banks, and other organic deposits; mud, lava and dust deposits of
+volcanic origin and extrusions of asphalt and pitch; to all these must
+be added the works of man.
+
+
+
+
+HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES (1861-   ), British artist, was born in Leeds on the
+9th of April 1861. He received his art education under Professor Legros
+at the Slade School, University College, London, where he had a
+distinguished career. After passing six months at Newlyn, where he
+painted his first picture exhibited in the Royal Academy, "Fishermen
+Mending a Sail" (1885), he obtained a travelling scholarship and studied
+for two years in Italy, a sojourn which greatly influenced his art. At
+his return, on the invitation of Legros, he became for two years
+assistant-master at the Slade School, and there devoted himself to
+painting and etching. Among his pictures may be mentioned "The Death of
+Torrigiano" (1886), "The Satyr King" (1889), "The Supper at Emmaus,"
+and, perhaps his best picture, "Pan and Peasants" (1893). For the church
+of Aveley, Essex, he painted a triptych altarpiece, "The Adoration of
+the Shepherds," with wings representing "St Michael" and "St Gabriel,"
+and designed as well the window, "The Resurrection." His portraits, such
+as that of "G. F. Watts, R.A.," in the Legros manner, show much dignity
+and distinction. Sir Charles Holroyd has made his chief reputation as an
+etcher of exceptional ability, combining strength with delicacy, and a
+profound technical knowledge of the art. Among the best known are the
+"Monte Oliveto" series, the "Icarus" series, the "Monte Subasio" series,
+and the "Eve" series, together with the plates, "The Flight into Egypt,"
+"The Prodigal Son," "A Barn on Tadworth Common" (etched in the open
+air), and "The Storm." His etched heads of "Professor Legros," "Lord
+Courtney" and "Night," are admirable alike in knowledge and in likeness.
+His principal dry-point is "The Bather." In all his work Holroyd
+displays an impressive sincerity, with a fine sense of composition, and
+of style, allied to independent and modern feeling. He was appointed the
+first keeper of the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery), and
+on the retirement of Sir Edward Poynter in 1906 he received the
+directorship of the National Gallery. He was knighted in 1903. His
+_Michael Angelo Buonarotti_ (London, Duckworth, 1903) is a scholarly
+work of real value.
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON (1837-1909), German statesman, for more than
+thirty years head of the political department of the German Foreign
+Office. Holstein's importance began with the dismissal of Bismarck in
+1890. The new chancellor, Caprivi, was ignorant of foreign affairs; and
+Holstein, as the repository of the Bismarckian tradition, became
+indispensable. This reluctance to emerge into publicity has been
+ascribed to the part he had played under Bismarck in the Arnim affair,
+which had made him powerful enemies; it was, however, possibly due to a
+shrinking from the responsibility of office. Yet the weakness of his
+position lay just in the fact that he was not ultimately responsible. He
+protested against the despatch of the "Kruger telegram," but protested
+in vain. On the other hand, where his ideas were acceptable, he was
+generally able to realize them. Thus it was almost entirely due to him
+that Germany acquired Kiao-chau and asserted her interests in China, and
+the acquisition of Samoa was also largely his work. If the skill and
+pertinacity with which Holstein carried through his plans in these
+matters was learned in the school of Bismarck, he had not acquired
+Bismarck's faculty for foreseeing their ulterior consequences. This is
+true of his Chinese policy, and true also of his part in the Morocco
+crisis. The emperor William II.'s journey to Tangier was undertaken on
+his advice, as a protest against the supposed attempt at the isolation
+of Germany; but of the later developments of German policy in the
+Morocco question he did not approve, on the ground that the result would
+merely be to strengthen the Anglo-French _entente_; and from the 12th of
+March 1906 onwards he took no active part in the matter. To the last he
+believed that the position of Germany would remain unsafe until an
+understanding had been arrived at with Great Britain, and it was this
+belief that determined his attitude towards the question of the fleet,
+"beside which," he wrote in February 1909, "all other questions are of
+lesser account." His views on this question were summarized in a
+memorandum of December 1907, of which Herr von Rath gives a _résumé_. He
+objected to the programme of the German Navy League on three main
+grounds: (1) the ill-feeling likely to be aroused in South Germany, (2)
+the inevitable dislocation of the finances through the huge additional
+charges involved, (3) the suspicion of Germany's motives in foreign
+countries, which would bind Great Britain still closer to France. As for
+the idea that Germany's power would be increased, this--he wrote in
+reply to a letter from Admiral Galster--was "a simple question of
+arithmetic"; for how would the sea-power of Germany be relatively
+increased if for every new German ship Great Britain built two? Herr von
+Holstein retired on the resignation of Prince Bülow, and died on the 8th
+of May 1909.
+
+  See Hermann von Rath, "Erinnerungen an Herrn von Holstein" in the
+  _Deutsche Revue_ for October 1909. He is also frequently mentioned
+  _passim_ in Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe's _Memoirs_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTEIN, formerly a duchy of Germany. Until about 1110 the county of
+Holstein formed part of the duchy of Saxony, and it was made a duchy in
+1472. From 1460 to 1864 it was ruled by members of the house of
+Oldenburg, some of whom were also kings of Denmark. It is now the
+southern part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. (See
+SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, and for history SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN (1825-1897), German theologian, was born
+at Güstrow, Mecklenburg, on the 31st of March 1825, and educated at
+Leipzig, Berlin and Rostock, where in 1852 he became a teacher of
+religion in the Gymnasium. In 1870 he went to Bern as professor of New
+Testament studies, passing thence in 1876 to Heidelberg, where he
+remained until his death on the 26th of January 1897. Holsten was an
+adherent of the Tübingen school, and held to Baur's views on the alleged
+antagonism between Petrinism and Paulinism.
+
+  Among his writings are _Zum Evangelium d. Paulus und d. Petrus_
+  (1867); _Das Evangelium des Paulus dargestellt_ (1880); _Die
+  synoptischen Evangelien nach der Form ihres Inhalts_ (1886).
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS, the Latinized name of Luc Holste (1596-1661), German
+humanist, geographer and theological writer, was born at Hamburg. He
+studied at Leiden university, where he became intimate with the most
+famous scholars of the age--J. Meursius, D. Heinsius and P. Cluverius,
+whom he accompanied on his travels in Italy and Sicily. Disappointed at
+his failure to obtain a post in the gymnasium of his native town, he
+left Germany for good. Having spent two years in Oxford and London, he
+went to Paris. Here he obtained the patronage of N. de Peiresc, who
+recommended him to Cardinal Francesco Barberini, papal nuncio and the
+possessor of the most important private library in Rome. On the
+cardinal's return in 1627 he took Holstenius to live with him in his
+palace and made him his librarian. Although converted to Roman
+Catholicism in 1625, Holstenius showed his liberal-mindedness by
+strenuously opposing the strict censorship exercised by the Congregation
+of the Index. He was appointed librarian of the Vatican by Innocent X.,
+and was sent to Innsbruck by Alexander VII. to receive Queen Christina's
+abjuration of Protestantism. He died in Rome on the 2nd of February
+1661. Holstenius was a man of unwearied industry and immense learning,
+but he lacked the persistency to carry out the vast literary schemes he
+had planned. He was the author of notes on Cluvier's _Italia antiqua_
+(1624); an edition of portions of Porphyrius (1630), with a dissertation
+on his life and writings, described as a model of its kind; notes on
+Eusebius _Against Hierocles_ (1628), on the Sayings of the later
+Pythagoreans (1638), and the _De diis et mundo_ of the neo-Platonist
+Sallustius (1638); _Notae et castigationes in Stephani Bysantini
+ethnica_ (first published in 1684); and _Codex regularum, Collection of
+the Early Rules of the Monastic Orders_ (1661). His correspondence
+(_Epistolae ad diversos_, ed. J. F. Boissonade, 1817) is a valuable
+source of information on the literary history of his time.
+
+  See N. Wilckens, _Leben des gelehrten Lucae Holstenii_ (Hamburg,
+  1723); Johann Moller, _Cimbria literata_, iii. (1744).
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTER, a leather case to hold a pistol, used by a horseman and
+properly fastened to the saddle-bow, but sometimes worn in the belt. The
+same word appears in Dutch, from which the English word probably
+directly derives. The root is _hel_- or _hul_- to cover, and is seen in
+the O. Eng. _heolster_, a place of shelter or concealment, and in "hull"
+a sheath or covering. The German word for the same object, _holfter_,
+is, according to the New _English Dictionary_, from a different root.
+
+
+
+
+HOLT, SIR JOHN (1642-1710), lord chief justice of England, was born at
+Thame, Oxfordshire, on the 30th of December 1642. His father, Sir Thomas
+Holt, possessed a small patrimonial estate, but in order to supplement
+his income had adopted the profession of law, in which he was not very
+successful, although he became sergeant in 1677, and afterwards for his
+political services to the "Tories" was rewarded with knighthood. After
+attending for some years the free school of the town of Abingdon, of
+which his father was recorder, young Holt in his sixteenth year entered
+Oriel College, Oxford. He is said to have spent a very dissipated youth,
+and even to have been in the habit of taking purses on the highway, but
+after entering Gray's Inn about 1660 he applied himself with exemplary
+diligence to the study of law. He was called to the bar in 1663. An
+ardent supporter of civil and religious liberty, he distinguished
+himself in the state trials which were then so common by the able and
+courageous manner in which he supported the pleas of the defendants. In
+1685-1686 he was appointed recorder of London, and about the same time
+he was made king's sergeant and received the honour of knighthood. His
+giving a decision adverse to the pretensions of the king to exercise
+martial law in time of peace led to his dismissal from the office of
+recorder, but he was continued in the office of king's sergeant in order
+to prevent him from becoming counsel for accused persons. Having been
+one of the judges who acted as assessors to the peers in the Convention
+parliament, he took a leading part in arranging the constitutional
+change by which William III. was called to the throne, and after his
+accession he was appointed lord chief justice of the King's Bench. His
+merits as a judge are the more apparent and the more remarkable when
+contrasted with the qualities displayed by his predecessors in office.
+In judicial fairness, legal knowledge and ability, clearness of
+statement and unbending integrity he has had few if any superiors on the
+English bench. Over the civil rights of his countrymen he exercised a
+jealous watchfulness, more especially when presiding at the trial of
+state prosecutions, and he was especially careful that all accused
+persons should be treated with fairness and respect. He is, however,
+best known for the firmness with which he upheld his own prerogatives in
+opposition to the authority of the Houses of Parliament. On several
+occasions his physical as well as his moral courage was tried by extreme
+tests. Having been requested to supply a number of police to help the
+soldiery in quelling a riot, he assured the messenger that if any of the
+people were shot he would have the soldiers hanged, and proceeding
+himself to the scene of riot he was successful in preventing bloodshed.
+While steadfast in his sympathies with the Whig party, Holt maintained
+on the bench entire political impartiality, and always held himself
+aloof from political intrigue. On the retirement of Somers from the
+chancellorship in 1700 he was offered the great seal, but declined it.
+His death took place in London on the 5th of March 1710. He was buried
+in the chancel of Redgrave church.
+
+  _Reports of Cases determined by Sir John Holt_ (1681-1710) appeared at
+  London in 1738; and _The Judgments delivered in the case of Ashby v.
+  White and others, and in the case of John Paty and others, printed
+  from original MSS._, at London (1837). See Burnet's _Own Times_;
+  _Tatler_, No. xiv.; a _Life_, published in 1764; Welsby, _Lives of
+  Eminent English Judges of the 17th and 18th Centuries_ (1846);
+  Campbell's _Lives of the Lord Chief Justices_; and Foss, _Lives of the
+  Judges_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON (1798-1880), German poet and actor, was born at
+Breslau on the 24th of January 1798, the son of an officer of Hussars.
+Having served in the Prussian army as a volunteer in 1815, he shortly
+afterwards entered the university of Breslau as a student of law; but,
+attracted by the stage, he soon forsook academic life and made his début
+in the Breslau theatre as Mortimer in Schiller's _Maria Stuart_. He led
+a wandering life for the next two years, appearing less on the stage as
+an actor than as a reciter of his own poems. In 1821 he married the
+actress Luise Rogée (1800-1825), and was appointed theatre-poet to the
+Breslau stage. He next removed to Berlin, where his wife fulfilled an
+engagement at the Court theatre. During his sojourn here he produced the
+vaudevilles _Die Wiener in Berlin_ (1824), and _Die Berliner in Wien_
+(1825), pieces which enjoyed at the time great popular favour. In 1825
+his wife died; but soon after her death he accepted an engagement at the
+Königsstädter theatre in Berlin, when he wrote a number of plays,
+notably _Lenore_ (1829) and _Der alte Feldherr_ (1829). In 1830 he
+married Julie Holzbecher (1809-1839), an actress engaged at the same
+theatre, and with her played in Darmstadt. Returning to Berlin in 1831
+he wrote for the composer Franz Gläser (1798-1861) the text of the opera
+_Des Adlers Horst_ (1835), and for Ludwig Devrient the drama, _Der dumme
+Peter_ (1837). In 1833 Holtei again went on the stage and toured with
+his wife to various important cities, Hamburg, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich
+and Vienna. In the last his declamatory powers as a reciter,
+particularly of Shakespeare's plays, made a furore, and the poet-actor
+was given the appointment of manager of the Josefstädter theatre in the
+last-named city. Though proud of his successes both as actor and
+reciter, Holtei left Vienna in 1836, and from 1837 to 1839 conducted the
+theatre in Riga. Here his second wife died, and after wandering through
+Germany reciting and accepting a short engagement at Breslau, he settled
+in 1847 at Graz, where he devoted himself to a literary life and
+produced the novels _Die Vagabunden_ (1851), _Christian Lammfell_ (1853)
+and _Der letzte Komödiant_ (1863). The last years of his life were spent
+at Breslau, where being in poor circumstances he found a home in the
+_Kloster der barmherzigen Brüder_, and here he died on the 12th of
+February 1880.
+
+As a dramatist Holtei may be said to have introduced the "vaudeville"
+into Germany; as an actor, although remaining behind the greater artists
+of his time, he contrived to fascinate his audience by the dramatic
+force of his exposition of character; as a reciter, especially of
+Shakespeare, he knew no rival. August Lewald said of Holtei that by the
+energy of his poetic conception and plastic force he brought his
+audience round to his own ideas; and he added, "an eloquence such as his
+I have never met with in any other German."
+
+Holtei was not only a stage-poet but a lyric-writer of great charm.
+Notable among such productions are _Schlesische Gedichte_ (1830; 20th
+ed., 1893), _Gedichte_ (5th ed., 1861), _Stimmen des Waldes_ (2nd ed.,
+1854). Mention ought also to be made of Holtei's interesting
+autobiography, _Vierzig Jahre_ (8 vols., 1843-1850; 3rd ed., 1862) with
+the supplementary volume _Noch ein Jahr in Schlesien_ (1864).
+
+  Holtei's _Theater_ appeared in 6 vols. (1867); his _Erzählende
+  Schriften_, 39 vols. (1861-1866). See M. Kurnick, _Karl von Holtei,
+  ein Lebensbild_ (1880); F. Wehl, _Zeit und Menschen_ (1889); O.
+  Storch, _K. von Holtei_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HÖLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH (1748-1776), German poet, was born on
+the 21st of December 1748 at the village of Mariensee in Hanover, where
+his father was pastor. In 1769 he went to study theology at Göttingen.
+Here he formed a close friendship with J. M. Miller, J. H. Voss, H.
+Boie, the brothers Stolberg and others, and became one of the founders
+of the famous society of young poets known as the _Göttinger
+Dichterbund_ or _Hain_. When in 1774 he left the university he had
+abandoned all intention of becoming a clergyman; but he was not destined
+to enter any other profession. He died of consumption on the 1st of
+September 1776 at Hanover. Hölty was the most gifted lyric poet of the
+Göttingen circle. He was influenced both by Uz and Klopstock, but his
+love for the Volkslied and his delight in nature preserved him from the
+artificiality of the one poet and the unworldliness of the other. A
+strain of melancholy runs through all his lyrics. His ballads are the
+pioneers of the rich ballad literature on English models, which sprang
+up in Germany during the next few years. Among his most familiar poems
+may be mentioned _Üb' immer Treu' und Redlichkeit_, _Tanzt dem schönen
+Mai entgegen_, _Rosen auf dem Weg gestreut_, and _Wer wollte sich mit
+Grillen plagen?_
+
+  Hölty's _Gedichte_ were published by his friends Count Friedrich
+  Leopold zu Stolberg and J. H. Voss (Hamburg, 1783); a new edition,
+  enlarged by Voss, with a biography (1804); a more complete but still
+  imperfect edition by F. Voigts (Hanover, 1857). The first complete
+  edition was that of Karl Halm (Leipzig, 1870), who had access to MSS.
+  not hitherto known. See H. Ruete, _Hölty, sein Leben und Dichten_
+  (Guben, 1883), and A. Sauer, _Der Göttinger Dichterbund_, vol. ii.
+  (Stuttgart, 1894), where an excellent selection of Hölty's poetry will
+  be found.
+
+
+
+
+HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON (1829-1889), German
+jurist, born at Vietmannsdorf, in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 14th
+of October 1829, was descended from a family of the old nobility. He was
+educated at Berlin and at Pforta, afterwards studying law at the
+universities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. The struggles of 1848
+inspired him with youthful enthusiasm, and he remained for the rest of
+his life a strong advocate of political liberty. In 1852 he graduated
+LL.D. at Berlin; in 1857 he became a Privatdocent, and in 1860 he was
+nominated a professor extraordinary. The predominant party in Prussia
+regarded his political opinions with mistrust, and he was not offered an
+ordinary professorship until February 1873, after he had decided to
+accept a chair at the university of Munich. At Munich he passed the last
+nineteen years of his life. During the thirty years that he was
+professor he successively taught several branches of jurisprudence, but
+he was chiefly distinguished as an authority on criminal and
+international law. He was especially well fitted for organizing
+collective work, and he has associated his name with a series of
+publications of the first value. While acting as editor he often
+reserved for himself, among the independent monographs of which the work
+was composed, only those on subjects distasteful to his collaborators on
+account of their obscurity or lack of importance. Among the compilations
+which he superintended may be mentioned his _Encyclopädie der
+Rechtswissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1870-1871, 2 vols.); his _Handbuch des
+deutschen Strafrechts_ (Berlin, 1871-1877, 4 vols.), and his _Handbuch
+des Völkerrechts auf Grundlage europäischer Staatspraxis_ (Berlin,
+1885-1890, 4 vols.). Among his many independent works may be mentioned:
+_Das irische Gefängnissystem_ (Leipzig, 1859), _Französische
+Rechtszustände_ (Leipzig, 1859), _Die Deportation als Strafmittel_
+(Leipzig, 1859), _Die Kürzungsfähigkeit der Freiheitsstrafen_ (Leipzig,
+1861), _Die Reform der Staatsanwaltschaft in Deutschland_ (Berlin,
+1864), _Die Umgestaltung der Staatsanwaltschaft_ (Berlin, 1865), _Die
+Principien der Politik_ (Berlin, 1869), _Das Verbrechen des Mordes und
+die Todesstrafe_ (Berlin, 1875), _Rumäniens Uferrechte an der Donau_
+(Leipzig, 1883; French edition, 1884). He also edited or assisted in
+editing a number of periodical publications on legal subjects. From 1866
+to the time of his death he was associated with Rudolf Ludwig Carl
+Virchow in editing _Sammlung gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher
+Vorträge_ (Berlin). Von Holtzendorff died at Munich on the 4th of
+February 1889.
+
+
+
+
+HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS (1832-   ), German Protestant theologian, son
+of Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804-1877), was born on the 17th of May 1832
+at Karlsruhe, where his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor
+to the supreme consistory. He studied at Berlin, and eventually (1874)
+was appointed professor ordinarius at Strassburg. A moderately liberal
+theologian, he became best known as a New Testament critic and exegete,
+being the author of the Commentary on the Synoptics (1889; 3rd ed.,
+1901), the Johannine books (1890; 2nd ed., 1893), and the Acts of the
+Apostles (1901), in the series _Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament_. On
+the question of the relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, Holtzmann in
+his early work, _Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und
+geschichtlicher Charakter_ (1863), presents a view which has been widely
+accepted, maintaining the priority of Mark, deriving Matthew in its
+present form from Mark and from Matthew's earlier "collection of
+Sayings," the Logia of Papias, and Luke from Matthew and Mark in the
+form in which we have them.
+
+  Other noteworthy works are the _Lehrbuch der histor.-kritischen
+  Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1885, 3rd ed., 1892), and the
+  _Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (2 vols., 1896-1897). He
+  also collaborated with R. Zöpffel in the preparation of a small
+  _Lexikon für Theologie und Kirchenwesen_ (1882; 3rd ed., 1895), and in
+  1893 became editor of the _Theol. Jahresbericht_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLUB, EMIL (1847-1902), Bohemian traveller in south-central Africa, was
+born at Holitz, eastern Bohemia, on the 7th of October 1847. He was
+educated at Prague University, where he graduated M.D. In 1872 he went
+to the Kimberley diamond-fields, and with the money earned by his
+practice as a surgeon undertook expeditions into the northern Transvaal,
+Mashonaland and through Bechuanaland to the Victoria Falls, making
+extensive natural history collections, which he brought to Europe in
+1879 and distributed among over a hundred museums and schools. In 1883
+he went back to South Africa with his wife, intending to cross the
+continent to Egypt. In June 1886 the party crossed the Zambezi west of
+the Victoria Falls, and explored the then almost unknown region between
+that river and its tributary the Kafue. When beyond the Kafue the camp
+was attacked by the Mashukulumbwe, and Holub was obliged to retrace his
+steps. He returned to Austria in 1887 with a collection of great
+scientific interest, of over 13,000 objects, now in various museums.
+Holub died at Vienna on the 21st of February 1902.
+
+  His principal works are: _Eine Culturskizze des
+  Marutse-Mambunda-reichs_ (Vienna, 1879); _Sieben Jahre in Südafrika_,
+  &c. (2 vols., Vienna, 1880-1881), of which an English translation
+  appeared; _Die Colonisation Afrikas_ (Vienna, 1882); and _Von der
+  Kapstadt ins Land der Maschukulumbe_ (2 vols., Vienna, 1818-1890).
+
+
+
+
+HOLY, sacred, devoted or set apart for religious worship or observance;
+a term characteristic of the attributes of perfection and sinlessness of
+the Persons of the Trinity, as the objects of human worship and
+reverence, and hence transferred to those human persons who, either by
+their devotion to a spiritual ascetic life or by their approximation to
+moral perfection, are considered worthy of reverence. The word in Old
+English was _hálig_, and is common to other Teutonic languages; cf. Ger.
+and Dutch _heilig_, Swed. _helig_, Dan. _hellig_. It is derived from
+_hál_, hale, whole, and cognate with "health." The _New English
+Dictionary_ suggests that the sense-development may be from "whole,"
+i.e. inviolate, from "health, well-being," or from "good-omen,"
+"augury." It is impossible to get behind the Christian uses, in which
+from the earliest times it was employed as the equivalent of the Latin
+_sacer_ and _sanctus_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLY ALLIANCE, THE. The famous treaty, or declaration, known by this
+name was signed in the first instance by Alexander I., emperor of
+Russia, Francis I., emperor of Austria, and Frederick William III., king
+of Prussia, on the 26th of September 1815, and was proclaimed by the
+emperor Alexander the same day at a great review of the allied troops
+held on the Champ des Vertus near Paris. The English version of the text
+is as follows:--
+
+  In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity.
+
+    _Holy Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia._
+
+  Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and the
+  Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events which
+  have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and
+  especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to
+  shower down upon those States which place their confidence and their
+  hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the necessity of
+  settling the steps to be observed by the Powers, in their reciprocal
+  relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion of our
+  Saviour teaches;
+
+    _Government and Political Relations._
+
+  They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object than to
+  publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution, both
+  in the administration of their respective States, and in their
+  political relations with every other Government, to take for their
+  sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts of
+  Justice, Christian Charity and Peace, which, far from being applicable
+  only to private concerns, must have an immediate influence on the
+  councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being the only
+  means of consolidating human institutions and remedying their
+  imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed on the
+  following Articles:--
+
+    _Principles of the Christian Religion._
+
+  Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures which command
+  all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three contracting
+  Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and indissoluble
+  fraternity, and, considering each other as fellow countrymen, they
+  will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid and
+  assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects and
+  armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same spirit
+  of fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion, Peace
+  and Justice.
+
+    _Fraternity and Affection._
+
+  Art. II. In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether between
+  the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be that of doing
+  each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by unalterable good
+  will the mutual affection with which they ought to be animated, to
+  consider themselves all as members of one and the same Christian
+  nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as merely
+  delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One family,
+  namely, Austria, Prussia and Russia, thus confessing that the
+  Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in
+  reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really
+  belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love,
+  science and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our Divine Saviour,
+  the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties
+  consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender
+  solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace which arises from
+  a good conscience, and which alone is durable, to strengthen
+  themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise of
+  the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.
+
+    _Accession of Foreign Powers._
+
+  Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the sacred
+  principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall acknowledge
+  how important it is for the happiness of nations, too long agitated,
+  that these truths should henceforth exercise over the destinies of
+  mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will be received with
+  equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance.
+
+The credit for inspiring this singular document was claimed by the
+Baroness von Krüdener (q.v.); in any case it was the outcome of the
+tsar's mood of evangelical exaltation, and was in its inception
+perfectly sincere. Neither Frederick William nor Francis signed
+willingly, the latter remarking that "if it was a question of politics,
+he must refer it to his chancellor, if of religion, to his confessor."
+Metternich called it a "loud-sounding nothing," Castlereagh, "a piece of
+sublime mysticism and nonsense." None the less, in accordance with its
+last article, the signatures of all the European sovereigns were invited
+to the instrument, the pope and the Ottoman sultan alone being excepted.
+The prince regent courteously declined to sign, on the constitutional
+ground that all acts of the British crown required the counter-signature
+of a minister, but he sent a letter expressing his "entire concurrence
+with the principles laid down by the 'august sovereigns' and stating
+that it would always be his endeavour to regulate his conduct by their
+'sacred maxims.'" With these exceptions, all the European sovereigns
+sooner or later appended their names.
+
+In popular parlance, which has found its way into the language of
+serious historians, the "Holy Alliance" soon became synonymous with the
+combination of the great powers by whom Europe was ruled in concert
+during the period of the congresses, and associated with the policy of
+reaction which gradually dominated their counsels. For the understanding
+of the inner history of the diplomacy of this period, however, a clear
+distinction must be drawn between the Holy Alliance and the Grand, or
+Quadruple (Quintuple) Alliance. The Grand Alliance was established on
+definite treaties concluded for definite purposes, of which the chief
+was the preservation of peace on the basis of the territorial settlement
+of 1815. The Holy Alliance was a general treaty--hardly indeed a treaty
+at all--which bound its signatories to act on certain vague principles
+for no well-defined end; and in its essence it was so far from
+necessarily reactionary that the emperor Alexander at one time declared
+that it involved the grant of liberal constitutions by princes to their
+subjects. Its main significance was due to the persistent efforts of the
+tsar to make it the basis of the "universal union," or general
+confederation of Europe, which he wished to substitute for the actual
+committee of the great powers, efforts which were frustrated by the
+vigorous diplomacy of Castlereagh, acting as the mouthpiece of the
+British government (see EUROPE: _History_; ALEXANDER I. of Russia;
+LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART, 2ND MARQUIS OF).
+
+As a diplomatic instrument the Holy Alliance never, as a matter of fact,
+became effective. None the less, its principles and the fact of its
+signature powerfully affected the course of European diplomacy during
+the 19th century. It strongly influenced the emperor Nicholas I. of
+Russia, to whom the brotherhood of sovereigns by divine right was an
+article of faith, inspiring the principles of the convention of Berlin
+(between Russia, Austria and Prussia) in 1833, and the tsar's
+intervention in 1849 to crush the Hungarian insurrection on behalf of
+his brother of Austria. That it had become synonymous with a conspiracy
+against popular liberties was, however, a mere accident of the point of
+view of those who interpreted its principles. It was capable of other
+and more noble interpretations, and it was avowedly the inspiration of
+the famous rescript of the emperor Nicholas II., embodied in the
+circular of Count Muraviev to the European courts (August 4th, 1898),
+which issued in the first international peace conference at the Hague in
+1899.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLYHEAD (Caergybi, the fort of Cybi, the saint mentioned by Matthew
+Arnold as meeting St Seiriol of Penmôn, Anglesey), a seaport and
+market-town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the small Holy Island, at
+the western end of the county. Pop. of urban district (1901) 10,079.
+Here the London and North-Western railway has a terminus, 263½ m. from
+London by rail. Holy Island is connected with Anglesey by an embankment,
+¾ m. long, over which pass the railway and main road, the tide flowing
+fast under the central piers. Once a small fishing village, the town has
+since William IV.'s reign acquired importance as the Dublin mail steam
+station. Its magnificent harbour of refuge was begun in 1847 and opened
+in September 1873. The east breakwater scheme, which would have covered
+the Platter's rocks--still very troublesome--and the Skinner's, was
+abandoned for buoys which mark the spots. The north breakwater is 7860
+ft. long (instead of 5360, as originally planned). The roadstead (400
+acres) and enclosed area (267 acres) together make a magnificent shelter
+for shipping. The rubble mound of the breakwater was very costly to the
+railway company, as time after time it was swept away by storms. On it
+is a central wall of some 38 ft. above low water, and on the wall a
+promenade sheltered by a parapet. The lighthouse is at the end of the
+breakwater, of which the whole cost was nearly 1½ million sterling.
+Additional works, begun in 1873 by the company, to extend the old
+harbour and lengthen the quay by 4000 ft., were opened by King Edward
+VII. (as prince of Wales) in 1880. These cost another half million.
+George IV. passed through Holyhead in 1821 on his way to Ireland, and
+there is a commemorative tablet on the old harbour pier. The church is
+said to occupy the site of the old monastery (6th or early 7th century)
+of St Cybi, of whom there is a rude figure in the porch. The churchyard
+wall, 6 ft. thick, is possibly partly Roman. On the south of the harbour
+is an obelisk in memory of Captain Skinner, of the steam packets, washed
+overboard in 1833. Pen Caergybi rises perpendicularly from the sea to
+the height of 719 ft., at some 2 m. from the town; it is a mass of
+serpentine rocks, off which lie the North and South Stacks, each with a
+lighthouse with a revolving light, visible for 20 m., and 197 ft. above
+high water on the South Stack. On the hill are traces of British
+fortification, including a circular building, probably a Roman
+watch-tower. Coasting trade and fishing, with some shipbuilding and the
+Irish traffic, occupy most of the inhabitants.
+
+  See Hon. W. Stanley's _Holy Island and Holyhead_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLY ISLAND, or LINDISFARNE, an irregularly shaped island in the North
+Sea, 2 m. from the coast of Northumberland, in which county it is
+included. Pop. (1901) 405. It is joined to the mainland at low water by
+flat sands, over which a track, marked by wooden posts and practicable
+for vehicles, leads to the island. There is a station on the
+North-Eastern railway at Beak 9 m. S.E. of Berwick, opposite the island,
+but 1¼ m. inland. The island measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 1½ N. to
+S., extreme distances. Its total area is 1051 acres. On the N. it is
+sandy and barren, but on the S. very fertile and under cultivation.
+Large numbers of rabbits have their warrens among the sands, and, with
+fish, oysters and agricultural produce, are exported. There are several
+fresh springs on the island, and in the north-east is a lake of 6 acres.
+At the south-west angle is the little fishing village (formerly much
+larger) which is now a favourite summer watering-place. Here is the
+harbour, offering good shelter to small vessels. Holy Island derives its
+name from a monastery founded on it by St Aidan, and restored in 1082 as
+a cell of the Benedictine monastery at Durham. Its ruins, still
+extensive and carefully preserved, justify Scott's description of it as
+a "solemn, huge and dark-red pile." An islet, lying off the S.W. angle,
+has traces of a chapel upon it, and is believed to have offered a
+retreat to St Cuthbert and his successors. The castle, situated east of
+the village, on a basaltic rock about 90 ft. high, dates from _c._ 1500.
+
+When St Aidan came at the request of King Oswald to preach to the
+Northumbrians he chose the island of Lindisfarne as the site of his
+church and monastery, and made it the head of the diocese which he
+founded in 635. For some years the see continued in peace, numbering
+among its bishops St Cuthbert, but in 793 the Danes landed on the island
+and burnt the settlement, killing many of the monks. The survivors,
+however, rebuilt the church and continued to live there until 883, when,
+through fear of a second invasion of the Danes, they fled inland, taking
+with them the body of St Cuthbert and other holy relics. The church and
+monastery were again destroyed and the bishop and monks, on account of
+the exposed situation of the island, determined not to return to it, and
+settled first at Chester-le-Street and finally at Durham. With the fall
+of the monastery the island appears to have become again untenanted, and
+probably continued so until the prior and convent of Durham established
+there a cell of monks from their own house. The inhabitants of Holy
+Island were governed by two bailiffs at least as early as the 14th
+century, and, according to J. Raine in his _History of North Durham_
+(1852), are called "burgesses or freemen" in a private paper dated 1728.
+In 1323 the bailiffs and community of Holy Island were commanded to
+cause all ships of the burthen of thirty tons or over to go to Ereswell
+with their ships provisioned for a month at least and under double
+manning to be ready to set out on the kings service. Towards the end of
+the 16th century the fort on Holy Island was garrisoned for fear of
+foreign invasion by Sir William Read, who found it very much in need of
+repair, the guns being so decayed that the gunners "dare not give fire
+but by trayne," and the master gunner had been "miserably slain" in
+discharging one of them. During the Civil Wars the castle was held for
+the king until 1646, when it was taken and garrisoned by the
+parliamentarians. The only other historical event connected with the
+island is the attempt made by two Jacobites in 1715 to hold it for the
+Pretender.
+
+
+
+
+HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB (1817-1906), English secularist and co-operator,
+was born at Birmingham, on the 13th of April 1817. At an early age he
+became an Owenite lecturer, and in 1841 was the last person convicted
+for blasphemy in a public lecture, though this had no theological
+character and the incriminating words were merely a reply to a question
+addressed to him from the body of the meeting. He nevertheless underwent
+six months' imprisonment, and upon his release invented the inoffensive
+term "secularism" as descriptive of his opinions, and established the
+_Reasoner_ in their support. He was also the last person indicted for
+publishing an unstamped newspaper, but the prosecution dropped upon the
+repeal of the tax. His later years were chiefly devoted to the promotion
+of the co-operative movement among the working classes. He wrote the
+history of the Rochdale Pioneers (1857), _The History of Co-operation in
+England_ (1875; revised ed., 1906), and _The Co-operative Movement of
+To-day_ (1891). He also published (1892) his autobiography, under the
+title of _Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life_, and in 1905 two volumes of
+reminiscences, _Bygones worth Remembering_. He died at Brighton on the
+22nd of January 1906.
+
+  See J. McCabe, _Life and Letters of G. J. Holyoake_ (2 vols., 1908);
+  C. W. F. Goss, _Descriptive Bibliography of the Writings of G. J.
+  Holyoake_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HOLYOKE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in a bend of
+the Connecticut river, about 8 m. N. of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 21,915;
+(1890) 35,637; (1900) 45,712; (1910 census) 57,730. Of the total
+population in 1900, 18,921 were foreign-born, including 6991
+French-Canadians, 5650 Irish, 1602 Germans and 1118 English; and 33,626
+were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 12,370
+of Irish and 11,050 of French-Canadian parentage. The city's area is
+about 17 sq. m. The city is served by the Boston & Maine, and the New
+York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and by an interurban line. Holyoke
+is characteristically an industrial and mercantile city; it has some
+handsome public buildings (the city hall and the public library, founded
+in 1870, being especially noteworthy) and attractive environs. Holyoke
+is the railway station for Mt Holyoke College, in South Hadley, about 4
+m. N. by E. of Holyoke; the city is connected with South Hadley by an
+electric line. Just above Holyoke the Connecticut leaves the rugged
+highlands through a rift between Mt Tom (1214 ft.; ascended by a
+mountain-railway from Holyoke) and Mt Holyoke (954 ft.), and begins a
+meandering valley course, falling (in the Hadley halls) in great volume
+some 60 ft. in about 1½ m. The water-power was unutilized until 1849,
+when a great dam (1017 ft. long) was completed, which enabled vast power
+to be developed along a series of canals laid out from the river. This
+was, in its day, a colossal undertaking; and its success transformed
+Holyoke from a farming village into a great manufacturing centre--in
+1900 and 1905 the ninth largest of the commonwealth. In 1900 a stone dam
+(1020 ft.), said to be the second largest in New England, was completed
+at a cost of about $750,000. Cotton manufactures first, and later paper
+products were chief in importance, and Holyoke now leads all the cities
+in the United States in the manufacture of fine paper. In 1905 the total
+value of all factory products was $30,731,332, of which $10,620,255 (or
+34.6% of the total) represented paper and wood pulp; $5,019,817, cotton
+goods; $1,318,409, woollen goods; $1,756,473, book binding and blank
+books, and $2,022,759, foundry and machine-shop products. Silk and
+worsted goods are other important manufactures. Opposite Holyoke, in
+Hampshire county, is South Hadley Falls. The municipality owns and
+operates the gas and electric-lighting plants and the water works (the
+water-supply being derived from natural ponds, some of which are outside
+the city limits), and owns and leases (to the New York, New Haven &
+Hartford railroad) a railway extending (10.3 m.) to Westfield, Mass.
+Holyoke was originally a part of Springfield, and after 1774 of West
+Springfield. In 1850 it was incorporated as a township, and in 1873 was
+chartered as a city.
+
+
+
+
+HOLYSTONE, a soft kind of sandstone used by sailors for scrubbing and
+cleaning the decks of ships. The origin of the word is doubtful. Some
+authorities hold that it arose from the general practice of scrubbing
+the decks for Sunday service; while others think the name arises from
+the fact that the stone so employed is naturally porous and full of
+holes. A small flint or stone having a natural hole in it, and worn as a
+charm, is also called a holystone.
+
+
+
+
+HOLY WATER, technically the water with which Christian believers sign
+the cross on their foreheads on entering or leaving church. The edict of
+Gratian lays down that it should be exorcized and blessed by the priest
+and sprinkled with exorcized salt. This rite is found in the Gelasian,
+Gregorian and other sacramentaries. In the East the water was blessed
+once a month, in the Latin Church it is now blessed every Sunday. In the
+4th century in the East it was usual to wash the hands on entering the
+church (see ABLUTION).
+
+In the early church water was not expressly consecrated for baptisms and
+other lustrations. "Water," says Tertullian in his tract on baptism,
+"was the abode at the first of the divine Spirit, being more acceptable
+then (to God) than the other elements." He pictures the world in the
+beginning: "total darkness, formless as yet, without tending of stars,
+the melancholy abyss, the earth unprepared, the heaven undevelopt. The
+liquid alone an ever perfect material, smiling, simple, pure in its own
+right, as a worthy vehicle underlay the God." Water was similarly pure
+in itself in the old Persian religion.
+
+The _Canons of Hippolytus_, or Egyptian church order, of about A.D. 250,
+give no prayer for consecration of fonts, but enact that "at cock crow
+the baptismal party shall take their stand near waving water, pure,
+prepared, sacred, of the sea." The _Teaching of the Apostles_, _c._ 100,
+merely insists on "living," that is, clear and running water. The
+ancient feeling, especially Jewish, was that in lustrations the same
+water must not pass twice over the body. A stagnant pool was useless.
+Bubbling waters too seemed to have a spirit in them.
+
+Either because running water was not always at hand, or as part of the
+growing tendency of the church to multiply ceremonies, rituals arose
+late in the 3rd century for consecrating water. The sacramentary of
+Serapion, _c._ 350, provides a prayer asking that the divine Word may
+descend into the water and hallow it, as of old it hallowed the Jordan.
+In the Roman order of baptism the priest prays that "the font may
+receive the grace of the only begotten Son from the holy Spirit, and
+that the latter may impregnate with hidden admixture of His light this
+water prepared for the regeneration of mankind, to the end that man
+through a sanctification conceived from the immaculate womb of the
+divine font, may emerge a heavenly offspring reborn as a new creature."
+The water is then exorcized and evil spirits warned off, and lastly
+blessed. During the prayer the priest twice signs the water with the
+cross, and once blows upon it.
+
+The first mention of a special consecration of water for other ends than
+baptism is in the _Acts of Thomas_ (? A.D. 200); it is for the purgation
+of a youth already baptized who had killed his mistress because she
+would not live chastely with him. The apostle prays: "Fountain sent unto
+us from Rest, Power of Salvation from that Power proceeding which
+overcomes and subjects all to its own will, come and dwell within these
+waters, that the _Charisma_ (gift) of the holy Spirit may be fully
+perfected through them." The youth then washes his hands, which on
+touching the sacrament had withered up, and is healed.
+
+The church shared the universal belief that holiness or the holy Spirit
+is quasi-material and capable of being held in suspense in water, just
+as sin is a half material infection, absorbed and carried away by it. So
+Tertullian writes: "The water which carried the Spirit of God (probably
+regarded as a shadow or reflection-soul) borrowed holiness from that
+which was carried upon it; for every underlying matter must needs absorb
+and take up the quality of that matter which overhangs it; especially
+does a corporeal so absorb a spiritual, as this can easily penetrate and
+settle into it owing to the subtlety of its substance."
+
+"Water," he continues, "was generically hallowed by the Spirit of God
+brooding over it at creation, and therefore all special waters are holy,
+and at once obtain the sacrament of sanctification when God is invoked
+(over them.) For the Spirit from heaven instantly supervenes and is upon
+the waters, hallowing them out of itself, and being so hallowed they
+drink up a power of hallowing."
+
+What is done in material semblance, he then argues, is repeated in the
+unseen medium of the Spirit. The stains of idolatry, vice and fraud are
+not visible on the flesh, yet they resemble real dirt. "The waters are
+medicated in a manner through the intervention of the angel, and the
+Spirit is corporeally washed in the water and the flesh is spiritually
+purified in the same."
+
+Tertullian believed that an angel was sent down, when God was invoked,
+like that which stirred the pool of Bethesda. As regards rival Isiac and
+Mithraic baptisms, he asserts that their waters are destitute of divine
+power; nay, are rather tenanted by the devil who in this matter sets
+himself to rival God. "Without any religious rite at all," he urges,
+"unclean spirits brood upon waters, aspiring to repeat that primordial
+gestation of the divine Spirit." And he instances the "darkling springs
+and lonely rivers which are said to snatch, to wit by force of a harmful
+spirit." In the sequel he defines the rôle of the angel of baptism who
+does not infuse himself in waters, already holy from the first; but
+merely presides over the washing of the faithful, and ensures their
+being made pure for the reception of the holy Spirit in the rite of
+confirmation which immediately follows. "The devil who till now ruled
+over us, we leave behind overwhelmed in the water."
+
+From all this we conclude that what is poetry to us--akin to the
+folk-lore of water-sprites, naiads, kelpies, river-gods and
+water-worship in general--was to Tertullian and to the generations of
+believers who fashioned the baptismal rites, ablutions and beliefs of
+the church, nothing less than grim reality and unquestionable fact.
+
+  See John, marquess of Bute, and E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Blessing of
+  the Waters_ (London, 1901); E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (London,
+  1903).     (F. C. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLY WEEK ([Greek: hebdomas megalê, hagia] or [Greek: tôn hagiôn,
+xêrophagias, apraktos], also [Greek: hêmerai pathêmatôn, hêmerai
+staurôsimai]: _hebdomas_ [or _septimana_] _major_, _sancta_,
+_authentica_ [i.e. _canonizata_, du Cange], _ultima_, _poenosa_,
+_luctuosa_, _nigra_, _inofficiosa_, _muta_, _crucis_, _lamentationum_,
+_indulgentiae_), in the Christian ecclesiastical year the week
+immediately preceding Easter. The earliest allusion to the custom of
+marking this week as a whole with special observances is to be found in
+the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (v. 18, 19), dating from the latter half
+of the 3rd century A.D. Abstinence from wine and flesh is there
+commanded for all the days, while for the Friday and Saturday an
+absolute fast is enjoined. Dionysius Alexandrinus also, in his canonical
+epistle (260 A.D.), refers to the six fasting days ([Greek: hex tôn
+nêsteiôn hêmerai]) in a manner which implies that the observance of them
+had already become an established usage in his time. There is some doubt
+about the genuineness of an ordinance attributed to Constantine, in
+which abstinence from public business was enforced for the seven days
+immediately preceding Easter Sunday, and also for the seven which
+followed it; the _Codex Theodosianus_, however, is explicit in ordering
+that all actions at law should cease, and the doors of all courts of law
+be closed during those fifteen days (l. ii. tit. viii.). Of the
+particular days of the "great week" the earliest to emerge into special
+prominence was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum Magnum
+(Holy Saturday or Easter Eve) with its vigil, which in the early church
+was associated with an expectation that the second advent would occur on
+an Easter Sunday.
+
+  For details of the ceremonial observed in the Roman Catholic Church
+  during this week, reference must be made to the _Missal_ and
+  _Breviary_. In the Eastern Church the week is marked by similar
+  practices, but with less elaboration and differentiation of rite. See
+  also EASTER, GOOD FRIDAY, MAUNDY THURSDAY, PALM SUNDAY and PASSION
+  WEEK.
+
+
+
+
+HOLYWELL (_Tre'ffynnon_, well-town), a market town and contributory
+parliamentary borough of Flintshire, N. Wales, situated on a height near
+the left bank of the Dee estuary, 196 m. from London by the London &
+North-Western railway (the station being 2 m. distant). Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 2652. The parish church (1769) has some columns of an
+earlier building, interesting brasses and strong embattled tower. The
+remains of Basingwerk Abbey (_Maes glas_, green field), partly Saxon and
+partly Early English, are near the station. It is of uncertain origin
+but was used as a monastery before 1119. In 1131 Ranulph, 2nd earl of
+Chester, introduced the Cistercians. In 1535, when Its revenues were
+£150, 7s. 3d., it was dissolved, but revived under Mary I. and used as a
+Roman Catholic burial place in 1647. Scarcely any traces remain of
+Basingwerk castle, an old fort. Small up to the beginning of the 19th
+century, Holywell has increasingly prospered, thanks to lime quarries,
+lead, copper and zinc mines, smelting works, a shot manufactory, copper,
+brass, iron and zinc works; brewing, tanning and mineral water, flannel
+and cement works. St Winifred's holy well, one of the wonders of Wales,
+sends up water at the rate of 21 tons a minute, of an almost unvarying
+temperature, higher than that of ordinary spring water. To its curative
+powers many crutches and _ex voto_ objects, hung round the well, as in
+the Lourdes Grot, bear ample witness. The stones at the bottom are
+slightly reddish, owing to vegetable substances. The well itself is
+covered by a fine Gothic building, said to have been erected by
+Margaret, countess of Richmond and mother of Henry VII., with some
+portions of earlier date. The chapel (restored) is used for public
+service. Catholics and others visit it in great numbers. There are
+swimming baths for general use. In 1870 a hospice for poorer pilgrims
+was erected. Other public buildings are St Winifred's (Catholic) church
+and a convent, a town hall and a market-hall. The export trade is
+expedited by quays on the Dee.
+
+
+
+
+HOLYWOOD, a seaport of county Down, Ireland, on the east shore of
+Belfast Lough, 4½ m. N.E. from Belfast by the Belfast & County Down
+railway. Its pleasant situation renders it a favourite residential
+locality of the wealthier classes in Belfast. There was a religious
+settlement here from the 7th century, which subsequently became a
+Franciscan monastery. The old church dating from the late 12th or early
+13th century marks its site. A Solemn League and Covenant was signed
+here in 1644 for the defence of the kingdom, and the document is
+preserved at Belfast.
+
+
+
+
+HOLZMINDEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick, on the right
+bank of the Weser, at the foot of the Sollinger Mountains, at the
+junction of the railways Scherfede-Holzminden and Soest-Börssum, 56 m.
+S.W. of Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 9938. It has an Evangelical and a Roman
+Catholic church, a gymnasium, an architectural school and a school of
+engineering. The prosperity of the town depends chiefly on agriculture
+and the manufacture of iron and steel wares, and of chemicals, but
+weaving and the making of pottery are also carried on, and there are
+baryta mills and polishing-mills for sandstone. By means of the Weser it
+carries on a lively trade. Holzminden obtained municipal rights from
+Count Otto of Eberstein in 1245, and in 1410 it came into the possession
+of Brunswick.
+
+
+
+
+HOLZTROMPETE (Wooden Trumpet), an instrument somewhat resembling the
+Alpenhorn (q.v.) in tone-quality, designed by Richard Wagner for
+representing the natural pipe of the peasant in _Tristan and Isolde_.
+This instrument is not unlike the cor anglais in rough outline, being a
+conical tube of approximately the same length, terminating in a small
+globular bell, but having neither holes nor keys; it is blown through a
+cup-shaped mouthpiece made of horn. The Holztrompete is in the key of C;
+the scale is produced by overblowing, whereby the upper partials from
+the 2nd to the 6th are produced. A single piston placed at a third of
+the distance from the mouthpiece to the bell gives the notes D and F.
+Wagner inserted a note in the score concerning the cor anglais for which
+the part was originally scored, and advised the use of oboe or clarinet
+to reinforce the latter, the effect intended being that of a powerful
+natural instrument, unless a wooden instrument with a natural scale be
+specially made for the part, which would be preferable. The Holztrompete
+was used at Munich for the first performance of _Tristan and Isolde_,
+and was still in use there in 1897. At Bayreuth it was also used for the
+Tristan performances at the festivals of 1886 and 1889, but in 1891 W.
+Heckel's clarina, an instrument partaking of the nature of both oboe and
+clarinet, was substituted for the Holztrompete and has been retained
+ever since, having been found more effective.[1]     (K. S.)
+
+[Illustration: Harmonic Series.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Communicated by Madame Wagner, December 28th, 1897.
+
+
+
+
+HOMAGE (from _homo_, through the Low Lat. _hominaticum_, which occurs in
+a document of 1035), one of the ceremonies used in the granting of a
+fief, and indicating the submission of a vassal to his lord. It could be
+received only by the suzerain in person. With head uncovered the vassal
+humbly requested to be allowed to enter into the feudal relation; he
+then laid aside his sword and spurs, ungirt his belt, and kneeling
+before his lord, and holding his hands extended and joined between the
+hands of his lord, uttered words to this effect: "I become your man from
+this day forth, of life and limb, and will hold faith to you for the
+lands I claim to hold of you." The oath of fealty, which could be
+received by proxy, followed the act of homage; then came the ceremony of
+investiture, either directly on the ground or by the delivery of a turf,
+a handful of earth, a stone, or some other symbolical object. Homage was
+done not only by the vassal to whom feudal lands were first granted but
+by every one in turn by whom they were inherited, since they were not
+granted absolutely but only on condition of military and other service.
+An infant might do homage, but he did not thus enter into full
+possession of his lands. The ceremony was of a preliminary nature,
+securing that the fief would not be alienated; but the vassal had to
+take the oath of fealty, and to be formally invested, when he reached
+his majority. The obligations involved in the act of homage were more
+general than those associated with the oath of fealty, but they provided
+a strong moral sanction for more specific engagements. They essentially
+resembled the obligations undertaken towards a Teutonic chief by the
+members of his "comitatus" or "gefolge," one of the institutions from
+which feudalism directly sprang. Besides _homagium ligeum_, there was a
+kind of homage which imposed no feudal duty; this was _homagium per
+paragium_, such as the dukes of Normandy rendered to the kings of
+France, and as the dukes of Normandy received from the dukes of
+Brittany. The act of liege homage to a particular lord did not interfere
+with the vassal's allegiance as a subject to his sovereign, or with his
+duty to any other suzerain of whom he might hold lands.
+
+The word is also used of the body of tenants attending a manorial court,
+or of the court in a court baron (consisting of the tenants that do
+homage and make inquiries and presentments, termed a _homage jury_).
+
+
+
+
+HOMBERG, WILHELM (1652-1715), Dutch natural philosopher, was the son of
+an officer of the Dutch East India Company, and was born at Batavia
+(Java) on the 8th of January 1652. Coming to Europe with his family in
+1670, he studied law at Jena and Leipzig, and in 1674 became an advocate
+at Magdeburg. In that town he made the acquaintance of Otto von
+Guericke, and under his influence determined to devote himself to
+natural science. He, therefore, travelled in various parts of Europe for
+study, and after graduating in medicine at Wittenberg, settled in Paris
+in 1682. From 1685 to 1690 he practised as a physician at Rome; then
+returning to Paris in 1691, he was elected a member of the Academy of
+Sciences and appointed director of its chemical laboratory. Subsequently
+he became teacher of physics and chemistry (1702), and private physician
+(1705) to the duke of Orleans. His death occurred at Paris on the 24th
+of September 1715. Homberg was not free from alchemistical tendencies,
+but he made many solid contributions to chemical and physical knowledge,
+recording observations on the preparation of Kunkel's phosphorus, on the
+green colour produced in flames by copper, on the crystallization of
+common salt, on the salts of plants, on the saturation of bases by
+acids, on the freezing of water and its evaporation _in vacuo_, &c. Much
+of his work was published in the _Recueil de l'Académie des Sciences_
+from 1692 to 1714. The _Sal Sedativum Hombergi_ is boracic acid, which
+he discovered in 1702, and "Homberg's phosphorus" is prepared by fusing
+sal-ammoniac with quick lime.
+
+
+
+
+HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HÖHE, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the
+Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, prettily situated at the south-east
+foot of the Taunus Mountains, 12 m. N. of Frankfort-on-Main, with which
+it is connected by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,740. Homburg consists of an old
+and a new town, the latter, founded by the landgrave of Hesse-Homburg
+Frederick II. (d. 1708), being regular and well-built. Besides the
+palatial edifices erected in connexion with the mineral water-cure,
+there are churches of various denominations, Lutheran, Roman Catholic,
+Russian-Greek and Anglican, schools and benevolent institutions. On a
+neighbouring hill stands the palace of the former landgraves, built in
+1680 and subsequently enlarged and improved. The White Tower, 183 ft. in
+height, is said to date from Roman times, and certainly existed under
+the lords of Eppstein, who held the district in the 12th century. The
+palace is surrounded by extensive grounds, laid out in the manner of an
+English park. The eight mineral springs which form the attraction of the
+town to strangers belong to the class of saline acidulous chalybeates
+and contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime. Their use is
+beneficial for diseases of the stomach and intestines, and externally,
+for diseases of the skin and rheumatism. The establishments connected
+with the springs are arranged on a scale of great magnificence, and
+include the Kurhaus (built 1841-1843), with a theatre, the Kaiser
+Wilhelmsbad and the Kurhausbad. They lie grouped round a pretty park
+which also furnishes the visitors with facilities for various
+recreations, such as lawn tennis, croquet, polo and other games. The
+industries of Homburg embrace iron founding and the manufacture of
+leather and hats, but they are comparatively unimportant, the prosperity
+of the town being almost entirely due to the annual influx of visitors,
+which during the season from May to October inclusive averages 12,000.
+In the beautiful neighbourhood lies the ancient Roman castle of
+Saalburg, which can be reached by an electric tramway.
+
+Homburg first came into repute as a watering-place in 1834, and owing to
+its gaming-tables, which were set up soon after, it rapidly became one
+of the favourite and most fashionable health-resorts of Europe. In 1849
+the town was occupied by Austrian troops for the purpose of enforcing
+the imperial decree against gambling establishments, but immediately on
+their withdrawal the bank was again opened, and play continued unchecked
+until 1872, when the Prussian government refused to renew the lease for
+gambling purposes, which then expired. As the capital of the former
+landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, the town shared the vicissitudes of that
+state.
+
+Homburg is also the name of a town in Bavaria. Pop. (1900) 4785. It has
+a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, and manufactures of iron
+goods. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castles of Karlsberg
+and of Hohenburg. The family of the counts of Homburg became extinct in
+the 15th century. The town came into the possession of Zweibrücken in
+1755 and later into that of Bavaria.
+
+  See Supp, _Bad Homburg_ (7th ed., Homburg, 1903); Baumstark, _Bad
+  Homburg und seine Heilquellen_ (Wiesbaden, 1901); Schiek, _Homburg und
+  Umgebung_ (Homburg, 1896); Will, _Der Kurort Homburg, seine
+  Mineralquellen_ (Homburg, 1880); Hoeben, _Bad Homburg und sein
+  Heilapparat_ (Homburg, 1901); and N. E. Yorke-Davies, _Homburg and its
+  Waters_ (London, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+HOME, EARLS OF. Alexander Home or Hume, 1st earl of Home (c. 1566-1619),
+was the son of Alexander, 5th Lord Home (d. 1575), who fought against
+Mary, queen of Scots, at Carberry Hill and at Langside, but was
+afterwards one of her most stalwart supporters, being taken prisoner
+when defending Edinburgh castle in her interests in 1573 and probably
+dying in captivity. He belonged to an old and famous border family, an
+early member of which, Sir Alexander Home, was killed at the battle of
+Verneuil in 1424. This Sir Alexander was the father of Sir Alexander
+Home (d. 1456), warden of the marches and the founder of the family
+fortunes, whose son, another Sir Alexander (d. 1491), was created a lord
+of parliament as Lord Home in 1473, being one of the band of nobles who
+defeated the forces of King James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in
+1488. Other distinguished members of the family were: the first lord's
+grandson and successor, Alexander, 2nd Lord Home (d. 1506), chamberlain
+of Scotland; and the latter's son, Alexander, 3rd Lord Home (d. 1516), a
+person of great importance during the reign of James IV., whom he served
+as chamberlain. He fought at Flodden, but before the death of the king
+he had led his men away to plunder. During the minority of the new king,
+James V., he was engaged in quarrelling with the regent, John Stewart,
+duke of Albany, and in intriguing with England. In September 1516 he was
+seized, was charged with treachery and beheaded, his title and estates
+being restored to his brother George in 1522. George, who was killed in
+September 1547 during a skirmish just before the battle of Pinkie, was
+the father of Alexander, the 5th lord.
+
+Alexander Home became 6th Lord Home on his father's death in August
+1575, and took part in many of the turbulent incidents which marked the
+reign of James VI. He was warden of the east marches, and was often at
+variance with the Hepburns, a rival border family whose head was the
+earl of Bothwell; the feud between the Homes and the Hepburns was an old
+one, and it was probably the main reason why Home's father, the 5th
+lord, sided with the enemies of Mary during the period of her intimacy
+with Bothwell. Home accompanied James to England in 1603 and was created
+earl of Home in 1605; he died in April 1619.
+
+His son James, the 2nd earl, died childless in 1633 when his titles
+passed to a distant kinsman, Sir James Home of Coldingknows (d. 1666), a
+descendant of the 1st Lord Home. This earl was in the Scottish ranks at
+the battle of Preston and lost his estates under the Commonwealth, but
+these were restored to him in 1661. His descendant, William, the 8th
+earl (d. 1761) fought on the English side at Prestonpans, and from his
+brother Alexander, the 9th earl (d. 1786), the present earl of Home is
+descended. In 1875 Cospatrick Alexander, the 11th earl (1799-1881), was
+created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Douglas, and his son
+Charles Alexander, the 12th earl (b. 1834), took the additional name of
+Douglas. The principal strongholds of the Homes were Douglas castle in
+Haddington and Home castle in Berwickshire.
+
+  See H. Drummond, _Histories of Noble British Families_ (1846).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5
+       "Hinduism" to "Home, Earls of"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 23, 2012 [EBook #39232]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE V<br /><br />
+Hinduism to Home, Earls of</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HINDUISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HODY, HUMPHREY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HINDU KUSH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HOE, RICHARD MARCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HINDUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HOE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HINGANGHAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HOEFNAGEL, JORIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HINGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HOF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HINGHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HOFER, ANDREAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HÖFFDING, HARALD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HINSCHIUS, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HINTERLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HINTON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HOFFMANN, FRANÇOIS BENOÎT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HIOGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HIP-KNOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HIPPARCHUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HOFMANN, MELCHIOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HIPPEASTRUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HIPPED ROOF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HIPPIAS OF ELIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HOGARTH, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HIPPO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HOGG, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HIPPOCRAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HIPPOCRATES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HOGMANAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HIPPOCRENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HOGSHEAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HIPPODAMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HOHENASPERG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HIPPODROME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HOHENFRIEDBERG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HIPPOLYTUS</a> (Greek legend hunter)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HOHENHEIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HIPPOLYTUS</a> (writer of the early Church)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HOHENLIMBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HOHENLOHE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HIPPONAX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HOHENSTAUFEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HIPPOPOTAMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HOHENSTEIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HIPPURIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HOHENZOLLERN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HIPURNIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HOKKAIDO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HIRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HOKUSAI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HIRADO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HOLBEACH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HIRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HOLBEIN, HANS</a> (the elder)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HIROSAKI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HOLBEIN, HANS</a> (the younger)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HIROSHIGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HIROSHIMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HOLBORN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HIRPINI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HOLCROFT, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HIRSAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HIRSCH, MAURICE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HÖLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HIRSCHBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HIRSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HIRTIUS, AULUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HOLGUÍN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HISH&#256;M IBN AL-KALB&#298;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HOLIDAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HISPELLUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HOLINSHED, RAPHAEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HISSAR</a> (district in Central Asia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HOLKAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HISSAR</a> (town &amp; district of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HOLL, FRANK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HISTIAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HOLLAND, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HISTOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HOLLAND, SIR HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HISTORY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HOLLAND, HENRY FOX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HOLLAND, HENRY RICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HITA, GINÉS PEREZ DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HITCHCOCK, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HITCHCOCK, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HOLLAND, PHILEMON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HOLLAND, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HITCHIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HOLLAND</a> (country)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HITTITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">HOLLAND</a> (Michigan, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HITZACKER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HOLLAND</a> (cloth)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HITZIG, FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HIUNG-NU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HIVITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HOLLOWAY, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HJÖRRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HOLLY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HKAMTI LÔNG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HOLLYHOCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HLOTHHERE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HOLLY SPRINGS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HOACTZIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HOLMAN, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HOADLY, BENJAMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HOAR, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HOLMFIRTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HOLOCAUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HOLOCENE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HOBART, JOHN HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HOBART PASHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HOBART</a> (capital of Tasmania)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HOLSTEIN</a> (duchy of Germany)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HOBBES, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HOBBY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HOLSTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HOLT, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HOBOKEN</a> (town of Belgium)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HOBOKEN</a> (New Jersey, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HÖLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HOBSON&rsquo;S CHOICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HOBY, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HOCHE, LAZARE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">HOLUB, EMIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HOCHHEIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HOLY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HÖCHST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HOLY ALLIANCE, THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HÖCHSTÄDT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HOLYHEAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">HOLY ISLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HOCKEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HOCK-TIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">HOLYOKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HOCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">HOLYSTONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HODDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">HOLY WATER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HODDESDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">HOLY WEEK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HODEDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">HOLYWELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HODENING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">HOLYWOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HODGE, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">HOLZMINDEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HODGKIN, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">HOLZTROMPETE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HODGKINSON, EATON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">HOMAGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">HOMBERG, WILHELM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HÓDMEZÖ-VÁSÁRHELY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HÖHE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HODOGRAPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">HOME, EARLS OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HINDUISM,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a term generally employed to comprehend the
+social institutions, past and present, of the Hindus who form the
+great majority of the people of India; as well as the multitudinous
+crop of their religious beliefs which has grown up, in the course
+of many centuries, on the foundation of the Brahmanical
+scriptures. The actual proportion of the total population of
+India (294 millions) included under the name of &ldquo;Hindus&rdquo;
+has been computed in the census report for 1901 at something
+like 70% (206 millions); the remaining 30% being made up
+partly of the followers of foreign creeds, such as Mahommedans,
+Parsees, Christians and Jews, partly of the votaries of indigenous
+forms of belief which have at various times separated from the
+main stock, and developed into independent systems, such as
+Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism; and partly of isolated hill
+and jungle tribes, such as the Santals, Bhils (Bhilla) and Kols,
+whose crude animistic tendencies have hitherto kept them,
+either wholly or for the most part, outside the pale of the
+Brahmanical community. The name &ldquo;Hindu&rdquo; itself is of
+foreign origin, being derived from the Persians, by whom the
+river Sindhu was called Hindhu, a name subsequently applied
+to the inhabitants of that frontier district, and gradually extended
+over the upper and middle reaches of the Gangetic valley,
+whence this whole tract of country between the Himalaya and
+the Vindhya mountains, west of Bengal, came to be called by
+the foreign conquerors &ldquo;Hindustan,&rdquo; or the abode of the
+Hindus; whilst the native writers called it &ldquo;Aryavarta,&rdquo; or
+the abode of the Aryas.</p>
+
+<p>But whilst, in its more comprehensive acceptation, the term
+Hinduism would thus range over the entire historical development
+of Brahmanical India, it is also not infrequently used in
+a narrower sense, as denoting more especially the modern phase
+of Indian social and religious institutions&mdash;from the earlier
+centuries of the Christian era down to our own days&mdash;as distinguished
+from the period dominated by the authoritative doctrine
+of pantheistic belief, formulated by the speculative theologians
+during the centuries immediately succeeding the Vedic period
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brahmanism</a></span>). In this its more restricted sense the term
+may thus practically be taken to apply to the later bewildering
+variety of popular sectarian forms of belief, with its social
+concomitant, the fully developed caste-system. But, though
+one may at times find it convenient to speak of &ldquo;Brahmanism
+and Hinduism,&rdquo; it must be clearly understood that the distinction
+implied in the combination of these terms is an extremely
+vague one, especially from the chronological point of view.
+The following considerations will probably make this clear.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristic tenet of orthodox Brahmanism consists
+in the conception of an absolute, all-embracing spirit, the Brahma
+(neutr.), being the one and only reality, itself unconditioned,
+and the original cause and ultimate
+<span class="sidenote">Connexion with Brahmanism.</span>
+goal of all individual souls (<i>j&#299;va</i>, <i>i.e.</i> living things).
+Coupled with this abstract conception are two other
+doctrines, viz. first, the transmigration of souls (<i>sa&#7747;s&#257;ra</i>),
+regarded by Indian thinkers as the necessary complement of
+a belief in the essential sameness of all the various spiritual
+units, however contaminated, to a greater or less degree, they
+may be by their material embodiment; and in their ultimate
+re-union with the <i>Param&#257;tman</i>, or Supreme Self; and second,
+the assumption of a triple manifestation of the ceaseless working
+of that Absolute Spirit as a creative, conservative and destructive
+principle, represented respectively by the divine personalities
+of Brahma (masc.), Vish&#7749;u and &#346;iva, forming the
+<i>Trim&#363;rti</i> or Triad. As regards this latter, purely exoteric,
+doctrine, there can be little doubt of its owing its origin to
+considerations of theological expediency, as being calculated
+to supply a sufficiently wide formula of belief for general acceptance;
+and the very fact of this divine triad including the
+two principal deities of the later sectarian worship, Vish&#7751;u and
+&#346;iva, goes far to show that these two gods at all events must have
+been already in those early days favourite objects of popular
+adoration to an extent sufficient to preclude their being ignored
+by a diplomatic priesthood bent upon the formulation of a
+common creed. Thus, so far from sectarianism being a mere
+modern development of Brahmanism, it actually goes back
+to beyond the formulation of the Brahmanical creed. Nay,
+when, on analysing the functions and attributes of those two
+divine figures, each of them is found to be but a compound of
+several previously recognized deities, sectarian worship may
+well be traced right up to the Vedic age. That the theory of
+the triple manifestation of the deity was indeed only a compromise
+between Brahmanical aspirations and popular worship,
+probably largely influenced by the traditional sanctity of the
+number three, is sufficiently clear from the fact that, whilst
+Brahma, the creator, and at the same time the very embodiment
+of Brahmanical class pride, has practically remained a
+mere figurehead in the actual worship of the people, &#346;iva, on
+the other hand, so far from being merely the destroyer, is also
+the unmistakable representative of generative and reproductive
+power in nature. In fact, Brahma, having performed his legitimate
+part in the mundane evolution by his original creation
+of the universe, has retired into the background, being, as it
+were, looked upon as <i>functus officio</i>, like a venerable figure of
+a former generation, whence in epic poetry he is commonly
+styled <i>pit&#257;maha</i>, &ldquo;the grandsire.&rdquo; But despite the artificial
+character of the <i>Trim&#363;rti</i>, it has retained to this day at least its
+theoretical validity in orthodox Hinduism, whilst it has also
+undoubtedly exercised considerable influence in shaping sectarian
+belief, in promoting feelings of toleration towards the claims
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span>
+of rival deities; and in a tendency towards identifying divine
+figures newly sprung into popular favour with one or other of
+the principal deities, and thus helping to bring into vogue that
+notion of avatars, or periodical descents or incarnations of the
+deity, which has become so prominent a feature of the later
+sectarian belief.</p>
+
+<p>Under more favourable political conditions,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the sacerdotal
+class might perhaps, in course of time, have succeeded in imposing
+something like an effective common creed on the heterogeneous
+medley of races and tribes scattered over the peninsula, just
+as they certainly did succeed in establishing the social prerogative
+of their own order over the length and breadth of India. They
+were, however, fated to fall far short of such a consummation;
+and at all times orthodox Brahmanism has had to wink at,
+or ignore, all manner of gross superstitions and repulsive
+practices, along with the popular worship of countless hosts of
+godlings, demons, spirits and ghosts, and mystic objects and
+symbols of every description. Indeed, according to a recent
+account by a close observer of the religious practices prevalent
+in southern India, fully four-fifths of the people of the Dravidian
+race, whilst nominally acknowledging the spiritual guidance
+of the Brahmans, are to this day practically given over to the
+worship of their nondescript local village deities (<i>gr&#257;ma-devat&#257;</i>),
+usually attended by animal sacrifices frequently involving the
+slaughter, under revolting circumstances, of thousands of
+victims. Curiously enough these local deities are nearly all of
+the female, not the male sex. In the estimation of these people
+&ldquo;Siva and Vishnu may be more dignified beings, but the village
+deity is regarded as a more present help in trouble, and more
+intimately concerned with the happiness and prosperity of the
+villagers. The origin of this form of Hinduism is lost in antiquity,
+but it is probable that it represents a pre-Aryan religion, more
+or less modified in various parts of south India by Brahmanical
+influence. At the same time, many of the deities themselves
+are of quite recent origin, and it is easy to observe a deity in
+making even at the present day.&rdquo;<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It is a significant fact that,
+whilst in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, at which no animal
+sacrifices are offered, the officiating priests are almost invariably
+Brahmans, this is practically never the case at the popular
+performance of those &ldquo;gloomy and weird rites for the propitiation
+of angry deities, or the driving away of evil spirits, when
+the pujaris (or ministrants) are drawn from all other castes,
+even from the Pariahs, the out-caste section of Indian society.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>As from the point of view of religious belief, so also from
+that of social organization no clear line of demarcation can be
+drawn between Brahmanism and Hinduism. Though
+it was not till later times that the network of class
+<span class="sidenote">Caste.</span>
+divisions and subdivisions attained anything like the degree of
+intricacy which it shows in these latter days, still in its origin the
+caste-system is undoubtedly coincident with the rise of Brahmanism,
+and may even be said to be of the very essence of it.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+The cardinal principle which underlies the system of caste is the
+preservation of purity of descent, and purity of religious belief
+and ceremonial usage. Now, that same principle had been
+operative from the very dawn of the history of Aryanized India.
+The social organism of the Aryan tribe did not probably differ
+essentially from that of most communities at that primitive
+stage of civilization; whilst the body of the people&mdash;the <i>Vi&#347;</i>
+(or aggregate of <i>Vai&#347;yas</i>)&mdash;would be mainly occupied with
+agricultural and pastoral pursuits, two professional classes&mdash;those
+of the warrior and the priest&mdash;had already made good their
+claim to social distinction. As yet, however, the tribal community
+would still feel one in race and traditional usage. But
+when the fair-coloured Aryan immigrants first came in contact
+with, and drove back or subdued the dark-skinned race that
+occupied the northern plains&mdash;doubtless the ancestors of the
+modern Dravidian people&mdash;the preservation of their racial
+type and traditionary order of things would naturally become
+to them a matter of serious concern. In the extreme north-western
+districts&mdash;the Punjab and Rajputana, judging from
+the fairly uniform physical features of the present population
+of these parts&mdash;they seem to have been signally successful in
+their endeavour to preserve their racial purity, probably by
+being able to clear a sufficiently extensive area of the original
+occupants for themselves with their wives and children to
+settle upon. The case was, however, very different in the
+adjoining valley of the Jumna and Ganges, the sacred <i>Madhyadesa</i>
+or Middle-land of classical India. Here the Aryan immigrants
+were not allowed to establish themselves without undergoing
+a considerable admixture of foreign blood. It must
+remain uncertain whether it was that the thickly-populated
+character of the land scarcely admitted of complete occupation,
+but only of a conquest by an army of fighting men, starting
+from the Aryanized region&mdash;who might, however, subsequently
+draw women of their own kin after them&mdash;or whether, as has
+been suggested, a second Aryan invasion of India took place
+at that time through the mountainous tracts of the upper Indus
+and northern Kashmir, where the nature of the road would
+render it impracticable for the invading bands to be accompanied
+by women and children. Be this as it may, the physical appearance
+of the population of this central region of northern India&mdash;Hindustan
+and Behar&mdash;clearly points to an intermixture of
+the tall, fair-coloured, fine-nosed Aryan with the short-sized,
+dark-skinned, broad-nosed Dravidian; the latter type becoming
+more pronounced towards the lower strata of the social order.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+Now, it was precisely in this part of India that mainly arose
+the body of literature which records the gradual rise of the
+Brahmanical hierarchy and the early development of the caste-system.</p>
+
+<p>The problem that now lay before the successful invaders
+was how to deal with the indigenous people, probably vastly
+outnumbering them, without losing their own racial identity.
+They dealt with them in the way the white race usually deals
+with the coloured race&mdash;they kept them socially apart. The
+land being appropriated by the conquerors, husbandry, as the
+most respectable industrial occupation, became the legitimate
+calling of the Aryan settler, the <i>Vai&#347;ya</i>; whilst handicrafts,
+gradually multiplying with advancing civilization and menial
+service, were assigned to the subject race. The generic name
+applied to the latter was <i>&#346;&#363;dra</i>, originally probably the name
+of one of the subjected tribes. So far the social development
+proceeded on lines hardly differing from those with which one
+is familiar in the history of other nations. The Indo-Aryans,
+however, went a step farther. What they did was not only to
+keep the native race apart from social intercourse with themselves,
+but to shut them out from all participation in their own
+higher aims, and especially in their own religious convictions
+and ceremonial practices. So far from attempting to raise
+their standard of spiritual life, or even leaving it to ordinary
+intercourse to gradually bring about a certain community of
+intellectual culture and religious sentiment, they deliberately
+set up artificial barriers in order to prevent their own traditional
+modes of worship from being contaminated with the obnoxious
+practices of the servile race. The serf, the <i>&#346;&#363;dra</i>, was not to
+worship the gods of the Aryan freemen. The result was the
+system of four castes (<i>var&#7751;a</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;colour&rdquo;; or <i>j&#257;ti</i>, &ldquo;gens&rdquo;).
+Though the Brahman, who by this time had firmly secured his
+supremacy over the <i>kshatriya</i>, or noble, in matters spiritual
+as well as in legislative and administrative functions, would
+naturally be the prime mover in this regulation of the social
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span>
+order, there seems no reason to believe that the other two upper
+classes were not equally interested in seeing their hereditary
+privileges thus perpetuated by divine sanction. Nothing,
+indeed, is more remarkable in the whole development of the
+caste-system than the jealous pride which every caste, from the
+highest to the lowest, takes in its own peculiar occupation and
+sphere of life. The distinctive badge of a member of the three
+upper castes was the sacred triple cord or thread (<i>s&#363;tra</i>)&mdash;made
+of cotton, hemp or wool, according to the respective caste&mdash;with
+which he was invested at the <i>upanayana</i> ceremony, or
+initiation into the use of the sacred <i>s&#257;vitri</i>, or prayer to the sun
+(also called <i>g&#257;yatr&#299;</i>), constituting his second birth. Whilst the
+Arya was thus a <i>dvi-ja</i>, or twice-born, the Sudra remained
+unregenerate during his lifetime, his consolation being the hope
+that, on the faithful performance of his duties in this life, he
+might hereafter be born again into a higher grade of life. In
+later times, the strict adherence to caste duties would naturally
+receive considerable support from the belief in the transmigration
+of souls, already prevalent before Buddha&rsquo;s time, and from the
+very general acceptance of the doctrine of <i>karma</i> (&ldquo;deed&rdquo;),
+or retribution, according to which a man&rsquo;s present station and
+manner of life are the result of the sum-total of his actions and
+thoughts in his former existence; as his actions here will again,
+by the same automatic process of retribution, determine his
+status and condition in his next existence. Though this
+doctrine is especially insisted upon in Buddhism, and its
+designation as a specific term (Pali, <i>Kamma</i>) may be due to
+that creed, the notion itself was doubtless already prevalent in
+pre-Buddhist times. It would even seem to be necessarily and
+naturally implied in Brahmanical belief in metempsychosis;
+whilst in the doctrine of Buddha, who admits no soul, the
+theory of the net result or fruit of a man&rsquo;s actions serving hereafter
+to form or condition the existence of some new individual
+who will have no conscious identity with himself, seems of a
+peculiarly artificial and mystic character. But, be this as it
+may, &ldquo;the doctrine of <i>karma</i> is certainly one of the firmest
+beliefs of all classes of Hindus, and the fear that a man shall
+reap as he has sown is an appreciable element in the average
+morality ... the idea of forgiveness is absolutely wanting;
+evil done may indeed be outweighed by meritorious deeds so
+far as to ensure a better existence in the future, but it is not
+effaced, and must be atoned for&rdquo; (<i>Census Report</i>, i. 364).</p>
+
+<p>In spite, however, of the artificial restrictions placed on the
+intermarrying of the castes, the mingling of the two races seems
+to have proceeded at a tolerably rapid rate. Indeed, the paucity
+of women of the Aryan stock would probably render these
+mixed unions almost a necessity from the very outset; and the
+vaunted purity of blood which the caste rules were calculated
+to perpetuate can scarcely have remained of more than a
+relative degree even in the case of the Brahman caste. Certain
+it is that mixed castes are found referred to at a comparatively
+early period; and at the time of Buddha&mdash;some
+five or six centuries before the Christian era&mdash;the social
+organization would seem to have presented an appearance
+not so very unlike that of modern times. It must be confessed,
+however, that our information regarding the development
+of the caste-system is far from complete, especially in
+its earlier stages. Thus, we are almost entirely left to conjecture
+on the important point as to the original social organization
+of the subject race. Though doubtless divided into different
+tribes scattered over an extensive tract of land, the subjected
+aborigines were slumped together under the designation of
+Sudras, whose duty it was to serve the upper classes in all the
+various departments of manual labour, save those of a downright
+sordid and degrading character which it was left to <i>vratyas</i> or
+outcasts to perform. How, then, was the distribution of crafts
+and habitual occupations of all kinds brought about? Was
+the process one of spontaneous growth adapting an already
+existing social organization to a new order of things; or was
+it originated and perpetuated by regulation from above? Or
+was it rather that the status and duties of existing offices and
+trades came to be determined and made hereditary by some
+such artificial system as that by which the Theodosian Code
+succeeded for a time in organizing the Roman society in the
+5th century of our era? &ldquo;It is well known&rdquo; (says Professor
+Dill) &ldquo;that the tendency of the later Empire was to stereotype
+society, by compelling men to follow the occupation of their
+fathers, and preventing a free circulation among different
+callings and grades of life. The man who brought the grain
+from Africa to the public stores at Ostia, the baker who made
+it into loaves for distribution, the butchers who brought pigs
+from Samnium, Lucania or Bruttium, the purveyors of wine
+and oil, the men who fed the furnaces of the public baths, were
+bound to their callings from one generation to another. It was
+the principle of rural serfdom applied to social functions. Every
+avenue of escape was closed. A man was bound to his calling
+not only by his father&rsquo;s but also by his mother&rsquo;s condition.
+Men were not permitted to marry out of their gild. If the
+daughter of one of the baker caste married a man not belonging
+to it, her husband was bound to her father&rsquo;s calling. Not even
+a dispensation obtained by some means from the imperial
+chancery, not even the power of the Church could avail to break
+the chain of servitude.&rdquo; It can hardly be gainsaid that these
+artificial arrangements bear a very striking analogy to those
+of the Indian caste-system; and if these class restrictions were
+comparatively short-lived on Italian ground, it was not perhaps
+so much that so strange a plant found there an ethnic soil less
+congenial to its permanent growth, but because it was not
+allowed sufficient time to become firmly rooted; for already
+great political events were impending which within a few decades
+were to lay the mighty empire in ruins. In India, on the other
+hand, the institution of caste&mdash;even if artificially contrived
+and imposed by the Indo-Aryan priest and ruler&mdash;had at least
+ample time allowed it to become firmly established in the social
+habits, and even in the affections, of the people. At the same
+time, one could more easily understand how such a system
+could have found general acceptance all over the Dravidian
+region of southern India, with its merest sprinkling of Aryan
+blood, if it were possible to assume that class arrangements
+of a similar kind must have already been prevalent amongst
+the aboriginal tribes prior to the advent of the Aryan. Whether
+a more intimate acquaintance with the manners and customs
+of those rude tribes that have hitherto kept themselves comparatively
+free from Hindu influences may yet throw some
+light on this question, remains to be seen. But, by this as it
+may, the institution of caste, when once established, certainly
+appears to have gone on steadily developing; and not even the
+long period of Buddhist ascendancy, with its uncompromising
+resistance to the Brahman&rsquo;s claim to being the sole arbiter
+in matters of faith, seems to have had any very appreciable
+retardant effect upon the progress of the movement. It was not
+only by the formation of ever new endogamous castes and
+sub-castes that the system gained in extent and intricacy, but
+even more so by the constant subdivision of the castes into
+numerous exogamous groups or septs, themselves often involving
+gradations of social status important enough to seriously affect
+the possibility of intermarriage, already hampered by various
+other restrictions. Thus a man wishing to marry his son or
+daughter had to look for a suitable match outside his sept, but
+within his caste. But whilst for his son he might choose a wife
+from a lower sept than his own, for his daughter, on the other
+hand, the law of hypergamy compelled him, if at all possible,
+to find a husband in a higher sept. This would naturally lead
+to an excess of women over men in the higher septs, and would
+render it difficult for a man to get his daughter respectably
+married without paying a high price for a suitable bridegroom
+and incurring other heavy marriage expenses. It can hardly
+be doubted that this custom has been largely responsible for
+the crime of female infanticide, formerly so prevalent in India;
+as it also probably is to some extent for infant marriages, still
+too common in some parts of India, especially Bengal; and
+even for the all but universal repugnance to the re-marriage
+of widows, even when these had been married in early childhood
+and had never joined their husbands. Yet violations of these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span>
+rules are jealously watched by the other members of the sept,
+and are liable&mdash;in accordance with the general custom in which
+communal matters are regulated in India&mdash;to be brought before
+a special council (<i>panch&#257;yat</i>), originally consisting of five (<i>pancha</i>),
+but now no longer limited to that number, since it is chiefly
+the greater or less strictness in the observance of caste rules and
+the orthodox ceremonial generally that determine the status
+of the sept in the social scale of the caste. Whilst community
+of occupation was an important factor in the original formation
+of non-tribal castes, the practical exigencies of life have led to
+considerable laxity in this respect&mdash;not least so in the case of
+Brahmans who have often had to take to callings which would
+seem altogether incompatible with the proper spiritual functions
+of their caste. Thus, &ldquo;the prejudice against eating cooked food
+that has been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong
+that, although the Shastras do not prohibit the eating of food
+cooked by a Kshatriya or Vai&#347;ya, yet the Brahmans, in most
+parts of the country, would not eat such food. For these reasons,
+every Hindu household&mdash;whether Brahman, Kshatriya or Sudra&mdash;that
+can afford to keep a paid cook generally entertains the
+services of a Brahman for the performance of its <i>cuisine</i>&mdash;the
+result being that in the larger towns the very name of Brahman
+has suffered a strange degradation of late, so as to mean only a
+cook&rdquo; (Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, <i>Hindu Castes and Sects</i>).
+In this caste, however, as in all others, there are certain kinds
+of occupation to which a member could not turn for a livelihood
+without incurring serious defilement. In fact, adherence to
+the traditional ceremonial and respectability of occupation
+go very much hand-in-hand. Thus, amongst agricultural castes,
+those engaged in vegetable-growing or market-gardening are
+inferior to the genuine peasant or yeoman, such as the Jat and
+Rajput; whilst of these the Jat who practises widow-marriage
+ranks below the Rajput who prides himself on his tradition
+of ceremonial orthodoxy&mdash;though racially there seems little,
+if any, difference between the two; and the Rajput, again, is
+looked down upon by the Babhan of Behar because he does not,
+like himself, scruple to handle the plough, instead of invariably
+employing low-caste men for this manual labour. So also
+when members of the Baidya, or physician, caste of Bengal,
+ranging next to that of the Brahman, farm land on tenure,
+&ldquo;they will on no account hold the plough, or engage in any
+form of manual labour, and thus necessarily carry on their
+cultivation by means of hired servants&rdquo; (H. H. Risley, <i>Census
+Report</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The scale of social precedence as recognized by native public
+opinion is concisely reviewed (<i>ib.</i>) as revealing itself &ldquo;in the facts
+that particular castes are supposed to be modern representatives
+of one or other of the original castes of the theoretical Hindu system;
+that Brahmans will take water from certain castes; that Brahmans
+of high standing will serve particular castes; that certain castes,
+though not served by the best Brahmans, have nevertheless got
+Brahmans of their own whose rank varies according to circumstances;
+that certain castes are not served by Brahmans at all but have
+priests of their own; that the status of certain castes has been
+raised by their taking to infant-marriage or abandoning the re-marriage
+of widows; that the status of others has been modified
+by their pursuing some occupations in a special or peculiar way;
+that some can claim the services of the village barber, the village
+palanquin-bearer, the village midwife, &amp;c., while others cannot;
+that some castes may not enter the courtyards of certain temples;
+that some castes are subject to special taboos, such as that they
+must not use the village well, or may draw water only with their
+own vessels, that they must live outside the village or in a separate
+quarter, that they must leave the road on the approach of a high-caste
+man and must call out to give warning of their approach.&rdquo; ...
+&ldquo;The first point to observe is the predominance throughout India
+of the influence of the traditional system of four original castes.
+In every scheme of grouping the Brahman heads the list. Then
+come the castes whom popular opinion accepts as the modern
+representatives of the Kshatriyas; and these are followed by the
+mercantile groups supposed to be akin to the Vai&#347;yas. When we
+leave the higher circles of the twice-born, the difficulty of finding a
+uniform basis of classification becomes apparent. The ancient
+designation Sudra finds no great favour in modern times, and we
+can point to no group that is generally recognized as representing
+it. The term is used in Bombay, Madras and Bengal to denote
+a considerable number of castes of moderate respectability, the higher
+of whom are considered &lsquo;clean&rsquo; Sudras, while the precise status
+of the lower is a question which lends itself to endless controversy.&rdquo;
+... In northern and north-western India, on the other hand,
+&ldquo;the grade next below the twice-born rank is occupied by a number
+of castes from whose hands Brahmans and members of the higher
+castes will take water and certain kinds of sweetmeats. Below
+these again is rather an indeterminate group from whom water is
+taken by some of the higher castes, not by others. Further down,
+where the test of water no longer applies, the status of the caste
+depends on the nature of its occupation and its habits in respect of
+diet. There are castes whose touch defiles the twice-born, but who
+do not commit the crowning enormity of eating beef.... In
+western and southern India the idea that the social state of a
+caste depends on whether Brahmans will take water and sweetmeats
+from its members is unknown, for the higher castes will as a rule
+take water only from persons of their own caste and sub-caste.
+In Madras especially the idea of ceremonial pollution by the proximity
+of an unclean caste has been developed with much elaboration.
+Thus the table of social precedence attached to the Cochin report
+shows that while a Nayar can pollute a man of a higher caste only
+by touching him, people of the Kammalan group, including masons,
+blacksmiths, carpenters and workers in leather, pollute at a distance
+of 24 ft., toddy-drawers at 36 ft., Pulayan or Cheruman cultivators
+at 48 ft., while in the case of the Paraiyan (Pariahs) who eat beef
+the range of pollution is no less than 64 ft.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this bewildering maze of social grades and class distinctions,
+the Brahman, as will have been seen, continues to hold the
+dominant position, being respected and even worshipped by all
+the others. &ldquo;The more orthodox Sudras carry their veneration
+for the priestly class to such a degree that they will not cross
+the shadow of a Brahman, and it is not unusual for them to be
+under a vow not to eat any food in the morning, before drinking
+<i>Bipracharanamrita</i>, <i>i.e.</i> water in which the toe of a Brahman
+has been dipped. On the other hand, the pride of the Brahmans
+is such that they do not bow to even the images of the gods
+worshipped in a Sudra&rsquo;s house by Brahman priests&rdquo; (Jog.
+Nath Bh.). There are, however, not a few classes of Brahmans
+who, for various reasons, have become degraded from their high
+station, and formed separate castes with whom respectable
+Brahmans refuse to intermarry and consort. Chief amongst
+these are the Brahmans who minister for &ldquo;unclean&rdquo; Sudras
+and lower castes, including the makers and dealers in spirituous
+liquors; as well as those who officiate at the great public shrines
+or places of pilgrimage where they might be liable to accept
+forbidden gifts, and, as a matter of fact, often amass considerable
+wealth; and those who officiate as paid priests at cremations and
+funeral rites, when the wearing apparel and bedding of the deceased
+are not unfrequently claimed by them as their perquisites.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the other two &ldquo;twice-born&rdquo; castes, several
+modern groups do indeed claim to be their direct descendants,
+and in vindication of their title make it a point to perform the
+<i>upanayana</i> ceremony and to wear the sacred thread. But
+though the Brahmans, too, will often acquiesce in the reasonableness
+of such claims, it is probably only as a matter of policy
+that they do so, whilst in reality they regard the other two
+higher castes as having long since disappeared and been merged
+by miscegenation in the Sudra mass. Hence, in the later classical
+Sanskrit literature, the term <i>dvija</i>, or twice-born, is used simply
+as a synonym for a Brahman. As regards the numerous groups
+included under the term of Sudras, the distinction between
+&ldquo;clean&rdquo; and &ldquo;unclean&rdquo; Sudras is of especial importance for
+the upper classes, inasmuch as only the former&mdash;of whom nine
+distinct castes are usually recognized&mdash;are as a rule considered
+fit for employment in household service.</p>
+
+<p>The picture thus presented by Hindu society&mdash;as made up of a
+confused congeries of social groups of the most varied standing,
+each held together and kept separate from others
+by a traditional body of ceremonial rules and by the
+<span class="sidenote">Theology.</span>
+notion of social gradations being due to a divinely
+instituted order of things&mdash;finds something like a counterpart
+in the religious life of the people. As in the social sphere, so also
+in the sphere of religious belief, we find the whole scale of types
+represented from the lowest to the highest; and here as there,
+we meet with the same failure of welding the confused mass
+into a well-ordered whole. In their theory of a triple manifestation
+of an impersonal deity, the Brahmanical theologians, as
+we have seen, had indeed elaborated a doctrine which might
+have seemed to form a reasonable, authoritative creed for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span>
+a community already strongly imbued with pantheistic notions;
+yet, at best, that creed could only appeal to the sympathies of
+a comparatively limited portion of the people. Indeed, the
+sacerdotal class themselves had made its universal acceptance
+an impossibility, seeing that their laws, by which the relations
+of the classes were to be regulated, aimed at permanently excluding
+the entire body of aboriginal tribes from the religious
+life of their Aryan masters. They were to be left for all time
+coming to their own traditional idolatrous notions and practices.
+However, the two races could not, in the nature of things, be
+permanently kept separate from each other. Indeed, even
+prior to the definite establishment of the caste-system, the
+mingling of the lower race with the upper classes, especially
+with the aristocratic landowners and still more so with the
+yeomanry, had probably been going on to such an extent as to
+have resulted in two fairly well-defined intermediate types of
+colour between the priestly order and the servile race and to have
+facilitated the ultimate division into four &ldquo;colours&rdquo; (<i>varna</i>).
+In course of time the process of intermingling, as we have seen,
+assumed such proportions that the priestly class, in their pride
+of blood, felt naturally tempted to recognize, as of old, only
+two &ldquo;colours,&rdquo; the Aryan Brahman and the non-Aryan Sudra.
+Under these conditions the religious practices of the lower race
+could hardly have failed in the long run to tell seriously upon the
+spiritual life of the lay body of the Brahmanical community.
+To what extent this may have been the case, our limited knowledge
+of the early phases of the sectarian worship of the people
+does not enable us to determine. But, on the other hand, the
+same process of racial intermixture also tended to gradually
+draw the lower race more or less under the influence of the Brahmanical
+forms of worship, and thus contributed towards the
+shaping of the religious system of modern Hinduism. The
+grossly idolatrous practices, however, still so largely prevalent
+in the Dravidian South, show how superficial, after all, that
+influence has been in those parts of India where the admixture
+of Aryan blood has been so slight as to have practically had no
+effect on the racial characteristics of the people. These present-day
+practices, and the attitude of the Brahman towards them,
+help at all events to explain the aversion with which the strange
+rites of the subjected tribes were looked upon by the worshippers
+of the Vedic pantheon. At the same time, in judging the apparently
+inhuman way in which the Sudras were treated in the
+caste rules, one has always to bear in mind the fact that the
+belief in metempsychosis was already universal at the time, and
+seemed to afford the only rational explanation of the apparent
+injustice involved in the unequal distribution of the good things
+in this world; and that, if the Sudra was strictly excluded from
+the religious rites and beliefs of the superior classes, this exclusion
+in no way involved the question of his ultimate emancipation
+and his union with the Infinite Spirit, which were as certain in
+his case as in that of any other sentient being. What it did make
+impossible for him was to attain that union immediately on the
+cessation of his present life, as he would first have to pass through
+higher and purer stages of mundane existence before reaching
+that goal; but in this respect he only shared the lot of all but
+a very few of the saintliest in the higher spheres of life, since
+the ordinary twice-born would be liable to sink, after his present
+life, to grades yet lower than that of the Sudra.</p>
+
+<p>To what extent the changes, which the religious belief of the
+Aryan classes underwent in post-Vedic times, may have been
+due to aboriginal influences is a question not easily answered,
+though the later creeds offer only too many features in which
+one might feel inclined to suspect influences of that kind. The
+literary documents, both in Sanskrit and Pali, dating from about
+the time of Buddha onwards&mdash;particularly the two epic poems,
+the <i>Mahabharata</i> and <i>Ramayana</i>&mdash;still show us in the main the
+<i>personnel</i> of the old pantheon; but the character of the gods has
+changed; they have become anthropomorphized and almost
+purely mythological figures. A number of the chief gods,
+sometimes four, but generally eight of them, now appear as
+<i>lokapalas</i> or world-guardians, having definite quarters or
+intermediate quarters of the compass assigned to them as their
+special domains. One of them, Kubera, the god of wealth, is
+a new figure; whilst another, Varuna, the most spiritual and
+ethical of Vedic deities&mdash;the king of the gods and the universe;
+the nightly, star-spangled firmament&mdash;has become the Indian
+Neptune, the god of waters. Indra, their chief, is virtually a
+kind of superior raja, residing in <i>svarga</i>, and as such is on visiting
+terms with earthly kings, driving about in mid-air with his
+charioteer Matali. As might happen to any earth-lord, Indra
+is actually defeated in battle by the son of the demon-king
+of Lanka (Ceylon), and kept there a prisoner till ransomed
+by Brahma and the gods conferring immortality on his conqueror.
+A quaint figure in the pantheon of the heroic age is
+Hanuman, the deified chief of monkeys&mdash;probably meant to
+represent the aboriginal tribes of southern India&mdash;whose wonderful
+exploits as Rama&rsquo;s ally on the expedition to Lanka Indian
+audiences will never weary of hearing recounted. The Gandharvas
+figure already in the Veda, either as a single divinity,
+or as a class of genii, conceived of as the body-guard of Soma
+and as connected with the moon. In the later Vedic times
+they are represented as being fond of, and dangerous to, women;
+the Apsaras, apparently originally water-nymphs, being closely
+associated with them. In the heroic age the Gandharvas have
+become the heavenly minstrels plying their art at Indra&rsquo;s court,
+with the Apsaras as their wives or mistresses. These fair
+damsels play, however, yet another part, and one far from
+complimentary to the dignity of the gods. In the epics considerable
+merit is attached to a life of seclusion and ascetic practices
+by means of which man is considered capable of acquiring
+supernatural powers equal or even superior to those of the gods&mdash;a
+notion perhaps not unnaturally springing from the pantheistic
+conception. Now, in cases of danger being threatened to their
+own ascendancy by such practices, the gods as a rule proceed
+to employ the usually successful expedient of despatching
+some lovely nymph to lure the saintly men back to worldly
+pleasures. Seeing that the epic poems, as repeated by professional
+reciters, either in their original Sanskrit text, or in their
+vernacular versions, as well as dramatic compositions based
+on them, form to this day the chief source of intellectual enjoyment
+for most Hindus, the legendary matter contained in these
+heroic poems, however marvellous and incredible it may appear,
+still enters largely into the religious convictions of the people.
+&ldquo;These popular recitals from the Ramayan are done into
+Gujarati in easy, flowing narrative verse ... by Premanand,
+the sweetest of our bards. They are read out by an intelligent
+Brahman to a mixed audience of all classes and both sexes.
+It has a perceptible influence on the Hindu character. I believe
+the remarkable freedom from infidelity which is to be seen in
+most Hindu families, in spite of their strange gregarious habits,
+can be traced to that influence; and little wonder&rdquo; (B. M.
+Malabari, <i>Gujarat and the Gujaratis</i>). Hence also the universal
+reverence paid to serpents (<i>naga</i>) since those early days; though
+whether it simply arose from the superstitious dread inspired
+by the insidious reptile so fatal to man in India, or whether the
+verbal coincidence with the name of the once-powerful non-Aryan
+tribe of Nagas had something to do with it must remain
+doubtful. Indian myth represents them as a race of demons
+sprung from Kadru, the wife of the sage Kasyapa, with a jewel
+in their heads which gives them their sparkling look; and
+inhabiting one of the seven beautiful worlds below the earth
+(and above the hells), where they are ruled over by three chiefs
+or kings, Sesha, Vasuki and Takshaka; their fair daughters
+often entering into matrimonial alliances with men, like the
+mermaids of western legend.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to such essentially mythological conceptions, we
+meet in the religious life of this period with an element of more
+serious aspect in the two gods, on one or other of whom the
+religious fervour of the large majority of Hindus has ever since
+concentrated itself, viz. Vishnu and Siva. Both these divine
+figures have grown out of Vedic conceptions&mdash;the genial Vishnu
+mainly out of a not very prominent solar deity of the same name;
+whilst the stern Siva, <i>i.e.</i> the kind or gracious one&mdash;doubtless
+a euphemistic name&mdash;has his prototype in the old fierce
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span>
+storm-god Rudra, the &ldquo;Roarer,&rdquo; with certain additional features
+derived from other deities, especially Pushan, the guardian of
+flocks and bestower of prosperity, worked up therewith. The
+exact process of the evolution of the two deities and their advance
+in popular favour are still somewhat obscure. In the epic poems
+which may be assumed to have taken their final shape in the
+early centuries before and after the Christian era, their popular
+character, so strikingly illustrated by their inclusion in the
+Brahmanical triad, appears in full force; whilst their cult
+is likewise attested by the coins and inscriptions of the early
+centuries of our era. The co-ordination of the two gods in the
+Trimurti does not by any means exclude a certain rivalry between
+them; but, on the contrary, a supreme position as the true
+embodiment of the Divine Spirit is claimed for each of them
+by their respective votaries, without, however, an honourable,
+if subordinate, place being refused to the rival deity, wherever
+the latter, as is not infrequently the case, is not actually represented
+as merely another form of the favoured god. Whilst
+at times a truly monotheistic fervour manifests itself in the
+adoration of these two gods, the polytheistic instincts of the
+people did not fail to extend the pantheon by groups of new
+deities in connexion with them. Two of such new gods actually
+pass as the sons of Siva and his consort Parvati, viz. Skanda&mdash;also
+called Kumara (the youth), Karttikeya, or Subrahmanya
+(in the south)&mdash;the six-headed war-lord of the gods; and
+Ganese, the lord (or leader) of Siva&rsquo;s troupes of attendants, being
+at the same time the elephant-headed, paunch-bellied god of
+wisdom; whilst a third, Kama (Kamadeva) or Kandarpa, the
+god of love, gets his popular epithet of Ananga, &ldquo;the bodiless,&rdquo;
+from his having once, in frolicsome play, tried the power of his
+arrows upon Siva, whilst engaged in austere practices, when
+a single glance from the third (forehead) eye of the angry god
+reduced the mischievous urchin to ashes. For his chief attendant,
+the great god (Mahadeva, Mahe&#347;vara) has already with him
+the &ldquo;holy&rdquo; Nandi&mdash;presumably, though his shape is not
+specified, identical in form as in name with Siva&rsquo;s sacred bull
+of later times, the appropriate symbol of the god&rsquo;s reproductive
+power. But, in this <span class="correction" title="amended from repect">respect</span>, we also meet in the epics with the
+first clear evidence of what in after time became the prominent
+feature of the worship of Siva and his consort all over
+India, viz. the feature represented by the <i>linga</i>, or phallic
+symbol.</p>
+
+<p>As regards Vishnu, the epic poems, including the supplement
+to the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, supply practically the
+entire framework of legendary matter on which the later Vaishnava
+creeds are based. The theory of Avataras which makes
+the deity&mdash;also variously called Narayana, Purushottama,
+or Vasudeva&mdash;periodically assume some material form in order
+to rescue the world from some great calamity, is fully developed;
+the ten universally recognized &ldquo;descents&rdquo; being enumerated
+in the larger poem. Though Siva, too, assumes various forms,
+the incarnation theory is peculiarly characteristic of Vaishnavism;
+and the fact that the principal hero of the Ramayana
+(Rama), and one of the prominent warriors of the Mahabharata
+(Krishna) become in this way identified with the supreme god,
+and remain to this day the chief objects of the adoration of
+Vaishnava sectaries, naturally imparts to these creeds a human
+interest and sympathetic aspect which is wholly wanting in
+the worship of Siva. It is, however, unfortunately but too true
+that in some of these creeds the devotional ardour has developed
+features of a highly objectionable character.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Even granting the reasonableness of the triple manifestation of
+the Divine Spirit, how is one to reconcile all these idolatrous
+practices, this worship of countless gods and godlings, demons and
+spirits indwelling in every imaginable object round about us, with
+the pantheistic doctrine of the <i>Ekam Advitiyam</i>, &ldquo;the One without
+a Second&rdquo;? The Indian theosophist would doubtless have little
+difficulty in answering that question. For him there is only the
+One Absolute Being, the one reality that is all in all; whilst all the
+phenomenal existences and occurrences that crowd upon our senses
+are nothing more than an illusion of the individual soul estranged
+for a time from its divine source&mdash;an illusion only to be dispelled
+in the end by the soul&rsquo;s fuller knowledge of its own true nature
+and its being one with the eternal fountain of blissful being. But
+to the man of ordinary understanding, unused to the rarefied atmosphere
+of abstract thought, this conception of a transcendental,
+impersonal Spirit and the unreality of the phenomenal world can
+have no meaning: what he requires is a deity that stands in intimate
+relation to things material and to all that affects man&rsquo;s life. Hence
+the exoteric theory of manifestations of the Supreme Spirit; and
+that not only the manifestations implied in the triad of gods representing
+the cardinal processes of mundane existence&mdash;creation,
+preservation, and destruction or regeneration&mdash;but even such as
+would tend to supply a rational explanation for superstitious
+imaginings of every kind. For &ldquo;the Indian philosophy does not
+ignore or hold aloof from the religion of the masses: it underlies,
+supports and interprets their polytheism. This may be accounted
+the keystone of the fabric of Brahmanism, which accepts and even
+encourages the rudest forms of idolatry, explaining everything by
+giving it a higher meaning. It treats all the worships as outward,
+visible signs of some spiritual truth, and is ready to show how each
+particular image or rite is the symbol of some aspect of universal
+divinity. The Hindus, like the pagans of antiquity, adore natural
+objects and forces&mdash;a mountain, a river or an animal. The Brahman
+holds all nature to be the vesture or cloak of indwelling, divine
+energy, which inspires everything that produces awe or passes
+man&rsquo;s understanding&rdquo; (Sir Alfred C. Lyall, <i>Brahminism</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the early centuries of our era, whilst Buddhism, where
+countenanced by the political rulers, was still holding its own by
+the side of Brahmanism, sectarian belief in the Hindu
+gods seems to have made steady progress. The caste-system,
+<span class="sidenote">Sectarianism.</span>
+always calculated to favour unity of religious
+practice within its social groups, must naturally have contributed
+to the advance of sectarianism. Even greater was the support
+it received later on from the Puranas, a class of poetical works
+of a partly legendary, partly discursive and controversial character,
+mainly composed in the interest of special deities, of which
+eighteen principal (<i>maha-purana</i>) and as many secondary ones
+(<i>upa-purana</i>) are recognized, the oldest of which may go back
+to about the 4th century of our era. It was probably also
+during this period that the female element was first definitely
+admitted to a prominent place amongst the divine objects of
+sectarian worship, in the shape of the wives of the principal gods
+viewed as their <i>sakti</i>, or female energy, theoretically identified
+with the <i>Maya</i>, or cosmic Illusion, of the idealistic Vedanta,
+and the <i>Prakriti</i>, or plastic matter, of the materialistic Sankhya
+philosophy, as the primary source of mundane things. The
+connubial relations of the deities may thus be considered &ldquo;to
+typify the mystical union of the two eternal principles, spirit
+and matter, for the production and reproduction of the universe.&rdquo;
+But whilst this privilege of divine worship was claimed for
+the consorts of all the gods, it is principally to Siva&rsquo;s consort,
+in one or other of her numerous forms, that adoration on an
+extensive scale came to be offered by a special sect of votaries,
+the <i>Saktas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of these conflicting tendencies, an attempt was
+made, about the latter part of the 8th century, by the distinguished
+Malabar theologian and philosopher Sankara
+Acharya to restore the Brahmanical creed to
+<span class="sidenote">Sankara.</span>
+something like its pristine purity, and thus once more
+to bring about a uniform system of orthodox Hindu belief.
+Though himself, like most Brahmans, apparently by predilection
+a follower of Siva, his aim was the revival of the doctrine of the
+Brahma as the one self-existent Being and the sole cause of
+the universe; coupled with the recognition of the practical
+worship of the orthodox pantheon, especially the gods of the
+Trimurti, as manifestations of the supreme deity. The practical
+result of his labours was the foundation of a new sect, the
+<i>Smartas</i>, <i>i.e.</i> adherents of the <i>smriti</i> or tradition, which has a
+numerous following amongst southern Brahmans, and, whilst
+professing Sankara&rsquo;s doctrines, is usually classed as one of the
+Saiva sects, its members adopting the horizontal sectarial
+mark peculiar to Saivas, consisting in their case of a triple line,
+the <i>tripundra</i>, prepared from the ashes of burnt cow-dung and
+painted on the forehead. Sankara also founded four Maths,
+or convents, for Brahmans; the chief one being that of Sringeri
+in Mysore, the spiritual head (<i>Guru</i>) of which wields considerable
+power, even that of excommunication, over the Saivas of
+southern India. In northern India, the professed followers of
+Sankara are mainly limited to certain classes of mendicants
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span>
+and ascetics, although the tenets of this great Vedanta teacher
+may be said virtually to constitute the creed of intelligent
+Brahmans generally.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Whilst Sankara&rsquo;s chief title to fame rests on his philosophical
+works, as the upholder of the strict monistic theory of Vedanta, he
+doubtless played an important part in the partial remodelling of
+the Hindu system of belief at a time when Buddhism was rapidly
+losing ground in India. Not that there is any evidence of Buddhists
+ever having been actually persecuted by the Brahmans, or still less
+of Sankara himself ever having done so; but the traditional belief
+in some personal god, as the principal representative of an invisible,
+all-pervading deity, would doubtless appeal more directly to the
+minds and hearts of the people than the colourless ethical system
+promulgated by the Sakya saint. Nor do Buddhist places of worship
+appear as a rule to have been destroyed by Hindu sectaries, but
+they seem rather to have been taken over by them for their own
+religious uses; at any rate there are to this day not a few Hindu
+shrines, especially in Bengal, dedicated to Dharmaraj, &ldquo;the prince
+of righteousness,&rdquo; as the Buddha is commonly styled. That the
+tenets and practices of so characteristic a faith as Buddhism, so
+long prevalent in India, cannot but have left their marks on Hindu
+life and belief may readily be assumed, though it is not so easy
+to lay one&rsquo;s finger on the precise features that might seem to betray
+such an influence. If the general tenderness towards animals,
+based on the principle of <i>ahimsa</i>, or inflicting no injury on sentient
+beings, be due to Buddhist teaching, that influence must have
+made itself felt at a comparatively early period, seeing that sentiments
+of a similar nature are repeatedly urged in the Code of Manu.
+Thus, in v. 46-48, &ldquo;He who does not willingly cause the pain of
+confinement and death to living beings, but desires the good of all,
+obtains endless bliss. He who injures no creature obtains without
+effort what he thinks of, what he strives for, and what he fixes his
+mind on. Flesh-meat cannot be procured without injury to animals,
+and the slaughter of animals is not conducive to heavenly bliss:
+from flesh-meat, therefore, let man abstain.&rdquo; Moreover, in view
+of the fact that Jainism, which originated about the same time as
+Buddhism, inculcates the same principle, even to an extravagant
+degree, it seems by no means improbable that the spirit of kindliness
+towards living beings generally was already widely diffused among
+the people when these new doctrines were promulgated. To the
+same tendency doubtless is due the gradual decline and ultimate
+discontinuance of animal sacrifices by all sects except the extreme
+branch of Sakti-worshippers. In this respect, the veneration shown
+to serpents and monkeys has, however, to be viewed in a somewhat
+different light, as having a mythical background; whilst quite
+a special significance attaches to the sacred character assigned to
+the cow by all classes of Hindus, even those who are not prepared
+to admit the claim of the Brahman to the exalted position of the
+earthly god usually conceded to him. In the Veda no tendency
+shows itself as yet towards rendering divine honour to the cow;
+and though the importance assigned her in an agricultural community
+is easily understood, still the exact process of her deification
+and her identification with the mother earth in the time of Manu
+and the epics requires further elucidation. An idealized type of
+the useful quadruped&mdash;likewise often identified with the earth&mdash;presents
+itself in the mythical Cow of Plenty, or &ldquo;wish-cow&rdquo;
+(Kamadhenu, or Kamadugha, <i>i.e.</i> wish-milker), already appearing
+in the Atharvaveda, and in epic times assigned to Indra, or identified
+with Surabhi, &ldquo;the fragrant,&rdquo; the sacred cow of the sage Vasishtha.
+Possibly the growth of the legend of Krishna&mdash;his being reared at
+Gokula (cow-station); his tender relations to the <i>gopis</i>, or cow-herdesses,
+of Vrindavana; his epithets <i>Gopala</i>, &ldquo;the cowherd,&rdquo;
+and <i>Govinda</i>, &ldquo;cow-finder,&rdquo; actually explained as &ldquo;recoverer of
+the earth&rdquo; in the great epic, and the <i>go-loka</i>, or &ldquo;cow-world,&rdquo;
+assigned to him as his heavenly abode&mdash;may have some connexion
+with the sacred character ascribed to the cow from early times.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Since the time of Sankara, or for more than a thousand years,
+the gods Vishnu and Siva, or <i>Hari</i> and <i>Hara</i> as they are also
+commonly called&mdash;with their wives, especially that
+of the latter god&mdash;have shared between them the
+<span class="sidenote">Worship.</span>
+practical worship of the vast majority of Hindus. But, though
+the people have thus been divided between two different religious
+camps, sectarian animosity has upon the whole kept within
+reasonable limits. In fact, the respectable Hindu, whilst owning
+special allegiance to one of the two gods as his <i>ish&#7789;&#257; devat&#257;</i>
+(favourite deity), will not withhold his tribute of adoration from
+the other gods of the pantheon. The high-caste Brahman will
+probably keep at his home a &#347;&#257;lagr&#257;m stone, the favourite
+symbol of Vishnu, as well as the characteristic emblems of Siva
+and his consort, to both of which he will do reverence in the morning;
+and when he visits some holy place of pilgrimage, he will
+not fail to pay his homage at both the Saiva and the Vaishnava
+shrines there. Indeed, &ldquo;sectarian bigotry and exclusiveness
+are to be found chiefly among the professional leaders of the
+modern brotherhoods and their low-caste followers, who are
+taught to believe that theirs are the only true gods, and that the
+rest do not deserve any reverence whatever&rdquo; (Jog. Nath).
+The same spirit of toleration shows itself in the celebration of
+the numerous religious festivals. Whilst some of these&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>
+the <i>Sankranti</i> (called <i>Pongal</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;boiled rice,&rdquo; in the south),
+which marks the entrance of the sun into the sign of Capricorn
+and the beginning of its northward course (<i>uttar&#257;yana</i>) on the
+1st day of the month M&#257;gha (c. Jan. 12); the <i>Ga&#7751;e&#347;a-caturth&#299;</i>,
+or 4th day of the light fortnight of Bhadra (August-September),
+considered the birthday of Ganesa, the god of wisdom; and the
+<i>Holi</i>, the Indian Saturnalia in the month of Ph&#257;lgun&#7681; (February
+to March)&mdash;have nothing of a sectarian tendency about them;
+others again, which are of a distinctly sectarian character&mdash;such
+as the <i>Krishna-janm&#257;sh&#7789;am&#299;</i>, the birthday of Krishna on
+the 8th day of the dark half of Bhadra, or (in the south) of
+&#346;r&#257;va&#7751;a (July-August), the <i>Durga-puja</i> and the <i>Dipavali</i>,
+or lamp feast, celebrating Krishna&rsquo;s victory over the demon
+Narakasura, on the last two days of A&#347;vina (September-October)&mdash;are
+likewise observed and heartily joined in by the whole
+community irrespective of sect. Widely different, however, as is
+the character of the two leading gods are also the modes of
+worship practised by their votaries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Siva</i> has at all times been the favourite god of the Brahmans,<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+and his worship is accordingly more widely extended than
+that of his rival, especially in southern India. Indeed there is
+hardly a village in India which cannot boast of a shrine dedicated
+to Siva, and containing the emblem of his reproductive power;
+for almost the only form in which the &ldquo;Great God&rdquo; is adored
+is the <i>Linga</i>, consisting usually of an upright cylindrical block
+of marble or other stone, mostly resting on a circular perforated
+slab. The mystic nature of these emblems seems, however,
+to be but little understood by the common people; and, as
+H. H. Wilson remarks, &ldquo;notwithstanding the acknowledged
+purport of this worship, it is but justice to state that it is unattended
+in Upper India by any indecent or indelicate ceremonies,
+and it requires a rather lively imagination to trace any
+resemblance in its symbols to the objects they are supposed
+to represent.&rdquo; In spite, however, of its wide diffusion, and
+the vast number of shrines dedicated to it, the worship of Siva
+has never assumed a really popular character, especially in
+northern India, being attended with scarcely any solemnity
+or display of emotional spirit. The temple, which usually stands
+in the middle of a court, is as a rule a building of very moderate
+dimensions, consisting either of a single square chamber, surmounted
+by a pyramidal structure, or of a chamber for the
+linga and a small vestibule. The worshipper, having first circumambulated
+the shrine as often as he pleases, keeping it at his
+right-hand side, steps up to the threshold of the sanctum, and
+presents his offering of flowers or fruit, which the officiating
+priest receives; he then prostrates himself, or merely lifts
+his hands&mdash;joined so as to leave a hollow space between the
+palms&mdash;to his forehead, muttering a short prayer, and takes
+his departure. Amongst the many thousands of Lingas, twelve
+are usually regarded as of especial sanctity, one of which, that
+of Somnath in Gujarat, where Siva is worshipped as &ldquo;the lord
+of Soma,&rdquo; was, however, shattered by Mahmud of Ghazni;
+whilst another, representing Siva as <i>Visvesvara</i>, or &ldquo;Lord of the
+Universe,&rdquo; is the chief object of adoration at Benares, the great
+centre of Siva-worship. The Saivas of southern India, on the
+other hand, single out as peculiarly sacred five of their temples
+which are supposed to enshrine as many characteristic aspects
+(linga) of the god in the form of the five elements, the most
+holy of these being the shrine of Chidambaram (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;thought-ether&rdquo;)
+in S. Arcot, supposed to contain the ether-linga. According
+to Pandit S. M. Natesa (<i>Hindu Feasts, Fasts and Ceremonies</i>),
+&ldquo;the several forms of the god Siva in these sacred shrines are
+considered to be the bodies or casements of the soul whose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span>
+natural bases are the five elements&mdash;earth, water, fire, air
+and ether. The apprehension of God in the last of these five
+as ether is, according to the Saiva school of philosophy, the
+highest form of worship, for it is not the worship of God in a
+tangible form, but the worship of what, to ordinary minds, is
+vacuum, which nevertheless leads to the attainment of a knowledge
+of the all-pervading without physical accessories in the
+shape of any linga, which is, after all, an emblem. That this is
+the case at Chidambaram is known to every Hindu, for if he
+ever asks the priests to show him the God in the temple he is
+pointed to an empty space in the holy of holies, which has been
+termed the Akasa, or ether-linga.&rdquo; But, however congenial
+this refined symbolism may be to the worshipper of a speculative
+turn of mind, it is difficult to see how it could ever satisfy the
+religious wants of the common man little given to abstract
+conceptions of this kind.</p>
+
+<p>From early times, detachment from the world and the practice
+of austerities have been regarded in India as peculiarly conducive
+to a spirit of godliness, and ultimately to a
+state of ecstatic communion with the deity. On these
+<span class="sidenote">Mendicant orders.</span>
+grounds it was actually laid down as a rule for a man
+solicitous for his spiritual welfare to pass the last
+two of the four stages (<i>&#257;&#347;rama</i>) of his life in such conditions of
+renunciation and self-restraint. Though there is hardly a sect
+which has not contributed its share to the element of religious
+mendicancy and asceticism so prevalent in India, it is in connexion
+with the Siva-cult that these tendencies have been most
+extensively cultivated. Indeed, the personality of the stern
+God himself exhibits this feature in a very marked degree,
+whence the term <i>mah&#257;yog&#299;</i> or &ldquo;great ascetic&rdquo; is often applied
+to him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of Saiva mendicant and ascetic orders, the members of which are
+considered more or less followers of Sankara Acharya, the following
+may be mentioned: (1) <i>Da&#7751;&#7693;&#299;s</i>, or staff-bearers, who carry a wand
+with a piece of red cloth, containing the sacred cord, attached to it,
+and also wear one or more pieces of cloth of the same colour. They
+worship Siva in his form of Bhairava, the &ldquo;terrible.&rdquo; A sub-section
+of this order are the Dandi Dasnamis, or Dandi of ten names, so
+called from their assuming one of the names of Sankara&rsquo;s four
+disciples, and six of their pupils. (2) <i>Yogis</i> (or popularly, Jogis),
+<i>i.e.</i> adherents of the Yoga philosophy and the system of ascetic
+practices enjoined by it with the view of mental abstraction and the
+supposed attainment of superhuman powers&mdash;practices which,
+when not merely pretended, but rigidly carried out, are only too
+apt to produce vacuity of mind and wild fits of frenzy. In these
+degenerate days their supernatural powers consist chiefly in conjuring,
+sooth-saying, and feats of jugglery, by which they seldom
+fail in imposing upon a credulous public. (3) <i>Sannyasis</i>, devotees
+who &ldquo;renounce&rdquo; earthly concerns, an order not confined either
+to the Brahmanical caste or to the Saiva persuasion. Those of the
+latter are in the habit of smearing their bodies with ashes, and
+wearing a tiger-skin and a necklace or rosary of <i>rudraksha</i> berries
+(Elaeocarpus Ganitrus, lit. &ldquo;Rudra&rsquo;s eye&rdquo;), sacred to Siva, and
+allowing their hair to grow till it becomes matted and filthy. (4)
+<i>Parama-hamsas</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;supreme geese (or swans),&rdquo; a term applied to
+the world-soul with which they claim to be identical. This is the
+highest order of asceticism, members of which are supposed to be
+solely engaged in meditating on the Brahma, and to be &ldquo;equally
+indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible of heat or cold, and incapable
+of satiety or want.&rdquo; Some of them go about naked, but
+the majority are clad like the Dandis. (5) <i>Aghora Panthis</i>, a vile
+and disreputable class of mendicants, now rarely met with. Their
+filthy habits and disgusting practices of gross promiscuous feeding,
+even to the extent of eating offal and dead men&rsquo;s flesh, look almost
+like a direct repudiation of the strict Brahmanical code of ceremonial
+purity and cleanliness, and of the rules regulating the matter and
+manner of eating and drinking; and they certainly make them
+objects of loathing and terror wherever they are seen.</p>
+
+<p>On the general effect of the manner of life led by <i>Sadhus</i> or &ldquo;holy
+men,&rdquo; a recent observer (J. C. Oman, <i>Mystics, Ascetics and Saints
+of India</i>, p. 273) remarks: &ldquo;<i>Sadhuism</i>, whether perpetuating the
+peculiar idea of the efficiency of austerities for the acquisition of
+far-reaching powers over natural phenomena, or bearing its testimony
+to the belief in the indispensableness of detachment from the
+world as a preparation for the ineffable joy of ecstatic communion
+with the Divine Being, has undoubtedly tended to keep before
+men&rsquo;s eyes, as the highest ideal, a life of purity, self-restraint, and
+contempt of the world and human affairs. It has also necessarily
+maintained amongst the laity a sense of the righteous claims of
+the poor upon the charity of the more affluent members of the
+community. Moreover, <i>sadhuism</i>, by the multiplicity of the independent
+sects which have arisen in India, has engendered and
+favoured a spirit of tolerance which cannot escape the notice of the
+most superficial observer.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An independent Saiva sect, or, indeed, the only strictly
+Saiva sect, are the <i>V&#299;ra &#346;aivas</i>, more commonly called <i>Lingayats</i>
+(popularly Lingaits) or <i>Lingavats</i>, from their
+practice of wearing on their person a phallic emblem
+<span class="sidenote">Lingayats.</span>
+of Siva, made of copper or silver, and usually enclosed
+in a case suspended from the neck by a string. Apparently from
+the movable nature of their badge, their <i>Gurus</i> are called <i>Jangamas</i>
+(&ldquo;movable&rdquo;). This sect counts numerous adherents in
+southern India; the Census Report of 1901 recording nearly
+a million and a half, including some 70 or 80 different, mostly
+endogamous, castes. The reputed founder, or rather reformer,
+of the sect was Basava (or Basaba), a Brahman of the Belgaum
+district who seems to have lived in the 11th or 12th century.
+According to the Basava-purana he early in life renounced his
+caste and went to reside at Kalyana, then the capital of the
+Chalukya kingdom, and later on at Sangamesvara near Ratnagiri,
+where he was initiated into the V&#299;ra &#346;aiva faith which he
+subsequently made it his life&rsquo;s work to propagate. His doctrine,
+which may be said to constitute a kind of reaction against the
+severe sacerdotalism of Sankara, has spread over all classes of
+the southern community, most of the priests of Saiva temples
+there being adherents of it; whilst in northern India its votaries
+are only occasionally met with, and then mostly as mendicants,
+leading about a neatly caparisoned bull as representing Siva&rsquo;s
+sacred bull <i>Nandi</i>. Though the Lingayats still show a certain
+animosity towards the Brahmans, and in the Census lists are
+accordingly <span class="correction" title="amended from classes">classed</span> as an independent group beside the Hindus,
+still they can hardly be excluded from the Hindu community,
+and are sure sooner or later to find their way back to the
+Brahmanical fold.</p>
+
+<p>Vishnu, whilst less popular with Brahmans than his rival,
+has from early times proved to the lay mind a more attractive
+object of adoration on account of the genial and,
+so to speak, romantic character of his mythical personality.
+<span class="sidenote">Avatars.</span>
+It is not, however, so much the original figure of the
+god himself that enlists the sympathies of his adherents as
+the additional elements it has received through the theory of
+periodical &ldquo;descents&rdquo; (<i>avat&#257;ra</i>) or incarnations applied to this
+deity. Whilst the Saiva philosophers do not approve of the
+notion of incarnations, as being derogatory to the dignity of
+the deity, the Brahmans have nevertheless thought fit to adopt
+it as apparently a convenient expedient for bringing certain
+tendencies of popular worship within the pale of their system,
+and probably also for counteracting the Buddhist doctrines;
+and for this purpose Vishnu would obviously offer himself as
+the most attractive figure in the Brahmanical trinity. Whether
+the incarnation theory started from the original solar nature
+of the god suggestive of regular visits to the world of men, or
+in what other way it may have originated, must remain doubtful.
+Certain, however, it is that at least one of his Avatars is clearly
+based on the Vedic conception of the sun-god, viz. that of the
+dwarf who claims as much ground as he can cover by three steps,
+and then gains the whole universe by his three mighty strides.
+Of the ten or more Avatars, assumed by different authorities,
+only two have entered to any considerable extent into the
+religious worship of the people, viz. those of <i>Rama</i> (or Ramachandra)
+and <i>Krishna</i>, the favourite heroes of epic romance.
+That these two figures would appeal far more strongly to the
+hearts and feelings of the people, especially the warlike Kshatriyas,<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+than the austere Siva is only what might have been
+expected; and, indeed, since the time of the epics their cult
+seems never to have lacked numerous adherents. But, on the
+other hand, the essentially human nature of these two gods
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span>
+would naturally tend to modify the character of the relations
+between worshipper and worshipped, and to impart to the
+modes and forms of adoration features of a more popular and
+more human kind. And accordingly it is exactly in connexion
+with these two incarnations of Vishnu, especially that of Krishna,
+that a new spirit was infused into the religious life of the people
+by the sentiment of fervent devotion to the deity, as it found
+expression in certain portions of the epic poems, especially the
+<i>Bhagavadgita</i>, and in the <i>Bhagavata-purana</i> (as against the more
+orthodox Vaishnava works of this class such as the Vishnu-purana),
+and was formulated into a regular doctrine of faith
+in the <i>Sandilya-sutra</i>, and ultimately translated into practice
+by the Vaishnava reformers.</p>
+
+<p>The first successful Vaishnava reaction against Sankara&rsquo;s
+reconstructed creed was led by Ramanuja, a southern Brahman
+of the 12th century. His followers, the Ramanujas,
+or Sri-Vaishnavas as they are usually called, worship
+<span class="sidenote">Ramanujas.</span>
+Vishnu (Narayana) with his consort Sri or Lakshmi
+(the goddess of beauty and fortune), or their incarnations Rama
+with Sita and Krishna with Rukmini. Ramanuja&rsquo;s doctrine,
+which is especially directed against the Linga-worship, is essentially
+based on the tenets of an old Vaishnava sect, the Bhagavatas
+or Pancharatras, who worshipped the Supreme Being under
+the name of Vasudeva (subsequently identified with Krishna,
+as the son of Vasudeva, who indeed is credited by some scholars
+with the foundation of that monotheistic creed). The sectarial
+mark of the Ramanujas resembles a capital U (or, in the case of
+another division, a Y), painted with a white clay called gopi-chandana,
+between the hair and the root of the nose, with a red
+or yellow vertical stroke (representing the female element)
+between the two white lines. They also usually wear, like all
+Vaishnavas, a necklace of <i>tulas&#299;</i>, or basil wood, and a rosary of
+seeds of the same shrub or of the lotus. Their most important
+shrines are those of Srirangam near Trichinopoly, Mailkote
+in Mysore, Dvaraka (the city of Krishna) on the Kathiawar
+coast, and Jagannath in Orissa; all of them decorated with
+Vishnu&rsquo;s emblems, the tulasi plant and salagram stone. The
+Ramanuja Brahmans are most punctilious in the preparation
+of their food and in regard to the privacy of their meals, before
+taking which they have to bathe and put on woollen or silk
+garments. Whilst Sankara&rsquo;s mendicant followers were prohibited
+to touch fire and had to subsist entirely on the charity
+of Brahman householders, Ramanuja, on the contrary, not only
+allowed his followers to use fire, but strictly forbade their eating
+any food cooked, or even seen, by a stranger. On the speculative
+side, Ramanuja also met Sankara&rsquo;s strictly monistic theory
+by another recognizing Vishnu as identical with Brahma as the
+Supreme Spirit animating the material world as well as the
+individual souls which have become estranged from God through
+unbelief, and can only attain again conscious union with him
+through devotion or love (<i>bhakti</i>). His tenets are expounded
+in various works, especially in his commentaries on the Vedanta-sutras
+and the Bhagavadgita. The followers of Ramanuja
+have split into two sects, a northern one, recognizing the Vedas
+as their chief authority, and a southern one, basing their tenets
+on the Nalayir, a Tamil work of the Upanishad order. In point
+of doctrine, they differ in their view of the relation between
+God Vishnu and the human soul; whilst the former sect define
+it by the <i>ape</i> theory, which makes the soul cling to God as the
+young ape does to its mother, the latter explain it by the cat
+theory, by which Vishnu himself seizes and rescues the souls
+as the mother cat does her young ones.</p>
+
+<p><i>Madhva Acharya</i>, another distinguished Vedanta teacher
+and founder of a Vaishnava sect, born in Kanara in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1199,
+was less intolerant of the Linga cult than Ramanuja,
+but seems rather to have aimed at a reconciliation of
+<span class="sidenote">Madhvas.</span>
+the Saiva and Vaishnava forms of worship. The <i>Madhvas</i>
+or <i>Madhvacharis</i> favour Krishna and his consort as their special
+objects of adoration, whilst images of Siva, Parvati, and their
+son Ganesa are, however, likewise admitted and worshipped in
+some of their temples, the most important of which is at Udipi
+in South Kanara, with eight monasteries connected with it.
+This shrine contains an image of Krishna which is said to have
+been rescued from the wreck of a ship which brought it from
+Dvaraka, where it was supposed to have been set up of old by
+no other than Krishna&rsquo;s friend Arjuna, one of the five Pandava
+princes. Followers of the Madhva creed are but rarely met with
+in Upper India. Their sectarial mark is like the U of the Sri-Vaishnavas,
+except that their central line is black instead of
+red or yellow. Madhva&mdash;who after his initiation assumed
+the name Anandatirtha&mdash;composed numerous Sanskrit works,
+including commentaries on the Brahma sutras (<i>i.e.</i> the Vedanta
+aphorisms), the Gita, the Rigveda and many Upanishads.
+His philosophical theory was a dualistic one, postulating distinctness
+of nature for the divine and the human soul, and
+hence independent existence, instead of absorption, after the
+completion of mundane existence.</p>
+
+<p>The Ramanandis or Ramavats (popularly Ramats) are a
+numerous northern sect of similar tenets to those of the Ramanujas.
+Indeed its founder, Ramananda, who probably
+flourished in the latter part of the 14th century,
+<span class="sidenote">Ramats.</span>
+according to the traditional account, was originally a Sri-Vaishnava
+monk, and, having come under the suspicion of laxity
+in observing the strict rules of food during his peregrinations,
+and been ordered by his superior (Mahant) to take his meals
+apart from his brethren, left the monastery in a huff and set
+up a schismatic math of his own at Benares. The sectarial
+mark of his sect differs but slightly from that of the parent stock.
+The distinctive features of their creed consist in their making
+Rama and Sita, either singly or conjointly, the chief objects of
+their adoration, instead of Vishnu and Lakshmi, and their attaching
+little or no importance to the observance of privacy in the
+cooking and eating of their food. Their mendicant members,
+usually known as Vairagis, are, like the general body of the sect,
+drawn from all castes without distinction. Thus, the founder&rsquo;s
+twelve chief disciples include, besides Brahmans, a weaver,
+a currier, a Rajput, a Jat and a barber&mdash;for, they argue, seeing
+that Bhagavan, the Holy One (Vishnu), became incarnate even
+in animal form, a Bhakta (believer) may be born even in the
+lowest of castes. Ramananda&rsquo;s teaching was thus of a distinctly
+levelling and popular character; and, in accordance therewith,
+the Bhakta-mal&#257; and other authoritative writings of the sect
+are composed, not in Sanskrit, but in the popular dialects. A
+follower of this creed was the distinguished poet Tulsidas, the
+composer of the beautiful Hindi version of the Ramayana and
+other works which &ldquo;exercise more influence upon the great
+body of Hindu population than the whole voluminous series
+of Sanskrit composition&rdquo; (H. H. Wilson).</p>
+
+<p>The traditional list of Ramananda&rsquo;s immediate disciples
+includes the name of Kabir, the weaver, a remarkable man
+who would accordingly have lived in the latter part
+of the 15th century, and who is claimed by both Hindus
+<span class="sidenote">Kabir.</span>
+and Moslems as having been born within their fold. The story
+goes that, having been deeply impressed by Ramananda&rsquo;s
+teaching, he sought to attach himself to him; and, one day
+at Benares, in stepping down the ghat at daybreak to bathe
+in the Ganges, and putting himself in the way of the teacher,
+the latter, having inadvertently struck him with his foot, uttered
+his customary exclamation &ldquo;Ram Ram,&rdquo; which, being also
+the initiatory formula of the sect, was claimed by Kabir as such,
+making him Ramananda&rsquo;s disciple. Be this as it may, Kabir&rsquo;s
+own reformatory activity lay in the direction of a compromise
+between the Hindu and the Mahommedan creeds, the religious
+practices of both of which he criticized with equal severity.
+His followers, the Kabir Panthis (&ldquo;those following Kabir&rsquo;s
+path&rdquo;), though neither worshipping the gods of the pantheon,
+nor observing the rites and ceremonial of the Hindus, are nevertheless
+in close touch with the Vaishnava sects, especially the
+Ramavats, and generally worship Rama as the supreme deity,
+when they do not rather address their homage, in hymns and
+otherwise, to the founder of their creed himself. Whilst very
+numerous, particularly amongst the low-caste population, in
+western, central and northern India, resident adherents of
+Kabir&rsquo;s doctrine are rare in Bengal and the south; although
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span>
+&ldquo;there is hardly a town in India where strolling beggars may
+not be found singing songs of Kabir in the original or as translated
+into the local dialects.&rdquo; The mendicants of this creed,
+however, never actually solicit alms; and, indeed, &ldquo;the quaker-like
+spirit of the sect, their abhorrence of all violence, their
+regard for truth and the inobtrusiveness of their opinions render
+them very inoffensive members of the state&rdquo; (H. H. Wilson).
+The doctrines of Kabir are taught, mostly in the form of dialogues,
+in numerous Hindi works, composed by his disciples
+and adherents, who, however, usually profess to give the teacher&rsquo;s
+own words.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar conciliatory tendencies of Kabir were carried
+on with even greater zeal from the latter part of the 15th century
+by one of his followers, Nanak Shah, the promulgator of the
+creed of the <i>Nanak Shahis</i> or <i>Sikhs</i>&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> (Sanskr.) <i>sishya</i>, disciples,
+whose guru, or teacher, he called himself&mdash;a peaceful
+sect at first until, in consequence of Mahommedan persecution,
+a martial spirit was infused into it by the tenth, and last, guru,
+Govind Shah, changing it into a political organization. Whilst
+originally more akin in its principles to the Moslem faith, the sect
+seems latterly to have shown tendencies towards drifting back
+to the Hindu pale.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of Ramananda&rsquo;s disciples and successors several others, besides
+Kabir, have established schismatic divisions of their own, which
+do not, however, offer any very marked differences of creed. The
+most important of these, the Dadu Panthi sect, founded by Dadu
+about the year 1600, has a numerous following in Ajmir and Marwar,
+one section of whom, the Nagas, engage largely in military service,
+whilst the others are either householders or mendicants. The
+followers of this creed wear no distinctive sectarial mark or badge,
+except a skull-cap; nor do they worship any visible image of any
+deity, the repetition (<i>japa</i>) of the name of Rama being the only
+kind of adoration practised by them.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although the Vaishnava sects hitherto noticed, in their
+adoration of Vishnu and his incarnations, Krishna and Ramachandra,
+usually associate with these gods their
+wives, as their <i>saktis</i>, or female energies, the sexual
+<span class="sidenote">Eroticism and Krishna worship.</span>
+element is, as a rule, only just allowed sufficient scope
+to enhance the emotional character of the rites of
+worship. In some of the later Vaishnava creeds, on the other
+hand, this element is far from being kept within the bounds of
+moderation and decency. The favourite object of adoration
+with adherents of these sects is Krishna with his mate&mdash;but
+not the devoted friend and counsellor of the Pandavas and
+deified hero of epic song, nor the ruler of Dvaraka and wedded
+lord of Rukmini, but the juvenile Krishna, Govinda or Bala
+Gopala, &ldquo;the cowherd lad,&rdquo; the foster son of the cowherd Nanda
+of Gokula, taken up with his amorous sports with the <i>Gopis</i>,
+or wives of the cowherds of Vrindavana (Brindaban, near Mathura
+on the Yamuna), especially his favourite mistress Radha or
+Radhika. This episode in the legendary life of Krishna has
+every appearance of being a later accretion. After barely a few
+allusions to it in the epics, it bursts forth full-blown in the
+Harivansa, the Vishnu-purana, the Narada-Pancharatra and
+the Bhagavata-purana, the tenth canto of which, dealing with
+the life of Krishna, has become, through vernacular versions,
+especially the Hindi <i>Prem-sagar</i>, or &ldquo;ocean of love,&rdquo; a favourite
+romance all over India, and has doubtless helped largely to
+popularize the cult of Krishna. Strange to say, however, no
+mention is as yet made by any of these works of Krishna&rsquo;s
+favourite Radha; it is only in another Purana&mdash;though scarcely
+deserving that designation&mdash;that she makes her appearance,
+viz. in the Brahma-vaivarta, in which Krishna&rsquo;s amours in
+Nanda&rsquo;s cow-station are dwelt upon in fulsome and wearisome
+detail; whilst the poet Jayadeva, in the 12th century, made
+her love for the gay and inconstant boy the theme of his beautiful,
+if highly voluptuous, lyrical drama, <i>Gita-govinda</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The earliest of the sects which associate Radha with Krishna in
+their worship is that of the Nimavats, founded by Nimbaditya or
+Nimbarka (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;the sun of the Nimba tree&rdquo;), a teacher of uncertain
+date, said to have been a Telugu Brahman who subsequently
+established himself at Mathura (Muttra) on the Yamuna, where
+the headquarters of his sect have remained ever since. The Mahant
+of their monastery at Dhruva Kshetra near Mathura, who claims
+direct descent from Nimbarka, is said to place the foundation of
+that establishment as far back as the 5th century&mdash;doubtless an
+exaggerated claim; but if Jayadeva, as is alleged, and seems by
+no means improbable, was really a follower of Nimbarka, this
+teacher must have flourished, at latest, in the early part of the
+12th century. He is indeed taken by some authorities to be
+identical with the mathematician Bhaskara Acharya, who is known
+to have completed his chief work in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1150. It is worthy of
+remark, in this respect, that&mdash;in accordance with Ramanuja&rsquo;s and
+Nimbarka&rsquo;s philosophical theories&mdash;Jayadeva&rsquo;s presentation of
+Krishna&rsquo;s fickle love for Radha is usually interpreted in a mystical
+sense, as allegorically depicting the human soul&rsquo;s striving, through
+love, for reunion with God, and its ultimate attainment, after many
+backslidings, of the longed-for goal. As the chief authority of their
+tenets, the Nimavats recognize the Bhagavata-purana; though
+several works, ascribed to Nimbarka&mdash;partly of a devotional character
+and partly expository of Vedanta topics&mdash;are still extant.
+Adherents of this sect are fairly numerous in northern India,
+their frontal mark consisting of the usual two perpendicular white
+lines, with, however, a circular black spot between them.</p>
+
+<p>Of greater importance than the sect just noticed, because of
+their far larger following, are the two sects founded early in the
+16th century by Vallabha (Ballabha) Acharya and Chaitanya.
+In the forms of worship favoured by votaries of these creeds the
+emotional and erotic elements are allowed yet freer scope than in
+those that preceded them; and, as an effective auxiliary to these
+tendencies, the use of the vernacular dialects in prayers and hymns
+of praise takes an important part in the religious service. The
+Vallabhacharis, or, as they are usually called, from the title of
+their spiritual heads, the Gokulastha Gosains, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;the cow-lords
+(<i>gosvamin</i>) residing in Gokula,&rdquo; are very numerous in western and
+central India. Vallabha, the son of a Telinga Brahman, after
+extensive journeyings all over India, settled at Gokula near
+Mathura, and set up a shrine with an image of Krishna Gopala.
+About the year 1673, in consequence of the fanatical persecutions
+of the Mogul emperor, this image was transferred to Nathdvara in
+Udaipur (Mewar), where the shrine of Srinatha (&ldquo;the lord of Sri,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> Vishnu) continues to be the chief centre of worship for adherents
+of this creed; whilst seven other images, transferred from Mathura
+at the same time, are located at different places in Rajputana.
+Vallabha himself went subsequently to reside at Benares, where he
+died. In the doctrine of this Vaishnava prophet, the adualistic
+theory of Sankara is resorted to as justifying a joyful and voluptuous
+cult of the deity. For, if the human soul is identical with God, the
+practice of austerities must be discarded as directed against God,
+and it is rather by a free indulgence of the natural appetites and
+the pleasures of life that man&rsquo;s love for God will best be shown.
+The followers of his creed, amongst whom there are many wealthy
+merchants and bankers, direct their worship chiefly to Gopal Lal,
+the boyish Krishna of Vrindavana, whose image is sedulously
+attended like a revered living person eight times a day&mdash;from its
+early rising from its couch up to its retiring to repose at night.
+The sectarial mark of the adherents consists of two red perpendicular
+lines, meeting in a semicircle at the root of the nose, and having a
+round red spot painted between them. Their principal doctrinal
+authority is the Bhagavata-purana, as commented upon by Vallabha
+himself, who was also the author of several other Sanskrit
+works highly esteemed by his followers. In this sect, children are
+solemnly admitted to full membership at the early age of four, and
+even two, years of age, when a rosary, or necklace, of 108 beads of
+basil (tulsi) wood is passed round their necks, and they are taught
+the use of the octo-syllabic formula <i>Sri-Krishnah saranam mama</i>,
+&ldquo;Holy Krishna is my refuge.&rdquo; Another special feature of this
+sect is that their spiritual heads, the Gosains, also called Maharajas,
+so far from submitting themselves to self-discipline and austere
+practices, adorn themselves in splendid garments, and allow themselves
+to be habitually regaled by their adherents with choice kinds
+of food; and being regarded as the living representatives of the
+&ldquo;lord of the Gopis&rdquo; himself, they claim and receive in their own
+persons all acts of attachment and worship due to the deity, even,
+it is alleged, to the extent of complete self-surrender. In the final
+judgment of the famous libel case of the Bombay Maharajas, before
+the Supreme Court of Bombay, in January 1862, these improprieties
+were severely commented upon; and though so unsparing
+a critic of Indian sects as Jogendra Nath seems not to believe in
+actual immoral practices on the part of the Maharajas, still he
+admits that &ldquo;the corrupting influence of a religion, that can make
+its female votaries address amorous songs to their spiritual guides,
+must be very great.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A modern offshoot of Vallabha&rsquo;s creed, formed with the avowed
+object of purging it of its objectionable features, was started, in the
+early years of the 19th century, by Sahajananda, a Brahman of the
+Oudh country, who subsequently assumed the name of Svami
+Narayana. Having entered on his missionary labours at Ahmadabad,
+and afterwards removed to Jetalpur, where he had a meeting
+with Bishop Heber, he subsequently settled at the village of Wartal,
+to the north-west of Baroda, and erected a temple to Lakshmi-Narayana,
+which, with another at Ahmadabad, forms the two chief
+centres of the sect, each being presided over by a Maharaja. Their
+worship is addressed to Narayana, <i>i.e.</i> Vishnu, as the Supreme
+Being, together with Lakshmi, as well as to Krishna and Radha.
+The sect is said to be gaining ground in Gujarat. Chaitanya, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span>
+founder of the great Vaishnava sect of Bengal, was the son of a
+high-caste Brahman of Nadiya, the famous Bengal seat of Sanskrit
+learning, where he was born in 1485, two years after the birth of
+Martin Luther, the German reformer. Having married in due
+time, and a second time after the death of his first wife, he lived as
+a &ldquo;householder&rdquo; (<i>grihastha</i>) till the age of 24, when he renounced
+his family ties and set out as a religious mendicant (<i>vairagin</i>),
+visiting during the next six years the principal places of pilgrimage
+in northern India, and preaching with remarkable success his
+doctrine of Bhakti, or passionate devotion to Krishna, as the Supreme
+Deity. He subsequently made over to his principal disciples the
+task of consolidating his community, and passed the last twelve
+years of his life at Puri in Orissa, the great centre of the worship of
+Vishnu as Jagannatha, or &ldquo;lord of the world,&rdquo; which he remodelled
+in accordance with his doctrine, causing the mystic songs of
+Jayadeva to be recited before the images in the morning and evening
+as part of the daily service; and, in fact, as in the other Vaishnava
+creeds, seeking to humanize divine adoration by bringing it into
+accord with the experience of human love. To this end, music,
+dancing, singing-parties (<i>sankirtan</i>), theatricals&mdash;in short anything
+calculated to produce the desired impression&mdash;would prove welcome
+to him. His doctrine of Bhakti distinguishes five grades of devotional
+feeling in the <i>Bhaktas</i>, or faithful adherents: viz. (<i>santi</i>)
+calm contemplation of the deity; (<i>dasya</i>) active servitude; (<i>sakhya</i>)
+friendship or personal regard; (<i>vatsalya</i>) tender affection as between
+parents and children; (<i>madhurya</i>) love or passionate attachment,
+like that which the Gopis felt for Krishna. Chaitanya also seems
+to have done much to promote the celebration on an imposing
+scale of the great Puri festival of the Ratha-yatra, or &ldquo;car-procession,&rdquo;
+in the month of Ashadha, when, amidst multitudes of
+pilgrims, the image of Krishna, together with those of his brother
+Balarama and his sister Subhadra, is drawn along, in a huge car,
+by the devotees. Just as this festival was, and continues to be,
+attended by people from all parts of India, without distinction of
+caste or sex, so also were all classes, even Mahommedans, admitted
+by Chaitanya as members of his sect. Whilst numerous observances
+are recommended as more or less meritorious, the ordinary form of
+worship is a very simple one, consisting as it does mainly of the
+constant repetition of names of Krishna, or Krishna and Radha,
+which of itself is considered sufficient to ensure future bliss. The
+partaking of flesh food and spirituous liquor is strictly prohibited.
+By the followers of this sect, also, an extravagant degree of reverence
+is habitually paid to their gurus or spiritual heads. Indeed, Chaitanya
+himself, as well as his immediate disciples, have come to be
+regarded as complete or partial incarnations of the deity to whom
+adoration is due, as to Krishna himself; and their modern successors,
+the Gosains, share to the fullest extent in the devout attentions
+of the worshippers. Chaitanya&rsquo;s movement, being chiefly
+directed against the vile practices of the Saktas, then very prevalent
+in Bengal, was doubtless prompted by the best and purest of intentions;
+but his own doctrine of divine, though all too human,
+love was, like that of Vallabha, by no means free from corruptive
+tendencies,&mdash;yet, how far these tendencies have worked their way,
+who would say? On this point, Dr W. W. Hunter&mdash;who is of
+opinion that &ldquo;the death of the reformer marks the beginning of
+the spiritual decline of Vishnu-worship,&rdquo; observes (<i>Orissa</i>, i. 111),
+&ldquo;The most deplorable corruption of Vishnu-worship at the present
+day is that which has covered the temple walls with indecent
+sculptures, and filled its innermost sanctuaries with licentious
+rites&rdquo; ... yet ... &ldquo;it is difficult for a person not a Hindu to
+pronounce upon the real extent of the evil. None but a Hindu
+can enter any of the larger temples, and none but a Hindu priest
+really knows the truth about their inner mysteries&rdquo;; whilst the
+well-known native scholar Babu Rajendralal Mitra points out
+(<i>Antiquities of Orissa</i>, i. 111) that &ldquo;such as they are, these
+sculptures date from centuries before the birth of Chaitanya, and
+cannot, therefore, be attributed to his doctrines or to his followers.
+As a Hindu by birth, and a Vaishnava by family religion, I have
+had the freest access to the innermost sanctuaries and to the most
+secret of scriptures. I have studied the subject most extensively,
+and have had opportunities of judging which no European can
+have, and I have no hesitation in saying that, &lsquo;the mystic songs&rsquo;
+of Jayadeva and the &lsquo;ocean of love&rsquo; notwithstanding, there is
+nothing in the rituals of Jagannatha which can be called licentious.&rdquo;
+Whilst in Chaitanya&rsquo;s creed, Krishna, in his relations to Radha,
+remains at least theoretically the chief partner, an almost inevitable
+step was taken by some minor sects in attaching the greater importance
+to the female element, and making Krishna&rsquo;s love for his
+mistress the guiding sentiment of their faith. Of these sects, it
+will suffice to mention that of the Radha-Vallabhis, started in the
+latter part of the 16th century, who worship Krishna as Radha-vallabha,
+&ldquo;the darling of Radha.&rdquo; The doctrines and practices
+of these sects clearly verge upon those obtaining in the third principal
+division of Indian sectarians which will now be considered.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Saktas, as we have seen, are worshippers of the <i>sakti</i>,
+or the female principle as a primary factor in the creation and
+reproduction of the universe. And as each of the principal
+gods is supposed to have associated with him his own
+<span class="sidenote">Saktas</span>
+particular <i>sakti</i>, as an indispensable complement enabling
+him to properly perform his cosmic functions, adherents of this
+persuasion might be expected to be recruited from all
+sects. To a certain extent this is indeed the case; but
+though Vaishnavism, and especially the Krishna creed, with its
+luxuriant growth of erotic legends, might have seemed peculiarly
+favourable to a development in this direction, it is practically
+only in connexion with the Saiva system that an independent cult
+of the female principle has been developed; whilst in other
+sects&mdash;and, indeed, in the ordinary Saiva cult as well&mdash;such
+worship, even where it is at all prominent, is combined with, and
+subordinated to, that of the male principle. What has made this
+cult attach itself more especially to the Saiva creed is doubtless
+the character of Siva as the type of reproductive power, in
+addition to his function as destroyer which, as we shall see,
+is likewise reflected in some of the forms of his Sakti. The theory
+of the god and his Sakti as cosmic principles is perhaps already
+foreshadowed in the Vedic couple of Heaven and Earth, whilst
+in the speculative treatises of the later Vedic period, as well
+as in the post-Vedic Brahmanical writings, the assumption of
+the self-existent being dividing himself into a male and a female
+half usually forms the starting-point of cosmic evolution.<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In
+the later Saiva mythology this theory finds its artistic representation
+in Siva&rsquo;s androgynous form of Ardha-narisa, or &ldquo;half-woman-lord,&rdquo;
+typifying the union of the male and female energies;
+the male half in this form of the deity occupying the right-hand,
+and the female the left-hand side. In accordance with this
+type of productive energy, the Saktas divide themselves into
+two distinct groups, according to whether they attach the greater
+importance to the male or to the female principle; viz. the
+<i>Dakshinacharis</i>, or &ldquo;right-hand-observers&rdquo; (also called <i>Dak-shina-margis</i>,
+or followers &ldquo;of the right-hand path&rdquo;), and the
+<i>Vamacharis</i>, or &ldquo;left-hand-observers&rdquo; (or <i>Vama-margis</i>,
+followers &ldquo;of the left path&rdquo;). Though some of the Puranas,
+the chief repositories of sectarian doctrines, enter largely into
+Sakta topics, it is only in the numerous Tantras that these
+are fully and systematically developed. In these works, almost
+invariably composed in the form of a colloquy, Siva, as a rule,
+in answer to questions asked by his consort Parvati, unfolds
+the mysteries of this occult creed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal seat of Sakta worship is the north-eastern part of
+India&mdash;Bengal, Assam and Behar. The great majority of its
+adherents profess to follow the right-hand practice; and apart
+from the implied purport and the emblems of the cult, their mode
+of adoration does not seem to offer any very objectionable features.
+And even amongst the adherents of the left-hand mode of worship,
+many of these are said to follow it as a matter of family tradition
+rather than of religious conviction, and to practise it in a sober and
+temperate manner; whilst only an extreme section&mdash;the so-called
+<i>Kaulas</i> or <i>Kulinas</i>, who appeal to a spurious Upanishad, the Kaulopanishad,
+as the divine authority of their tenets&mdash;persist in carrying
+on the mystic and licentious rites taught in many of the Tantras.
+But strict secrecy being enjoined in the performance of these rites,
+it is not easy to check any statements made on this point. The
+Sakta cult is, however, known to be especially prevalent&mdash;though
+apparently not in a very extreme form&mdash;amongst members of the
+very respectable Kayastha or writer caste of Bengal, and as these
+are largely employed as clerks and accountants in Upper India,
+there is reason to fear that their vicious practices are gradually
+being disseminated through them.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The divine object of the adoration of the Saktas, then, is
+Siva&rsquo;s wife&mdash;the <i>Devi</i> (goddess), <i>Mahadevi</i> (great goddess),
+or <i>Jagan-mata</i> (mother of the world)&mdash;in one or other of her
+numerous forms, benign or terrible. The forms in which she
+is worshipped in Bengal are of the latter category, viz. <i>Durga</i>,
+&ldquo;the unapproachable,&rdquo; and <i>Kali</i>, &ldquo;the black one,&rdquo; or, as some
+take it, the wife of <i>Kala</i>, &ldquo;time,&rdquo; or death the great dissolver,
+viz. Siva. In honour of the former, the <i>Durga-puja</i> is celebrated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span>
+during ten days at the time of the autumnal equinox, in commemoration
+of her victory over the buffalo-headed demon
+Mahishasura; when the image of the ten-armed goddess, holding
+a weapon in each hand, is worshipped for nine days, and cast
+into the water on the tenth day, called the Dasahara, whence
+the festival itself is commonly called Dasara in western India.
+<i>Kali</i>, on the other hand, the most terrible of the goddess&rsquo;s forms,
+has a special service performed to her, at the <i>Kali-puja</i>, during
+the darkest night of the succeeding month; when she is represented
+as a naked black woman, four-armed, wearing a garland
+of heads of giants slain by her, and a string of skulls round her
+neck, dancing on the breast of her husband (Mahakala), with
+gaping mouth and protruding tongue; and when she has to be
+propitiated by the slaughter of goats, sheep and buffaloes. On
+other occasions also Vamacharis commonly offer animal sacrifices,
+usually one or more kids; the head of the victim, which
+has to be severed by a single stroke, being always placed in front
+of the image of the goddess as a blood-offering (<i>bali</i>), with an
+earthen lamp fed with ghee burning above it, whilst the flesh
+is cooked and served to the guests attending the ceremony,
+except that of buffaloes, which is given to the low-caste musicians
+who perform during the service. Even some adherents of this
+class have, however, discontinued animal sacrifices, and use
+certain kinds of fruit, such as coco-nuts or pumpkins, instead.
+The use of wine, which at one time was very common on these
+occasions, seems also to have become much more restricted;
+and only members of the extreme section would still seem to
+adhere to the practice of the so-called five <i>m&rsquo;s</i> prescribed by
+some of the Tantras, viz. <i>mamsa</i> (flesh), <i>matsya</i> (fish), <i>madya</i>
+(wine), <i>maithuna</i> (sexual union), and <i>mudra</i> (mystical finger
+signs)&mdash;probably the most degrading cult ever practised under
+the pretext of religious worship.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In connexion with the principal object of this cult, Tantric theory
+has devised an elaborate system of female figures representing either
+special forms and personifications or attendants of the &ldquo;Great
+Goddess.&rdquo; They are generally arranged in groups, the most important
+of which are the <i>Mahavidyas</i> (great sciences), the 8 (or 9)
+<i>Mataras</i> (mothers) or <i>Mahamataras</i> (great mothers), consisting of
+the wives of the principal gods; the 8 <i>Nayikas</i> or mistresses; and
+different classes of sorceresses and ogresses, called <i>Yoginis</i>, <i>Dakinis</i>
+and <i>Sakinis</i>. A special feature of the Sakti cult is the use of obscure
+Vedic <i>mantras</i>, often changed so as to be quite meaningless and on
+that very account deemed the more efficacious for the acquisition
+of superhuman powers; as well as of mystic letters and syllables
+called <i>bija</i> (germ), of magic circles (<i>chakra</i>) and diagrams (<i>yantra</i>),
+and of amulets of various materials inscribed with formulae of
+fancied mysterious import.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This survey of the Indian sects will have shown how little
+the character of their divine objects of worship is calculated to
+exert that elevating and spiritualizing influence,
+so characteristic of true religious devotion. In all
+<span class="sidenote">General conclusions.</span>
+but a few of the minor groups religious fervour is
+only too apt to degenerate into that very state of
+sexual excitation which devotional exercises should surely tend
+to repress. If the worship of Siva, despite the purport of
+his chief symbol, seems on the whole less liable to produce
+these undesirable effects than that of the rival deity, it is doubtless
+due partly to the real nature of that emblem being little
+realized by the common people, and partly to the somewhat
+repellent character of the &ldquo;great god,&rdquo; more favourable to
+evoking feelings of awe and terror than a spirit of fervid devotion.
+All the more are, however, the gross stimulants, connected with
+the adoration of his consort, calculated to work up the carnal
+instincts of the devotees to an extreme degree of sensual frenzy.
+In the Vaishnava camp, on the other hand, the cult of Krishna,
+and more especially that of the youthful Krishna, can scarcely
+fail to exert an influence which, if of a subtler and more insinuating,
+is not on that account of a less demoralizing kind.
+Indeed, it would be hard to find anything less consonant with
+godliness and divine perfection than the pranks of this juvenile
+god; and if poets and thinkers try to explain them away by
+dint of allegorical interpretation, the plain man will not for
+all their refinements take these amusing adventures any the less
+<i>au pied de la lettre</i>. No fault, in this respect, can assuredly be
+found with the legendary Rama, a very paragon of knightly
+honour and virtue, even as his consort Sita is the very model
+of a noble and faithful wife; and yet this cult has perhaps
+retained even more of the character of mere hero-worship than
+that of Krishna. Since by the universally accepted doctrine of
+<i>karman</i> (deed) or <i>karmavipaka</i> (&ldquo;the maturing of deeds&rdquo;)
+man himself&mdash;either in his present, or some future, existence&mdash;enjoys
+the fruit of, or has to atone for, his former good and bad
+actions, there could hardly be room in Hindu pantheism for a
+belief in the remission of sin by divine grace or vicarious substitution.
+And accordingly the &ldquo;descents&rdquo; or incarnations of
+the deity have for their object, not so much the spiritual regeneration
+of man as the deliverance of the world from some material
+calamity threatening to overwhelm it. The generally recognized
+principal Avatars do not, however, by any means constitute
+the only occasions of a direct intercession of the deity in worldly
+affairs, but&mdash;in the same way as to this day the eclipses of the
+sun and moon are ascribed by the ordinary Hindu to these
+luminaries being temporarily swallowed by the dragon <i>Rahu</i>
+(or <i>Graha</i>, &ldquo;the seizer&rdquo;)&mdash;so any uncommon occurrence would
+be apt to be set down as a special manifestation of divine power;
+and any man credited with exceptional merit or achievement,
+or even remarkable for some strange incident connected with
+his life or death, might ultimately come to be looked upon as a
+veritable incarnation of the deity, capable of influencing the
+destinies of man, and might become an object of local adoration
+or superstitious awe and propitiatory rites to multitudes of people.
+That the transmigration theory, which makes the spirit of the
+departed hover about for a time in quest of a new corporeal
+abode, would naturally lend itself to superstitious notions of this
+kind can scarcely be doubted. Of peculiar importance in this
+respect is the worship of the <i>Pitris</i> (&ldquo;fathers&rdquo;) or deceased
+ancestors, as entering largely into the everyday life and family
+relations of the Hindus. At stated intervals to offer reverential
+homage and oblations of food to the forefathers up to the third
+degree is one of the most sacred duties the devout Hindu has to
+discharge. The periodical performance of the commemorative
+rite of obsequies called <i>Sraddha</i>&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> an oblation &ldquo;made in faith&rdquo;
+(<i>sraddha</i>, Lat. <i>credo</i>)&mdash;is the duty and privilege of the eldest son
+of the deceased, or, failing him, of the nearest relative who thereby
+establishes his right as next of kin in respect of inheritance;
+and those other relatives who have the right to take part in the
+ceremony are called <i>sapinda</i>, <i>i.e.</i> sharing in the <i>pindas</i> (or balls of
+cooked rice, constituting along with libations of water the usual
+offering to the Manes)&mdash;such relationship being held a bar to
+intermarriage. The first <i>Sraddha</i> takes place as soon as possible
+after the <i>antyeshti</i> (&ldquo;final offering&rdquo;) or funeral ceremony proper,
+usually spread over ten days; being afterwards repeated once a
+month for a year, and subsequently at every anniversary and
+otherwise voluntarily on special occasions. Moreover, a simple
+libation of water should be offered to the Fathers twice daily at
+the morning and evening devotion called <i>sandhya</i> (&ldquo;twilight&rdquo;).
+It is doubtless a sense of filial obligation coupled with sentiments
+of piety and reverence that gave rise to this practice of offering
+gifts of food and drink to the deceased ancestors. Hence also
+frequent allusion is made by poets to the anxious care caused to
+the Fathers by the possibility of the living head of the family
+being afflicted with failure of offspring; this dire prospect compelling
+them to use but sparingly their little store of provisions,
+in case the supply should shortly cease altogether. At the same
+time one also meets with frank avowals of a superstitious fear
+lest any irregularity in the performance of the obsequial rites
+should cause the Fathers to haunt their old home and trouble the
+peace of their undutiful descendant, or even prematurely draw
+him after them to the Pitri-loka or world of the Fathers, supposed
+to be located in the southern region. Terminating as it usually
+does with the feeding and feeing of a greater or less number of
+Brahmans and the feasting of members of the performers&rsquo; own
+caste, the Sraddha, especially its first performance, is often a
+matter of very considerable expense; and more than ordinary
+benefit to the deceased is supposed to accrue from it when it takes
+place at a spot of recognized sanctity, such as one of the great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span>
+places of pilgrimage like Prayaga (Allahabad, where the three
+sacred rivers, Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati, meet), Mathura,
+and especially Gaya and Kasi (Benares). But indeed the <i>tirtha-yatra</i>,
+or pilgrimage to holy bathing-places, is in itself considered
+an act of piety conferring religious merit in proportion to the
+time and trouble expended upon it. The number of such places
+is legion and is constantly increasing. The banks of the great
+rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Yamuna (Jumna), the
+Narbada, the Krishna (Kistna), are studded with them, and the
+water of these rivers is supposed to be imbued with the essence
+of sanctity capable of cleansing the pious bather of all sin and
+moral taint. To follow the entire course of one of the sacred
+rivers from the mouth to the source on one side and back again on
+the other in the sun-wise (pradakshina) direction&mdash;that is,
+always keeping the stream on one&rsquo;s right-hand side&mdash;is held to be
+a highly meritorious undertaking which it requires years to carry
+through. No wonder that water from these rivers, especially the
+Ganges, is sent and taken in bottles to all parts of India to be used
+on occasion as healing medicine or for sacramental purposes. In
+Vedic times, at the <i>Rajasuya</i>, or inauguration of a king, some
+water from the holy river Sarasvati was mixed with the sprinkling
+water used for consecrating the king. Hence also sick persons are
+frequently conveyed long distances to a sacred river to heal them
+of their maladies; and for a dying man to breathe his last at the
+side of the Ganges is devoutly believed to be the surest way of
+securing for him salvation and eternal bliss.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Such probably was the belief of the ordinary Hindu two thousand
+years ago, and such it remains to this day. In the light of facts
+such as these, who could venture to say what the future of Hinduism
+is likely to be? Is the regeneration of India to be brought about
+by the modern theistic movements, such as the Brahma-samaj and
+Arya-samaj, as so close and sympathetic an observer of Hindu life
+and thought as Sir A. Lyall seems to think? &ldquo;The Hindu mind,&rdquo;
+he remarks, &ldquo;is essentially speculative and transcendental; it will
+never consent to be shut up in the prison of sensual experience, for
+it has grasped and holds firmly the central idea that all things are
+manifestations of some power outside phenomena. And the tendency
+of contemporary religious discussion in India, so far as it can
+be followed from a distance, is towards an ethical reform on the
+old foundations, towards searching for some method of reconciling
+their Vedic theology with the practices of religion taken as a rule
+of conduct and a system of moral government. One can already
+discern a movement in various quarters towards a recognition of
+impersonal theism, and towards fixing the teaching of the philosophical
+schools upon some definitely authorized system of faith and
+morals, which may satisfy a rising ethical standard, and may thus
+permanently embody that tendency to substitute spiritual devotion
+for external forms and caste rules which is the characteristic of
+the sects that have from time to time dissented from orthodox
+Brahminism.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Census of India</i> (1901), vol. i. part i.; <i>India</i>, by
+H. H. Risley and E. A. Gait; vol. i. <i>Ethnographical Appendices</i>,
+by H. H. Risley; <i>The Indian Empire</i>, vol. i. (new ed., Oxford, 1907);
+J. Muir, <i>Original Sanskrit Texts</i> (2nd ed., 5 vols., London, 1873);
+Monier Williams, <i>Religious Thought and Life in India</i> (London,
+1883); <i>Modern India and the Indians</i> (London, 1878, 3rd ed. 1879);
+<i>Hinduism</i> (London, 1877); Sir Alfred C. Lyall, <i>Asiatic Studies</i>
+(2 series, London, 1899); &ldquo;Hinduism&rdquo; in <i>Religious Systems of the
+World</i> (London, 1904); &ldquo;Brahminism&rdquo; in <i>Great Religions of the
+World</i> (New York and London, 1902); W. J. Wilkins, <i>Modern
+Hinduism</i> (London, 1887); J. C. Oman, <i>Indian Life, Religious and
+Social</i> (London, 1879); <i>The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India</i>
+(London, 1903); <i>The Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India</i>
+(London, 1907); S. C. Bose, <i>The Hindus as they are</i> (2nd ed.,
+Calcutta, 1883); J. Robson, <i>Hinduism and Christianity</i> (Edinburgh
+and London, 3rd ed., 1905); J. Murray Mitchell, <i>Hinduism Past
+and Present</i> (2nd ed., London, 1897); Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya,
+<i>Hindu Castes and Sects</i> (Calcutta, 1896); A. Barth, <i>The Religions
+of India</i> (London, 1882); E. W. Hopkins, <i>The Religions of India</i>
+(London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. E.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;It is, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can
+best represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform
+worked upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organized
+and executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the
+Holy Roman Empire and the Church Apostolic.&rdquo; Sir Alfred C.
+Lyall, <i>Asiatic Studies</i>, i. 2.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Henry Whitehead, D. D., bishop of Madras, <i>The Village Deities
+of Southern India</i> (Madras, 1907).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious
+basis.&rdquo;  Sir A. C. Lyall, <i>Brahmanism</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Thus, in Berar, &ldquo;there is a strong non-Aryan leaven in the
+dregs of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races
+which have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become
+fused with the general community, while these same races are still
+distinct tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle.&rdquo; Sir Alfred C.
+Lyall, <i>As. St.</i>, i. 6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the present
+age as Sveta, the White, for the purpose of benefiting the Brahmans,
+and he is invariably painted white; whilst Vishnu, when pictured,
+is always of a dark-blue colour.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> As in the case of Siva&rsquo;s traditional white complexion, it may
+not be without significance, from a racial point of view, that Vishnu,
+Rama and Krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed
+to them, viz. blue, hyacinthine, and dark azure or dark brown respectively.
+The names of the two heroes meaning simply &ldquo;black&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;dark,&rdquo; the blue tint may originally have belonged to Vishnu,
+who is also called <i>p&#299;tavasas</i>, dressed in yellow garment, <i>i.e.</i> the
+colours of sky and sun combined.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> This notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic cosmogonic
+hymn, Rigv. x. 129, where it is said that&mdash;&ldquo;that one
+(existent, neutr.) breathed breathless by (or with) its <i>svadha</i> (? inherent
+power, or nature), beyond that there was nothing whatever
+... that one live (germ) which was enclosed in the void was
+generated by the power of heat (or fervour); desire then first came
+upon it, which was the first seed of the mind ... fertilizing forces
+there were, <i>svadha</i> below, <i>prayati</i> (? will) above.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINDU KUSH,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a range of mountains in Central Asia. Throughout
+500 m. of its length, from its roots in the Pamir regions till it
+fades into the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, this great range
+forms the water-divide between the Kabul and the Oxus basins,
+and, for the first 200 m. reckoning westwards, the southern
+boundary of Afghanistan. It may be said to spring from the
+head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, where it unites with the great
+meridional system of Sarikol stretching northwards, and the yet
+more impressive mountain barrier of Muztagh, the northern base
+of which separates China from the semi-independent territory of
+Kanjut. The Wakhjir pass, crossing the head of the Taghdumbash
+Pamir into the sources of the river Hunza, almost marks the tri-junction
+of the three great chains of mountains. As the Hindu
+Kush strikes westwards, after first rounding the head of an Oxus
+tributary (the Ab-i-Panja, which Curzon considers to be the true
+source of the Oxus), it closely overlooks the trough of that
+glacier-fed stream under its northern spurs, its crest at the nearest
+point being separated from the river by a distance which cannot
+much exceed 10 m. As the river is here the northern boundary
+of Afghanistan, and the crest of the Hindu Kush the southern
+boundary, this distance represents the width of the Afghan
+kingdom at that point.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physiography.</i>&mdash;For the first 100 m. of its length the Hindu Kush
+is a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width, permitting
+the formation of small lakes on the crest, and possessing no
+considerable peaks. It is crossed by many passes, varying in height
+from 12,500 ft. to 17,500 ft., the lowest and the easiest being the
+well-known group about Baroghil, which has from time immemorial
+offered a line of approach from High Asia to Chitral and Jalalabad.
+As the Hindu Kush gradually recedes from the Ab-i-Panja and turns
+south-westwards it gains in altitude, and we find prominent peaks
+on the crest which measure more than 24,000 ft. above sea-level.
+Even here, however, the main central water-divide, or axis of the
+chain, is apparently not the line of highest peaks, which must be
+looked for to the south, where the great square-headed giant called
+Tirach Mir dominates Chitral from a southern spur. For some 40
+or 50 m. of this south-westerly bend, bearing away from the Oxus,
+where the Hindu Kush overlooks the mountain wilderness of Badakshan
+to the west, the crest is intersected by many passes, of which
+the most important is the Dorah group (including the Minjan and
+the Mandal), which rise to about 15,000 ft., and which are, under
+favourable conditions, practicable links between the Oxus and
+Chitral basins.</p>
+
+<p>From the Dorah to the Khawak pass (or group of passes, for it
+is seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the
+Hindu Kush), which is between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in
+altitude, the water-divide overlooks Kafiristan and
+<span class="sidenote">Kafiristan section.</span>
+Badakshan. Here its exact position is matter of conjecture.
+It lies amidst a wild, inaccessible region of snowbound
+crests, and is certainly nowhere less than 15,000 ft. above
+sea-level. There is a tradition that Timur attempted the passage
+of the Hindu Kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts,
+and that, having failed, he left a record of his failure engraved
+on a rock in the pass.</p>
+
+<p>The Khawak, at the head of the Panjshir tributary of the Kabul
+river, leading straight from Badakshan to Charikar and the city of
+Kabul, is now an excellent kafila route, the road having
+been engineered under the amir Abdur Rahman&rsquo;s direction,
+<span class="sidenote">Passes.</span>
+and it is said to be available for traffic throughout the year. From
+the Khawak to the head of the Ghorband (a river of the Hindu Kush
+which, rising to the north-west of Kabul, flows north-east to meet
+the Panjshir near Charikar, whence they run united into the plains
+of Kohistan) the Hindu Kush is intersected by passes at intervals,
+all of which were surveyed, and several utilized, during the return
+of the Russo-Afghan boundary commission from the Oxus to Kabul
+in 1886. Those utilized were the Kaoshan (the &ldquo;Hindu Kush&rdquo;
+pass <i>par excellence</i>), 14,340 ft.; the Chahardar (13,900 ft.), which
+is a link in one of the amir of Afghanistan&rsquo;s high roads to Turkestan;
+and the Shibar (9800 ft.), which is merely a diversion into the upper
+Ghorband of that group of passes between Bamian and the Kabul
+plains which are represented by the Irak, Hajigak, Unai, &amp;c. About
+this point it is geographically correct to place the southern extremity
+of the Hindu Kush, for here commences the Koh-i-Baba system
+into which the Hindu Kush is merged.</p>
+
+<p>The general conformation of the Hindu Kush system south of
+the Khawak, no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock
+composition as at present exists to the north, points to
+its construction under the same conditions of upheaval
+<span class="sidenote">General conformation.</span>
+and subsequent denudation as are common to the western
+Himalaya and the whole of the trans-Indus borderland.
+Its upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the
+north-west of the Indian peninsula long after the Himalaya had
+massed itself as a formidable mountain chain, belongs to a comparatively
+recent geologic period, and the same thrust upwards of
+vast masses of cretaceous limestone has disturbed the overlying
+recent beds of shale and clays with very similar results to those
+which have left so marked an impress on the Baluch frontier. Successive
+flexures or ridges are ranged in more or less parallel lines,
+and from between the bands of hard, unyielding rock of older
+formation the soft beds of recent shale have been washed out, to be
+carried through the enclosing ridges by rifts which break across
+their axes. The Hindu Kush is, in fact, but the face of a great
+upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it northwards, just
+as the Himalaya forms the southern face of the great central tableland
+of Tibet, and its general physiography, exhibiting long, narrow,
+lateral valleys and transverse lines of &ldquo;antecedent&rdquo; drainage, is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span>
+similar. There are few passes across the southern section of the
+Hindu Kush (and this section is, from the politico-geographical
+point of view, more important to India than the whole Himalayan
+system) which have not to surmount a succession of crests or ridges
+as they cross from Afghan Turkestan to Afghanistan. The exceptions
+are, of course, notable, and have played an important part
+in the military history of Asia from time immemorial. From a
+little ice-bound lake called Gaz Kul, or Karambar, which lies on the
+crest of the Hindu Kush near its northern origin at the head of the
+Taghdumbash Pamir, two very important river systems (those of
+Chitral and Hunza) are believed to originate. The lake really lies
+on the watershed between the two, and is probably a glacial relic.
+Its contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on
+conditions of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses
+towards one end. It marks the commencement of the water-divide
+which primarily separates the Gilgit basin from that of the Yashkun,
+or Chitral, river, and subsequently divides the drainage of Swat
+and Bajour from that of the Chitral (or Kunar). The Yashkun-Chitral-Kunar
+river (it is called by all three names) is the longest
+affluent of the Kabul, and it is in many respects a more important
+river than the Kabul. Throughout its length it is closely flanked
+on its left bank by this main water-divide, which is called Moshabar
+or Shandur in its northern sections, and owns a great variety of
+names where it divides Bajour from the Kunar valley. It is this
+range, crowned by peaks of 22,000 ft. altitude and maintaining an
+average elevation of some 10,000 ft. throughout its length of 250 m.,
+that is the real barrier of the north&mdash;not the Hindu Kush itself.
+Across it, at its head, are the glacial passes which lead to the foot
+of the Baroghil. Of these Darkot, with a glacial staircase on each
+side, is typical. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilgit</a></span>.) Those passes (the Kilik and Mintaka)
+from the Pamir regions, which lead into the rocky gorges and
+defiles of the upper affluents of the Hunza to the east of the Darkot,
+belong rather to the Muztagh system than to the Hindu Kush.
+Other passes across this important water-divide are the Shandur
+(12,250 ft.), between Gilgit and Mastuj; the Lowarai (10,450 ft.),
+between the Panjkora and Chitral valleys; and farther south certain
+lower crossings which once formed part of the great highway between
+Kabul and India.</p>
+
+<p>Deep down in the trough of the Chitral river, about midway
+between its source and its junction with the Kabul at Jalalabad, is
+the village and fort of Chitral (q.v.). Facing Chitral, on the
+right bank of the river, and extending for some 70 m.
+<span class="sidenote">Chitral.</span>
+from the Hindu Kush, is the lofty snow-clad spur of the Hindu Kush
+known as Shawal, across which one or two difficult passes lead into
+the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This spur carries the boundary of
+Afghanistan southwards to Arnawai (some 50 m. below Chitral),
+where it crosses the river to the long Shandur watershed. South
+of Arnawai the Kunar valley becomes a part of Afghanistan (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kunar</a></span>). The value of Chitral as an outpost of British India may
+be best gauged by its geographical position. It is about 100 m.
+(direct map measurement) from the outpost of Russia at Langar
+Kisht on the river Panja, with the Dorah pass across the Hindu
+Kush intervening. The Dorah may be said to be about half-way
+between the two outposts, and the mountain tracks leading to it on
+either side are rough and difficult. The Dorah, however, is not the
+only pass which leads into the Chitral valley from the Oxus. The
+Mandal pass, a few miles south of the Dorah, is the connecting link
+between the Oxus and the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan; and the
+Bashgol valley leads directly to the Chitral valley at Arnawai,
+about 50 m. below Chitral. Nor must we overlook the connexion
+between north and south of the Hindu Kush which is afforded by
+the long narrow valley of the Chitral (or Yashkun) itself, leading up
+to the Baroghil pass. This route was once made use of by the
+Chinese for purposes of pilgrimage, if not for invasion. Access to
+Chitral from the north is therefore but a matter of practicable tracks,
+or passes, in two or three directions, and the measure of practicability
+under any given conditions can best be reckoned from Chitral
+itself. By most authorities the possibility of an advance in force
+from the north, even under the most favourable conditions, is considered
+to be exceedingly small; but the tracks and passes of the
+Hindu Kush are only impracticable so long as they are left as nature
+has made them.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Historical Notices.</i>&mdash;Hindu Kush is the Caucasus of Alexander&rsquo;s
+historians. It is also included in the Paropamisus, though the
+latter term embraces more, Caucasus being apparently used only
+when the alpine barrier is in question. Whether the name was
+given in mere vanity to the barrier which Alexander passed (as
+Arrian and others repeatedly allege), or was founded also on
+some verbal confusion, cannot be stated. It was no doubt
+regarded (and perhaps not altogether untruly) as a part of a
+great alpine zone believed to traverse Asia from west to east,
+whether called Taurus, Caucasus or Imaus. Arrian himself
+applies Caucasus distinctly to the Himalaya also. The application
+of the name Tanais to the Syr seems to indicate a real confusion
+with Colchian Caucasus. Alexander, after building an
+Alexandria at its foot (probably at Hupian near Charikar),
+crossed into Bactria, first reaching Drapsaca, or Adrapsa. This
+has been interpreted as Anderab, in which case he probably
+crossed the Khawak Pass, but the identity is uncertain. The
+ancient Zend name is, according to Rawlinson, Paresina, the
+essential part of Paropamisus; this accounts for the great
+Asiastic <i>Parnassus</i> of Aristotle, and the <i>Pho-lo-sin-a</i> of Hsüan
+Tsang.</p>
+
+<p>The name Hindu Kush is used by Ibn Batuta, who crossed (<i>c.</i>
+1332) from Anderab, and he gives the explanation of the name
+which, however doubtful, is still popular, as (Pers.) Hindu-Killer,
+&ldquo;because of the number of Indian slaves who perished in passing&rdquo;
+its snows. Baber always calls the range Hindu Kush, and the way
+in which he speaks of it shows clearly that it was a range that was
+meant, not a solitary pass or peak (according to modern local use,
+as alleged by Elphinstone and Burnes). Probably, however, the
+title was confined to the section from Khawak to Koh-i-Baba.
+The name has by some later Oriental writers been modified into
+Hindu <i>Koh</i> (mountain), but this is factitious, and throws no more
+light on the origin of the title. The name seems to have become
+known to European geographers by the Oriental translations of
+the two Petis de la Croix, and was taken up by Delisle and
+D&rsquo;Anville. Rennell and Elphinstone familiarized it. Burnes
+first crossed the range (1832). A British force was stationed at
+Bamian beyond it in 1840, with an outpost at Saighan.</p>
+
+<p>The Hindu Kush, formidable as it seems, and often as it has
+been the limit between petty states, has hardly ever been the
+boundary of a considerable power. Greeks, White Huns,
+Samanidae of Bokhara, Ghaznevides, Mongols, Timur and
+Timuridae, down to Saddozais and Barakzais, have ruled both
+sides of this great alpine chain.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Information about the Hindu Kush and Chitral is
+now comparatively exact. The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission
+of 1884 and the Chitral expedition of 1895 opened up a vast area for
+geographical investigation, and the information collected is to be
+found in the reports and gazetteers of the Indian government.
+The following are the chief recent authorities:&mdash;Report of the Russo-Afghan
+Boundary Commission (1886); Report of Lockhart&rsquo;s
+Mission (1886); Report of Asmar Boundary Commission (1895);
+Report of Pamir Boundary Commission (1896); J. Biddulph, <i>Tribes
+of the Hindu Kush</i> (Calcutta, 1880); W. M&rsquo;Nair, &ldquo;Visit to Kafiristan,&rdquo;
+vol. vi. <i>R.G.S. Proc.</i>, 1884; F. Younghusband, &ldquo;Journeys
+on the Pamirs, &amp;c.,&rdquo; vol. xiv. <i>R.G.S. Proc.</i>, 1892; Colonel Durand,
+<i>Making a Frontier</i> (London, 1899); Sir G. Robertson, <i>Chitral</i>
+(London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINDUR,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Nalagarh</span>, one of the Simla hill states, under
+the government of the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901) 52,551;
+area, 256 sq. m.; estimated revenue, £8600. The country was
+overrun by the Gurkhas for some years before 1815, when they
+were driven out by the British, and the raja was confirmed in
+possession of the territory. The principal products are grain
+and opium.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINGANGHAT,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a town of British India in Wardha district,
+Central Provinces, 21 m. S.W. of Wardha town. Pop (1901)
+12,662. It is a main seat of the cotton trade, the cotton here
+produced in the rich Wardha valley having given its name to
+one of the best indigenous staples of India. The principal
+native traders are Marwaris, many of whom have large transactions
+and export on their own account; but the greater
+number act as middle-men. There are two cotton-mills and
+several ginning and pressing factories.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINGE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (in Mid. Eng. <i>henge</i> or <i>heeng</i>, from <i>hengen</i>, to
+hang), a movable joint, particularly that by which a door or
+window &ldquo;hangs&rdquo; from its side-post, or by which a lid or cover
+is attached to that which it closes; also any device which allows
+two parts to be joined together and move upon each other
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joinery</a></span>). Figuratively the word is used of that on which
+something depends, a cardinal or turning point, a crisis.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINGHAM,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., on Massachusetts Bay. Pop (1890) 4564; (1900)
+5059 (969 being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4819; (1910)
+4965. Area, about 30 sq. m. The township is traversed by
+the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railway, and contains
+the villages of Hingham, West Hingham, Hingham Center, and
+South Hingham. Derby Academy, a co-educational school
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span>
+founded and endowed with about £12,000 in 1784 by Sarah
+Derby (1714-1790), was opened in 1791. Hingham has a public
+library (1868), with 12,000 volumes in 1908. The Old Meeting
+House, erected in 1681, is one of the oldest church buildings in
+the country used continuously. Manufactures were relatively
+much more important in the 17th and 18th centuries than since.
+There were settlers here as early as 1633, some of them&mdash;notably
+Edmund Hobart, ancestor of Bishop John Henry Hobart,&mdash;being
+natives of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whence the name;
+and in 1635 common land called Barecove became the township
+of Hingham.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>History of the Town of Hingham</i> (4 vols., Hingham, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1794-1861),
+German philosopher, studied theology at Strassburg, and philosophy
+at Heidelberg under Hegel (q.v.), who wrote a preface to
+his <i>Religion im innern Verhältniss zur Wissenschaft</i> (Heidelberg,
+1722). He became a <i>Privatdozent</i> in 1819, and held professorships
+at Breslau (1822) and Halle (1824).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>&mdash;(1) Philosophical: <i>Grundlinien der Philosophie der
+Logik</i> (Halle, 1826); <i>Genesis des Wissens</i> (Heidelberg, 1835). (2)
+On aesthetics: <i>Vorlesungen über Goethes Faust</i> (Halle, 1825);
+<i>Schillers Dichtungen nach ihrem historischen Zusammenhang</i> (Leipzig,
+1837-1839). By these works he became a recognized exponent of
+orthodox Hegelianism. (3) Historical: <i>Geschichte der Rechts- und
+Staatsprinzipien seit der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart</i> (Leipzig,
+1848-1852); <i>Die Könige</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1853).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINSCHIUS, PAUL<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1835-1898), German jurist, was the son
+of Franz Sales August Hinschius (1807-1877), and was born in
+Berlin on the 25th of December 1835. His father was not only
+a scientific jurist, but also a lawyer in large practice in Berlin.
+After working under his father, Hinschius in 1852 began to study
+jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Berlin, the teacher who had
+most influence upon him being Aemilius Ludwig Richter (1808-1864),
+to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of the
+study of ecclesiastical law in Germany. In 1855 Hinschius took
+the degree of <i>doctor utriusque juris</i>, and in 1859 was admitted to
+the juridical faculty of Berlin. In 1863 he went as professor
+extraordinarius to Halle, returning in the same capacity to
+Berlin in 1865; and in 1868 became professor ordinarius at the
+university of Kiel, which he represented in the Prussian Upper
+House (1870-1871). He also assisted his father in editing the
+<i>Preussische Anwaltszeitung</i> from 1862 to 1866 and the <i>Zeitschrift
+für Gesetzgebung und Rechtspflege in Preussen</i> from 1867 to 1871.
+In 1872 he was appointed professor ordinarius of ecclesiastical
+law at Berlin. In the same year he took part in the conferences
+of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs, which issued in the famous
+&ldquo;Falk laws.&rdquo; In connexion with the developments of the
+<i>Kulturkampf</i> which resulted from the &ldquo;Falk laws,&rdquo; he wrote
+several treatises: <i>e.g.</i> on &ldquo;The Attitude of the German State
+Governments towards the Decrees of the Vatican Council&rdquo;
+(1871), on &ldquo;The Prussian Church Laws of 1873&rdquo; (1873), &ldquo;The
+Prussian Church Laws of the years 1874 and 1875&rdquo; (1875), and
+&ldquo;The Prussian Church Law of 14th July 1880&rdquo; (1881). He
+sat in the Reichstag as a National Liberal from 1872 to 1878,
+and again in 1881 and 1882, and from 1889 onwards he represented
+the university of Berlin in the Prussian Upper House.
+He died on the 13th of December 1898.</p>
+
+<p>The two great works by which Hinschius established his fame
+are the <i>Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni</i>
+(2 parts, Leipzig, 1863) and <i>Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken
+und Protestanten in Deutschland</i>, vols, i.-vi. (Berlin, 1869-1877).
+The first of these, for which during 1860 and 1861 he had gathered
+materials in Italy, Spain, France, England, Scotland, Ireland,
+Holland and Belgium, was the first critical edition of the False
+Decretals. His most monumental work, however, is the <i>Kirchenrecht</i>,
+which remains incomplete. The six volumes actually
+published (<i>System des katholischen Kirchenrechts</i>) cover only
+book i. of the work as planned; they are devoted to an exhaustive
+historical and analytical study of the Roman Catholic hierarchy
+and its government of the church. The work is planned with
+special reference to Germany; but in fact its scheme embraces
+the whole of the Roman Catholic organization in its principles
+and practice. Unfortunately even this part of the work remains
+incomplete; two chapters of book i. and the whole of book ii.,
+which was to have dealt with &ldquo;the rights and duties of the
+members of the hierarchy,&rdquo; remain unwritten; the most notable
+omission is that of the ecclesiastical law in relation to the regular
+orders. Incomplete as it is, however, the <i>Kirchenrecht</i> remains
+a work of the highest scientific authority. Epoch-making in
+its application of the modern historical method to the study of
+ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice, it has become the
+model for the younger school of canonists.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the articles <i>s.v.</i> by E. Seckel in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(3rd ed., 1900), and by Ulrich Steitz in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche
+Biographie</i>, vol. 50 (Leipzig, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINTERLAND<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (German for &ldquo;the land behind&rdquo;), the region
+lying behind a coast or river line, or a country dependent for
+trade or commerce on any other region. In the purely physical
+sense &ldquo;interior&rdquo; <span class="correction" title="amended from on">or</span> &ldquo;back country&rdquo; is more commonly used,
+but the word has gained a distinct political significance. It
+first came into prominence during 1883-1885, when Germany
+insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the
+territory behind those parts of the African coast that she had
+occupied. The &ldquo;doctrine of the hinterland&rdquo; was that the
+possessor of the littoral was entitled to as much of the back
+country as geographically, economically or politically was
+dependent upon the coast lands, a doctrine which, in the space
+of ten years, led to the partition of Africa between various
+European powers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HINTON, JAMES<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1822-1875), English surgeon and author,
+son of John Howard Hinton (1791-1873), Baptist minister and
+author of the <i>History and Topography of the United States</i> and
+other works, was born at Reading in 1822. He was educated
+at his grandfather&rsquo;s school near Oxford, and at the Nonconformist
+school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on his father&rsquo;s removal
+to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in Whitechapel.
+After retaining this situation about a year he became clerk in
+an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study,
+and this, joined to the ardour, amounting to morbidness, of his
+interest in moral problems, so affected his health that in his
+nineteenth year he resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts
+by running away to sea. His intention having, however, been
+discovered, he was sent, on the advice of the physician who
+was consulted regarding his health, to St Bartholomew&rsquo;s
+Hospital to study for the medical profession. After receiving his
+diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at
+Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone
+to take medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage
+thence to Jamaica, where he stayed some time. He returned
+to England in 1850, and entered into partnership with a surgeon
+in London, where he soon had his interest awakened specially
+in aural surgery, and gave also much of his attention to physiology.
+He made his first appearance as an author in 1856 by contributing
+papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the <i>Christian
+Spectator</i>; and in 1859 he published <i>Man and his Dwelling-place</i>.
+A series of papers entitled &ldquo;Physiological Riddles,&rdquo;
+in the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i>, afterwards published as <i>Life in Nature</i>
+(1862), as well as another series entitled <i>Thoughts on Health</i>
+(1871), proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition.
+After being appointed aural surgeon to Guy&rsquo;s Hospital in 1863,
+he speedily acquired a reputation as the most skilful aural
+surgeon of his day, which was fully borne out by his works,
+<i>An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana tympani</i> (1874), and
+<i>Questions of Aural Surgery</i> (1874). But his health broke down,
+and in 1874 he gave up practice; and he died at the Azores of
+acute inflammation of the brain on the 16th of December 1875.
+In addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author
+of <i>The Mystery of Pain</i> (1866) and <i>The Place of the Physician</i>
+(1874). On account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of
+many of the important moral and social problems of the time,
+his writings had a wide circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Life and Letters</i>, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction
+by Sir W. W. Gull, appeared in 1878.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIOGO<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Hyogo</span>], a town of Japan in the province of Settsu,
+Nippon, on the western shore of the bay of Osaka, adjoining
+the foreign settlement of Kobe, 21 m. W. of Osaka by rail. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span>
+growth of its prosperity has been very remarkable. Its population,
+including that of Kobe, was 135,639 in 1891, and 285,002
+in 1903. From 1884 to the close of the century its trade increased
+nearly eightfold, and the increase was not confined to a few
+staples of commerce, but was spread over almost the whole trade,
+in which silk and cotton fabrics, floor-mats, straw-plaits, matches,
+and cotton yarns are specially important. Kobe owes much
+of its prosperity to the fact of serving largely as the shipping
+port of Osaka, the chief manufacturing town in Japan. The
+foreign community, exclusive of Chinese, exceeds 1000 persons.
+Kobe is considered the brightest and healthiest of all the places
+assigned as foreign settlements in Japan, its pure, dry air and
+granite subsoil constituting special advantages. It is in railway
+communication with all parts of the country, and wharves
+admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo
+without the aid of lighters. The area originally appropriated
+for a foreign settlement soon proved too restricted, and foreigners
+received permission to lease lands and houses direct from
+Japanese owners beyond the treaty limits, a privilege which,
+together with that of building villas on the hills behind the town,
+ultimately involved some diplomatic complications. Kobe has
+a shipbuilding yard, and docks in its immediate neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>Hiogo has several temples of interest, one of which has near
+it a huge bronze statue of Buddha, while by the Minatogawa,
+which flows into the sea between Hiogo and Kobe, a temple
+commemorates the spot where Kusunoki Masashige, the mirror
+of Japanese loyalty, met his death in battle in 1336. The temple
+of Ikuta was erected on the site of the ancient fane built by Jingo
+on her return from Korea in the 3rd century.</p>
+
+<p>Hiogo&rsquo;s original name was Bako. Its position near the entrance
+of the Inland Sea gave it some maritime importance from a
+very early period, but it did not become really prominent until
+the 12th century, when Kiyomori, chief of the Taira clan,
+transferred the capital from Kioto to Fukuhara, in Hiogo&rsquo;s
+immediate neighbourhood, and undertook various public works
+for improving the place. The change of capital was very brief,
+but Hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIP.<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1) (From O. Eng. <i>hype</i>, a word common in various forms
+to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch <i>heup</i>, and Ger. <i>Hüfte</i>),
+the projecting part of the body formed by the top of the thighbone
+and the side of the pelvis, in quadrupeds generally known
+as the haunch (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joints</a></span>). (2)(O. Eng. <i>héope</i>, from same root
+as M. H. Ger. <i>hiefe</i>, a thorn-bush), the fruit of the dog-rose
+(<i>Rosa canina</i>); &ldquo;hips&rdquo; are usually joined with &ldquo;haws,&rdquo; the
+fruit of the hawthorn.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIP-KNOB,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> in architecture, the finial on the hip of a roof,
+between the barge-boards of a gable.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPARCHUS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (fl. 146-126 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek astronomer, was born
+at Nicaea in Bithynia early in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He observed
+in the island of Rhodes probably from 161, certainly from 146
+until about 126 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and made the capital discovery of the
+precession of the equinoxes in 130 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
+The outburst of a new star in 134 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> is stated by Pliny (<i>Hist.
+nat.</i> ii. 26) to have prompted the preparation of his catalogue
+of 1080 stars, substantially embodied in Ptolemy&rsquo;s <i>Almagest</i>.
+Hipparchus founded trigonometry, and compiled the first table
+of chords. Scientific geography originated with his invention
+of the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude
+and longitude. There can be little doubt that the fundamental
+part of his astronomical knowledge was derived from Chaldaea.
+None of his many works has survived except a Commentary
+on the <i>Phaenomena</i> of Aratus and Eudoxus, published by P.
+Victorius at Florence in 1567, and included by D. Petavius
+in his <i>Uranologium</i> (Paris, 1630). A new edition was published
+by Carolus Manitius (Leipzig, 1894).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. B. J. Delambre, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;astronomie ancienne</i>, i. 173;
+P. Tannery, <i>Recherches sur l&rsquo;histoire de l&rsquo;astr. ancienne</i>, p. 130;
+A. Berry, <i>Hist. of Astronomy</i>, pp. 40-61; M. Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences</i>,
+i. 207; G. Cornewall Lewis, <i>Astronomy of the Ancients</i>, p. 207; R.
+Grant, <i>Hist. of Phys. Astronomy</i>, pp. 318, 437; F. Boll, <i>Sphaera</i>,
+p. 61 (Leipzig, 1903); R. Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>, p. 45;
+J. F. Montucla, <i>Hist. des mathématiques</i>, t. i. p. 257; J. A. Schmidt,
+<i>Variorum philosophicorum decas</i>, cap. i. (Jenae, 1691).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> Pythagorean philosopher,
+was one of the earliest of the disciples of Pythagoras. He is
+mentioned both by Diogenes Laërtius and by Iamblichus, but
+nothing is known of his life. Diogenes says that he left no
+writings, but other authorities make him the author of a <span class="grk" title="mystikos
+logos">&#956;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span> directed against the Pythagoreans. According to Aristotle
+(<i>Metaphysica</i>, i. 3), he was an adherent of the Heraclitean fire-doctrine,
+whereas the Pythagoreans maintained the theory
+that number is the principle of everything. He seems to have
+regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter, and so approximates
+the orthodox Pythagorean doctrine of the central fire,
+or Hestia, to the more detailed theories of Heraclitus. In spite
+of this divergence, Hippasus is always regarded as a Pythagorean.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Diogenes viii. 84; Brandis, <i>History of Greek and Roman
+Philosophy</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pythagoras</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPEASTRUM,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> in botany, a genus of the natural order
+Amaryllidaceae, containing about 50 species of bulbous plants,
+natives of tropical and sub-tropical South America. In cultivation
+they are generally known as <i>Amaryllis</i>. The handsome
+funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster of two to many, at
+the end of a short hollow scape. The species and the numerous
+hybrids which have been obtained artificially, show a great
+variety in size and colour of the flower, including the richest
+deep crimson and blood-red, white, or with striped, mottled or
+blended colours. They are of easy culture, and free-blooming
+habit. Like other bulbs they are increased by offsets, which
+should be carefully removed when the plants are at rest, and
+should be allowed to attain a fair size before removal. These
+young bulbs should be potted singly in February or March, in
+mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand, about
+two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil,
+which should be made quite solid. They should be removed to
+a temperature of 60° by night and 70° by day, very carefully
+watered until the roots have begun to grow freely, after which
+the soil should be kept moderately moist. As they advance
+the temperature should be raised to 70° at night, and to 80° or
+higher with sun heat by day. They do not need shading, but
+should have plenty of air, and be syringed daily in the afternoon.
+When growing they require a good supply of water. After the
+decay of the flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist
+temperature of from 70° to 80° by day during summer to perfect
+their leaves, and then be ripened off in autumn. Through the
+winter they should have less water, but must not be kept entirely
+dry. The minimum temperature should now be about 55°, to
+be increased 10° or 15° in spring. As the bulbs get large they
+will occasionally need shifting into larger pots. Propagation
+is also readily effected by seeds for raising new varieties. Seeds
+are sown when ripe in well drained pans of sandy loam at a
+temperature of about 65°. The seedlings when large enough
+to handle are placed either singly in very small pots or several
+in a pot or shallow pan, and put in a bottom heat, in a moist
+atmosphere with a temperature from 60° to 70°. <i>H. Ackermanni</i>,
+with large, handsome, crimson flowers&mdash;itself a hybrid&mdash;is the
+parent of many of the large-flowered forms; <i>H. equestre</i> (Barbados
+lily), with yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet, has also
+given rise to several handsome forms; <i>H. aulicum</i> (flowers
+crimson and green), <i>H. pardinum</i> (flowers creamy-white spotted
+with crimson), and <i>H. vittatum</i> (flowers white with red stripes,
+a beautiful species and the parent of many varieties), are stove
+or warm greenhouse plants. These kinds, however, are now
+only regarded as botanical curiosities, and are rarely grown in
+private or commercial establishments. They have been ousted
+by the more gorgeous looking hybrids, which have been evolved
+during the past 100 years. <i>H. Johnsoni</i> is named after a
+Lancashire watchmaker who raised it in 1799 by crossing <i>H.
+Reginae</i> with <i>H. vittatum</i>. Since that time other species have
+been used for hybridizing, notably <i>H. reticulatum</i>, <i>H. aulicum</i>,
+<i>H. solandriflorum</i>, and sometimes <i>H. equestre</i> and <i>H. psittacinum</i>.
+The finest forms since 1880 have been evolved from <i>H. Leopoldi</i>
+and <i>H. pardinum</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. Ws.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPED ROOF,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> the name given in architecture to a roof
+which slopes down on all four sides instead of terminating on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span>
+two sides against a vertical gable. Sometimes a compromise
+is made between the two, half the roof being hipped and half
+resting on the vertical wall; this gives much more room inside
+the roof, and externally a most picturesque effect, which is one
+of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the south
+of England, and is rarely found in other countries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1741-1796), German
+satirical and humorous writer, was born on the 31st of January
+1741, at Gerdauen in East Prussia, where his father was rector
+of a school. He enjoyed an excellent education at home, and in
+his sixteenth year he entered Königsberg university as a student
+of theology. Interrupting his studies, he went, on the invitation
+of a friend, to St Petersburg, where he was introduced at the
+brilliant court of the empress Catherine II. Returning to
+Königsberg he became a tutor in a private family; but, falling
+in love with a young lady of high position, his ambition was
+aroused, and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with
+enthusiasm to legal studies. He was successful in his profession,
+and in 1780 was appointed chief burgomaster in Königsberg,
+and in 1786 privy councillor of war and president of the town.
+As he rose in the world, however, his inclination for matrimony
+vanished, and the lady who had stimulated his ambition was
+forgotten. He died at Königsberg on the 23rd of April 1796,
+leaving a considerable fortune. Hippel had extraordinary
+talents, rich in wit and fancy; but his was a character full of
+contrasts and contradictions. Cautiousness and ardent passion,
+dry pedantry and piety, morality and sensuality; simplicity
+and ostentation composed his nature; and, hence, his literary
+productions never attained artistic finish. In his <i>Lebensläufe
+nach aufsteigender Linie</i> (1778-1781) he intended to describe the
+lives of his father and grandfather, but he eventually confined
+himself to his own. It is an autobiography, in which persons
+well known to him are introduced, together with a mass of
+heterogeneous reflections on life and philosophy. <i>Kreuz- und
+Querzüge des Ritters A bis Z</i> (1793-1794) is a satire levelled against
+the follies of the age&mdash;ancestral pride and the thirst for orders,
+decoration and the like. Among others of his better known
+works are <i>Über die Ehe</i> (1774) and <i>Über die bürgerliche Verbesserung
+der Weiber</i> (1792). Hippel has been called the fore-runner
+of Jean Paul Richter, and has some resemblance to this
+author, in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of
+scientific matter in his narrative. Like Richter he was strongly
+influenced by Laurence Sterne.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1827-1838 a collected edition of Hippel&rsquo;s works in 14 vols.,
+was issued at Berlin. <i>Über die Ehe</i> has been edited by E. Brenning
+(Leipzig, 1872), and the <i>Lebensläufe nach aufsteigender Linie</i> has in
+a modernized edition by A. von Öttingen (1878), gone through
+several editions. See J. Czerny, <i>Sterne, Hippel und Jean Paul</i>
+(Berlin, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPIAS OF ELIS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> Greek sophist, was born about the middle
+of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and was thus a younger contemporary
+of Protagoras and Socrates. He was a man of great versatility
+and won the respect of his fellow-citizens to such an extent that
+he was sent to various towns on important embassies. At
+Athens he made the acquaintance of Socrates and other leading
+thinkers. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists,
+he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and
+lectured, at all events with financial success, on poetry, grammar,
+history, politics, archaeology, mathematics and astronomy.
+He boasted that he was more popular than Protagoras, and was
+prepared at any moment to deliver an extempore address on
+any subject to the assembly at Olympia. Of his ability there
+is no question, but it is equally certain that he was superficial.
+His aim was not to give knowledge, but to provide his pupils
+with the weapons of argument, to make them fertile in discussion
+on all subjects alike. It is said that he boasted of wearing
+nothing which he had not made with his own hands. Plato&rsquo;s
+two dialogues, the <i>Hippias major</i> and <i>minor</i>, contain an exposé
+of his methods, exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument
+but written with full knowledge of the man and the class which
+he represented. Ast denies their authenticity, but they must
+have been written by a contemporary writer (as they are
+mentioned in the literature of the 4th century), and undoubtedly
+represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing influence
+of the professional Sophists. There is, however, no question
+that Hippias did a real service to Greek literature by insisting
+on the meaning of words, the value of rhythm and literary style.
+He is credited with an excellent work on Homer, collections of
+Greek and foreign literature, and archaeological treatises, but
+nothing remains except the barest notes. He forms the connecting
+link between the first great sophists, Protagoras and
+Prodicus, and the innumerable eristics who brought their name
+into disrepute.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the general atmosphere in which Hippias moved see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sophists</a></span>; also histories of Philosophy (<i>e.g.</i> Windelband, Eng.
+trans. by Tufts, pt. 1, c. 2, §§ 7 and 8).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPO,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a Greek philosopher and natural scientist, classed
+with the Ionian or physical school. He was probably a contemporary
+of Archelaus and lived chiefly in Athens. Aristotle
+declared that he was unworthy of the name of philosopher, and,
+while comparing him with Thales in his main doctrine, adds that
+his intellect was too shallow for serious consideration. He held
+that the principle of all things is moisture (<span class="grk" title="to hygron">&#964;&#8056; &#8017;&#947;&#961;&#972;&#957;</span>); that fire
+develops from water, and from fire the material universe.
+Further he denied all existence save that of material things as
+known through the senses, and was, therefore, classed among the
+&ldquo;Atheists.&rdquo; The gods are merely great men canonized by
+popular tradition. It is said that he composed his own epitaph,
+wherein he claims for himself a place in this company.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPOCRAS,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> an old medicinal drink or cordial, made of wine
+mixed with spices&mdash;such as cinnamon, ginger and sugar&mdash;and
+strained through woollen cloths. The early spelling usual in English
+was <i>ipocras</i>, or <i>ypocras</i>. The word is an adaptation of the Med.
+Lat. <i>Vinum Hippocraticum</i>, or wine of Hippocrates, so called, not
+because it was supposed to be a receipt of the physician, but from
+an apothecary&rsquo;s name for a strainer or sieve, &ldquo;Hippocrates&rsquo;
+sleeve&rdquo; (see W. W. Skeat, <i>Chaucer</i>, note to the <i>Merchant&rsquo;s Tale</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPOCRATES,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> Greek philosopher and writer, termed the
+&ldquo;Father of Medicine,&rdquo; was born, according to Soranus, in Cos,
+in the first year of the 80th Olympiad, <i>i.e.</i> in 460 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was a
+member of the family of the Asclepiadae, and was believed to
+be either the nineteenth or seventeenth in direct descent from
+Aesculapius. It is also claimed for him that he was descended from
+Hercules through his mother, Phaenarete. He studied medicine
+under Heraclides, his father, and Herodicus of Selymbria; in
+philosophy Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus of Abdera were
+his masters. His earlier studies were prosecuted in the famous
+Asclepion of Cos, and probably also at Cnidos. He travelled
+extensively, and taught and practised his profession at Athens,
+probably also in Thrace, Thessaly, Delos and his native island.
+He died at Larissa in Thessaly, his age being variously stated as
+85, 90, 104 and 109. The incidents of his life are shrouded by
+uncertain traditions, which naturally sprang up in the absence of
+any authentic record; the earliest biography was by one of the
+Sorani, probably Soranus the younger of Ephesus, in the 2nd
+century; Suidas, the lexicographer, wrote of him in the 11th, and
+Tzetzes in the 12th century. In all these biographies there is
+internal evidence of confusion; many of the incidents related
+are elsewhere told of other persons, and certain of them are
+quite irreconcilable with his character, so far as it can be judged
+of from his writings and from the opinions expressed of him by his
+contemporaries; we may safely reject, for instance, the legends
+that he set fire to the library of the Temple of Health at Cnidos, in
+order to destroy the evidence of plagiarism, and that he refused
+to visit Persia at the request of Artaxerxes Longimanus, during
+a pestilential epidemic, on the ground that he would in so doing be
+assisting an enemy. He is referred to by Plato (<i>Protag.</i> p. 283;
+<i>Phaedr.</i> p. 211) as an eminent medical authority, and his opinion
+is also quoted by Aristotle. The veneration in which he was held
+by the Athenians serves to dissipate the calumnies which have
+been thrown on his character by Andreas, and the whole tone of
+his writings bespeaks a man of the highest integrity and purest
+morality.</p>
+
+<p>Born of a family of priest-physicians, and inheriting all its
+traditions and prejudices, Hippocrates was the first to cast
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span>
+superstition aside, and to base the practice of medicine on the principles
+of inductive philosophy. It is impossible to trace directly
+the influence exercised upon him by the great men of his time,
+but one cannot fail to connect his emancipation of medicine from
+superstition with the widespread power exercised over Greek life
+and thought by the living work of Socrates, Plato, Aeschylus,
+Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus and Thucydides. It was a
+period of great intellectual development, and it only needed a
+powerful mind such as his to bring to bear upon medicine the
+same influences which were at work in other sciences. It must be
+remembered that his training was not altogether bad, although
+superstition entered so largely into it. He had a great master in
+Democritus, the originator of the doctrine of atoms, and there is
+every reason to believe that the various &ldquo;asclepia&rdquo; were very
+carefully conducted hospitals for the sick, possessing a curious
+system of case-books, in the form of votive tablets, left by the
+patients, on which were recorded the symptoms, treatment and
+result of each case. He had these records at his command; and
+he had the opportunity of observing the system of training and
+the treatment of injuries in the gymnasia. One of his great
+merits is that he was the first to dissociate medicine from priest-craft,
+and to direct exclusive attention to the natural history of
+disease. How strongly his mind revolted against the use of
+charms, amulets, incantations and such devices appears from his
+writings; and he has expressly recorded, as underlying all his
+practice, the conviction that, however diseases may be regarded
+from the religious point of view, they must all be scientifically
+treated as subject to natural laws (<i>De aëre</i>, 29). Nor was he
+anxious to maintain the connexion between philosophy and
+medicine which had for long existed in a confused and confusing
+fashion.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> His knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology
+was necessarily defective, the respect in which the dead body was
+held by the Greeks precluding him from practising dissection;
+thus we find him writing of the tissues without distinguishing
+between the various textures of the body, confusing arteries,
+veins and nerves, and speaking vaguely of the muscles as
+&ldquo;flesh.&rdquo; But when we come to study his observations on the
+natural history of disease as presented in the living subject, we
+recognize at once the presence of a great clinical physician.
+Hippocrates based his principles and practice on the theory of
+the existence of a spiritual restoring essence or principle, <span class="grk" title="physis">&#966;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>,
+the <i>vis medicatrix naturae</i>, in the management of which the art
+of the physician consisted. This art could, he held, be only
+obtained by the application of experience, not only to disease at
+large, but to disease in the individual. He strongly deprecated
+blind empiricism; the aphorism &ldquo;<span class="grk" title="hê peira sphalerê, hê krisis
+chalepê">&#7969; &#960;&#949;&#8150;&#961;&#945; &#963;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#961;&#942;, &#7969; &#954;&#961;&#943;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#967;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#960;&#942;</span>&rdquo; (whether it be his or not), tersely illustrates his position.
+Holding firmly to the principle, <span class="grk" title="nousôn physies iêtroi">&#957;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#969;&#957; &#966;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#949;&#962; &#7984;&#951;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#943;</span>, he did not
+allow himself to remain inactive in the presence of disease; he
+was not a merely &ldquo;expectant&rdquo; physician; as Sydenham puts it,
+his practice was &ldquo;the support of enfeebled and the coercion of
+outrageous nature.&rdquo; He largely employed powerful medicines
+and blood-letting both ordinary and by cupping. He advises,
+however, great caution in their application. He placed great
+dependence on diet and regimen, and here, quaint as many of his
+directions may now sound, not only in themselves, but in the
+reasons given, there is much which is still adhered to at the
+present day. His treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri aerôn, hydatôn, kai topôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7936;&#941;&#961;&#969;&#957;, &#8017;&#948;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;, &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#972;&#960;&#969;&#957;</span> (<i>Airs,
+Waters, and Places</i>) contains the first enunciation of the principles
+of public health. Although the treatises <span class="grk" title="Peri krisimôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#954;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#943;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span> cannot
+be accepted as authentic, we find in the <span class="grk" title="Prognôstikon">&#928;&#961;&#959;&#947;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span> evidence of
+the acuteness of observation in the manner in which the occurrence
+of critical days in disease is enunciated. His method of
+reporting cases is most interesting and instructive; in them we
+can read how thoroughly he had separated himself from the
+priest-physician. Laennec, to whom we are indebted for the
+practice of auscultation, freely admits that the idea was suggested
+to him by study of Hippocrates, who, treating of the presence of
+morbid fluids in the thorax, gives very particular directions, by
+means of succussion, for arriving at an opinion regarding their
+nature. Laennec says, &ldquo;Hippocrate avait tenté l&rsquo;auscultation
+immédiate.&rdquo; Although the treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri nousôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#957;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#969;&#957;</span> is doubtfully
+from the pen of Hippocrates, it contains strong evidence of
+having been the work of his grandson, representing the views of
+the Father of Medicine. Although not accurate in the conclusions
+reached at the time, the value of the method of diagnosis is
+shown by the retention in modern medicine of the name and the
+practice of &ldquo;Hippocratic succussion.&rdquo; The power of graphic
+description of phenomena in the Hippocratic writings is illustrated
+by the retention of the term &ldquo;facies Hippocratica,&rdquo;
+applied to the appearance of a moribund person, pictured in the
+<i>Prognostics</i>. In surgery his writings are important and interesting,
+but they do not bear the same character of caution as the
+treatises on medicine; for instance, in the essay <i>On Injuries of
+the Head</i>, he advocates the operation &ldquo;of trephining&rdquo; more
+strongly and in wider classes of cases than would be warranted
+by the experience of later times.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Hippocratic Collection</i> consists of eighty-seven treatises, of
+which a part only can be accepted as genuine. The collection has
+been submitted to the closest criticism in ancient and modern times
+by a large number of commentators (for full list of the early commentators,
+see Adams&rsquo;s <i>Genuine Works of Hippocrates</i>, Sydenham
+Society, i. 27, 28). The treatises have been classified according
+to (1) the direct evidence of ancient writers, (2) peculiarities of style
+and method, and (3) the presence of anachronisms and of opinions
+opposed to the general Hippocratic teaching&mdash;greatest weight
+being attached to the opinions of Erotian and Galen. The general
+estimate of commentators is thus stated by Adams: &ldquo;The peculiar
+style and method of Hippocrates are held to be conciseness of
+expression, great condensation of matter, and disposition to regard
+all professional subjects in a practical point of view, to eschew
+subtle hypotheses and modes of treatment based on vague abstractions.&rdquo;
+The treatises have been grouped in the four following
+sections: (1) genuine; (2) those consisting of notes taken by
+students and collected after the death of Hippocrates; (3) essays
+by disciples; (4) those utterly spurious. Littré accepts the following
+thirteen as absolutely genuine: (1) <i>On Ancient Medicine</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri
+archaiês iêtrikês">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;&#951;&#962; &#7984;&#951;&#964;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962;</span>); (2) <i>The Prognostics</i> (<span class="grk" title="Prognôstikon">&#928;&#961;&#959;&#947;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span>); (3) <i>The
+Aphorisms</i> (<span class="grk" title="Aphorismoi">&#7944;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#943;</span>); (4) <i>The Epidemics</i>, i. and iii. (<span class="grk" title="Epidêmiôn
+a' kai g'">&#7960;&#960;&#953;&#948;&#951;&#956;&#953;&#8182;&#957; &#945;&prime; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#947;&prime;</span>); (5) <i>On Regimen in Acute Diseases</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri diaitês oxeôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#948;&#953;&#945;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962; &#8000;&#958;&#941;&#969;&#957;</span>);
+(6) <i>On Airs, Waters, and Places</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri aerôn, hydatôn, kai topôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7936;&#941;&#961;&#969;&#957;, &#8017;&#948;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;, &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#972;&#960;&#969;&#957;</span>);
+(7) <i>On the Articulations</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri arthrôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7940;&#961;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#957;</span>); (8) <i>On Fractures</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri agmôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7936;&#947;&#956;&#8182;&#957;</span>);
+(9) <i>The Instruments of Reduction</i> (<span class="grk" title="Mochlikos">&#924;&#959;&#967;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>); (10) <i>The Physician&rsquo;s
+Establishment, or Surgery</i> (<span class="grk" title="Kat' iêtreion">&#922;&#945;&#964;&#8125; &#7984;&#951;&#964;&#961;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>); (11) <i>On Injuries of the
+Head</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tôn en kephalê trômatôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7952;&#957; &#954;&#949;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#8135; &#964;&#961;&#969;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>); (12) <i>The Oath</i> (<span class="grk" title="Horkos">&#8013;&#961;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>);
+(13) <i>The Law</i> (<span class="grk" title="Nomos">&#925;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>). Of these Adams accepts as certainly genuine
+the 2nd, 6th, 5th, 3rd (7 books), 4th, 7th, 8th, 9th and 12th, and as
+&ldquo;pretty confidently acknowledged as genuine, although the evidence
+in their favour is not so strong,&rdquo; the 1st, 10th and 13th, and, in
+addition, (14) <i>On Ulcers</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri helkôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7953;&#955;&#954;&#8182;&#957;</span>); (15) <i>On Fistulae</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri
+syringôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#963;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#947;&#947;&#969;&#957;</span>); (16) <i>On Hemorrhoids</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri haimorrhoïdôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#945;&#7985;&#956;&#959;&#8164;&#8165;&#959;&#8147;&#948;&#969;&#957;</span>); (17) <i>On the
+Sacred Disease</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri hierês nousou">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7985;&#949;&#961;&#8134;&#962; &#957;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#959;&#965;</span>). According to the sceptical
+and somewhat subjective criticism of Ermerins, the whole collection
+is to be regarded as spurious except <i>Epidemics</i>, books i. and iii.
+(with a few interpolations), <i>On Airs, Waters, and Places</i>, <i>On Injuries
+of the Head</i> (&ldquo;insigne fragmentum libri Hippocratei&rdquo;), the former
+portion of the treatise <i>On Regimen in Acute Diseases</i>, and the
+&ldquo;obviously Hippocratic&rdquo; fragments of the <i>Coan Prognostics</i>.
+Perhaps also the <i>Oath</i> may be accepted as genuine; its comparative
+antiquity is not denied. The <i>Aphorisms</i> are certainly later and
+inferior. In the other non-Hippocratic writings Ermerins thinks he
+can distinguish the hands of no fewer than nineteen different authors,
+most of them anonymous, and some of them very late.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest Greek edition of the Hippocratic writings is that which
+was published by Aldus and Asulanus at Venice in 1526 (folio);
+it was speedily followed by that of Frobenius, which is much more
+accurate and complete (fol., Basel, 1538). Of the numerous subsequent
+editions, probably the best was that of Foesius (Frankfort,
+1595, 1621, Geneva, 1657), until the publication of the great works
+of Littré, <i>&OElig;uvres complètes d&rsquo;Hippocrate, traduction nouvelle avec
+le texte grec en regard, collationnée sur les manuscrits et toutes les
+éditions, accompagnée d&rsquo;une introduction, de commentaires médicaux,
+de variantes, et de notes philologiques</i> (10 vols., Paris, 1839-1861),
+and of F. Z. Ermerins, <i>Hippocratis et aliorum medicorum veterum
+reliquiae</i> (3 vols., Utrecht, 1859-1864). See also Adams (as cited
+above), and Reinhold&rsquo;s <i>Hippocrates</i> (2 vols., Athens, 1864-1867).
+Daremberg&rsquo;s edition of the <i>&OElig;uvres choisies</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1855)
+includes the <i>Oath</i>, the <i>Law</i>, the <i>Prorrhetics</i>, book i., the <i>Prognostics,
+On Airs, Waters, and Places, Epidemics</i>, books i. and iii., <i>Regimen</i>,
+and <i>Aphorisms</i>. Of the separate works attributed to Hippocrates
+the editions and translations are almost innumerable; of the
+<i>Prognostics</i>, for example, seventy editions are known, while of the
+<i>Aphorisms</i> there are said to exist as many as three hundred. For
+some notice of the Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew translations of works
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span>
+professedly by Hippocrates (Ibukrat or Bukrat), the number of
+which greatly exceeds that of the extant Greek originals, reference
+may be made to Flügel&rsquo;s contribution to the article &ldquo;Hippokrates&rdquo;
+in the <i>Encyklopädie</i> of Ersch and Gruber. They have been partially
+catalogued by Fabricius in his <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. B. T.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;Hippocrates Cous, primus quidem ex omnibus memoria
+dignus, ab studio sapientiae disciplinam hanc separavit, vir et arte
+et facundia insignis&rdquo; (Celsus, <i>De medicina</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPOCRENE<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (the &ldquo;fountain of the horse,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="hê hippou krênê">&#7969; &#7989;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#965; &#954;&#961;&#942;&#957;&#951;</span>),
+the spring on Mt Helicon, in Boeotia, which, like the other
+spring there, Aganippe, was sacred to the Muses and Apollo,
+and hence taken as the source of poetic inspiration. The spring,
+surrounded by an ancient wall, is now known as <i>Kryopegadi</i> or
+the cold spring. According to the legend, it was produced by
+the stamping of the hoof of Bellerophon&rsquo;s horse Pegasus. The
+same story accounts for the Hippocrene in Troezen and the
+spring Peirene at Corinth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPODAMUS,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> of Miletus, a Greek architect of the 5th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was he who introduced order and regularity
+into the planning of cities, in place of the previous intricacy
+and confusion. For Pericles he planned the arrangement of
+the harbour-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the Athenians
+founded Thurii in Italy he accompanied the colony as architect,
+and afterwards, in 408 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, he superintended the building of
+the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of series of broad,
+straight streets, cutting one another at right angles.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPODROME<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippodromos">&#7985;&#960;&#960;&#972;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="hippos">&#7989;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, horse, and
+<span class="grk" title="dromos">&#948;&#961;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, racecourse), the course provided by the Greeks for
+horse and chariot racing; it corresponded to the Roman <i>circus</i>,
+except that in the latter only four chariots ran at a time, whereas
+ten or more contended in the Greek games, so that the width
+was far greater, being about 400 ft., the <span class="correction" title="amended from cource">course</span> being 600 to
+700 ft. long. The Greek hippodrome was usually set out on the
+slope of a hill, and the ground taken from one side served to
+form the embankment on the other side. One end of the
+hippodrome was semicircular, and the other end square with
+an extensive portico, in front of which, at a lower level, were
+the stalls for the horses and chariots. The modern hippodrome
+is more for equestrian and other displays than for horse racing.
+The Hippodrome in Paris somewhat resembles the Roman
+amphitheatre, being open in the centre to the sky, with seats
+round on rising levels.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPOLYTUS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Theseus and Hippolyte,
+queen of the Amazons (or of her sister Antiope), a famous hunter
+and charioteer and favourite of Artemis. His stepmother
+Phaedra became enamoured of him, but, finding her advances
+rejected, she hanged herself, leaving a letter in which she accused
+Hippolytus of an attempt upon her virtue. Theseus thereupon
+drove his son from his presence with curses and called upon his
+father Poseidon to destroy him. While Hippolytus was driving
+along the shore at Troezen (the scene of the <i>Hippolytus</i> of
+Euripides), a sea-monster (a bull or <i>phoca</i>) sent by Poseidon
+emerged from the waves; the horses were scared, Hippolytus
+was thrown out of the chariot, and was dragged along, entangled
+in the reins, until he died. According to a tradition of Epidaurus,
+Asclepius restored him to life at the request of Artemis, who
+removed him to Italy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Virbius</a></span>). At Troezen, where he had
+a special sanctuary and priest, and was worshipped with divine
+honours, the story of his death was denied. He was said to
+have been rescued by the gods at the critical moment, and to
+have been placed amongst the stars as the Charioteer (Auriga).
+It was also the custom of the Troezenian maidens to cut off a
+lock of their hair and to dedicate it to Hippolytus before marriage
+(see Frazer on Pausanias ii. 32. 1). Well-known classical
+parallels to the main theme are Bellerophon and Antea (or
+Stheneboea) and Peleus and Astydamia. The story was the
+subject of two plays by Euripides (the later of which is extant),
+of a tragedy by Seneca and of Racine&rsquo;s <i>Phèdre</i>. A trace of it
+has survived in the legendary death of the apocryphal martyr
+Hippolytus, a Roman officer who was torn to pieces by wild
+horses as a convert to Christianity (see J. J. Döllinger, <i>Hippolytus
+and Callistus</i>, Eng. tr. by A. Plummer, 1876, pp. 28-39,
+51-60).</p>
+
+<p>According to the older explanations, Hippolytus represented
+the sun, which sets in the sea (cf. the scene of his death and the
+story of Phaëthon), and Phaedra the moon, which travels behind
+the sun, but is unable to overtake it. It is more probable,
+however, that he was a local hero famous for his chastity, perhaps
+originally a priest of Artemis, worshipped as a god at Troezen,
+where he was closely connected and sometimes confounded with
+Asclepius. It is noteworthy that, in a speech put into the mouth
+of Theseus by Euripides, the father, who of course believes his
+wife&rsquo;s story and regards Hippolytus as a hypocrite, throws his
+son&rsquo;s pretended misogyny and asceticism (Orphism) in his
+teeth. This seems to point to a struggle between a new ritual
+and that of Poseidon, the chief deity of Troezen, in which the
+representative of the intruding religion meets his death through
+the agency of the offended god, as Orpheus (q.v.) was torn to
+pieces by the votaries of the jealous Dionysus. According to
+S. Reinach (<i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>, x., 1907, p. 47),
+the Troezenian Hippolytus was a horse, the hypostasis of an
+equestrian divinity periodically torn to pieces by the faithful,
+who called themselves, and believed themselves to be, horses.
+Death was followed by resuscitation, as in the similar myths
+of Adonis (the sacred boar), Orpheus (the fox), Pentheus (the
+fawn), Phaëthon (the white sun-horse).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wilamowitz-Möllendorff&rsquo;s Introduction to his German translation
+of Euripides&rsquo; <i>Hippolytus</i> (1891); A. Kalkmann, <i>De Hippolytis
+Euripideis</i> (Bonn, 1882); and (for representations in art) &ldquo;Über
+Darstellung der Hippolytussage&rdquo; in <i>Archäologische Zeitung</i> (xli.
+1883); J. E. Harrison, <i>Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens</i>
+(1890), cl.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPOLYTUS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a writer of the early Church. The mystery
+which enveloped the person and writings of Hippolytus,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> one of
+the most prolific ecclesiastical writers of early times, had some
+light thrown upon it for the first time about the middle of the
+19th century by the discovery of the so-called <i>Philosophumena</i>
+(see below). Assuming this writing to be the work of Hippolytus,
+the information given in it as to the author and his times can be
+combined with other traditional dates to form a tolerably clear
+picture. Hippolytus must have been born in the second half of
+the 2nd century, probably in Rome. Photius describes him in
+his <i>Bibliotheca</i> (cod. 121) as a disciple of Irenaeus, and from the
+context of this passage it is supposed that we may conclude that
+Hippolytus himself so styled himself. But this is not certain, and
+even if it were, it does not necessarily imply that Hippolytus
+enjoyed the personal teaching of the celebrated Gallic bishop;
+it may perhaps merely refer to that relation of his theological
+system to that of Irenaeus which can easily be traced in his
+writings. As a presbyter of the church at Rome under Bishop
+Zephyrinus (199-217), Hippolytus was distinguished for his
+learning and eloquence. It was at this time that Origen, then a
+young man, heard him preach (Hieron. <i>Vir. ill.</i> 61; cp. Euseb.
+<i>H.E.</i> vi. 14, 10). It was probably not long before questions of
+theology and church discipline brought him into direct conflict with
+Zephyrinus, or at any rate with his successor Calixtus I. (q.v.).
+He accused the bishop of favouring the Christological heresies
+of the Monarchians, and, further, of subverting the discipline of
+the Church by his lax action in receiving back into the Church
+those guilty of gross offences. The result was a schism, and for
+perhaps over ten years Hippolytus stood as bishop at the head of
+a separate church. Then came the persecution under Maximinus
+the Thracian. Hippolytus and Pontius, who was then bishop,
+were transported in 235 to Sardinia, where it would seem that
+both of them died. From the so-called chronograph of the year
+354 (<i>Catalogus Liberianus</i>) we learn that on the 13th of August,
+probably in 236, the bodies of the exiles were interred in Rome
+and that of Hippolytus in the cemetery on the Via Tiburtina.
+So we must suppose that before his death the schismatic was
+received again into the bosom of the Church, and this is confirmed
+by the fact that his memory was henceforth celebrated in the
+Church as that of a holy martyr. Pope Damasus I. dedicated to
+him one of his famous epigrams, and Prudentius (<i>Peristephanon</i>, 11)
+drew a highly coloured picture of his gruesome death, the details
+of which are certainly purely legendary: the myth of Hippolytus
+the son of Theseus was transferred to the Christian martyr. Of
+the historical Hippolytus little remained in the memory of after
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span>
+ages. Neither Eusebius (<i>H.E.</i> vi. 20, 2) nor Jerome (<i>Vir. ill.</i> 61)
+knew that the author so much read in the East and the Roman
+saint were one and the same person. The notice in the <i>Chronicon
+Paschale</i> preserves one slight reminiscence of the historical facts,
+namely, that Hippolytus&rsquo;s episcopal see was situated at Portus
+near Rome. In 1551 a marble statue of a seated man was found
+in the cemetery of the Via Tiburtina: on the sides of the
+seat were carved a paschal cycle, and on the back the titles of
+numerous writings. It was the statue of Hippolytus, a work
+at any rate of the 3rd century; at the time of Pius IX. it
+was placed in the Lateran Museum, a record in stone of a lost
+tradition.</p>
+
+<p>Hippolytus&rsquo;s voluminous writings, which for variety of
+subject can be compared with those of Origen, embrace the
+spheres of exegesis, homiletics, apologetics and polemic, chronography
+and ecclesiastical law. His works have unfortunately
+come down to us in such a fragmentary condition that it is
+difficult to obtain from them any very exact notion of his intellectual
+and literary importance. Of his exegetical works the best
+preserved are the <i>Commentary on the Prophet Daniel</i> and the
+<i>Commentary on the Song of Songs</i>. In spite of many instances of
+a want of taste in his typology, they are distinguished by a certain
+sobriety and sense of proportion in his exegesis. We are unable
+to form an opinion of Hippolytus as a preacher, for the <i>Homilies
+on the Feast of Epiphany</i> which go under his name are wrongly
+attributed to him. He wrote polemical words directed against
+the pagans, the Jews and heretics. The most important of these
+polemical treatises is the <i>Refutation of all Heresies</i>, which has
+come to be known by the inappropriate title of the <i>Philosophumena</i>.
+Of its ten books, the second and third are lost;
+Book i. was for a long time printed (with the title <i>Philosophumena</i>)
+among the works of Origen; Books iv.-x. were found in
+1842 by the Greek Minoides Mynas, without the name of the
+author, in a MS. at Mount Athos. It is nowadays universally
+admitted that Hippolytus was the author, and that Books i. and
+iv.-x. belong to the same work. The importance of the work has,
+however, been much overrated; a close examination of the
+sources for the exposition of the Gnostic system which is contained
+in it has proved that the information it gives is not
+always trustworthy. Of the dogmatic works, that on <i>Christ and
+Antichrist</i> survives in a complete state. Among other things it
+includes a vivid account of the events preceding the end of the
+world, and it was probably written at the time of the persecution
+under Septimius Severus, <i>i.e.</i> about 202. The influence of
+Hippolytus was felt chiefly through his works on chronographic
+and ecclesiastical law. His chronicle of the world, a compilation
+embracing the whole period from the creation of the world up to
+the year 234, formed a basis for many chronographical works
+both in the East and West. In the great compilations of ecclesiastical
+law which arose in the East since the 4th century (see
+below: also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolic Constitutions</a></span>) much of the material was
+taken from the writings of Hippolytus; how much of this is
+genuinely his, how much of it worked over, and how much of it
+wrongly attributed to him, can no longer be determined beyond
+dispute even by the most learned investigation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The edition of J. A. Fabricius, <i>Hippolyti opera
+graece et latine</i> (2 vols., Hamburg, 1716-1718, reprinted in Gallandi,
+<i>Bibliotheca veterum patrum</i> (vol. ii., 1766), and Migne, <i>Cursus
+patrol. ser. Graeca</i>, vol. x.) is out of date. The preparation of a
+complete critical edition has been undertaken by the Prussian
+Academy of Sciences. The task is one of extraordinary difficulty,
+for the textual problems of the various writings are complex
+and confused: the Greek original is extant in a few cases only
+(the <i>Commentary on Daniel</i>, the <i>Refutation, on Antichrist</i>, parts of
+the <i>Chronicle</i>, and some fragments); for the rest we are dependent
+on fragments of translations, chiefly Slavonic, all of which are not
+even published. Of the Academy&rsquo;s edition one volume was published
+at Berlin in 1897, containing the <i>Commentaries on Daniel</i> and on
+the <i>Song of Songs</i>, the treatise on <i>Antichrist</i>, and the <i>Lesser Exegetical</i>
+and <i>Homiletic Works</i>, edited by Nathanael Bonwetsch and Hans
+Achelis. The <i>Commentary on the Song of Songs</i> has also been
+published by Bonwetsch (Leipzig, 1902) in a German translation
+based on a Russian translation by N. Marr of the Grusian (Georgian)
+text, and he added to it (Leipzig, 1904) a translation of various small
+exegetical pieces, which are preserved in a Georgian version only
+(<i>The Blessing of Jacob</i>, <i>The Blessing of Moses</i>, <i>The Narrative of
+David and Goliath</i>). A great part of the original of the <i>Chronicle</i>
+has been published by Adolf Bauer (Leipzig, 1905) from the <i>Codex
+Matritensis Graecus</i>, 221. For the <i>Refutation</i> we are still dependent
+on the editions of Miller (Oxford, 1851), Duncker and Schneidewin
+(Göttingen, 1859), and Cruice (Paris, 1860). An English translation
+is to be found in the <i>Ante-Nicene Christian Library</i> (Edinburgh,
+1868-1869).</p>
+
+<p>See Bunsen, <i>Hippolytus and his Age</i> (1852, 2nd ed., 1854; Ger.
+ed., 1853); Döllinger, <i>Hippolytus und Kallistus</i> (Regensb. 1853;
+Eng. transl., Edinb., 1876); Gerhard Ficker, <i>Studien zur Hippolytfrage</i>
+(Leipzig, 1893); Hans Achelis, <i>Hippolytstudien</i> (Leipzig, 1897);
+Karl Johannes Neumann, <i>Hippolytus von Rom in seiner Stellung zu
+Staat und Welt</i>, part i. (Leipzig, 1902); Adhémar d&rsquo;Alès, <i>La Théologie
+de Saint Hippolyte</i> (Paris, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. K.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to the legend St Hippolytus was a Roman soldier
+who was converted by St Lawrence.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF.<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> This book stands at the
+head of a series of Church Orders, which contain instructions in
+regard to the choice and ordination of Christian ministers, regulations
+as to widows and virgins, conditions of reception of converts
+from heathenism, preparation for and administration of baptism,
+rules for the celebration of the eucharist, for fasting, daily prayers,
+charity suppers, memorial meals, first-fruits, &amp;c. We shall give
+(1) a description of the book as we have it at present; (2) a brief
+statement of its relation to allied documents; (3) some remarks
+on the evidence for its date and authorship.</p>
+
+<p>1. We possess the <i>Canons of Hippolytus</i> only in an Arabic
+version, itself made from a Coptic version of the original Greek.
+Attention was called to the book by Wansleben and Ludolf
+towards the end of the 17th century, but it was only in 1870 that
+it was edited by Haneberg, who added a Latin translation, and
+so made it generally accessible. In 1891 H. Achelis reproduced
+this translation in a revised form, embodying it in a synopsis
+of allied documents. He suspected much interpolation and
+derangement of order, and consequently rearranged its contents
+with a free hand. In 1900 a German translation was made
+by H. Riedel, based on fresh MSS. These showed that the book,
+as hitherto edited, had been thrown into disorder by the displacement
+of two pages near the end; they also removed other
+difficulties upon which the theory of interpolation had been
+based. Further discoveries, to be spoken of presently, have
+added to our materials for the study of the book.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The book is attributed to &ldquo;Hippolytus, the chief of the bishops
+of Rome,&rdquo; and is divided into thirty-eight canons, to which short
+headings are prefixed. This division is certainly not original, but
+it is convenient for purposes of reference. Canon 1 is prefatory;
+it contains a brief confession of faith in the Trinity, and especially
+in the Word, the Son of God; and it speaks of the expulsion of
+heretics from the Church. Canons 2-5 give regulations for the
+selection and ordination of bishops, presbyters and deacons. The
+bishop is chosen by the whole congregation: &ldquo;one of the bishops
+and presbyters&rdquo; is to lay hands upon him and say a prayer which
+follows (3): he is at once to proceed with &ldquo;the offering,&rdquo; taking
+up the eucharistic service at the point where the <i>sursum corda</i>
+comes in. A presbyter (4) is to be ordained with the same prayer
+as a bishop, &ldquo;with the exception of the word bishop&rdquo;; but he is
+given no power of ordination (this appears to be inconsistent with
+c. 2). The duties of a deacon are described, and the prayer of his
+ordination follows (5). Canons 6-9 deal with various classes in the
+Church. One who has suffered punishment for the faith (6) is to
+be counted a presbyter without ordination: &ldquo;his confession is his
+ordination.&rdquo; Readers and sub-deacons (7) are given the Gospel,
+but are not ordained by laying-on of hands. A claim to ordination
+on the ground of gifts of healing (8) is to be admitted, if the facts
+are clear and the healing is from God. Widows are not ordained
+(9): &ldquo;ordination is for men only.&rdquo; Canons 10-15 describe conditions
+for the admission of converts. Certain occupations are
+incompatible with Christian life: only under compulsion may a
+Christian be a soldier. Canons 16-18 deal chiefly with regulations
+concerning women. Canon 19 is a long one dealing with catechumens,
+preparation for baptism, administration of that sacrament, and of
+the eucharist for the newly baptized. The candidate is twice
+anointed: first, with the oil of exorcism, after he has said, with his
+face westward, &ldquo;I renounce thee, O devil, and all thy following&rdquo;;
+and, again, immediately after the baptism. As he stands in the
+water, he declares his faith in response to an interrogatory creed;
+and after each of the three clauses he is immersed. After the
+second anointing the bishop gives thanks &ldquo;for that Thou hast made
+them worthy that they should be born again, and hast poured out
+Thy Holy Ghost upon them, so that they may belong, each one of
+them, to the body of the Church&rdquo;: he signs them with the cross
+on their foreheads, and kisses them. The eucharist then proceeds:
+&ldquo;the bishop gives them of the body of Christ and says, This is the
+body of Christ, and they answer Amen&rdquo;; and similarly for the cup.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span>
+Milk and honey are then given to them as being &ldquo;born a second
+time as little children.&rdquo; A warning is added against eating anything
+before communicating. Canons 20-22 deal with fast-days, daily
+services in church, and the fast of the passover-week. Canon 23
+seems as if it closed the series, speaking, as it does, of &ldquo;our brethren
+the bishops&rdquo; who in their cities have made regulations &ldquo;according
+to the commands of our fathers the apostles&rdquo;: &ldquo;let none of our
+successors alter them; because it saith that the teaching is greater
+than the sea, and hath no end.&rdquo; We pass on, however, to regulations
+about the sick (24) who are to be visited by the bishop, &ldquo;because
+it is a great thing for the sick that the high-priest should visit them
+(for the shadow of Peter healed the sick).&rdquo; Canons 25-27 deal again
+with prayers and church-services. The &ldquo;seven hours&rdquo; are specified,
+with reasons for their observance (25): attendance at sermons is
+urged (26), &ldquo;for the Lord is in the place where his lordship is proclaimed&rdquo;
+(comp. <i>Didachè</i> 4, part of the <i>Two Ways</i>). When there
+are no prayers in church, reading at home is enjoined (27): &ldquo;let
+the sun each morning see the book upon thy knees&rdquo; (comp. Ath.
+<i>Ad virg.</i>, § 12, &ldquo;Let the sun when he ariseth see the book in thy
+hands&rdquo;). Prayer must be preceded by the washing of the hands.
+&ldquo;No believer must take food before communicating, especially
+on fast-days&rdquo;: only believers may communicate (28). The sacred
+elements must be guarded, &ldquo;lest anything fall into the cup, and it
+be a sin unto death for the presbyters.&rdquo; No crumb must be dropped,
+&ldquo;lest an evil spirit get possession of it.&rdquo; Canons 30-35 contain
+various rules, and specially deal with suppers for the poor (<i>i.e.</i>
+<i>agapae</i>) and memorial feasts. Then we have a prayer for the offering
+of first-fruits (36); a direction that ministers shall wear fair garments
+at &ldquo;the mysteries&rdquo; (37); and a command to watch during the
+night of the resurrection (38). The last canon hereupon passes into
+a general exhortation to right living, which forms a sixth part of
+the whole book. In Riedel&rsquo;s translation we read this for the first
+time as a connected whole. It falls into two parts, and describes,
+first, the true life of ordinary Christians, warning them against an
+empty profession, and laying down many precepts of morality;
+and then it addresses itself to the &ldquo;ascete&rdquo; who &ldquo;wishes to belong
+to the rank of the angels,&rdquo; and who lives a life of solitude and
+poverty. He is encouraged by an exposition, on somewhat strange
+lines, of the temptations of our Lord, and is specially warned against
+spiritual pride and contempt of other men. The book closes with
+an appeal for love and mutual service, based on the parables in St
+Matthew xxv.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. It is impossible to estimate the position of the Canons of
+Hippolytus without some reference to allied documents (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolical Constitutions</a></span>). (<i>a</i>) The most important of
+these is what is now commonly called the <i>Egyptian Church
+Order</i>. This is preserved to us in Coptic and Aethiopic versions,
+of which Achelis, in his synopsis, gives German translations. The
+subject-matter and arrangement of these canons correspond
+generally to those of Hippolytus; but many of the details are
+modified to bring them into accord with a later practice. A
+new light was thrown on the criticism of this work by Hauler&rsquo;s
+discovery (1900) of a Latin version (of which, unfortunately,
+about half is missing) in the Verona palimpsest, from which
+he has also given us large Latin fragments of the <i>Didascalia</i>
+(which underlies books i.-vi. of the Apostolic Constitutions, and
+which hitherto we have only known from the Syriac). The Latin
+of the Egyptian Church Order is somewhat more primitive than
+the Coptic, and approaches more nearly, at some points, to the
+<i>Canons of Hippolytus</i>. It has a preface which refers to a treatise
+<i>Concerning Spiritual Gifts</i>, as having immediately preceded it;
+but neither this nor the Coptic-Aethiopic form has either the
+introduction or concluding exhortation which is found in the
+<i>Canons of Hippolytus</i>. (<i>b</i>) <i>The Testament of the Lord</i> is a document
+in Syriac, of which the opening part had been published
+by Lagarde, and of which Rahmani (1899) has given us the whole.
+It professes to contain instructions given by our Lord to the
+apostles after the resurrection. After an introduction containing
+apocalyptical matter, it passes on to give elaborate directions
+for the ordering of the Church, embodying, in a much-expanded
+form, the Egyptian Church Order, and showing a knowledge of
+the preface to that document which appears in the Latin version.
+It cannot be placed with probability earlier than the latter part
+of the 4th century. (<i>c</i>) The <i>Apostolic Constitutions</i> is a composite
+document, which probably belongs to the end of the 4th century.
+Its first six books are an expanded edition of a <i>Didascalia</i> which
+we have already mentioned: its seventh book similarly expands
+and modifies the <i>Didachè</i> its eighth book begins by treating
+of &ldquo;spiritual gifts,&rdquo; and then in c. 3 passes on to expand in like
+manner the Egyptian Church Order. The hand which has
+wrought up all these documents has been shown to be that of
+the interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek
+recension. (<i>d</i>) The <i>Canons of Basil</i> is the title of an Arabic
+work, of which a German translation has been given us by
+Riedel, who thinks that they have come through Coptic from
+an original Greek book. They embody, in a modified form,
+considerable portions of the Canons of Hippolytus.</p>
+
+<p>3. We now approach the difficult questions of date and authorship.
+Much of the material has been quite recently brought to
+light, and criticism has not had time to investigate and pronounce
+upon it. Some provisional remarks, therefore, are all that can
+prudently be made. It seems plain that we have two lines of
+tradition: (1) The Canons of Hippolytus, followed by the
+Canons of Basil; (2) the Egyptian Church Order, itself represented
+(<i>a</i>) by the Latin version, the Testament of the Lord, and
+the Apostolic Constitutions, which are linked together by the
+same preface (or portions of it); (<i>b</i>) by the Coptic and Aethiopic
+versions. Now, the preface of the Latin version points to a time
+when the canons were embodied in a <i>corpus</i> of similar materials,
+or, at the least, were preceded by a work on &ldquo;Spiritual Gifts.&rdquo;
+The Canons of Hippolytus have a wholly different preface, and
+also a long exhortation at the close. The question which criticism
+must endeavour to answer is, whether the Canons of Hippolytus
+are the original from which the Egyptian Church Order is derived,
+or whether an earlier body of canons lies behind them both.
+At present it is probably wise to assume that the latter is the
+true explanation. For the Canons of Hippolytus appear to
+contain contradictory regulations (<i>e.g.</i> cc. 2 and 4 of the
+presbyters), and also suggest that they have received a considerable
+supplement (after c. 23). There is, however, no doubt that
+they present us with a more primitive stage of Church life than
+we find in the Egyptian Church Order. The mention of sub-deacons
+(which, after Riedel&rsquo;s fresh manuscript evidence, cannot
+now be dismissed as due to interpolation) makes it difficult
+to assign a date much earlier than the middle of the 3rd
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The Puritan severity of the canons well accords with
+the temper of the writer to whom the Arabic title attributes
+them; and it is to be noted that the exhortation at the
+close contains a quotation from 2 Peter actually attributed
+to the apostle, and Hippolytus is perhaps the earliest
+author who can with certainty be said to have used this epistle.
+But the general style of Hippolytus, which is simple, straight-forward
+and strong, is in marked contrast with that of the
+closing passage of the canons; moreover, his mind, as presented
+to us in his extant writings, appears to be a much larger one than
+that of the writer of these canons; it is as difficult to think of
+Hippolytus as it would be to think of Origen in such a connexion.
+How, then, are we to account for the attribution? There is
+evidence to show that Hippolytus was highly reverenced throughout
+the East: his writings, which were in Greek, were known,
+but his history was entirely unknown. He was supposed to
+be &ldquo;a pupil (<span class="grk" title="gnôrimos">&#947;&#957;&#974;&#961;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>) of apostles&rdquo; (Palladius, 4th century),
+and the Arabic title calls him &ldquo;chief of the bishops of Rome,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> archbishop of Rome. It is hard to trust this attribution
+more than the attribution of a Coptic discourse on the <i>Dormitio
+Mariae</i> to &ldquo;Evodius, archbishop of the great city Rome, who
+was the second after Peter the apostle&rdquo; (<i>Texts and Studies</i>, iv.
+2-44)&mdash;Evodius being by tradition first bishop of Antioch.
+A whole group of books on Church Order bears the name of
+Clement of Rome; and the attribution of our canons to Hippolytus
+may be only an example of the same tendency. The
+fact that Hippolytus wrote a treatise <i>Concerning Spiritual Gifts</i>,
+and that some such treatise is not only referred to in the Latin
+preface to the Egyptian Church Order, but is actually found
+at the beginning of book viii. of the Apostolic Constitutions,
+introduces an interesting complication; but we cannot here
+pursue the matter further. Dom Morin&rsquo;s ingenious attribution
+of the canons to Dionysius of Alexandria (on the ground of
+Eusebius, <i>H.E.</i> vi. 46., 5) cannot be accepted in view of the broader
+church policy which that writer represents. If the Hippolytean
+authorship be given up, it is probable that Egypt will make
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span>
+the strongest claim to be the locality in which the canons were
+compiled in their present form.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The authorities of chief practical importance are H. Achelis,
+<i>Texte u. Unters.</i> vi. 4 (1891); Rahmani, <i>Testamentum Domini</i>
+(1899); Hauler, <i>Didascaliae Apostolorum</i> (1900); Riedel, <i>Kirchenrechtsquellen
+des Patriarchats Alexandrien</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPONAX,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> of Ephesus, Greek iambic poet. Expelled from
+Ephesus in 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the tyrant Athenagoras, he took refuge
+in Clazomenae, where he spent the rest of his life in poverty.
+His deformed figure and malicious disposition exposed him to
+the caricature of the Chian sculptors Bupalus and Athenis, upon
+whom he revenged himself by issuing against them a series of
+satires. They are said to have hanged themselves like Lycambes
+and his daughters when assailed by Archilochus, the model and
+predecessor of Hipponax. His coarseness of thought and feeling,
+his rude vocabulary, his want of grace and taste, and his numerous
+allusions to matters of merely local interest prevented his becoming
+a favourite in Attica. He was considered the inventor
+of parody and of a peculiar metre, the <i>scazon</i> or <i>choliambus</i>,
+which substitutes a spondee for the final iambus of an iambic
+senarius, and is an appropriate form for the burlesque character
+of his poems.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in Bergk, <i>Poëtae lyrici Graeci</i>; see also B. J. Peltzer,
+<i>De parodica Graecorum poèsi</i> (1855), containing an account of
+Hipponax and the fragments.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPOPOTAMUS<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (&ldquo;river-horse,&rdquo; Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippos">&#7989;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, horse and
+<span class="grk" title="potamos">&#960;&#959;&#964;&#945;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>, river), the name of the largest representative of the
+non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mammals, and its living
+and extinct relatives. The common hippopotamus (<i>Hippopotamus
+amphibius</i>), which formerly inhabited all the great rivers
+of Africa but whose range has now been much restricted, is most
+likely the <i>behemoth</i> of Scripture, and may very probably in
+Biblical times have been found in the Jordan valley, since at a
+still earlier (Pleistocene) epoch it ranged over a large part of
+Europe. It typifies not only a genus, but likewise a family,
+<i>Hippopotamidae</i>, distinguished from its relatives the pigs and
+peccaries, or <i>Suidae</i>, by the following assemblage of characters:
+Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, with
+four subequal toes, bearing short rounded hoofs, and all reaching
+the ground in walking. Incisors not rooted but continuously
+growing; those of the upper jaw curved and directed downwards;
+those of the lower straight and procumbent. Canines
+very large, curved, continuously growing; upper ones directed
+downwards. Premolars <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span>; molars <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>. Stomach complex. No
+caecum.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:373px" src="images/img522.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">The Hippopotamus (<i>Hippopotamus amphibius</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In form the hippopotamus is a huge, unwieldy creature,
+measuring in the largest specimens fully 14 ft. from the extremity
+of the upper lip to the tip of the tail, while it ordinarily
+attains a length of 12 ft., with a height of 5 ft. at the shoulders,
+and a girth round the thickest part of the body almost equal to
+its length. The small ears are exceedingly flexible, and kept in
+constant motion when the animal is seeking to catch a distant
+sound; the eyes are placed high up on the head, but little below
+the level of the ears; while the gape is wide, and the upper lip
+thick and bulging so as to cover over even its large tusks when the
+mouth is closed. The molars, which show trefoil-shaped grinding-surfaces
+are well adapted for masticating vegetable substances,
+while the formidable array of long spear-like incisors and curved
+chisel-edged canines or tusks root up rank grass like an agricultural
+implement. The legs are short, so that the body is but
+little elevated above the ground; and the feet, which are small
+in proportion to the size of the animal, terminate in four short
+toes each bearing a small hoof. With the exception of a few tufts
+of hair on the lips, on the sides of the head and neck, and at the
+extremity of the short robust tail, the skin of the hippopotamus,
+some portions of which are 2 in. in thickness, is destitute of
+covering. Hippopotamuses are gregarious animals, living in herds
+of from 20 to 40 individuals on the banks and in the beds of
+rivers, in the neighbourhood of which they most readily find
+appropriate food. This consists chiefly of grass and of aquatic
+plants, of which these animals consume enormous quantities, the
+stomach being capable of containing from 5 to 6 bushels. They
+feed principally by night, remaining in the water during the day,
+although in districts where they are little disturbed they are less
+exclusively aquatic. In such remote quarters, they put their
+heads boldly out of the water to blow, but when rendered suspicious
+they become exceedingly cautious in this respect, only
+exposing their nostrils above the water, and even this they
+prefer doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of their
+enormous size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and
+divers, and can remain easily under the water from five to eight
+minutes. They walk on the bottoms of rivers, beneath at least
+1 ft. of water. At nightfall they come on land to feed; and when,
+as often happens on the banks of the Nile, they reach cultivated
+ground, they do immense damage to growing crops, destroying
+by their ponderous tread even more than they devour. To scare
+away these unwelcome visitors the natives in such districts are
+in the habit of kindling fires at night. Although hippopotamuses
+do not willingly go far from the water on which their existence
+depends, they occasionally travel long distances by night in
+search of food, and in spite of their clumsy appearance are able
+to climb steep banks and precipitous ravines with ease. Of a
+wounded hippopotamus which Sir S. Baker saw leaving the
+water and galloping inland, he writes: &ldquo;I never could have
+imagined that so unwieldy an animal could have exhibited such
+speed. No man could have had a chance of escape.&rdquo; The
+hippopotamus does not confine itself to rivers and lakes, but has
+been known to prefer the waters of the ocean as its home during
+the day. Of a mild and inoffensive disposition, it seeks to avoid
+collision with man; when wounded, however, or in defence of
+its young, it exhibits great ferocity, and native canoes are
+capsized and occasionally demolished by its infuriated attacks;
+the bellowing grunt then becoming loud enough to be heard a
+mile away. As among elephants, so also among hippopotamuses
+there are &ldquo;rogues&rdquo;&mdash;old bulls which have become soured in
+solitude, and are at all times dangerous. Assuming the offensive
+on every occasion, they attack all and sundry without shadow
+of provocation; and the natives avoid their haunts, which are
+usually well known.</p>
+
+<p>The only other living species is the pygmy hippopotamus,
+<i>H.</i> (<i>Choeropsis</i>) <i>liberiensis</i>, of West Africa, an animal not larger
+than a clumsily made pig of full dimensions, and characterized
+by having generally one (in place of two) pair of incisors. It is
+much less aquatic than its giant relative, having, in fact, the
+habits of a pig.</p>
+
+<p>A small extinct species (<i>H. lemerlei</i>) inhabited Madagascar at
+a comparatively recent date; while other dwarf kinds were
+natives of Crete (<i>H. minutus</i>) and Malta and Sicily (<i>H. pentlandi</i>)
+during the Pleistocene. A large form of the ordinary species
+(<i>H. amphibius major</i>) was distributed over Europe as far north
+as Yorkshire at the same epoch; while an allied species (<i>H.
+palaeindicus</i>) inhabited Pleistocene India. Contemporary with
+the latter was, however, a species (<i>H. namadicus</i>) with three
+pairs of incisors; and &ldquo;hexaprotodont&rdquo; hippopotamuses are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span>
+also characteristic of the Pliocene of India and Burma (<i>H.
+sivalensis</i> and <i>H. iravadicus</i>), and of Algeria, Egypt and southern
+Europe (<i>H. hipponensis</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the ancestral genera of the hippopotamus line, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artiodactyla</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPPURIC ACID<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippos">&#7989;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, horse, <span class="grk" title="ouron">&#959;&#8022;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, urine), benzoyl
+glycocoll or benzoyl amidoacetic acid, C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">9</span>NO<span class="su">3</span> or
+C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·NH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, an organic acid found in the urine of
+horses and other herbivorae. It is excreted when many aromatic
+compounds, such as benzoic acid and toluene, are taken internally.
+J. v. Liebig in 1829 showed that it differed from benzoic
+acid, and in 1839 determined its constitution, while in 1853
+V. Dessaignes (<i>Ann.</i> 87, p. 325) synthesized it by acting with
+benzoyl chloride on zinc glycocollide. It is also formed by
+heating benzoic anhydride with glycocoll (Th. Curtius, <i>Ber.</i>, 1884,
+17, p. 1662), and by heating benzamide with monochloracetic
+acid. It crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are readily soluble
+in hot water, melt at 187° C. and decompose at about 240° C. It
+is readily hydrolysed by hot caustic alkalis to benzoic acid and
+glycocoll. Nitrous acid converts it into benzoyl glycollic acid,
+C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·O·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H. Its ethyl ester reacts with hydrazine to
+form hippuryl hydrazine, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·NH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO·NH·NH<span class="su">2</span>, which
+was used by Curtius for the preparation of azoimide (q.v.).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIPURNIAS,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians, 2000 or 3000
+in number, living on the river Purus, western Brazil. Their
+houses are long, low and narrow: the side walls and roof are one,
+poles being fixed in the ground and then bent together so as to
+meet and form a pointed arch for the cross-sections. They use
+small bark canoes. Their chief weapons are poisoned arrows.
+They have a native god called Guintiniri.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRA,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> the capital of an Arabian kingdom, founded in the 2nd
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, on the western edge of Irak, was situated at 32°
+N., 44° 20&prime; E., about 4 m. S.E. of modern Nejef, by the Sa&rsquo;ade
+canal, on the shore of the Bahr Nejef or Assyrium Stagnum.
+Its kings governed the western shore of the lower Euphrates and
+of the Persian Gulf, their kingdom extending inland to the confines
+of the Nejd. This Lakhmid kingdom was more or less
+dependent, during the four centuries of its existence, on the
+Sassanian empire, to which it formed a sort of buffer state
+towards Arabia. After the battle of Kadesiya and the founding
+of Kufa by the Arabs, Hira lost its importance and fell into
+decay. The ruin mounds covering the ancient site, while extensive,
+are insignificant in appearance and give no indications
+of the existence of important buildings.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRADO,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> an island belonging to Japan, 19½ m. long and 6 m.
+wide, lying off the west coast of the province of Hizen, Kiushiu,
+in 33° 15&prime; N. and 129° 25&prime; E. It is celebrated as the site of the
+original Dutch factory&mdash;often erroneously written Firando&mdash;and
+as the place where one of the finest blue-and-white porcelains
+of Japan (<i>Hiradoyaki</i>) was produced in the 17th and 18th
+centuries. The kilns are still active.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in the law of contract, a
+form of bailment of goods, on credit, which has extended very
+considerably of late years. Originally applied to the sale of
+the more expensive kinds of goods, such as pianos and articles
+of furniture, the hire-purchase agreement has now been extended
+to almost every description. The agreement is usually in writing,
+with a stipulation that the payments to purchase shall be by
+weekly, monthly or other instalments. The agreement is virtually
+one to purchase, but in order that the vendor may be able to
+recover the goods at any time on non-payment of an instalment,
+it is treated as an agreement to let and hire, with a provision
+that when the last instalment has been paid the goods shall
+become the property of the hirer. A clause provides that in
+case of default of any instalment, or breach of any part of the
+agreement, all previous payments shall be forfeited to the lender,
+who can forcibly recover the goods. Such agreements, therefore,
+do not pass the property in the goods, which remains in the
+lender until all the instalments have been paid. But the terms
+of the agreement may sometimes purposely obscure the nature
+of the transaction between the parties, where, for example, the
+hire-purchase is merely to create a security for money. In such
+a case a judge will look to the true nature of the transaction.
+If it is not a real letting and hiring, the agreement will require
+registration under the Bills of Sale Acts. If the agreement
+contains words to the effect that a person has &ldquo;bought or agreed
+to buy&rdquo; goods, the transaction comes under the Factors Act
+1889, and the person in possession of the goods may dispose
+of them and give a good title. The doctrine of reputed ownership,
+by which a bankrupt is deemed the reputed owner of goods in
+his apparent possession, has been somewhat modified by trade
+customs, in accordance with which property is frequently let
+out on the hire-purchase system (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRING<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>hýrian</i>, a word common to many Teutonic
+languages cf. Ger. <i>heuern</i>, Dutch <i>huren</i>, &amp;c.), in law, a contract
+by which one man grants the use of a thing to another in return
+for a certain price. It corresponds to the <i>locatio-conductio</i> of
+Roman law. That contract was either a letting of a thing
+(<i>locatio-conductio rei</i>) or of labour (<i>locatio operarum</i>). The
+distinguishing feature of the contract was the price. Thus the
+contracts of <i>mutuum</i>, <i>commodatum</i>, <i>depositum</i> and <i>mandatum</i>,
+which are all gratuitous contracts, become, if a price is fixed,
+cases of <i>locatio-conductio</i>. In modern English law the term can
+scarcely be said to be used in a strictly technical sense. The
+contracts which the Roman law grouped together under the
+head of <i>locatio-conductio</i>&mdash;such as those of landlord and tenant,
+master and servant, &amp;c.&mdash;are not in English law treated as cases
+of hiring but as independent varieties of contract. Neither
+in law books nor in ordinary discourse could a tenant farmer
+be said to hire his land. Hiring would generally be applied to
+contracts in which the services of a man or the use of a thing
+are engaged for a short time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hiring Fairs</i>, or <i>Statute Fairs</i>, still held in Wales and some
+parts of England, were formerly an annual fixture in every
+important country town. These fairs served to bring together
+masters and servants. The men and maids seeking work stood
+in rows, the males together and the females together, while masters
+and mistresses walked down the lines and selected those who
+suited them. Originally these hiring-fairs were always held on
+Martinmas Day (11th of November). Now they are held on
+different dates in different towns, usually in October or November.
+In Cumberland the men seeking work stood with straws in their
+mouths. In Lincolnshire the bargain between employer and
+employed was closed by the giving of the &ldquo;fasten-penny,&rdquo; the
+earnest money, usually a shilling, which &ldquo;fastened&rdquo; the contract
+for a twelvemonth. Some few days after the Statute Fair it
+was customary to hold a second called a Mop Fair or Runaway
+Mop. &ldquo;Mop&rdquo; (from Lat. <i>mappa</i>, napkin, or small cloth)
+meant in Old English a tuft or tassel, and the fair was so called,
+it is suggested, in allusion to tufts or badges worn by those
+seeking employment. Thus the carter wore whipcord on his
+hat, the cowherd a tuft of cow&rsquo;s hair, and so on. Another
+possible explanation would be to take the word &ldquo;mop&rdquo; in its
+old provincial slang sense of &ldquo;a fool,&rdquo; mop fair being the fools&rsquo;
+fair, a sort of last chance offered to those who were too dull or
+slovenly-looking to be hired at the statute fair. Perhaps &ldquo;runaway&rdquo;
+suggests the idea of those absent through drunkenness,
+or those who simply feared to face the ordeal of the larger hiring
+and so ran away.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIROSAKI,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a town of Japan in the province of Michmoku
+or Rikuchiu, north Nippon, 22 m. S.W. of Aomori by rail. Pop.
+about 37,000. The fine isolated cone of Iwakisan, a mountain
+of pilgrimage, rises to the west. Hirosaki is a very old place,
+formerly residence of a great daimio (or daimyo) and capital of
+a vast principality, and still the seat of a high court with jurisdiction
+over the surrounding districts of Aomori and Akita.
+Like most places in north Nippon, it is built with continuous
+verandas extending from house to house, and affording a
+promenade completely sheltered from the snows of winter.
+Apples of fine flavour grow in the district, which also enjoys
+some reputation for its peculiar green lacquer-ware.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIROSHIGE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1797-1858), Japanese artist, was one of the
+principal members of that branch of the <i>Ukiyo-ye</i> or Popular
+School of Painting in Japan, a school which chiefly made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span>
+colour-prints. His family name was And&#333; Tokitar&#333;; that under
+which he is known having been, in accordance with Japanese
+practice, adopted by him in recognition of the fact that he was
+a pupil of Toyohiro. The earliest reference to him is in the
+account given by an inhabitant of the Lu-chu islands of a
+visit to Japan; where a sketch of a procession drawn with great
+skill by Hiroshige at the age of ten years only is mentioned as
+one of the remarkable sights seen. At the age of fifteen he
+applied unsuccessfully to be admitted to the studio of the elder
+Toyokuni; but was eventually received by Toyohiro. On the
+death of the latter in 1828, he began to practise on his own
+account, but finding small encouragement at Yedo (T&#333;ky&#333;) he
+removed to Ki&#333;to, where he published a set of landscapes. He
+soon returned to Yedo, where his work soon became popular,
+and was imitated by other artists. He died in that city on the
+6th day of the 9th month of the year, Ansei 5th, at the age of
+sixty-two, and was buried at Asakusa. One of his pupils,
+Hironobu, received from him the name of Hiroshige II. and
+another, Ando Tokubei, that of Hiroshige III. All three were
+closely associated with the work signed with the name of the
+master. Hiroshige II. some time after the year 1863 fell into
+disgrace and was compelled to leave Yedo for Nagasaki, where
+he died; Hiroshige III. then called himself Hiroshige II. He
+died in 1896. The earlier prints by these artists, whose work
+can hardly be separated, are of extraordinary merit. They
+applied the process of colour block printing to the purposes
+of depicting landscape, with a breadth, skill and suitability of
+convention that has been equalled only by Hokusai in Japan,
+and by no European. Most of their subjects were derived from
+the neighbourhood of Yedo, or were scenes on the old high road&mdash;the
+Tokaid&#333;&mdash;that ran from that city to Ki&#333;to. The two
+elder of the name were competent painters, and pictures and
+drawings by them are occasionally to be met with.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. F. Strange, &ldquo;Japanese Colour-prints&rdquo; (<i>Victoria and
+Albert Museum Handbook</i>, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIROSHIMA,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a city and seaport of Japan, capital of the
+government of its name in central Nippon. Pop. (1903) 113,545.
+It is very beautifully situated on a small plain surrounded by
+hills, the bay being studded with islands. In its general aspect it
+resembles Osaka, from which it is 190 m. W. by rail, and next to
+that place and Hiogo it is the most important commercial centre
+on the Inland Sea. The government has an area of about 3000
+sq. m., with a population of about 1,500,000. Hiroshima is
+famous all over Japan owing to its association with the neighbouring
+islet of Itaku-Shima, &ldquo;Island of Light,&rdquo; which is dedicated
+to the goddess Bentin and regarded as one of the three wonders
+of Japan. The chief temple dates from the year 587, and the
+island, which is inhabited largely by priests and their attendants,
+is annually visited by thousands of pilgrims. But the hallowed
+soil is never tilled, so that all provisions have to be brought from
+the surrounding districts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRPINI<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (from an Oscan or Sabine stem <i>hirpo-</i>, &ldquo;wolf&rdquo;), an
+inland Samnite tribe in the south of Italy, whose territory was
+bounded by that of the Lucani on the S., the Campani on the
+S.W., the Appuli (Apuli) and Frentani on the E. and N.E. On
+the N. we find them, politically speaking, identified with the
+Pentri and Carac&#275;ni, and with them constituting the Samnite
+alliance in the wars of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samnites</a></span>).
+The Roman policy of separation cut them off from these allies by
+the foundation of Beneventum in 268 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and henceforward they
+are a separate unit; they joined Hannibal in 216 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and retained
+their independence until, after joining in the Social war,
+which in their part of Italy can hardly be said to have ceased till
+the final defeat of the Samnites by Sulla in 83 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they received
+the Roman franchise. Of their Oscan speech, besides the
+evidence of their place-names, only a few fragments survive
+(R. S. Conway, <i>The Italic Dialects</i>, pp. 170 ff.; and for <i>hirpo-</i>,
+<i>ib.</i> p. 200). In the ethnology of Italy the Hirpini appear from
+one point of view as the purest type of Safine stock, namely, that
+in which the proportion of ethnica formed with the suffix <i>-no-</i> is
+highest, thirty-three out of thirty-six tribal or municipal
+epithets being formed thereby (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Caudini</i>, <i>Compsani</i>) and only
+one with the suffix -<i>ti</i>- (<i>Abellinates</i>), where it is clearly secondary.
+On the significance of this see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sabini</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRSAU<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (formerly <i>Hirschau</i>), a village of Germany, in the
+kingdom of Württemberg, on the Nagold and the Pforzheim-Horb
+railway, 2 m. N. of Calw. Pop. 800. Hirsau has some
+small manufactures, but it owes its origin and historical interest
+to its former Benedictine monastery, <i>Monasterium Hirsaugiense</i>,
+at one period one of the most famous in Europe. Its picturesque
+ruins, of which only the chapel with the library hall are still in
+good preservation, testify to the pristine grandeur of the establishment.
+It was founded about 830 by Count Erlafried of Calw, at
+the instigation of his son, Bishop Notting of Vercelli, who enriched
+it with, among other treasures, the body of St Aurelius.
+Its first occupants (838) were a colony of fifteen monks from
+Fulda, disciples of Hrabanus Maurus and Walafrid Strabo,
+headed by the abbot Liudebert. During about a century and a
+half, under the fostering care of the counts of Calw, it enjoyed
+great prosperity, and became an important seat of learning; but
+towards the end of the 10th century the ravages of the pestilence
+combined with the rapacity of its patrons, and the selfishness
+and immorality of its inmates, to bring it to the lowest ebb.
+After it had been desolate and in ruins for upwards of sixty years
+it was rebuilt in 1059, and under Abbot William&mdash;Wilhelm von
+Hirsau&mdash;abbot from 1069 to 1091, it more than regained its
+former splendour. By his <i>Constitutiones Hirsaugienses</i>, a new
+religious order, the Ordo Hirsaugiensis, was formed, the rule of
+which was afterwards adopted by many monastic establishments
+throughout Germany, such as those of Blaubeuren, Erfurt and
+Schaffhausen. The friend and correspondent of Pope Gregory
+VII., and of Anselm of Canterbury, Abbot William took active
+part in the politico-ecclesiastical controversies of his time;
+while a treatise from his pen, <i>De musica et tonis</i>, as well as the
+<i>Philosophicarum et astronomicarum institutionum libri iii.</i>, bears
+witness to his interest in science and philosophy. About the end
+of the 12th century the material and moral welfare of Hirsau
+was again very perceptibly on the decline; and it never afterwards
+again rose into importance. In consequence of the
+Reformation it was secularized in 1558; in 1692 it was laid in
+ruins by the French. The <i>Chronicon Hirsaugiense</i>, or, as in the
+later edition it is called, <i>Annales Hirsaugienses</i> of Abbot Trithemius
+(Basel, 1559; St Gall, 1690), is, although containing much
+that is merely legendary, an important source of information,
+not only on the affairs of this monastery, but also on the early
+history of Germany. The <i>Codex Hirsaugiensis</i> was edited by
+A. F. Gfrörer and printed at Stuttgart in 1843.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Steck, <i>Das Kloster Hirschau</i> (1844); Helmsdörfer, <i>Forschungen
+zur Geschichte des Abts Wilhelm von Hirschau</i> (Göttingen, 1874);
+Weizsäcker, <i>Führer durch die Geschichte des Klosters Hirschau</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1898); Süssmann, <i>Forschungen zur Geschichte des
+Klosters Hirschau</i> (Halle, 1903); Giseke, <i>Die Hirschauer während
+des Investiturstreits</i> (Gotha, 1883); C. H. Klaiber, <i>Das Kloster
+Hirschau</i> (Tübingen, 1886); and Baer, <i>Die <span class="correction" title="amended from Hirsauers">Hirsauer</span> Bauschule</i>
+(Freiburg, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRSCH, MAURICE DE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron Hirsch auf Gereuth</span>, in the
+baronage of Bavaria (1831-1896), capitalist and philanthropist
+(German by birth, Austro-Hungarian by domicile), was born at
+Munich, 9th December 1831. His grandfather, the first Jewish
+landowner in Bavaria, was ennobled with the <i>prädikat</i> &ldquo;auf
+Gereuth&rdquo; in 1818; his father, who was banker to the Bavarian
+king, was created a baron in 1869. The family for generations has
+occupied a prominent position in the German Jewish community.
+At the age of thirteen young Hirsch was sent to Brussels to school,
+but when seventeen years old he went into business. In 1855
+he became associated with the banking house of Bischoffsheim
+&amp; Goldschmidt, of Brussels, London and Paris. He amassed a
+large fortune, which he increased by purchasing and working
+railway concessions in Austria, Turkey and the Balkans, and by
+speculations in sugar and copper. While living in great splendour
+in Paris and London and on his estates in Hungary, he devoted
+much of his time to schemes for the relief of his Hebrew co-religionists
+in lands where they were persecuted and oppressed.
+He took a deep interest in the educational work of the Alliance
+Israélite Universelle, and on two occasions presented the society
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span>
+with gifts of a million francs. For some years he regularly paid
+the deficits in the accounts of the Alliance, amounting to several
+thousand pounds a year. In 1889 he capitalized his donations
+and presented the society with securities producing an annual
+income of £16,000. On the occasion of the fortieth anniversary
+of the emperor Francis Joseph&rsquo;s accession to the Austrian throne
+he gave £500,000 for the establishment of primary and technical
+schools in Galicia and the Bukowina. The greatest charitable
+enterprise on which he embarked was in connexion with the
+persecution of the Jews in Russia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anti-Semitism</a></span>). He
+gave £10,000 to the funds raised for the repatriation of the
+refugees in 1882, but, feeling that this was a very lame conclusion
+to the efforts made in western Europe for the relief of the Russian
+Jews, he offered the Russian Government £2,000,000 for the endowment
+of a system of secular education to be established in the
+Jewish pale of settlement. The Russian Government was willing
+to accept the money, but declined to allow any foreigner to be
+concerned in its control or administration. Thereupon Baron
+de Hirsch resolved to devote the money to an emigration and
+colonization scheme which should afford the persecuted Jews
+opportunities of establishing themselves in agricultural colonies
+outside Russia. He founded the Jewish Colonization Association
+as an English society, with a capital of £2,000,000, and in 1892
+he presented to it a further sum of £7,000,000. On the death of
+his wife in 1899 the capital was increased to £11,000,000, of which
+£1,250,000 went to the Treasury, after some litigation, in death
+duties. This enormous fund, which is probably the greatest
+charitable trust in the world, is now managed by delegates of
+certain Jewish societies, chiefly the Anglo-Jewish Association of
+London and the Alliance Israélite Universelle of Paris, among
+whom the shares in the association have been divided. The
+association, which is prohibited from working for profit, possesses
+large colonies in South America, Canada and Asia Minor. In
+addition to its vast agricultural work it has a gigantic and complex
+machinery for dealing with the whole problem of Jewish persecution,
+including emigration and distributing agencies, technical
+schools, co-operative factories, savings and loan banks and model
+dwellings in the congested Russian jewries. It also subventions
+and assists a large number of societies all over the world whose
+work is connected with the relief and rehabilitation of Jewish
+refugees. Besides this great organization, Baron de Hirsch
+founded in 1891 a benevolent trust in the United States for the
+benefit of Jewish immigrants, which he endowed with £493,000.
+His minor charities were on a princely scale, and during his
+residence in London he distributed over £100,000 among the
+local hospitals. It was in this manner that he disposed of the
+whole gross proceeds derived from his successes on the English
+turf, of which he was a lavish patron. He raced, as he said
+himself, &ldquo;for the London hospitals,&rdquo; and in 1892, when his filly,
+La Flêche, won the Oaks, St Leger and One Thousand Guineas,
+his donations from this source amounted to about £40,000.
+Baron de Hirsch married on 28th June 1855 Clara, daughter of
+Senator Bischoffsheim of Brussels (b. 1833), by whom he had a
+son and daughter, both of whom predeceased him. He died at
+Ogyalla, near Komorn, in Hungary, 21st April 1896. The
+baroness, who seconded her husband&rsquo;s charitable work with
+great munificence&mdash;their total benefactions have been estimated
+at £18,000,000,&mdash;died at Paris on the 1st of April 1899.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For details of Baron de Hirsch&rsquo;s chief charities see the annual
+reports of the Alliance Israélite Universelle and of the &ldquo;Administration
+Centrale&rdquo; of the Jewish Colonization Association.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1808-1888), Jewish theologian,
+was born in Hamburg in 1808 and died at Frankfort-on-the-Main
+in 1888. He opposed the reform tendency of Geiger (q.v.), and
+presented Jewish orthodoxy in a new and attractive light. His
+philosophical conception of tradition, associated as it was with
+conservatism in ritual practice, created what is often known as
+the Frankfort &ldquo;Neo-Orthodoxy.&rdquo; Hirsch exercised a profound
+influence on the Synagogue and undoubtedly stemmed the tide
+of liberalism. His famous <i>Nineteen Letters</i> (1836), with which
+the Neo-Orthodoxy began, were translated into English by
+Drachmann (New York, 1899). Other works by Hirsch were
+<i>Horeb</i>, and commentaries on the Pentateuch and Psalms. These
+are marked by much originality, but their exegesis is fanciful.
+Three volumes of his essays have been published (1902-1908);
+these were collected as <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> from his periodical
+<i>Jeschurun</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For Hirsch&rsquo;s religious philosophy see S. A. Hirsch, <i>A Book of
+Essays</i> (London, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRSCHBERG,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Silesia, beautifully situated at the confluence of the Bober and
+Zacken, 1120 ft. above the sea-level, 48 m. S.E. of Görlitz, on the
+railway to Glatz, with branches to Grünthal and Schmiedeberg.
+Pop. (1905) 19,317. It is surrounded by pleasant promenades
+occupying the site of its former fortifications. It possesses an
+Evangelical church, the church of the Holy Cross, one of the six
+<i>Gnaden Kirchen</i> for the Silesian Protestants stipulated for in the
+agreement at Altranstädt between Charles XII. of Sweden and the
+emperor Joseph I. in 1707, four Roman Catholic churches, one of
+which dates from the 14th century, a synagogue, several schools,
+an orphanage and an asylum. The town is the principal emporium
+of commerce in the Silesian mountains, and its industries include
+the carding and spinning of wool, and the manufacture of linen and
+cotton fabrics, yarn, artificial flowers, paper, cement, porcelain,
+sealing-wax, blacking, chemicals and cider. There is also a
+lively trade in corn, wine and agricultural produce. The town
+is celebrated for its romantic surroundings, including the
+Cavalierberg, from which there is a splendid view, the Hausberg,
+the Helicon, crowned by a small Doric temple, the Kreuzberg,
+with walks commanding beautiful views, and the Sattler
+ravine, over which there is a railway viaduct. Hirschberg was
+in existence in the 11th century, and obtained town rights in
+1108 from Duke Boleslaus of Poland. It withstood a siege by the
+Hussites in 1427, and an attack of the imperial troops in 1640.
+The foundation of its prosperity was laid in the 16th century by
+the introduction of the manufacture of linen and veils.</p>
+
+<p>Hirschberg is also the name of a town of Thuringia on the
+Saale with manufactures of leather and knives. Pop. 2000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRSON,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a town of northern France in the department of
+Aisne, 35 m. by rail N.E. of Laon, on the Oise. Pop. (1906)
+8335. It occupies an important strategic position close to the
+point of intersection of several railway lines, and not far from
+the Belgian frontier. For its defence there are a permanent fort
+and two batteries, near the railway junction. The town carries
+on the manufacture of glass bottles, tiles, iron and tin goods,
+wool-spinning and brewing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIRTIUS, AULUS<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 90-43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman historian and statesman.
+He was with Julius Caesar as legate in Gaul, but after the
+civil war broke out in 49 he seems to have remained in Rome to
+protect Caesar&rsquo;s interests. He was also a personal friend of
+Cicero. He was nominated with C. Vibius Pansa by Caesar for
+the consulship of 43; and after the dictator&rsquo;s assassination in
+March 44, he and his colleague supported the senatorial party
+against M. Antonius, with whom Hirtius had at first sided. The
+consuls set out for Mutina, where Antonius was besieging Decimus
+Brutus. On the 15th of April, Pansa was attacked by Antonius
+at Forum Gallorum, about 8 m. from Mutina, and lost his life
+in the engagement. Hirtius, however, compelled Antonius to
+retire on Mutina, where another battle took place on the 25th
+(or 27th) of April, in which Hirtius was slain. Of the continuations
+of Caesar&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>&mdash;the eighth book of the Gallic war,
+the history of the Alexandrian, African and Spanish wars&mdash;the
+first is generally allowed to be by Hirtius; the Alexandrian war
+is perhaps by him (or Oppius); the last two are supposed to have
+been written at his request, by persons who had taken part in the
+events described, with a view to subsequent revision and incorporation
+in his proposed work on military commanders. The language
+of Hirtius is good, but his style is monotonous and lacks vigour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hirtius and the other continuators of Caesar are discussed in M.
+Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Literatur</i>, i.; also R. Schneider,
+<i>Bellum Africanum</i> (1905). For the history of the period see under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antonius</a></span>; Cicero&rsquo;s <i>Letters</i> (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier,
+<i>Cicero and his Friends</i> (Eng. trans., 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HISH&#256;M IBN AL-KALB&#298;<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> [Ab&#363;-l Mundhir Hish&#257;m ibn
+Ma&#7717;ommed ibn us-S&#257;&rsquo;b ul-Kalb] (d. <i>c.</i> 819), Arabic historian,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span>
+was born in Kufa, but spent much of his life in Bagdad. Like his
+father, on whose authority he relied largely, he collected information
+about the genealogies and history of the ancient Arabs.
+According to the <i>Fihrist</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nad&#299;m</a></span>) he wrote 140 works. As
+independent works they have almost entirely ceased to exist, but
+his account of the genealogies of the Arabs is continually quoted
+in the <i>Kit&#257;b ul-Agh&#257;ni</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Large extracts from another of his works, the <i>Kit&#257;b ul-Asn&#257;m</i>,
+are contained in the <i>Khiz&#257;nat ul-Adab</i> (iii. 242-246) and in the
+geography of Y&#257;q&#363;t (q.v.). These latter have been translated with
+comments by J. Wellhausen in his <i>Reste des arabischen Heidentums</i>
+(2nd ed., Berlin, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HISPELLUM<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (mod. Spello, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria,
+Italy, 3 m. N. of Fulginiae, on the road between it and Perusia,
+1030 ft. above sea-level. It does not appear to be mentioned
+before the time of Augustus, who founded a colony there (<i>Colonia
+Iulia Hispellum</i>) and extended its territory to the springs of the
+Clitumnus, which had originally belonged to the territory of
+Mevania. It received the name of Flavia Constans by a rescript
+of the emperor Constantine, a copy of which on a marble tablet
+is still preserved at Spello. The gate by which the town is
+entered is ancient and has three portrait statues above it; two
+other gates and a part of the city wall, built of rectangular blocks
+of local limestone, may still be seen, as also the ruins of what
+is possibly a triumphal arch (attributed to Augustus) and an
+amphitheatre, and perhaps of a theatre, close to the modern
+high-road, outside the town.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HISSAR,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a district in Central Asia, lying between 66° 30&prime; and 70°
+E. and 39° 15&prime; and 37° N. and dependent on the amir of Bokhara.
+It forms that part of the basin of the Amu-darya or Oxus which
+lies on the north side of the river, opposite the Afghan province
+of Balkh. The western prolongation of the Tian-shan, which
+divides the basin of the Zarafshan from that of the upper Amu,
+after rising to a height of 12,300 ft., bifurcates in 67° 45&prime; E. The
+main chain, the southern arm of this bifurcation, designated the
+Hissar range, but sometimes called also Koh-i-tau, forms the N.
+and N.W. boundaries of Hissar. On the W. it is wholly bounded
+by the desert; the Amu limits it on the S. and S.E.; and Karateghin
+and Darvaz complete the boundary on the E. Until
+1875 it was one of the least known tracts of Central Asia. Hissar
+is traversed from north to south by four tributaries of the Amu,
+viz. the Surkhab or Vakhsh, Kafirnihan, Surkhan and Shirabad-darya,
+which descend from the snowy mountains to the north
+and form a series of fertile valleys, disposed in a fan-shape,
+within which lie the principal towns. In the N.W. boundary
+range between Khuzar and Derbent is situated the defile
+formerly called the Iron Gate (Caspian Gates, B&#257;b-al-Had&#299;d, Dar
+Ahan&#299;n and in Chinese T&rsquo;ie-m&#275;n-kuan) but now styled Buzghol-khana
+or the Goat-house. It was also called Kohluga, said to be
+a Mongol word meaning barrier. This pass is described as a deep
+but narrow chasm in a transverse range, whose rocks overhang
+and threaten to choke the tortuous and gloomy corridor (in
+places but five paces wide) which affords the only exit from the
+valley. In ancient times it was a vantage point of much importance
+and commanded one of the chief routes between
+Turkestan and India. Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese traveller, who
+passed through it in the 7th century, states that there were
+then two folding doors or gates, cased with iron and hung
+with bells, placed across the pass. Clavijo, the Spanish ambassador
+to the court of Timur, heard of this when he passed
+through the defile nearly 800 years later, but the gates had then
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The Surkhan valley is highly cultivated, especially in its
+upper portion. It supplies Bokhara with corn and sheep, but
+its chief products are rice and flax. The town of Hissar (pop.
+15,000) commands the entrance into the fertile valleys of the
+Surkhan and Kafirnihan, just as Kabadian at the southern end
+of the latter defends them from the south. Hissar was long
+famous for its damascened swords and its silk goods. Kulab
+produces wheat in abundance, and gold is brought thither from
+the surrounding districts. Kabadian is a large, silk-producing
+town, and is surrounded with rice-fields.</p>
+
+<p>The population consists principally of Uzbegs and Tajiks,
+the former predominating and gradually pushing the Tajiks
+into the hills. On the banks of the Amu there are Turkomans
+who work the ferries, drive sheep and accompany caravans.
+Lyuli (gipsies), Jews, Hindus and Afghans are other elements
+of the population. The climate of the valleys of Hissar and
+Kulab is pleasant, as they are protected by mountains to the
+north and open towards the south. They produce all the cereals
+and garden plants indigenous to Central Asia. Cotton is grown
+in the district of Shirabad; and cotton, wheat, flax, sheep and
+rock-salt are all exported.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;This country was anciently part of the Persian
+empire of the Achaemenidae, and probably afterwards of the
+Graeco-Bactrian kingdom, and then subject to the invading
+Asiatic tribes who broke up that kingdom, <i>e.g.</i> the Yue-chi.
+It was afterwards conquered by the Ephthalites or White
+Huns, who were subdued by the Turks in the early part of the
+7th century. It then became subject successively to the Mahommedan
+invaders from Persia, and after to the Mongol dynasty
+of Jenghiz Khan, and to Timur and his successors. It subsequently
+became a cluster of Uzbeg states and was annexed
+by the amir of Bokhara (q.v.) in 1869-1870, soon after the Russian
+occupation of Samarkand.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. T. Be.; C. El.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HISSAR,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Delhi
+division of the Punjab. The town is situated on the Rajputana
+railway and the Western Jumna canal, 102 m. W.N.W. of Delhi.
+Pop. (1901) 17,647. It was founded in 1356 by the emperor
+Feroz Shah, who constructed the canal to supply it with water;
+but this fell into decay during the 18th century, owing to the
+constant inroads of marauders. Hissar was almost completely
+depopulated during the famine of 1783, but was afterwards
+occupied by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas,
+who built a fort and collected inhabitants. It is now chiefly
+known for its cattle and horse fairs, and has a cotton factory.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District</span> comprises an area of 5217 sq. m. It forms
+the western border district of the great Bikanir desert, and
+consists for the most part of sandy plains dotted with shrub
+and brushwood, and broken by undulations towards the
+south, which rise into hills of rock like islands out of a
+sea of sand. The Ghaggar is its only river, whose supply is
+uncertain, depending much on the fall of rain in the lower
+Himalayas; its overflow in times of heavy rain is caught by
+<i>jhils</i>, which dry up in the hot season. The Western Jumna
+canal crosses the district from east to west, irrigating many
+villages. The soil is in places hard and clayey, and difficult
+to till; but when sufficiently irrigated it is highly productive.
+Old mosques and other buildings exist in parts of the district.
+Hissar produces a breed of large milk-white oxen, which are
+in great request for the carriages of natives. The district has
+always been subject to famine. The first calamity of this kind
+of which there is authentic record was in 1783; and Hissar has
+suffered severely in more recent famines. Its population in
+1901 was 781,717, showing practically no increase in the decade,
+whereas in the previous decade there had been an increase of
+15%. The climate is very dry, hot westerly winds blowing
+from the middle of March till July. Cotton weaving, ginning
+and pressing are carried on. The district is served by the
+Rajputana-Malwa, the Southern Punjab and the Jodhpur-Bikanir
+railways. The chief trading centres are Bhiwani, Hansi,
+Hissar and Sirsa.</p>
+
+<p>Before the Mahommedan conquest, the semi-desert tract
+of which Hissar district now forms part was the retreat of
+Chauhan Rajputs. Towards the end of the 18th century the
+Bhattis of Bhattiana gained ascendancy after bloody struggles.
+To complete the ruin brought on by these conflicts, nature lent
+her aid in the great famine of 1783. Hissar passed nominally
+to the British in 1803, but they could not enforce order till 1810.
+Early in the mutiny of 1857 Hissar was wholly lost for a time
+to British rule, and all Europeans were either murdered or
+compelled to fly. The Bhattis rose under their hereditary
+chiefs, and the majority of the Mahommedan population followed
+their example. Before Delhi had been recovered, the rebels
+were utterly routed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HISTIAEUS<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (d. 494 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), tyrant of Miletus under the Persian
+king Darius Hystaspis. According to Herodotus he rendered
+great service to Darius while he was campaigning in Scythia by
+persuading his fellow-despots not to destroy the bridge over
+the Danube by which the Persians must return. Choosing his
+own reward for this service, he became possessor of territory near
+Myrcinus (afterwards Amphipolis), rich in timber and minerals.
+The success of his enterprise led to his being invited to Susa,
+where in the midst of every kind of honour he was virtually
+a prisoner of Darius, who had reason to dread his growing
+power in Ionia. During this period the Greek cities were left
+under native despots supported by Persia, Aristagoras, son-in-law
+of Histiaeus, being ruler of Miletus in his stead. This prince,
+having failed against Naxos in a joint expedition with the satrap
+Artaphernes, began to stir up the Ionians to revolt, and this
+result was brought to pass, according to Herodotus, by a secret
+message from Histiaeus. The revolt assumed a formidable
+character and Histiaeus persuaded Darius that he alone could
+quell it. He was allowed to leave Susa, but on his arrival at
+the coast found himself suspected by the satrap, and was ultimately
+driven to establish himself (Herodotus says as a pirate;
+more probably in charge of the Bosporus route) at Byzantium.
+After the total failure of the revolt at the battle of Lade, he made
+various attempts to re-establish himself, but was captured by
+the Persian Harpagus and crucified by Artaphernes at Sardis.
+His head was embalmed and sent to Darius, who gave it honourable
+burial. The theory of Herodotus that the Ionian revolt
+was caused by the single message of Histiaeus is incredible;
+there is evidence to show that the Ionians had been meditating
+since about 512 a patriotic revolt against the Persian domination
+and the &ldquo;tyrants&rdquo; on whom it rested (see Grote, <i>Hist. of
+Greece</i>, ed. 1907, especially p. 122 note; art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionia</a></span>, and
+authorities; also S. Heinlein in <i>Klio</i>, 1909, pp. 341-351).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HISTOLOGY<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="histos">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, web, tissue, properly the web-beam
+of the loom, from <span class="grk" title="histanai">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>, to make to stand), the science which
+deals with the structure of the tissues of plants and animals
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cytology</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HISTORY.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> The word &ldquo;history&rdquo; is used in two senses. It
+may mean either the record of events, or events themselves.
+Originally (see below) limited to inquiry and statement, it was
+only in comparatively modern times that the meaning of the word
+was extended to include the phenomena which form or might
+form their subject. It was perhaps by a somewhat careless
+transference of ideas that this extension was brought about.
+Now indeed it is the commoner meaning. We speak of the
+&ldquo;history of England&rdquo; without reference to any literary narrative.
+We term kings and statesmen the &ldquo;makers of history,&rdquo; and sometimes
+say that the historian only records the history which
+they make. History in this connexion is obviously not the
+record, but the thing to be recorded. It is unfortunate that such
+a double meaning of the word should have grown up, for it
+is productive of not a little confusion of thought.</p>
+
+<p>History in the wider sense is all that has happened, not merely
+all the phenomena of human life, but those of the natural
+world as well. It includes everything that undergoes change;
+and as modern science has shown that there is nothing absolutely
+static, therefore the whole universe, and every part of it, has
+its history. The discovery of ether brought with it a reconstruction
+of our ideas of the physical universe, transferring the
+emphasis from the mathematical expression of static relationships
+to a dynamic conception of a universe in constant transformation;
+matter in equipoise became energy in gradual readjustment.
+Solids are solids no longer. The universe is in motion in every
+particle of every part; rock and metal merely a transition stage
+between crystallization and dissolution. This idea of universal
+activity has in a sense made physics itself a branch of history.
+It is the same with the other sciences&mdash;especially the biological
+division, where the doctrine of evolution has induced an attitude
+of mind which is distinctly historical.</p>
+
+<p>But the tendency to look at things historically is not merely
+the attitude of men of science. Our outlook upon life differs in
+just this particular from that of preceding ages. We recognize the
+unstable nature of our whole social fabric, and are therefore more
+and more capable of transforming it. Our institutions are no
+longer held to be inevitable and immutable creations. We do
+not attempt to fit them to absolute formulae, but continually
+adapt them to a changing environment. Even modern architecture,
+notably in America, reflects the consciousness of change.
+The permanent character of ancient or medieval buildings was
+fitted only to a society dominated by static ideals. Now the
+architect builds, not for all time, but for a set of conditions which
+will inevitably cease in the not distant future. Thus our whole
+society not only bears the marks of its evolution, but shows its
+growing consciousness of the fact in the most evident of its
+arts. In literature, philosophy and political science, there is the
+same historical trend. Criticism no longer judges by absolute
+standards; it applies the standards of the author&rsquo;s own environment.
+We no longer condemn Shakespeare for having violated
+the ancient dramatic laws, nor Voltaire for having objected to
+the violations. Each age has its own expression, and in judging
+each we enter the field of history. In ethics, again, the revolt
+against absolute standards limits us to the relative, and morals
+are investigated on the basis of history, as largely conditioned
+by economic environment and the growth of intellectual freedom.
+Revelation no longer appeals to scientific minds as a source of
+knowledge. Experience on the other hand is history. As for
+political science, we do not regard the national state as that
+ultimate and final product which men once saw in the Roman
+Empire. It has hardly come into being before forces are evident
+which aim at its destruction. Internationalism has gained
+ground in Europe in recent years; and Socialism itself, which is
+based upon a distinct interpretation of history, is regarded by its
+followers as merely a stage in human progress, like those which
+have gone before it. It is evident that Freeman&rsquo;s definition of
+history as &ldquo;past politics&rdquo; is miserably inadequate. Political
+events are mere externals. History enters into every phase of
+activity, and the economic forces which urge society along are
+as much its subject as the political result.</p>
+
+<p>In short the historical spirit of the age has invaded every field.
+The world-picture presented in this encyclopaedia is that of a
+dynamic universe, of phenomena in process of ceaseless change.
+Owing to this insistent change all things which happen, or seem
+to happen, are history in the broader sense of the word. The
+encyclopaedia itself is a history of them in the stricter sense,&mdash;the
+description and record of this universal process. This
+narrower meaning is the subject of the rest of this article.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;history&rdquo; comes from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="historia">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>, which was
+used by the Ionians in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> for the search for
+knowledge in the widest sense. It meant inquiry, investigation,
+not narrative. It was not until two centuries later that the
+historikos, the reciter of stories, superseded the <i>histore&#333;n</i> (<span class="grk" title="historeôn">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#941;&#969;&#957;</span>),
+the seeker after knowledge. Thus history began as a branch of
+scientific research,&mdash;much the same as what the Athenians later
+termed philosophy. Herodotus himself was as much a scientific
+explorer as a reciter of narrative, and his life-long investigation
+was <i>histori&#275;</i> in his Ionian speech. Yet it was Herodotus himself
+who first hinted at the new use of the word, applied merely to the
+details accumulated during a long search for knowledge. It
+is not until Aristotle, however, that we have it definitely applied
+to the literary product instead of the inquiry which precedes it.
+From Aristotle to modern times, history (Lat. <i>historia</i>) has been
+a form of literature. It is only in the scientific environment of
+to-day that we recognize once more, with those earliest of the
+forerunners of Herodotus, that history involves two distinct
+operations, one of which, investigation, is in the field of science,
+while the other, the literary presentation, is in the field of art.</p>
+
+<p>The history of history itself is therefore two-fold. History as
+art flourishes with the arts. It calls upon the imagination and
+the literary gifts of expression. Its history does not run parallel
+with the scientific side, but rather varies in inverse ratio with
+scientific activity. Those periods which have been dominated
+by the great masters of style have been less interested in the
+criticism of the historian&rsquo;s methods of investigation than in the
+beauty of his rhetoric. The scientific historian, deeply interested
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span>
+in the search for truth, is generally but a poor artist, and his
+uncoloured picture of the past will never rank in literature beside
+the splendid distortions which glow in the pages of a Michelet or
+Macaulay. History the art, in so far as it is conditioned upon
+genius, has no single traceable line of development. Here the
+product of the age of Pericles remains unsurpassed still; the
+works of Herodotus and Thucydides standing along with those
+of Pheidias as models for all time. On the other hand, history
+the science has developed so that it has not only gained recognition
+among historians as a distinct subject, but it has raised with
+it a group of auxiliary sciences which serve either as tools for
+investigation or as a basis for testing the results. The advance
+in this branch of history in the 19th century was one of its greatest
+achievements. The vast gulf which lies between the history of
+Egypt by Herodotus and that by Flinders Petrie is the measure
+of its achievement. By the mechanism now at his disposal the
+scientific explorer can read more history from the dust-heaps of
+&#256;bydos than the greatest traveller of antiquity could gather
+from the priests of Saïs. In tracing the history of history we
+must therefore keep in mind the double aspect.</p>
+
+<p>History itself, this double subject, the science and the art
+combined, begins with the dawn of memory and the invention
+of speech. It is wrong to term those ages <i>pre-historic</i> whose
+history has not come down to us, including in one category the
+pre-literary age and the literary whose traces have been lost.
+Even the pre-literary had its history, first in myth and then in
+saga. The saga, or epos, was a great advance upon the myth, for
+in it the deeds of men replace or tend to replace the deeds of the
+gods. But we are still largely in the realm of imagination.
+Poetry, as Thucydides complained, is a most imperfect medium
+for fact. The bard will exaggerate or distort his story. True
+history, as a record of what really has happened, first reached
+maturity in prose. Therefore, although much of the past has
+been handed down to us in epic, in ballad and in the legends of
+folk-lore, we must turn from them to what became history in
+the narrower sense.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest prose origins of history are the inscriptions.
+Their inadequacy is evident from two standpoints. Their
+permanence depends not upon their importance, but upon the
+durability of the substance on which they are inscribed. A note
+for a wedding ring baked into the clay of Babylon has been
+preserved, while the history of the greatest events has perished.
+In the second place they are sealed to all but those who know how
+to read them, and so they lie forgotten for centuries while oral
+tradition flourishes,&mdash;being within the reach of every man. It
+is only recently that archaeology, turning from the field of art,
+has undertaken to interpret for us this first written history.
+The process by which the modern fits together all the obtainable
+remains of an antiquity, and reconstructs even that past which
+left no written record, lies outside the field of this article. But
+such enlargement of the field of history is a modern scientific
+product, and is to be distinguished from the imperfect beginnings
+of history-writing which the archaeologist is able to decipher.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the inscriptions,&mdash;sometimes identical with them,&mdash;are
+the early chronicles. These are of various kinds. Family
+chronicles preserved the memory of heroic ancestors whose deeds
+in the earliest age would have passed into the keeping of the
+bards. Such family archives were perhaps the main source for
+Roman historians. But they are not confined to Rome or Greece.
+Genealogies also pass from the bald verse, which was the vehicle
+for oral transmission, to such elaborate tables as those in which
+Manetho has preserved the dynasties of Egyptian Pharaohs.</p>
+
+<p>In this field the priest succeeds the poet. The temple itself
+became the chief repository of records. There were simple
+religious annals, votive tablets recording miracles accomplished
+at a shrine, lists of priests and priestesses, accounts of benefactions,
+of prodigies and portents. In some cases, as in Rome, the
+pontiffs kept a kind of register, not merely of religious history,
+but of important political events as well. Down to the time of
+the Gracchi (131 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the Pontifex Maximus inscribed the year&rsquo;s
+events upon annual tablets of wood which were preserved in the
+Regia, the official residence of the pontiff in the Forum. These
+pontifical &ldquo;annals&rdquo; thus came to be a sort of civic history.
+Chronicles of the Greek cities were commonly ascribed to mythical
+authors, as for instance that of Miletus, the oldest, to Cadmus the
+inventor of letters. But they were continued and edited by men
+in whom the critical spirit was awakening, as when the chroniclers
+of Ionian towns began the criticism of Homer.</p>
+
+<p>The first historians were the logographi of these Ionian cities;
+men who carried their inquiry (<i>histori&#275;</i>) beyond both written
+record and oral tradition to a study of the world around them.
+Their &ldquo;saying&rdquo; (<i>logos</i>) was gathered mostly from contemporaries;
+and upon the basis of a widened experience they became
+critics of their traditions. The opening lines of Hecataeus of
+Miletus begin the history of the true historic spirit in words
+which read like a sentence from Voltaire. &ldquo;Hecataeus of
+Miletus thus speaks: I write as I deem true, for the traditions of
+the Greeks seem to me manifold and laughable.&rdquo; Those words
+mark an epoch in the history of thought. They are the introduction
+to historical criticism and scientific investigation. Whatever
+the actual achievement of Hecataeus may have been, from his
+time onward the scientific movement was set going. Herodotus
+of Heraclea struggled to rationalize mythology, and established
+chronology on a solid basis. And finally Herodotus, a professional
+story-teller, rose to the height of genuine scientific
+investigation. Herodotus&rsquo; inquiry was not simply that of an idle
+tourist. He was a critical observer, who tested his evidence. It
+is easy for the student now to show the inadequacy of his sources,
+and his failure here or there to discriminate between fact and
+fable. But given the imperfect medium for investigation and
+the absence of an archaeological basis for criticism, the work of
+Herodotus remains a scientific achievement, as remarkable for its
+approximation to truth as for the vastness of its scope. Yet it
+was Herodotus&rsquo; chief glory to have joined to this scientific spirit
+an artistic sense which enabled him to cast the material into
+the truest literary form. He gathered all his knowledge of the
+ancient world, not simply for itself, but to mass it around the
+story of the war between the east and west, the Greeks and
+the Persians. He is first and foremost a story-teller; his theme
+is like that of the bards, a heroic event. His story is a vast prose
+epos, in which science is to this extent subordinated to art. &ldquo;This
+is the showing forth of the Inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus,
+to the end that neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse
+of time, nor the works, great and marvellous, which have been
+produced, some by Hellenes, some by Barbarians, may lose their
+renown, and especially that the causes may be remembered for
+which these waged war with one another&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> the Persian war).</p>
+
+<p>In Thucydides a higher art than that of Herodotus was combined
+with a higher science. He scorned the story-teller &ldquo;who
+seeks to please the ear rather than to speak the truth,&rdquo; and yet
+his rhetoric is the culmination of Greek historical prose. He
+withdrew from vulgar applause, conscious that his narrative
+would be considered &ldquo;disappointing to the ear,&rdquo; yet he recast the
+materials out of which he constructed it in order to lift that
+narrative into the realm of pure literature. Speeches, letters and
+documents are reworded to be in tone with the rest of the story.
+It was his art, in fact, which really created the Peloponnesian
+war out of its separate parts. And yet this art was merely the
+language of a scientist. The &ldquo;laborious task&rdquo; of which he speaks
+is that of consulting all possible evidence, and weighing conflicting
+accounts. It is this which makes his rhetoric worth while, &ldquo;an
+everlasting possession, not a prize competition which is heard
+and forgotten.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From the sublimity of Thucydides, and Xenophon&rsquo;s straight-forward
+story, history passed with Theopompus and Ephorus
+into the field of rhetoric. A revival of the scientific instinct of
+investigation is discernable in Timaeus the Sicilian, at the end of
+the 4th century, but his attack upon his predecessors was the
+text of a more crushing attack upon himself by Polybius, who
+declares him lacking in critical insight and biased by passion.
+Polybius&rsquo; comments upon Timaeus reach the dignity of a treatise
+upon history. He protests against its use for controversial
+pamphlets which distort the truth. &ldquo;Directly a man assumes
+the moral attitude of an historian he ought to forget all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span>
+considerations, such as love of one&rsquo;s friends, hatred of one&rsquo;s
+enemies.... He must sometimes praise enemies and blame friends.
+For as a living creature is rendered useless if deprived of its eyes,
+so if you take truth from History, what is left but an improfitable
+tale&rdquo; (bk. xii. 14). These are the words of a Ranke. Unfortunately
+Polybius, like most modern scientific historians, was
+no artist. His style is the very opposite of that of Isocrates and
+the rhetoricians. It is often only clear in the light of inscriptions,
+so closely does it keep to the sources. The style found no imitator;
+history passed from Greece to Rome in the guise of rhetoric. In
+Dionysius of Halicarnassus the rhetoric was combined with an
+extensive study of the sources; but the influence of the Greek
+rhetoricians upon Roman prose was deplorable from the standpoint
+of science. Cicero, although he said that the duty of the
+historian is to conceal nothing true, to say nothing false, would
+in practice have written the kind of history that Polybius
+denounced. He finds fault with those who are <i>non exornatores
+rerum sed tantum narratores</i>. History for him is the mine from
+which to draw argument in oratory and example in education.
+It is not the subject of a scientific curiosity.</p>
+
+<p>It should be noted before we pass to Rome that with the
+expansion of Hellenism the subject of historians expanded as
+well. Universal history was begun by Ephorus, the rhetorician,
+and formed the theme of Polybius and Deodorus. Exiled Greeks
+were the first to write histories of Rome worthy of the name.
+The Alexandrian Eratosthenes placed chronology upon the
+scientific basis of astronomy, and Apollodorus drew up the most
+important <i>chronica</i> of antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>History-writing in Rome,&mdash;except for the Greek writers
+resident there,&mdash;was until the first half of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in
+the form of annals. Then came rhetorical ornamentation,&mdash;and
+the Ciceronian era. The first Roman historian who rose to the
+conception of a science and art combined was Sallust, the student
+of Thucydides. The Augustan age produced in Livy a great
+popular historian and natural artist and a trained rhetorician
+(in the speeches),&mdash;but as uncritical and inaccurate as he was
+brilliant. From Livy to Tacitus the gulf is greater than from
+Herodotus to Thucydides. Tacitus is at least a consummate
+artist. His style ranges from the brilliancy of his youth to the
+sternness and sombre gravity of age, passing almost to poetic
+expression in its epigrammatic terseness. Yet in spite of his
+searching study of authorities, his keen judgment of men, and
+his perception of underlying principles of moral law, his view was
+warped by the heat of faction, which glows beneath his external
+objectivity. After him Roman history-writing speedily degenerated.
+Suetonius&rsquo; <i>Lives of the Caesars</i> is but a superior kind of
+journalism. But his gossip of the court became the model for
+historians, whose works, now lost, furnish the main source for
+the <i>Historia Augusta</i>. The importance to us of this uncritical
+collection of biographies is sufficient comment on the decline of
+history-writing in the latter empire. Finally, from the 4th
+century the epitomes of Eutropius and Festus served to satisfy
+the lessening curiosity in the past and became the handbooks
+for the middle ages. The single figure of Ammianus Marcellinus
+stands out of this age like a belated disciple of Tacitus. But
+the world was changing from antique to Christian ideals just as
+he was writing, and with him we leave this outline of ancient
+history.</p>
+
+<p>The 4th and 5th centuries saw a great revolution in the history
+of history. The story of the pagan past slipped out of mind, and
+in its place was set, by the genius of Eusebius, the story of the
+world force which had superseded it, Christianity, and of that
+small fraction of antiquity from which it sprang,&mdash;the Jews.
+Christianity from the first had forced thinking men to reconstruct
+their philosophy of history, but it was only after the
+Church&rsquo;s triumph that its point of view became dominant in
+historiography. Three centuries more passed before the pagan
+models were quite lost to sight. But from the 7th century to
+the 17th&mdash;from Isidore of Seville and the English Bede for a
+thousand years,&mdash;mankind was to look back along the line of
+Jewish priests and kings to the Creation. Egypt was of interest
+only as it came into Israelite history, Babylon and Nineveh were
+to illustrate the judgments of Yahweh, Tyre and Sidon to reflect
+the glory of Solomon. The process by which the &ldquo;gentiles&rdquo;
+have been robbed of their legitimate history was the inevitable
+result of a religion whose sacred books make them lay figures for
+the history of the Jews. Rejected by the Yahweh who became
+the Christian God, they have remained to the present day, in
+Sunday schools and in common opinion, not nations of living
+men, with the culture of arts and sciences, but outcasts who do
+not enter into the divine scheme of the world&rsquo;s history. When a
+line was drawn between pagan and Christian back to the creation
+of the world, it left outside the pale of inquiry nearly all antiquity.
+But it must be remembered that that antiquity was one in which
+the German nations had no personal interest. Scipio and the
+Gracchi were essentially unreal to them. The one living organization
+with which they came into touch was the Church. So
+Cicero and Pompey paled before Joshua and Paul. Diocletian,
+the organizing genius, became a bloodthirsty monster, and
+Constantine, the murderer, a saint.</p>
+
+<p>Christian history begins with the triumph of the Church.
+With Eusebius of Caesarea the apologetic pamphlets of the age
+of persecutions gave way to a calm review of three centuries of
+Christian progress. Eusebius&rsquo; biography of Constantine shows
+what distortion of fact the father of Church history permitted
+himself, but the Ecclesiastical History was fortunately written
+for those who wanted to know what really happened, and
+remains to-day an invaluable repository of Christian antiquities.
+With the continuations of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and
+the Latin manual which Cassiodorus had woven from them (the
+<i>Historia tripartita</i>), it formed the body of Church history during
+all the middle ages. An even greater influence, however, was
+exercised by Eusebius&rsquo; <i>Chronica</i>. Through Jerome&rsquo;s translation
+and additions, this scheme of this world&rsquo;s chronology became the
+basis for all medieval world chronicles. It settled until our own
+day the succession of years from the Creation to the birth of
+Christ,&mdash;fitting the Old Testament story into that of ancient
+history. Henceforth the Jewish past,&mdash;that one path back to
+the beginning of the world,&mdash;was marked out by the absolute laws
+of mathematics and revelation. Jerome had marked it out;
+Sulpicius Severus, the biographer of St Martin, in his <i>Historia
+sacra</i>, adorned it with the attractions of romance. Sulpicius
+was admirably fitted to interpret the miraculous Bible story to
+the middle ages. But there were few who could write like him,
+and Jerome&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i> itself, or rather portions of it, became,
+in the age which followed, a sort of universal preface for the
+monastic chronicler. For a time there were even attempts to
+continue &ldquo;imperial chronicles,&rdquo; but they were insignificant
+compared with the influence of Eusebius and Jerome.</p>
+
+<p>From the first, Christianity had a philosophy of history. Its
+earliest apologists sought to show how the world had followed a
+divine plan in its long preparation for the life of Christ. From
+this central fact of all history, mankind should continue through
+war and suffering until the divine plan was completed at the
+judgment day. The fate of nations is in God&rsquo;s hands; history
+is the revelation of His wisdom and power. Whether He intervenes
+directly by miracle, or merely sets His laws in operation,
+He is master of men&rsquo;s fate. This idea, which has underlain all
+Christian philosophy of history, from the first apologists who
+prophesied the fall of the Empire and the coming of the millennium,
+down to our own day, received its classic statement in St
+Augustine&rsquo;s <i>City of God</i>. The terrestrial city, whose eternity had
+been the theme of pagan history, had just fallen before Alaric&rsquo;s
+Goths. Augustine&rsquo;s explanation of its fall passes in review not
+only the calamities of Roman history&mdash;combined with a pathetic
+perception of its greatness,&mdash;but carries the survey back to the
+origin of evil at the creation. Then over against this <i>civitas
+terrena</i> he sets the divine city which is to be realized in Christendom.
+The Roman Empire,&mdash;the last general form of the earthly
+city,&mdash;gives way slowly to the heavenly. This is the main
+thread of Augustine&rsquo;s philosophy of history. The mathematical
+demonstration of its truth was left by Augustine for his disciple,
+Paulus Orosius.</p>
+
+<p>Orosius&rsquo; <i>Seven Books of Histories against the Pagans</i>, written
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span>
+as a supplement to the <i>City of God</i>, is the first attempt at a
+Christian &ldquo;World History.&rdquo; This manual for the middle ages
+arranged the rise and fall of empires with convincing exactness.
+The history of antiquity, according to it, begins with Ninus.
+His realm was overthrown by the Medes in the same year in
+which the history of Rome began. From the first year of Ninus&rsquo;
+reign until the rebuilding of Babylon by Semiramis there were
+sixty-four years; the same between the first of Procas and the
+building of Rome. Eleven hundred and sixty-four years after
+each city was built, it was taken,&mdash;Babylon by Cyrus, Rome by
+Alaric, and Cyrus&rsquo; conquest took place just when Rome began the
+Republic. But before Rome becomes a world empire, Macedon
+and Carthage intervene, guardians of Rome&rsquo;s youth (<i>tutor
+curatorque</i>). This scheme of the four world-monarchies, which
+was to prevail through all the middle ages, was developed through
+seven books filled with the story of war and suffering. As it was
+Orosius&rsquo; aim to show that the world had improved since the
+coming of Christ, he used Trogus Pompeius&rsquo; war history, written
+to exalt Roman triumphs, to show the reverse of victory,&mdash;disaster
+and ruin. Livy, Caesar, Tacitus and Suetonius were
+plundered for the story of horrors; until finally even the Goths
+in Spain shine by contrast with the pagan heroes; and through
+the confusion of the German invasions one may look forward to
+Christendom,&mdash;and its peace.</p>
+
+<p>The commonest form of medieval historical writing was the
+chronicle, which reaches all the way from monastic annals, mere
+notes on Easter tables, to the dignity of national monuments.
+Utterly lacking in perspective, and dominated by the idea of the
+miraculous, they are for the most part a record of the trivial or
+the marvellous. Individual historians sometimes recount the
+story of their own times with sober judgment, but seldom know
+how to test their sources when dealing with the past. Contradictions
+are often copied down without the writer noticing them;
+and since the middle ages forged and falsified so many documents,&mdash;monasteries,
+towns and corporations gaining privileges
+or titles of possession by the bold use of them,&mdash;the narrative
+of medieval writers cannot be relied upon unless we can verify it
+by collateral evidence. Some historians, like Otto of Freising,
+Guibert of Nogent or Bernard Gui, would have been scientific if
+they had had our appliances for comparison. But even men like
+Roger Bacon, who deplored the inaccuracy of texts, had worked
+out no general method to apply in their restoration. Toward the
+close of the middle ages the vernacular literatures were adorned
+with Villani&rsquo;s and Froissart&rsquo;s chronicles. But the merit of both
+lies in their journalistic qualities of contemporary narrative.
+Neither was a history in the truest sense.</p>
+
+<p>The Renaissance marked the first great gain in the historic
+sense, in the efforts of the humanists to realize the spirit of
+the antique world. They did not altogether succeed; antiquity
+to them meant largely Plato and Cicero. Their interests were
+literary, and the un-Ciceronian centuries were generally ignored.
+Those in which the foundations of modern Europe were laid,
+which produced parliaments, cathedrals, cities, Dante and
+Chaucer, were grouped alike on one dismal level and christened
+the middle ages. The perspective of the humanists was only
+one degree better than that of the middle ages. History became
+the servant to literature, an adjunct to the classics. Thus it
+passed into the schools, where text-books still in use devote 200
+pages to the Peloponnesian war and two to the Athens of Pericles.</p>
+
+<p>But if the literary side of humanism has been a barrier to
+the progress of scientific history, the discovery and elucidation
+of texts first made that progress possible. Historical criticism
+soon awoke. Laurentius Valla&rsquo;s brilliant attack on the &ldquo;Donation
+of Constantine&rdquo; (1440), and Ulrich von Hutten&rsquo;s rehabilitation
+of Henry IV. from monkish tales mark the rise of the
+new science. One sees at a glance what an engine of controversy
+it was to be; yet for a while it remained but a phase of
+humanism. It was north of the Alps that it parted company with
+the grammarians. Classical antiquity was an Italian past, the
+German scholars turned back to the sources of their national
+history. Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had discovered
+Otto of Freising and Jordanes. Maximilian I. encouraged the
+search for manuscripts, and Vienna became a great humanistic
+centre. Conrad Celtes left his <i>Germania illustrata</i> unfinished,
+but he had found the works of Hroswitha. Conrad Peutinger
+gathered all sorts of Chronicles in his room in Vienna, and
+published several,&mdash;among them Gregory of Tours. This
+national movement of the 15th century was not paralleled in
+France or England, where the classical humanities reigned.
+The Reformation meanwhile gave another turn to the work of
+German scholars.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation, with its heated controversies, seems a
+strange starting-point for science, yet it, even more than the
+Renaissance, brought out scientific methods of historical investigation.
+It not only sobered the humanist tendency to
+sacrifice truth for aesthetic effect, it called for the documents
+of the Church and subjected them to the most hostile criticism.
+Luther himself challenged them. Then in the <i>Magdeburg
+Centuries</i> (1559-1574) Protestantism tried to make good its
+attack on the medieval Church by a great collection of sources
+accompanied with much destructive criticism. This gigantic
+work is the first monument of modern historical research. The
+reply of Cardinal Baronius (<i>Annales ecclesiastici</i>, 1588-1697)
+was a still greater collection, drawn from archives which till
+then had not been used for scientific history. Baronius&rsquo;
+criticism and texts are faulty, though far surpassing anything
+before his day, and his collection is the basis for most subsequent
+ones,&mdash;in spite of J. J. Scaliger&rsquo;s refutation, which was to contain
+an equal number of volumes of the errors in Baronius.</p>
+
+<p>The movement back to the sources in Germany until the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; War was a notable one. Collections were made
+by Simon Schard (1535-1573), Johannes Pistorius (1576-1608),
+Marquard Freher (1565-1614), Melchior Goldast (1576-1635)
+and others. After the war Leibnitz began a new epoch, both
+by his philosophy with its law of continuity in phenomena, and
+by his systematic attempt to collect sources through an association
+(1670). His plan to have documents printed as they were,
+instead of &ldquo;correcting&rdquo; them, was a notable advance. But
+from Leibnitz until the 19th century German national historiography
+made little progress,&mdash;although church historians like
+Mosheim and Neander stand out among the greatest historians
+of all time.</p>
+
+<p>France had not paralleled the activity of Maximilian&rsquo;s
+Renaissance historians. The father of modern French history,
+or at least of historical research, was André Duchesne (1584-1640),
+whose splendid collections of sources are still in use.
+Jean Bodin wrote the first treatise on scientific history (<i>Methodus
+ad facilem historiarum cognitionem</i>, 1566), but he did not apply
+his own principles of criticism; and it was left for the Benedictine
+monks of the Congregation of St Maur to establish definitely
+the new science. The place of this school in the history of history
+is absolutely without a parallel. Few of those in the audiences
+of Molière, returning home under the grey walls of St Germain-des-Près,
+knew that within that monastery the men whose
+midnight they disturbed were laying the basis for all scientific
+history; and few of the later historians of that age have been
+any wiser. But when Luc d&rsquo;Achery turned from exegetics to
+patristics and the lives of the saints, as a sort of Christian
+humanist, he led the way to that vast work of collection and
+comparison of texts which developed through Mabillon, Montfaucon,
+Ruinart, Martène, Bouquet and their associates, into
+the indispensable implements of modern historians. Here, as
+in the Reformation, controversy called out the richest product.
+Jean Mabillon&rsquo;s treatise, <i>De re diplomatica</i> (1681), was due to
+the criticisms of that group of Belgian Jesuits whose <i>Acta
+Sanctorum quotquot toto orbe coluntur</i> (1643, &amp;c., see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bollandists</a></span>)
+was destined to grow into the greatest repository of legend and
+biography the world has seen. In reply to D. Papebroch&rsquo;s
+criticisms of the chronicle of St Denis, Mabillon prepared this
+manual for the testing of medieval documents. Its canons are
+the basis, indeed, almost the whole, of the science of diplomatic
+(q.v.), the touchstone of truth for medieval research. Henceforth
+even the mediocre scholar had a body of technical rules
+by which to sort out the vast mass of apocrypha in medieval
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span>
+documentary sources. Scientific history depends upon implements.
+Without manuals, dictionaries, and easy access to
+texts, we should go as far astray as any medieval chronicler.
+The France of the Maurists supplied the most essential of these
+instruments. The great &ldquo;glossary&rdquo; of Ducange is still in
+enlarged editions the indispensable encyclopaedia of the middle
+ages. Chronology and palaeography were placed on a new
+footing by Dom Bernard de Montfaucon&rsquo;s <i>Palaeographia graeca</i>
+(1708), the monumental <i>Art de vérifier les dates</i> (3rd ed., 1818-1831,
+in 38 vols.), and the <i>Nouveau Traité de diplomatique</i> (1750-1765)
+of Dom Tassin and Dom Toustain. The collections of
+texts which the Maurists published are too many and too vast
+to be enumerated here (see C. Langlois, <i>Manuel de bibliographie
+historique</i>, pp. 293 ff.). Dom Bouquet&rsquo;s <i>Historiens de la Gaule
+et de la France</i>&mdash;the national repertory for French historians&mdash;is
+but one of a dozen tasks of similar magnitude. During the
+18th century this deep under-work of scientific history continued
+to advance, though for the most part unseen by the brilliant
+writers whose untrustworthy generalities passed for history
+in the salons of the old régime. Interrupted by the Revolution,
+it revived in the 19th century, and the roll of honour of the
+French École des Chartes has almost rivalled that of St
+Germain-des-Prés.</p>
+
+<p>The father of critical history in Italy was L. A. Muratori
+(1672-1750), the Italian counterpart of Leibnitz. His vast
+collection of sources (<i>Rerum Italicarum scriptores</i>), prepared
+amid every discouragement, remains to-day the national monument
+of Italian history; and it is but one of his collections.
+His output is perhaps the greatest of any isolated worker in the
+whole history of historiography. The same haste, but much less
+care, marked the work of J. D. Mansi (d. 1769), the compiler
+of the fullest collection of the Councils. Spain, stifled by the
+Inquisition, produced no national collection of sources during
+the 17th and 18th centuries, although Nicolas Antonio (d. 1684)
+produced a national literary history of the first rank.</p>
+
+<p>England in the 16th century kept pace with Continental
+historiography. Henry VIII.&rsquo;s chaplain, John Leland, is the
+father of English antiquaries. Three of the most precious
+collections of medieval manuscripts still in existence were then
+begun by Thomas Bodley (the Bodleian at Oxford), Archbishop
+Matthew Parker (Corpus Christi at Cambridge), and Robert
+Cotton (the Cottonian collection of the British Museum). In
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign a serious effort was made to arrange the national
+records, but until the end of the 18th century they were scattered
+in not less than fifteen repositories. In the 17th and 18th
+centuries English scholarship was enriched by such monuments
+of research as William Dugdale&rsquo;s <i>Monasticon</i>, Thomas Madox&rsquo;s
+<i>History of the Exchequer</i>, Wilkins&rsquo;s <i>Concilia</i>, and Thomas Rymer&rsquo;s
+<i>Foedera</i>. But these works, important as they were, gave but
+little idea of the wealth of historical sources which the 19th
+century was to reveal in England.</p>
+
+<p>In the 19th century the science of history underwent a sort
+of industrial revolution. The machinery of research, invented
+by the genius of men like Mabillon, was perfected and set going in
+all the archives of Europe. Isolated workers or groups of workers
+grew into national or international associations, producing from
+archives vast collections of material to be worked up into the
+artistic form of history. The result of this movement has been
+to revolutionize the whole subject. These men of the factory&mdash;devoting
+their lives to the cataloguing of archives and libraries,
+to the publication of material, and then to the gigantic task of
+indexing what they have produced&mdash;have made it possible for
+the student in an American or Australian college to master in a
+few hours in his library sources of history which baffled the long
+years of research of a Martène or Rymer. The texts themselves
+have mostly become as correct as they can ever be, and manuals
+and bibliographies guide one to and through them, so that no one
+need go astray who takes the trouble to make use of the mechanism
+which is at his hand. For example, since the papal archives
+were opened, so many <i>regesta</i> have appeared that soon it will be
+possible to follow the letter-writing of the medieval popes day by
+day for century after century.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus for this research is too vast to be described here.
+Archives have been reformed, their contents catalogued or
+calendared; government commissions have rescued numberless
+documents from oblivion or destruction, and learned societies
+have supplemented and criticized this work and co-ordinated the
+results. Every state in Europe now has published the main
+sources for its history. The &ldquo;Rolls&rdquo; series, the <i>Monumenta
+Germaniae historica</i>, and the <i>Documents inédits</i> are but the more
+notable of such national products. A series of periodicals
+keeps watch over this enormous output. The files and indices
+of the <i>English Historical Review</i>, <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>, <i>Revue
+historique</i>, or <i>American Historical Review</i> will alone reveal the
+strength and character of historical research in the later 19th
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Every science which deals with human phenomena is in a
+way an implement in this great factory system, in which the past
+is welded together again. Psychology has been drawn upon to
+interpret the movements of revolutions or religions, anthropology
+and ethnology furnish a clue to problems to which the key of
+documents has been lost. Genealogy, heraldry and chronology
+run parallel with the wider subject. But the real auxiliary
+sciences to history are those which deal with those traces of the
+past that still exist, the science of language (philology), of
+writing (palaeography), of documents (diplomatic), of seals
+(sphragistics), of coins (numismatics), of weights and measures,
+and archaeology in the widest sense of the word. These sciences
+underlie the whole development of scientific history. Dictionaries
+and manuals are the instruments of this industrial revolution.
+Without them the literary remains of the race would still
+be as useless as Egyptian inscriptions to the fellaheen. Archaeology
+itself remained but a minor branch of art until the
+machinery was perfected which enabled it to classify and interpret
+the remains of the &ldquo;pre-historic&rdquo; age.</p>
+
+<p>This is the most remarkable chapter in the whole history of
+history&mdash;the recovery of that past which had already been lost
+when our literary history began. The perspective stretches out
+as far the other side of Homer as we are this. The old &ldquo;providential&rdquo;
+scheme of history disintegrates before a new interest in
+the &ldquo;gentile&rdquo; nations to whose high culture Hebrew sources bore
+unwilling testimony. Biblical criticism is a part of the historic
+process. The Jewish texts, once the infallible basis of history,
+are now tested by the libraries of Babylon, from which they were
+partly drawn, and Hebrew history sinks into its proper place in
+the wide horizon of antiquity. The finding of the Rosetta stone
+left us no longer dependent upon Greek, Latin or Hebrew sources,
+and now fifty centuries of Egyptian history lie before us. The
+scientific historian of antiquity works on the hills of Crete, rather
+than in the quiet of a library with the classics spread out before
+him. There he can reconstruct the splendour of that Minoan
+age to which Homeric poems look back, as the Germanic epics
+looked back to Rome or Verona. His discoveries, co-ordinated
+and arranged in vast <i>corpora inscriptionum</i>, stand now alongside
+Herodotus or Livy, furnishing a basis for their criticism.
+Medieval archaeology has, since Quicherat, revealed how men
+were living while the monks wrote chronicles, and now cathedrals
+and castles are studied as genuine historic documents.</p>
+
+<p>The immense increase in available sources, archaeological and
+literary, has remade historical criticism. Ranke&rsquo;s application
+of the principles of &ldquo;higher criticism&rdquo; to works written since
+the invention of printing (<i>Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber</i>) was
+an epoch-making challenge of narrative sources. Now they are
+everywhere checked by contemporary evidence, and a clearer
+sense of what constitutes a primary source has discredited much
+of what had been currently accepted as true. This is true not
+only of ancient history, where last year&rsquo;s book may be a thousand
+years out of date, but of the whole field. Hardly an &ldquo;old master&rdquo;
+remains an authoritative book of reference. Gibbon, Grote,
+Giesebrecht, Guizot stand to-day by reason of other virtues than
+their truth. Old landmarks drop out of sight&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> the fall of
+the Western Empire in 476, the coming of the Greeks to Italy in
+1450, dates which once enclosed the middle ages. The perspective
+changes&mdash;the Renaissance grows less and the middle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span>
+ages more; the Protestant Revolution becomes a complex of
+economics and politics and religion; the French Revolution a
+vast social reform in which the Terror was an incident, &amp;c., &amp;c.
+The result has been a complete transformation of history since
+the middle of the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th century the Augustinian scheme of world history
+received its last classic statement in Bossuet&rsquo;s <i>Histoire universelle</i>.
+Voltaire&rsquo;s reply to it in the 18th (<i>Essai sur les m&oelig;urs</i>) attacked
+its limitations on the basis of deism, and its miraculous procedure
+on that of science. But while there are foreshadowings of the
+evolutionary theory in this work, neither the <i>philosophe</i> historians
+nor Hume nor Gibbon arrived at a constructive principle in
+history which could take the place of the Providence they
+rejected. Religion, though false, might be a real historic force.
+History became the tragic spectacle of a game of dupes&mdash;the
+real movers being priests, kings or warriors. The pawns slowly
+acquired reason, and then would be able to regulate the moves
+themselves. But all this failed to give a satisfactory explanation
+of the laws which determine the direction of this evolution.
+Giovanni Battista Vico (1668-1744) was the first to ask why there
+is no science of human history. But his lonely life and unrecognized
+labours leave him apart from the main movement,
+until his works were discovered again in the 19th century. It
+was A. L. H. Heeren who, at the opening of the 19th century,
+first laid that emphasis upon the economic factors in history
+which is to-day slowly replacing the Augustinian explanation of
+its evolution. Heeren&rsquo;s own influence, however, was slight. The
+first half of the century (apart from the scientific activity of
+Pertz, Guizot, &amp;c.) was largely dominated by the romanticists,
+with their exaggeration of the individual. Carlyle&rsquo;s &ldquo;great man
+theory of history&rdquo; is logically connected with the age of Scott.
+It was a philosophy of history which lent itself to magnificent
+dramatic creations; but it explained nothing. It substituted
+the work of the genius for the miraculous intervention of
+Providence, but, apart from certain abstract formulae such as
+Truth and Right, knew nothing of why or how. It is but
+dealing in words to say that the meaning of it all is God&rsquo;s revelation
+of Himself. Granting that, what is the process? Why does
+it so slowly reveal the Right of the middle ages (as in slavery for
+instance) to be the Wrong to-day? Carlyle stands to Bossuet
+as the sage to the myth. Hegel got no closer to realities. His
+idealistic scheme of history, which makes religion the keynote of
+progress, and describes the function of each&mdash;Judaism to typify
+duty, Confucianism order, Mahommedanism justice, Buddhism
+patience, and Christianity love&mdash;does not account for the facts
+of the history enacted by the devotees. It characterizes, not the
+real process of evolution, but an ideal which history has not
+realized. Besides, it does not face the question how far religion
+itself is a product or a cause, or both combined.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the century two men sought to incorporate in
+their philosophy the physical basis which Hegel had ignored in
+his spiritism&mdash;recognizing that life is conditioned by an environment
+and not an abstraction for metaphysics. H. T. Buckle, in
+his <i>History of Civilization in England</i> (1857), was the first to work
+out the influences of the material world upon history, developing
+through a wealth of illustration the importance of food, soil and
+the general aspect of nature upon the formation of society.
+Buckle did not, as is generally believed, make these three factors
+dominate all history. He distinctly stated that &ldquo;the advance of
+European civilization is characterized by a diminishing influence
+of physical laws and an increasing influence of mental laws,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;the measure of civilization is the triumph of mind over
+external agents.&rdquo; Yet his challenge, not only to the theologian,
+but also to those &ldquo;historians whose indolence of thought&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;natural incapacity&rdquo; prevented them from attempting more than
+the annalistic record of events, called out a storm of protest from
+almost every side. Now that the controversy has cleared away,
+we see that in spite of Buckle&rsquo;s too confident formulation of his
+laws, his pioneer work in a great field marks him out as the
+Augustine of the scientific age. Among historians, however,
+Buckle&rsquo;s theory received but little favour for another generation.
+Meanwhile the economists had themselves taken up the problem,
+and it was from them that the historians of to-day have learned
+it. Ten years before Buckle published his history, Karl Marx had
+already formulated the &ldquo;economic theory of history.&rdquo; Accepting
+with reservation Feuerbach&rsquo;s attack on the Hegelian &ldquo;absolute
+idea,&rdquo; based on materialistic grounds (<i>Der Mensch ist, was er isst</i>),
+Marx was led to the conclusion that the causes of that process of
+growth which constitutes the history of society are to be found in
+the economic conditions of existence. From this he went on to
+socialism, which bases its militant philosophy upon this interpretation
+of history. But the truth or falseness of socialism does
+not affect the theory of history. In 1845 Marx wrote of the
+Young-Hegelians that to separate history from natural science
+and industry was like separating the soul from the body, and
+&ldquo;finding the birthplace of history, not in the gross material
+production on earth, but in the misty cloud formation of heaven&rdquo;
+(<i>Die heilige Familie</i>, p. 238). In his <i>Misère de la philosophie</i>
+(1847) he lays down the principle that social relationships largely
+depend upon modes of production, and therefore the principles,
+ideas and categories which are thus evolved are no more eternal
+than the relations they express, but are historical and transitory
+products. In the famous <i>Manifesto of the Communist Party</i>
+(1848) the theory was applied to show how the industrial revolution
+had replaced feudal with modern conditions. But it had
+little vogue, except among Socialists, until the third volume of
+<i>Das Kapital</i> was published in 1894, when its importance was
+borne in upon continental scholars. Since then the controversy
+has been almost as heated as in the days of the Reformation.
+It is an exaggeration of the theory which makes it an explanation
+of all human life, but the whole science of dynamic sociology
+rests upon the postulate of Marx.</p>
+
+<p>The content of history always reflects the interests of the age
+in which it is written. It was so in Herodotus and in medieval
+chronicles. Modern historians began with politics. But as the
+complex nature of society became more evident in the age of
+democracy, the economic or sociological history gained ground.
+Histories of commerce and cities now rank beside those on war
+and kings, although there are readers still who prefer to follow
+the pennants of robber barons rather than to watch the slow
+evolution of modern conditions. The drum-and-trumpet history
+has its place like that of art, jurisprudence, science or philosophy.
+Only now we know that no one of these is more than a single
+glimpse at a vast complex of phenomena, most of which lie for
+ever beyond our ken.</p>
+
+<p>This expansion of interest has intensified specialization.
+Historians no longer attempt to write world histories; they
+form associations of specialists for the purpose. Each historian
+chooses his own epoch or century and his own subject, and
+spends his life mastering such traces of it as he can find. His
+work there enables him to judge of the methods of his fellows,
+but his own remains restricted by the very wealth of material
+which has been accumulated on the single subject before him.
+Thus the great enterprises of to-day are co-operative&mdash;the
+<i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, Lavisse and Rambaud&rsquo;s <i>Histoire
+générale</i>, or Lavisse&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de France</i>, like Hunt and Poole&rsquo;s
+<i>Political History of England</i>, and Oncken&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Geschichte
+in Einzeldarstellungen</i>. But even these vast sets cover but the
+merest fraction of their subjects. The Cambridge history passes
+for the most part along the political crust of society, and seldom
+glances at the social forces within. This limitation of the professed
+historian is made up for by the growingly historical
+treatment of all the sciences and arts&mdash;a tendency noted before,
+to which this edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> is itself
+a notable witness. Indeed, for a definition of that limitless
+subject which includes all the phenomena that stand the warp
+and stress of change, one might adapt a famous epitaph&mdash;<i>si
+historiam requiris, circumspice</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See Ch. V. Langlois, <i>Manuel de bibliographie
+historique</i> (2 vols., 1904). This forms the logical bibliography of
+this article. It is a general survey of the whole apparatus of historical
+research, and is the indispensable guide to the subject. Similar
+bibliographies covering sections of history are noted with the
+articles where they properly belong, <i>e.g.</i> in English medieval history
+the manual of Chas. Gross, <i>Sources and Literature of English History</i>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span>
+in German history the <i>Quellenkunde</i> of Dahlmann-Waitz (7th ed.);
+for France the <i>Bibliographie de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> of G. Monod
+(antiquated, 1888), or the <i>Sources de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> so ably
+begun by A. Molinier&rsquo;s volumes on the medieval period. Perhaps
+the sanest survey of the present scientific movement in history is
+the clear summary of Ch. V. Langlois and Ch. Seignobos, <i>Introduction
+to the Study of History</i> (trans. with preface by F. York
+Powell, London, 1898). Much more ambitious is E. Bernheim&rsquo;s
+<i>Lehrbuch der historischen Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie mit
+Nachweis der wichtigsten Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Studium der
+Geschichte</i> (3rd and 4th ed., Leipzig, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. S.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIT,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Bagdad, on
+the west bank of the Euphrates, 70 m. W.N.W. of Bagdad, in
+33° 38&prime; 8&Prime; N., 42° 52&prime; 15&Prime; E. It is picturesquely situated on a line
+of hills, partly natural, but in large part certainly artificial, the
+accumulation of centuries of former habitation, from 30 to 100 ft.
+in height, bordering the river. The houses are built of field stones
+and mud. A striking feature of the town is a lofty and well-proportioned
+minaret, which leans quite perceptibly. Behind
+and around Hit is an extensive but utterly barren plain, through
+which flow several streams of bitter water, coming from mineral
+springs. Directly behind the town are two bitumen springs, one
+cold and one hot, within 30 ft. of one another. The gypsum
+cliffs on the edge of the plain, and the rocks which crop out here
+and there in the plain, are full of seams of bitumen, and the
+whole place is redolent of sulphuretted hydrogen. Across the
+river there are naphtha springs. Indeed, the entire region is one
+possessing great potential wealth in mineral oils and the like.
+Hit, with its fringe of palms, is like an oasis in the desert
+occasioned by the outcrop of these deposits. From time
+immemorial it has been the chief source of supply of bitumen for
+Babylonia, the prosperity of the town depending always upon its
+bitumen fountains, which are still the property of the government,
+but are rented out to any one who wishes to use them.
+There is also a shipyard at Hit, where the characteristic Babylonian
+boats are still made, smeared within and without with
+bitumen. Hit is the head of navigation on the Euphrates. It is
+also the point from which the camel-post starts across the desert
+to Damascus. About 8 m. inland from Hit, on a bitter stream,
+lies the small town of Kubeitha. Hit is mentioned, under the
+name of Ist, in the Karnak inscription as paying tribute to
+Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. In the Bible (Ezra viii. 15) it is called
+Ahava; the original Babylonian name seems to have been <i>Ihi</i>,
+which becomes in the Talmud <i>Ihidakira</i>, in Ptolemy <span class="grk" title="Idikara">&#921;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#961;&#945;</span>, and
+in Zosimus and Ammianus <span class="grk" title="Dakira">&#916;&#945;&#954;&#943;&#961;&#945;</span> and Diacira.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Geo. Rawlinson&rsquo;s <i>Herodotus</i>, i. 179, and note by H. C. Rawlinson;
+J. P. Peters, <i>Nippur</i> (1897); H. V. Geere, <i>By Nile and
+Euphrates</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HITA, GINÉS PEREZ DE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1544?-1605?), Spanish novelist
+and poet, was born at Mula (Murcia) about the middle of the 16th
+century. He served in the campaign of 1569-1571 against the
+Moriscos, and in 1572 wrote a rhymed history of the city of Lorca
+which remained unpublished till 1889. He owes his wide celebrity
+to the <i>Historia de los bandos de Zegríes y Abencerrajes</i> (1595-1604),
+better known as the <i>Guerras civiles de Granada</i>, which
+purports to be a chronicle based on an Arabic original ascribed
+to a certain Aben-Hamin. Aben-Hamin is a fictitious personage,
+and the <i>Guerras de Granada</i> is in reality a historical novel, perhaps
+the earliest example of its kind, and certainly the first historical
+novel that attained popularity. In the first part the events which
+led to the downfall of Granada are related with uncommon
+brilliancy, and Hita&rsquo;s sympathetic transcription of life at the
+Emir&rsquo;s court has clearly suggested the conventional presentation
+of the picturesque, chivalrous Moor in the pages of Mlle de
+Scudéry, Mme de Lafayette, Châteaubriand and Washington
+Irving. The second part is concerned with the author&rsquo;s personal
+experiences, and the treatment is effective; yet, though
+Calderón&rsquo;s play, <i>Amar después de la muerte</i>, is derived from it, the
+second part has never enjoyed the vogue or influence of the first.
+The exact date of Hita&rsquo;s death is unknown. His blank verse
+rendering of the <i>Crónica Troyana</i>, written in 1596, exists in
+manuscript.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HITCHCOCK, EDWARD<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1793-1864), American geologist,
+was born of poor parents at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the
+24th of May 1793. He owed his education chiefly to his own
+exertions, and was preparing himself to enter Harvard College
+when he was compelled to interrupt his studies from a weakness
+in his eyesight. In 1815 he became principal of the academy of
+his native town; but he resigned this office in 1818 in order
+to study for the ministry. Having been ordained in 1821
+pastor of the Congregational church of Conway, Mass., he employed
+his leisure in making a scientific survey of the western
+counties of the state. From 1825 to 1845 he was professor of
+chemistry and natural history, from 1845 to 1864 was professor of
+natural theology and geology at Amherst College, and from 1845
+to 1854 was president; the college owed its early success largely
+to his energetic efforts, especially during the period of his presidency.
+In 1830 he was appointed state geologist of Massachusetts,
+and in 1836 was made geologist of the first district of the state of
+New York. In 1840 he received the degree of LL.D. from
+Harvard, and in 1846 that of D.D. from Middlebury College,
+Vermont. Besides his constant labours in geology, zoology and
+botany, Hitchcock took an active interest in agriculture, and in
+1850 he was sent by the Massachusetts legislature to examine
+into the methods of the agricultural schools of Europe. In
+geology he made a detailed examination and exposition of the
+fossil footprints from the Triassic sandstones of the Connecticut
+valley. His collection is preserved in the Hitchcock Ichnological
+Museum of Amherst College, and a description of it was published
+in 1858 in his report to the Massachusetts legislature on the
+ichnology of New England. The footprints were regarded as
+those of reptiles, amphibia and birds (?). In 1857 he undertook,
+with the aid of his two sons, the geological survey of Vermont,
+which was completed in 1861. As a writer on geological science,
+Hitchcock was largely concerned in determining the connexion
+between it and religion, and employing its results to explain
+and support what he regarded as the truths of revelation. He
+died at Amherst, on the 27th of February 1864.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Charles Henry Hitchcock</span> (1836-&emsp;&emsp;), did good
+service in geology, in Vermont, New Hampshire (1868-1878), and
+other parts of America, and became professor of geology at Dartmouth
+in 1868.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are Edward Hitchcock&rsquo;s principal works: <i>Geology
+of the Connecticut Valley</i> (1823); <i>Catalogue of Plants growing without
+cultivation in the vicinity of Amherst</i> (1829); <i>Reports on the Geology
+of Massachusetts</i> (1833-1841); <i>Elementary Geology</i> (1840; ed. 2,
+1841; and later ed. with C. H. Hitchcock, 1862); <i>Fossil Footmarks
+in the United States</i> (1848); <i>Outline of the Geology of the Globe and
+of the United States in particular</i> (1853); <i>Illustrations of Surface
+Geology</i> (1856); <i>Ichnology of New England</i> (1858); <i>The Religion of
+Geology and its Connected Sciences</i> (1851; new ed., 1869); <i>Reminiscences
+of Amherst College</i> (1863); and various papers in the <i>American
+Journal of Science</i>, and other periodicals.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HITCHCOCK, GEORGE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1850-&emsp;&emsp;), American artist, was
+born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1850. He graduated from
+Brown University in 1872 and from the law school of Harvard
+University in 1874; then turned his attention to art and became
+a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. He attracted notice
+in the Salon of 1885 with his &ldquo;Tulip Growing,&rdquo; a Dutch garden
+which he painted in Holland. He had for years a studio at
+Egmond, in the Netherlands. He became a Chevalier of the
+Legion of Honour, France; a member of the Vienna Academy
+of Arts, the Munich Secession Society, and other art bodies; and
+is represented in the Dresden gallery; the imperial collection,
+Vienna; the Chicago Art Institute, and the Detroit Museum of
+Fine Arts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1817-1887), American
+divine, was born at East Machias, Maine, on the 15th of August
+1817, graduated at Amherst College in 1836, and later studied at
+Andover Theological Seminary, Mass. After a visit to Germany
+he was a tutor at Amherst in 1839-1842, and was minister of the
+First (Congregational) Church, Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1845-1852.
+He became professor of natural and revealed religion in
+Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1852, and in 1855
+professor of church history in the Union Theological Seminary
+in New York, of which he was president in 1880-1887. He died
+at Somerset, Mass., on the 16th of June 1887.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his works are: <i>Life of Edward Robinson</i> (1863); <i>Socialism</i>
+(1879); <i>Carmina Sanctorum</i> (with Z. Eddy and L. W. Mudge, 1885);
+and <i>Eternal Atonement</i> (1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HITCHIN,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary
+division of Hertfordshire, England, on the small river Hiz, 32 m.
+N. from London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 10,072. It is the junction of the main line with
+the Cambridge branch, and with a branch of the Midland railway
+to Bedford. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular, with a fine
+porch, a painting of the Adoration of the Magi, attributed to
+Rubens, a small crypt said to have been used by Cromwell as a
+prison for the Royalists, and many interesting monuments.
+Hitchin Priory is a mansion on the site of a Carmelite foundation
+of the early 14th century. A Gilbertine nunnery, founded later
+in the same century, stood adjacent to the church, and portions
+of the buildings appear in an existing block of almshouses. The
+grammar school (1632) was reconstituted in 1889 for boys and
+girls. Straw-plaiting, malting, brewing, and the cultivation and
+distillation of lavender and peppermint are carried on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HITTITES,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> an ancient people, alluded to frequently in the
+earlier records of Israel, and also, under slightly variant names,
+in Egyptian records of the XVIIIth, XIXth and XXth Dynasties,
+and in Assyrian from about 1100 to 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They appear also in
+the Vannic cuneiform texts, and are believed to be the authors of
+a class of monuments bearing inscriptions in a peculiar pictographic
+character, and widely distributed over Asia Minor and
+N. Syria, around which much controversy has raged during the
+past thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Bible.</i>&mdash;In the Old Testament the name of the race is
+written <i>Heth</i> (with initial aspirate), members of it being <i>Hitti</i>,
+<i>Hittim</i>, which the Septuagint renders <span class="grk" title="chet">&#967;&#941;&#964;</span>, <span class="grk" title="chettaios">&#967;&#949;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="chettein">&#967;&#949;&#964;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#957;</span> or
+<span class="grk" title="chetteim">&#967;&#949;&#964;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#956;</span>, keeping, it will be noted, &epsilon; in the stem throughout. The
+race appears in two connexions, (<i>a</i>) In pre-Israelite Palestine,
+it is resident about Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 3), and in the central
+uplands (Num. xiii. 29). To Joshua (i. 4) is promised &ldquo;from the
+wilderness and this Lebanon even unto the great river, the river
+Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites.&rdquo; The term &ldquo;wilderness&rdquo;
+here is of geographical ambiguity; but the promise is usually
+taken to mean that Palestine itself was part of the Hittite land
+before the coming of Israel; and an apostrophe of Ezekiel
+(xvi. 3) to Jerusalem, &ldquo;thy mother (was) an Hittite,&rdquo; is quoted
+in confirmation. Under the monarchy we hear frequently of
+Hittites within the borders of Israel, but either as a small subject
+people, coupled with other petty tribes, or as individuals in the
+Jewish service (<i>e.g.</i> Uriah, in the time of David). It appears,
+therefore, that there survived in Palestine to late times a detached
+Hittite population, with which Hebrews sometimes
+intermarried (Judges iii. 5-6; Gen. xxvi. 34) and lived in relations
+now amicable, now tyrannical (<i>e.g.</i> Hittites were made tributary
+bondsmen by Solomon, 1 Kings ix. 20, 21; 2 Chron. viii. 7, 8).
+(<i>b</i>) An independent and powerful Hittite people was domiciled
+N. of Palestine proper, organized rather as a confederacy of tribes
+than a single monarchy (1 Kings x. 28; 2 Kings vii. 6). Presumably
+it was a daughter of these Hittites that Solomon took to wife.
+If the emendation of 2 Sam. xxiv. 64, &ldquo;Tahtim-hodshi,&rdquo; based on
+the Septuagint version <span class="grk" title="gên chetteim kadês">&#947;&#8052;&#957; &#967;&#949;&#964;&#964;&#949;&#8054;&#956; &#954;&#945;&#948;&#942;&#962;</span> be accepted, we hear of
+them at Kadesh on Orontes; and some minor Hittite cities are
+mentioned, <i>e.g.</i> Luz; but no one capital city of the race is clearly
+indicated. Carchemish, on the Euphrates, though mentioned
+three times (2 Chron. xxxv. 20; Isa. x. 9; Jer. xlvi. 2), is not
+connected explicitly with Hittites, a fact which is not surprising,
+since that city was no longer under a Hatti dynasty at the epoch
+of the Old Testament references. So far as the Old Testament
+goes, therefore, we gather that the Hittites were a considerable
+people, widely spread in Syria, in part subdued and to some
+extent assimilated by Israel, but in part out of reach. The latter
+portion was not much known to the Hebrews, but was vaguely
+feared as a power in the early days of the monarchy, though not
+in the later pre-Captivity period. The identification of the
+northern and southern Hittites, however, presents certain
+difficulties not yet fully explained; and it seems that we must
+assume Heth to have been the name both of a country in the
+north and of a tribal population not confined to that country.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Egyptian Records.</i>&mdash;The decipherment of the inscriptions
+of the XVIIIth Theban Dynasty led, before the middle of the
+19th century, to the discovery of the important part played in
+the Syrian campaigns of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. by the H-t<span class="su">8</span>
+(vulgarly transliterated <i>Kheta</i>, though the vocalization is uncertain).
+The coincidence of this name, beginning with an
+aspirate, led H. K. Brugsch to identify the Kheta with Heth.
+That identification stands, and no earlier Egyptian mention of
+the race has been found. Tethmosis III. found the Kheta
+(&ldquo;Great&rdquo; and &ldquo;Little&rdquo;) in N. Syria, not apparently at Kadesh,
+but at Carchemish, though they had not been in possession of the
+latter place long (not in the epoch of Tethmosis I.&rsquo;s Syrian
+campaign). They were a power strong enough to give the
+Pharaoh cause to vaunt his success (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Ancient
+History</i>, § &ldquo;The New Empire&rdquo;). Though he says he levied
+tribute upon them, his successors in the dynasty nearly all
+record fresh wars with the Kheta who appear as the northernmost
+of Pharaoh&rsquo;s enemies, and Amenophis or Amenhotep III.
+saw fit to take to wife Gilukhipa, a Syrian princess, who may or
+may not have been a Hittite. This queen is by some supposed to
+have introduced into Egypt certain exotic ideas which blossomed
+in the reign of Amenophis IV. The first Pharaoh of the succeeding
+dynasty, Rameses I., came to terms with a Kheta king called
+Saplel or Saparura; but Seti I. again attacked the Kheta (1366
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who had apparently pushed southwards. Forced back by
+Seti, the Kheta returned and were found holding Kadesh by
+Rameses II., who, in his fifth year, there fought against them and
+a large body of allies, drawn probably in part from beyond
+Taurus, the battle which occasioned the monumental poem of
+Pentaur. After long struggles, a treaty was concluded in
+Rameses&rsquo;s twenty-first year, between Pharaoh and &ldquo;Khetasar&rdquo;
+(<i>i.e.</i> Kheta-king), of which we possess an Egyptian copy.
+The discovery of a cuneiform tablet containing a copy of this
+same treaty, in the Babylonian language, was reported from
+Boghaz Keui in Cappadocia by H. Winckler in 1907. It argues
+the Kheta a people of considerable civilization. The Kheta king
+subsequently visited Pharaoh and gave him his daughter to wife.
+Rameses&rsquo; successor, Mineptah, remained on terms with the
+Kheta folk; but in the reign of Rameses III. (Dyn. XX.) the
+latter seem to have joined in the great raid of northern tribes on
+Egypt which was checked by the battle of Pelusium. From this
+point (<i>c.</i> 1150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)&mdash;the point at which (roughly) the monarchic
+history of Israel in Palestine opens&mdash;Egyptian records cease to
+mention Kheta; and as we know from other sources that the
+latter continued powerful in Carchemish for some centuries to
+come, we must presume that the rise of the Israelite state interposed
+an effective political barrier.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Assyrian Records.</i>&mdash;In an inscription of Tiglath Pileser I.
+(about 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), first deciphered in 1857, a people called <i>Khatti</i>
+is mentioned as powerful in Girgamish on Euphrates (<i>i.e.</i>
+Carchemish); and in other records of the same monarch, subsequently
+read, much mention is made of this and of other N.
+Syrian names. These Khatti appear again in the inscriptions of
+Assur-nazir-pal (early 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in whose time Carchemish
+was very wealthy, and the Khatti power extended far
+over N. Syria and even into Mesopotamia. Shalmaneser II.
+(d. 825 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) raided the Khatti and their allies year after year;
+and at last Sargon III., in 717 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, relates that he captured
+Carchemish and its king, Pisiris, and put an end to its independence.
+We hear no more of it thenceforward. These <i>Khatti</i>,
+there is no reasonable doubt, are identical with <i>Kheta</i>. (For the
+chronology see further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia and Assyria</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Other Cuneiform Records.</i>&mdash;The name of the race appears in
+certain of the Tel-el-Amarna letters, tablets written in Babylonian
+script to Amenophis (Amenhotep) IV. and found in 1892
+on the site of his capital. Some of his governors in Syrian
+districts (<i>e.g.</i> one Aziru of Phoenicia) report movements of the
+Hittites, who were then pursuing an aggressive policy (about
+1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). There are also other letters from rulers of principalities
+in N. Syria (Mitanni) and E. Asia Minor (Arzawa), who
+write in non-Semitic tongues and are supposed to have been
+Hittites.</p>
+
+<p>Certain <i>Khat&#275;</i> or <i>Khati</i> are mentioned in the Vannic inscriptions
+(deciphered partially by A. H. Sayce and others) as attacked by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span>
+kings of Bianas (Van), and apparently domiciled on the middle
+Euphrates N. of Taurus in the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This name
+again may safely be identified with <i>Khatti-Kheta</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Khatti also appear on a &ldquo;prophecy-tablet,&rdquo; referring
+ostensibly to the time of Sargon of Agadé (middle of 4th
+millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); but the document is probably of very
+much later date. Lastly, a fragmentary chronicle of the 1st
+Babylonian Dynasty mentions an invasion of Akkad by them
+about 1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>From all these various sources we should gather that the
+Hittites were among the more important racial elements in N.
+Syria and S.E. Asia Minor for at least a thousand years. The
+limits at each end, however, are very ill defined, the superior
+falling not later than 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and the inferior not earlier than
+600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This people was militant, aggressive and unsettled in
+the earlier part of that time; commercial, wealthy and enervated
+in the latter. A memorial of its trading long remained in Asia
+in the shape of the weight-measure called in cuneiform records
+the <i>maneh</i> &ldquo;of Carchemish.&rdquo; These Hittites had close relations
+with other Asia Minor peoples, and at times headed a confederacy.
+During the later part of their history they were in continual
+contact with Assyria, and, as a Syrian power, and perhaps also
+as a Cappadocian one, they finally succumbed to Assyrian
+pressure.</p>
+
+<p><i>The &ldquo;Hittite&rdquo; Monuments.</i>&mdash;It remains to consider in the light
+of the foregoing evidence a class of monuments to which attention
+began to be called about 1870. In that year two Americans,
+Consul J. A. Johnson and the Rev. S. Jessup, rediscovered, at
+Hamah (Hamath) on Orontes, five basaltic blocks bearing
+pictographic inscriptions in relief, one of which had been reported
+by J. L. Burckhardt in 1812. In spite of their efforts and
+subsequent attempts made by Tyrwhitt Drake and Richard
+Burton, when consul at Damascus, proper copies could not be
+obtained; and it was not till the end of 1872 that, thanks to
+W. Wright of Beirut, casts were taken and the stones themselves
+sent to Constantinople by Subhi Pasha of Damascus. As usually
+happens when a new class of antiquities is announced, it was soon
+found that the &ldquo;Hamathite&rdquo; inscriptions did not stand alone.
+A monument in the same script had been seen in Aleppo by
+Tyrwhitt Drake and George Smith in 1872. It still exists, built
+into a mosque on the western wall of the city. Certain clay
+sealings, eight of which bore pictographic signs, found by A. H.
+Layard in the palace of Assur-bani-pal at Kuyunjik (Nineveh),
+as long ago as 1851 and noticed then as in a &ldquo;doubtful character,&rdquo;
+were compared by Hayes Ward and found to be of the Hamathite
+class. A new copy of the long known rock-sculpture at Ivriz<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in
+S.W. Cappadocia was published by E. J. Davis in 1876, and
+clearly showed Hamathite characters accompanying the figures.
+Davis also reported, but did not see, a similar inscription at Bulgar
+Maden, not far away. Sculptures seen by W. Skene and George
+Smith at Jerablus, on the middle Euphrates, led to excavations
+being undertaken there, in 1878, by the British Museum, and to
+the discovery of certain Hamathite inscriptions accompanying
+sculptures, a few of which were brought to London. The conduct
+of these excavations, owing to the death of George Smith,
+devolved on Consul Henderson of Aleppo, and was not satisfactorily
+carried out. Meanwhile Wright, Ward and Sayce had
+all suggested &ldquo;Hittite&rdquo; as a substitute for &ldquo;Hamathite,&rdquo;
+because no other N. Syrian people loomed so large in ancient
+records as did the Hittites, and the suggestion began to find
+acceptance. Jerablus was confidently identified with Carchemish
+(but without positive proof to this day), and the occurrence
+of Hamathite monuments there was held to confirm the
+Hittite theory.</p>
+
+<p>In 1876 Sayce pointed out the resemblance between certain
+Hittite signs and characters in the lately deciphered Cypriote
+syllabary, and suggested that the comparison might lead to a
+beginning of decipherment; but the hope has proved vain. To
+this scholar, however, is owed the next great step ahead. In
+1879 it first occurred to him to compare the rock-monuments
+at Boghaz Keui (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>) and Euyuk in N. Cappadocia,
+discovered by Texier and Hamilton in 1835 and subsequently
+explored by G. Perrot and E. Guillaume. These, he now
+saw, bore Hittite pictographs. Other rock-sculptures at Giaur
+Kalessi, in Galatia, and in the Karabel pass near Smyrna, he
+suspected of belonging to the same class<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a>; and visiting the
+last-named locality in the autumn, he found Hittite pictographs
+accompanying one of the two figures.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> He announced his discoveries
+in 1880, and proclaimed the fact that a great Hittite
+empire, extending from Kadesh to Smyrna, had risen from the
+dead. A month later he had the good fortune to recover copies
+of a silver boss, or hilt-top, offered to various museums about
+1860, but rejected by them as a meaningless forgery and for a
+long time lost again to sight. Round the rim was a cuneiform
+legend, and in the field a Hittite figure with six Hittite symbols
+engraved twice over on either hand of it. Reading the cuneiform
+as <i>Tarqu-dimme sar mat Erme</i> (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;T. king of the country E.&rdquo;),
+Sayce distributed phonetic values, corresponding to the syllables
+of the two proper names, among four of the Hittite characters,
+reserving two as &ldquo;ideograms&rdquo; of &ldquo;king&rdquo; and &ldquo;country,&rdquo;
+and launched into the field of decipherment. But he subsequently
+recognized that this was a false start, and began afresh
+from another basis. Since then a number of other monuments
+have been found, some on new sites, others on sites already
+known to be Hittite, the distribution of which can be seen
+by reference to the accompanying map. It will be observed
+that, so far as at present known, they cluster most closely in
+Commagene, Cappadocia and S. Phrygia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following notes supplement the map:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>A. <span class="sc">West Asia Minor.</span>&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Niobe</i>&rdquo; (<i>Suratlu Tash</i>) and <i>Karabel</i>
+(two); rock-cut figures with much defaced hieroglyphs in relief.
+Remains of buildings, not yet explored, lie near the &ldquo;Niobe&rdquo; figure.
+Nothing purely Hittite has been found at Sardis or in any W. Asian
+excavation; but small Hittite objects have been sold in Smyrna
+and Aidin.</p>
+
+<p>B. <span class="sc">Phrygia.</span>&mdash;<i>Giaur-Kalessi</i>; rock-cut figures and remains of a
+stronghold, but no inscriptions. <i>Doghanlüdere</i> and <i>Beikeui</i> in the
+Phrygian rock-monument country; at the first is a sculptured
+rock-panel with a few pictographs in relief; at the latter a fragment
+of an inscription in relief was disinterred from a mound. <i>Kolitolu
+Yaila</i>, near Ilghin; block inscribed in relief, disinterred from mounds
+apparently marking a camp or palace-enclosure. <i>Eflatun Bunar</i>
+(= Plato&rsquo;s Spring), W. of Konia; megalithic building with rude
+and greatly defaced reliefs, not certainly Hittite: no inscription.
+Fassiler, W. of Konia; gigantic <i>stela</i>, or composite statue (figure
+on animals), not certainly Hittite; no inscription. <i>Konia</i>; relief of
+warrior, drawn by Texier in 1835 and since lost; of very doubtful
+Hittite character. A gold inscribed Hittite ring, now at Oxford,
+was bought there in 1903. <i>Emirghazi</i> (anc. <i>Ardistama</i>?); three
+inscriptions in relief (two on altars) and large mounds. Evidently
+an important Hittite site. <i>Kara-Dagh</i>; hill-sanctuary with incised
+carving of seated figure and inscriptions, found by Miss G. L. Bell
+and Sir W. M. Ramsay in 1907 (see their <i>Thousand and One Churches</i>,
+1909).</p>
+
+<p>C. <span class="sc">North Cappadocia.</span>&mdash;<i>Boghaz Keui</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>); large city with
+remains of palace, citadel, walls, &amp;c. Long rock-cut inscription of
+ten lines in relief, two short relief inscriptions cut on blocks, and
+also cuneiform tablets in Babylonian and also in a native language,
+first found in situ in 1893, and showing the site to be the capital of
+Arzawa, whence came two of the Tell el-Amarna letters. Near the
+site are the rock reliefs of <i>Yasili Kaya</i> in two hypaethral galleries,
+showing, in the one, two processions composed of over sixty figures
+meeting at the head of the gallery; in the other, isolated groups of
+figures, fifteen in number (see for detailed description <i>Murray&rsquo;s
+Guide to Asia Minor</i>, 1895, pp. 23 ff.). Pictographs accompany
+many of the figures. The whole makes the most extensive group
+of Hittite remains yet known. Boghaz Keui was never thoroughly
+explored until 1907, the survey of Perrot and Guillaume having been
+superficial only and the excavations of E. Chantre (1894) very slight.
+In 1906 a German expedition under Professor H. Winckler undertook
+the work, and great numbers of cuneiform tablets were found.
+These refer to the reigns of at least four kings from Subbiluliuma
+(= Saplel, see above) to Hattusil II. or Khartusil (= Khetasar, see
+above). The latter was an ally of Katashmanturgu of Babylon,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span>
+and powerful enough to write to the Babylonian court as a sovereign
+of equal standing. His letter shows that he considered the rise of
+Assyria a menace to himself. Winckler claims to read <i>Hatti</i> as the
+name of the possessors of Boghaz Keui, and to find in this name
+the proof of the Hittite character of Syro-Cappadocian power and
+of the imperial predominance of the city. But it remains to be
+proved whether these tablets were written there, and not rather,
+being in a foreign script, abroad, like most of the Tell el-Amarna
+archives. O. Puchstein has cleared and studied important architectural
+remains. <i>Euyuk</i>; large mound with remains of palace
+entered between sphinxes. Sculptured wall-dados, but no Hittite
+inscriptions. Cuneiform tablets; some Babylonian, others in a
+native language. Also inscriptions in early Phrygian character
+and language, found in 1894. The most famous of Hittite reliefs
+is here&mdash;a double-headed eagle &ldquo;displayed&rdquo; on the flank of one of
+the gateway sphinxes. This is supposed to have suggested to the
+Seljuks of Konia their heraldic device adopted in the 13th century,
+which, brought to Europe by the Crusaders, became the emblem
+of Teutonic empire in 1345. This derivation must be taken, however,
+<i>cum grano</i>, proof of its successive steps being wanting. Kara-Euyuk;
+a mound near Dedik, partially excavated by E. Chantre
+in 1894. Cuneiform tablets and small objects possibly, but not
+certainly, Hittite. A colossal eagle was found on a deserted site
+near <i>Yamuli</i> on the middle Halys, in 1907 by W. Attmore Robinson.</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:900px; height:578px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img536.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>D. <span class="sc">South Cappadocia.</span>&mdash;<i>Karaburna</i>; long, incised rock-inscription.
+<i>Bogja</i>, eight hours west of Kaisariye; four-sided <i>stela</i> with incised
+inscription. <i>Assarjik</i>, on the side of Mt. Argaeus; incised rock-inscription.
+<i>Ekrek</i>; a fragmentary inscription in relief and an
+incised inscription on a <i>stela</i> of very late appearance. <i>Fraktin</i>
+or <i>Farakdin</i> (probably anc. <i>Das-tarkon</i>); sculptured rock-panel
+showing two groups of figures in act of cult, with hieroglyphs in
+relief. <i>Arslan Tash</i>, near Comana (Cappadocia), on the Soghan
+Dagh; two colossal lions, one with incised inscription. <i>Tashji</i>
+in the Zamanti valley; rock-relief with rudely incised inscription.
+<i>Andaval</i> and <i>Bor</i>; inscriptions incised on sculptured <i>stelae</i> of kings (?),
+probably from Tyana (<i>Ekuzli Hissar</i>). All are now in Constantinople.
+A silver seal with hieroglyphs, now at Oxford, came also
+from Bor. <i>Nigdeh</i>; basalt drum or altar with incised inscription.
+<i>Ivriz</i>; rock-sculpture of king adoring god, with three inscriptions
+in relief. A second sculpture, similar in subject but smaller and
+much defaced, was found hard by in 1906. <i>Bulgar Maden</i>; long
+incised rock inscription, near silver-mines. <i>Gorun</i> (Gurun); two
+rock-inscriptions in relief, much damaged. <i>Arslan-Tepe</i>, near
+Ordasu (two hours from Malatia); large mound whence two sculptured
+<i>stelae</i> or wall-blocks with inscriptions in relief have been
+unearthed (now in Constantinople and the Louvre). Four other
+reliefs, reported found near Malatia and published by J. Garstang
+in <i>Annals Arch. and Anthrop.</i>, 1908, probably came also from Arslan
+Tepe. <i>Palanga</i>; lower aniconic half of draped statue with incised
+inscription, now in Constantinople. Also a small basalt lion. <i>Arslan
+Tash</i>, near Palanga; two rude gateway lions, uninscribed. <i>Yapalak</i>;
+defaced inscription, reported by J. S. Sterrett but never copied.
+<i>Izgin</i>; obelisk with long inscription in relief on all four faces, now
+in Constantinople. These last four places seem to lie on a main
+road leading from Cappadocia to Marash and the Syrian sites.
+The expedition sent out by Cornell University in 1907 found
+several Hittite inscriptions on rocks near <i>Darende</i> in the valley of
+the Tokhma Su.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">E. North Syria.</span>&mdash;<i>Marash</i>; several monuments (<i>stelae</i>, wall-blocks
+and two lions) with inscriptions, both in relief and incised (part are
+now at Constantinople, part in Berlin and America); evidently one
+of the most important of Hittite sites. <i>Karaburshlu</i>, <i>Arbistan</i>,
+<i>Gerchin</i>, <i>Sinjerli</i>; mounds about the head-waters of the Kara Su.
+The last-named mound, brought to O. Puchstein&rsquo;s notice in 1882
+by the chance discovery of sculptured wall-dados, now in Constantinople,
+was the scene of extensive German excavations in
+1893-1894, directed by F. v. Luschan and K. Koldewey, and was
+found to cover a walled town with central fortified palace. Hittite,
+cuneiform and old Aramaean monuments were found with many
+small objects, most of which have been taken to Berlin; but no
+Hittite inscriptions came to light. <i>Sakchegeuzu</i> (Sakchegözu), a
+site with several mounds between Sinjerli and Aintab; series of
+reliefs, once wall-dados, now in Berlin and Constantinople. This
+site is in process of excavation by Professor J. Garstang of the
+University of Liverpool. A sculptured portico has come to light in
+the smallest of the five mounds, and much pottery, with incised
+and painted decoration, has been recovered. <i>Aintab</i>; fragment
+of relief inscription. <i>Samsat</i> (Samosata); sculptured stela with
+incised inscription much defaced. <i>Jerablus</i>; see above. Several
+Hittite objects sent from Birejik and Aintab to Europe probably
+came from Jerablus, others from <i>Tell Bashar</i> on the Sajur. <i>Kellekli</i>,
+near Jerablus; two <i>stelae</i>, one with relief inscription. <i>Iskanderun</i>
+(Alexandretta); source of a long inscription cut on both sides of
+a spheroidal object of unknown origin. <i>Kirchoglu</i>, a site on the
+Afrin, whence a fragmentary draped statue with incised inscription
+was sent to Berlin. <i>Aleppo</i>; inscription in relief (see above). <i>Tell
+Ahmar</i> (on left bank of Euphrates); large <i>stela</i> with sculpture and
+long relief inscription, found in 1908 with several sculptured slabs
+and two gateway lions, inscribed in cuneiform. Two hours south,
+a lion and a fragment of a relief inscription were found in 1909 by
+Miss G. L. Bell. <i>Tell Halaf</i> in Mid-Mesopotamia, near Ras el-Ain;
+sculptures on portico of a temple or palace; cuneiform inscriptions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span>
+and large mounds, explored in 1902 by Oppenheim. <i>Hamah</i>; five
+blocks inscribed in relief (see above).</p>
+
+<p>F. <span class="sc">Outlying Sites.</span>&mdash;<i>Erzerum</i>; source of an incised inscription,
+perhaps not originally found there. <i>Kedabeg</i>; metal boss or hilt-top
+with pictographs, found in a tomb and stated by F. Hommel to be
+Hittite, but doubtful. <i>Toprak Kaleh</i>; bronze fragments with two
+pictographs; doubtful if Hittite. <i>Nineveh</i>; sealings, see above.
+Babylon; a bowl and a stela of storm-god, both with incised inscriptions;
+doubtless spoil of war or tribute brought from Syria.
+The bowl is inscribed round the outside, the <i>stela</i> on the back.</p>
+
+<p>(For a detailed description of the subjects of the reliefs, &amp;c., with
+the necessary illustrations, see the works indicated in the bibliography.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Structures.</i>&mdash;The structural remains found as yet on Hittite
+sites are few, scanty and far between. They consist of: (<i>a</i>)
+Ground plans of a palatial building and three temples and
+fortifications with sculptured gate at Boghaz Keui. The palace
+was built round a central court, flanked by passages and entered
+by a doorway of three <i>battants</i> hung on two columns. The
+whole plan bears more than a superficial resemblance to those
+of Cretan palaces in the later Minoan period. Only the rough
+core of the walls is standing to a height of about 3 ft. The
+fortifications of the citadel have an elaborate double gate
+with flanking towers, (<i>b</i>) Fortifications, palace, &amp;c., at Sinjerli.
+The gates here are more elaborate than at Boghaz Keui, but
+planned with the same idea&mdash;that of entrapping in an enclosed
+space, barred by a second door, an enemy who may have forced
+the first door, while flanking towers would add to his discomfiture.
+The palace plan is again rectangular, with a central
+pillared hall, and very similar in plan to that of Boghaz Keui.
+The massive walls are also of similar construction. Dados of
+relief-sculpture run round the inner walls; this feature seems
+to have been common to Hittite buildings of a sumptuous
+kind, and accounts for most of the sculptured blocks that have
+been found, <i>e.g.</i> at Jerablus, Sakhchegeuzu, Euyuk, Arslan Tepe,
+&amp;c. Columns, probably of wood, rested on bases carved as
+winged lions, (<i>c</i>) Gate with sculptured approach at Euyuk.
+The ground plan of the gate is practically the same in idea as
+that at Sinjerli. Structures were found at Jerablus, but never
+properly uncovered or planned, (<i>d</i>) Sculptured porticoes of
+temples or palaces uncovered at Sakchegeuzu and Tell Halaf
+(see above). On other sites, <i>e.g.</i> Arslan Tepe (Ordasu), Arbistan,
+Marash (above the modern town and near the springs), Beikeui,
+mounds, doubtless covering structures, may be seen, and
+sculptured slabs have been recovered. The mounds, probably
+Hittite, in N. Syria alone are to be counted by hundreds. No
+tombs certainly Hittite have been found,<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> though it is possible
+that some of the reliefs (<i>e.g.</i> at Fraktin) are of funerary character.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sculptures and other Objects of Art.</i>&mdash;The sculptures hitherto
+found consist of reliefs on rocks and on <i>stelae</i>, either honorific
+or funerary; reliefs on blocks forming parts of wall-dados; and
+a few figures more or less in the round, though most of these
+(<i>e.g.</i> the sphinxes of Euyuk and the lions of Arslan Tash and
+Marash) are not completely disengaged from the block. The
+most considerable sculptured rock-panels are at Boghaz Keui
+(see Pteria); the others (Ivriz, Fraktin, Karabel, Giaur Kalessi,
+Doghanlüdere), it should be observed, all lie N. of Taurus&mdash;a
+fact of some bearing on the problem of the origin and local
+domicile of the art, since rock-reliefs, at any rate, cannot be
+otherwise than <i>in situ</i>. Sculptured <i>stelae</i>, honorific or funerary,
+all with pyramidal or slightly rounded upper ends, and showing
+a single regal or divine figure or two figures, have come to light
+at Bor, Marash, Sinjerli, Jerablus, Babylon, &amp;c. These, like
+most of the rock-panels, are all marked as Hittite by accompanying
+pictographic inscriptions. The wall-blocks are seldom inscribed,
+the exceptions (<i>e.g.</i> the Arslan Tepe lion-hunt and certain
+blocks from Marash and Jerablus) being not more certainly
+wall-dados than <i>stelae</i>. The only fairly complete anthropoid
+statue known is the much-defaced &ldquo;Niobe&rdquo; at Suratlu Tash,
+engaged in the rock behind. The aniconic lower part of an
+inscribed statue wholly in the round was found at Palanga, and
+parts of others at Kirchoglu and Marash. Despite considerable
+differences in execution and details, all these sculptures show
+one general type of art, a type which recalls now Babylonian,
+now Assyrian, now Egyptian, now archaic Ionian, style, but is
+always individual and easily distinguishable from the actual
+products of those peoples. The figures, whether of men or beasts,
+are of a squat, heavy order, with internal features (<i>e.g.</i> bones,
+muscles, &amp;c.) shown as if external, as in some Mesopotamian
+sculptures. The human type is always very brachycephalic,
+with brow receding sharply and long nose making almost one
+line with the sloping forehead. In the sculptures of the Commagene
+and the Tyana districts, the nose has a long curving tip,
+of very Jewish appearance, but not unlike the outline given to
+Kheta warriors in Egyptian scenes. The lips are full and the
+chin short and shaven. The whole physiognomy is fleshy and
+markedly distinct from that of other Syrians. At Boghaz
+Keui, Euyuk and Jerablus, the facial type is very markedly
+non-Semitic. But not much stress can be laid on these differences
+owing to (1) great variety of execution in different sculptures,
+which argues artists of very unequal capacity; (2) doubt whether
+individual portraits are intended in some cases and not in others.
+The hair of males is sometimes, but not always, worn in pigtail.
+The fashions of head-covering and clothes are very various,
+but several of them&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> the horned cap of the Ivriz god; the
+conical hat at Boghaz Keui, Fraktin, &amp;c; the &ldquo;jockey-cap&rdquo;
+on the Tarkudimme boss; the broad-bordered over-robe, and the
+upturned shoes&mdash;are not found on other Asiatic monuments,
+except where Hittites are portrayed. Animals in profile are
+represented more naturalistically than human beings, <i>e.g.</i> at
+Yasili Kaya, and especially in some pictographic symbols in
+relief (<i>e.g.</i> at Hamah). This, however, is a feature common to
+Mesopotamian and Egyptian, and perhaps to all primitive art.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects depicted are processions of figures, human and
+divine (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Giaur Kalessi); scenes of sacrifice
+or adoration, or other cult-practice (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Fraktin,
+Ivriz, and perhaps the figures seated beside tables at Marash
+Sakchegeuzu, Sinjerli, &amp;c.); of the chase (Arslan Tepe, Sakchegeuzu);
+but not, as known at present, of battle. Both at
+Euyuk and Yasili Kaya reliefs in one and the same series are
+widely separated in artistic conception and execution, some
+showing the utmost <i>naïveté</i>, others expressing both outline and
+motion with fair success. The fact warns us against drawing
+hasty inductions as to relative dates from style and execution.</p>
+
+<p>Besides sculptures, well assured, Hittite art-products include
+a few small objects in metal (<i>e.g.</i> heavy, inscribed gold ring
+bought by Sir W. M. Ramsay at Konia; base silver seal, supported
+on three lions&rsquo; claws, bought by D. G. Hogarth at Bor;
+inscribed silver boss of &ldquo;Tarkudimme,&rdquo; mentioned above,
+&amp;c. &amp;c.); many intaglios in various stones (chiefly in steatite),
+mostly either spheroidal or gable-shaped, but a few scarabaeoid,
+conical or cylindrical, bearing sometimes pictographic symbols,
+sometimes divine, human or animal figures. The best collection
+is at Oxford. The majority are of very rude workmanship,
+bodies and limbs being represented by mere skeleton lines or
+unfilled outlines; a few vessels (<i>e.g.</i> inscribed basalt bowl found
+at Babylon) and fragments of ware painted with dark ornament
+on light body-clay, or in polychrome on a cream-white slip, or
+black burnished, found on N. Cappadocian sites, &amp;c. The
+bronzes hitherto claimed as Hittite have been bought on the
+Syrian coast or come from not certainly Hittite sites in Cappadocia
+(see E. Chantre, <i>Mission en Cappadocie</i>). A great many
+small objects were found in the excavations at Sinjerli, including
+carved ivories, seals, toilet-instruments, implements, &amp;c., but
+these have not been published. Nor, except provisionally, has
+the pottery, found at Sakchegeuzu.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inscriptions.</i>&mdash;These, now almost sixty in number (excluding
+seals), are all in a pictographic character which employed
+symbols somewhat elaborately depicted in relief, but reduced to
+conventional and &ldquo;shorthand&rdquo; representations in the incised
+texts. So far, the majority of our Hittite inscriptions, like those
+first found at Hamah, are in relief (cameo); but the incised
+characters, first observed in the Tyana district, have since been
+shown, by discoveries at Marash, Babylon, &amp;c., to have had a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span>
+wider range. It has usually been assumed that the incised
+inscriptions, being the more conventionalized, are all of later
+date than those in relief; but comparison of Egyptian inscriptions,
+wherein both incised and cameo characters coexisted back to
+very early times, suggests that this assumption is not necessarily
+correct. The Hittite symbols at present known show about
+two hundred varieties; but new inscriptions continually add
+to the list, and great uncertainty remains as to the distinction
+of many symbols (<i>i.e.</i> whether mere variants or not), and as
+to many others which are defaced or broken in our texts. The
+objects represented by these symbols have been certainly
+identified in only a few instances. A certain number are heads
+(human and animal) detached from bodies, in a manner not
+known in the Egyptian hieroglyphic system, with which some
+of the other symbols show obvious analogies. Articles of dress,
+weapons, tools, &amp;c., also appear. The longer inscriptions are
+disposed in horizontal zones or panels, divided by lines, and, it
+seems, they were to be read <i>boustrophedon</i>, not only as regards
+the lines (which begin right to left) but also the words, which are
+written in columnar fashion, syllable <i>below</i> syllable, and read
+downwards and upwards alternately. The direction of reading is
+towards any faces which may be shown among the pictographs.
+The words are perhaps distinguished in some texts by punctuation
+marks.</p>
+
+<p>Long and patient efforts have been made to decipher this
+script, ever since it was first restored to our knowledge; and
+among the would-be decipherers honourable mention must be
+made, for persistence and courage, of Professor A. H. Sayce and
+of Professor P. Jensen. Other interpretations have been put
+forward by F. E. Peiser (based on conjectures as to the names
+on the Nineveh sealings), C. R. Conder (based largely on Cypriote
+comparisons and phonetic values transferred from these) and
+C. J. Ball (based on Hittite names recorded on Egyptian and
+Assyrian monuments, and applied to word-groups on the
+Hittite monuments). These, however, as having arbitrary
+and inadequate foundations, and for other reasons, have not been
+accepted. F. Hommel, J. Halévy and J. Menant have done
+useful work in distinguishing word-groups, and have essayed
+partial interpretations. No other decipherers call for mention.
+A. H. Sayce and P. Jensen alone have enlisted any large body
+of adherents; and the former, who has worked upon his
+system for thirty years and published in the <i>Proceedings of the
+Society for Biblical Archaeology</i> for 1907 a summary of his
+method and results, has proceeded on the more scientific plan.
+His system, however, like all others, is built in the main upon
+hypotheses incapable at present of quite satisfactory verification,
+such, for example, as the conjectural reading &ldquo;Gargamish&rdquo;
+for a group of symbols which recurs in inscriptions from Jerablus
+and elsewhere. In this case, to add to the other obvious elements
+of uncertainty, it must be borne in mind that the location of
+Carchemish at Jerablus is not proved, though it is very probable.
+Other conjectural identifications of groups of symbols with the
+place-names Hamath, Marash, Tyana are bases of Sayce&rsquo;s
+system. Jensen&rsquo;s system may be said to have been effectually
+demolished by L. Messerschmidt in his <i>Bemerkungen</i> (1898);
+but Sayce&rsquo;s system, which has been approved by Hommel and
+others, is probably in its main lines correct. Its frequent
+explanation, however, of incompatible symbols by the doctrines
+of phonetic variation and interchange, or by alternative values
+of the same symbol used as ideograph, determinative or phonetic
+complement, and the occasional use of circular argument in
+the process of &ldquo;verification,&rdquo; do not inspire confidence in
+other than its broader results. Sayce&rsquo;s phonetic values and
+interpretations of determinatives are his best assured achievements.
+But the words thus arrived at represent a language
+on which other known tongues throw little or no light, and
+their meaning is usually to be guessed only. In some significant
+cases, however, the Boghaz Keui tablets appear to give striking
+confirmation of Sayce&rsquo;s conjectures.</p>
+
+<p>Writing in 1903 L. Messerschmidt, editor of the best collection
+of Hittite texts up to date, made a <i>tabula rasa</i> of all systems of
+decipherment, asserting that only one sign out of two hundred&mdash;the
+bisected oval, determinative of divinity&mdash;had been interpreted
+with any certainty; and in view of this opinion, coupled
+with the steady refusal of historians to apply the results of any
+Hittite decipherment, and the obvious lack of satisfactory
+verification, without which the piling of hypothesis on hypothesis
+may only lead further from probability, there is no choice but
+to suspend judgment for some time longer as to the inscriptions
+and all deductions drawn from them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Are the Monuments Hittite?</i>&mdash;It is time to ask this question,
+although a perfectly satisfactory answer can only be expected
+when the inscriptions themselves have been deciphered. Almost
+all &ldquo;Hittitologues&rdquo; assume a connexion between the monuments
+and the Kheta-Khatti-Hittites, but in various degrees;
+<i>e.g.</i> while Sayce has said roundly that common sense demands
+the acceptance of all as the work of the Hittites, who were the
+dominant caste throughout a loosely-knit empire extending at
+one time from the Orontes to the Aegean, Messerschmidt has
+stated with equal dogmatism that the Hittites proper were only
+one people out of many<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> in N. Syria and Asia Minor who shared
+a common civilization, and that therefore they were authors of a
+part of the monuments only&mdash;presumably the N. Syrian, Commagenian
+and Cataonian groups. O. Puchstein<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> has denied to
+the Hittites some of the N. Syrian monuments, holding these of
+too late a date (judged by their Assyrian analogies) for the
+flourishing period of the Kheta-Khatti, as known from Egyptian
+and Assyrian records. He would ascribe them to the Kummukh
+(Commagenians), who seem to have succeeded the Khatti as the
+strongest opponents of Assyria in these parts. He was possibly
+right as regards the Sinjerli and Sakchegeuzu sculptures, which
+are of provincial appearance. The following considerations, however,
+may be stated in favour of the ascription of the monuments
+to the Hittites:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The monuments in question are found frequently whereever,
+from other records, we know the Hittites to have been
+domiciled at some period, <i>i.e.</i> throughout N. Syria and in
+Cataonia. (2) It was under the Khatti that Carchemish was a
+flourishing commercial city; and if Jerablus be really Carchemish,
+it is significant that apparently the most numerous
+and most artistic of the monuments occur there. (3) Among all
+the early peoples of N. Syria and Asia Minor known to us from
+Egyptian and Assyrian records, the Kheta-Khatti alone appear
+frequently as leading to war peoples from far beyond Taurus.
+(4) The Kheta certainly had a system of writing and a glyptic art
+in the time of Rameses II., or else the Egyptian account of their
+copy of the treaty would be baseless. (5) The physiognomy
+given to Kheta warriors by Egyptian artists is fairly representative
+of the prevailing type shown in the Hittite sculptures.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, the Boghaz Keui tablets, though only partially
+deciphered as yet, go far to settle the question. They show that
+whether Boghaz Keui was actually the capital of the Hatti or
+not, it was a great city of the Hatti, and that the latter were
+an important element in Cappadocia from very early times.
+Before the middle of the 16th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Cappadocian
+Hatti were already in relations, generally more or less hostile,
+with a rival power in Syria, that of Mitanni; and Subbiluliuma
+(= Saplel or Saparura), king of these Hatti, a contemporary of
+Amenophis IV. and Rameses I., seems to have obtained lasting
+dominion in Syria by subduing Dushratta of Mitanni. Carchemish
+thenceforward became a Hatti city and the southern
+capital of Cappadocian power. Since all the Syrian monuments
+of the Hittite class, so far known, seem comparatively late
+(most show such strong Assyrian, influence that they must fall
+after 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and probably even considerably later), while the
+North Cappadocian monuments (as Sayce, Ramsay, Perrot and
+others saw long ago) are the earlier in style, we are bound to
+ascribe the origin of the civilization which they represent to the
+Cappadocian Hatti.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span></p>
+
+<p>Whether the Mitanni had shared in that civilization while
+independent, and whether they were racially kin to the Hatti,
+cannot be determined at present. Winckler has adduced
+evidence from names of local gods to show that there was an
+Indo-European racial element in Mitanni; but none for a
+similar element in the Hatti, whose chief god was Teshub. The
+majority of scholars has always regarded the Hittites proper as,
+at any rate, non-Semitic, and some leading authorities have
+called them proto-Armenian, and believed that they have
+modern descendants in the Caucasus. This racial question can
+hardly be determined till those Hatti records, whether in cuneiform
+or pictographic script, which are couched in a native
+tongue, not in Babylonian, are read. In the meantime we have
+proper names to argue from; and these give us at least the
+significant indication that the Hittite nominative ended in <i>s</i> and
+the accusative in <i>m</i>. In any case the connexion of the Hatti with
+the peculiar class of monuments which we have been describing,
+can hardly be further questioned; and it has become more than
+probable that the Hatti of Cappadocia were responsible in the
+beginning for the art and script of those monuments and for the
+civilization of which they are memorials. Other peoples of
+north Syria and Asia Minor (<i>e.g.</i> the Kummukh or Commagenians
+and the Muski or Phrygians) came no doubt under the
+influence of this civilization and imitated its monuments, while
+subject to or federated with the Hatti. Through Phrygia and
+Lydia (q.v.) influences of this same Cappadocian civilization
+passed towards the west; and indeed, before the Greek colonization
+of Asia Minor, a loosely knit Hatti empire may have
+stretched even to the Aegean. The Nymphi (Kara Bel) and
+Niobe sculptures near Smyrna are probably memorials of that
+extension. Certainly some inland Anatolian power seems to have
+kept Aegean settlers and culture away from the Ionian coast
+during the Bronze Age, and that power was in all likelihood the
+Hatti kingdom of Cappadocia. Owing perhaps to Assyrian
+aggression, this power seems to have begun to suffer decay about
+1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and thereafter to have shrunk inwards, leaving the
+coasts open. The powers of Phrygia and Lydia rose successively
+out of its ruins, and continued to offer westward passage to
+influences of Mesopotamian culture till well into historic times.
+The Greeks came too late to Asia to have had any contact with
+Hatti power obscured from their view by the intermediate and
+secondary state of Phrygia. Their earliest writers regarded the
+latter as the seat of the oldest and most godlike of mankind.
+Only one Greek author, Herodotus, alludes to the pre-historic
+Cappadocian power and only at the latest moment of its long
+decline. At the same time, some of the Greek legends seem to
+show that peoples, with whom the Greeks came into early contact,
+had vivid memories of the Hatti. Such are the Amazon
+stories, whose local range was very extensive, and the myths of
+Memnon and Pelops. The real reference of these stories, however,
+was forgotten, and it has been reserved to our own generation
+to rediscover the records of a power and a civilization which once
+dominated Asia Minor and north Syria and occupied all the
+continental roads of communication between the East and the
+West of the ancient world. The credit of having been the first
+to divine this importance of the Hittites should always be
+ascribed to Sayce.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Hatti and their civilization, then, would
+appear to have been, very briefly, this. They belonged to an
+ethnic scattered widely over Eastern Asia Minor and Syria at
+an early period (Khatti invaded Akkad about 1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in the
+reign of Samsuditana); but they first formed a strong state
+in Cappadocia late in the 16th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Subbiluliuma
+became their first great king, though he had at least one dynastic
+predecessor of the name of Hattusil. The Hatti now pushed
+southwards in force, overcame the kingdom of Mitanni and
+proceeded partly to occupy and partly to make tributary both
+north Syria and western Mesopotamia where some of their
+congeners were already settled. They came early into collision
+with Egypt, and at the height of their power under Hattusil II.
+fought the battle of Kadesh with Rameses II., on at least equal
+terms. Both now and previously the diplomatic correspondence
+of the Hatti monarchs shows that they treated on terms of
+practical equality with both the Babylonian and the Egyptian
+courts; and that they waged constant wars in Syria, mainly
+with the Amorite tribes. At this time the Hatti empire or
+confederacy probably included, on the west, both Phrygia and
+Lydia. The Boghaz Keui correspondence ceases to be important
+with the generation following Hattusil II., and in the Assyrian
+records, which begin about a couple of centuries later, we find
+Carchemish the chief Hatti city and N. Syria called the Hatti-land.
+It is possible therefore that a change of imperial centre
+took place after the Hatti had ceased to fear Egypt in north
+Syria. If so, the continuation of Hittite history will have to
+be sought among the remains at Jerablus and other middle
+Euphratean sites, rather than in those at Boghaz Keui. The
+establishment of the Hatti at Carchemish not only made them
+a commercial people and probably sapped their highland vigour,
+but also brought them into closer proximity to the rising North
+Semitic power of Assyria, whose advent had been regarded
+with apprehension by Hattusil II. (see above). One of his
+successors, Arnaunta (late 13th century?), was already feeling
+the effect of Assyrian pressure, and with the accession of Tiglath
+Pileser I., about a century later, a long but often interrupted
+series of Assyrian efforts to break up the Hatti power began.
+A succession of Ninevite armies raided north Syria and even
+south-east Asia Minor, and gradually reduced the Hatti. But
+the resistance of the latter was sturdy and prolonged. They
+remained the strongest power in Syria and eastern Asia Minor
+till well into the first millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and their Syrian seat was
+not lost finally till after the great extension of Assyrian power
+which took place in the latter part of the 9th century. What
+had been happening to their Cappadocian province meanwhile
+we do not yet know; but the presence of Phrygian inscriptions
+at Euyuk and Tyana, ancient seats of their power, suggests
+that the client monarchy in the Sangarius valley shook itself
+free during the early part of the Hittite struggle with Assyria,
+and in the day of Hatti weakness extended its dominion over
+the home territory of its former suzerain. &ldquo;White Syrians,&rdquo;
+however, were still in Cappadocia even after the Cimmerians
+had destroyed the Phrygian monarchy, allowing Lydia to become
+independent under the Mermnad dynasty. Croesus found them
+centred at Pteria in the 6th century and dealt them a final
+blow. But much of their secular or religious custom lived on
+to be recorded by Greek writers, and regarded by modern
+scholars as typically &ldquo;Anatolian.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<b>General summaries:</b> L. Messerschmidt, <i>The
+Hittites</i> (&ldquo;Ancient East&rdquo; series, vi., 1903); A. H. Sayce, <i>The
+Hittites</i> (&ldquo;Bypaths of Biblical Knowledge&rdquo; series, xii., 2nd ed.
+1892); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea,
+Syria and Asia Minor</i> (Eng. trans., vol. ii., 1890); L. Lantsheere,
+<i>De la race et de la langue des Hétéens</i> (1891); P. Jensen, <i>Hittiter und
+Armenier</i> (1898); M. Jastrow, final chapter in H. V. Hilprecht,
+<i>Exploration in Bible Lands</i> (1903); W. Wright, <i>Empire of the
+Hittites</i> (1884); F. Hommel, <i>Hettiter und Skythen</i> (1898); D. G.
+Hogarth, <i>Ionia and the East</i> (1909); W. Max Müller, <i>Asien und
+Europa</i>, chap. xxv. (1893). See also authorities for Egyptian and
+Assyrian history.</p>
+
+<p><b>Inscriptions:</b> L. Messerschmidt, &ldquo;Corpus inscr. Hettiticarum,&rdquo;
+<i>Zeitsch. d. d. morgenländ. Gesellschaft</i> (1900, 1902, 1906, &amp;c.), and
+&ldquo;Bemerkungen zu d. Heth. Inschriften,&rdquo; <i>Mitteil. d. vorderasiat.
+Gesellschaft</i> (1898); P. Jensen, &ldquo;Grundlagen für eine Entzifferung
+der (Hat. oder) Cilicischen Inschriften,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschr. d. d. morgenländ.
+Gesellschaft</i> (1894); F. E. Peiser, <i>Die Hettitischen Inschriften</i> (1892);
+A. H. Sayce, &ldquo;Decipherment of the Hittite Inscriptions,&rdquo; <i>Proc.
+Soc. of Bibl. Archaeology</i> (1903), and &ldquo;Hittite Inscriptions, translated
+and annotated,&rdquo; ibid. (1905, 1907); J. Menant, &ldquo;Études
+Hétéennes,&rdquo; <i>Recueil de travaux rel. à la philologie, &amp;c.</i>, and <i>Mém. de
+l&rsquo;Acad. Inscr.</i>, vol. xxxiv. (1890); J. Halévy in <i>Revue sémitique</i>,
+vol. i. Also divers articles by A. H. Sayce, F. Hommel and others
+in <i>Proc.</i> and <i>Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch.</i> since 1876, and in <i>Recueil de
+travaux, &amp;c.</i>, since its beginning.</p>
+
+<p><b>Exploration:</b> G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, <i>Exploration arch. de
+la Galatie</i>, &amp;c. (1862-1872); E. Chantre, <i>Mission en Cappadocie</i>
+(1898); Sir W. M. Ramsay, &ldquo;Syro-Cappadocian Monuments,&rdquo; in
+<i>Athen. Mitteilungen</i> (1889), with D. G. Hogarth, &ldquo;Pre-Hellenic
+Monuments of Cappadocia,&rdquo; in <i>Recueil de travaux</i>, &amp;c. (1892-1895);
+and with Miss Gertrude Bell, <i>The Thousand and One Churches</i> (1909);
+C. Humann and O. Puchstein, <i>Reisen in Nord-Syrien</i>, &amp;c. (1890).
+J. Garstang in <i>Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology</i>, i. (1908)
+and following numbers. Reports on excavations at Sinjerli in <i>Berl.</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span>
+<i>Philol. Wochenschrift</i> (1891), pp. 803, 951; and F. von Luschan,
+and others, &ldquo;Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli&rdquo; in <i>Mitteil. Orient-Sammlungen</i>
+(Berlin Museum, 1893 ff.); and on excavations at
+Boghaz-Keui, H. Winckler in <i>Orient. Literaturzeitung</i> (Berlin, 1907);
+<i>Mitteil. Orient-Gesellschaft</i> (Dec. 1907). See also <i>s.v.</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> First described by the Turk, Hajji Khalifa, in the 17th century;
+first seen by the Swedish traveller Otter in 1736, and first published
+in 1840 in Ritter&rsquo;s <i>Erdkunde</i>, iii., after a drawing by Major Fischer,
+made in 1837.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The &ldquo;Niobe&rdquo; statue near Manisa was not definitely known for
+&ldquo;Hittite&rdquo; till 1882, when G. Dennis detected pictographs near it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The &ldquo;pseudo-Sesostres&rdquo; of Herodotus, already demonstrated
+non-Egyptian by Rosellini. The second figure was unknown, till
+found by Dr Beddoe in 1856.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Five intramural graves were explored at Sinjerli, but whether
+of the Hittite or of the Assyrian occupation is doubtful.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The Assyrian records, as well as the Egyptian, distinguish many
+peoples in both areas from the Kheta-Khatti; and the most we can
+infer from these records is that there was an occasional league formed
+under the Hittites, not any imperial subjection or even a continuous
+federation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Pseudo-Hethitische Kunst</i> (Berlin, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1792-1867), French architect,
+was born at Cologne on the 20th of August 1792. After serving
+an apprenticeship to a mason in his native town, he went in
+1810 to Paris, and studied for some years at the Academy
+of Fine Arts, where he was a favourite pupil of Bélanger,
+the government architect, who in 1814 appointed him his
+principal inspector. Succeeding Bélanger as government architect
+in 1818, he designed many important public and private
+buildings in Paris and also in the south of France. From 1819
+to 1830 in collaboration with le Cointe he directed the royal
+fêtes and ceremonials. After making architectural tours in
+Germany, England, Italy and Sicily, he published the result
+of his observations in the latter country in the work <i>Architecture
+antique de la Sicile</i> (3 vols., 1826-1830; new edition, 1866-1867),
+and also in <i>Architecture moderne de la Sicile</i> (1826-1835). One
+of his important discoveries was that colour had been made
+use of in ancient Greek architecture, a subject which he especially
+discussed in <i>Architecture polychrome chez les Grecs</i> (1830) and in
+<i>Restitution du temple d&rsquo;Empédocle à Sélinunte</i> (1851); and in
+accordance with the doctrines enunciated in these works he
+was in the habit of making colour an important feature in most
+of his architectural designs. His principal building is the church
+of St Vincent de Paul in the basilica style, which was constructed
+between 1830 and 1844. He also designed the two fountains
+in the Place de la Concorde, the Circus of the Empress, the
+Rotunda of the panoramas, many cafés and restaurants of the
+Champs Elysées, the houses forming the circle round the Arc
+de Triomphe de l&rsquo;Étoile, besides many embellishments of the
+Bois de Boulogne and other places. In 1833 he was elected a
+member of the Academy of Fine Arts. He died in Paris on the
+25th of March 1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HITZACKER,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Hanover at the influx of the Jeetze into the Elbe, 33 m. N.E.
+of Lüneburg by the railway to Wittenberge. Pop. (1905) 1106.
+It has an Evangelical church and an old castle and numerous
+medieval remains. There are chalybeate springs and a hydropathic
+establishment in the town. The famous library now in
+Wolfenbüttel was originally founded here by Augustus, duke
+of Brunswick (d. 1666) and was removed to its present habitation
+in 1643.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HITZIG, FERDINAND<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1807-1875), German biblical critic,
+was born at Hauingen, Baden, where his father was a pastor,
+on the 23rd of June 1807. He studied theology at Heidelberg
+under H. E. G. Paulus, at Halle under Wilhelm Gesenius and
+at Göttingen under Ewald. Returning to Heidelberg he became
+<i>Privatdozent</i> in theology in 1829, and in 1831 published his
+<i>Begriff der Kritik am Alten Testamente praktisch erörtert</i>, a
+study of Old Testament criticism in which he explained the
+critical principles of the grammatico-historical school, and his
+<i>Des Propheten Jonas Orakel über Moab</i>, an exposition of the
+15th and 16th chapters of the book of Isaiah attributed by him
+to the prophet Jonah mentioned in 2 Kings xiv. 25. In 1833
+he was called to the university of Zürich as professor ordinarius
+of theology. His next work was a commentary on Isaiah with
+a translation (<i>Übersetzung u. Auslegung des Propheten Jesajas</i>),
+which he dedicated to Heinrich Ewald, and which Hermann
+Hupfeld (1796-1866), well known as a commentator on the
+Psalms (1855-1861), pronounced to be his best exegetical work.
+At Zürich he laboured for a period of twenty-eight years, during
+which, besides commentaries on <i>The Psalms</i> (1835-1836; 2nd
+ed., 1863-1865), <i>The Minor Prophets</i> (1838; 3rd ed., 1863),
+<i>Jeremiah</i> (1841; 2nd ed., 1866), <i>Ezekiel</i> (1847), <i>Daniel</i> (1850),
+<i>Ecclesiastes</i> (1847), <i>Canticles</i> (1855), and <i>Proverbs</i> (1858), he
+published a monograph, <i>Über Johannes Markus u. seine Schriften</i>
+(1843), in which he maintained the chronological priority of the
+second gospel, and sought to prove that the Apocalypse was
+written by the same author. He also published various treatises
+of archaeological interest, of which the most important are
+<i>Die Erfindung des Alphabets</i> (1840), <i>Urgeschichte u. Mythologie
+der Philistäer</i> (1845), and <i>Die Grabschrift des Eschmunezar</i>(1855).
+After the death of Friedrich Umbreit (1795-1860), one of the
+founders of the well-known <i>Studien und Kritiken</i>, he was called
+in 1861 to succeed him as professor of theology at Heidelberg.
+Here he wrote his <i>Geschichte des Volkes Israel</i> (1869-1870), in
+two parts, extending respectively to the end of the Persian
+domination and to the fall of Masada, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 72, as well as a work
+on the Pauline epistles, <i>Zur Kritik Paulinischer Briefe</i> (1870),
+on the Moabite Stone, <i>Die Inschrift des Mescha</i> (1870), and on
+Assyrian, <i>Sprache u. Sprachen Assyriens</i> (1871), besides revising
+the commentary on Job by Ludwig Hirzel (1801-1841), which
+was first published in 1839. He was also a contributor to the
+<i>Monatsschrift des wissenschaftlichen Vereins in Zürich</i>, the
+<i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, the
+<i>Theologische Studien u. Kritiken</i>, Eduard Zeller&rsquo;s <i>Theologische
+Jahrbücher</i>, and Adolf Hilgenfeld&rsquo;s <i>Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche
+Theologie</i>. Hitzig died at Heidelberg on the 22nd of
+January 1875. As a Hebrew philologist he holds high rank;
+and as a constructive critic he is remarkable for acuteness and
+sagacity. As a historian, however, some of his speculations
+have been considered fanciful. &ldquo;He places the cradle of the
+Israelites in the south of Arabia, and, like many other critics,
+makes the historical times begin only with Moses&rdquo; (F. Lichtenberger,
+<i>History of German Theology</i>, p. 569).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His lectures on biblical theology (<i>Vorlesungen über biblische
+Theologie u. messianische Weissagungen</i>) were published in 1880
+after his death, along with a portrait and biographical sketch by
+his pupil, J. J. Kneucker (b. 1840), professor of theology at Heidelberg.
+See Heinrich Steiner, <i>Ferdinand Hitzig</i> (1882); and Adolf
+Kamphausen&rsquo;s article in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIUNG-NU,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> <span class="sc">Hiong-nu</span>, <span class="sc">Heung-nu</span>, a people who about
+the end of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> formed, according to Chinese
+records, a powerful empire from the Great Wall of China to the
+Caspian. Their ethnical affinities have been much discussed;
+but it is most probable that they were of the Turki stock, as were
+the Huns, their later western representatives. They are the
+first Turkish people mentioned by the Chinese. A theory which
+seems plausible is that which assumes them to have been a
+heterogenous collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki and perhaps
+even Finnish hordes under a Mongol military caste, though the
+Mongolo-Tungus element probably predominated. Towards the
+close of the 1st century of the Christian era the Hiung-nu empire
+broke up. Their subsequent history is obscure. Some of them
+seem to have gone westward and settled on the Ural river.
+These, de Guiques suggests, were the ancestors of the Huns, and
+many ethnologists hold that the Hiung-nu were the ancestors of
+the modern Turks.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Journal Anthropological Institute</i> for 1874; Sir H. H. Howorth,
+<i>History of the Mongols</i> (1876-1880); 6th Congress of Orientalists,
+Leiden, 1883 (<i>Actes</i>, part iv. pp. 177-195); de Guiques, <i>Histoire
+générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongoles, et des autres Tartares
+occidentaux</i> (1756-1758).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HIVITES,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> an ancient tribe of Palestine driven out by the
+invading Israelites. In Josh. ix. 7, xi. 19 they are connected
+with Gibeon. The meaning of the name is uncertain; Wellhausen
+derives it from <span title="Hava">&#1495;&#1493;&#1492;</span> &ldquo;Eve,&rdquo; or &ldquo;serpent,&rdquo; in which
+case the Hivites were originally the snake clan; others explain
+it from the Arabic <i>hayy</i>, &ldquo;family,&rdquo; as meaning &ldquo;dwellers in
+(Bedouin) encampments.&rdquo; (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HJÖRRING,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> an ancient town of Denmark, capital of the <i>amt</i>
+(county) of its name, in the northern insular part of the peninsula
+of Jutland. Pop. (1901) 7901. It lies 7 m. inland from the shore
+of Jammer Bay, a stretch of coast notoriously dangerous to
+shipping. On the coast is Lönstrup, a favoured seaside resort.
+In this neighbourhood as well as to the south-east of Hjörring,
+slight elevations are seen, deserving the name of hills in this
+low-lying district. Hjörring is on the northern railway of
+Jutland, which here turns eastward to the Cattegat part of
+Frederikshavn (23 m.), a harbour of refuge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HKAMTI LÔNG<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (called Kantigyi by the Burmese, and Bor
+Hkampti by the peoples on the Assam side), a collection of seven
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span>
+Shan states subordinate to Burma, but at present beyond the
+administrative border. Estimated area, 900 sq. m.; estimated
+pop. 11,000. It lies between 27° and 28° N. and 97° and 98° E.,
+and is bordered by the Mishmi country on the N., by the Patkai
+range on the W., by the Hukawng valley on the S. and E., and
+indeed all round by various Chingpaw or Kachin communities.
+The country is little known. It was visited by T. T. Cooper, the
+Chinese traveller and political agent at Bhamo, where he was
+murdered; by General Woodthorpe and Colonel Macgregor in
+1884, by Mr Errol Grey in the following year, and by Prince
+Henry of Orleans in 1895. All of these, however, limited their
+explorations to the valley of the Mali-hka, the western branch of
+the Irrawaddy river. Hkamti has shrunk very much from its old
+size. It was no doubt the northernmost province of the Shan
+kingdom, founded at Mogaung by Sam L&#333;ng-hpa, the brother of
+the ruler of Kambawsa, when that empire had reached its greatest
+extension. The irruption of Kachins or Chingpaw from the
+north has now completely hemmed the state in. Prince Henry
+of Orleans described it as &ldquo;a splendid territory, fertile in soil and
+abundant in water, where tropical and temperate culture flourish
+side by side, and the inhabitants are protected on three fronts by
+mountains.&rdquo; According to him the Kiutze, the people of the
+hills between the Irrawaddy and the Salween, call it the kingdom
+of Moam.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HLOTHHERE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> king of Kent, succeeded his brother Ecgberht
+in 673, and appears for a time to have reigned jointly with his
+nephew Eadric, son of Ecgberht, as a code of laws still extant was
+issued under both names. Neither is mentioned in the account of
+the invasion of Æthelred in 676. In 685 Eadric, who seems to
+have quarrelled with Hlothhere, went into exile and led the
+South Saxons against him. Hlothhere was defeated and died of
+his wounds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bede, <i>Hist. eccl.</i> (Plummer), iv. 5, 17, 26, v. 24; <i>Saxon
+Chronicle</i> (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 685; Schmid, <i>Gesetze</i>, pp. 10
+sqq.; Thorpe, <i>Ancient Laws</i>, i. 26 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOACTZIN,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hoatzin</span>, a bird of tropical South America,
+thought by Buffon to be that indicated by Hernandez or Fernandez
+under these names, the <i>Opisthocomus hoazin</i> or <i>O. cristatus</i>
+of modern ornithologists&mdash;a very curious and remarkable form,
+which has long exercised the ingenuity of classifiers. Placed by
+Buffon among his &ldquo;<i>Hoccos</i>&rdquo; (Curassows), and then by P. L. S.
+Müller and J. F. Gmelin in the Linnaean genus <i>Phasianus</i>, some of
+its many peculiarities were recognized by J. K. W. Illiger in 1811
+as sufficient to establish it as a distinct genus, <i>Opisthocomus</i>; but
+various positions were assigned to it by subsequent systematic
+authors. L&rsquo;Herminier was the first to give any account of its
+anatomy (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1837, v. 433), and from his time our
+knowledge of it has been successively increased by Johannes
+Müller (<i>Ber. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin</i>, 1841, p. 177), Deville (<i>Rev.
+et mag. de zoologie</i>, 1852, p. 217), Gervais (Castelnau, <i>Expéd.
+Amérique du Sud, zoologie, anatomie</i>, p. 66), Huxley (<i>Proc. Zool.
+Society</i>, 1868, p. 304), Perrin (<i>Trans. Zool. Society</i>, ix. p.
+353), and A. H. Garrod (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1879, p. 109). After
+a minute description of the skeleton of <i>Opisthocomus</i>, with the
+especial object of determining its affinities, Huxley declared that
+it &ldquo;resembles the ordinary gallinaceous birds and pigeons more
+than it does any others, and that when it diverges from them it is
+either sui generis or approaches the <i>Musophagidae</i>.&rdquo; He accordingly
+regarded it as the type and sole member of a group,
+named by him <i>Heteromorphae</i>, which sprang from the great
+Carinate stem later than the <i>Tinamomorphae</i>, <i>Turnicomorphae</i>,
+or <i>Charadriomorphae</i>, but before the <i>Peristeromorphae</i>, <i>Pteroclomorphae</i>
+or <i>Alectoromorphae</i>. This conclusion is substantially
+the same as that at which A. H. Garrod subsequently arrived
+after closely examining and dissecting specimens preserved in
+spirit; but the latter has gone further and endeavoured to trace
+more particularly the descent of this peculiar form and some
+others, remarking that the ancestor of <i>Opisthocomus</i> must have
+left the parent stem very shortly before the true <i>Gallinae</i> first
+appeared, and at about the same time as the independent pedigree
+of the <i>Cuculidae</i> and <i>Musophagidae</i> commenced&mdash;these two
+groups being, he believed, very closely related, and <i>Opisthocomus</i>
+serving to fill the gap between them.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing that strikes the observer of its skeleton is the
+extraordinary structure of the sternal apparatus, which is wholly
+unlike that of any other bird known. The keel is only developed
+on the posterior part of the sternum&mdash;the fore part being, as it
+were, cut away, while the short furcula at its symphysis meets
+the manubrium, with which it is firmly consolidated by means of
+a prolonged and straight hypocleidium, and anteriorly ossifies
+with the coracoids. This unique arrangement seems to be
+correlated with the enormously capacious crop, which rests upon
+the furcula and fore part of the sternum, and is also received in
+a cavity formed on the surface of each of the great pectoral
+muscles. Furthermore this crop is extremely muscular, so as
+more to resemble a gizzard, and consists of two portions divided
+by a partial constriction, after a fashion of which no other
+example is known among birds. The true gizzard is greatly
+reduced.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:408px" src="images/img541.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Hoactzin.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The hoactzin appears to be about the size of a small pheasant,
+but is really a much smaller bird. The beak is strong, curiously
+denticulated along the margin of the maxilla near the base, and
+is beset by diverging bristles. The eyes, placed in the middle
+of a patch of bare skin, are furnished with bristly lashes, resembling
+those of horn-bills and some few other birds. The
+head bears a long pendant crest of loose yellowish feathers.
+The body is olive-coloured, varied with white above, and beneath
+is of a dull bay. The wings are short and rounded. The tail
+is long and tipped with yellow. The legs are rather short, the
+feet stout, the tarsi reticulated, and the toes scutellated; the
+claws long and slightly curved. According to all who have
+observed the habits of this bird, it lives in bands on the lower
+trees and bushes bordering the streams and lagoons, feeding on
+leaves and various wild fruits, especially, says H. W. Bates
+(<i>Naturalist on the River Amazons</i>, i. 120), those of a species
+of <i>Psidium</i>, and it is also credited with eating those of an arum
+(<i>Caladium arborescens</i>), which grows plentifully in its haunts.
+&ldquo;Its voice is a harsh, grating hiss,&rdquo; continues the same traveller,
+and &ldquo;it makes the noise when alarmed, all the individuals
+sibilating as they fly heavily away from tree to tree, when disturbed
+by passing canoes.&rdquo; It exhales a very strong odour&mdash;wherefore
+it is known in British Guiana as the &ldquo;stink-bird&rdquo;&mdash;compared
+by Bates to &ldquo;musk combined with wet hides,&rdquo; and
+by Deville to that of a cow-house. The species is said to be
+polygamous; the nest is built on trees, of sticks placed above
+one another, and softer materials atop. Therein the hen lays
+her eggs to the number of three or four, of a dull-yellowish white,
+somewhat profusely marked with reddish blotches and spots,
+so as to resemble those of some of the <i>Rallidae</i> (<i>Proc. Zool.
+Society</i>, 1867, pl. xv. fig. 7. p. 164). The young are covered
+only with very scanty hair, like down, and have well-developed
+claws on the first and second fingers of the wing, which they use
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span>
+in clambering about the twigs in a quadrupedal manner; if
+placed in the water they swim and dive well, although the adults
+seem to be not at all aquatic.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOADLY, BENJAMIN<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1676-1761), English divine, was born
+at Westerham, Kent, on the 14th of November 1676. In 1691
+he entered Catharine Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated M.A.
+and was for two years tutor, after which he held from 1701 to
+1711 the lectureship of St Mildred in the Poultry, and along with
+it from 1704 the rectory of St Peter-le-Poer, London. His first
+important appearance as a controversialist was against Edmund
+Calamy &ldquo;the younger&rdquo; in reference to conformity (1703-1707),
+and after this he came into conflict with Francis Atterbury,
+first on the interpretation of certain texts and then on the whole
+Anglican doctrine of non-resistance. His principal treatises
+on this subject were the <i>Measures of Submission to the Civil
+Magistrate</i> and <i>The Origin and Institution of Civil Government
+discussed</i>; and his part in the discussion was so much appreciated
+by the Commons that in 1709 they presented an address to the
+queen praying her to &ldquo;bestow some dignity in the church on
+Mr Hoadly for his eminent services both to church and state.&rdquo;
+The queen returned a favourable answer, but the dignity was
+not conferred. In 1710 he was presented by a private patron
+to the rectory of Streatham in Surrey. In 1715 he was appointed
+chaplain to the king, and the same year he obtained the bishopric
+of Bangor. He held the see for six years, but never visited the
+diocese. In 1716, in reply to George Hickes (q.v.), he published a
+<i>Preservative against the Principles and Practices of Nonjurors
+in Church and State</i>, and in the following year preached before
+the king his famous sermon on the <i>Kingdom of Christ</i>, which
+was immediately published by royal command. These works
+were attacks on the divine authority of kings and of the clergy,
+but as the sermon dealt more specifically and distinctly with the
+power of the church, its publication caused an ecclesiastical
+ferment which in certain aspects has no parallel in religious
+history. It was at once resolved to proceed against him in
+convocation, but this was prevented by the king proroguing
+the assembly, a step which had consequences of vital bearing
+on the history of the Church of England, since from that period
+the great Anglican council ceased to transact business of a more
+than formal nature. The restrained sentiments of the council
+in regard to Hoadly found expression in a war of pamphlets
+known as the Bangorian Controversy, which, partly from a
+want of clearness in the statements of Hoadly, partly from the
+disingenuousness of his opponents and the confusion resulting
+from exasperated feelings, developed into an intricate and
+bewildering maze of side discussions in which the main issues
+of the dispute were concealed almost beyond the possibility
+of discovery. But however vague and uncertain might be the
+meaning of Hoadly in regard to several of the important bearings
+of the questions around which he aroused discussion, he was
+explicit in denying the power of the Church over the conscience,
+and its right to determine the condition of men in relation to
+the favour of God. The most able of his opponents was William
+Law; others were Andrew Snape, provost of Eton, and Thomas
+Sherlock, dean of Chichester. So exercised was the mind of
+the religious world over the dispute that in July 1717 as many
+as seventy-four pamphlets made their appearance; and at one
+period the crisis became so serious that the business of London
+was for some days virtually at a stand-still. Hoadly, being not
+unskilled in the art of flattery, was translated in 1721 to the
+see of Hereford, in 1723 to Salisbury and in 1734 to Winchester.
+He died at his palace at Chelsea on the 17th of April
+1761. His controversial writings are vigorous if prolix and his
+theological essays have little merit. He must have been a
+much hated man, for his latitudinarianism offended the high
+church party and his rationalism the other sections. He was
+an intimate friend of Dr Samuel Clarke, of whom he wrote
+a life.</p>
+
+<p>Hoadly&rsquo;s brother, <span class="sc">John Hoadly</span> (1678-1746), was archbishop
+of Dublin from 1730 to 1742 and archbishop of Armagh from
+the latter date until his death on the 19th of July 1746. In early
+life the archbishop was very intimate with Gilbert Burnet, then
+bishop of Salisbury, and in later life he was a prominent figure
+in Irish politics.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The works of Benjamin Hoadly were collected and published by
+his son John in 3 vols. (1773). To the first volume was prefixed the
+article &ldquo;Hoadly&rdquo; from the supplement to the <i>Biographia Britannica</i>.
+See also L. Stephen, <i>English Thought in the 18th Century</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOAR, SAMUEL<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1778&mdash;1856), American lawyer, was born in
+Lincoln, Massachusetts, on the 18th of May 1778. He was the
+son of Samuel Hoar, an officer in the American army during the
+War of Independence, for many years a member of the Massachusetts
+General Court, and a member in 1820-1821 of the state
+Constitutional Convention. The son graduated at Harvard in
+1802, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1805 and began
+practice at Concord. His success in his profession was immediate,
+and for a half-century he was one of the leading lawyers of
+Massachusetts. He was in early life a Federalist and was later
+an ardent Whig in politics. He was a member of the state
+senate in 1825, 1832 and 1833, and of the national house of
+representatives in 1835-1837, during which time he made a
+notable speech in favour of the constitutional right of congress
+to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. In November
+1844, having retired from active legal practice some years before,
+he went to Charleston, S.C., at the request of Governor George
+Nixon Briggs (1796-1861), to test in the courts of South Carolina
+the constitutionality of the state law which provided that &ldquo;it
+shall not be lawful for any free negro, or person of color, to
+come into this state on board any vessel, as a cook, steward
+or mariner, or in any other employment,&rdquo; and that such free
+negroes should be seized and locked up until the vessels on which
+they had come were ready for sea, when they should be returned
+to such vessels. His visit aroused great excitment, he was
+threatened with personal injury, the state legislature passed
+resolutions calling for his expulsion, and he was compelled to
+leave early in December. In 1848 he was prominent in the Free
+Soil movement in Massachusetts, and subsequently assisted
+in the organization of the Republican Party. In 1850 he served
+in the Massachusetts house of representatives. He married
+a daughter of Roger Sherman of Connecticut. He died at
+Concord, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of November 1856.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See a memoir by his son G. F. Hoar in <i>Memorial Biographies of
+the New England Historic Genealogical Society</i>, vol. iii. (Boston,
+1883); the estimate by R. W. Emerson in <i>Lectures and Biographical
+Sketches</i> (Boston, 1903); and &ldquo;Samuel Hoar&rsquo;s Expulsion from
+Charleston,&rdquo; <i>Old South Leaflets</i>, vol. vi. No. 140.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar</span> (1816-1895), was born
+at Concord, Massachusetts, on the 21st of February 1816. He
+graduated at Harvard in 1835 and at the Harvard Law School
+in 1839, and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1840.
+From 1849 to 1855 he was a judge of the Massachusetts court
+of common pleas, from 1859 to 1869 a judge of the state supreme
+court, and in 1869-1870 attorney-general of the United States
+in the cabinet of President Grant, and in that position fought
+unmerited &ldquo;machine&rdquo; appointments to offices in the civil
+service until at the pressure of the &ldquo;machine&rdquo; Grant asked for
+his resignation from the cabinet. The Senate had already
+shown its disapproval of Hoar&rsquo;s policy of civil service reform
+by its failure in 1870 to confirm the President&rsquo;s nomination of
+Hoar as associate-justice of the supreme court. In 1871 he was
+a member of the Joint High Commission which drew up the
+Treaty of Washington. In 1872 he was a presidential elector
+on the Republican ticket, and in 1873-1875 was a representative
+in Congress. He was a member of the Board of Overseers of
+Harvard University from 1868 to 1880 and from 1881 to 1887,
+and was president of the Board in 1878-1880 and in 1881-1887.
+He was also prominent in the affairs of the Unitarian church.
+He was a man of high character and brilliant wit. He died at
+Concord on the 31st of January 1895.</p>
+
+<p>Another son, <span class="sc">George Frisbie Hoar</span> (1826-1904), was born
+in Concord, Massachusetts, on the 29th of August 1826. He
+graduated at Harvard in 1846 and at the Harvard Law School in
+1849. He settled in the practice of law in Worcester, Massachusetts,
+where in 1852 he became a partner of Emory Washburn
+(1800-1877). In 1852 he was elected as a Free-Soiler to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span>
+Massachusetts House of Representatives, and during his single
+term of service became the leader of his party in that body. He
+was active in the organization of the Republican party in Massachusetts,
+and in 1857 was elected to the State senate, but declined
+a re-election. During 1856-1857 he was active in behalf of the
+Free-State cause in Kansas. He was a member of the National
+House of Representatives from 1869 until 1877, and in this body
+took high rank as a ready debater and a conscientious committee
+worker. He was prominent as a defender and supporter of the
+Freedman&rsquo;s Bureau, took a leading part in the later reconstruction
+legislation and in the investigation of the Crédit Mobilier scandal,
+and in 1876 was one of the House managers of the impeachment
+of General W. W. Belknap, Grant&rsquo;s secretary of war. In 1877
+he was a member of the Electoral Commission which settled the
+disputed Hayes-Tilden election. From 1877 until his death he
+was a member of the United States senate. In the senate almost
+from the start he took rank as one of the most influential leaders
+of the Republican party; he was a member from 1882 until
+his death of the important Judiciary Committee, of which he was
+chairman in 1891-1893 and in 1895-1904. His most important
+piece of legislation was the Presidential Succession Act of 1886.
+He was a delegate to every Republican National Convention from
+1876 to 1904, and presided over that at Chicago in 1880. He
+was a conservative by birth and training, and although he did not
+leave his party he disagreed with its policy in regard to the
+Philippines, and spoke and voted against the ratification of the
+Spanish Treaty. He was regent of the Smithsonian Institution in
+1880-1881, and long served as an overseer of Harvard University
+(1896-1904) and as president of its alumni association. He was
+also president of the American Historical Association (1894-1895)
+and of the American Antiquarian Society (1884-1887).
+Like his brother, he was a leading Unitarian, and was president
+of its National Conference from 1894 to 1902. He died at
+Worcester, Massachusetts, on the 30th of September 1904. A
+memorial statue has been erected there.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Recollections of Seventy Years</i> (New York, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1758-1838), English
+antiquary, was the eldest son of Richard Hoare, who was created
+a baronet in 1786, and was born on the 9th of December 1758.
+He was descended from Sir Richard Hoare (1648-1718), lord
+mayor of London, the founder of the family banking business.
+An ample allowance from his grandfather, Henry Hoare,
+enabled him to pursue the archaeological studies for which he
+had already shown an inclination. In 1783 he married Hester,
+daughter of William Henry, Lord Lyttelton, and after her death
+in 1785 he paid a prolonged visit to France, Italy and Switzerland.
+He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1787, and in 1788 made
+a second continental tour, the record of his travels appearing in
+1819 under the title <i>A Classical Tour through Italy and Sicily</i>.
+A journey through Wales was followed by a translation of the
+<i>Itinerarium Cambriae</i> and of the <i>Descriptio Cambriae of</i> Giraldus
+Cambrensis, Hoare adding notes and a life of Giraldus to the
+translation. This was first published in 1804, and has been
+revised by T. Wright (London, 1863). Sir Richard died at
+Stourhead, Wiltshire, on the 19th of May 1838, being succeeded
+in the baronetcy by his half-brother, Henry Hugh Hoare.
+Hoare&rsquo;s most important work was his <i>Ancient History of North
+and South Wiltshire</i> (1812-1819); he also did some work on the
+large <i>History of Modern Wiltshire</i> (1822-1844).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For notices of him and a list of his works, many of which were
+printed privately, see the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> for July 1838, and
+the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i> vol. xxvii. (1891). See also E. Hoare, <i>History
+of the Hoare Family</i> (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1844-1899), Vice-President
+of the United States 1897-1899, was born at Long Branch, N.J.,
+on the 3rd of June 1844. He graduated at Rutgers College in
+1863, was admitted to the bar in 1869, practised law at Paterson,
+N.J., and rose to prominence in the State. He was long conspicuous
+in the State Republican organization, was chairman of
+the New Jersey State Republican Committee from 1880 to
+1890, became a member in 1884 of the Republican National
+Committee, and was the delegate-at-large from New Jersey to
+five successive Republican national nominating conventions.
+He served in the New Jersey Assembly in 1873-1874, and in the
+New Jersey Senate in 1877-1882, and was speaker of the Assembly
+in 1874 and president of the Senate in 1881 and 1882. He was
+also prominent and successful in business and accumulated a
+large fortune. He accepted the nomination as Vice-President
+in 1896, on the ticket with President McKinley, and was elected;
+but while still in office he died at Paterson, N.J., on the 21st of
+November 1899.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life</i> (New York, 1910) by David Magie.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBART, JOHN HENRY<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1775-1830), American Protestant
+Episcopal bishop, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the
+14th of September 1775, being fifth in direct descent from
+Edmund Hobart, a founder of Hingham, Massachusetts. He
+was educated at the Philadelphia Latin School, the College of
+Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania), and Princeton,
+where he graduated in 1793. After studying theology under
+Bishop William White at Philadelphia, he was ordained deacon in
+1798, and priest two years later. He was elected assistant bishop
+of New York, with the right of succession, in 1811, and was acting
+diocesan from that date because of the ill-health of Bishop Benjamin
+Moore, whom he formally succeeded on the latter&rsquo;s death
+in February 1816. He was one of the founders of the General
+Theological Seminary, became its professor of pastoral theology
+in 1821, and as bishop was its governor. In his zeal for the historic
+episcopacy he published in 1807 <i>An Apology for Apostolic
+Order and its Advocates</i>, a series of letters to Rev. John M. Mason,
+who, in <i>The Christian&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, of which he was editor, had
+attacked the Episcopacy in general and in particular Hobart&rsquo;s
+<i>Collection of Essays on the Subject of Episcopacy</i> (1806). Hobart&rsquo;s
+zeal for the General Seminary and the General Convention led
+him to oppose the plan of Philander Chase, bishop of Ohio, for
+an Episcopal seminary in that diocese; but the Ohio seminary
+was made directly responsible to the House of Bishops, and
+Hobart approved the plan. His strong opposition to &ldquo;dissenting
+churches&rdquo; was nowhere so clearly shown as in a pamphlet
+published in 1816 to dissuade all Episcopalians from joining the
+American Bible Society, which he thought the Protestant
+Episcopal Church had not the numerical or the financial strength
+to control. In 1818, to counterbalance the influence of the
+Bible Society and especially of Scott&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>, he began
+to edit with selected notes the <i>Family Bible</i> of the Society for
+Promoting Christian Knowledge. He delivered episcopal charges
+to the clergy of Connecticut and New York entitled <i>The Churchman</i>
+(1819) and <i>The High Churchman Vindicated</i> (1826), in
+which he accepted the name &ldquo;high churchman,&rdquo; and stated and
+explained his principles &ldquo;in distinction from the corruptions of
+the Church of Rome and from the Errors of Certain Protestant
+Sects.&rdquo; He exerted himself greatly in building up his diocese,
+attempting to make an annual visit to every parish. His failing
+health led him to visit Europe in 1823-1825. Upon his return he
+preached a characteristic sermon entitled <i>The United States of
+America compared with some European Countries, particularly
+England</i> (published 1826), in which, although there was some
+praise for the English church, he so boldly criticized the establishment,
+state patronage, cabinet appointment of bishops, lax
+discipline, and the low requirements of theological education, as
+to rouse much hostility in England, where he had been highly
+praised for two volumes of <i>Sermons on the Principal Events and
+Truths of Redemption</i> (1824). He died at Auburn, New York, on
+the 12th of September 1830. He was able, impetuous, frank,
+perfectly fearless in controversy, a speaker and preacher of much
+eloquence, a supporter of missions to the Oneida Indians in his
+diocese, and the compiler of the following devotional works:
+<i>A Companion for the Altar</i> (1804), <i>Festivals and Fasts</i> (1804),
+<i>A Companion to the Book of Common Prayer</i> (1805), and <i>A
+Clergyman&rsquo;s Companion</i> (1805).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memorial of Bishop Hobart</i>, containing a <i>Memoir</i> (New York,
+1831); John McVickar, <i>The Early Life and Professional Years of
+Bishop Hobart</i> (New York, 1834), and <i>The Closing Years of Bishop
+Hobart</i> (New York, 1836).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBART PASHA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden</span>
+(1822-1886), English naval captain and Turkish admiral, was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span>
+born in Leicestershire on the 1st of April 1822, being the third
+son of the 6th Earl of Buckinghamshire. In 1835 he entered
+the Royal Navy and served as a midshipman on the coast of
+Brazil in the suppression of the slave trade, displaying much
+gallantry in the operations. In 1855 he took part, as captain
+of the &ldquo;Driver,&rdquo; in the Baltic Expedition, and was actively
+engaged at Bomarsund and Abo. In 1862 he retired from the
+navy with the rank of post-captain; but his love of adventure
+led him, during the American Civil War, to take the command
+of a blockade-runner. He had the good fortune to run the
+blockade eighteen times, conveying war material to Charleston
+and returning with a cargo of cotton. In 1867 Hobart entered
+the Turkish service, and was immediately nominated to the
+command of that fleet, with the rank of &ldquo;Bahrie Limassi&rdquo;
+(rear-admiral). In this capacity he performed splendid service
+in helping to suppress the insurrection in Crete, and was rewarded
+by the Sultan with the title of Pasha (1869). In 1874 Hobart,
+whose name had, on representations made by Greece, been
+removed from the British Navy List, was reinstated; his
+restoration did not, however, last long, for on the outbreak of
+the Russo-Turkish war he again entered Turkish service. In
+command of the Turkish squadron he completely dominated
+the Black Sea, blockading the ports of South Russia and the
+mouths of the Danube, and paralysing the action of the Russian
+fleet. On the conclusion of peace Hobart still remained in the
+Turkish service, and in 1881 was appointed Mushir, or marshal,
+being the first Christian to hold that high office. His achievements
+as a blockade-runner, his blockade of Crete, and his
+handling of the Turkish fleet against the torpedo-lined coasts
+of Russia, showed him to be a daring, resourceful, and skilful
+commander, worthy to be ranked among the illustrious names of
+British naval heroes. He died at Milan on the 19th of June
+1886.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Sketches of My Life</i> (1886), which must, however, be used
+with caution, since it contains many proved inaccuracies.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBART,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the capital of Tasmania, in the county of Buckingham,
+on the southern coast of the island. It occupies a site of
+great beauty, standing on a series of low hills at the foot of
+Mount Wellington, a lofty peak (4166 ft.) which is snow-clad
+for many months in the year. The town fronts Sullivan&rsquo;s Cove,
+a picturesque bay opening into the estuary of the river Derwent,
+and is nearly square in form, laid out with wide streets intersecting
+at right angles, the chief of which are served by electric tramways.
+It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Tasmania, and of the
+Roman Catholic archbishop of Hobart. The Anglican cathedral
+of St David dates from 1873, though its foundations were laid
+as early as 1817. St Mary&rsquo;s Roman Catholic cathedral is a
+beautiful building; but perhaps the most notable ecclesiastical
+building in Hobart is the great Baptist tabernacle in Upper
+Elizabeth Street. The most prominent public buildings are the
+Houses of Parliament, to which an excellent library is attached;
+the town hall, a beautiful building of brown and white Tasmanian
+freestone in Italian style; the museum and national art gallery,
+and the general post office (1904) with its lofty clock-tower.
+Government House, the residence of the governor of Tasmania,
+a handsome castellated building, stands in its domain on the
+banks of the Derwent, to the north of the town. The botanical
+gardens adjoin. Of the parks and public gardens, the most
+extensive is the Queen&rsquo;s Domain, covering an area of about
+700 acres, while the most central is Franklin Square, adorned
+with a statue of Sir John Franklin, the famous Arctic explorer,
+who was governor of Tasmania from 1837 to 1843. The university
+of Tasmania, established in 1890, and opened in 1893,
+has its headquarters at Hobart. The town is celebrated for its
+invigorating climate, and its annual regatta on the Derwent
+attracts numerous visitors. The harbour is easy of access,
+well sheltered and deep, with wharf accommodation for vessels
+of the largest tonnage. It is a regular port of call for several
+intercolonial lines from Sydney and Melbourne, and for lines
+from London to New Zealand. The exports, of an average
+value of £850,000 annually, consist mainly of fruit, hops, grain,
+timber and wool. The industries comprise brewing, saw-milling,
+iron-founding, flour-milling, tanning, and the manufacture of
+pottery and woollen goods. Hobart is the centre of a large
+fruit-growing district, the produce of which, for the most part,
+is exported to London and Sydney. The city was founded in
+1804 and takes its name from Lord Hobart (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buckinghamshire,
+Earls of</a></span>), then secretary of state for the colonies.
+It was created a municipality in 1853, and a city in 1857; and
+in 1881 its name was changed from Hobart Town to the present
+form. The chief suburbs are Newton, Sandy Bay, Wellington,
+Risdon, Glenorchy, Bellerive and Beltana. The population of the
+city proper in 1901 was 24,652, or including suburbs, 34,182.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1638-1709), the greatest landscape
+painter of the Dutch school after Ruysdael, lived at
+Amsterdam in the second half of the 17th century. The facts
+of his life are somewhat obscure. Nothing is more disappointing
+than to find that in Hobbema&rsquo;s case chronology and signed
+pictures substantially contradict each other. According to the
+latter his practice lasted from 1650 to 1689; according to the
+former his birth occurred in 1638, his death as late as 1709.
+If the masterpiece formerly in the Bredel collection, called
+&ldquo;A Wooded Stream,&rdquo; honestly bears the date of 1650, or &ldquo;The
+Cottages under Trees&rdquo; of the Ford collection the date of 1652,
+the painter of these canvases cannot be Hobbema, whose birth
+took place in 1638, unless indeed we admit that Hobbema
+painted some of his finest works at the age of twelve or fourteen.
+For a considerable period it was profitable to pass Hobbemas
+as Ruysdaels, and the name of the lesser master was probably
+erased from several of his productions. When Hobbema&rsquo;s
+talent was recognized, the contrary process was followed, and
+in this way the name, and perhaps fictitious dates, reappeared
+by fraud. An experienced eye will note the differences which
+occur in Hobbema&rsquo;s signatures in such well-known examples as
+adorn the galleries of London and Rotterdam, or the Grosvenor
+and van der Hoop collections. Meanwhile, we must be content
+to know that, if the question of dates could be brought into
+accordance with records and chronology, the facts of Hobbema&rsquo;s
+life would be as follows.</p>
+
+<p>Meyndert Hobbema was married at the age of thirty to
+Eeltije Vinck of Gorcum, in the Oudekerk or old church at
+Amsterdam, on the 2nd of November 1668. Witnesses to the
+marriage were the bride&rsquo;s brother Cornelius Vinck and Jacob
+Ruysdael. We might suppose from this that Hobbema and
+Ruysdael, the two great masters of landscape, were united at
+this time by ties of friendship, and accept the belief that the
+former was the pupil of the latter. Yet even this is denied to us,
+since records tell us that there were two Jacob Ruysdaels,
+cousins and contemporaries, at Amsterdam in the middle of
+the 17th century&mdash;one a framemaker, the son of Solomon, the
+other a painter, the son of Isaac Ruysdael. Of Hobbema&rsquo;s
+marriage there came between 1668 and 1673 four children. In
+1704 Eeltije died, and was buried in the pauper section of the
+Leiden cemetery at Amsterdam. Hobbema himself survived
+till December 1709, receiving burial on the 14th of that month
+in the pauper section of the Westerkerk cemetery at Amsterdam.
+Husband and wife had lived during their lifetime in the Rozengracht,
+at no great distance from Rembrandt, who also dwelt
+there in his later and impoverished days. Rembrandt, Hals,
+Jacob Ruysdael, and Hobbema were in one respect alike. They
+all died in misery, insufficiently rewarded perhaps for their
+toil, imprudent perhaps in the use of the means derived from
+their labours. Posterity has recognized that Hobbema and
+Ruysdael together represent the final development of landscape
+art in Holland. Their style is so related that we cannot suppose
+the first to have been unconnected with the second. Still their
+works differ in certain ways, and their character is generally
+so marked that we shall find little difficulty in distinguishing
+them, nor indeed shall we hesitate in separating those of Hobbema
+from the feebler productions of his imitators and predecessors&mdash;Isaac
+Ruysdael, Rontbouts, de Vries, Dekker, Looten, Verboom,
+du Bois, van Kessel, van der Hagen, even Philip de Koningk.
+In the exercise of his craft Hobbema was patient beyond all
+conception. It is doubtful whether any one ever so completely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span>
+mastered as he did the still life of woods and hedges, or mills
+and pools. Nor can we believe that he obtained this mastery
+otherwise than by constantly dwelling in the same neighbourhood,
+say in Guelders or on the Dutch Westphalian border, where day
+after day he might study the branching and foliage of trees and
+underwood embowering cottages and mills, under every variety
+of light, in every shade of transparency, in all changes produced
+by the seasons. Though his landscapes are severely and moderately
+toned, generally in an olive key, and often attuned
+to a puritanical grey or russet, they surprise us, not only by
+the variety of their leafage, but by the finish of their detail as
+well as the boldness of their touch. With astonishing subtlety
+light is shown penetrating cloud, and illuminating, sometimes
+transiently, sometimes steadily, different portions of the ground,
+shining through leaves upon other leaves, and multiplying in
+an endless way the transparency of the picture. If the chance
+be given him he mirrors all these things in the still pool near a
+cottage, the reaches of a sluggish river, or the swirl of the stream
+that feeds a busy mill. The same spot will furnish him with
+several pictures. One mill gives him repeated opportunities
+of charming our eye; and this wonderful artist, who is only
+second to Ruysdael because he had not Ruysdael&rsquo;s versatility
+and did not extend his study equally to downs and rocky
+eminences, or torrents and estuaries&mdash;this is the man who lived
+penuriously, died poor, and left no trace in the artistic annals
+of his country! It has been said that Hobbema did not paint
+his own figures, but transferred that duty to Adrian van de
+Velde, Lingelbach, Barendt Gael, and Abraham Storck. As to
+this much is conjecture.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best of Hobbema&rsquo;s dated pictures are those of the years 1663
+to 1667. Of the former, several in the galleries of Brussels and St
+Petersburg, and one in the Holford collection, are celebrated.
+Of 1665 fine specimens are at Grosvenor House and the Wallace
+collection. Of seven pieces in the National Gallery, including the
+&ldquo;Avenue at Middelharnis,&rdquo; which some assign to 1689, and the
+&ldquo;Ruins of Breberode Castle,&rdquo; two are dated 1667. A sample of the
+last of these years is also in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge.
+Amongst the masterpieces in private hands in England may be
+noticed two landscapes in Buckingham Palace, two at Bridgewater
+House, and one belonging to Mr Walter of Bearwood. On the
+continent are a &ldquo;Wooded Landscape&rdquo; in the Berlin gallery, a
+&ldquo;Forest&rdquo; belonging to the duchess of Sagan in Paris, and a &ldquo;Glade&rdquo;
+in the Louvre. There are other fine Hobbemas in the Antwerp
+Museum, the Arenberg gallery at Brussels, and the Belvedere at
+Vienna.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBBES, THOMAS<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1588-1679), English philosopher, second
+son of Thomas Hobbes, was born at Westport (now part of
+Malmesbury, Wiltshire) on the 5th of April 1588. His father,
+vicar of Charlton and Westport, an illiterate and choleric man,
+quarrelled, it is said, with a brother clergyman at the church door,
+and was forced to decamp, leaving his three children to the care
+of an elder brother Francis, a flourishing glover at Malmesbury.
+Thomas Hobbes was put to school at Westport church at the age
+of four, passed to the Malmesbury school at eight, and was
+taught again in Westport later at a private school kept by a
+young man named Robert Latimer, fresh from Oxford and &ldquo;a
+good Grecian.&rdquo; He had begun Latin and Greek early, and under
+Latimer made such progress as to be able to translate the <i>Medea</i>
+of Euripides into Latin iambic verse before he was fourteen.
+About the age of fifteen he was sent to Oxford and entered at
+Magdalen Hall. During his residence, the first principal of
+Magdalen Hall, John Hussee, was succeeded by John Wilkinson,
+who ruled in the interest of the Calvinistic party in the university.
+Thus early was he brought into contact with the aggressive
+Puritan spirit. Apart from this, Hobbes owed little to his university
+training, which was based on the scholastic logic then
+prevalent. We have from himself a lively record of his student
+life (<i>Vit. carm. exp.</i> p. lxxxv.), which, though penned in extreme
+old age, may be taken as trustworthy. He tells how, when he had
+slowly taken in the doctrine of logical figures and moods, he put
+it aside and would prove things only in his own way; how he
+then heard about bodies as consisting of matter and form, as
+throwing off species of themselves for perception, and as moved
+by sympathies and antipathies, with much else of a like sort, all
+beyond his comprehension; and how he therefore turned to his
+old books again, fed his mind on maps and charts of earth and
+sky, traced the sun in his path, followed Drake and Cavendish
+girdling the main, and gazed with delight upon pictured haunts of
+men and wonders of unknown lands. Very characteristic is the
+interest in men and things, and the disposition to cut through
+questions in the schools after a trenchant fashion of his own.
+He was little attracted by the scholastic learning, though it
+would be wrong to take his words as evidence of a precocious
+insight into its weakness. The truth probably is that he took no
+interest in studies which there was no risk in neglecting, and
+thought as little of rejecting as of accepting the traditional
+doctrines. He adds that he took his degree at the proper time;
+but in fact, upon any computation and from whatever cause, he
+remained at Magdalen Hall five, instead of the required four,
+years, not being admitted as bachelor till the 5th of February
+1608.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year Hobbes was recommended by Wilkinson as
+tutor to the son of William Cavendish, baron of Hardwick (afterwards
+2nd earl of Devonshire), and thus began a lifelong connexion
+with a great and powerful family. Twice it was loosened&mdash;once,
+for a short time, after twenty years, and again, for a
+longer period, during the Civil War&mdash;but it never was broken.
+Hobbes spoke of the first years of his tutorship as the happiest of
+his life. Young Cavendish was hardly younger than Hobbes, and
+had been married, a few months before, at the instance of the
+king, to Christiana, the only daughter of Edward, Lord Bruce of
+Kinloss, though by reason of the bride&rsquo;s age, which was only
+twelve years, the pair had no establishment for some time.
+Hobbes was his companion rather than tutor (before becoming
+secretary); and, growing greatly attached to each other, they
+were sent abroad together on the grand tour in 1610. During
+this journey, the duration of which cannot be precisely stated,
+Hobbes acquired some knowledge of French and Italian, and
+also made the important discovery that the scholastic philosophy
+which he had learned in Oxford was almost universally neglected
+in favour of the scientific and critical methods of Galileo, Kepler
+and Montaigne. Unable at first to cope with their unfamiliar
+ideas, he determined to become a scholar, and until 1628 was
+engaged in a careful study of Greek and Latin authors, the outcome
+of which was his great translation of Thucydides. But
+<span class="sidenote">Translation of Thucydides.</span>
+when he had finished his work he kept it lying by him
+for years, being no longer so sure of finding appreciative
+readers; and when he did send it forth, in 1628, he was
+fain to be content with &ldquo;the few and better sort.&rdquo;<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+That he was finally determined to publication by the political
+troubles of the year 1628 may be regarded as certain, not only
+from his own express declaration at a later time (<i>Vit. carm. exp.</i>),
+but also from unmistakable hints in the account of the life and
+work of his author prefixed to the translation on its appearance.
+This was the year of the Petition of Right, extorted from the king
+in the third parliament he had tried within three years of his
+accession; and, in view of Hobbes&rsquo;s later activity, it is significant
+that he came forward just then, at the mature age of forty, with
+his version of the story of the Athenian democracy as the first
+production of his pen. Nothing else is known of his doings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span>
+before 1628, except that through his connexion with young
+Cavendish he had relations with literary men of note like Ben
+Jonson, and also with Bacon and Lord Herbert of Cherbury. If
+he never had any sympathy with Herbert&rsquo;s intuitionalist principles
+in philosophy, he was no less eager, as he afterwards showed, than
+Herbert to rationalize in matters of religious doctrine, so that he
+may be called the second of the English deists, as Herbert has
+been called the first. With Bacon he was so intimate (Aubrey&rsquo;s
+<i>Lives</i>, pp. 222, 602) that some writers have described him as a
+disciple. The facts that he used to walk with Bacon at Gorhambury,
+and would jot down with exceptional intelligence the eager
+thinker&rsquo;s sudden &ldquo;notions,&rdquo; and that he was employed to make
+the Latin version of some of the <i>Essays</i>, prove nothing when
+weighed against his own disregard of all Bacon&rsquo;s principles, and
+the other evidence that the impulse to independent thinking
+came to him not from Bacon, and not till some time after Bacon&rsquo;s
+death in 1626.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>So far as we have any positive evidence, it was not before the
+year 1629 that Hobbes entered on philosophical inquiry. Meanwhile
+a great change had been wrought in his circumstances.
+His friend and master, after about two years&rsquo;
+<span class="sidenote">Philosophic Inquiry.</span>
+tenure of the earldom of Devonshire, died of the plague
+in June 1628, and the affairs of the family were so
+disordered financially that the widowed countess was left with the
+task of righting them in the boyhood of the third earl. Hobbes
+went on for a time living in the household; but his services were
+no longer in demand, and, remaining inconsolable under his
+personal bereavement, he sought distraction, in 1629, in another
+engagement which took him abroad as tutor to the son of Sir
+Gervase Clifton, of an old Nottinghamshire family. This, his
+second, sojourn abroad appears to have been spent chiefly in
+Paris, and the one important fact recorded of it is that he then
+first began to look into Euclid. The engagement came to an end
+in 1631, when he was recalled to train the young earl of Devonshire,
+now thirteen years old, son of his previous pupil. In the
+course of the next seven years in Derbyshire and abroad, Hobbes
+took his pupil over rhetoric,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> logic, astronomy, and the principles
+of law, with other subjects. His mind was now full of the thought
+of motion in nature, and on the continent he sought out the
+philosophical speculators or scientific workers. In Florence in
+1636 he saw Galileo, for whom he ever retained the warmest
+admiration, and spent eight months in daily converse with the
+members of a scientific circle in Paris, held together by Marin
+Mersenne (q.v.). From that time (the winter of 1636-1637) he
+too, as he tells us, was numbered among philosophers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His introduction to Euclid took place accidentally in 1629
+(Aubrey&rsquo;s <i>Lives</i>, p. 604). Euclid&rsquo;s manner of proof became the
+model for his own way of thinking upon all subjects. It is less
+easy to determine when he awoke to an interest in the physical
+doctrine of motion. The story told by himself (<i>Vit.</i> p. xx.) is that,
+hearing the question asked &ldquo;What is sense?&rdquo; he fell to thinking
+often on the subject, till it suddenly occurred to him that if bodies
+and their internal parts were at rest, or were always in the same
+state of motion, there could be no distinction of anything, and
+consequently no sense; the cause of all things must therefore be
+sought in diversity of movements. Starting from this principle
+he was driven to geometry for insight into the ground and modes
+of motion. The biographies we possess do not tell us where or
+when this great change of interest occurred. Nothing is said,
+however, which contradicts a statement that on his third journey
+in Europe he began to study the doctrine of motion more seriously,
+being interested in it before; and as he claims more than once
+(<i>L.W.</i> v. 303; <i>E.W.</i> vii. 468) to have explained light and sound by
+a mechanical hypothesis as far back as 1630, the inspiration may
+be assigned to the time of the second journey. But it was not till
+the third journey that the new interest became an overpowering
+passion, and the &ldquo;philosopher&rdquo; was on his way home before he
+had advanced so far as to conceive the scheme of a system of thought
+to the elaboration of which his life should henceforth be devoted.</p>
+
+<p>Hobbes was able to carry out his plan in some twenty years or
+more from the time of its conception, but the execution was so
+broken in upon by political events, and so complicated with other
+labours, that its stages can hardly be followed without some previous
+understanding of the relations of the parts of the scheme, as there
+is reason to believe they were sketched out from the beginning.
+His scheme was first to work out, in a separate treatise <i>De corpore</i>,
+a systematic doctrine of Body, showing how physical phenomena
+were universally explicable in terms of motion, as motion or mechanical
+action was then (through Galileo and others) understood&mdash;the
+theory of motion being applied in the light of mathematical science,
+after quantity, the subject-matter of mathematics, had been duly
+considered in its place among the fundamental conceptions of
+philosophy, and a clear indication had been given, at first starting,
+of the logical ground and method of all philosophical inquiry. He
+would then single out Man from the realm of nature, and, in a
+treatise <i>De homine</i>, show what specific bodily motions were involved
+in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation
+and knowledge, as also of the affections and passions thence resulting,
+whereby man came into relation with man. Finally he would consider,
+in a crowning treatise <i>De cive</i>, how men, being naturally
+rivals or foes, were moved to enter into the better relation of Society,
+and demonstrate how this grand product of human wit must be
+regulated if men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery.
+Thus he proposed to unite in one coherent whole the separate
+phenomena of Body, Man and the State.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country seething with discontent.
+The reign of &ldquo;Thorough&rdquo; was collapsing, and the
+forces pent up since 1629 were soon to rend the fabric of the
+state. By these events Hobbes was distracted from the orderly
+execution of his philosophic plan. The Short Parliament, as
+he tells us at a later time (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 414), was not dissolved
+before he had ready &ldquo;a little treatise in English,&rdquo; in which he
+sought to prove that the points of the royal prerogative which
+the members were determined to dispute before granting supplies
+&ldquo;were inseparably annexed to the sovereignty which they did
+not then deny to be in the king.&rdquo; Now it can be proved that
+at this time he had written not only his <i>Human Nature</i> but also
+his <i>De corpore politico</i>, the two treatises (though published
+separately ten years later) having been composed as parts of
+one work;<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and there cannot be the least question that together
+they make &ldquo;the little treatise&rdquo; just mentioned. We are therefore
+to understand, first, that he wrote the earliest draft of his
+political theory some years before the outbreak of the Civil
+War, and, secondly, that this earliest draft was not written till, in
+accordance with his philosophical conception, he had established
+the grounds of polity in human nature. The first point is to
+be noted, because it has often been supposed that Hobbes&rsquo;s
+political doctrine took its peculiar complexion from his revulsion
+against the state of anarchy before his eyes, as he wrote during
+the progress of the Civil War. The second point must be maintained
+against his own implied, if not express, statement some
+years later, when publishing his <i>De cive</i> (<i>L.W.</i> ii. 151), that
+he wrote this third part of his system before he had been able
+to set down any finished representation of the fundamental
+doctrines which it presupposed. In the beginning of 1640,
+therefore, he had written out his doctrine of Man at least, with
+almost as much elaboration as it ever received from him.</p>
+
+<p>In November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded to the
+Short, and sent Laud and Strafford to the Tower, and Hobbes,
+who had become, or thought he had become, a marked
+man by the circulation of his treatise (of which,
+<span class="sidenote">In Paris.</span>
+&ldquo;though not printed, many gentlemen had copies&rdquo;), hastened
+to Paris, &ldquo;the first of all that fled.&rdquo; He was now for the fourth
+and last time abroad, and did not return for eleven years.
+Apparently he remained the greater part of the time in or about
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span>
+Paris. He was welcomed back into the scientific coterie about
+Mersenne, and forthwith had the task assigned him of criticizing
+the <i>Meditations</i> of Descartes, which had been sent from Holland,
+before publication, to Mersenne with the author&rsquo;s request for
+criticism from the most different points of view. Hobbes was
+soon ready with the remarks that were printed as &ldquo;Third&rdquo;
+among the six (later seven) sets of &ldquo;Objections&rdquo; appended,
+with &ldquo;Replies&rdquo; from Descartes, to the <i>Meditations</i>, when
+published shortly afterwards in 1641 (reprinted in <i>L.W.</i> v.
+249-274). About the same time also Mersenne sent to Descartes,
+as if they came from a friend in England, another set of objections
+which Hobbes had to offer on various points in the scientific
+treatises, especially the <i>Dioptrics</i>, appended by Descartes to
+his <i>Discourse on Method</i> in 1637; to which Descartes replied
+without suspecting the common authorship of the two sets.
+The result was to keep the two thinkers apart rather than bring
+them together. Hobbes was more eager to bring forward his
+own philosophical and physical ideas than careful to enter into
+the full meaning of another&rsquo;s thought; and Descartes was too
+jealous, and too confident in his conclusions to bear with this
+kind of criticism. He was very curt in his replies to Hobbes&rsquo;s
+philosophical objections, and broke off all correspondence on
+the physical questions, writing privately to Mersenne that he
+had grave doubts of the Englishman&rsquo;s good faith in drawing
+him into controversy (<i>L.W.</i> v. 277-307).</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Hobbes had his thoughts too full of the political
+theory which the events of the last years had ripened within
+him to settle, even in Paris, to the orderly composition of his
+works. Though connected in his own mind with his view of
+human nature and of nature generally, the political theory,
+as he always declared, could stand by itself. Also, while he
+may have hoped at this time to be able to add much (though he
+never did) to the sketch of his doctrine of Man contained
+in the unpublished &ldquo;little treatise,&rdquo; he might extend, but could
+hardly otherwise modify, the sketch he had there given of his
+carefully articulated theory of Body Politic. Possibly, indeed,
+before that sketch was written early in 1640, he may, under
+pressure of the political excitement, have advanced no small
+way in the actual composition of the treatise <i>De Cive</i>, the third
+section of his projected system. In any case, it was upon this
+section, before the others, that he set to work in Paris; and
+before the end of 1641 the book, as we know from the date
+of the dedication (November 1), was finished. Though it was
+forthwith printed in the course of the year 1642, he was content
+to circulate a limited number of copies privately<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a>; and when
+he found his work received with applause (it was praised even
+by Descartes), he seems to have taken this recognition of his
+philosophical achievement as an additional reason for deferring
+publication till the earlier works of the system were completed.
+Accordingly, for the next three or four years, he remained
+steadily at work, and nothing appeared from him in public
+except a short treatise on optics (<i>Tractatus opticus, L.W.</i> v.
+217-248) included in the collection of scientific tracts published
+by Mersenne under the title <i>Cogitata physico-mathematica</i>
+in 1644, and a highly compressed statement of his psychological
+application of the doctrine of motion (<i>L.W.</i> v. 309-318),
+incorporated with Mersenne&rsquo;s <i>Ballistica</i>, published in the same
+year. Thus or otherwise he had become sufficiently known by
+1645 to be chosen as a referee, with Descartes, Roberval and
+others, in the famous controversy between John Pell (q.v.) and
+the Dane Longomontanus (q.v.) over that problem of the squaring
+of the circle which was seen later on to have such a fatal charm
+for himself. But though about this time he had got ready all
+or most of the materials for his fundamental work on Body,
+not even now was he able to make way with its composition,
+and when he returned to it after a number of years, he returned
+a different man.</p>
+
+<p>The Civil War had broken out in 1642, and the royalist
+cause began to decline from the time of the defeat at Marston
+Moor, in the middle of 1644. Then commenced an exodus of
+the king&rsquo;s friends. Newcastle himself, who was a cousin of
+Hobbes&rsquo;s late patron and to whom he dedicated the &ldquo;little
+treatise&rdquo; of 1640, found his way to Paris, and was followed
+by a stream of fugitives, many of whom were known to Hobbes.
+The sight of these exiles made the political interest once more
+predominant in Hobbes, and before long the revived feeling
+issued in the formation of a new and important design. It first
+showed itself in the publication of the <i>De cive</i>, of which the
+fame, but only the fame, had extended beyond the inner circle
+of friends and critics who had copies of the original impression.
+Hobbes now entrusted it, early in 1646, to his admirer, the
+Frenchman Samuel de Sorbière, by whom it was seen through
+the Elzevir press at Amsterdam in 1647&mdash;having previously
+inserted a number of notes in reply to objections, and also a
+striking preface, in the course of which he explained its relation
+to the other parts of the system not yet forthcoming, and the
+(political) occasion of its having been composed and being
+now published before them.<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> So hopeless, meanwhile, was he
+growing of being able to return home that, later on in the year,
+he was on the point of leaving Paris to take up his abode in the
+south with a French friend,<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> when he was engaged &ldquo;by the
+month&rdquo; as mathematical instructor to the young prince of Wales,
+who had come over from Jersey about the month of July. This
+<span class="sidenote">Leviathan.</span>
+engagement lasted nominally from 1646 to 1648 when
+Charles went to Holland. Thus thrown more than
+ever into the company of the exiled royalists, it was then,
+if not earlier, that he conceived his new design of bringing
+all his powers of thought and expression to bear upon the
+production of an English book that should set forth his whole
+theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis
+resulting from the war. The <i>De cive</i>, presently to be published,
+was written in Latin for the learned, and gave the political
+theory without its foundation in human nature. The unpublished
+treatise of 1640 contained all or nearly all that he had to tell
+concerning human nature, but was written before the terrible
+events of the last years had disclosed how men might still be
+urged by their anti-social passions back into the abyss of anarchy.
+There was need of an exposition at once comprehensive, incisive
+and popular. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, might be
+regarded as a great artificial man or monster (<i>Leviathan</i>), composed
+of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation
+through human reason under pressure of human needs to its
+dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions.
+This, we may suppose, was the presiding conception from the
+first, but the design may have been variously modified in the
+three or four years of its execution. Before the end, in 1650-1651,
+it is plain that he wrote in direct reference to the greatly changed
+aspect of affairs in England. The king being dead, and the
+royalist cause appearing to be hopelessly lost, he did not scruple,
+in closing the work with a general &ldquo;Review and Conclusion,&rdquo;
+to raise the question of the subject&rsquo;s right to change allegiance
+when a former sovereign&rsquo;s power to protect was irrecoverably
+gone. Also he took advantage of the rule of the Commonwealth
+to indulge much more freely than he might have otherwise
+dared in rationalistic criticism of religious doctrines; while,
+amid the turmoil of sects, he could the more forcibly urge that
+the preservation of social order, when again firmly restored,
+must depend on the assumption by the civil power of the right
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span>
+to wield all sanctions, supernatural as well as natural, against
+the pretensions of any clergy, Catholic, Anglican or Presbyterian,
+to the exercise of an <i>imperium in imperio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We know the <i>Leviathan</i> only as it finally emerged from Hobbes&rsquo;s
+pen. During the years of its composition he remained in or near
+Paris, at first in attendance on his royal pupil, with whom he
+became a great favourite. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by
+a serious illness which disabled him for six months. Mersenne
+begged him not to die outside the Roman Catholic Church, but
+Hobbes said that he had already considered the matter sufficiently
+and afterwards took the sacrament according to the rites of the
+Church of England. On recovering from this illness, which nearly
+proved fatal, he resumed his literary task, and carried it steadily
+forward to completion by the year 1650, having also within the
+same time translated into English, with characteristic force of
+expression, his Latin treatise. Otherwise the only thing known
+(from one or two letters) of his life in those years is that from
+the year 1648 he had begun to think of returning home; he was
+then sixty and might well be weary of exile. When 1650
+came, as if to prepare the way for the reception of his <i>magnum
+opus</i>, he allowed the publication of his earliest treatise, divided
+into two separate small volumes (<i>Human Nature, or the Fundamental
+Elements of Policy, E.W.</i> iv. 1-76, and <i>De Corpore
+Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politic</i>, pp. 77-228).<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+In 1651<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> he published his translation of the De Cive under the
+title of <i>Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and
+Society</i> (<i>E.W.</i> ii.). Meanwhile the printing of the greater
+work was proceeding, and finally it appeared about the middle
+of the same year, 1651, under the title of <i>Leviathan, or the Matter,
+Form and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil</i>
+(<i>E.W.</i> iii.), with a quaint frontispiece in which, from behind
+hills overlooking a fair landscape of town and country, there
+towered the body (above the waist) of a crowned giant, made
+up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and crozier
+in the two hands. It appeared, and soon its author was more
+lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time; but the
+first effect of its publication was to sever his connexion with
+the exiled royalist party, and to throw him for protection on
+the revolutionary Government. No sooner did copies of the
+book reach Paris than he found himself shunned by his former
+associates, and though he was himself so little conscious of
+disloyalty that he was forward to present a manuscript copy
+&ldquo;engrossed in vellum in a marvellous fair hand&rdquo;<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> to the young
+king of the Scots (who, after the defeat at Worcester, escaped
+to Paris about the end of October), he was denied the royal
+presence when he sought it shortly afterwards. Straightway,
+then, he saw himself exposed to a double peril. The exiles had
+among them desperadoes who could slay; and, besides exciting
+the enmity of the Anglican clergy about the king, who bitterly
+resented the secularist spirit of his book, he had compromised
+himself with the French authorities by his elaborate attack on
+the papal system. In the circumstances, no resource was left
+him but secret flight. Travelling with what speed he could in
+the depths of a severe winter and under the effects of a recent
+(second) illness, he managed to reach London, where, sending
+in his submission to the council of state, he was allowed to subside
+into private life.</p>
+
+<p>Though Hobbes came back, after his eleven years&rsquo; absence,
+without having as yet publicly proved his title to rank with the
+natural philosophers of the age, he was sufficiently conscious of
+what he had been able to achieve in <i>Leviathan</i>; and it was
+<span class="sidenote">Return to London.</span>
+in no humble mood that he now, at the age of sixty-four, turned
+to complete the fundamental treatise of his philosophical
+system. Neither those whom his masterpiece soon
+roused to enthusiasm, nor those whom it moved to
+indignation, were likely to be indifferent to anything
+he should now write, whether it lay near to or far from
+the region of practice. Taking up his abode in Fetter Lane,
+London, on his return, and continuing to reside there for the sake
+of intellectual society, even after renewing his old ties with the
+earl of Devonshire, who lived in the country till the Restoration,<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
+he worked so steadily as to be printing the <i>De corpore</i> in the year
+1654. Circumstances (of which more presently), however, kept
+the book back till the following year, and meanwhile the readers
+of <i>Leviathan</i> had a different excitement. In 1654 a small
+treatise, &ldquo;Of Liberty and Necessity&rdquo; (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 229-278),
+<span class="sidenote">Controversy with Bramhall.</span>
+issued from the press, claiming to be an answer to
+a discourse on the same subject by Bishop Bramhall
+of Londonderry (afterwards archbishop of Armagh,
+d. 1663), addressed by Hobbes to the marquis of
+Newcastle.<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> It had grown out of an oral discussion between
+Hobbes and Bramhall in the marquis&rsquo;s presence at Paris in
+1646. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had afterwards written down
+his views and sent them to Newcastle to be answered in this
+form by Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication,
+because he thought the subject a delicate one. But it happened
+that Hobbes had allowed a French acquaintance to have a
+private translation of his reply made by a young Englishman,
+who secretly took a copy of the original for himself; and now it
+was this unnamed purloiner who, in 1654, when Hobbes had
+become famous and feared, gave it to the world of his own motion,
+with an extravagantly laudatory epistle to the reader in its
+front. Upon Hobbes himself the publication came as a surprise,
+but, after his plain speaking in <i>Leviathan</i>, there was nothing
+in the piece that he need scruple to have made known, and he
+seems to have condoned the act. On the other hand, Bramhall,
+supposing Hobbes privy to the publication, resented the manner
+of it, especially as no mention was made of his rejoinder. Accordingly,
+in 1655, he printed everything that had passed between
+them (under the title of <i>A Defence of the True Liberty of Human
+Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity</i>), with loud
+complaint against the treatment he had received, and the promise
+added that, in default of others, he himself would stand forward
+to expose the deadly principles of <i>Leviathan</i>. About this time
+Hobbes had begun to be hard pressed by other foes, and, being
+never more sure of himself than upon the question of the will,
+he appears to have welcomed the opportunity thus given him
+of showing his strength. By 1656 he was ready with his <i>Questions
+concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance</i> (<i>E.W.</i> v.), in which
+he replied with astonishing force to the bishop&rsquo;s rejoinder point
+by point, besides explaining the occasion and circumstances
+of the whole debate, and reproducing (as Bramhall had done)
+all the pieces from the beginning. As perhaps the first clear
+exposition and defence of the <i>psychological</i> doctrine of determinism,
+Hobbes&rsquo;s own two pieces must ever retain a classical
+importance in the history of the free-will controversy; while
+Bramhall&rsquo;s are still worth study as specimens of scholastic
+fence. The bishop, it should be added, returned to the charge
+in 1658 with ponderous <i>Castigations of Mr Hobbes&rsquo;s Animadversions</i>,
+and also made good his previous threat in a bulky
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span>
+appendix <i>entitled The Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale</i>.
+Hobbes never took any notice of the <i>Castigations</i>, but ten years
+later replied to the charges of atheism, &amp;c., made in the non-political
+part of the appendix, of which he says he then heard
+for the first time (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 279-384). This <i>Answer</i> was first
+published after Hobbes&rsquo;s death.<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>We may now follow out the more troublesome conflict, or rather
+series of conflicts, in which Hobbes became entangled from the
+time of publishing his <i>De corpore</i> in 1655, and which
+checkered all his remaining years. In <i>Leviathan</i> he had
+<span class="sidenote">Controversy with Wallis and Ward.</span>
+vehemently assailed the system of the universities, as
+originally founded for the support of the papal against
+the civil authority, and as still working social mischief
+by adherence to the old learning. The attack was duly
+noted at Oxford, where under the Commonwealth a new spirit of
+scientific activity had begun to stir. In 1654 Seth Ward (1617-1689),
+the Savilian professor of astronomy, replying in his <i>Vindiciae
+academiarum</i> to some other assaults (especially against John
+Webster&rsquo;s <i>Examen of Academies</i>) on the academic system, retorted
+upon Hobbes that, so far from the universities being now what he
+had known them in his youth, he would find his geometrical pieces,
+when they appeared, better understood there than he should like.
+This was said in reference to the boasts in which Hobbes seems to
+have been freely indulging of having squared the circle and accomplished
+other such feats; and, when a year later the <i>De corpore</i>
+(<i>L.W.</i> i.) finally appeared, it was seen how the thrust had gone
+home. In the chapter (xx.) of that work where Hobbes dealt with
+the famous problem whose solution he thought he had found, there
+were left expressions against Vindex (Ward) at a time when the
+solutions still seemed to him good; but the solutions themselves,
+as printed, were allowed to be all in different ways halting, as he
+naively confessed he had discovered only when he had been driven
+by the insults of malevolent men to examine them more closely
+with the help of his friends. A strange conclusion this, and reached
+by a path not less strange, as was now to be disclosed by a relentless
+hand. Ward&rsquo;s colleague, the more famous John Wallis (q.v.), Savilian
+professor of geometry from 1649, had been privy to the challenge
+thrown out in 1654, and it was arranged that they should critically
+dispose of the <i>De corpore</i> between them. Ward was to occupy
+himself with the philosophical and physical sections, which he did
+in leisurely fashion, bringing out his criticism in the course of next
+year (<i>In Th. Hobbii philosophiam exercitatio epistolica</i>). Wallis
+was to confine himself to the mathematical chapters, and set to
+work at once with characteristic energy. Obtaining an unbound
+copy of the <i>De corpore</i>, he saw by the mutilated appearance of the
+sheets that Hobbes had repeatedly altered his demonstrations before
+he issued them at last in their actual form, grotesque as it was,
+rather than delay the book longer. Obtaining also a copy of the
+work as it had been printed before Hobbes had any doubt of the
+validity of his solutions, Wallis was able to track his whole course
+from the time of Ward&rsquo;s provocation&mdash;his passage from exultation
+to doubt, from doubt to confessed impotence, yet still without
+abandoning the old assumption of confident strength; and all his
+turnings and windings were now laid bare in one of the most trenchant
+pieces of controversial writing ever penned. Wallis&rsquo;s <i>Elenchus
+geometriae Hobbianae</i>, published in 1655 about three months after
+the <i>De corpore</i>, contained also an elaborate criticism of Hobbes&rsquo;s
+whole attempt to relay the foundations of mathematical science
+in its place within the general body of reasoned knowledge&mdash;a
+criticism which, if it failed to allow for the merit of the conception,
+exposed only too effectually the utter inadequacy of the result.
+Taking up mathematics when not only his mind was already formed
+but his thoughts were crystallizing into a philosophical system,
+Hobbes had, in fact, never put himself to school and sought to work
+up gradually to the best knowledge of the time, but had been more
+anxious from the first to become himself an innovator with whatever
+insufficient means. The consequence was that, when not spending
+himself in vain attempts to solve the impossible problems that have
+always waylaid the fancy of self-sufficient beginners, he took an
+interest only in the elements of geometry, and never had any notion
+of the full scope of mathematical science, undergoing as it then
+was (and not least at the hands of Wallis) the extraordinary development
+which made it before the end of the century the potent
+instrument of physical discovery which it became in the hands of
+Newton. He was even unable, in dealing with the elementary
+conceptions of geometry, to work out with any consistency the few
+original thoughts he had, and thus became the easy sport of Wallis.
+At his advanced age, however, and with the sense he had of his
+powers, he was not likely to be brought to a better mind by so
+insulting an opponent. He did indeed, before allowing an English
+translation of the <i>De corpore</i> (<i>E.W.</i> i.) to appear in 1656, take
+care to remove some of the worst mistakes exposed by Wallis, and,
+while leaving out all the references to Vindex, now profess to make,
+in altered form, a series of mere &ldquo;attempts&rdquo; at quadrature; but
+he was far from yielding the ground to the enemy. With the
+translation,<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> in the spring of 1656, he had ready <i>Six Lessons to the
+Professors of Mathematics, one of Geometry, the other of Astronomy,
+in the University of Oxford</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vii. 181-356), in which, after
+reasserting his view of the principles of geometry in opposition to
+Euclid&rsquo;s, he proceeded to repel Wallis&rsquo;s objections with no lack of
+dialectical skill, and with an unreserve equal to Wallis&rsquo;s own. He
+did not scruple, in the ardour of conflict, even to maintain positions
+that he had resigned in the translation, and he was not afraid to
+assume the offensive by a counter criticism of three of Wallis&rsquo;s
+works then published. When he had thus disposed of the
+&ldquo;Paralogisms&rdquo; of his more formidable antagonist in the first five
+lessons, he ended with a lesson on &ldquo;Manners&rdquo; to the two professors
+together, and set himself gravely at the close to show that he too
+could be abusive. In this particular part of his task, it must be
+allowed, he succeeded very well; his criticism of Wallis&rsquo;s works,
+especially the great treatise <i>Arithmetica infinitorum</i> (1655), only
+showed how little able he was to enter into the meaning of the
+modern analysis. Wallis, on his side, was not less ready to keep
+up the game in English than he had been to begin it in Latin. Swift
+as before to strike, in three months&rsquo; time he had deftly turned his
+own word against the would-be master by administering <i>Due
+Correction for Mr Hobbes, or School Discipline for not saying his
+Lessons right</i>, in a piece that differed from the <i>Elenchus</i> only in
+being more biting and unrestrained. Having an easy task in
+defending himself against Hobbes&rsquo;s trivial criticism, he seized the
+opportunity given him by the English translation of the <i>De corpore</i>
+to track Hobbes again step by step over the whole course, and now
+to confront him with his incredible inconsistencies multiplied by
+every new utterance. But it was no longer a fight over mathematical
+questions only. Wallis having been betrayed originally by his
+fatal cleverness into the pettiest carping at words, Hobbes had
+retorted in kind, and then it became a high duty in the other to
+defend his Latin with great parade of learning and give fresh
+provocation. One of Wallis&rsquo;s rough sallies in this kind suggested to
+Hobbes the title of the next rejoinder with which, in 1657, he sought
+to close the unseemly wrangle. Arguing in the <i>Lessons</i> that a
+mathematical point must have quantity, though this were not
+reckoned, he had explained the Greek word <span class="grk" title="stigmê">&#963;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#942;</span>, used for a
+point, to mean a visible mark made with a hot iron; whereupon he
+was charged by Wallis with gross ignorance for confounding <span class="grk" title="stigmê">&#963;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#942;</span>
+and <span class="grk" title="stigma">&#963;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#945;</span>. Hence the title of his new piece: <span class="grk" title="Stigmai ageômetrias,
+agroikias, antipoliteias, amatheias">&#931;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#945;&#8054; &#7936;&#947;&#949;&#969;&#956;&#949;&#964;&#961;&#943;&#945;&#962;, &#7936;&#947;&#961;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#945;&#962;, &#7936;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;, &#7936;&#956;&#945;&#952;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>, or <i>Marks of the Absurd Geometry,
+Rural Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John
+Wallis, Professor of Geometry and Doctor of Divinity</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vii. 357-400).
+He now attacked more in detail but not more happily than
+before Wallis&rsquo;s great work, while hardly attempting any further
+defence of his own positions; also he repelled with some force and
+dignity the insults that had been heaped upon him, and fought
+the verbal points, but could not leave the field without making
+political insinuations against his adversary, quite irrelevant in
+themselves and only noteworthy as evidence of his own resignation
+to Cromwell&rsquo;s rule. The thrusts were easily and nimbly parried by
+Wallis in a reply (<i>Hobbiani puncti dispunctio</i>, 1657) occupied mainly
+with the verbal questions. Irritating as it was, it did not avail to
+shake Hobbes&rsquo;s determination to remain silent; and thus at last
+there was peace for a time.</p>
+
+<p>Before the strife flamed up again, Hobbes had published, in 1658,
+the outstanding section of his philosophical system, and thus completed,
+after a fashion, the scheme he had planned more than twenty
+years before. So far as the treatise <i>De homine</i> (<i>L.W.</i> ii. 11-32)
+was concerned, the completion was more in name than in fact.
+It consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision which,
+though very creditable to Hobbes&rsquo;s scientific insight, was out of
+place, or at least out of proportion, in a philosophical consideration of
+human nature generally. The remainder of the treatise, dealing
+cursorily with some of the topics more fully treated in the <i>Human
+Nature</i> and the <i>Leviathan</i>, has all the appearance of having been
+tagged in haste to the optical chapters (composed years before)<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a> as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span>
+a makeshift for the proper transition required in the system from
+questions of Body Natural to questions of Body Politic. Hobbes
+had in fact spent himself in his earlier constructive efforts, and at the
+age of seventy, having nothing to add to his doctrine of Man as it was
+already in one form or another before the world, was content with
+anything that might stand for the fulfilment of his philosophical
+purpose. But he had still in him more than twenty years of vigorous
+vitality, and, not conscious to himself of any shortcoming, looked
+forward, now his hands were free, to doing battle for his doctrines.
+Rather than remain quiet, on finding no notice taken of his latest
+production, he would himself force on a new conflict with the enemy.
+Wallis having meanwhile published other works and especially a
+comprehensive treatise on the general principles of calculus (<i>Mathesis
+universalis</i>, 1657), he might take this occasion of exposing afresh
+the new-fangled methods of mathematical analysis and reasserting
+his own earlier positions. Accordingly, by the spring of 1660, he had
+managed to put his criticism and assertions into five dialogues under
+the title <i>Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae hodiernae qualis
+explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii</i>, with a sixth dialogue so called,
+consisting almost entirely of seventy or more propositions on the
+circle and cycloid.<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Wallis, however, would not take the bait.
+Hobbes then tried another tack. Next year, having solved, as he
+thought, another ancient <i>crux</i>, the duplication of the cube, he had his
+solution brought out anonymously at Paris in French, so as to put
+Wallis and other critics off the scent and extort a judgment that
+might be withheld from a work of his. The artifice was successful,
+and no sooner had Wallis publicly refuted the solution than Hobbes
+claimed the credit of it, and went more wonderfully than ever
+astray in its defence. He presently republished it (in modified
+form), with his remarks, at the end of a new Latin dialogue which
+he had meanwhile written in defence of another part of his philosophical
+doctrine. This was the <i>Dialogus physicus, sive De natura
+aëris</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iv. 233-296), fulminated in 1661 against Boyle and
+other friends of Wallis who, as he fancied, under the influence of that
+malevolent spirit, were now in London, after the Restoration, forming
+themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in
+1662) for experimental research, to the exclusion of himself personally,
+and in direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry
+enjoined in the <i>De corpore</i>.<a name="fa17e" id="fa17e" href="#ft17e"><span class="sp">17</span></a> All the laborious manipulation recorded
+in Boyle&rsquo;s <i>New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air</i> (1660),
+which Hobbes chose, without the least warrant, to take as the
+manifesto of the new &ldquo;academicians,&rdquo; seemed to him only to confirm
+the conclusions he had reasoned out years before from speculative
+principles, and he warned them that if they were not content to
+begin where he had left off their work would come to nought. To
+as much of this diatribe as concerned himself Boyle quickly replied
+with force and dignity, but it was from Hobbes&rsquo;s old enemy that
+retribution came, in the scathing satire <i>Hobbius heauton-timorumenos</i>
+(1662). Wallis, who had deftly steered his course amid all the
+political changes of the previous years, managing ever to be on the
+side of the ruling power, was now apparently stung to fury by a
+wanton allusion in Hobbes&rsquo;s latest dialogue to a passage of his former
+life (his deciphering for the parliament the king&rsquo;s papers taken at
+Naseby), whereof he had once boasted but after the Restoration
+could not speak or hear too little. The revenge he took was crushing.
+Professing to be roused by the attack on his friend Boyle, when he
+had scorned to lift a finger in defence of himself against the earlier
+dialogues, he tore them all to shreds with an art of which no general
+description can give an idea. He got, however, upon more dangerous
+ground when, passing wholly by the political insinuation against
+himself, he roundly charged Hobbes with having written <i>Leviathan</i>
+in support of Oliver&rsquo;s title, and deserted his royal master in distress.
+Hobbes seems to have been fairly bewildered by the rush and whirl
+of sarcasm with which Wallis drove him anew from every mathematical
+position he had ever taken up, and did not venture forth
+into the field of scientific controversy again for some years, when
+he had once followed up the physical dialogue of 1661 by seven
+shorter ones, with the inevitable appendix, entitled <i>Problemata
+physica, una cum magnitudine circuli</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iv. 297-384), in 1662.<a name="fa18e" id="fa18e" href="#ft18e"><span class="sp">18</span></a>
+But all the more eagerly did he take advantage of Wallis&rsquo;s loose
+calumny to strike where he felt himself safe. His answer to
+the personal charges took the form of a letter about himself in the
+third person addressed to Wallis in 1662, under the title of <i>Considerations
+upon the Reputation, Loyalty,	 Manners and Religion of Thomas
+Hobbes</i> (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 409-440). In this piece, which is of great biographical
+value, he told his own and Wallis&rsquo;s &ldquo;little stories during
+the time of the late rebellion&rdquo; with such effect that Wallis, like a
+wise man, attempted no further reply. Thus ended the second bout.</p>
+
+<p>After a time Hobbes took heart again and began a third period
+of controversial activity, which did not end, on his side, till his
+ninetieth year. Little need be added to the simple catalogue of the
+untiring old man&rsquo;s labours in this last stage of his life. The first
+piece, published in 1666, <i>De principiis et ratiocinatione geometrarum</i>
+(<i>L.W.</i> iv. 385-484), was designed, as the sub-title declared,
+to lower the pride of geometrical professors by showing that there
+was no less uncertainty and error in their works than in those of
+physical or ethical writers. Wallis replied shortly in the <i>Philosophical
+Transactions</i> (August 1666). Three years later he brought
+his three great achievements together in compendious form, <i>Quadratura
+circuli, Cubatio sphaerae, Duplicatio cubi</i>, and as soon as they
+were once more refuted by Wallis, reprinted them with an answer to
+the objections, in compliment to the grand-duke of Tuscany, who
+paid him attentions on a visit to England in 1669 (<i>L.W.</i> iv. 485-522).
+Wallis, who had promised to leave him alone henceforward, refuted
+him again before the year was out. In 1671 he worked up his
+propositions over again in <i>Rosetum geometricum</i> (<i>L.W.</i> v. 1-50), as a
+fragrant offering to the geometrical reader, appending a criticism
+(<i>Censura brevis</i>, pp. 50-88) on the first part of Wallis&rsquo;s treatise <i>De
+motu</i>, published in 1669; also he sent <i>Three Papers</i> to the Royal
+Society on selected points treated very briefly, and when Wallis,
+still not weary of confuting, shortly replied, published them separately
+with triumphant <i>Considerations on Dr Wallis&rsquo;s Answer to them</i>
+(<i>E.W.</i> vii. 429-448). Next year (1672), having now, as he believed,
+established himself with the Royal Society, he proceeded to complete
+the discomfiture of Wallis by a public address to the Society on all
+the points at issue between them from the beginning, <i>Lux Mathematica
+excussa collisionibus Johannis Wallisii et Thomae Hobbesii</i>
+(<i>L.W.</i> v. 89-150), the light, as the author R. R. (Roseti Repertor)
+added, being here &ldquo;increased by many very brilliant rays.&rdquo; Wallis
+replied in the <i>Transactions</i>, and then finally held his hand. Hobbes&rsquo;s
+energy was not yet exhausted. In 1674, at the age of eighty-six, he
+published his <i>Principia et problemata aliquot geometrica, ante
+desperata nunc breviter explicata et demonstrata</i> (<i>L.W.</i> v. 150-214),
+containing in the chapters dealing with questions of principle not a
+few striking observations, which ought not to be overlooked in the
+study of his philosophy. His last piece of all, <i>Decameron physiologicum</i>
+(<i>E.W.</i> vii. 69-180), in 1678, was a new set of dialogues on
+physical questions, most of which he had treated in a similar fashion
+before; but now, in dealing with gravitation, he was able to fire a
+parting shot at Wallis; and one more demonstration of the equality
+of a straight line to the arc of a circle, thrown in at the end, appropriately
+closed the strangest warfare in which perverse thinker ever
+engaged.<a name="fa19e" id="fa19e" href="#ft19e"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We must now turn back to trace the fortunes of Hobbes and
+his other doings in the last twenty years of his life. All these
+controversial writings on mathematics and physics
+represent but one half of his activity after the age of
+<span class="sidenote">Later Years.</span>
+seventy; though, as regards the other half, it is not
+possible, for a reason that will be seen, to say as definitely
+in what order the works belonging to the period were produced.
+From the time of the Restoration he acquired a new prominence
+in the public eye. No year had passed since the appearance of
+<i>Leviathan</i> without some indignant protest against the influence
+which its trenchant doctrine was calculated to produce upon
+minds longing above everything for civil repose; but after the
+Restoration &ldquo;Hobbism&rdquo; became a fashionable creed, which
+it was the duty of every lover of true morality and religion to
+denounce. Two or three days after Charles&rsquo;s arrival in London,
+Hobbes drew in the street the notice of his former pupil, and
+was at once received into favour. The young king, if he
+had ever himself resented the apparent disloyalty of the
+&ldquo;Conclusion&rdquo; of <i>Leviathan</i>, had not retained the feeling long,
+and could appreciate the principles of the great book when the
+application of them happened, as now, to be turned in his own
+favour. He had, besides, a relish for Hobbes&rsquo;s wit (as he used
+to say, &ldquo;Here comes the bear to be baited&rdquo;), and did not like
+the old man the less because his presence at court scandalized
+the bishops or the prim virtue of Chancellor Hyde. He even
+went the length of bestowing on Hobbes (but not always paying)
+a pension of £100, and had his portrait hung up in the royal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span>
+closet. These marks of favour, naturally, did not lessen Hobbes&rsquo;s
+self-esteem, and perhaps they explain, in his later writings, a
+certain slavishness toward the regal authority, which is wholly
+absent from his rational demonstration of absolutism in the
+earlier works. At all events Hobbes was satisfied with the rule
+of a king who had appreciated the author of <i>Leviathan</i>, and
+protected him when, after a time, protection in a very real sense
+became necessary. His eagerness to defend himself against
+Wallis&rsquo;s imputation of disloyalty, and his apologetic dedication
+of the <i>Problemata physica</i> to the king, are evidence of the
+hostility with which he was being pressed as early as 1662;
+but it was not till 1666 that he felt himself seriously in danger.
+In that year the Great Fire of London, following on the Great
+Plague, roused the superstitious fears of the people, and the
+House of Commons embodied the general feeling in a bill against
+atheism and profaneness. On the 17th of October it was ordered
+that the committee to which the bill was referred &ldquo;should be
+empowered to receive information touching such books as tend
+to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness, or against the essence
+and attributes of God, and in particular the book published
+in the name of one White,<a name="fa20e" id="fa20e" href="#ft20e"><span class="sp">20</span></a> and the book of Mr Hobbes called
+the <i>Leviathan</i>, and to report the matter with their opinion to
+the House.&rdquo; Hobbes, then verging upon eighty, was terrified
+at the prospect of being treated as a heretic, and proceeded to
+burn such of his papers as he thought might compromise him.
+At the same time he set himself, with a very characteristic
+determination, to inquire into the actual state of the law of
+heresy. The results of his investigation were first announced
+in three short Dialogues added (in place of the old &ldquo;Review and
+Conclusion,&rdquo; for which the day had passed) as an Appendix to
+his Latin translation of <i>Leviathan</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iii.), included with the
+general collection of his works published at Amsterdam in 1668.
+In this appendix, as also in the posthumous tract, published in
+1680, <i>An Historical Narration concerning Heresy and the Punishment
+thereof</i> (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 385-408), he aimed at showing that,
+since the High Court of Commission had been put down, there
+remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable,
+and that even when it stood nothing was to be declared heresy
+but what was at variance with the Nicene Creed, as he maintained
+the doctrine of <i>Leviathan</i> was not.</p>
+
+<p>The only consequence that came of the parliamentary scare
+was that Hobbes could never afterwards get permission to print
+anything on subjects relating to human conduct. The collected
+edition of his Latin works (in two quarto volumes) appeared at
+Amsterdam in 1668, because he could not obtain the censor&rsquo;s
+licence for its publication at London, Oxford or Cambridge.
+Other writings which he had finished, or on which he must have
+been engaged about this time, were not made public till after
+his death&mdash;the king apparently having made it the price of his
+protection that no fresh provocation should be offered to the
+popular sentiment. The most important of the works composed
+towards 1670, and thus kept back, is the extremely spirited
+dialogue to which he gave the title <i>Behemoth: the History of the
+Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and
+Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the
+year 1660</i>.<a name="fa21e" id="fa21e" href="#ft21e"><span class="sp">21</span></a> To the same period probably belongs the unfinished
+<i>Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws
+of England</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vi. 1-160), a trenchant criticism of the constitutional
+theory of English government as upheld by Coke.
+Aubrey takes credit for having tried to induce Hobbes to write
+upon the subject in 1664 by presenting him with a copy of Bacon&rsquo;s
+<i>Elements of the Laws of England</i>, and though the attempt was
+then unsuccessful, Hobbes later on took to studying the statute-book,
+with <i>Coke upon Littleton</i>. One other posthumous production
+also (besides the tract on Heresy before mentioned) may
+be referred to this, if not, as Aubrey suggests, an earlier time&mdash;the
+two thousand and odd elegiac verses in which he gave his
+view of ecclesiastical encroachment on the civil power; the
+quaint verses, disposed in his now favourite dialogue-form, were
+first published, nine years after his death, under the title <i>Historia
+ecclesiastica</i> (<i>L.W.</i> v. 341-408), with a preface by Thomas
+Rymer.</p>
+
+<p>For some time Hobbes was not even allowed to utter a word
+of protest, whatever might be the occasion that his enemies took
+to triumph over him. In 1669 an unworthy follower&mdash;Daniel
+Scargil by name, a fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge&mdash;had
+to recant publicly and confess that his evil life had been the
+result of Hobbist doctrines. In 1674 John Fell, the dean of
+Christ Church, who bore the charges of the Latin translation of
+Anthony Wood&rsquo;s <i>History and Antiquities of the University of
+Oxford</i> (1670), struck out all the complimentary epithets in the
+account of his life, and substituted very different ones; but this
+time the king did suffer him to defend himself by publishing a
+dignified letter (<i>Vit. Auct.</i> pp. xlvii.-l.), to which Fell replied by
+adding to the translation when it appeared a note full of the
+grossest insults. And, amid all his troubles, Hobbes was not
+without his consolations. No Englishman of that day stood in
+the same repute abroad, and foreigners, noble or learned, who
+came to England, never forgot to pay their respects to the old
+man, whose vigour and freshness of intellect no progress of the
+years seemed able to quench. Among these was the grand-duke
+of Tuscany (Ferdinand II.), who took away some works and a
+portrait to adorn the Medicean library.</p>
+
+<p>His pastimes in the latest years were as singular as his labours.
+The autobiography in Latin verse, with its playful humour,
+occasional pathos and sublime self-complacency, was thrown
+off at the age of eighty-four. At eighty-five, in the year 1673, he
+sent forth a translation of four books of the <i>Odyssey</i> (ix.-xii.)
+in rugged but not seldom happily turned English rhymes; and,
+when he found this <i>Voyage of Ulysses</i> eagerly received, he had
+ready by 1675 a complete translation of both <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>
+(<i>E.W.</i> x.), prefaced by a lively dissertation &ldquo;Concerning the
+Virtues of an Heroic Poem,&rdquo; showing his unabated interest in
+questions of literary style. After 1675, he passed his time at his
+patron&rsquo;s seats in Derbyshire, occupied to the last with intellectual
+work in the early morning and in the afternoon hours, which it had
+long been his habit to devote to thinking and to writing. Even as
+late as August 1679 he was promising his publisher &ldquo;somewhat
+to print in English.&rdquo; The end came very soon afterwards. A
+suppression of urine in October, in spite of which he insisted upon
+being conveyed with the family from Chatsworth to Hardwick
+Hall towards the end of November, was followed by a paralytic
+stroke, under which he sank on the 4th of December, in his
+ninety-second year. He lies buried in the neighbouring church
+of Ault Hucknall.</p>
+
+<p>He was tall and erect in figure, and lived on the whole a
+temperate life, though he used to say that he had been drunk
+about a hundred times. His favourite exercise was
+tennis, which he played regularly even after the age of
+<span class="sidenote">Personal characteristics.</span>
+seventy. Socially he was genial and courteous, though
+in argument he occasionally lost his temper. As a friend
+he was generous and loyal. Intellectually bold in the extreme, he
+was curiously timid in ordinary life, and is said to have had a
+horror of ghosts. He read little, and often boasted that he
+would have known as little as other men if he had read as much.
+He appears to have had an illegitimate daughter for whom he
+made generous provision. In the National Portrait Gallery
+there is a portrait of him by J. M. Wright, and two others are in
+the possession of the Royal Society.</p>
+
+<p>As already suggested, it cannot be allowed that Hobbes falls
+into any regular succession from Bacon; neither can it be said
+that he handed on the torch to Locke. He was the
+one English thinker of the first rank in the long period
+<span class="sidenote">Place in English thought.</span>
+of two generations separating Locke from Bacon, but,
+save in the chronological sense, there is no true relation
+of succession among the three. It would be difficult even to
+prove any ground of affinity among them beyond a desposition to
+take sense as a prime factor in the account of subjective experience:
+their common interest in physical science was shared
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span>
+equally by rationalist thinkers of the Cartesian school, and was
+indeed begotten of the time. Backwards, Hobbes&rsquo;s relations are
+rather with Galileo and the other inquirers who, from the
+beginning of the 17th century, occupied themselves with the
+physical world in the manner that has come later to be distinguished
+by the name of science in opposition to philosophy.
+But even more than in external nature, Hobbes was interested in
+the phenomena of social life, presenting themselves so impressively
+in an age of political revolution. So it came to pass that,
+while he was unable, by reason of imperfect training and too
+tardy development, with all his pains, to make any contribution
+to physical science or to mathematics as instrumental in physical
+research, he attempted a task which no other adherent of the
+new &ldquo;mechanical philosophy&rdquo; conceived&mdash;nothing less than
+such a universal construction of human knowledge as would
+bring Society and Man (at once the matter and maker of Society)
+within the same principles of scientific explanation as were
+found applicable to the world of Nature. The construction was,
+of course, utterly premature, even supposing it were inherently
+possible; but it is Hobbes&rsquo;s distinction, in his century, to have
+conceived it, and he is thereby lifted from among the scientific
+workers with whom he associated to the rank of those philosophical
+thinkers who have sought to order the whole domain of
+human knowledge. The effects of his philosophical endeavour
+may be traced on a variety of lines. Upon every subject that
+came within the sweep of his system, except mathematics and
+physics, his thoughts have been productive of thought. When
+the first storm of opposition from smaller men had begun to die
+down, thinkers of real weight, beginning with Cumberland and
+Cudworth, were moved by their aversion to his analysis of the
+moral nature of man to probe anew the question of the natural
+springs and the rational grounds of human action; and thus it
+may be said that Hobbes gave the first impulse to the whole of
+that movement of ethical speculation that, in modern times, has
+been carried on with such remarkable continuity in England.
+In politics the revulsion from his <span class="correction" title="amended from particuar">particular</span> conclusions did not
+prevent the more clear-sighted of his opponents from recognizing
+the force of his supreme demonstration of the practical irresponsibility
+of the sovereign power, wherever seated, in the state; and,
+when in a later age the foundations of a positive theory of legislation
+were laid in England, the school of Bentham&mdash;James Mill,
+Grote, Molesworth&mdash;brought again into general notice the
+writings of the great publicist of the 17th century, who, however
+he might, by the force of temperament, himself prefer the rule of
+one, based his whole political system upon a rational regard to
+the common weal. Finally, the psychology of Hobbes, though
+too undeveloped to guide the thoughts or even perhaps arrest
+the attention of Locke, when essaying the scientific analysis of
+knowledge, came in course of time (chiefly through James Mill)
+to be connected with the theory of associationism developed
+from within the school of Locke, in different ways, by Hartley
+and Hume; nor is it surprising that the later associationists,
+finding their principle more distinctly formulated in the earlier
+thinker, should sometimes have been betrayed into affiliating
+themselves to Hobbes rather than to Locke. For his ethical
+theories see Ethics.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Sufficient information is given in the <i>Vitae Hobbianae auctarium</i>
+(<i>L.W.</i> i. p. lxv. ff.) concerning the frequent early editions of Hobbes&rsquo;s
+separate works, and also concerning the works of those who wrote
+against him, to the end of the 17th century. In the 18th century,
+after Clarke&rsquo;s <i>Boyle Lectures</i> of 1704-1705, the opposition was less
+express. In 1750 <i>The Moral and Political Works</i> were collected, with
+life, &amp;c., by Dr Campbell, in a folio edition, including in order,
+<i>Human Nature</i>, <i>De corpore politico</i>, <i>Leviathan</i>, <i>Answer to Bramhall&rsquo;s
+Catching of the Leviathan</i>, <i>Narration concerning Heresy</i>, <i>Of Liberty
+and Necessity</i>, <i>Behemoth</i>, <i>Dialogue of the Common Laws</i>, the Introduction
+to the <i>Thucydides</i>, <i>Letter to Davenant and two others</i>, the Preface
+to the <i>Homer</i>, <i>De mirabilibus Pecci</i> (with English translation), <i>Considerations
+on the Reputation, &amp;., of T. H.</i> In 1812 the <i>Human
+Nature</i> and the <i>Liberty and Necessity</i> (with supplementary extracts
+from the <i>Questions</i> of 1656) were reprinted in a small edition of 250
+copies, with a meritorious memoir (based on Campbell) and dedication
+to Horne Tooke, by Philip Mallet. Molesworth&rsquo;s edition (1839-1845),
+dedicated to Grote, has been referred to in a former note. Of
+translations may be mentioned <i>Les Élémens philosophiques du
+citoyen</i> (1649) and <i>Le Corps politique</i> (1652), both by S. de Sorbière,
+conjoined with <i>Le Traité de la nature humaine</i>, by d&rsquo;Holbach, in
+1787, under the general title <i>Les &OElig;uvres philosophiques et politiques de
+Thomas Hobbes</i>; a translation of the first section, &ldquo;Computatio sive
+logica,&rdquo; of the <i>De corpore</i>, included by Destutt de Tracy with his
+<i>Élémens d&rsquo;idéologie</i> (1804); a translation of <i>Leviathan</i> into Dutch in
+1678, and another (anonymous) into German&mdash;<i>Des Engländers Thomas
+Hobbes Leviathan oder der kirchliche und bürgerliche Staat</i> (Halle, 1794,
+2 vols.); a translation of the <i>De cive</i> by J. H. v. Kirchmann&mdash;<i>T.
+Hobbes: Abhandlung über den Bürger, &amp;c.</i> (Leipzig, 1873). Important
+later editions are those of Ferdinand Tönnies, <i>Behemoth</i>
+(1889), on which see Croom Robertson&rsquo;s <i>Philosophical Remains</i> (1894),
+p. 451; <i>Elements of Law</i> (1889).</p>
+
+<p><i>Biographical and Critical Works.</i>&mdash;There are three accounts of
+Hobbes&rsquo;s life, first published together in 1681, two years after his
+death, by R. B. (Richard Blackbourne, a friend of Hobbes&rsquo;s admirer,
+John Aubrey), and reprinted, with complimentary verses by Cowley
+and others, at the beginning of Sir W. Molesworth&rsquo;s collection of the
+<i>Latin Works</i>: (1) <i>T. H. Malmesb. vita</i> (pp. xiii.-xxi.), written by
+Hobbes himself, or (as also reported) by T. Rymer, at his dictation;
+(2) <i>Vitae Hobbianae auctarium</i> (pp. xxii.-lxxx.), turned into Latin from
+Aubrey&rsquo;s English; (3) <i>T. H. Malmesb. vita carmine expressa</i> (pp. lxxxi.-xcix.),
+written by Hobbes at the age of eighty-four (first published
+by itself in 1680). The <i>Life of Mr T. H. of Malmesburie</i>, printed
+among the <i>Lives of Eminent Men</i>, in 1813, from Aubrey&rsquo;s papers in
+the Bodleian, &amp;c. (vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 593-637), contains some interesting
+particulars not found in the <i>Auctarium</i>. All that is of any
+importance for Hobbes&rsquo;s life is contained in G. Croom Robertson&rsquo;s
+<i>Hobbes</i> (1886) in Blackwood&rsquo;s Philosophical Classics, and Sir Leslie
+Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Hobbes</i> (1904) in the &ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo; series,
+both of which deal fully with his philosophy also. See also F.
+Tönnies, <i>Hobbes Leben und Lehre</i> (1896), <i>Hobbes-Analekten</i> (1904
+foll.); G. Zart, <i>Einfluss der englischen Philosophie seit Bacon auf
+die deutsche Philosophie des 18ten Jahrh.</i> (Berlin, 1881); G. Brandt,
+<i>Thomas Hobbes: Grundlinien seiner Philosophie</i> (1895); G. Lyon, <i>La
+Philos. de Hobbes</i> (1893); J. M. Robertson, <i>Pioneer Humanists</i> (1907);
+J. Rickaby, <i>Free Will and Four English Philosophers</i> (1906), pp. 1-72;
+J. Watson, <i>Hedonistic Theories</i> (1895); W. Graham, <i>English
+Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine</i> (1899); W. J. H. Campion,
+<i>Outlines of Lectures on Political Science</i> (1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. C. R.; X.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The translation, under the title <i>Eight Books of the Peloponnesian
+War, written by Thucydides the son of Olorus, interpreted with faith
+and diligence immediately out of the Greek by Thomas Hobbes, secretary
+to the late Earl of Devonshire</i>, appeared in 1628 (or 1629), after
+the death of the earl, to whom touching reference is made in the
+dedication. It reappeared in 1634, with the date of the dedication
+altered, as if then newly written. Though Hobbes claims to have
+performed his work &ldquo;with much more diligence than elegance,&rdquo;
+his version is remarkable as a piece of English writing, but is by no
+means accurate. It fills vols. viii. and ix. in Molesworth&rsquo;s collection
+(11 vols., including index vol.) of Hobbes&rsquo;s <i>English Works</i> (London,
+Bohn, 1839-1845). The volumes of this collection will here be
+cited as E. W. Molesworth&rsquo;s collection of the Latin <i>Opera philosophica</i>
+(5 vols., 1839-1845) will be cited as <i>L.W.</i> The five hundred
+and odd Latin hexameters under the title <i>De mirabilibus Pecci</i>
+(<i>L.W.</i> v. 323-340), giving an account of a short excursion from
+Chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the Derbyshire Peak,
+were written before 1628 (in 1626 or 1627), though not published till
+1636. It was a New Year&rsquo;s present to his patron, who gave him
+£5 in return. A later edition, in 1678, included an English version
+by another hand.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hobbes, in minor works dealing with physical questions (L.W.
+iv. 316; <i>E.W.</i> vii. 112), makes two incidental references to Bacon&rsquo;s
+writings, but never mentions Bacon as he mentions Galileo, Kepler,
+Harvey, and others (<i>De corpore</i>, ep. ded.), among the lights of the
+century. The word &ldquo;Induction,&rdquo; which occurs in only three or four
+passages throughout all his works (and these again minor ones), is
+never used by him with the faintest reminiscence of the import
+assigned to it by Bacon; and, as will be seen, he had nothing but
+scorn for experimental work in physics.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The free English abstract of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Rhetoric</i>, published in
+1681, after Hobbes&rsquo;s death, as <i>The Whole Art of Rhetoric</i> (<i>E.W.</i> vi.
+423-510), corresponds with a Latin version dictated to his young
+pupil. Among Hobbes&rsquo;s papers preserved at Hardwick, where he
+died, there remains the boy&rsquo;s dictation-book, interspersed with
+headings, examples, &amp;c. in Hobbes&rsquo;s hand.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Among the Hardwick papers there is preserved a MS. copy of
+the work, under the title <i>Elementes of Law Naturall and Politique</i>,
+with the dedication to the earl of Newcastle, written in Hobbes&rsquo;s
+own hand, and dated May 9, 1640. This dedication was prefixed
+to the first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves,
+under the title <i>Human Nature</i> in 1650.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The book, of which the copies are rare (one in Dr Williams&rsquo;s
+library in London and one in the Bodleian), was printed in quarto
+size (Paris, 1642), with a pictorial title-page (not afterwards reproduced)
+of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions, &ldquo;Libertas,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Imperium,&rdquo; &ldquo;Religio.&rdquo; The title <i>Elementorum philosophiae
+sectio tertia, De Cive</i>, expresses its relation to the unwritten
+sections, which also comes out in one or two back-references in
+the text.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>L.W.</i> ii. 133-134. In this first public edition (12mo), the title
+was changed to <i>Elementa philosophica de cive</i>, the references in the
+text to the previous sections being omitted. The date of the dedication
+to the young earl of Devonshire was altered from 1641 to
+1646.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Described as &ldquo;nobilis Languedocianus&rdquo; in <i>Vit.</i>; doubtless the
+same with the &ldquo;Dominus Verdusius, nobilis Aquitanus,&rdquo; to whom
+was dedicated the <i>Exam. et emend. math. hod.</i> (<i>L.W.</i> iv.) in 1660.
+Du Verdus was one of Hobbes&rsquo;s profoundest admirers and most
+frequent correspondents in later years; there are many of his letters
+among Hobbes&rsquo;s papers at Hardwick.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>The Human Nature</i> corresponds with cc. i.-xiii. of the first part
+of the original treatise. The remaining six chapters of the part
+stand now as Part I. of the <i>De Corpore Politico</i>. Part II. of the
+<i>D.C.P.</i> corresponds with the original second part of the whole work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> At the beginning of this year he wrote and published in Paris a
+letter on the nature and conditions of poetry, chiefly epic, in answer
+to an appeal to his judgment made in the preface to Sir W.
+Davenant&rsquo;s heroic poem, <i>Gondibert</i> (<i>E.W.</i> iv. 441-458). The letter
+is dated Jan. 10, 1650 (1650/1).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> This presentation copy, so described by Clarendon (<i>Survey of the
+Leviathan</i>, 1676, p. 8), is doubtless the beautifully written and finely
+bound MS. now to be found in the British Museum (Egerton MSS.
+1910).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> During all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive
+from his patron a yearly pension of £80, and they remained in steady,
+correspondence. The earl, having sided with the king in 1642, was
+declared unfit to sit in the House of Peers, and though, by submission
+to Parliament, he recovered his estates when they were sequestered
+later on, he did not sit again till 1660. Among Hobbes&rsquo;s friends at
+this time are specially mentioned John Selden and William Harvey,
+who left him a legacy of £10. According to Aubrey, Selden left him
+an equal bequest, but this seems to be a mistake. Harvey (not
+Bacon) is the only Englishman he mentions in the dedicatory
+epistle prefixed to the <i>De corpore</i>, among the founders, before
+himself, of the new natural philosophy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The treatise bore the date, &ldquo;Rouen, Aug. 20, 1652,&rdquo; but it
+should have been 1646, as afterwards explained by Hobbes himself
+(<i>E.W.</i> v. 25).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> &ldquo;The <i>Vit. auct.</i> refers to 1676, a &lsquo;Letter to William duke of
+Newcastle on the Controversy about Liberty and Necessity, held with
+Benjamin Laney, bishop of Ely.&rsquo; In that year there did appear
+a (confused) little tract written by Laney against Hobbes&rsquo;s concluding
+statement of his own &lsquo;Opinion&rsquo; in the &lsquo;Liberty and Necessity&rsquo;
+of 1654 (1646), but I can find no trace of any further writing by
+Hobbes on the subject&rdquo; (G. Croom Robertson, <i>Hobbes</i>, p. 202).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> This translation, <i>Concerning Body</i>, though not made by Hobbes,
+was revised by him; but it is far from accurate, and not seldom, at
+critical places (<i>e.g.</i> c. vi. § 2), quite misleading. Philosophical
+citations from the <i>De corpore</i> should always be made in the original
+Latin. Molesworth reprints the Latin, not from the first edition of
+1655, but from the modified edition of 1668&mdash;modified, in the
+mathematical chapters, in general (not exact) keeping with the
+English edition of 1656. The Vindex episode, referred to in the
+<i>Six Lessons</i>, becomes intelligible only by going beyond Molesworth
+to the original Latin edition of 1655.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> They were composed originally, in a somewhat different and
+rather more extended form, as the second part of an English treatise
+on Optics, completed by the year 1646. Of this treatise, preserved
+in Harleian MSS. 3360, Molesworth otherwise prints the dedication
+to the marquis of Newcastle, and the concluding paragraphs (<i>E.W.</i>
+vii. 467-471).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>L.W.</i> iv. 1-232. The propositions on the circle, forty-six in
+number (shattered by Wallis in 1662), were omitted by Hobbes when
+he republished the <i>Dialogues</i> in 1668, in the collected edition of his
+Latin works from which Molesworth reprints. In the part omitted,
+at p. 154 of the original edition, Hobbes refers to his first introduction
+to Euclid, in a way that confirms the story in Aubrey quoted in an
+earlier paragraph.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17e" id="ft17e" href="#fa17e"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Remaining at Oxford, Wallis, in fact, took no active part in the
+constitution of the new society, but he had been, from 1645, one of the
+originators of an earlier association in London, thus continued or
+revived. This earlier society had been continued also at Oxford after
+the year 1649, when Wallis and others of its members received
+appointments there.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18e" id="ft18e" href="#fa18e"><span class="fn">18</span></a> The <i>Problemata physica</i> was at the same time put into English
+(with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical appendix),
+and presented to the king, to whom the work was dedicated in a
+remarkable letter apologizing for <i>Leviathan</i>. In its English form,
+as <i>Seven Philosophical Problems and Two Propositions of Geometry</i>
+(<i>E.W.</i> vii. 1-68), the work was first published in 1682, after Hobbes&rsquo;s
+death.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19e" id="ft19e" href="#fa19e"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Wallis&rsquo;s pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his
+works (1693-1697), and have become extremely rare.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20e" id="ft20e" href="#fa20e"><span class="fn">20</span></a> The De medio animarum statu of Thomas White, a heterodox
+Catholic priest, who contested the natural immortality of the soul.
+White (who died 1676) and Hobbes were friends.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21e" id="ft21e" href="#fa21e"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>E.W.</i> vi. 161-418. Though <i>Behemoth</i> was kept back at the
+king&rsquo;s express desire, it saw the light, without Hobbes&rsquo;s leave, in
+1679, before his death.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBBY,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a small horse, probably from early quotations, of
+Irish breed, trained to an easy gait so that riding was not fatiguing.
+The common use of the word is for a favourite pursuit or
+occupation, with the idea either of excessive devotion or of
+absence of ulterior motive or of profit, &amp;c., outside the occupation
+itself. This use is probably not derived from the easy ambling
+gait of the Irish &ldquo;hobby,&rdquo; but from the &ldquo;hobby-horse,&rdquo; the
+mock horse of the old morris-dances, made of a painted wooden
+horse&rsquo;s head and tail, with a framework casing for an actor&rsquo;s
+body, his legs being covered by a cloth made to represent the
+&ldquo;housings&rdquo; of the medieval tilting-horse. A hobby or hobby-horse
+is thus a toy, a diversion. The O. Fr. <i>hobin</i>, or <i>hobi</i>, Mod.
+<i>aubin</i>, and Ital. <i>ubina</i> are probably adaptations of the English,
+according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>. The O. Fr. hober, to
+move, which is often taken to be the origin of all these words, is
+the source of a use of &ldquo;hobby&rdquo; for a small kind of falcon, <i>falco
+subbuteo</i>, used in hawking.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1819-1904),
+English judge, fourth son of Henry Hobhouse, permanent
+under-secretary of state in the Home Office, was born at Hadspen,
+Somerset, on the 10th of November 1819. Educated at Eton
+and Balliol, he was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1845,
+and rapidly acquired a large practice as a conveyancer and
+equity draftsman; he became Q.C. in 1862, and practised in the
+Rolls Court, retiring in 1866. He was an active member of the
+charity commission and urged the appropriation of pious bequests
+to educational and other purposes. In 1872 he began a five
+years&rsquo; term of service as legal member of the council of the
+governor-general of India, his services being acknowledged by
+a K.C.S.I.; and in 1881 he was appointed a member of the
+judicial committee of the privy council, on which he served for
+twenty years. He was made a peer in 1885, and consistently
+supported the Liberal party in the House of Lords. He died on
+the 6th of December 1904, leaving no heir to the barony.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His papers read before the Social Science Association on the subject
+of property were collected in 1880 under the title of <i>The Dead Hand</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBOKEN,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a small town of Belgium on the right bank of the
+Scheldt about 4 m. above Antwerp. It is only important on
+account of the shipbuilding yard which the Cockerill firm of
+Seraing has established at Hoboken. Many wealthy Antwerp
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span>
+merchants have villas here, and it is the headquarters of several
+of the leading rowing clubs on the Scheldt. Pop. (1904) 12,816.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBOKEN,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on
+the Hudson river, adjoining Jersey City on the S. and W. and
+opposite New York city, with which it is connected by ferries
+and by two subway lines through tunnels under the river. Pop.
+(1890) 43,648; (1900) 59,364, of whom 21,380 were foreign-born,
+10,843 being natives of Germany; (1910 census) 70,324.
+Of the total population in 1900, 48,349 had either one or both
+parents foreign-born, German being the principal racial element.
+The city is served by the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lackawanna
+&amp; Western railways, being the eastern terminus of the
+latter, and is connected by electric railway with the neighbouring
+cities of north-eastern New Jersey. In Hoboken are the piers of
+the North German Lloyd, the Hamburg American, the Netherlands
+American, the Scandinavian and the Phoenix steamship
+lines. Hoboken occupies a little more than 1 sq. m. and lies
+near the foot of the New Jersey Palisades, which rise both on the
+W. and N. to a height of nearly 200 ft. Much of its surface has
+had to be filled in to raise it above high tide, but Castle Point, in
+the N.E., rises from the generally low level about 100 ft. On this
+Point are the residence and private estate of the founder of the
+city, John Stevens (1749-1838), Hudson Park, and facing it the
+Stevens Institute of Technology, an excellent school of mechanical
+engineering endowed by Edwin A. Stevens (1795-1868), son of
+John Stevens, opened in 1871, and having in 1909-1910 34
+instructors and 390 students. The institute owes much to its
+first president, Henry Morton (1836-1902), a distinguished
+scientist, whose aim was &ldquo;to offer a course of instruction in
+which theory and practice were carefully balanced and thoroughly
+combined,&rdquo; and who gave to the institute sums aggregating
+$175,000 (see <i>Morton Memorial, History of Stevens Institute</i>, ed.
+by Furman, 1905). In connexion with the institute there is a
+preparatory department, the Stevens School (1870). The city
+maintains a teachers&rsquo; training school. Among the city&rsquo;s prominent
+buildings are the Delaware, Lackawanna &amp; Western
+station, the Hoboken Academy (1860), founded by German
+Americans, and the public library. The city has an extensive
+coal trade and numerous manufactures, among which are lead
+pencils, leather goods, silk goods, wall-paper and caskets. The
+value of the manufactured product increased from $7,151,391 in
+1890 to $12,092,872 in 1900, or 69.1%. The factory product
+in 1905 was valued at $14,077,305, an increase of 34.3% over
+that for 1900. The site of Hoboken (originally &ldquo;Hobocanhackingh,&rdquo;
+the place of the tobacco pipe) was occupied about
+1640 as a Dutch farm, but in 1643 the stock and all the buildings
+except a brew-house were destroyed by the Indians. In 1711
+title to the place was acquired by Samuel Bayard, a New York
+merchant, who built on Castle Point his summer residence.
+During the War of Independence his descendant, William
+Bayard, was a loyalist, and his home was burned and his estate
+confiscated. In 1784 the property was purchased by John Stevens,
+the inventor, who in 1804 laid it out as a town. For the next
+thirty-five years its &ldquo;Elysian Fields&rdquo; were a famous pleasure
+resort of New York City. Hoboken was incorporated as a town in
+1849 and as a city in 1855. On the 30th of June 1900 the wharves
+of the North German Lloyd Steamship Company and three
+of its ocean liners were almost completely destroyed by a fire,
+which caused a loss of more than 200 lives and over $5,000,000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBSON&rsquo;S CHOICE,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;this or nothing,&rdquo; an expression that
+arose from the fact that the Cambridge-London carrier, Thomas
+Hobson (1544-1630), refused, when letting his horses on hire, to
+allow any animal to leave the stable out of its turn. Among
+other bequests made by Hobson, and commemorated by Milton,
+was a conduit for the Cambridge market-place, for which he
+provided the perpetual maintenance. See <i>Spectator</i>, No. 509
+(14th of October 1712).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOBY, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1530-1566), English diplomatist and
+translator, son of William Hoby of Leominster, was born in 1530.
+He entered St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, in 1545, but in 1547
+he went to Strassburg, where he was the guest of Martin Bucer,
+whose <i>Gratulation ... unto the Church of Englande for the
+restitution of Christes Religion</i> he translated into English. He
+then proceeded to Italy, visiting Padua and Venice, Florence and
+Siena, and in May 1550 he had settled at Rome, when he was
+summoned by his half-brother, Sir Philip Hoby (1505-1558),
+then ambassador at the emperor&rsquo;s court, to Augsburg. The
+brothers returned to England at the end of the year, and Thomas
+attached himself to the service of the marquis of Northampton,
+whom he accompanied to France on an embassy to arrange a
+marriage between Edward VI. and the princess Elizabeth.
+Shortly after he returned to England he started once more for
+Paris, and in 1552 he was engaged on his translation of <i>The
+Courtyer of Count Baldessar Castilio</i>. His work was probably
+completed in 1554, and the freedom of the allusions to the
+Roman church probably accounts for the fact that it was withheld
+from publication until 1561. The <i>Cortegiano</i> of Baldassare
+Castiglione, which Dr Johnson called &ldquo;the best book that ever
+was written upon good breeding,&rdquo; is a book as entirely typical of
+the Italian Renaissance as Machiavelli&rsquo;s <i>Prince</i> in another
+direction. It exercised an immense influence on the standards
+of chivalry throughout Europe, and was long the recognized
+authority for the education of a nobleman. The accession of
+Mary made it desirable for the Hobys to remain abroad, and they
+were in Italy until the end of 1555. Thomas Hoby married in
+1558 Elizabeth, the learned daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, who
+wrote a Latin epitaph on her husband. He was knighted in 1566
+by Elizabeth, and was sent to France as English ambassador.
+He died on the 13th of July in the same year in Paris, and was
+buried in Bisham Church.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Sir Edward Hoby</span> (1560-1617), enjoyed Elizabeth&rsquo;s
+favour, and he was employed on various confidential missions.
+He was constable of Queenborough Castle, Kent, where he died
+on the 1st of March 1617. He took part in the religious controversies
+of the time, publishing many pamphlets against Theophilus
+Higgons and John Fludd or Floyd. He translated, from
+the French of Mathieu Coignet, <i>Politique Discourses on Trueth and
+Lying</i> (1586).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The authority for Thomas Hoby&rsquo;s biography is a MS. &ldquo;Booke of
+the Travaile and lief of me Thomas Hoby, with diverse things worth
+the noting.&rdquo; This was edited for the Royal Historical Society by
+Edgar Powell in 1902. Hoby&rsquo;s translation of <i>The Courtyer</i> was edited
+(1900) by Professor Walter Raleigh for the &ldquo;Tudor Translations&rdquo;
+series.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOCHE, LAZARE<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1768-1797), French general, was born
+of poor parents near Versailles on the 24th of June 1768. At
+sixteen years of age he enlisted as a private soldier in the <i>Gardes
+françaises</i>. He spent his entire leisure in earning extra pay by
+civil work, his object being to provide himself with books, and
+this love of study, which was combined with a strong sense of
+duty and personal courage, soon led to his promotion. When
+the <i>Gardes françaises</i> were broken up in 1789 he was a corporal,
+and thereafter he served in various line regiments up to the time
+of his receiving a commission in 1792. In the defence of Thionville
+in that year Hoche earned further promotion, and he served
+with credit in the operations of 1792-1793 on the northern
+frontier of France. At the battle of Neerwinden he was aide-de-camp
+to General le Veneur, and when Dumouriez deserted
+to the Austrians, Hoche, along with le Veneur and others, fell
+under suspicion of treason; but after being kept under arrest
+and unemployed for some months he took part in the defence
+of Dunkirk, and in the same year (1793) he was promoted
+successively <i>chef de brigade</i>, general of brigade, and general of
+division. In October 1793 he was provisionally appointed to
+command the Army of the Moselle, and within a few weeks he
+was in the field at the head of his army in Lorraine. His first
+battle was that of Kaiserslautern (28th-30th of November)
+against Prussians. The French were defeated, but even in the
+midst of the Terror the Committee of Public Safety continued
+Hoche in his command. Pertinacity and fiery energy in their
+eyes outweighed everything else, and Hoche soon showed that
+he possessed these qualities. On the 22nd of December he stormed
+the lines of Fröschweiler, and the representatives of the Convention
+with his army at once added the Army of the Rhine
+to his sphere of command. On the 26th of December the French
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span>
+carried by assault the famous lines of Weissenburg, and Hoche
+pursued his success, sweeping the enemy before him to the middle
+Rhine in four days. He then put his troops into winter quarters.
+Before the following campaign opened, he married Anne Adelaïde
+Dechaux at Thionville (March 11th, 1794). But ten days later
+he was suddenly arrested, charges of treason having been preferred
+by Pichegru, the displaced commander of the Army
+of the Rhine, and by his friends. Hoche escaped execution,
+however, though imprisoned in Paris until the fall of Robespierre.
+Shortly after his release he was appointed to command against
+the Vendéans (21st of August 1794). He completed the work
+of his predecessors in a few months by the peace of Jaunaye
+(15th of February 1795), but soon afterwards the war was
+renewed by the Royalists. Hoche showed himself equal to the
+crisis and inflicted a crushing blow on the Royalist cause by
+defeating and capturing de Sombreuil&rsquo;s expedition at Quiberon
+and Penthièvre (16th-21st of July 1795). Thereafter, by means
+of mobile columns (which he kept under good discipline) he
+succeeded before the summer of 1796 in pacifying the whole of
+the west, which had for more than three years been the scene
+of a pitiless civil war. After this he was appointed to organize
+and command the troops destined for the invasion of Ireland,
+and he started on this enterprise in December 1796. A tempest,
+however, separated Hoche from the expedition, and after various
+adventures the whole fleet returned to Brest without having
+effected its purpose. Hoche was at once transferred to the
+Rhine frontier, where he defeated the Austrians at Neuwied
+(April), though operations were soon afterwards brought to an
+end by the Preliminaries of Leoben. Later in 1797 he was
+minister of war for a short period, but in this position he was
+surrounded by obscure political intrigues, and, finding himself
+the dupe of Barras and technically guilty of violating the
+constitution, he quickly laid down his office, returning to his
+command on the Rhine frontier. But his health grew rapidly
+worse, and he died at Wetzlar on the 19th of September 1797
+of consumption. The belief was widely spread that he had been
+poisoned, but the suspicion seems to have been without foundation.
+He was buried by the side of his friend Marceau in a fort
+on the Rhine, amidst the mourning not only of his army but of
+all France.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Privat, <i>Notions historiques sur la vie morale, politique et
+militaire du général Hoche</i> (Strassburg, 1798); Daunou, <i>Éloge du
+général Hoche</i> (1798), delivered on behalf of the Institut at Hoche&rsquo;s
+funeral; Rousselin, <i>Vie de Lazare Hoche, général des armées de la
+république française</i> (Paris, 1798; this work was printed at the
+public expense and distributed to the schools); Dubroca, <i>Éloge
+funèbre du général Hoche</i> (Paris, 1800); <i>Vie et pensées du général
+Hoche</i> (Bern); Champrobert, <i>Notice historique sur Lazare Hoche, le
+pacificateur de la Vendée</i> (Paris, 1840); Dourille, <i>Histoire de Lazare
+Hoche</i> (Paris, 1844); Desprez, <i>Lazare Hoche d&rsquo;après sa correspondance</i>
+(Paris, 1858; new ed., 1880); Bergounioux, <i>Essai sur la vie
+de Lazare Hoche</i> (1852); É. de Bonnechose, <i>Lazare Hoche</i> (1867);
+H. Martin, <i>Hoche et Bonaparte</i> (1875); Dutemple, <i>Vie politique et
+militaire du général Hoche</i> (1879); Escaude, <i>Hoche en Irlande</i> (1888);
+Cunéo d&rsquo;Ornano, <i>Hoche</i> (1892); A. Chuquet, <i>Hoche et la lutte pour
+l&rsquo;Alsace</i> (a volume of this author&rsquo;s series on the campaigns of the
+Revolution, 1893); E. Charavaray, <i>Le Général Hoche</i> (1893); A.
+Duruy, <i>Hoche et Marceau</i> (1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOCHHEIM,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Hesse-Nassau, situated on an elevation not far from the
+right bank of the Main, 3 m. above its influx into the Rhine and
+3 m. E. of Mainz by the railway from Cassel to Frankfort-on-Main.
+Pop. (1905) 3779. It has an Evangelical and a Roman
+Catholic church, and carries on an extensive trade in wine, the
+English word &ldquo;Hock,&rdquo; the generic term for Rhine wine, being
+derived from its name. Hochheim is mentioned in the chronicles
+as early as the 7th century. It is also memorable as the scene
+of a victory gained here, on the 7th of November 1813 by the
+Austrians over the French.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Schüler, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Hochheim am Main</i> (Hochheim,
+1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÖCHST,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hesse-Nassau on the Main, 6 m. by rail W. of Frankfort-on-Main.
+Pop. (1905) 14,121. It is a busy industrial town with large
+dye-works and manufactures of machinery, snuff, tobacco,
+waxcloth, gelatine, furniture and biscuits. Brewing is carried
+on and there is a considerable river trade. The Roman Catholic
+church of St Justinus is a fine basilica originally built in the
+9th century; it has been restored several times, and a Gothic
+choir was added in the 15th century. The town has also an
+Evangelical church and a synagogue, and a statue of Bismarck
+by Alois Mayer. Höchst belonged formerly to the electors of
+Mainz who had a palace here; this was destroyed in 1634 with
+the exception of one fine tower which still remains. In 1622
+Christian, duke of Brunswick, was defeated here by Count
+Tilly, and in 1795 the Austrians gained a victory here over
+the French.</p>
+
+<p>Höchst is also the name of a small town in Hesse. This has
+some manufactures, and was formerly the seat of a Benedictine
+monastery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÖCHSTÄDT,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of Bavaria, Germany, in the district of
+Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 34 m. N.E. of Ulm by
+rail. Pop. (1905) 2305. It has three Roman Catholic churches,
+a castle flanked by walls and towers and some small industries,
+including malting and brewing. Höchstädt, which came into
+the possession of Bavaria in 1266, has been a place of battles.
+Here Frederick of Hohenstaufen, vicegerent of the Empire for
+Henry IV., was defeated by Henry&rsquo;s rival, Hermann of Luxemburg,
+in 1081; in 1703 the Imperialists were routed here by
+Marshal Villars in command of the French; in August 1704
+Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the French and
+Bavarians commanded by Max Emanuel, the elector of Bavaria
+and Marshal Tallard, this battle being usually known as that of
+Blenheim; and in June 1800 an engagement took place here
+between the Austrians and the French.</p>
+
+<p>There is another small town in Bavaria named Höchstadt.
+Pop. 2000. This is on the river Aisch, not far from Bamberg, to
+which bishopric it belonged from 1157 to 1802, when it was ceded
+to Bavaria.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span>
+(1829-1884), Austrian geologist, was born at Esslingen, Würtemberg,
+on the 30th of April 1829. He was the son of Christian
+Ferdinand Hochstetter (1787-1860), a clergyman and professor
+at Brünn, who was also a botanist and mineralogist. Having
+received his early education at the evangelical seminary at
+Maulbronn, he proceeded to the university of Tübingen; there
+under F. A. Quenstedt the interest he already felt in geology
+became permanently fixed, and there he obtained his doctor&rsquo;s
+degree and a travelling scholarship. In 1852 he joined the staff
+of the Imperial Geological Survey of Austria and was engaged
+until 1856 in parts of Bohemia, especially in the Böhmerwald, and
+in the Fichtel and Karlsbad mountains. His excellent reports
+established his reputation. Thus he came to be chosen as geologist
+to the Novara expedition (1857-1859), and made numerous
+valuable observations in the voyage round the world. In 1859
+he was engaged by the government of New Zealand to make a
+rapid geological survey of the islands. On his return he was
+appointed in 1860 professor of mineralogy and geology at the
+Imperial Polytechnic Institute in Vienna, and in 1876 he was
+made superintendent of the Imperial Natural History Museum.
+In these later years he explored portions of Turkey and eastern
+Russia, and he published papers on a variety of geological,
+palaeontological and mineralogical subjects. He died at Vienna
+on the 18th of July 1884.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Publications.</span>&mdash;<i>Karlsbad, seine geognostischen Verhältnisse und
+seine Quellen</i> (1858); <i>Neu-Seeland</i> (1863); <i>Geological and Topographical
+Atlas of New Zealand</i> (1864); <i>Leitfaden der Mineralogie
+und Geologie</i> (with A. Bisching) (1876, ed. 8, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOCKEY<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (possibly derived from the &ldquo;hooked&rdquo; stick with
+which it is played; cf. O. Fr. <i>hoquet</i>, shepherd&rsquo;s crook), a game
+played with a ball or some similar object by two opposing sides,
+using hooked or bent sticks, with which each side attempts to
+drive it into the other&rsquo;s goal. In one or more of its variations
+Hockey was known to most northern peoples in both Europe and
+Asia, and the Romans possessed a game of similar nature. It
+was played indiscriminately on the frozen ground or the ice in
+winter. In Scotland it was called &ldquo;shinty,&rdquo; and in Ireland
+&ldquo;hurley,&rdquo; and was usually played on the hard, sandy sea-shore
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span>
+with numerous players on each side. The rules were simple
+and the play very rough.</p>
+
+<p>Modern Hockey, properly so called, is played during the cold
+season on the hard turf, and owes its recent vogue to the formation
+of &ldquo;The Men&rsquo;s Hockey Association&rdquo; in England in 1875.
+The rules drawn up by the Wimbledon Club in 1883 still obtain
+in all essentials. Since 1895 &ldquo;international&rdquo; matches at hockey
+have been played annually between England, Scotland, Ireland
+and Wales; and in 1907 a match was played between England
+and France, won by England by 14 goals to nil. In 1890 Divisional
+Association matches (North, South, West, Midlands) and
+inter-university matches (Oxford and Cambridge) were inaugurated,
+and have since been played annually. County
+matches are also now regularly played in England, twenty-six
+counties competing in 1907. Of other hockey clubs playing
+regular matches in 1907, there were eighty-one in the London
+district, and fifty-nine in the provinces.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:330px; height:536px" src="images/img555a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Diagram of Hockey Field.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>G, Goal.</p>
+<p>RB, Right Back.</p>
+<p>LB, Left Back.</p>
+<p>RH, Right Half.</p>
+<p>CH, Centre Half.</p>
+<p>LH, Left Half.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>RW, Right Wing.</p>
+<p>RI, Inside Right.</p>
+<p>CF, Centre Forward.</p>
+<p>LI, Inside Left.</p>
+<p>LW, Left Wing.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">The game is played by teams of eleven players on a ground 100
+yds. long and 50 to 60 yds. wide. The goals are in the centre of each
+end-line, and consist of
+two uprights 7 ft. high
+surmounted by a horizontal
+bar, enclosing a
+space 12 ft. wide. In
+front of each goal is
+a space enclosed by a
+curved line, its greatest
+diameter from the goal-line
+being 15 ft., called
+the <i>striking-circle</i>. The
+positions of the players
+on each side may be
+seen on the accompanying
+diagram. Two
+umpires, one on each
+side of the centre-line,
+officiate.</p>
+
+<p>The ball is an ordinary
+cricket-ball painted
+white. The stick has a
+hard-wood curved head,
+and a handle of cork
+or wrapped cane. It
+must not exceed 2 in.
+in diameter nor 28 oz.
+in weight. At the start
+of the game, which
+consists of two thirty
+or thirty-five minute
+periods, the two centre-forwards
+&ldquo;bully off&rdquo;
+the ball in the middle
+of the field. In &ldquo;bullying
+off&rdquo; each centre
+must strike the ground
+on his own side of the
+ball three times with
+his stick and strike his
+opponent&rsquo;s stick three
+times alternately; after
+which either may strike
+the ball. Each side
+then endeavours, by means of striking, passing and dribbling,
+to drive the ball into its opponents&rsquo; goal. A player is &ldquo;off
+side&rdquo; if he is nearer the enemy&rsquo;s goal than one of his own side
+who strikes the ball, and he may not strike the ball himself
+until it has been touched by one of the opposing side. The ball
+may be caught (but not held) or stopped by any part of the body,
+but may not be picked up, carried, kicked, thrown or knocked
+except with the stick. An opponent&rsquo;s stick may be hooked, but not
+an opponent&rsquo;s person, which may not be obstructed in any way.
+No left-handed play is allowed. Penalties for infringing rules are of
+two classes; &ldquo;free hits&rdquo; and &ldquo;penalty bullies,&rdquo; to be taken where
+the foul occurred. For flagrant fouls penalty goals may also be
+awarded. A &ldquo;corner&rdquo; occurs when the ball goes behind the goal-line,
+but not into goal. If it is hit by the attacking side, or unintentionally
+by the defenders, it must be brought out 25 yds., in a
+direction at right angles to the goal-line from the point where it
+crossed the line, and there &ldquo;bullied.&rdquo; But if the ball is driven from
+within the 25-yd. line unintentionally behind the goal-line by the
+defenders, a member of the attacking side is given a free hit from a
+point within 3 yds. of a corner flag, the members of the defending side
+remaining behind their goal-line. If the ball is hit intentionally behind
+the goal-line by the attacking side, the free hit is taken from the point
+where the ball went over. No goal can be scored from a free hit directly.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Ice Hockey</i> (or <i>Bandy</i>, to give it its original name) is far more
+popular than ordinary Hockey in countries where there is much
+ice; in fact in America &ldquo;Hockey&rdquo; means Ice Hockey, while
+the land game is called Field Hockey. Ice Hockey in its simplest
+form of driving a ball across a given limit with a stick or club
+has been played for centuries in northern Europe, attaining
+its greatest popularity in the Low Countries, and there are many
+16th- and 17th-century paintings extant which represent games
+of Bandy, the players using an implement formed much like
+a golf club.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In England Bandy is controlled by the &ldquo;National Bandy Association.&rdquo;
+A team consists of eleven players, wearing skates, and the
+proper space for play is 200 yds. by 100 yds. in extent. The ball is of
+solid india-rubber, between 2¼ and 2¾ in. in diameter. The bandies
+are 2 in. in diameter and about 4 ft. long. The goals, placed in the
+centre of each goal-line, consist of two upright posts 7 ft. high and
+12 ft. apart, connected by a lath. A match is begun by the referee
+throwing up the ball in the centre of the field, after which it must not
+be touched other than with the bandy until a goal is scored or the
+ball passes the boundaries of the course, in which case it is hit into
+the field in any direction excepting forward from the point where it
+went out by the player who touched it last. If the ball is hit across
+the goal-line but not into a goal, it is hit out by one of the defenders
+from the point where it went over, the opponents not being allowed
+to approach nearer than 25 yds. from the goal-line while the hit is
+made.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:515px; height:146px" src="images/img555b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Hockey Stick.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In America the development of the modern game is due to the
+Victoria Hockey Club and McGill University (Montreal). About
+1881 the secretary of the former club made the first efforts towards
+drawing up a recognized code of laws, and for some time afterwards
+playing rules were agreed upon from time to time whenever an
+important match was played, the chief teams being, besides those
+already mentioned, the Ottawa, Quebec, Crystal and Montreal
+Hockey Clubs, the first general tournament taking place in 1884.
+Three years later the &ldquo;Amateur Hockey Association of Canada&rdquo;
+was formed, and a definite code of rules drawn up. Soon afterwards,
+in consequence of exhibitions given by the best Canadian teams in
+some of the larger cities of the United States, the new game was
+taken up by American schools, colleges and athletic clubs, and became
+nearly as popular in the northern states as in the Dominion. The
+rules differ widely from those of English Bandy. The rink must be
+at least 112 ft. long by 58 ft. wide, and seven players form a side.
+The goals are 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. high and are provided with goal-nets.
+Instead of the English painted cricket-ball a puck is used,
+made of vulcanized rubber in the form of a draught-stone, 1 in.
+thick, and 3 in. in diameter. The sticks are made of one piece of hard
+wood, and may not be more than 3 in. wide at any part. The game
+is played for two half-hour or twenty-minute periods with an intermission
+of ten minutes. At the beginning of a match, and also when
+a goal has been made, the puck is <i>faced</i>, <i>i.e.</i> it is placed in the middle
+of the rink between the sticks of the two left-centres, and the referee
+calls &ldquo;play.&rdquo; Whichever side then secures the ball endeavours by
+means of passing and dribbling to get the puck into a position from
+which a goal may be <i>shot</i>. The puck may be stopped by any part of
+the person but not carried or knocked except with the stick. No
+stick may be raised above the shoulder except when actually striking
+the puck. When the puck is driven off the rink or behind the goal,
+or a foul has been made behind the goal, it is faced 5 yds. inside the
+rink. The goal-keeper must maintain a standing position.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of Hockey organizations in America, all under
+the jurisdiction of the &ldquo;American Amateur Hockey League&rdquo; in the
+United States and the &ldquo;Canadian Amateur Athletic League&rdquo; in
+Canada.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ice Polo</i>, a winter sport similar to Ice Hockey, is almost exclusively
+played in the New England states. A rubber-covered ball is used and
+the stick is heavier than that used in Ice Hockey. The radical difference
+between the two games is that, in Ice Polo, there is no strict
+off-side rule, so that passes and shots at goal may come from any and
+often the most unexpected direction. Five men constitute a team:
+a goal-tend, a half-back, a centre and two rushers. The rushers must
+be rapid skaters, adepts in dribbling and passing and good goal shots.
+The centre supports the rushers, passing the ball to them or trying
+for goal himself. The half-back is the first defence and the goal-tend
+the last. The rink is 150 ft. long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ring Hockey</i> may be played on the floor of any gymnasium or
+large room by teams of six, comprising a goal-keeper, a quarter, three
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span>
+forwards and a centre. The goals consist of two uprights 3 ft. high
+and 4 ft. apart. The ring, which takes the place of the ball or puck,
+is made of flexible rubber, and is 5 in. in diameter with a 3-in. opening
+through the centre. It weighs between 12 and 16 oz. The stick is
+a wand of light but tough wood, between 36 and 40 in. long, about
+¾ in. in diameter, provided with a 5-in. guard 20 in. from the lower
+end. The method of shooting is to insert the end of the stick in the
+hole of the ring and drive it towards the goal. A goal shot from the
+field counts one point, a goal from a foul ½ point. When a foul is
+called by the referee a player of the opposing side is allowed a free
+shot for goal from any point on the quarter line.</p>
+
+<p><i>Roller Polo</i>, played extensively during the winter months in the
+United States, is practically Ice Polo adapted to the floors of gymnasiums
+and halls, the players, five on a side, wearing roller-skates.
+The first professional league was organized in 1883.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOCK-TIDE,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> an ancient general holiday in England, celebrated
+on the second Monday and Tuesday after Easter Sunday. Hock-Tuesday
+was an important term day, rents being then payable,
+for with Michaelmas it divided the rural year into its winter and
+summer halves. The derivation of the word is disputed: any
+analogy with Ger. <i>hoch</i>, &ldquo;high,&rdquo; being generally denied. No
+trace of the word is found in Old English, and &ldquo;hock-day,&rdquo; its
+earliest use in composition, appears first in the 12th century.
+The characteristic pastime of hock-tide was called binding. On
+Monday the women, on Tuesday the men, stopped all passers
+of the opposite sex and bound them with ropes till they bought
+their release with a small payment, or a rope was stretched across
+the highroads, and the passers were obliged to pay toll. The
+money thus collected seems to have gone towards parish expenses.
+Many entries are found in parish registers under &ldquo;Hocktyde
+money.&rdquo; The hock-tide celebration became obsolete in the
+beginning of the 18th century. At Coventry there was a play
+called &ldquo;The Old Coventry Play of Hock Tuesday.&rdquo; This,
+suppressed at the Reformation owing to the incidental disorder,
+and revived as part of the festivities on Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s visit
+to Kenilworth in July 1575, depicted the struggle between Saxons
+and Danes, and has given colour to the suggestion that hock-tide
+was originally a commemoration of the massacre of the Danes
+on St Brice&rsquo;s Day, the 13th of November <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1002, or of the
+rejoicings at the death of Hardicanute on the 8th of June 1042
+and the expulsion of the Danes. But the dates of these anniversaries
+do not bear this out.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOCUS,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a shortened form of &ldquo;hocus pocus,&rdquo; used in the 17th
+century in the sense of &ldquo;to play a trick on any one,&rdquo; to &ldquo;hoax,&rdquo;
+which is generally taken to be a derivative. &ldquo;Hocus pocus&rdquo;
+appears to have been a mock Latin expression first used as the
+name of a juggler or conjurer. Thus in Ady&rsquo;s <i>Candle in the Dark</i>
+(1655), quoted in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, &ldquo;I will speak of
+one man ... that went about in King James his time ...
+who called himself, The Kings Majesties most excellent Hocus
+Pocus, and so was called, because that at the playing of every
+Trick, he used to say, <i>Hocus pocus, tontus talontus, vade celeriter
+jubeo</i>, a dark composure of words, to blinde the eyes of the
+beholders, to make his Trick pass the more currantly without
+discovery.&rdquo; Tillotson&rsquo;s guess (<i>Sermons</i>, xxvi.) that the phrase
+was a corruption of <i>hoc est corpus</i> and alluded to the words of
+the Eucharist, &ldquo;in ridiculous imitation of the priests of the
+Church of Rome in their trick of Transubstantiation,&rdquo; has
+frequently been accepted as a serious derivation, but has no
+foundation. A connexion with a supposed demon of Scandinavian
+mythology, called &ldquo;Ochus Bochus,&rdquo; is equally unwarranted.
+&ldquo;Hocus&rdquo; is used as a verb, meaning to drug, stupefy with opium,
+&amp;c., for a criminal purpose. This use dates from the beginning
+of the 19th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODDEN<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (a word of unknown origin), a coarse kind of cloth
+made of undyed wool, formerly much worn by the peasantry
+of Scotland. It was usually made on small hand-looms by the
+peasants themselves. Grey hodden was made by mixing black
+and white fleeces together in the proportion of one to twelve
+when weaving.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODDESDON,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary
+division of Hertfordshire, England, near the river Lea, 17 m. N.
+from London by the Great Eastern railway (Broxbourne and
+Hoddesdon station on the Cambridge line). Pop. (1901), 4711.
+This is the northernmost of a series of populous townships
+extending from the suburbs of London along the Lea valley as
+far as its junction with the Stort, which is close to Hoddesdon.
+They are in the main residential. Hoddesdon was a famous
+coaching station on the Old North Road; and the Bull posting-house
+is mentioned in Matthew Prior&rsquo;s &ldquo;Down Hall.&rdquo; The Lea
+has been a favourite resort of anglers (mainly for coarse fish
+in this part) from the time of Izaak Walton, in whose book
+Hoddesdon is specifically named. The church of St Augustine,
+Broxbourne, is a fine example of Perpendicular work, and
+contains interesting monuments, including an altar tomb with
+enamelled brasses of 1473. Hoddesdon probably covers the
+site of a Romano-British village.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODEDA<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (<i>Hodeida</i>, <i>Hadeda</i>), a town in Arabia situated on the
+Red Sea coast 14° 48&prime; N. and 42° 57&prime; E. It lies on a beach
+of muddy sand exposed to the southerly and westerly winds.
+Steamers anchor more than a mile from shore, and merchandize
+has to be transhipped by means of <i>sambuks</i> or native boats.
+But Hodeda has become the chief centre of the maritime trade
+of Turkish Yemen, and has superseded Mokha as the great port
+of export of South Arabian coffee. The town is composed of
+stone-built houses of several storeys, and is surrounded, except
+on the sea face, by a fortified enceinte. The population is estimated
+at 33,000, and contains, besides the Arab inhabitants and
+the Turkish officials and garrison, a considerable foreign element,
+Greeks, Indians and African traders from the opposite coast.
+There are consulates of Great Britain, United States, France,
+Germany, Italy and Greece. The steam tonnage entering and
+clearing the port in 1904 amounted to 78,700 tons, the highest
+hitherto recorded. Regular services are maintained with Aden,
+and with Suez, Massowa and the other Red Sea ports. Large
+dhows bring dates from the Persian Gulf, and occasional steamers
+from Bombay call on their way to Jidda with cargoes of grain.
+The imports for 1904 amounted in value to £467,000, the chief
+items being piece goods, food grains and sugar; the exports
+amounted to £451,000, including coffee valued at £229,000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODENING,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> an ancient Christmas custom still surviving in
+Wales, Kent, Lancashire and elsewhere. A horse&rsquo;s skull or
+a wooden imitation on a pole is carried round by a party of
+youths, one of whom conceals himself under a white cloth to
+simulate the horse&rsquo;s body, holding a lighted candle in the skull.
+They make a house-to-house visitation, begging gratuities.
+The &ldquo;Penitential&rdquo; of Archbishop Theodore (d. 690) speaks of
+&ldquo;any who, on the kalands of January, clothe themselves with
+the skins of cattle and carry heads of animals.&rdquo; This, coupled
+with the fact that among the primitive Scandinavians the horse
+was often the sacrifice made at the winter solstice to Odin for
+success in battle, has been thought to justify the theory that
+hodening is a corruption of Odining.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODGE, CHARLES<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1797-1878), American theologian, was
+born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of December
+1797. He graduated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton)
+in 1815, and in 1819 at the Princeton Theological seminary,
+where he became an instructor in 1820, and the first professor
+of Oriental and Biblical literature in 1822. Meanwhile, in 1821,
+he had been ordained as a Presbyterian minister. From 1826
+to 1828 he studied under de Sacy in Paris, under Gesenius and
+Tholuck in Halle, and under Hengstenberg, Neander and
+Humboldt in Berlin. In 1840 he was transferred to the chair of
+exegetical and didactic theology, to which subjects that of
+polemic theology was added in 1854, and this office he held until
+his death. In 1825 he established the quarterly <i>Biblical Repertory</i>,
+the title of which was changed to <i>Biblical Repertory and
+Theological Review</i> in 1830 and to <i>Biblical Repertory and Princeton
+Review</i> in 1837. With it, in 1840, was merged the <i>Literary
+and Theological Review</i> of New York, and in 1872 the American
+Presbyterian Review of New York, the title becoming <i>Presbyterian
+Quarterly and Princeton Review</i> in 1872 and <i>Princeton Review</i>
+in 1877. He secured for it the position of theological organ of the
+Old School division of the Presbyterian church, and continued
+its principal editor and contributor until 1868, when the Rev.
+Lyman H. Atwater became his colleague. His more important
+essays were republished under the titles <i>Essays and Reviews</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span>
+(1857), <i>Princeton Theological Essays, and Discussions in Church
+Polity</i> (1878). He was moderator of the General Assembly
+(O.S.) in 1846, a member of the committee to revise the <i>Book of
+Discipline</i> of the Presbyterian church in 1858, and president of
+the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1868-1870. The
+24th of April 1872, the fiftieth anniversary of his election to his
+professorship, was observed in Princeton as his jubilee by between
+400 and 500 representatives of his 2700 pupils, and $50,000 was
+raised for the endowment of his chair. He died at Princeton
+on the 19th of June 1878. Hodge was one of the greatest of
+American theologians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides his articles in the <i>Princeton Review</i>, he published a
+<i>Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans</i> (1835, abridged 1836,
+rewritten and enlarged 1864, new ed. 1886), <i>Constitutional History
+of the Presbyterian Church in the United States</i> (2 vols., 1839-1840);
+<i>The Way of Life</i> (1841); <i>Commentaries on Ephesians</i> (1856);
+1 <i>Corinthians</i> (1857); 2 <i>Corinthians</i> (1859); <i>Systematic Theology</i> (3
+vols., 2200 pp., 1871-1873), probably the best of all modern expositions
+of Calvinistic dogmatic; and <i>What is Darwinism</i>? (1874),
+in which he opposed &ldquo;Atheistic Evolutionism.&rdquo; After his death a
+volume of <i>Conference Papers</i> (1879) was published. His life, by his
+son, was published in 1880.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Archibald Alexander Hodge</span> (1823-1886), also
+famous as a Presbyterian theologian, was born at Princeton on
+the 18th of July 1823. He graduated at the College of New Jersey
+in 1841, and at the Princeton Theological seminary in 1846,
+and was ordained in 1847. From 1847 to 1850 he was a missionary
+at Allahabad, India, and was then pastor of churches
+successively at Lower West Nottingham, Maryland (1851-1855);
+at Fredericksburg, Virginia (1855-1861), and at Wilkes-Barré,
+Pennsylvania (1861-1864). From 1864 to 1877 he was professor
+of didactic and polemical theology in the Allegheny Theological
+seminary at Allegheny, Pennsylvania, where he was also from
+1866 to 1877 pastor of the North Church (Presbyterian). In
+1878 he succeeded his father as professor of didactic theology
+at the Princeton seminary. He died on the 11th of November
+1886. Besides writing the biography of his father, he was the
+author of <i>Outlines of Theology</i> (1860, new ed. 1875; enlarged,
+1879); <i>The Atonement</i> (1867); <i>Exposition of the Confession of
+Faith</i> (1869); and <i>Popular Lectures on Theological Themes</i> (1887).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. A. Salmond&rsquo;s <i>Charles and A. A. Hodge</i> (New York, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODGKIN, THOMAS<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1831-&emsp;&emsp;), British historian, son of
+John Hodgkin (1800-1875), barrister, was born in London on
+the 29th of July 1831. Having been educated as a member of
+the Society of Friends and taken the degree of B.A. at London
+University, he became a partner in the banking house of Hodgkin,
+Barnett &amp; Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne, a firm afterwards amalgamated
+with Lloyds&rsquo; Bank. While continuing in business as
+a banker, Hodgkin devoted a good deal of time to historical
+study, and soon became a leading authority on the history of
+the early middle ages, his books being indispensable to all
+students of this period. His chief works are, <i>Italy and her
+Invaders</i> (8 vols., Oxford, 1880-1899); <i>The Dynasty of Theodosius</i>
+(Oxford, 1889); <i>Theodoric the Goth</i> (London, 1891); and an
+introduction to the <i>Letters</i> of Cassiodorus (London, 1886).
+He also wrote a <i>Life of Charles the Great</i> (London, 1897); <i>Life
+of George Fox</i> (Boston, 1896); and the opening volume of
+Longman&rsquo;s <i>Political History of England</i> (London, 1906).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODGKINSON, EATON<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1789-1861), English engineer, the
+son of a farmer, was born at Anderton near Northwich, Cheshire,
+on the 26th of February 1789. After attending school at Northwich,
+he began to help his widowed mother on the farm, but to
+escape from that uncongenial occupation he persuaded her in
+1811 to remove to Manchester and start a pawnbroking business.
+There he made the acquaintance of John Dalton, and began those
+inquiries into the strength of materials which formed the work
+of his life. He was associated with Sir William Fairbairn in an
+important series of experiments on cast iron, and his help was
+sought by Robert Stephenson in regard to the forms and dimensions
+of the tubes for the Britannia bridge. A paper which he
+communicated to the Royal Society on &ldquo;Experimental Researches
+on the Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron and other Materials,&rdquo; in
+1840 gained him a Royal medal in 1841, and he was also elected
+a fellow. In 1847 he was appointed professor of the mechanical
+principles of engineering in University College, London, and at
+the same time he was employed as a member of the Royal Commission
+appointed to inquire into the application of iron to
+railway structures. In 1848 he was chosen president of the
+Manchester Philosophical Society, of which he had been a
+member since 1826, and to which, both previously and subsequently,
+he contributed many of the more important results of
+his discoveries. For several years he took an active part in the
+discussions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, of which he was
+elected an honorary member in 1851. He died at Eaglesfield
+House, near Manchester, on the 18th of June 1861.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1800-1894), English administrator,
+ethnologist and naturalist, was born at Lower
+Beech, Prestbury, Cheshire, on the 1st of February 1800. His
+father, Brian Hodgson, came of a family of country gentlemen,
+and his mother was a daughter of William Houghton of Manchester.
+In 1816 he obtained an East Indian writership. After
+passing through the usual course at Haileybury, he went out to
+India in 1818, and after a brief service at Kumaon as assistant-commissioner
+was in 1820 appointed assistant to the Resident at
+Katmandu, the capital of Nepal. In 1823 he obtained an under-secretaryship
+in the foreign department at Calcutta, but his
+health failed, and in 1824 he returned to Nepal, to which the
+whole of his life, whether in or out of India, may be said to have
+been thenceforth given. He devoted himself particularly to the
+collection of Sanskrit MSS. relating to Buddhism, and hardly less
+so to the natural history and antiquities of the country, and by
+1839 had contributed eighty-nine papers to the <i>Transactions</i>
+of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. His investigations of the
+ethnology of the aboriginal tribes were especially important. In
+1833 he became Resident in Nepal, and passed many stormy
+years in conflict with the cruel and faithless court to which he was
+accredited. He succeeded, nevertheless, in concluding a satisfactory
+treaty in 1839; but in 1842 his policy, which involved an
+imperious attitude towards the native government, was upset by
+the interference of Lord Ellenborough, but just arrived in India
+and not unnaturally anxious to avoid trouble in Nepal during the
+conflict in Afghanistan. Hodgson took upon himself to disobey
+his instructions, a breach of discipline justified to his own mind
+by his superior knowledge of the situation, but which the governor-general
+could hardly be expected to overlook. He was, nevertheless,
+continued in office for a time, but was recalled in 1843, and
+resigned the service. In 1845 he returned to India and settled at
+Darjeeling, where he devoted himself entirely to his favourite
+pursuits, becoming the greatest authority on the Buddhist
+religion and on the flora of the Himalayas. It was he who early
+suggested the recruiting of Gurkhas for the Indian army, and who
+influenced Sir Jung Bahadur to lend his assistance to the British
+during the mutiny in 1857. In 1858 he returned to England, and
+lived successively in Cheshire and Gloucestershire, occupied with
+his studies to the last. He died at his seat at Alderley Grange in
+the Cotswold Hills on the 23rd of May 1894. No man has done
+so much to throw light on Buddhism as it exists in Nepal, and
+his collections of Sanskrit manuscripts, presented to the East
+India Office, and of natural history, presented to the British
+Museum, are unique as gatherings from a single country. He
+wrote altogether 184 philological and ethnological and 127
+scientific papers, as well as some valuable pamphlets on native
+education, in which he took great interest. His principal work,
+<i>Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of Buddhists</i> (1841),
+was republished with the most important of his other writings
+in 1872-1880.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life was written by Sir W. W. Hunter in 1896.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÓDMEZÖ-VÁSÁRHELY,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a town of Hungary, in the county
+of Csongrád, 135 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
+60,824 of which about two-thirds are Protestants. The town,
+situated on Lake Hód, not far from the right bank of the Tisza,
+has a modern aspect. The soil of the surrounding country, of
+which 383 sq. m. belong to the municipality, is exceedingly
+fertile, the chief products being wheat, mangcorn, barley, oats,
+millet, maize and various descriptions of fruit, especially melons.
+Extensive vineyards, yielding large quantities of both white and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a></span>
+red grapes, skirt the town, and the horned cattle and horses of
+Hódmezö-Vásárhely have a good reputation; sheep and pigs are
+also extensively reared. The commune is protected from inundations
+of the Tisza by an enormous dike, but the town, nevertheless,
+sometimes suffers considerable damage during the spring
+floods.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:244px; height:328px" src="images/img558.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HODOGRAPH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hodos">&#8001;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span>, a way, and <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to write), a curve
+of which the radius vector is proportional to the velocity of a
+moving particle. It appears to have been used by James
+Bradley, but for its practical development we are mainly indebted
+to Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who published an account of it
+in the <i>Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, 1846. If a point
+be in motion in any orbit and with any velocity, and if, at each
+instant, a line be drawn from a fixed point parallel and equal to
+the velocity of the moving point at that instant, the extremities
+of these lines will lie on a curve called the hodograph. Let PP<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">2</span>
+be the path of the moving point, and let OT, OT<span class="su">1</span>, OT<span class="su">2</span>, be drawn
+from the fixed point O parallel
+and equal to the velocities at
+P, P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span> respectively, then the
+locus of T is the hodograph of the
+orbits described by P (see figure).
+From this definition we have
+the following important fundamental
+property which belongs
+to all hodographs, viz. that at
+any point the tangent to the
+hodograph is parallel to the
+direction, and the velocity in
+the hodograph equal to the
+magnitude of the resultant
+acceleration at the corresponding
+point of the orbit. This
+will be evident if we consider
+that, since radii vectores of the
+hodograph represent velocities in the orbit, the elementary
+arc between two consecutive radii vectores of the hodograph
+represents the velocity which must be compounded
+with the velocity of the moving point at the beginning of any
+short interval of time to get the velocity at the end of that
+interval, that is to say, represents the change of velocity for
+that interval. Hence the elementary arc divided by the element of
+time is the rate of change of velocity of the moving-point, or in
+other words, the velocity in the hodograph is the acceleration in
+the orbit.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Analytically thus (Thomson and Tait, <i>Nat. Phil.</i>):&mdash;Let x, y, z
+be the coordinates of P in the orbit, &xi;, &eta;, &zeta; those of the corresponding
+point T in the hodograph, then</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&xi; =</td> <td>dx</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, &emsp; &eta; =</td> <td>dy</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, &emsp; &zeta; =</td> <td>dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">therefore</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>d&xi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>d&eta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>d&zeta;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">d²x/dt²</td> <td class="denom">d²y/dt²</td>
+<td class="denom">d²z/dt²</td></tr></table>
+<div class="author">(1).</div>
+
+<p class="noind">Also, if s be the arc of the hodograph,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>ds</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= v = <span class="f150">&radic; [(</span></td> <td>d&xi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d&eta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d&zeta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">&radic; [(</span></td> <td>d²x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d²y</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d²z</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>²</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt²</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="denom">dt²</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="denom">dt²</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="author">(2).</div>
+
+<p>Equation (1) shows that the tangent to the hodograph is parallel
+to the line of resultant acceleration, and (2) that the velocity in
+the hodograph is equal to the acceleration.</p>
+
+<p>Every orbit must clearly have a hodograph, and, conversely, every
+hodograph a corresponding orbit; and, theoretically speaking, it is
+possible to deduce the one from the other, having given the other
+circumstances of the motion.</p>
+
+<p>For applications of the hodograph to the solution of kinematical
+problems see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1821-1858), known
+as &ldquo;Hodson of Hodson&rsquo;s Horse,&rdquo; British leader of light cavalry
+during the Indian Mutiny, third son of the Rev. George Hodson,
+afterwards archdeacon of Stafford and canon of Lichfield,
+was born on the 19th of March 1821 at Maisemore Court, near
+Gloucester. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and
+accepted a cadetship in the Indian army at the advanced age
+for those days of twenty-three. Joining the 2nd Bengal
+Grenadiers he went through the first Sikh War, and was present
+at the battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshah and Sobraon. In one
+of his letters home at this period he calls the campaign a &ldquo;tissue
+of mismanagement, blunders, errors, ignorance and arrogance&rdquo;,
+and outspoken criticism such as this brought him many bitter
+enemies throughout his career, who made the most of undeniable
+faults of character. In 1847, through the influence of Sir Henry
+Lawrence, he was appointed adjutant of the corps of Guides,
+and in 1852 was promoted to the command of the Guides with
+the civil charge of Yusafzai. But his brusque and haughty
+demeanour to his equals made him many enemies. In 1855 two
+separate charges were brought against him. The first was that
+he had arbitrarily imprisoned a Pathan chief named Khadar
+Khan, on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of Colonel
+Mackeson. The man was acquitted, and Lord Dalhousie removed
+Hodson from his civil functions and remanded him to his regiment
+on account of his lack of judgment. The second charge was
+more serious, amounting to an accusation of malversation in
+the funds of his regiment. He was tried by a court of inquiry,
+who found that his conduct to natives had been &ldquo;unjustifiable
+and oppressive,&rdquo; that he had used abusive language to his
+native officers and personal violence to his men, and that his
+system of accounts was &ldquo;calculated to screen peculation and
+fraud.&rdquo; Subsequently another inquiry was carried out by
+Major Reynell Taylor, which dealt simply with Hodson&rsquo;s accounts
+and found them to be &ldquo;an honest and correct record ...
+irregularly kept.&rdquo; At this time the Guides were split up into
+numerous detachments, and there was a system of advances
+which made the accounts very complicated. The verdicts of
+the two inquiries may be set against each other, and this particular
+charge declared &ldquo;not proven.&rdquo; It is possible that Hodson was
+careless and extravagant in money matters rather than actually
+dishonest; but there were several similar charges against him.
+During a tour through Kashmir with Sir Henry Lawrence he
+kept the purse and Sir Henry could never obtain an account
+from him; subsequently Sir George Lawrence accused him of
+embezzling the funds of the Lawrence Asylum at Kasauli;
+while Sir Neville Chamberlain in a published letter says of the
+third brother, Lord Lawrence, &ldquo;I am bound to say that Lord
+Lawrence had no opinion of Hodson&rsquo;s integrity in money matters.
+He has often discussed Hodson&rsquo;s character in talking to me,
+and it was to him a regret that a man possessing so many fine
+gifts should have been wanting in a moral quality which made
+him untrustworthy.&rdquo; Finally, on one occasion Hodson spent
+£500 of the pay due to Lieutenant Godby, and under threat of
+exposure was obliged to borrow the money from a native banker
+through one of his officers named Bisharat Ali.</p>
+
+<p>It was just at the time when Hodson&rsquo;s career seemed ruined
+that the Indian Mutiny broke out, and he obtained the opportunity
+of rehabilitating himself. At the very outset of the
+campaign he made his name by riding with despatches from
+General Anson at Karnal to Meerut and back again, a distance
+of 152 m. in all, in seventy-two hours, through a country swarming
+with the rebel cavalry. This feat so pleased the commander-in-chief
+that he empowered him to raise a regiment of 2000
+irregular horse, which became known to fame as Hodson&rsquo;s
+Horse, and placed him at the head of the Intelligence Department.
+In his double rôle of cavalry leader and intelligence
+officer, Hodson played a large part in the reduction of Delhi
+and consequently in saving India for the British empire. He
+was the finest swordsman in the army, and possessed that
+daring recklessness which is the most useful quality of leadership
+against Asiatics. In explanation of the fact that he
+never received the Victoria Cross it was said of him that it was
+because he earned it every day of his life. But he also had
+the defects of his qualities, and could display on occasion a
+certain cruelty and callousness of disposition. Reference has
+already been made to Bisharat Ali, who had lent Hodson money.
+During the siege of Delhi another native, said to be an enemy
+of Bisharat Ali&rsquo;s, informed Hodson that he had turned rebel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span>
+and had just reached Khurkhouda, a village near Delhi. Hodson
+thereupon took out a body of his sowars, attacked the village,
+and shot Bisharat Ali and several of his relatives. General
+Crawford Chamberlain states that this was Hodson&rsquo;s way of
+wiping out the debt. Again, after the fall of Delhi, Hodson
+obtained from General Wilson permission to ride out with fifty
+horsemen to Humayun&rsquo;s tomb, 6 m. out of Delhi, and bring
+in Bahadur Shah, the last of the Moguls. This he did with
+safety in the face of a large and threatening crowd, and thus
+dealt the mutineers a heavy blow. On the following day with
+100 horsemen he went out to the same tomb and obtained the
+unconditional surrender of the three princes, who had been
+left behind on the previous occasion. A crowd of 6000 persons
+gathered, and Hodson with marvellous coolness ordered them
+to disarm, which they proceeded to do. He sent the princes on
+with an escort of ten men, while with the remaining ninety
+he collected the arms of the crowd. On galloping after the
+princes he found the crowd once more pressing on the escort
+and threatening an attack; and fearing that he would be unable
+to bring his prisoners into Delhi he shot them with his own
+hand. This is the most bitterly criticized action in his career,
+but no one but the man on the spot can judge how it is necessary
+to handle a crowd; and in addition one of the princes, Abu
+Bukt, heir-apparent to the throne, had made himself notorious
+for cutting off the arms and legs of English children and pouring
+the blood into their mothers&rsquo; mouths. Considering the circumstances
+of the moment, Hodson&rsquo;s act at the worst was one of
+irregular justice. A more unpleasant side to the question is
+that he gave the king a safe conduct, which was afterwards seen
+by Sir Donald Stewart, before he left the palace, and presumably
+for a bribe; and he took an armlet and rings from the bodies
+of the princes. He was freely accused of looting at the time,
+and though this charge, like that of peculation, is matter for
+controversy, it is very strongly supported. General Pelham
+Burn said that he saw loot in Hodson&rsquo;s boxes when he accompanied
+him from Fatehgarh to take part in the siege of Lucknow,
+and Sir Henry Daly said that he found &ldquo;loads of loot&rdquo; in
+Hodson&rsquo;s boxes after his death, and also a file of documents
+relating to the Guides case, which had been stolen from him
+and of which Hodson denied all knowledge. On the other hand
+the Rev. G. Hodson states in his book that he obtained the
+inventory of his brother&rsquo;s possessions made by the Committee
+of Adjustment and it contained no articles of loot, and Sir
+Charles Gough, president of the committee, confirmed this
+evidence. This statement is totally incompatible with Sir
+Henry Daly&rsquo;s and is only one of many contradictions in the
+case. Sir Henry Norman stated that to his personal knowledge
+Hodson remitted several thousand pounds to Calcutta which
+could only have been obtained by looting. On the other hand,
+again, Hodson died a poor man, his effects were sold for £170,
+his widow was dependent on charity for her passage home,
+was given apartments by the queen at Hampton Court, and
+left only £400 at her death.</p>
+
+<p>Hodson was killed on the 11th of March 1858 in the attack on
+the Begum Kotee at Lucknow. He had just arrived on the spot
+and met a man going to fetch powder to blow in a door; instead
+Hodson, with his usual recklessness, rushed into the doorway
+and was shot. On the whole, it can hardly be doubted that he
+was somewhat unscrupulous in his private character, but he was
+a splendid soldier, and rendered inestimable services to the
+empire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The controversy relating to Hodson&rsquo;s moral character is very
+complicated and unpleasant. Upon Hodson&rsquo;s side see Rev. G.
+Hodson, <i>Hodson of Hodson&rsquo;s Horse</i> (1883), and L. J. Trotter, <i>A
+Leader of Light Horse</i> (1901); against him, R. Bosworth Smith, <i>Life
+of Lord Lawrence</i>, appendix to the 6th edition of 1885; T. R. E.
+Holmes, <i>History of the Indian Mutiny</i>, appendix N to the 5th edition
+of 1898, and <i>Four Famous Soldiers</i> by the same author, 1889; and
+General Sir Crawford Chamberlain, <i>Remarks on Captain Trotter&rsquo;s
+Biography of Major W. S. R. Hodson</i> (1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HODY, HUMPHREY<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1659-1707), English divine, was born
+at Odcombe in Somersetshire in 1659. In 1676 he entered
+Wadham College, Oxford, of which he became fellow in 1685.
+In 1684 he published <i>Contra historiam Aristeae de LXX. interpretibus
+dissertatio</i>, in which he showed that the so-called letter
+of Aristeas, containing an account of the production of the
+Septuagint, was the late forgery of a Hellenist Jew originally
+circulated to lend authority to that version. The dissertation
+was generally regarded as conclusive, although Isaac Vossius
+published an angry and scurrilous reply to it in the appendix
+to his edition of Pomponius Mela. In 1689 Hody wrote the
+<i>Prolegomena</i> to the Greek chronicle of John Malalas, published
+at Oxford in 1691. The following year he became chaplain
+to Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, and for his support
+of the ruling party in a controversy with Henry Dodwell regarding
+the non-juring bishops he was appointed chaplain to Archbishop
+Tillotson, an office which he continued to hold under Tenison.
+In 1698 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford,
+and in 1704 was made archdeacon of Oxford. In 1701 he
+published <i>A History of English Councils and Convocations</i>, and
+in 1703 in four volumes <i>De Bibliorum textis originalibus</i>, in
+which he included a revision of his work on the Septuagint, and
+published a reply to Vossius. He died on the 20th of January
+1707.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A work, <i>De Graecis Illustribus</i>, which he left in manuscript, was
+published in 1742 by Samuel Jebb, who prefixed to it a Latin life of
+the author.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOE, RICHARD MARCH<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1812-1886), American inventor,
+was born in New York City on the 12th of September 1812. He
+was the son of Robert Hoe (1784-1833), an English-born American
+mechanic, who with his brothers-in-law, Peter and Matthew
+Smith, established in New York City a manufactory of printing
+presses, and used steam to run his machinery. Richard entered
+his father&rsquo;s manufactory at the age of fifteen and became head of
+the firm (Robert Hoe &amp; Company) on his father&rsquo;s death. He had
+considerable inventive genius and set himself to secure greater
+speed for printing presses. He discarded the old flat-bed model
+and placed the type on a revolving cylinder, a model later
+developed into the well-known Hoe rotary or &ldquo;lightning&rdquo;
+press, patented in 1846, and further improved under the name
+of the Hoe web perfecting press (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Printing</a></span>). He died in
+Florence, Italy, on the 7th of June 1886.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>A Short History of the Printing Press</i> (New York, 1902) by his
+nephew Robert Hoe (1839-1909), who was responsible for further
+improvements in printing, and was an indefatigable worker in support
+of the New York Metropolitan Museum.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOE<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>houe</i> from O.H.G. <i>houwâ</i>, mod. Ger. <i>Haue</i>;
+the root is seen in &ldquo;hew,&rdquo; to cut, cleave; the word must be
+distinguished from &ldquo;hoe,&rdquo; promontory, tongue of land, seen in
+place names, <i>e.g.</i> Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &amp;c.;
+this is the same as Northern English &ldquo;heugh&rdquo; and is connected
+with &ldquo;hang&rdquo;), an agricultural and gardening implement used
+for extirpating weeds, for stirring the surface-soil in order to
+break the capillary channels and so prevent the evaporation of
+moisture, for singling out turnips and other root-crops and
+similar purposes. Among common forms of hoe are the ordinary
+garden-hoe (numbered <i>1</i> in fig. 1), which consists of a flat blade
+set transversely in a long wooden handle; the Dutch or thrust-hoe
+(<i>2</i>), which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion
+of a spade; and the swan-neck hoe (<i>3</i>), the best manual hoe
+for agricultural purposes, which has a long curved neck to attach
+the blade to the handle; the soil falls back over this, blocking is
+thus avoided and a longer stroke obtained. Several types of
+horse-drawn hoe capable of working one or more rows at a time
+are used among root and grain crops. The illustrations show
+two forms of the implement, the blades of which differ in shape
+from those of the garden-hoe. Fig. 2 is in ordinary use for hoeing
+between two lines of beans or turnips or other &ldquo;roots.&rdquo; Fig. 3
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span>
+is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also convertible
+into a root-hoe. In the lever-hoe, which is largely used
+in grain crops, the blades may be raised and lowered by means
+of a lever. The horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles
+in the rear, but its successful working depends on accurate
+drilling of the seed, because unless the rows are parallel the roots
+of the plants are liable to be cut and the foliage injured. Thus
+Jethro Tull (17th century), with whose name the beginning of
+the practice of horse-hoeing is principally connected, used the
+drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in the so-called
+&ldquo;Horse-hoeing Husbandry&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:113px" src="images/img559.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Three Forms of Manual Hoe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:245px" src="images/img560a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Martin&rsquo;s One-Row Horse Hoe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:346px" src="images/img560b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Martin&rsquo;s General Purpose Steerage Horse Hoe.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOEFNAGEL, JORIS<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1545-1601), Dutch painter and engraver,
+the son of a diamond merchant, was born at Antwerp. He
+travelled abroad, making drawings from archaeological subjects,
+and was a pupil of Jan Bol at Mechlin. He was afterwards
+patronized by the elector of Bavaria at Munich, where he stayed
+eight years, and by the Emperor Rudolph at Prague. He died
+at Vienna in 1601. He is famous for his miniature work, especially
+on a missal in the imperial library at Vienna; he painted
+animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history;
+and his engravings (especially for Braun&rsquo;s <i>Civitates orbis
+terrarum</i>, 1572, and Ortelius&rsquo;s <i>Theatrum orbis terrarum</i>, 1570)
+give him an interesting place among early topographical
+draughtsmen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOF,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper
+Franconia, beautifully situated on the Saale, on the north-eastern
+spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, 103 m. S.W. of Leipzig
+on the main line of railway to Regensburg and Munich. Pop.
+(1885) 22,257; (1905) 36,348. It has one Roman Catholic
+and three Protestant churches (among the latter that of St
+Michael, which was restored in 1884), a town hall of 1563, a
+gymnasium with an extensive library, a commercial school
+and a hospital founded in 1262. It is the seat of various flourishing
+industries, notably woollen, cotton and jute spinning, jute
+weaving, and the manufacture of cotton and half-woollen
+fabrics. It has also dye-works, flour-mills, saw-mills, breweries,
+iron-works, and manufactures of machinery, iron and tin wares,
+chemicals and sugar. In the neighbourhood there are large
+marble quarries and extensive iron mines. Hof, originally
+called Regnitzhof, was built about 1080. It was held for some
+time by the dukes of Meran, and was sold in 1373 to the burgraves
+of Nuremberg. The cloth manufacture introduced into
+it in the 15th century, and the manufacture of veils begun
+in the 16th century, greatly promoted its prosperity, but it
+suffered severely in the Albertine and Hussite wars as well
+as in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. In 1792 it came into the possession
+of Prussia; in 1806 it fell to France; and in 1810 it was incorporated
+with Bavaria. In 1823 the greater part of the town
+was destroyed by fire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ernst, <i>Geschichte und Beschreibung des Bezirks und der Stadt
+Hof</i> (1866); Tillmann, <i>Die Stadt Hof und ihre Umgebung</i> (Hof,
+1899), and C. Meyer, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hof</i> (1894-1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFER, ANDREAS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1767-1810), Tirolese patriot, was born
+on the 22nd of November 1767 at St Leonhard, in the Passeier
+valley. There his father kept an inn known as &ldquo;am Sand,&rdquo;
+which Hofer inherited, and on that account he was popularly
+known as the &ldquo;Sandwirth.&rdquo; In addition to this he carried on
+a trade in wine and horses with the north of Italy, acquiring
+a high reputation for intelligence and honesty. In the wars
+against the French from 1796 to 1805 he took part, first as a
+sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia. By the
+treaty of Pressburg (1805) Tirol was transferred from Austria
+to Bavaria, and Hofer, who was almost fanatically devoted to
+the Austrian house, became conspicuous as a leader of the
+agitation against Bavarian rule. In 1808 he formed one of a
+deputation who went to Vienna, at the invitation of the archduke
+John, to concert a rising; and when in April 1809 the
+Tirolese rose in arms, Hofer was chosen commander of the
+contingent from his native valley, and inflicted an overwhelming
+defeat on the Bavarians at Sterzing (April 11). This victory,
+which resulted in the temporary reoccupation of Innsbruck
+by the Austrians, made Hofer the most conspicuous of the
+insurgent leaders. The rapid advance of Napoleon, indeed,
+and the defeat of the main Austrian army under the archduke
+Charles, once more exposed Tirol to the French and Bavarians,
+who reoccupied Innsbruck. The withdrawal of the bulk of
+the troops, however, gave the Tirolese their chance again;
+after two battles fought on the Iselberg (May 25 and 29) the
+Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the country, and Hofer
+entered Innsbruck in triumph. An autograph letter of the
+emperor Francis (May 29) assured him that no peace would be
+concluded by which Tirol would again be separated from the
+Austrian monarchy, and Hofer, believing his work accomplished,
+returned to his home. Then came the news of the armistice
+of Znaim (July 12), by which Tirol and Vorarlberg were surrendered
+by Austria unconditionally and given up to the vengeance
+of the French. The country was now again invaded by
+40,000 French and Bavarian troops, and Innsbruck fell; but
+the Tirolese once more organized resistance to the French
+&ldquo;atheists and freemasons,&rdquo; and, after a temporary hesitation,
+Hofer&mdash;on whose head a price had been placed&mdash;threw himself
+into the movement. On the 13th of August, in another battle
+on the Iselberg, the French under Marshal Lefebvre were routed
+by the Tirolese peasants, and Hofer once more entered Innsbruck,
+which he had some difficulty in saving from sack. Hofer was
+now elected <i>Oberkommandant</i> of Tirol, took up his quarters in
+the Hofburg at Innsbruck, and for two months ruled the country
+in the emperor&rsquo;s name. He preserved the habits of a simple
+peasant, and his administration was characterized in part by
+the peasant&rsquo;s shrewd common sense, but yet more by a pious
+solicitude for the minutest details of faith and morals. On the
+29th of September Hofer received from the emperor a chain and
+medal of honour, which encouraged him in the belief that Austria
+did not intend again to desert him; the news of the conclusion
+of the treaty of Schönbrunn (October 14), by which Tirol was
+again ceded to Bavaria, came upon him as an overwhelming
+surprise. The French in overpowering force at once pushed
+into the country, and, an amnesty having been stipulated in
+the treaty, Hofer and his companions, after some hesitation,
+gave in their submission. On the 12th of November, however,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span>
+urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant leaders and
+deceived by false reports of Austrian victories, Hofer again
+issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms. The
+summons met with little response; the enemy advanced in
+irresistible force, and Hofer, a price once more set on his head,
+had to take refuge in the mountains. His hiding-place was
+betrayed by one of his neighbours, named Josef Raffl, and on
+the 27th of January 1810 he was captured by Italian troops
+and sent in chains to Mantua. There he was tried by court-martial,
+and on the 20th of February was shot, twenty-four
+hours after his condemnation. This crime, which was believed
+to be due to Napoleon&rsquo;s direct orders, caused an immense
+sensation throughout Germany and did much to inflame popular
+sentiment against the French. At the court of Austria, too,
+which was accused of having cynically sacrificed the hero, it
+produced a painful impression, and Metternich, when he visited
+Paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess Marie
+Louise to Napoleon, was charged to remonstrate with the
+emperor. Napoleon expressed his regret, stating that the
+execution had been carried out against his wishes, having been
+hurried on by the zeal of his generals. In 1823 Hofer&rsquo;s remains
+were removed from Mantua to Innsbruck, where they were
+interred in the Franciscan church, and in 1834 a marble statue
+was erected over his tomb. In 1893 a bronze statue of him
+was also set up on the Iselberg. At Meran his patriotic deeds
+of heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually
+in the open air. In 1818 the patent of nobility bestowed upon
+him by the Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his
+family.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Leben und Thaten des ehemaligen Tyroler Insurgenten-Chefs
+Andr. Hofer</i> (Berlin, 1810); <i>Andr. Hofer und die Tyroler Insurrection
+im Jahre 1809</i> (Munich, 1811); Hormayr, <i>Geschichte Andr.
+Hofer&rsquo;s Sandwirths auf Passeyr</i> (Leipzig, 1845); B. Weber, <i>Das Thal
+Passeyr und seine Bewohner mit besonderer Rücksicht auf Andreas
+Hofer und das Jahr 1809</i> (Innsbruck, 1851); Rapp, <i>Tirol im Jahr
+1809</i> (Innsbruck, 1852); Weidinger, <i>Andreas Hofer und seine
+Kampfgenossen</i> (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1861); Heigel, <i>Andreas Hofer</i>
+(Munich, 1874); Stampfer, <i>Sandwirt Andreas Hofer</i> (Freiburg, 1874);
+Schmölze, <i>Andreas Hofer und seine Kampfgenossen</i> (Innsbruck, 1900).
+His history has supplied the materials for tragedies to B. Auerbach
+and Immermann, and for numerous ballads, of which some remain
+very popular in Germany (see Franke, <i>Andreas Hofer im Liede</i>,
+Innsbruck, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÖFFDING, HARALD<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1843-&emsp;&emsp;), Danish philosopher,
+was born and educated in Copenhagen. He became a schoolmaster,
+and ultimately in 1883 professor in the university of
+Copenhagen. He was much influenced by Sören Kierkegaard
+in the early development of his thought, but later became a
+positivist, retaining, however, and combining with it the spirit
+and method of practical psychology and the critical school.
+His best-known work is perhaps his <i>Den nyere Filosofis Historie</i>
+(1894), translated into English from the German edition (1895)
+by B. E. Meyer as <i>History of Modern Philosophy</i> (2 vols., 1900),
+a work intended by him to supplement and correct that of
+Hans Bröchner, to whom it is dedicated. His <i>Psychology, the
+Problems of Philosophy</i> (1905) and <i>Philosophy of Religion</i> (1906)
+also have appeared in English.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among Höffding&rsquo;s other writings, practically all of which have
+been translated into German, are: <i>Den engelske Filosofi i vor Tid</i>
+(1874); <i>Etik</i> (1876; ed. 1879); <i>Psychologi i Omrids paa Grundlag
+of Erfaring</i> (ed. 1892); <i>Psykologiske Undersogelser</i> (1889); <i>Charles
+Darwin</i> (1889); <i>Kontinuiteten i Kants filosofiske Udviklingsgang</i>
+(1893); <i>Det psykologiske Grundlag for logiske Domme</i> (1899);
+<i>Rousseau und seine Philosophie</i> (1901); <i>Mindre Arbejder</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1798-1874), known as
+<span class="sc">Hoffmann von Fallersleben</span>, German poet, philologist and
+historian of literature, was born at Fallersleben in the duchy
+of Lüneburg, Hanover, on the 2nd of April 1798, the son of the
+mayor of the town. He was educated at the classical schools
+of Helmstedt and Brunswick, and afterwards at the universities
+of Göttingen and Bonn. His original intention was to study
+theology, but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature.
+In 1823 he was appointed custodian of the university library
+at Breslau, a post which he held till 1838. He was also made
+extraordinary professor of the German language and literature
+at that university in 1830, and ordinary professor in 1835;
+but he was deprived of his chair in 1842 in consequence of his
+<i>Unpolitische Lieder</i> (1840-1841), which gave much offence to
+the authorities in Prussia. He then travelled in Germany,
+Switzerland and Italy, and lived for two or three years in
+Mecklenburg, of which he became a naturalized citizen. After
+the revolution of 1848 he was enabled to return to Prussia, where
+he was restored to his rights, and received the <i>Wartegeld</i>&mdash;the
+salary attached to a promised office not yet vacant. He married
+in 1849, and during the next ten years lived first in Bingerbrück,
+afterwards in Neuwied, and then in Weimar, where together
+with Oskar Schade (1826-1906) he edited the <i>Weimarische
+Jahrbuch</i> (1854-1857). In 1860 he was appointed librarian to
+the Duke of Ratibor at the monasterial castle of Corvey near
+Höxter on the Weser, where he died on the 19th of January
+1874. Fallersleben was one of the best popular poets of modern
+Germany. In politics he ardently sympathized with the progressive
+tendencies of his time, and he was among the earliest
+and most effective of the political poets who prepared the way
+for the outbreak of 1848. As a poet, however, he acquired
+distinction chiefly by the ease, simplicity and grace with which
+he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life.
+Although he had not been scientifically trained in music, he
+composed melodies for many of his songs, and a considerable
+number of them are sung by all classes in every part of Germany.
+Among the best known is the patriotic <i>Deutschland, Deutschland
+über Alles</i>, composed in 1841 on the island of Heligoland, where
+a monument was erected in 1891 to his memory (subsequently
+destroyed).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best of his poetical writings is his <i>Gedichte</i> (1827; 9th ed.,
+Berlin, 1887); but there is great merit also in his <i>Alemannische
+Lieder</i> (1826; 5th ed., 1843), <i>Soldatenlieder</i> (1851), <i>Soldatenleben</i>
+(1852), <i>Rheinleben</i> (1865), and in his <i>Fünfzig Kinderlieder</i>, <i>Fünfzig
+neue Kinderlieder</i>, and <i>Alte und neue Kinderlieder</i>. His <i>Unpolitische
+Lieder</i>, <i>Deutsche Lieder aus der Schweiz</i> and <i>Streiflichter</i> are not
+without poetical value, but they are mainly interesting in relation to
+the movements of the age in which they were written. As a student
+of ancient Teutonic literature Hoffmann von Fallersleben ranks
+among the most persevering and cultivated of German scholars,
+some of the chief results of his labours being embodied in his <i>Horae
+Belgicae</i>, <i>Fundgruben für Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur</i>,
+<i>Altdeutsche Blätter</i>, <i>Spenden zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte</i> and
+<i>Findlinge</i>. Among his editions of particular works may be named
+<i>Reineke Vos</i>, <i>Monumenta Elnonensia</i> and <i>Theophilus</i>. <i>Die deutsche
+Philologie im Grundriss</i> (1836) was at the time of its publication a
+valuable contribution to philological research, and historians of
+German literature still attach importance to his <i>Geschichte des
+deutschen Kirchenliedes bis auf Luther</i> (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), <i>Unsere
+volkstümlichen Lieder</i> (3rd ed., 1869) and <i>Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder
+des 16. und 17. Jahrh.</i> (2nd ed., 1860). In 1868-1870
+Hoffmann published in 6 vols. an autobiography, <i>Mein Leben:
+Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen</i> (an abbreviated ed. in 2 vols.,
+1894). His <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> were edited by H. Gerstenberg in
+8 vols. (1891-1894); his <i>Ausgewählte Werke</i> by H. Benzmann
+(1905, 4 vols.). See also <i>Briefe von Hoffmann von Fallersleben und
+Moritz Haupt an Ferdinand Wolf</i> (1874); J. M. Wagner, <i>Hoffmann
+von Fallersleben, 1818-1868</i> (1869-1870), and R. von Gottschall,
+<i>Porträts und Studien</i> (vol. v., 1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1776-1822),
+German romance-writer, was born at Königsberg on the 24th
+of January 1776. For the name Wilhelm he himself substituted
+Amadeus in homage to Mozart. His parents lived unhappily
+together, and when the child was only three they separated.
+His bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understanding
+nor sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament.
+Hoffmann showed more talent for music and drawing than for
+books. In 1792, when little over sixteen years old, he entered
+the university of Königsberg, with a view to preparing himself
+for a legal career. The chief features of interest in his student
+years were an intimate friendship for Theodor Gottlieb von
+Hippel (1775-1843), a nephew of the novelist Hippel, and an
+unhappy passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons;
+the latter found its outlet, not merely in music, but also in two
+novels, neither of which he was able to have published. In the
+summer of 1795 he began his practical career as a jurist in
+Königsberg, but his mother&rsquo;s death and the complications in
+which his love-affair threatened to involve him made him decide
+to leave his native town and continue his legal apprenticeship
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span>
+in Glogau. In the autumn of 1798 he was transferred to Berlin,
+where the beginnings of the new Romantic movement were in
+the air. Music, however, had still the first place in his heart,
+and the Berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests.</p>
+
+<p>In 1800 further promotion brought him to Posen, where he
+gave himself up entirely to the pleasures of the hour. Unfortunately,
+however, his brilliant powers of caricature brought him
+into ill odour, and instead of receiving the hoped-for preferment
+in Posen itself, he found himself virtually banished to the little
+town of Plozk on the Vistula. Before leaving Posen he married,
+and his domestic happiness alleviated to some extent the
+monotony of the two years&rsquo; exile. His leisure was spent in
+literary studies and musical composition. In 1804 he was
+transferred to Warsaw, where, through J. E. Hitzig (1780-1849),
+he was introduced to Zacharias Werner, and began to take
+an interest in the later Romantic literature; now, for the first
+time, he discovered how writers like Novalis, Tieck, and especially
+Wackenroder, had spoken out of his own heart. But in spite
+of this literary stimulus, his leisure in Warsaw was mainly
+occupied by composition; he wrote music to Brentano&rsquo;s <i>Lustige
+Musikanten</i> and Werner&rsquo;s <i>Kreuz an der Ostsee</i>, and also an opera
+<i>Liebe und Eifersucht</i>, based on Calderón&rsquo;s drama <i>La Banda
+y la Flor</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The arrival of the French in Warsaw and the consequent
+political changes put an end to Hoffmann&rsquo;s congenial life there,
+and a time of tribulation followed. A position which he obtained
+in 1808 as musical director of a new theatre in Bamberg availed
+him little, as within a very short time the theatre was bankrupt
+and Hoffmann again reduced to destitution. But these misfortunes
+induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out
+the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving
+music lessons. The editor of the <i>Allgemeine musikalische
+Zeitung</i> expressed his willingness to accept contributions from
+Hoffmann, and here appeared for the first time some of the
+musical sketches which ultimately passed over into the <i>Phantasiestücke
+in Callots Manier</i>. This work appeared in four volumes in
+1814 and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer. Meanwhile,
+Hoffmann had again been for some time attached, in the capacity
+of musical director, to a theatrical company, whose headquarters
+were at Dresden. In 1814 he gladly embraced the opportunity
+that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in Berlin,
+and two years later he was appointed councillor of the Court
+of Appeal (<i>Kammergericht</i>). Hoffmann had the reputation of
+being an excellent jurist and a conscientious official; he had
+leisure for literary pursuits and was on the best of terms with
+the circle of Romantic poets and novelists who gathered round
+Fouqué, Chamisso and his old friend Hitzig. Unfortunately,
+however, the habits of intemperance which, in earlier years,
+had thrown a shadow over his life, grew upon him, and his
+health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the
+wine-house, in company unworthy of him. He was struck down
+by locomotor ataxy, and died on the 24th of July 1822.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Phantasiestücke</i>, which had been published with a
+commendatory preface by Jean Paul, were followed in 1816
+by the gruesome novel&mdash;to some extent inspired by Lewis&rsquo;s
+<i>Monk&mdash;Die Elixiere des Teufels</i>, and the even more gruesome
+and grotesque stories which make up the <i>Nachtstücke</i> (1817,
+2 vols.). The full range of Hoffmann&rsquo;s powers is first clearly
+displayed in the collection of stories (4 vols., 1819-1821) <i>Die
+Serapionsbrüder</i>, this being the name of a small club of Hoffmann&rsquo;s
+more intimate literary friends. <i>Die Serapionsbrüder</i> includes not
+merely stories in which Hoffmann&rsquo;s love for the mysterious
+and the supernatural is to be seen, but novels in which he draws
+on his own early reminiscences (<i>Rat Krespel</i>, <i>Fermate</i>), finely
+outlined pictures of old German life (<i>Der Artushof</i>, <i>Meister
+Martin der Küfner und seine Gesellen</i>), and vivid and picturesque
+incidents from Italian and French history (<i>Doge und Dogaressa</i>,
+the story of Marino Faliero, and <i>Das Fräulein von Scuderi</i>).
+The last-mentioned story is usually regarded as Hoffmann&rsquo;s
+masterpiece. Two longer works also belong to Hoffmann&rsquo;s
+later years and display to advantage his powers as a humorist;
+these are <i>Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober</i> (1819), and <i>Lebensansichten
+des Katers Murr, nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des
+Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler</i> (1821-1822).</p>
+
+<p>Hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the Romantic
+movement in Germany. He combined with a humour that
+reminds us of Jean Paul the warm sympathy for the artist&rsquo;s
+standpoint towards life, which was enunciated by early Romantic
+leaders like Tieck and Wackenroder; but he was superior to
+all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination. His
+works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes&mdash;in this respect
+they mark a descent from the high ideals of the Romantic school;
+but the gruesome was only one outlet for Hoffmann&rsquo;s genius,
+and even here the secret of his power lay not in his choice of
+subjects, but in the wonderfully vivid and realistic presentation
+of them. Every line he wrote leaves the impression behind it
+that it expresses something felt or experienced; every scene,
+vision or character he described seems to have been real and
+living to him. It is this realism, in the best sense of the word,
+that made him the great artist he was, and gave him so extraordinary
+a power over his contemporaries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first collected edition of Hoffmann&rsquo;s works appeared in ten
+volumes (<i>Ausgewählte Schriften</i>, 1827-1828); to these his widow
+added five volumes in 1839 (including the 3rd edition of J. E.
+Hitzig&rsquo;s <i>Aus Hoffmanns Leben und Nachlass</i>, 1823). Other editions
+of his works appeared in 1844-1845, 1871-1873, 1879-1883, and,
+most complete of all, <i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, edited by E. Grisebach, in 15
+vols. (1900). There are many editions of selections, as well as cheap
+reprints of the more popular stories. All Hoffmann&rsquo;s important
+works&mdash;except <i>Klein Zaches</i> and <i>Kater Murr</i>&mdash;have been translated
+into English: <i>The Devil&rsquo;s Elixir</i> (1824), <i>The Golden Pot</i> by Carlyle
+(in <i>German Romance</i>, 1827), <i>The Serapion Brethren</i> by A. Ewing
+(1886-1892), &amp;c. In France Hoffmann was even more popular than
+in England. Cp. G. Thurau, <i>Hoffmanns Erzählungen in Frankreich</i>
+(1896). An edition of his <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> appeared in 12 vols. in
+Paris in 1830. The best monograph on Hoffmann is by G. Ellinger,
+<i>E. T. A. Hoffmann</i> (1894); see also O. Klinke, <i>Hoffmanns Leben und
+Werke vom Standpunkte eines Irrenarztes</i> (1903); and the exhaustive
+bibliography in Goedeke&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen
+Dichtung</i>, 2nd ed., vol. viii. pp. 468 ff. (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, FRANÇOIS BENOÎT<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1760-1828), French
+dramatist and critic, was born at Nancy on the 11th of July
+1760. He studied law at the university of Strassburg, but a
+slight hesitation in his speech precluded success at the bar, and
+he entered a regiment on service in Corsica. He served, however,
+for a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, he wrote some
+poems which brought him into notice at the little court of
+Lunéville over which the marquise de Boufflers then presided.
+In 1784 he went to Paris, and two years later produced the opera
+<i>Phèdre</i>. His opera <i>Adrien</i> (1792) was objected to by the government
+on political grounds, and Hoffmann, who refused to
+make the changes proposed to him, ran considerable risk under
+the revolutionary government. His later operas, which were
+numerous, were produced at the Opéra Comique. In 1807 he
+was invited by Étienne to contribute to the <i>Journal de l&rsquo;Empire</i>
+(afterwards the <i>Journal des débats</i>). Hoffmann&rsquo;s wide reading
+qualified him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned,
+apparently with no difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine
+to violent attacks on the Jesuits. His severe criticism of Chateaubriand&rsquo;s
+<i>Martyrs</i> led the author to make some changes in a later
+edition. He had the reputation of being an absolutely conscientious
+and incorruptible critic and thus exercised wide
+influence. Hoffmann died in Paris on the 25th of April 1828.
+Among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent
+one-act comedy, <i>Le Roman d&rsquo;une heure</i> (1803), and an amusing
+one-act opera <i>Les Rendez-vous bourgeois</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sainte-Beuve, &ldquo;M. de Feletz et la critique littéraire sous
+l&rsquo;Empire&rdquo; in <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1660-1742), German physician,
+a member of a family that had been connected with medicine
+for 200 years before him, was born at Halle on the 19th of
+February 1660. At the gymnasium of his native town he
+acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he
+attributed much of his after success. At the age of eighteen
+he went to study medicine at Jena, whence in 1680 he passed
+to Erfurt, in order to attend Kasper Cramer&rsquo;s lectures on
+chemistry. Next year, returning to Jena, he received his
+doctor&rsquo;s diploma, and, after publishing a thesis, was permitted to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span>
+teach. Constant study then began to tell on his health, and in
+1682, leaving his already numerous pupils, he proceeded to
+Minden in Westphalia to recruit himself, at the request of a
+relative who held a high position in that town. After practising
+at Minden for two years, Hoffmann made a journey to Holland
+and England, where he formed the acquaintance of many
+illustrious chemists and physicians. Towards the end of 1684
+he returned to Minden, and during the next three years he
+received many flattering appointments. In 1688 he removed
+to the more promising sphere of Halberstadt, with the title
+of physician to the principality of Halberstadt; and on the
+founding of Halle university in 1693, his reputation, which had
+been steadily increasing, procured for him the primarius chair
+of medicine, while at the same time he was charged with the
+responsible duty of framing the statutes for the new medical
+faculty. He filled also the chair of natural philosophy. With
+the exception of four years (1708-1712), which he passed at
+Berlin in the capacity of royal physician, Hoffmann spent the
+rest of his life at Halle in instruction, practice and study, interrupted
+now and again by visits to different courts of Germany,
+where his services procured him honours and rewards. His
+fame became European. He was enrolled a member of many
+learned societies in different foreign countries, while in his own
+he became privy councillor. He died at Halle on the 12th of
+November 1742.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in Haller&rsquo;s
+<i>Bibliotheca medicinae practicae</i>. The chief is <i>Medicina rationalis
+systematica</i>, undertaken at the age of sixty, and published in
+1730. It was translated into French in 1739, under the title of
+<i>Médecine raisonnée d&rsquo;Hoffmann</i>. A complete edition of Hoffmann&rsquo;s
+works, with a life of the author, was published at Geneva in 1740,
+to which supplements were added in 1753 and 1760. Editions appeared
+also at Venice in 1745 and at Naples in 1753 and 1793. (See
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medicine</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1805-1878), German
+scholar, was born at Würzburg on the 16th of February 1805.
+After studying at Würzburg he went on the stage in 1825; but
+owing to an accidental meeting with the German traveller,
+Dr Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796-1866), in July 1830, his
+interest was diverted to Oriental philology. From Siebold
+he acquired the rudiments of Japanese, and in order to take
+advantage of the instructions of Ko-ching-chang, a Chinese
+teacher whom Siebold had brought home with him, he made
+himself acquainted with Malay, the only language except
+Chinese which the Chinaman could understand. In a few years
+he was able to supply the translations for Siebold&rsquo;s <i>Nippon</i>;
+and the high character of his work soon attracted the attention
+of older scholars. Stanislas Julien invited him to Paris; and
+he would probably have accepted the invitation, as a disagreement
+had broken out between him and Siebold, had not M.
+Baud, the Dutch colonial minister, appointed him Japanese
+translator with a salary of 1800 florins (£150). The Dutch
+authorities were slow in giving him further recognition; and
+he was too modest a man successfully to urge his claims. It
+was not till after he had received the offer of the professorship
+of Chinese in King&rsquo;s College, London, that the authorities made
+him professor at Leiden and the king allowed him a yearly
+pension. In 1875 he was decorated with the order of the
+Netherlands Lion, and in 1877 he was elected corresponding
+member of the Berlin Academy. He died at the Hague on the
+23rd of January 1878.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hoffmann&rsquo;s chief work was his unfinished Japanese Dictionary,
+begun in 1839 and afterwards continued by L. Serrurier. Unable at
+first to procure the necessary type, he set himself to the cutting of
+punches, and even when the proper founts were obtained he had to
+act as his own compositor as far as Chinese and Japanese were concerned.
+His Japanese grammar (<i>Japanische <span class="correction" title="amended from Sprechlehre">Sprachlehre</span></i>) was
+published in Dutch and English in 1867, and in English and German
+in 1876. Of his miscellaneous productions it is enough to mention
+&ldquo;Japans Bezüge mit der koraischen Halbinsel und mit Schina&rdquo; in
+<i>Nippon</i>, vii.; <i>Yo-San-fi-Rok</i>, <i>L&rsquo;Art d&rsquo;élever les vers à soie au Japon,
+par Ouckaki Mourikouni</i> (Paris, 1848); &ldquo;Die Heilkunde in Japan&rdquo;
+in <i>Mittheil. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. für Natur- und Völkerk. Ost-Asiens</i>
+(1873-1874); and <i>Japanische Studien</i> (1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1818-1892), German
+chemist, was born at Giessen on the 8th of April 1818. Not
+intending originally to devote himself to physical science, he
+first took up the study of law and philology at Göttingen, and
+the general culture he thus gained stood him in good stead
+when he turned to chemistry, the study of which he began under
+Liebig. When, in 1845, a school of practical chemistry was
+started in London, under the style of the Royal College of
+Chemistry, Hofmann, largely through the influence of the Prince
+Consort, was appointed its first director. It was with some
+natural hesitation that he, then a <i>Privatdozent</i> at Bonn, accepted
+the position, which may well have seemed rather a precarious
+one; but the difficulty was removed by his appointment as
+extraordinary professor at Bonn, with leave of absence for two
+years, so that he could resume his career in Germany if his
+English one proved unsatisfactory. Fortunately the college
+was more or less successful, owing largely to his enthusiasm
+and energy, and many of the men who were trained there subsequently
+made their mark in chemical history. But in 1864
+he returned to Bonn, and in the succeeding year he was selected
+to succeed E. Mitscherlich as professor of chemistry and director
+of the laboratory in Berlin University. In leaving England,
+of which he used to speak as his adopted country, Hofmann
+was probably influenced by a combination of causes. The public
+support extended to the college of chemistry had been dwindling
+for some years, and before he left it had ceased to have an
+independent existence and had been absorbed into the School
+of Mines. This event he must have looked upon as a curtailment
+of its possibilities of usefulness. But, in addition, there is only
+too much reason to suppose that he was disappointed at the
+general apathy with which his science was regarded in England.
+No man ever realized more fully than he how entirely dependent
+on the advance of scientific knowledge is the continuation of a
+country&rsquo;s material prosperity, and no single chemist ever
+exercised a greater or more direct influence upon industrial
+development. In England, however, people cared for none
+of these things, and were blind to the commercial potentialities
+of scientific research. The college to which Hofmann devoted
+nearly twenty of the best years of his life was starved; the coal-tar
+industry, which was really brought into existence by his
+work and that of his pupils under his direction at that college,
+and which with a little intelligent forethought might have been
+retained in England, was allowed to slip into the hands of
+Germany, where it is now worth millions of pounds annually;
+and Hofmann himself was compelled to return to his native
+land to find due appreciation as one of the foremost chemists
+of his time. The rest of his life was spent in Berlin, and there
+he died on the 5th of May 1892. That city possesses a permanent
+memorial to his name in Hofmann House, the home of the
+German Chemical Society (of which he was the founder), which
+was formally opened in 1900, appropriately enough with an
+account of that great triumph of German chemical enterprise,
+the industrial manufacture of synthetical indigo.</p>
+
+<p>Hofmann&rsquo;s work covered a wide range of organic chemistry,
+though with inorganic bodies he did but little. His first research,
+carried out in Liebig&rsquo;s laboratory at Giessen, was on coal-tar,
+and his investigation of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha
+established the nature of aniline. This substance he used to
+refer to as his first love, and it was a love to which he remained
+faithful throughout his life. His perception of the analogy between
+it and ammonia led to his famous work on the amines and
+ammonium bases and the allied organic phosphorus compounds,
+while his researches on rosaniline, which he first prepared in 1858,
+formed the first of a series of investigations on colouring matters
+which only ended with quinoline red in 1887. But in addition
+to these and numberless other investigations for which he was
+responsible the influence he exercised through his pupils must
+also be taken into account. As a teacher, besides the power of
+accurately gauging the character and capabilities of those who
+studied under him, he had the faculty of infecting them with
+his own enthusiasm, and thus of stimulating them to put forward
+their best efforts. In the lecture-room he laid great stress on
+the importance of experimental demonstrations, paying particular
+attention to their selection and arrangement, though, since he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span>
+himself was a somewhat clumsy manipulator, their actual
+exhibition was generally entrusted to his assistants. He was
+the possessor of a clear and graceful, if somewhat florid, style,
+which showed to special advantage in his numerous obituary
+notices or encomiums (collected and published in three volumes
+<i>Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde</i>, 1888). He also
+excelled as a speaker, particularly at gatherings of an international
+character, for in addition to his native German he could speak
+English, French and Italian with fluency.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memorial Lectures delivered before the Chemical Society, 1893-1900</i>
+(London, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1810-1877),
+Lutheran theologian and historian, was born on the 21st
+of December 1810 at Nuremberg, and studied theology and
+history at the university of Erlangen. In 1829 he went to
+Berlin, where Schleiermacher, Hengstenberg, Neander, Ranke
+and Raumer were among his teachers. In 1833 he received an
+appointment to teach Hebrew and history in the gymnasium of
+Erlangen. In 1835 he became <i>Repetent</i>, in 1838 <i>Privatdozent</i>
+and in 1841 <i>professor extraordinarius</i> in the theological faculty
+at Erlangen. In 1842 he became <i>professor ordinarius</i> at Rostock,
+but in 1845 returned once more to Erlangen as the successor of
+Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless (1806-1879), founder of
+the <i>Zeitschrift für Protestantismus und Kirche</i>, of which Hofmann
+became one of the editors in 1846, J. F. Höfling (1802-1853) and
+Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) being his collaborators. He
+was a conservative in theology, but an enthusiastic adherent of
+the progressive party in politics, and sat as member for Erlangen
+and Fürth in the Bavarian second chamber from 1863 to 1868.
+He died on the 20th of December 1877.</p>
+
+<p>He wrote <i>Die siebzig Jahre des Jeremias u. die siebzig Jahrwochen
+des Daniel</i> (1836); <i>Geschichte des Aufruhrs in den Cevennen</i>
+(1837); <i>Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte für Gymnasien</i> (1839), which
+became a text-book in the Protestant gymnasia of Bavaria;
+<i>Weissagung u. Erfüllung im alten u. neuen Testamente</i> (1841-1844;
+2nd ed., 1857-1860); <i>Der Schriftbeweis</i> (1852-1856; 2nd ed., 1857-1860);
+<i>Die heilige Schrift des neuen Testaments zusammenhängend
+untersucht</i> (1862-1875); <i>Schutzschriften</i> (1856-1859), in which he
+defends himself against the charge of denying the Atonement;
+and <i>Theologische Ethik</i> (1878). His most important works are
+the five last named. In theology, as in ecclesiastical polity,
+Hofmann was a Lutheran of an extreme type, although the
+strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid him
+open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy. He was the head
+of what has been called the Erlangen School, and &ldquo;in his day
+he was unquestionably the chief glory of the University of
+Erlangen&rdquo; (Lichtenberger).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the articles in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> and the
+<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>; and cf. F. Lichtenberger, <i>History
+of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1889) pp. 446-458.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFMANN, MELCHIOR<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1498-1543-4), anabaptist, was
+born at Hall, in Swabia, before 1500 (Zur Linden suggests 1498).
+His biographers usually give his surname as above; in his printed
+works it is Hoffman, in his manuscripts Hoffmann. He was
+without scholarly training, and first appears as a furrier at
+Livland. Attracted by Luther&rsquo;s doctrine, he came forward
+as a lay preacher, combining business travels with a religious
+mission. Accompanied by Melchior Rinck, also a skinner or
+furrier, and a religious enthusiast, he made his way to Sweden.
+Joined by Bernard Knipperdolling, the party reached Stockholm
+in the autumn of 1524. Their fervid attacks on image worship
+led to their expulsion. By way of Livonia, Hofmann arrived
+at Dorpat in November 1524, but was driven thence in the
+following January. Making his way to Riga, and thence to
+Wittenberg, he found favour with Luther; his letter of the
+22nd of June 1525 appears in a tract by Luther of that year.
+He was again at Dorpat in May 1526; later at Magdeburg.
+Returning to Wittenberg, he was coldly received; he wrote
+there his exposition of Daniel xii. (1527). Repairing to Holstein,
+he got into the good graces of Frederick I. of Denmark, and
+was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the Gospel at Kiel.
+He was extravagant in denunciation, and developed a Zwinglian
+view of the Eucharist. Luther was alarmed. At a colloquy of
+preachers in Flensburg (8th April 1529) Hofmann, John
+Campanus and others were put on their defence. Hofmann
+maintained (against the &ldquo;magic&rdquo; of the Lutherans) that the
+function of the Eucharist, like that of preaching, is an appeal
+for spiritual union with Christ. Refusing to retract, he was
+banished. At Strassburg to which he now turned, he was well
+received (1529) till his anabaptist development became apparent.
+He was in relations with Schwenkfeld and with Carlstadt, but
+assumed a prophetic rôle of his own. Journeying to East
+Friesland, (1530) he founded a community at Emden (1532),
+securing a large following of artisans. Despite the warning of
+John Trypmaker, who prophesied for him &ldquo;six months&rdquo; in
+prison, he returned in the spring of 1533 to Strassburg, where
+we hear of his wife and child. He gathered from the Apocalypse
+a vision of &ldquo;resurrections&rdquo; of apostolic Christianity, first
+under John Hus, and now under himself. The year 1533 was
+to inaugurate the new era; Strassburg was to be the seat of
+the New Jerusalem. In May 1533 he and others were arrested.
+Under examination, he denied that he had made common cause
+with the anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet, a mere witness
+of the Most High, but refused the articles of faith proposed to
+him by the provincial synod. Hofmann and Claus Frey, an
+anabaptist, were detained in prison, a measure due to the terror
+excited by the Münster episode of 1533-1534. The synod, in
+1539, made further effort to reclaim him. The last notice of his
+imprisonment is on the 19th of November 1543; he probably
+died soon after.</p>
+
+<p>Two of his publications, with similar titles, in 1530, are noteworthy
+as having influenced Menno Simons and David Joris
+(<i>Weissagung vsz heiliger götlicher geschrifft</i>, and <i>Prophecey oder
+Weissagung vsz warer heiliger götlicher schrifft</i>). Bock treats
+him as an antitrinitarian, on grounds which Wallace rightly
+deems inconclusive. With better reason Trechsel includes him
+among pioneers of some of the positions of Servetus. His
+Christology was Valentinian. While all are elected to salvation,
+only the regenerate may receive baptism, and those who sin
+after regeneration sin against the Holy Ghost, and cannot
+be saved. His followers were known as Hofmannites or
+Melchiorites.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Herrmann, <i>Essai sur la vie et les écrits de M. Hofmann</i>
+(1852); F. O. zur Linden, <i>M. Hofmann, ein Prophet der Wiedertäufer</i>
+(1885); H. Holtzmann, in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (1880);
+Hegler in Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1900); Bock, <i>Hist. Antitrin.</i>
+(1776), ii.; Wallace, <i>Antitrin. Biography</i> (1850) iii., app. iii.;
+Trechsel, <i>Prot. Antitrin. vor F. Socin</i> (1839) i.; Barclay, <i>Inner
+Life of Rel. Societies</i> (1876). An alleged portrait, from an engraving
+of 1608, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross, <i>Pansebeia</i>
+(1655).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1824-1877),
+German botanist, was born at Leipzig on the 18th of
+May 1824. He came of a family engaged in trade, and after
+being educated at the <i>Realschule</i> of Leipzig he entered business
+as a music-dealer. Much of his botanical work was done while
+he was so employed, till in 1863 he was nominated, without
+intermediate academic steps, to the chair in Heidelberg; thence
+he was transferred in 1872 to Tübingen, in succession to H. von
+Mohl. His first work was on the distribution of the Coniferae
+in the Himalaya, but his attention was very soon devoted to
+studying the sexuality and origin of the embryo of Phanerogams.
+His contributions on this subject extended from 1847 till 1860,
+and they finally settled the question of the origin of the embryo
+from an ovum, as against the prevalent pollen-tube theory of
+M. J. Schleiden, for he showed that the pollen-tube does not
+itself produce the embryo, but only stimulates the ovum already
+present in the ovule. He soon turned his attention to the
+embryology of Bryophytes and Pteridophytes, and gave continuous
+accounts of the germination of the spores and fertilization
+in <i>Pilularia</i>, <i>Salvinia</i>, <i>Selaginella</i>. Some of the main facts of the
+life of ferns and mosses were already known; these, together with
+his own wider observations, were worked into that great general
+pronouncement published in 1851 under the title, <i>Vergleichende
+Untersuchungen der Keimung, Entfaltung und Fruchtbildung
+köherer Kryptogamen und der Samenbildung der Coniferen</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span>
+This work will always stand in the first rank of botanical books.
+It antedated the <i>Origin of Species</i> by eight years, but contained
+facts and comparisons which could only become intelligible on
+some theory of descent. The plan of life-story common to them
+all, involving two alternating generations, was demonstrated
+for Liverworts, Mosses, Ferns, Equiseta, Rhizocarps, Lycopodiaceae,
+and even Gymnosperms, with a completeness and certainty
+which must still surprise those who know the botanical literature
+of the author&rsquo;s time. The conclusions of Hofmeister remain in
+their broad outlines unshaken, but rather strengthened by later-acquired
+details. In the light of the theory of descent the
+common plan of life-history in plants apparently so diverse as
+those named acquires a special significance; but it is one of the
+remarkable features of this great work that the writer himself
+does not theorize&mdash;with an unerring insight he points out his
+comparisons and states his homologies, but does not indulge in
+explanatory surmises. It is the typical work of an heroic age
+of plant-morphology. From 1857 till 1862 Hofmeister wrote
+occasionally on physiological subjects, such as the ascent of sap,
+and curvatures of growing parts, but it was in morphology that
+he found his natural sphere. In 1861, in conjunction with
+other botanists, a plan was drawn up of a handbook of physiological
+botany, of which Hofmeister was to be editor. Though
+the original scheme was never completed, the editor himself
+contributed two notable parts, <i>Die Lehre von der Pflanzenzelle</i>
+(1867) and <i>Allgemeine Morphologie der Gewächse</i> (1868). The
+former gives an excellent summary of the structure and relations
+of the vegetable cell as then known, but it did not greatly modify
+current views. The latter was notable for its refutation of the
+spiral theory of leaf arrangement in plants, founded by C. F.
+Schimper and A. Braun. Hofmeister transferred the discussion
+from the mere study of mature form to the observation of the
+development of the parts, and substituted for the &ldquo;spiral
+tendency&rdquo; a mechanical theory based upon the observed fact
+that new branchings appear over the widest gaps which exist
+between next older branchings of like nature. With this important
+work Hofmeister&rsquo;s period of active production closed;
+he fell into ill-health, and retired from his academic duties some
+time before his death at Lindenau, near Leipzig, on the 12th of
+January 1877.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. O. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1845-1909), South African
+politician, was born at Cape Town on the 4th of July 1845.
+He was educated at the South African College, and at an early
+age turned his attention to politics, first as a journalist. He
+was editor of the <i>Zuid Afrikaan</i> till its incorporation with <i>Ons
+Land</i>, and of the <i>Zuid Afrikaansche <span class="correction" title="amended from Tidjschrift">Tijdschrift</span></i>. By birth,
+education and sympathies a typical Dutch Afrikander, he set
+himself to organize the political power of his fellow-countrymen.
+This he did very effectively, and when in 1879 he entered the
+Cape parliament as member for Stellenbosch, he became the
+real leader of the Dutch party. Yet he only held office for six
+months&mdash;as minister without portfolio in the Scanlen ministry
+from May to November 1881. He held no subsequent official
+post in the colony, though he shared with Sir Thomas Upington
+and Sir Charles Mills the honour of representing the Cape at
+the intercolonial conference of 1887. Here he supported the
+proposal for entrusting the defence of Simon&rsquo;s Town to Cape
+Colony, leaving only the armament to be provided by the
+imperial government, opposed trans-oceanic penny postage,
+and moved a resolution in favour of an imperial customs union.
+At the colonial conference of 1894 at Ottawa he was again one
+of the Cape representatives. In 1888 and in 1889 he was a
+member of the South African customs conference.</p>
+
+<p>His chief importance as a public man was, however, derived
+from his power over the Dutch in Cape Colony, and his control
+of the Afrikander Bond. In 1878 he had himself founded the
+&ldquo;Farmers&rsquo; Association,&rdquo; and as the Cape farmers were almost
+entirely Dutch the Association became a centre of Dutch influence.
+When the Bond was formed in 1882, with purely
+political aims, Hofmeyr made haste to obtain control of it,
+and in 1883 amalgamated the Farmers&rsquo; Association with it.
+Under his direction the constitution of the Bond was modified
+by the elimination of the provisions inconsistent with loyalty
+to the British crown. But it remained an organization for
+obtaining the political supremacy of the Cape Dutch. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Colony</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) His control over the Bond enabled
+him for many years, while free from the responsibilities of office,
+to make and unmake ministers at his will, and earned for him
+the name of &ldquo;Cabinet-maker of South Africa.&rdquo; Although
+officially the term &ldquo;Afrikander&rdquo; was explained by Hofmeyr
+to include white men of whatever race, yet in practice the
+influence of the Bond was always exerted in favour of the Dutch,
+and its power was drawn from the Dutch districts of Cape Colony.
+The sympathies of the Bond were thus always strongly with
+the Transvaal, as the chief centre of Dutch influence in South
+Africa; and Hofmeyr&rsquo;s position might in many respects be
+compared with that of Parnell at the head of the Irish Nationalist
+party in Great Britain. In the Bechuanaland difficulty of 1884
+Hofmeyr threw all the influence of the Bond into the scale in
+favour of the Transvaal. But in the course of the next few years
+he began to drift away from President Kruger. He resented
+the reckless disregard of Cape interests involved in Kruger&rsquo;s
+fiscal policy; he feared that the Transvaal, after its sudden
+leap into prosperity upon the gold discoveries of 1886, might
+overshadow all other Dutch influences in South Africa; above
+all he was convinced, as he showed by his action at the London
+conference, that the protection of the British navy was indispensable
+to South Africa, and he set his face against Kruger&rsquo;s
+intrigues with Germany, and his avowed intention of acquiring
+an outlet to the sea in order to get into touch with foreign
+powers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 Hofmeyr joined forces with Cecil Rhodes, who became
+premier of Cape Colony with the support of the Bond. Hofmeyr&rsquo;s
+influence was a powerful factor in the conclusion of the Swaziland
+convention of 1890, as well as in stopping the &ldquo;trek&rdquo; to Banyailand
+(Rhodesia) in 1891&mdash;a notable reversal of the policy he
+had pursued seven years before. But the reactionary elements
+in the Bond grew alarmed at Rhodes&rsquo;s imperialism, and in 1895
+Hofmeyr resigned his seat in parliament and the presidency
+of the Bond. Then came the Jameson Raid, and in its wake
+there rolled over South Africa a wave of Dutch and anti-British
+feeling such as had not been known since the days of Majuba.
+(The proclamation issued by Sir Hercules Robinson disavowing
+Jameson was suggested by Hofmeyr, who helped to draw up
+its terms.) Once more Hofmeyr became president of the Bond.
+By an alteration of the provincial constitution, all power in the
+Cape branch of the Bond was vested in the hands of a vigilance
+committee of three, of whom Hofmeyr and his brother were
+two. As the recognized leader of the Cape Dutch, he protested
+against such abuses as the dynamite monopoly in the Transvaal,
+and urged Kruger even at the eleventh hour to grant reasonable
+concessions rather than plunge into a war that might involve
+Cape Afrikanderdom and the Transvaal in a common ruin. In
+July 1899 he journeyed to Pretoria, and vainly supported the
+proposal of a satisfactory franchise law, combined with a limited
+representation of the Uitlanders in the Volksraad, and in
+September urged the Transvaal to accede to the proposed
+joint inquiry. During the negotiations of 1899, and after the
+outbreak of war, the official organ of the Bond, <i>Ons Land</i>, was
+conspicuous for its anti-British attitude, and its violence forced
+Lord Roberts to suppress it in the Cape Colony district under
+martial law. Hofmeyr never associated himself publicly with
+the opinions expressed by <i>Ons Land</i>, but neither did he repudiate
+them. The tide of race sympathy among his Dutch supporters
+made his position one of great difficulty, and shortly after the
+outbreak of war he withdrew to Europe, and refused to act as
+a member of the &ldquo;Conciliation Committee&rdquo; which came to
+England in 1901 in the interests of the Boer republics.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the war Hofmeyr returned to South Africa
+and organized the Bond forces for the general election held in
+Cape Colony at the beginning of 1904, which resulted in the
+defeat of the Bond party. Hofmeyr retained his ascendancy
+over the Cape Dutch, but now began to find himself somewhat
+out of sympathy with the larger outlook on South African
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span>
+affairs taken by the younger leaders of the Boers in the Transvaal.
+During 1906 he gave offence to the extreme section of the Bond
+by some criticisms of the <i>taal</i> and his use of English in public
+speeches. At the general election in 1908 the Bond, still
+largely under his direction, gained a victory at the polls, but
+Hofmeyr himself was not a candidate. In the renewed movement
+for the closer union of the South African colonies he
+advocated federation as opposed to unification. When, however,
+the unification proposals were ratified by the Cape parliament,
+Hofmeyr procured his nomination as one of the Cape delegates
+to England in the summer of 1909 to submit the draft act of
+union to the imperial government. He attended the conferences
+with the officials of the Colonial Office for the preparation of
+the draft act, and after the bill had become law went to Germany
+for a &ldquo;cure.&rdquo; He returned to London in October 1909, where
+he died on the 16th of that month. His body was taken to
+Cape Town for burial.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1802-1886), Dutch
+theologian, was born at Leer in East Friesland, Prussia, on the
+8th of October 1802, and was educated at the Gymnasium and
+university of Groningen. For three years (1826-1829) he was
+pastor of the Reformed Church at Ulrum, and then entered upon
+his lifelong duties as professor of theology at Groningen. With
+his colleagues L. G. Pareau, J. F. van Vordt, and W. Muurling
+he edited from 1837 to 1872 the <i>Waarheid in Liefde</i>. In this
+review and in his numerous books he vigorously upheld the
+orthodox faith against the Dutch &ldquo;modern theology&rdquo; movement.
+Many of his works were written in Latin, including
+<i>Disputatio, qua ep. ad Hebraeos cum Paulin. epistolis comparatur</i>
+(1826), <i>Institutiones historiae ecclesiae</i> (1835), <i>Institutio theologiae
+naturalis</i> (1842), <i>Encyclopaedia theologi christiani</i> (1844). Others,
+in Dutch, were: <i>The Divine Education of Humanity up to the
+Coming of Jesus Christ</i> (3 vols., 1846), <i>The Nature of the Gospel
+Ministry</i> (1858), <i>The &ldquo;Modern Theology&rdquo; of the Netherlands</i>
+(1869), <i>The Old Catholic Movement</i> (1877). He became professor
+emeritus in 1872, and died at Groningen on the 5th of December
+1886.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOGARTH, WILLIAM<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1697-1764), the great English
+painter and pictorial satirist, was born at Bartholomew Close
+in London on the 10th of November 1697, and baptized on the
+28th in the church of St Bartholomew the Great. He had two
+younger sisters, Mary, born in 1699, and Ann, born in 1701.
+His father, Richard Hogarth, who died in 1718, was a schoolmaster
+and literary hack, who had come to the metropolis to
+seek that fortune which had been denied to him in his native
+Westmorland. The son seems to have been early distinguished
+by a talent for drawing and an active perceptive faculty rather
+than by any close attention to the learning which he was soon
+shrewd enough to see had not made his parent prosper. &ldquo;Shows
+of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when an infant,&rdquo; he
+says, &ldquo;and mimicry, common to all children, was remarkable in
+me.... My exercises when at school were more remarkable for
+the ornaments which adorned them than for the exercise itself.&rdquo;
+This being the case, it is no wonder that, by his own desire,
+he was apprenticed to a silver-plate engraver, Mr Ellis Gamble,
+at the sign of the &ldquo;Golden Angel&rdquo; in Cranbourne Street or
+Alley, Leicester Fields. For this master he engraved a shop-card
+which is still extant. When his apprenticeship began is
+not recorded; but it must have been concluded before the
+beginning of 1720, for in April of that year he appears to have
+set up as engraver on his own account. His desires, however,
+were not limited to silver-plate engraving. &ldquo;Engraving on
+copper was, at twenty years of age, my utmost ambition.&rdquo;
+For this he lacked the needful skill as a draughtsman; and his
+account of the means which he took to supply this want, without
+too much interfering with his pleasure, is thoroughly characteristic,
+though it can scarcely be recommended as an example.
+&ldquo;Laying it down,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;first as an axiom, that he who
+could by any means acquire and retain in his memory, perfect
+ideas of the subjects he meant to draw, would have as clear a
+knowledge of the figure as a man who can write freely hath
+of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet and their infinite
+combinations (each of these being composed of lines), and would
+consequently be an accurate designer, ... I therefore endeavoured
+to habituate myself to the exercise of a sort of technical
+memory, and by repeating in my own mind, the parts of which
+objects were composed, I could by degrees combine and put
+them down with my pencil.&rdquo; This account, it is possible, has
+something of the complacency of the old age in which it was
+written; but there is little doubt that his marvellous power
+of seizing expression owed less to patient academical study
+than to his unexampled eye-memory and tenacity of minor
+detail. But he was not entirely without technical training,
+since, by his own showing, he occasionally &ldquo;took the life&rdquo; to
+correct his memories, and is known to have studied at Sir James
+Thornhill&rsquo;s then recently opened art school.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;His first employment&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> after he set up for himself)
+&ldquo;seems,&rdquo; says John Nichols, in his <i>Anecdotes</i>, &ldquo;to have been
+the engraving of arms and shop bills.&rdquo; After this he was
+employed in designing &ldquo;plates for booksellers.&rdquo; Of these early
+and mostly insignificant works we may pass over &ldquo;The Lottery,
+an Emblematic Print on the South Sea Scheme,&rdquo; and some book
+illustrations, to pause at &ldquo;Masquerades and Operas&rdquo; (1724),
+the first plate he published on his own account. This is a
+clever little satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades
+of the Swiss adventurer Heidegger, the popular Italian
+opera-singers, Rich&rsquo;s pantomimes at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields, and
+last, but by no means least, the exaggerated popularity of Lord
+Burlington&rsquo;s protégé, the architect painter William Kent, who
+is here represented on the summit of Burlington Gate, with
+Raphael and Michelangelo for supporters. This worthy,
+Hogarth had doubtless not learned to despise less in the school
+of his rival Sir James Thornhill. Indeed almost the next of
+Hogarth&rsquo;s important prints was aimed at Kent alone, being
+that memorable burlesque of the unfortunate altarpiece designed
+by the latter for St Clement Danes, which, in deference to the
+ridicule of the parishioners, Bishop Gibson took down in 1725.
+Hogarth&rsquo;s squib, which appeared subsequently, exhibits it as
+a very masterpiece of confusion and bad drawing. In 1726 he
+prepared twelve large engravings for Butler&rsquo;s <i>Hudibras</i>. These
+he himself valued highly, and they are the best of his book
+illustrations. But he was far too individual to be the patient
+interpreter of other men&rsquo;s thoughts, and it is not in this direction
+that his successes are to be sought.</p>
+
+<p>To 1727-1728 belongs one of those rare occurrences which
+have survived as contributions to his biography. He was
+engaged by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a
+design for the &ldquo;Element of Earth.&rdquo; Morris, however, having
+heard that he was &ldquo;an engraver, and no painter,&rdquo; declined
+the work when completed, and Hogarth accordingly sued him
+for the money in the Westminster Court, where, on the 28th of
+May 1728, the case was decided in his (Hogarth&rsquo;s) favour. It
+may have been the aspersion thus early cast on his skill as a
+painter (coupled perhaps with the unsatisfactory state of print-selling,
+owing to the uncontrolled circulation of piratical copies)
+that induced him about this time to turn his attention to the
+production of &ldquo;small conversation pieces&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> groups in oil
+of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in. high), many of which
+are still preserved in different collections. &ldquo;This,&rdquo; he says,
+&ldquo;having novelty, succeeded for a few years.&rdquo; Among his
+other efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were &ldquo;The Wanstead
+Conversation,&rdquo; &ldquo;The House of Commons examining Bambridge,&rdquo;
+an infamous warden of the Fleet, and several pictures of the
+chief actors in Gay&rsquo;s popular <i>Beggar&rsquo;s Opera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On the 23rd of March 1729 he was married at old Paddington
+church to Jane Thornhill, the only daughter of Kent&rsquo;s rival
+above mentioned. The match was a clandestine one, although
+Lady Thornhill appears to have favoured it. We next hear of
+him in &ldquo;lodgings at South Lambeth,&rdquo; where he rendered some
+assistance to the then well-known Jonathan Tyers, who opened
+Vauxhall in 1732 with an entertainment styled a <i>ridotto al
+fresco</i>. For these gardens Hogarth painted a poor picture of
+Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, and he also permitted Hayman
+to make copies of the later series of the &ldquo;Four Times of the Day.&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span>
+In return, the grateful Tyers presented him with a gold pass
+ticket &ldquo;<i>In perpetuam Beneficii Memoriam</i>.&rdquo; It was long thought
+that Hogarth designed this himself. Mr Warwick Wroth (<i>Numismatic
+Chronicle</i>, vol. xviii.) doubts this, although he thinks it
+probable that Hogarth designed some of the silver Vauxhall
+passes which are figured in Wilkinson&rsquo;s <i>Londina illustrata</i>. The
+only engravings between 1726 and 1732 which need be referred
+to are the &ldquo;Large Masquerade Ticket&rdquo; (1727), another satire
+on masquerades, and the print of &ldquo;Burlington Gate&rdquo; (1731),
+evoked by Pope&rsquo;s <i>Epistle to Lord Burlington</i>, and defending
+Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great
+offence, and was, it is said, suppressed.</p>
+
+<p>By 1731 Hogarth must have completed the earliest of the
+series of moral works which first gave him his position as a great
+and original genius. This was &ldquo;A Harlot&rsquo;s Progress,&rdquo; the
+paintings for which, if we may trust the date in the last of the
+pictures, were finished in that year. Almost immediately afterwards
+he must have begun to engrave them&mdash;a task he had at
+first intended to leave to others. From an advertisement in
+the <i>Country Journal; or, the Craftsman</i>, 29th of January 1732,
+the pictures were then being engraved, and from later announcements
+it seems clear that they were delivered to the subscribers
+early in the following April, on the 21st of which month an
+unauthorized prose description of them was published. We have
+no record of the particular train of thought which prompted
+these story-pictures; but it may perhaps be fairly assumed
+that the necessity for creating some link of interest between
+the personages of the little &ldquo;conversation pieces&rdquo; above referred
+to, led to the further idea of connecting several groups or scenes
+so as to form a sequent narrative. &ldquo;I wished,&rdquo; says Hogarth,
+&ldquo;to compose pictures on canvas, similar to representations on
+the stage.&rdquo; &ldquo;I have endeavoured,&rdquo; he says again, &ldquo;to treat
+my subject as a dramatic writer; my picture is my stage, and
+men and women my players, who by means of certain actions
+and gestures are to exhibit <i>a dumb show</i>.&rdquo; There was never a
+more eloquent dumb show than this of the &ldquo;Harlot&rsquo;s Progress.&rdquo;
+In six scenes the miserable career of a woman of the town is
+traced out remorselessly from its first facile beginning to its
+shameful and degraded end. Nothing of the detail is softened
+or abated; the whole is acted out <i>coram populo</i>, with the hard,
+uncompassionate morality of the age the painter lived in, while
+the introduction here and there of one or two well-known
+characters such as Colonel Charteris and Justice Gonson give a
+vivid reality to the satire. It had an immediate success. To
+say nothing of the fact that the talent of the paintings completely
+reconciled Sir James Thornhill to the son-in-law he had hitherto
+refused to acknowledge, more than twelve hundred names of
+subscribers to the engravings were entered in the artist&rsquo;s book.
+On the appearance of plate iii. the lords of the treasury trooped
+to the print shop for Sir John Gonson&rsquo;s portrait which it contained.
+The story was made into a pantomime by Theophilus Cibber,
+and by some one else into a ballad opera; and it gave rise to
+numerous pamphlets and poems. It was painted on fan-mounts
+and transferred to cups and saucers. Lastly, it was freely
+pirated. There could be no surer testimony to its popularity.</p>
+
+<p>From the MSS. of George Vertue in the British Museum
+(Add. MSS. 23069-98) it seems that during the progress of the
+plates, Hogarth was domiciled with his father-in-law, Sir James
+Thornhill, in the Middle Piazza, Covent Garden (the &ldquo;second
+house eastward from James Street&rdquo;), and it must have been
+thence that set out the historical expedition from London to
+Sheerness of which the original record still exists at the British
+Museum. This is an oblong MS. volume entitled <i>An Account
+of what seem&rsquo;d most Remarkable in the Five Days&rsquo; Peregrination
+of the Five Following Persons, vizt., Messieurs Tothall, Scott,
+Hogarth, Thornhill and Forrest. Begun on Saturday May 27th
+1732 and Finish&rsquo;d On the 31st of the Same Month. Abi tu et
+fac similiter. Inscription on Dulwich College Porch</i>. The journal,
+which is written by Ebenezer, the father of Garrick&rsquo;s friend
+Theodosius Forrest, gives a good idea of what a &ldquo;frisk&rdquo;&mdash;as
+Johnson called it&mdash;was in those days, while the illustrations
+were by Hogarth and Samuel Scott the landscape painter.
+John Thornhill, Sir James&rsquo;s son, made the map. This version
+(in prose) was subsequently run into rhyme by one of Hogarth&rsquo;s
+friends, the Rev. Wm. Gostling of Canterbury, and after the
+artist&rsquo;s death both versions were published. In the absence
+of other biographical detail, they are of considerable interest
+to the student of Hogarth. In 1733 Hogarth moved into the
+&ldquo;Golden Head&rdquo; in Leicester Fields, which, with occasional
+absences at Chiswick, he continued to occupy until his death.
+By December of this year he was already engaged upon the
+engravings of a second Progress, that of a Rake. It was not as
+successful as its predecessor. It was in eight plates in lieu of
+six. The story is unequal; but there is nothing finer than the
+figure of the desperate hero in the Covent Garden gaming-house,
+or the admirable scenes in the Fleet prison and Bedlam, where
+at last his headlong career comes to its tragic termination. The
+plates abound with allusive suggestion and covert humour;
+but it is impossible to attempt any detailed description of them
+here.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A Rake&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; was dated June 25, 1735, and the
+engravings bear the words &ldquo;according to Act of Parliament.&rdquo;
+This was an act (8 Geo. II. cap. 13) which Hogarth had been
+instrumental in obtaining from the legislature, being stirred
+thereto by the shameless piracies of rival printsellers. Although
+loosely drawn, it served its purpose; and the painter commemorated
+his success by a long inscription on the plate entitled
+&ldquo;Crowns, Mitres, &amp;c.,&rdquo; afterwards used as a subscription ticket to
+the Election series. These subscription tickets to his engravings,
+let us add, are among the brightest and most vivacious of the
+artist&rsquo;s productions. That to the &ldquo;Harlot&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; was
+entitled &ldquo;Boys peeping at Nature,&rdquo; while the Rake&rsquo;s Progress
+was heralded by the delightful etching known as &ldquo;A Pleased
+Audience at a Play, or The Laughing Audience.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We must pass more briefly over the prints which followed the
+two Progresses, noting first &ldquo;A Modern Midnight Conversation,&rdquo;
+an admirable drinking scene which comes between them in 1733,
+and the bright little plate of &ldquo;Southwark Fair,&rdquo; which, although
+dated 1733, was published with &ldquo;A Rake&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; in 1735.
+Between these and &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>,&rdquo; upon the pictures of
+which the painter must have been not long after at work, come the
+small prints of the &ldquo;Consultation of Physicians&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sleeping
+Congregation&rdquo; (1736), the &ldquo;Scholars at a Lecture&rdquo; (1737); the
+&ldquo;Four Times of the Day&rdquo; (1738), a series of pictures of 18th
+century life, the earlier designs for which have been already referred
+to; the &ldquo;Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn&rdquo; (1738), which
+Walpole held to be, &ldquo;for wit and imagination, without any
+other end, the best of all the painter&rsquo;s works&rdquo;; and finally the
+admirable plates of the Distrest Poet painfully composing a
+poem on &ldquo;Riches&rdquo; in a garret, and the Enraged Musician
+fulminating from his parlour window upon a discordant orchestra
+of knife-grinders, milk-girls, ballad-singers and the rest upon the
+pavement outside. These are dated respectively 1736 and 1741.
+To this period also (<i>i.e.</i> the period preceding the production
+of the plates of &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>&rdquo;) belong two of those
+history pictures to which, in emulation of the Haymans and
+Thornhills, the artist was continually attracted. &ldquo;The Pool of
+Bethesda&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Good Samaritan,&rdquo; &ldquo;with figures seven feet
+high,&rdquo; were painted <i>circa</i> 1736, and presented by the artist to
+St Bartholomew&rsquo;s Hospital, where they remain. They were not
+masterpieces; and it is pleasanter to think of his connexion
+with Captain Coram&rsquo;s recently established Foundling Hospital
+(1739), which he aided with his money, his graver and his brush,
+and for which he painted that admirable portrait of the good
+old philanthropist which is still, and deservedly, one of its chief
+ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>In &ldquo;A Harlot&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; Hogarth had not strayed much
+beyond the lower walks of society, and although, in &ldquo;A Rake&rsquo;s
+Progress,&rdquo; his hero was taken from the middle classes, he can
+scarcely be said to have quitted those fields of observation which
+are common to every spectator. It is therefore more remarkable,
+looking to his education and antecedents, that his masterpiece,
+&ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>,&rdquo; should successfully depict, as the advertisement
+has it, &ldquo;a variety of modern occurrences in high life.&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span>
+Yet, as an accurate delineation of upper class 18th century
+society, his &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>&rdquo; has never, we believe, been
+seriously assailed. The countess&rsquo;s bedroom, the earl&rsquo;s apartment
+with its lavish coronets and old masters, the grand saloon with
+its marble pillars and grotesque ornaments, are fully as true to
+nature as the frowsy chamber in the &ldquo;Turk&rsquo;s Head Bagnio,&rdquo;
+the quack-doctor&rsquo;s museum in St Martin&rsquo;s Lane, or the mean
+opulence of the merchant&rsquo;s house in the city. And what story
+could be more vividly, more perspicuously, more powerfully told
+than this godless alliance of <i>sacs et parchemins</i>&mdash;this miserable
+tragedy of an ill-assorted marriage? There is no defect of invention,
+no superfluity of detail, no purposeless stroke. It has
+the merit of a work by a great master of fiction, with the additional
+advantages which result from the pictorial fashion of the
+narrative; and it is matter for congratulation that it is still to
+be seen by all the world in the National Gallery in London,
+where it can tell its own tale better than pages of commentary.
+The engravings of &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>&rdquo; were dated April 1745.
+Although by this time the painter found a ready market for his
+engravings, he does not appear to have been equally successful
+in selling his pictures. The people bought his prints; but the
+richer and not numerous connoisseurs who purchased pictures
+were wholly in the hands of the importers and manufacturers
+of &ldquo;old masters.&rdquo; In February 1745 the original oil paintings
+of the two Progresses, the &ldquo;Four Times of the Day&rdquo; and the
+&ldquo;Strolling Actresses&rdquo; were still unsold. On the last day of
+that month Hogarth disposed of them by an ill-devised kind of
+auction, the details of which may be read in Nichols&rsquo;s <i>Anecdotes</i>,
+for the paltry sum of £427, 7s. No better fate attended &ldquo;Marriage
+<i>à la mode</i>,&rdquo; which six years later became the property of Mr Lane
+of Hillingdon for 120 guineas, being then in Carlo Maratti frames
+which had cost the artist four guineas a piece. Something of this
+was no doubt due to Hogarth&rsquo;s impracticable arrangements,
+but the fact shows conclusively how completely blind his contemporaries
+were to his merits as a painter, and how hopelessly
+in bondage to the all-powerful picture-dealers. Of these latter
+the painter himself gave a graphic picture in a letter addressed
+by him under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Britophil&rdquo; to the <i>St James&rsquo;s
+Evening Post</i>, in June 1737.</p>
+
+<p>But if Hogarth was not successful with his dramas on canvas,
+he occasionally shared with his contemporaries in the popularity
+of portrait painting. For a picture, executed in 1746, of Garrick
+as Richard III. he was paid £200, &ldquo;which was more,&rdquo; says he,
+&ldquo;than any English artist ever received for a single portrait.&rdquo;
+In the same year a sketch of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, afterwards
+beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success.</p>
+
+<p>We must content ourselves with a brief enumeration of the
+most important of his remaining works. These are &ldquo;The Stage
+Coach or Country Inn Yard&rdquo; (1747); the series of twelve plates
+entitled &ldquo;Industry and Idleness&rdquo; (1747), depicting the career
+of two London apprentices; the &ldquo;Gate of Calais&rdquo; (1749),
+which had its origin in a rather unfortunate visit paid to France
+by the painter after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the &ldquo;March
+to Finchley&rdquo; (1750); &ldquo;Beer Street,&rdquo; &ldquo;Gin Lane&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Four
+Stages of Cruelty&rdquo; (1751); the admirable representations of
+election humours in the days of Sir Robert Walpole, entitled
+&ldquo;Four Prints of an Election&rdquo; (1755-1758); and the plate of
+&ldquo;Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism, a Medley&rdquo; (1762),
+adapted from an earlier unpublished design called &ldquo;Enthusiasm
+Delineated.&rdquo; Besides these must be chronicled three more
+essays in the &ldquo;great style of history painting,&rdquo; viz. &ldquo;Paul
+before Felix,&rdquo; &ldquo;Moses brought to Pharaoh&rsquo;s Daughter&rdquo; and the
+Altarpiece for St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol. The first two were
+engraved in 1751-1752, the last in 1794. A subscription ticket to
+the earlier pictures, entitled &ldquo;Paul before Felix Burlesqued,&rdquo; had
+a popularity far greater than that of the prints themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In 1745 Hogarth painted that admirable portrait of himself
+with his dog Trump, which is now in the National Gallery. In
+a corner of this he had drawn on a palette a serpentine curve
+with the words &ldquo;The Line of Beauty.&rdquo; Much inquiry ensued
+as to the meaning of this hieroglyphic; and in an unpropitious
+hour the painter resolved to explain himself in writing. The
+result was the well-known <i>Analysis of Beauty</i> (1753), a treatise
+to fix &ldquo;the fluctuating ideas of Taste,&rdquo; otherwise a desultory
+essay having for pretext the precept attributed to Michelangelo
+that a figure should be always &ldquo;Pyramidall, Serpent like and
+multiplied by one two and three.&rdquo; The fate of the book was
+what might have been expected. By the painter&rsquo;s adherents
+it was praised as a final deliverance upon aesthetics; by his
+enemies and professional rivals, its obscurities, and the minor
+errors which, notwithstanding the benevolent efforts of literary
+friends, the work had not escaped, were made the subject of
+endless ridicule and caricature. It added little to its author&rsquo;s
+fame, and it is perhaps to be regretted that he ever undertook
+it. Moreover, there were further humiliations in store for him.
+In 1759 the success of a little picture called &ldquo;The Lady&rsquo;s Last
+Stake,&rdquo; painted for Lord Charlemont, procured him a commission
+from Sir Richard Grosvenor to paint another picture &ldquo;upon
+the same terms.&rdquo; Unhappily on this occasion he deserted his
+own field of genre and social satire, to select the story from
+Boccaccio (or rather Dryden) of Sigismunda weeping over the
+heart of her murdered lover Guiscardo, being the subject of a
+picture in Sir Luke Schaub&rsquo;s collection by Furini which had
+recently been sold for £400. The picture, over which he spent
+much time and patience, was not regarded as a success; and
+Sir Richard rather meanly shuffled out of his bargain upon the
+plea that &ldquo;the constantly having it before one&rsquo;s eyes, would be
+too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one&rsquo;s mind.&rdquo;
+Sigismunda, therefore, much to the artist&rsquo;s mortification, and
+the delight of the malicious, remained upon his hands. As, by
+her husband&rsquo;s desire, his widow valued it at £500, it found no
+purchaser until after her death, when the Boydells bought it
+for 56 guineas. It was exhibited, with others of Hogarth&rsquo;s
+pictures, at the Spring Gardens exhibition of 1761, for the
+catalogue of which Hogarth engraved a Head-piece and a Tail-piece
+which are still the delight of collectors; and finally, by
+the bequest of Mr J. H. Anderdon, it passed in 1879 to the
+National Gallery, where, in spite of theatrical treatment and
+a repulsive theme, it still commands admiration for its colour,
+drawing and expression.</p>
+
+<p>In 1761 Hogarth was sixty-five years of age, and he had but
+three years more to live. These three years were embittered
+by an unhappy quarrel with his quondam friends, John Wilkes
+and Churchill the poet, over which most of his biographers are
+contented to pass rapidly. Having succeeded John Thornhill
+in 1757 as serjeant painter (to which post he was reappointed
+at the accession of George III.), an evil genius prompted him
+in 1762 to do some &ldquo;timed&rdquo; thing in the ministerial interest, and
+he accordingly published the indifferent satire of &ldquo;The Times,
+plate i.&rdquo; This at once brought him into collision with Wilkes
+and Churchill, and the immediate result was a violent attack
+upon him, both as a man and an artist, in the opposition <i>North
+Briton</i>, No. 17. The alleged decay of his powers, the miscarriage
+of Sigismunda, the cobbled composition of the <i>Analysis</i>, were
+all discussed with scurrilous malignity by those who had known
+his domestic life and learned his weaknesses. The old artist
+was deeply wounded, and his health was failing. Early in the
+next year, however, he replied by that portrait of Wilkes which
+will for ever carry his squinting features to posterity. Churchill
+retaliated in July by a savage <i>Epistle to William Hogarth</i>, to which
+the artist rejoined by a print of Churchill as a bear, in torn bands
+and ruffles, not the most successful of his works. &ldquo;The pleasure,
+and pecuniary advantage,&rdquo; writes Hogarth manfully, &ldquo;which
+I derived from these two engravings&rdquo; (of Wilkes and Churchill),
+&ldquo;together with occasionally riding on horseback, restored me
+to as much health as can be expected at my time of life.&rdquo; He
+produced but one more print, that of &ldquo;Finis, or The Bathos,&rdquo;
+March 1764, a strange jumble of &ldquo;fag ends,&rdquo; intended as a
+tail-piece to his collected prints; and on the 26th October of
+the same year he died of an aneurism at his house in Leicester
+Square. His wife, to whom he left his plates as a chief source
+of income, survived him until 1789. He was buried in Chiswick
+churchyard, where a tomb was erected to him by his friends
+in 1771, with an epitaph by Garrick. Not far off, on the road
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span>
+to Chiswick Gardens, still stands the little red-brick Georgian
+villa in which from September 1749 until his death he spent
+the summer seasons. After many vicissitudes and changes of
+ownership it was purchased in 1902 by Lieut.-Colonel Shipway
+of Chiswick, who turned it into a Hogarth museum and preserved
+it to the nation.</p>
+
+<p>From such records of him as survive, Hogarth appears to have
+been much what from his portrait one might suppose him to
+have been&mdash;a blue-eyed, honest, combative little man, thoroughly
+insular in his prejudices and antipathies, fond of flattery, sensitive
+like most satirists, a good friend, an intractable enemy, ambitious,
+as he somewhere says, in all things to be singular, and not always
+accurately estimating the extent of his powers. With the art
+connoisseurship of his day he was wholly at war, because, as he
+believed, it favoured foreign mediocrity at the expense of native
+talent; and in the heat of argument he would probably, as he
+admits, often come &ldquo;to utter blasphemous expressions against
+the divinity even of Raphael Urbino, Correggio and Michelangelo.&rdquo;
+But it was rather against the third-rate copies of
+third-rate artists&mdash;the &ldquo;ship-loads of dead Christs, Holy
+Families and Madonnas&rdquo;&mdash;that his indignation was directed;
+and in speaking of his attitude with regard to the great masters
+of art, it is well to remember his words to Mrs Piozzi:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+connoisseurs and I are at war, you know; and because I hate
+<i>them</i>, they think I hate <i>Titian</i>&mdash;and let them!&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But no doubt it was in a measure owing to this hostile attitude
+of his towards the all-powerful picture-brokers that his contemporaries
+failed to recognize adequately his merits as a painter,
+and persisted in regarding him as an ingenious humorist alone.
+Time has reversed that unjust sentence. He is now held to have
+been a splendid painter, pure and harmonious in his colouring,
+wonderfully dexterous and direct in his handling, and in his
+composition leaving little or nothing to be desired. As an engraver
+his work is more conspicuous for its vigour, spirit and
+intelligibility than for finish and beauty of line. He desired that
+it should tell its own tale plainly, and bear the distinct impress of
+his individuality, and in this he thoroughly succeeded. As a
+draughtsman his skill has sometimes been debated, and his work
+at times undoubtedly bears marks of haste, and even carelessness.
+If, however, he is judged by his best instead of his worst, he
+will not be found wanting in this respect. But it is not after
+all as a draughtsman, an engraver or a painter that he claims
+his unique position among English artists&mdash;it is as a humorist
+and a satirist upon canvas. Regarded in this light he has never
+been equalled, whether for his vigour of realism and dramatic
+power, his fancy and invention in the decoration of his story,
+or his merciless anatomy and exposure of folly and wickedness.
+If we regard him&mdash;as he loved to regard himself&mdash;as &ldquo;author&rdquo;
+rather than &ldquo;artist,&rdquo; his place is with the great masters of
+literature&mdash;with the Thackerays and Fieldings, the Cervantes
+and Molières.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The main body of Hogarth literature is to be found
+in the autobiographical <i>Memoranda</i> published by John Ireland in
+1798, and in the successive <i>Anecdotes</i> of the antiquary John Nichols.
+Much minute information has also been collected in F. G. Stephens&rsquo;s
+<i>Catalogue of the Satirical Prints and Drawings in the British Museum</i>.
+But a copious bibliography of books, pamphlets, &amp;c., relating to
+Hogarth, together with detailed catalogues of his paintings and
+prints, will be found in the <i>Memoir</i> of Hogarth by Austin Dobson.
+First issued in 1879, this was reprinted and expanded in 1891, 1897,
+1902 and finally in 1907. Pictures by Hogarth from private collections
+are constantly to be found at the annual exhibitions of the Old
+Masters at Burlington House; but most of the best-known works
+have permanent homes in public galleries. &ldquo;Marriage <i>à la mode</i>.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Sigismunda,&rdquo; &ldquo;Lavinia Fenton,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Shrimp Girl,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Gate
+of Calais,&rdquo; the portraits of himself, his sister and his servants, are
+all in the National Gallery; the &ldquo;Rake&rsquo;s Progress&rdquo; and the Election
+Series, in the Soane Museum; and the &ldquo;March to Finchley&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Captain Coram&rdquo; in the Foundling. There are also notable pictures in
+the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge and the National Portrait
+Gallery. At the Print Room in the British Museum there is also a
+very interesting set of sixteen designs for the series called &ldquo;Industry
+and Idleness,&rdquo; the majority of which formerly belonged to Horace
+Walpole.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOGG, JAMES<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1770-1835), Scottish poet, known as the
+&ldquo;Ettrick Shepherd,&rdquo; was baptized at Ettrick in Selkirkshire
+on the 9th of December 1770. His ancestors had been shepherds
+for centuries. He received hardly any school training, and
+seems to have had difficulty in getting books to read. After
+spending his early years herding sheep for different masters, he
+was engaged as shepherd by Mr Laidlaw, tenant of Blackhouse,
+in the parish of Yarrow, from 1790 till 1799. He was treated
+with great kindness, and had access to a large collection of
+books. When this was exhausted he subscribed to a circulating
+library in Peebles. While attending to his flock, he spent a
+great deal of time in reading. He profited by the company of
+his master&rsquo;s sons, of whom William Laidlaw is known as the
+friend of Scott and the author of <i>Lucy&rsquo;s Flittin&rsquo;</i>. Hogg&rsquo;s first
+printed piece was &ldquo;The Mistakes of a Night&rdquo; in the <i>Scots
+Magazine</i> for October 1794, and in 1801 he published his <i>Scottish
+Pastorals</i>. In 1802 Hogg became acquainted with Sir Walter
+Scott, who was then collecting materials for his <i>Border Minstrelsy</i>.
+On Scott&rsquo;s recommendation Constable published Hogg&rsquo;s miscellaneous
+poems (<i>The Mountain Bard</i>) in 1807. By this work,
+and by <i>The Shepherd&rsquo;s Guide, being a Practical Treatise on the
+Diseases of Sheep</i>, Hogg realized about £300. With this money
+he unfortunately embarked in farming in Dumfriesshire, and
+in three years was utterly ruined, having to abandon all his
+effects to his creditors. He returned to Ettrick, only to find
+that he could not even obtain employment as a shepherd; so
+he set off in February 1810 to push his fortune in Edinburgh
+as a literary adventurer. In the same year he published a collection
+of songs, <i>The Forest Minstrel</i>, to which he was the largest
+contributor. This book, being dedicated to the countess of
+Dalkeith (afterwards duchess of Buccleuch), and recommended
+to her notice by Scott, was rewarded with a present of 100
+guineas. He then began a weekly periodical, <i>The Spy</i>, which
+he continued from September 1810 till August 1811. The
+appearance of <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Wake</i> in 1813 established Hogg&rsquo;s
+reputation as a poet; Byron recommended it to John Murray,
+who brought out an English edition. The scene of the poem
+is laid in 1561; the queen is Mary Stuart; and the &ldquo;wake&rdquo;
+provides a simple framework for seventeen poems sung by rival
+bards. It was followed by the <i>Pilgrims of the Sun</i> (1815), and
+<i>Mador of the Moor</i> (1816). The duchess of Buccleuch, on her
+death-bed (1814), had asked her husband to do something for
+the Ettrick bard; and the duke gave him a lease for life of the
+farm of Altrive in Yarrow, consisting of about 70 acres of moorland,
+on which the poet built a house and spent the last years
+of his life. In order to obtain money to stock his farm Hogg
+asked various poets to contribute to a volume of verse which
+should be a kind of poetic &ldquo;benefit&rdquo; for himself. Failing in
+his applications he wrote a volume of parodies, published in
+1816, as <i>The Poetic Mirror, or the Living Bards of Great Britain</i>.
+He took possession of his farm in 1817; but his literary exertions
+were never relaxed. Before 1820 he had written the prose tales
+of <i>The Brownie of Bodsbeck</i> (1818) and two volumes of <i>Winter
+Evening Tales</i> (1820), besides collecting, editing and writing
+part of two volumes of <i>The Jacobite Relics of Scotland</i> (1819-1821),
+and contributing largely to <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>. &ldquo;The
+Chaldee MS.,&rdquo; which appeared in <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (October
+1817), and gave such offence that it was immediately withdrawn,
+was largely Hogg&rsquo;s work.</p>
+
+<p>In 1820 he married Margaret Phillips, a lady of a good Annandale
+family, and found himself possessed of about £1000, a
+good house and a well-stocked farm. Hogg&rsquo;s connexion with
+<i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i> kept him continually before the public;
+his contributions, which include the best of his prose works,
+were collected in the <i>Shepherd&rsquo;s Calendar</i> (1829). The wit and
+mischief of some of his literary friends made free with his name
+as the &ldquo;Shepherd&rdquo; of the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>, and represented
+him in ludicrous and grotesque aspects; but the effect of the
+whole was favourable to his popularity. &ldquo;Whatever may be
+the merits of the picture of the Shepherd [in the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>]&mdash;and
+no one will deny its power and genius,&rdquo; writes
+Professor Veitch&mdash;&ldquo;it is true, all the same, that this Shepherd
+was not the Shepherd of Ettrick or the man James Hogg. He
+was neither a Socrates nor a Falstaff, neither to be credited
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span>
+with the wisdom and lofty idealizings of the one, nor with the
+characteristic humour and coarseness of the other.&rdquo; <i>The Three
+Perils of Woman</i> (1820), and <i>The Three Perils of Man</i> (1822),
+were followed in 1825 by an epic poem, <i>Queen Hynde</i>, which
+was unfavourably received. He visited London in 1832, and was
+much lionized. On his return a public dinner was given to him
+in Peebles,&mdash;Professor Wilson in the chair,&mdash;and he acknowledged
+that he had at last &ldquo;found fame.&rdquo; His health, however,
+was seriously impaired. With his pen in his hand to the last,
+Hogg in 1834 published a volume of <i>Lay Sermons</i>, and <i>The
+Domestic Manners and Private Life of Sir Walter Scott</i>, a book
+which Lockhart regarded as an infringement on his rights.
+In 1835 appeared three volumes of <i>Tales of the Wars of Montrose</i>.
+Hogg died on the 21st of November 1835, and was buried in
+the churchyard of his native parish Ettrick. His fame had
+seemed to fill the whole district, and was brightest at its close;
+his presence was associated with all the border sports and
+festivities; and as a man James Hogg was ever frank, joyous
+and charitable. It is mainly as a great peasant poet that he
+lives in literature. Some of his lyrics and minor poems&mdash;his
+&ldquo;Skylark,&rdquo; &ldquo;When the Kye comes Hame,&rdquo; his verses on the
+&ldquo;Comet&rdquo; and &ldquo;Evening Star,&rdquo; and his &ldquo;Address to Lady
+Ann Scott&rdquo;&mdash;are exquisite. <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Wake</i> unites his
+characteristic excellences&mdash;his command of the old romantic
+ballad style, his graceful fairy mythology and his aerial flights
+of imagination. In the fairy story of Kilmeny in this work
+Hogg seems completely transformed; he is absorbed in the
+ideal and supernatural, and writes under direct and immediate
+inspiration.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hogg&rsquo;s &ldquo;Memoir of the Author&rsquo;s Life, written by himself,&rdquo;
+prefixed to the 3rd edition (1821) of <i>The Mountain Bard</i>, also
+<i>Memorials of James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd</i>, edited by his daughter,
+Mrs M. G. Garden (enlarged edition with preface by Professor Veitch,
+1903), and Sir G. B. S. Douglas, <i>James Hogg</i> (1899) in the &ldquo;Famous
+Scots&rdquo; series; also <i>The Poems of James Hogg</i>, selected by William
+Wallace (1903). John Wilson (&ldquo;Christopher North&rdquo;) had a real
+affection for Hogg, but for some reason or other made no use of the
+materials placed in his hands for a biography of the poet. The
+memoir mentioned on the title-page of the <i>Works</i> (1838-1840) never
+appeared, and the memoir prefixed to the edition of Hogg&rsquo;s works
+published by Blackie &amp; Co. (1865) was written by the Rev. Thomas
+Thompson. See also Wilson&rsquo;s <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i>; Mrs Oliphant&rsquo;s
+<i>Annals of a Publishing House</i>, vol. i. chap. vii.; Gilfillan&rsquo;s <i>First
+Gallery of Literary Portraits</i>; Cunningham&rsquo;s <i>Biog. and Crit. Hist. of
+Lit.</i>; and the general index to <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>. A collected
+edition of Hogg&rsquo;s Tales appeared in 1837 in 6 vols., and a second in
+1851; his <i>Poetical Works</i> were published in 1822, 1838-1840 and
+1865-1866. For an admirable account of the social entertainments
+Hogg used to give in Edinburgh, see <i>Memoir of Robert Chambers</i>
+(1874), by Dr William Chambers, pp. 263-270.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1792-1862), English man of
+letters, was born at Norton, Durham, on the 24th of May 1792.
+He was educated at Durham grammar school and at University
+College, Oxford. Here he became the intimate friend of the
+poet Shelley, with whom in 1811 he was expelled from the
+university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the authorship
+of the pamphlet <i>The Necessity for Atheism</i>. He was then
+sent to study law at York, where he remained for six months.
+Hogg&rsquo;s behaviour to Harriet Shelley interrupted his relations
+with her husband for some time, but in 1813 the friendship
+was renewed in London. In 1817 Hogg was called to the bar,
+and became later a revising barrister. In 1844 he inherited
+£2000 under Shelley&rsquo;s will, and in 1855, in accordance with
+the wishes of the poet&rsquo;s family, began to write Shelley&rsquo;s
+biography. The first two volumes of it were published in 1858,
+but they proved to be far more an autobiography than a
+biography, and Shelley&rsquo;s representatives refused Hogg further
+access to the materials necessary for its completion. Hogg died
+on the 27th of August 1862.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOGMANAY,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> the name in Scotland and some parts of the
+north of England for New Year&rsquo;s Eve, as also for the cake then
+given to the children. On the morning of the 31st of December
+the children in small bands go from door to door singing:</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">
+                    &ldquo;Hogmanay<br />
+                    Trollolay<br />
+Gie&rsquo;s o&rsquo; your white bread and nane o&rsquo; your grey&rdquo;;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and begging for small gifts or alms. These usually take the
+form of an oaten cake. The derivation of the term has been
+much disputed. Cotgrave (1611) says: &ldquo;It is the voice of
+the country folks begging small presents or New Year&rsquo;s gifts
+... an ancient term of rejoicing derived from the Druids,
+who were wont the first of each January to go into the woods,
+where, having sacrificed and banquetted together, they gathered
+mistletoe, esteeming it excellent to make beasts fruitful and
+most soverayne against all poyson.&rdquo; And he connects the word,
+through such Norman French forms as <i>hoguinané</i>, with the old
+French <i>aguilanneuf</i>, which he explains as <i>au gui-l&rsquo;an-neuf</i>, &ldquo;to
+the mistletoe! the New Year!&rdquo;&mdash;this being (on his interpretation)
+the Druidical salutation to the coming year as the revellers
+issued from the woods armed with boughs of mistletoe. But
+though this explanation may be accepted as containing the
+truth in referring the word to a French original, Cotgrave&rsquo;s
+detailed etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists,
+and the identical French <i>aguilanneuf</i> remains, like it, in
+obscurity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOGSHEAD,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a cask for holding liquor or other commodities,
+such as tobacco, sugar, molasses, &amp;c.; also a liquid measure
+of capacity, varying with the contents. As a measure for beer,
+cider, &amp;c., it equals 54 gallons. A statute of Richard III. (1483)
+fixed the hogshead of wine at 63 wine-gallons, <i>i.e.</i> 52½ imperial
+gallons. The etymology of the word has been much discussed.
+According to Skeat, the origin is to be found in the name for a
+cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in several
+Teutonic languages, in Dutch <i>oxhooft</i> (modern <i>okshoofd</i>), Dan.
+<i>oxehoved</i>, O. Swed. <i>oxhufvod</i>, &amp;c. The word should therefore
+be &ldquo;oxhead,&rdquo; and &ldquo;hogshead&rdquo; is a mere corruption. It has
+been suggested that the name arose from the branding of such
+a measure with the head of an ox (see <i>Notes and Queries</i>, series
+iv. 2, 46, note by H. Tiedeman). The <i>New English Dictionary</i>
+does not attempt any explanation of the term, and takes
+&ldquo;hogshead&rdquo; as the original form, from which the forms in other
+languages have been corrupted. The earlier Dutch forms
+<i>hukeshovet</i> and <i>hoekshoot</i> are nearer to the English form, and,
+further, the Dutch for &ldquo;ox&rdquo; is os.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOHENASPERG,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> an ancient fortress of Germany, in the
+kingdom of Württemberg, 10 m. N. of Stuttgart, is situated
+on a conical hill, 1100 ft. high, overlooking the town of Asperg.
+It was formerly strongly fortified and was long the state prison
+of the kingdom of Württemberg. Among the many who have
+been interned here may be mentioned the notorious Jew financier,
+Joseph Süss-Oppenheimer (1692-1738) and the poet C. F. D.
+Schubart (1739-1791). It is now a reformatory. Hohenasperg
+originally belonged to the counts of Calw; it next passed to
+the counts palatine of Tübingen and from them was acquired
+in 1308 by Württemberg. In 1535 the fortifications were
+extended and strengthened, and in 1635 the town was taken
+by the Imperialists, who occupied it until 1649.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Schön, <i>Die Staatsgefangenen von Hohenasperg</i> (Stuttgart, 1899);
+and Biffart, <i>Geschichte der Württembergischen Feste Hohenasperg</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1858).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOHENFRIEDBERG,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hohenfriedeberg</span>, a village of
+Silesia, about 6 m. from the small town of Striegau. It gives
+its name to a battle (also called the battle of Striegau) in the
+War of the Austrian Succession, fought on the 3rd of June 1745
+between the Prussians under Frederick the Great and the
+Austrians and Saxons commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine.
+In May the king, whose army had occupied extended winter
+quarters in Silesia, had drawn it together into a position about
+Neisse whence he could man&oelig;uvre against the Austrians,
+whether they invaded Silesia by Troppau or Glatz, or joined
+their allies (who, under the duke of Weissenfels, were on the
+upper Elbe), and made their advance on Schweidnitz, Breslau
+or Liegnitz. On the Austrians concentrating towards the Elbe,
+Frederick gradually drew his army north-westward along the
+edge of the mountain country until on the 1st of June it was
+near Schweidnitz. At that date the Austro-Saxons were advancing
+(very slowly owing to the poorness of the roads and
+the dilatoriness of the Saxon artillery train) from Waldenburg
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span>
+and Landshut through the mountains, heading for Striegau.
+After a few minor skirmishes at the end of May, Frederick had
+made up his mind to offer no opposition to the passage of the
+Allies, but to fall upon them as they emerged, and the Prussian
+army was therefore kept concentrated out of sight, while only
+selected officers and patrols watched the debouches of the
+mountains. On the other hand the Allies had no intention of
+delivering battle, but meant only, on emerging from the
+mountains, to take up a suitable camping position and thence
+to interpose between Breslau and the king, believing that &ldquo;the
+king was at his wits&rsquo; end, and, once the army really began its
+retreat on Breslau, there would be frightful consternation in
+its ranks.&rdquo; But in fact, as even the coolest observers noticed,
+the Prussian army was in excellent spirits and eager for the
+&ldquo;decisive affair&rdquo; promised by the king. On the 3rd of June,
+watched by the invisible patrols, the Austrians and Saxons
+emerged from the hills at Hohenfriedberg with bands playing
+and colours flying. Their advanced guard of infantry and
+cavalry spread out into the plain, making for a line of hills
+spreading north-west from Striegau, where the army was to
+encamp. But the main body moved slowly, and at last Prince
+Charles and Weissenfels decided to put off the occupation of
+the line of hills till the morrow. The army bivouacked therefore
+in two separate wings, the Saxons (with a few Austrian regiments)
+between Günthersdorf and Pilgramshain, the Austrians near
+Hausdorf. They were about 70,000 strong, Frederick 65,000.</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:573px; height:477px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img571.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>The king had made his arrangements in good time, aided by
+the enemy&rsquo;s slowness, and in the evening he issued simple orders
+to move. About 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> the Prussians marched off from Alt-Jauernigk
+towards Striegau, the guns on the road, the infantry
+and cavalry, in long open columns of companies and squadrons,
+over the fields on either side&mdash;a night march well remembered
+by contrast with others as having been executed in perfect
+order. Meanwhile General Dumoulin, who commanded an
+advanced detachment between Striegau and Stanowitz, broke
+camp silently and moved into position below the hill north-west
+of Striegau, which was found to be occupied by Saxon light
+infantry outposts. The king&rsquo;s orders were for Dumoulin and
+the right wing of the main army to deploy and advance towards
+Häslicht against the Saxons, and for the left wing infantry to
+prolong the line from the marsh to Günthersdorf, covered by
+the left-wing cavalry on the plain near Thomaswaldau. On
+the side of the Austrians, the outlying hussars are said to have
+noticed and reported the king&rsquo;s movement, for the night was
+clear and starlit, but their report, if made, was ignored.</p>
+
+<p>At 4 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> Dumoulin advanced on Pilgramshain, neglecting
+the fire of the Saxon outpost on the Spitzberg, whereupon
+this promptly retired in order to avoid being surrounded.
+Dumoulin then posted artillery on the slope of the hill and
+deployed his six grenadier battalions facing the village. The
+leading cavalry of the main army came up and deployed on
+Dumoulin&rsquo;s left front in open rolling ground. Meantime the
+duke of Weissenfels had improvised a line of defence, posting
+his infantry in the marshy ground and about Pilgramshain,
+and his cavalry, partly in front of Pilgramshain and partly on
+the intervening space, opposite that of the Prussians. But
+before the marshy ground was effectively occupied by the duke&rsquo;s
+infantry, his cavalry had been first shaken by the fire of
+Dumoulin&rsquo;s guns on the Spitzberg and a heavy battery that
+was brought up on to the Gräbener Fuchsberg, and then charged
+by the Prussian right-wing cavalry, and in the mêlée the Allies
+were gradually driven in confusion off the battlefield. The
+cavalry battle was ended by 6.30 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, by which time Dumoulin&rsquo;s
+grenadiers, stiffened by the line regiment Anhalt (the &ldquo;Old
+Dessauer&rsquo;s&rdquo; own), were vigorously attacking the garden hedges
+and walls of Pilgramshain, and the Saxon and Austrian infantry
+in the marsh was being attacked by Prince Dietrich of Dessau
+with the right wing of the king&rsquo;s infantry. The line infantry
+of those days, however, did not work easily in bad ground,
+and the Saxons were steady and well drilled. After an
+hour&rsquo;s fight, well supported by the guns and continually
+reinforced as the rest of the army closed up, the prince
+expelled the enemy from the marsh, while Dumoulin
+drove the light troops out of Pilgramshain. By 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the
+Saxons, forming the left wing of the allied army, were in
+full retreat.</p>
+
+<p>While his allies were being defeated, Prince Charles of
+Lorraine had done nothing, believing that the cannonade
+was merely an outpost affair for the possession of the
+Spitzberg. His generals indeed had drawn out their
+respective commands in order of battle, the infantry south
+of Günthersdorf, the cavalry near Thomaswaldau, but
+they had no authority to advance without orders, and
+stood inactive, while, 1 m. away, the Prussian columns
+were defiling over the Striegau Water. This phase of
+the king&rsquo;s advance was the most delicate of all, and the
+moment that he heard from Prince Dietrich that the
+marsh was captured he stopped the northward flow of his
+battalions and swung them westward, the left wing cavalry
+having to cover their deployment. But when one-third
+of this cavalry only had crossed at Teichau the bridge
+broke. For a time the advanced squadrons were in great
+danger. But they charged boldly, and a disjointed cavalry
+battle began, during which (Ziethen&rsquo;s hussars having discovered
+a ford) the rest of the left-wing cavalry was able to
+cross. At last 25 intact squadrons under Lieut.-General von
+Nassau charged and drove the Austrians in disorder towards
+Hohenfriedberg. This action was the more creditable to the
+victors in that 45 squadrons in 3 separate fractions defeated a
+mass of 60 squadrons that stood already deployed to meet them.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Prussian infantry columns of the centre and
+left had crossed Striegau Water and deployed to their left, and
+by 8.30 they were advancing on Günthersdorf and the Austrian
+infantry south of that place. Frederick&rsquo;s purpose was to roll
+up the enemy from their inner flank, and while Prince Dietrich,
+with most of the troops that had forced the Saxons out of the
+marsh, pursued Weissenfels, two regiments of his and one of
+Dumoulin&rsquo;s were brought over to the left wing and sent against
+the north side of Günthersdorf. In the course of the general
+forward movement, which was made in what was for those
+days a very irregular line, a wide gap opened up between the
+centre and left, behind which 10 squadrons of the Bayreuth
+dragoon regiment, with Lieut.-General von Gessler, took up
+their position. Thus the line advanced. The grenadiers on the
+extreme left cleared Thomaswaldau, and their fire galled the
+Austrian squadrons engaged in the cavalry battle to the south.
+Then Günthersdorf, attacked on three sides, was also evacuated
+by the enemy. But although Frederick rode back from the
+front saying &ldquo;the battle is won,&rdquo; the Prussian infantry, in spite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span>
+of its superior fire discipline, failed for some time to master the
+defence, and suffered heavily from the eight close-range volleys
+they received, one or two regiments losing 40 and 50% of their
+strength. The Austrians, however, suffered still more; feeling
+themselves isolated in the midst of the victorious enemy, they
+began to waver, and at the psychological moment Gessler and
+the Bayreuth dragoons charged into their ranks and &ldquo;broke
+the equilibrium.&rdquo; These 1500 sabres scattered twenty battalions
+of the enemy and brought in 2500 prisoners and 66 Austrian
+colours, and in this astounding charge they themselves lost no
+more than 94 men. By nine o&rsquo;clock the battle was over, and
+the wrecks of the Austro-Saxon army were retreating to the
+mountains. The Prussians, who had been marching all night,
+were too far spent to pursue.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The loss of the allies was in all 15,224, 7985 killed and wounded,
+and 7239 prisoners, as well as 72 guns and 83 standards and colours.
+The Prussians lost 4666 killed and wounded, 71 missing.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOHENHEIM,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Württemberg, 7 m. S. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. 300. It came
+in 1768 from the counts of Hohenheim to the dukes of Württemberg,
+and in 1785 Duke Karl Eugen built a country house here.
+This house with grounds is now the seat of the most important
+agricultural college in Germany; it was founded in 1817, was
+raised to the position of a high school in 1865, and now ranks
+as a technical high school with university status.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Fröhlich, <i>Das Schloss und die Akademie Hohenheim</i> (Stuttgart,
+1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOHENLIMBURG,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of Germany, on the Lenne, in
+the Prussian prov. of Westphalia, 30 m. by rail S.E. of Dortmund.
+Pop. (1905) 12,790. It has two Evangelical churches, a Roman
+Catholic church and a synagogue. The town is the seat of various
+iron and metal industries, while dyeing, cloth-making and linen-weaving
+are also carried on here. It is the chief town of the
+county of Limburg, and formerly belonged to the counts of
+Limburg, a family which became extinct in 1508. Later it
+passed to the counts of Bentheim-Tecklenburg. The castle of
+Hohenlimburg, which overlooks the town, is now the residence
+of Prince Adolf of Bentheim-Tecklenburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOHENLOHE,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a German princely family which took its name
+from the district of Hohenlohe in Franconia. At first a countship,
+its two branches were raised to the rank of principalities
+of the Empire in 1744 and 1764 respectively; in 1806 they
+lost their independence and their lands now form part of the
+kingdoms of Bavaria and of Württemberg. At the time of
+the mediatization the area of Hohenlohe was 680 sq. m. and its
+estimated population was 108,000. The family is first mentioned
+in the 12th century as possessing the castle of Hohenloch, or
+Hohenlohe, near Uffenheim, and its influence was soon perceptible
+in several of the Franconian valleys, including those of the
+Kocher, the Jagst and the Tauber. Henry I. (d. 1183) was the
+first to take the title of count of Hohenlohe, and in 1230 his
+grandsons, Gottfried and Conrad, supporters of the emperor
+Frederick II., founded the lines of Hohenlohe-Hohenlohe and
+Hohenlohe-Brauneck, names taken from their respective castles.
+The latter became extinct in 1390, its lands passing later to
+Brandenburg, while the former was divided into several branches,
+only two of which, however, Hohenlohe-Weikersheim and
+Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld, need be mentioned here.
+Hohenlohe-Weikersheim, descended from Count Kraft I.
+(d. 1313), also underwent several divisions, that which took
+place after the deaths of Counts Albert and George in 1551
+being specially important. At this time the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein
+and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg were founded by the
+sons of Count George. Meanwhile, in 1412, the family of
+Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld had become extinct, and its
+lands had passed through the marriages of its heiresses into
+other families.</p>
+
+<p>The existing branches of the Hohenlohe family are descended
+from the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg,
+established in 1551. The former of these became Protestant,
+while the latter remained Catholic. Of the family
+of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, which underwent several partitions
+and inherited Gleichen in 1631, the senior line became extinct
+in 1805, while in 1701 the junior line divided itself into three
+branches, those of Langenburg, Ingelfingen and Kirchberg.
+Kirchberg died out in 1861, but members of the families of
+Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen are still
+alive, the latter being represented by the branches of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
+and Hohenlohe-Öhringen. The Roman Catholic
+family of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg was soon divided into three
+branches, but two of these had died out by 1729. The surviving
+branch, that of Schillingsfürst, was divided into the lines of
+Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein; other
+divisions followed, and the four existing lines of this branch of
+the family are those of Waldenburg, Schillingsfürst, Jagstberg
+and Bartenstein. The family of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst possesses
+the duchies of Ratibor and of Corbie inherited in 1824.</p>
+
+<p>The principal members of the family are dealt with below.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">I. Friedrich Ludwig</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
+(1746-1818), Prussian general, was the eldest son of Prince
+Johann Friedrich (d. 1796) of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, and began
+his military career as a boy, serving against the Prussians in the
+last years of the Seven Years&rsquo; War. Entering the Prussian army
+after the peace (1768), he was on account of his rank at once
+made major, and in 1775 he became lieutenant-colonel; in 1778
+he took part in the War of the Bavarian Succession and about
+the same time was made a colonel. Shortly before the death
+of Frederick the Great he was promoted to the rank of major-general
+and appointed chief of a regiment. For some years the
+prince did garrison duty at Breslau, until in 1791 he was made
+governor of Berlin. In 1794 he commanded a corps in the
+Prussian army on the Rhine and distinguished himself greatly
+in many engagements, particularly in the battle of Kaiserslautern
+on the 20th of September. He was at this time the
+most popular soldier in the Prussian army. Blücher wrote of
+him that &ldquo;he was a leader of whom the Prussian army might
+well be proud.&rdquo; He succeeded his father in the principality,
+and acquired additional lands by his marriage with a daughter
+of Count von Hoym. In 1806 Hohenlohe, now a general of
+infantry, was appointed to command the left-wing army of the
+Prussian forces opposing Napoleon, having under him Prince
+Louis Ferdinand of Prussia; but, feeling that his career had
+been that of a prince and not that of a scientific soldier, he
+allowed his quartermaster-general Massenbach to influence
+him unduly. Disputes soon broke out between Hohenlohe and
+the commander-in-chief, the duke of Brunswick, the armies
+marched hither and thither without effective results, and finally
+Hohenlohe&rsquo;s army was almost destroyed by Napoleon at Jena
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). The prince displayed his usual
+personal bravery in the battle, and managed to rally a portion
+of his corps near Erfurt, whence he retired into Prussia. But
+the pursuers followed him up closely, and, still acting under
+Massenbach&rsquo;s advice, he surrendered the remnant of his army
+at Prenzlau on the 28th of October, a fortnight after Jena and
+three weeks after the beginning of hostilities. Hohenlohe&rsquo;s
+former popularity and influence in the army had now the worst
+possible effect, for the commandants of garrisons everywhere
+lost heart and followed his example. After two years spent as
+a prisoner of war in France Hohenlohe retired to his estates,
+living in self-imposed obscurity until his death on the 15th of
+February 1818. He had, in August 1806, just before the outbreak
+of the French War, resigned the principality to his eldest
+son, not being willing to become a &ldquo;mediatized&rdquo; ruler under
+Württemberg suzerainty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">II. Ludwig Aloysius</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Bartenstein
+(1765-1829), marshal and peer of France, was born
+on the 18th of August 1765. In 1784 he entered the service of
+the Palatinate, which he quitted in 1792 in order to take the
+command of a regiment raised by his father for the service
+of the emigrant princes of France. He greatly distinguished
+himself under Condé in the campaigns of 1792-1793, especially
+at the storming of the lines of Weissenburg. Subsequently he
+entered the service of Holland, and, when almost surrounded
+by the army of General Pichegru, conducted a masterly retreat
+from the island of Bommel. From 1794 to 1799 he served as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span>
+colonel in the Austrian campaigns; in 1799 he was named
+major-general by the archduke Charles; and after obtaining the
+rank of lieutenant-general he was appointed by the emperor
+governor of the two Galicias. Napoleon offered to restore to
+him his principality on condition that he adhered to the confederation
+of the Rhine, but as he refused, it was united to
+Württemberg. After Napoleon&rsquo;s fall in 1814 he entered the
+French service, and in 1815 he held the command of a regiment
+raised by himself, with which he took part in the Spanish
+campaign of 1823. In 1827 he was created marshal and peer
+of France. He died at Lunéville on the 30th of May 1829.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">III. Alexander Leopold Franz Emmerich</span>, prince of
+Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (1794-1849), priest
+and reputed miracle-worker, was born at Kupferzell, near
+Waldenburg, on the 17th of August 1794. By his mother, the
+daughter of an Hungarian nobleman, he was from infancy
+destined for the church; and she entrusted his early education
+to the ex-Jesuit Riel. In 1804 he entered the &ldquo;Theresianum&rdquo;
+at Vienna, in 1808 the academy at Bern, in 1810 the archiepiscopal
+seminary at Vienna, and afterwards he studied at
+Tyrnau and Ellwangen. He was ordained priest in 1815, and
+in the following year he went to Rome, where he entered the
+society of the &ldquo;Fathers of the Sacred Heart.&rdquo; Subsequently,
+at Munich and Bamberg, he was blamed for Jesuit and obscurantist
+tendencies, but obtained considerable reputation
+as a preacher. His first co-called miraculous cure was effected,
+in conjunction with a peasant, Martin Michel, on a princess of
+Schwarzenberg who had been for some years paralytic. Immediately
+he acquired such fame as a performer of miraculous
+cures that multitudes from various countries flocked to partake
+of the beneficial influence of his supposed supernatural gifts.
+Ultimately, on account of the interference of the authorities
+with his operations, he went in 1821 to Vienna and then to
+Hungary, where he became canon at Grosswardein and in 1844
+titular bishop of Sardica. He died at Vöslau near Vienna on
+the 17th of November 1849. He was the author of a number
+of ascetic and controversial writings, which were collected and
+published in one edition by S. Brunner in 1851.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">IV. Kraft</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1827-1892),
+soldier and military writer, son of Prince Adolf of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
+(1797-1873), was born at Koschentin in Upper
+Silesia. He was a nephew of the Prince Hohenlohe noticed
+above, who commanded the Prussians at Jena. Educated with
+great rigour, owing to the impoverishment of the family estates
+during the Napoleonic wars, he was sent into the Prussian
+army, and commissioned to the artillery at the least expensive
+arm of the service. He joined the Prussian Guard artillery in
+1845, and it was soon discovered that he had unusual aptitudes
+as an artillery officer. For a time his brother officers resented
+the presence of a prince, until it was found that he made no
+attempt to use his social position to secure advancement. After
+serving as a military attaché in Vienna and on the Transylvanian
+frontier during the Crimean War, he was made a captain on the
+general staff, and in 1856 personal aide-de-camp to the king,
+remaining, however, in close touch with the artillery. In 1864,
+having become in the meanwhile successively major and lieut.-colonel,
+he resigned the staff appointments to become commander
+of the new Guard Field Artillery regiment and in the following
+year he became colonel. In 1866 he saw his first real active
+service. In the bold advance of the Guard corps on the Austrian
+right wing at Königgratz (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Weeks&rsquo; War</a></span>), he led the
+Guard reserve artillery with the greatest dash and success, and
+after the short war ended he turned his energies, now fortified
+by experience, to the better tactical training of the Prussian
+artillery. In 1868 he was made a major-general and assigned
+to command the Guard artillery brigade. In this capacity he
+gained great distinction during the Franco-German war and
+especially at Gravelotte and Sedan; he was in control of the
+artillery attack on the fortifications of Paris. In 1873 he was
+placed in command of an infantry division, and three years
+later was promoted lieutenant-general. He retired in 1879,
+was made general of infantry in 1883 and general of artillery
+in 1889. His military writings were numerous, and amongst
+them several have become classics. These are <i>Briefe über
+Artillerie</i> (Eng. trans. <i>Letters on Artillery</i>, 1887); <i>Briefe über
+Strategie</i> (1877; Eng. trans. <i>Letters on Strategy</i>, 1898); and
+<i>Gespräche über Reiterei</i> (1887; Eng. trans. <i>Conversations on
+Cavalry</i>). The <i>Briefe über Infanterie</i> and <i>Briefe über Kavallerie</i>
+(translated into English, <i>Letters on Infantry</i>, <i>Letters on Cavalry</i>,
+1889) are of less importance, though interesting as a reflection
+of prevailing German ideas. His memoirs (<i>Aus meinem Leben</i>)
+were prepared in retirement near Dresden, and the first volume
+(1897) created such a sensation that eight years were allowed
+to elapse before the publication was continued. Prince Kraft
+died near Dresden on the 16th of January 1892.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">V. Chlodwig Karl Victor</span>, prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst
+(1819-1901), statesman, was born on the 31st of March
+1819 at Schillingsfürst in Bavaria. His father, Prince Franz
+Joseph (1787-1841), was a Catholic, his mother, Princess
+Konstanze of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, a Protestant. In accordance
+with the compromise customary at the time, Prince Chlodwig
+and his brothers were brought up in the religion of their father,
+while his sisters followed that of their mother. In spite of the
+difference of creed the family was very united, and it was to
+the spirit that rendered this possible that the prince owed his
+liberal and tolerant point of view, which was to exercise an
+important influence on his <span class="correction" title="amended from politcal">political</span> activity. As the younger
+son of a cadet line of his house it was necessary for Prince
+Chlodwig to follow a profession. For a while he thought of
+obtaining a commission in the British army through the influence
+of his aunt, Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg
+(<i>née</i> princess of Leiningen), Queen Victoria&rsquo;s half-sister. He
+decided, however, to enter the Prussian diplomatic service.
+His application to be excused the preliminary steps, which
+involved several years&rsquo; work in subordinate positions in the
+Prussian civil service, was refused by Frederick William IV.,
+and the prince, with great good sense, decided to sacrifice his
+pride of rank and to accept the king&rsquo;s conditions. As auscultator
+in the courts at Coblenz he acquired a taste for jurisprudence,
+became a <i>Referendar</i> in September 1843, and after some months
+of travel in France, Switzerland and Italy went to Potsdam
+as a civil servant (May 13, 1844). These early years were
+invaluable, not only as giving him experience of practical affairs
+but as affording him an insight into the strength and weakness
+of the Prussian system. The immediate result was to confirm
+his Liberalism. The Prussian principle of &ldquo;propagating enlightenment
+with a stick&rdquo; did not appeal to him; he &ldquo;recognized
+the confusion and want of clear ideas in the highest circles,&rdquo;
+the tendency to make agreement with the views of the government
+the test of loyalty to the state; and he noted in his
+journal (June 25, 1844) four years before the revolution of &rsquo;48,
+&ldquo;a slight cause and we shall have a rising.&rdquo; &ldquo;The free press,&rdquo;
+he notes on another occasion, &ldquo;is a necessity, progress the
+condition of the existence of a state.&rdquo; If he was an ardent
+advocate of German unity, and saw in Prussia the instrument
+for its attainment, he was throughout opposed to the &ldquo;Prussification&rdquo;
+of Germany, and ultimately it was he who made the
+unification of Germany possible by insisting at once on the
+principle of union with the North German states and at the
+same time on the preservation of the individuality of the states
+of the South.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th of November 1834 the landgrave Viktor Amadeus
+of Hesse-Rotenburg died, leaving to his nephews, the princes
+Viktor and Chlodwig Hohenlohe, his allodial estates: the duchy
+of Ratibor in Silesia, the principality of Corvey in Westphalia,
+and the lordship of Treffurt in the Prussian governmental
+district of Erfurt. On the death of Prince Franz Joseph on the
+14th of January 1841 it was decided that the principality of
+Schillingsfürst should pass to the third brother, Philipp Ernst,
+as the two elder sons, Viktor and Chlodwig, were provided for
+already under their uncle&rsquo;s will, the one with the duchy of
+Ratibor, the other with Corvey and Treffurt. The youngest
+son, Gustav (b. February 28, 1823), the future cardinal, was
+destined for the Church. On the death of Prince Philipp Ernst
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span>
+(May 3, 1845) a new arrangement was made: Prince Chlodwig
+became prince of Schillingsfürst, while Corvey was assigned to
+the duke of Ratibor; Treffurt was subsequently sold by Prince
+Chlodwig, who purchased with the price large estates in Posen.
+This involved a complete change in Prince Chlodwig&rsquo;s career.
+His new position as a &ldquo;reigning&rdquo; prince and hereditary member
+of the Bavarian Upper House was incompatible with that of a
+Prussian official. On the 18th of April 1846 he took his seat
+as a member of the Bavarian <i>Reichsrath</i>, and on the 26th of
+June received his formal discharge from the Prussian service.</p>
+
+<p>Save for the interlude of 1848 the political life of Prince
+Hohenlohe was for the next eighteen years not eventful. During
+the revolutionary years his sympathies were with the Liberal
+idea of a united Germany, and he compromised his chances of
+favour from the king of Bavaria by accepting the task (November
+1, 1848) of announcing to the courts of Rome, Florence and
+Athens the accession to office of the Archduke John of Austria
+as regent of Germany. But he was too shrewd an observer to
+hope much from a national parliament which &ldquo;wasted time in
+idle babble,&rdquo; or from a democratic victory which had stunned
+but not destroyed the German military powers. On the 16th of
+February 1847 he had married the Princess Marie of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg,
+the heiress to vast estates in Russia.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+This led to a prolonged visit to Werki in Lithuania (1851-1853)
+in connexion with the management of the property, a visit
+repeated in 1860. In general this period of Hohenlohe&rsquo;s life
+was occupied in the management of his estates, in the sessions
+of the Bavarian <i>Reichsrath</i> and in travels. In 1856 he visited
+Rome, during which he noted the baneful influence of the
+Jesuits. In 1859 he was studying the political situation at
+Berlin, and in the same year he paid a visit to England. The
+marriage of his brother Konstantin in 1859 to another princess
+of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg led also to frequent visits to
+Vienna. Thus Prince Hohenlohe was brought into close touch
+with all the most notable people in Europe. At the same time,
+during this period (1850-1866) he was endeavouring to get
+into relations with the Bavarian government, with a view to
+taking a more active part in affairs. Towards the German
+question his attitude at this time was tentative. He had little
+hope of a practical realization of a united Germany, and
+inclined towards the tripartite divisions under Austria, Prussia
+and Bavaria&mdash;the so-called &ldquo;Trias.&rdquo; He attended the <i>Fürstentag</i>
+at Frankfort in 1863, and in the Schleswig-Holstein question
+was a supporter of the prince of Augustenburg. It was at this
+time that, at the request of Queen Victoria, he began to send her
+regular reports on the political condition of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Prince Hohenlohe&rsquo;s importance in history, however, begins
+with the year 1866. In his opinion the war was a blessing. It
+had demonstrated the insignificance of the small and middle
+states, &ldquo;a misfortune for the dynasties&rdquo;&mdash;with whose feelings
+a mediatized prince could scarcely be expected to be over-sympathetic&mdash;but
+the best possible good fortune for the German
+nation. In the Bavarian <i>Reichsrath</i> Hohenlohe now began to
+make his voice heard in favour of a closer union with Prussia;
+clearly, if such a union were desirable, he was the man in every
+way best fitted to prepare the way for it. One of the main
+obstacles in the way was the temperament of Louis II. of Bavaria,
+whose ideas of kingship were very remote from those of the
+Hohenzollerns, whose pride revolted from any concession to
+Prussian superiority, and who&mdash;even during the crisis of 1866&mdash;was
+more absorbed in operas than in affairs of state. Fortunately
+Richard Wagner was a politician as well as a composer, and
+equally fortunately Hohenlohe was a man of culture capable of
+appreciating &ldquo;the master&rsquo;s&rdquo; genius. It was Wagner, apparently,
+who persuaded the king to place Hohenlohe at the head of his
+government (<i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i>, i. 178, 211), and on the
+31st of December 1866 the prince was duly appointed minister
+of the royal house and of foreign affairs and president of the
+council of ministers.</p>
+
+<p>As head of the Bavarian government Hohenlohe&rsquo;s principal
+task was to discover some basis for an effective union of the
+South German states with the North German Confederation,
+and during the three critical years of his tenure of office he was,
+next to Bismarck, the most important statesman in Germany.
+He carried out the reorganization of the Bavarian army on
+the Prussian model, brought about the military union of the
+southern states, and took a leading share in the creation of
+the customs parliament (<i>Zollparlament</i>), of which on the 28th
+of April 1868 he was elected a vice-president. During the
+agitation that arose in connexion with the summoning of the
+Vatican council Hohenlohe took up an attitude of strong opposition
+to the ultramontane position. In common with his brothers,
+the duke of Ratibor and the cardinal, he believed that the
+policy of Pius IX.&mdash;inspired by the Jesuits (that &ldquo;devil&rsquo;s
+society,&rdquo; as he once called it)&mdash;of setting the Church in opposition
+to the modern State would prove ruinous to both, and that the
+definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, by raising the
+pronouncements of the Syllabus of 1864 into articles of faith,
+would commit the Church to this policy irrevocably. This
+view he embodied into a circular note to the Catholic powers
+(April 9, 1869), drawn up by Döllinger, inviting them to exercise
+the right of sending ambassadors to the council and to combine
+to prevent the definition of the dogma. The greater powers,
+however, were for one reason or another unwilling to intervene,
+and the only practical outcome of Hohenlohe&rsquo;s action was that
+in Bavaria the powerful ultramontane party combined against
+him with the Bavarian &ldquo;patriots&rdquo; who accused him of bartering
+away Bavarian independence to Prussia. The combination
+was too strong for him; a bill which he brought in for curbing
+the influence of the Church over education was defeated, the
+elections of 1869 went against him, and in spite of the continued
+support of the king he was forced to resign (March 7, 1870).</p>
+
+<p>Though out of office, his personal influence continued very
+great both at Munich and Berlin and had not a little to do with
+favourable terms of the treaty of the North German Confederation
+with Bavaria, which embodied his views, and with its
+acceptance by the Bavarian parliament.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Elected a member
+of the German Reichstag, he was on the 23rd of March 1871
+chosen one of its vice-presidents, and was instrumental in founding
+the new groups which took the name of the Liberal Imperial
+party (<i>Liberale Reichspartei</i>), the objects of which were to support
+the new empire, to secure its internal development on Liberal
+lines, and to oppose clerical aggression as represented by the
+Catholic Centre. Like the duke of Ratibor, Hohenlohe was
+from the first a strenuous supporter of Bismarck&rsquo;s anti-papal
+policy, the main lines of which (prohibition of the Society of
+Jesus, &amp;c.) he himself suggested. Though sympathizing with
+the motives of the Old Catholics, however, he realized that they
+were doomed to sink into a powerless sect, and did not join
+them, believing that the only hope for a reform of the Church
+lay in those who desired it remaining in her communion.<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In
+1872 Bismarck proposed to appoint Cardinal Hohenlohe
+Prussian envoy at the Vatican, but his views were too much
+in harmony with those of his family, and the pope refused to
+receive him in this capacity.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In 1873 Bismarck chose Prince Hohenlohe to succeed Count
+Harry Arnim as ambassador in Paris, where he remained for
+seven years. In 1878 he attended the congress of Berlin as
+third German representative, and in 1880, on the death of
+Bernhardt Ernst von Bülow (October 20), secretary of state for
+foreign affairs, he was called to Berlin as temporary head of
+the Foreign Office and representative of Bismarck during his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span>
+absence through illness. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed
+Manteuffel as governor of Alsace-Lorraine. In this capacity
+he had to carry out the coercive measures introduced by the
+chancellor in 1887-1888, though he largely disapproved of them;<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+his conciliatory disposition, however, did much to reconcile
+the Alsace-Lorrainers to German rule. He remained at Strassburg
+till October 1894, when, at the urgent request of the emperor,
+he consented, in spite of his advanced years, to accept the
+chancellorship in succession to Caprivi. The events of his
+chancellorship belong to the general history of Germany (q.v.);
+as regards the inner history of this time the editor of his memoirs
+has very properly suppressed the greater part of the detailed
+comments which the prince left behind him. In general, during
+his term of office, the personality of the chancellor was less
+conspicuous in public affairs than in the ease of either of his
+predecessors. His appearances in the Prussian and German
+parliaments were rare, and great independence was left to the
+secretaries of state. What influence the tact and experience
+of Hohenlohe exercised behind the scenes on the masterful
+will and impulsive character of the emperor cannot as yet be
+generally known.</p>
+
+<p>Prince Hohenlohe resigned the chancellorship on the 17th of
+October 1900, and died at Ragaz on the 6th of July 1901.
+On the 16th of February 1897 he had celebrated his golden
+wedding; on the 21st of December of the same year the princess
+died. There were six children of the marriage: Elizabeth
+(b. 1847); Stephanie (b. 1851); Philipp Ernst, reigning prince
+of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst (b. 1853), who married Princess
+Charielée Ypsilanti; Albert (1857-1866); Moritz and Alexander,
+twins (b. 1862).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>All other authorities for the life of Prince Hohenlohe have been
+superseded by the <i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i> (2 vols., Stuttgart and Leipzig,
+1906). With the exception noted above these are singularly full
+and outspoken, the latter quality causing no little scandal in Germany
+and bringing down on Prince Alexander, who was responsible for
+their publication, the disfavour of the emperor. They form not only
+the record of a singularly full and varied life, but are invaluable to
+the historian for the wealth of material they contain and for appreciations
+of men and events by an observer who had the best opportunities
+for forming a judgment. The prince himself they reveal not only as
+a capable man of affairs, though falling short of greatness, but as a
+personality of singular charm, tenacious of his principles, tolerant,
+broad-minded, and possessed of a large measure of the saving grace
+of humour.</p>
+
+<p>See generally A. F. Fischer, <i>Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe</i> (1866-1871);
+K. Weller, <i>Hohenlohisches Urkundenbuch</i>, 1153-1350 (Stuttgart,
+1899-1901), and <i>Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe</i> (Stuttgart,
+1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.; C. F. A.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Through her mother, <i>née</i> Princess Stephanie Radziwill (d. 1832).
+Before Prince Wittgenstein&rsquo;s death (1887) a new law had forbidden
+foreigners to hold land in Russia. Prince Hohenlohe appears,
+however, to have sold one of his wife&rsquo;s estates and to have secured
+certain privileges from the Russian court for the rest.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Speech of December 30, 1870, in the <i>Reichsrath</i>. <i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i>,
+ii. 36.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;If I wished to leave the Church because of all the scandalous
+occurrences in the Catholic Church, I should have had to secede
+while studying Church history,&rdquo; <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 92.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Dr Johann Friedrich (q.v.), afterwards one of the Old Catholic
+leaders, was his secretary at the time of the Vatican council, and
+supplied historical and theological material to the opposition bishops.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> He protested against the passport system as likely to lead to a
+war with France, for which he preferred not to be responsible (Letter
+to Wilmowski, <i>Denkw.</i> ii. 433), but on the chancellor taking full
+responsibility consented to retain office.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOHENSTAUFEN,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the name of a village and ruined castle
+near Lorsch in Swabia, now in the kingdom of Württemberg,
+which gave its name to a celebrated Swabian family, members
+of which were emperors or German kings from 1138 to 1208,
+and again from 1214 to 1254. The earliest known ancestor
+was Frederick, count of Büren (d. 1094), whose son Frederick
+built a castle at Staufen, or Hohenstaufen, and called himself
+by this name. He was a firm supporter of the emperor Henry
+IV., who rewarded his fidelity by granting him the dukedom
+of Swabia in 1079, and giving him his daughter Agnes in
+marriage. In 1081 he remained in Germany as Henry&rsquo;s representative,
+but only secured possession of Swabia after a struggle
+lasting twenty years. In 1105 Frederick was succeeded by his
+son Frederick II., called the One-eyed, who, together with his
+brother Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III.,
+held south-west Germany for their uncle the emperor Henry V.
+Frederick inherited the estates of Henry V. in 1125, but failed
+to secure the throne, and took up an attitude of hostility towards
+the new emperor, Lothair the Saxon, who claimed some of the
+estates of the late emperor as crown property. A war broke
+out and ended in the complete submission of Frederick at
+Bamberg. He retained, however, his dukedom and estates.
+In 1138 Conrad of Hohenstaufen was elected German king,
+and was succeeded in 1152, not by his son but by his nephew
+Frederick Barbarossa, son of his brother Frederick (d. 1147).
+Conrad&rsquo;s son Frederick inherited the duchy of Franconia which
+his father had received in 1115, and this was retained by the
+Hohenstaufen until the death of Duke Conrad II. in 1196. In
+1152 Frederick received the duchy of Swabia from his cousin
+the German king Frederick I., and on his death in 1167 it passed
+successively to Frederick&rsquo;s three sons Frederick, Conrad and
+Philip. The second Hohenstaufen emperor was Frederick
+Barbarossa&rsquo;s son, Henry VI., after whose death a struggle for
+the throne took place between Henry&rsquo;s brother Philip, duke
+of Swabia, and Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor
+Otto IV. Regained for the Hohenstaufen by Henry&rsquo;s son,
+Frederick II., in 1214, the German kingdom passed to his son,
+Conrad IV., and when Conrad&rsquo;s son Conradin was beheaded in
+Italy in 1268, the male line of the Hohenstaufen became extinct.
+Daughters of Philip of Swabia married Ferdinand III., king of
+Castile and Leon, and Henry II., duke of Brabant, and a daughter
+of Conrad, brother of the emperor Frederick I., married into the
+family of Guelph. The castle of Hohenstaufen was destroyed
+in the 16th century during the Peasants&rsquo; War, and only a few
+fragments now remain.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. von Raumer, <i>Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit</i>
+(Leipzig, 1878); B. F. W. Zimmermann, <i>Geschichte der Hohenstaufen</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1st ed., 1838; 2nd ed., 1865); F. W. Schirrmacher, <i>Die
+letzten Hohenstaufen</i> (Göttingen, 1871).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOHENSTEIN<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Hohenstein-Ernstthal), a town of Germany,
+in the kingdom of Saxony, on the slopes of the Erzgebirge, and
+on the railway Reichenbach-Chemnitz, 12 m. N.E. of Zwickau.
+Pop. (1905) 13,903. Hohenstein possesses two fine Evangelical
+churches, a town hall, restored in 1876, and several monuments
+to famous men. The principal industries are the
+spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of machines,
+stockings, gloves and woollen and silk fabrics, cotton
+printing and dyeing. Many of the inhabitants are also
+employed in the neighbouring copper and arsenic mines.
+Not far from Hohenstein there is a mineral spring, connected
+with which there are various kinds of baths. Hohenstein
+is the birthplace of the physicist G. H. von Schubert
+and of C. G. Schröter (1699-1782), one of the inventors of the
+pianoforte. Hohenstein consists of two towns, Hohenstein
+and Ernstthal, which were united in 1898.</p>
+
+<p>Another place of the same name is a town in East Prussia.
+Pop. (1900) 2467. This Hohenstein, which was founded by the
+Teutonic Order in 1359, has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical
+church, a synagogue and several educational establishments.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOHENZOLLERN,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> the name of a castle which stood on the
+hill of Zollern about 1½ m. south of Hechingen, and gave its
+name to the family to which the present German emperor
+belongs. A vague tradition connects the house with the Colonna
+family of Rome, or the Colalto family of Lombardy; but one
+more definite unites the Hohenzollerns with the Burkhardingers,
+who were counts in Raetia during the early part of the 10th
+century, and two of whom became dukes of Swabia. Tassilo,
+a member of this family, is said to have built a castle at Zollern
+early in the 9th century; but the first historical mention of
+the name is in the <i>Chronicon</i> of a certain Berthold (d. 1088),
+who refers to Burkhard and Wezil, or Werner, of Zollern, or
+Zolorin. These men appear to have been counts of Zollern, and
+to have met their death in 1061. The family of Wezil died out
+in 1194, and the existing branches of the Hohenzollerns are
+descended from Burkhard and his son Frederick, whose eldest
+son, Frederick II., was in great favour with the German kings,
+Lothair the Saxon and Conrad III. Frederick II. died about
+1145, and his son and successor, Frederick III., was a constant
+supporter of the Hohenstaufen. This count married Sophia,
+daughter and heiress of Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, and
+about 1192 he succeeded his father-in-law as burgrave, obtaining
+also some lands in Austria and Franconia. He died about 1200,
+and his sons, Conrad and Frederick, ruled their lands in common
+until 1227, when an important division took place. Conrad
+became burgrave of Nuremberg, and, receiving the lands which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span>
+had come into the family through his mother, founded the
+Franconian branch of the family, which became the more important
+of the two; while Frederick, receiving the county of
+Zollern and the older possessions of the family, was the ancestor
+of the Swabian branch.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the 12th century Burkhard, a younger son of Frederick
+I., secured the county of Hohenberg, and this district remained
+in the possession of the Hohenzollerns until the death of Count
+Sigismund in 1486. Its rulers, however, with the exception of
+Count Albert II. (d. 1298), played an unimportant part in German
+history. Albert, who was a Minnesinger, was loyal to the
+declining fortunes of the Hohenstaufen, and afterwards supported
+his brother-in-law, Rudolph of Habsburg, in his efforts to obtain
+the German throne. He shared in the campaigns of Rudolph
+and fell in battle in 1298, during the struggle between Adolph
+of Nassau and Albert of Habsburg (afterwards King Albert I.).
+When this family became extinct in 1486 Hohenberg passed to
+the Habsburgs.</p>
+
+<p>The Franconian branch of the Hohenzollerns was represented
+in 1227 by Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, whom the emperor
+Frederick II. appointed guardian of his son Henry, and administrator
+of Austria. After a short apostasy, during which
+he supported Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, Conrad
+returned to the side of the Hohenstaufen and aided Conrad IV.
+He died in 1261, when his son and successor, the burgrave
+Frederick III., had already obtained Bayreuth through his
+marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Otto of Meran (d. 1234).
+Frederick took a leading part in German affairs, and it is interesting
+to note that he had a considerable share in securing the
+election of his uncle, Rudolph of Habsburg, as German king
+in 1273. He died in 1297 and was succeeded by his son, Frederick
+IV. This burgrave fought for King Albert I. in Thuringia,
+and supported Henry VII. in his efforts to secure Bohemia for
+his son John; but in 1314, forsaking his father&rsquo;s policy, he
+favoured Louis, afterwards the emperor Louis IV., in his
+struggle with Frederick, duke of Austria, and by his conduct
+at the battle of Mühldorf in 1322 and elsewhere earned the
+designation of &ldquo;saviour of the empire.&rdquo; Frederick, however,
+did not neglect his hereditary lands. He did something for the
+maintenance of peace and the security of traders, gave corporate
+privileges to villages, and took the Jews under his protection.
+His services to Louis were rewarded in various ways, and, using
+part of his wealth to increase the area of his possessions, he bought
+the town and district of Ansbach in 1331. Dying in 1332,
+Frederick was succeeded by his son, John II., who, after one of
+his brothers had died and two others had entered the church,
+ruled his lands in common with his brother Albert. About
+1338 John bought Culmbach and Plassenburg, and on the strength
+of a privilege granted to him in 1347 he seized many robber-fortresses
+and held the surrounding lands as imperial fiefs. In
+general he continued his father&rsquo;s policy, and when he died in
+1357 was succeeded by his son, Frederick V., who, after the death
+of his uncle Albert in 1361, became sole ruler of Nuremberg,
+Ansbach and Bayreuth. Frederick lived in close friendship
+with the emperor Charles IV., who formally invested him with
+Ansbach and Bayreuth and made him a prince of the empire
+in 1363. In spite of the troubled times in which he lived,
+Frederick was a successful ruler, and introduced a regular system
+of public finance into his lands. In 1397 he divided his territories
+between his sons John and Frederick, and died in the following
+year. His elder son, John III., who had married Margaret, a
+daughter of the emperor Charles IV., was frequently in the
+company of his brothers-in-law, the German kings Wenceslaus
+and Sigismund. He died without sons in 1420.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1397 the office of burgrave of Nuremberg had been held
+by John&rsquo;s brother, Frederick, who in 1415 received Brandenburg
+from King Sigismund, and became margrave of Brandenburg
+as Frederick I. (q.v.). On his brother&rsquo;s death in 1420 he reunited
+the lands of his branch of the family, but in 1427 he sold his
+rights as burgrave to the town of Nuremberg. The subsequent
+history of this branch of the Hohenzollerns is identified with
+that of Brandenburg from 1415 to 1701, and with that of Prussia
+since the latter date, as in this year the elector Frederick III.
+became king of Prussia. In 1871 William, the seventh king,
+took the title of German emperor. While the electorate of
+Brandenburg passed according to the rule of primogeniture,
+the Franconian possessions of the Hohenzollerns, Ansbach and
+Bayreuth, were given as appanages to younger sons, an arrangement
+which was confirmed by the <i>dispositio Achillea</i> of 1473.
+These principalities were ruled by the sons and descendants of
+the elector Albert Achilles from 1486 to 1603; and, after
+reverting to the elector of Brandenburg, by the descendants
+of the elector John George from 1603 to 1791. In 1791 Prince
+Charles Alexander (d. 1806), who had inherited both districts,
+sold his lands to Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns
+was weakened by several partitions of its lands; but early in
+the 16th century it rose to some eminence through Count Eitel
+Frederick II. (d. 1512), a friend and adviser of the emperor
+Maximilian I. Eitel received from this emperor the district of
+Haigerloch, and in 1534 his grandson Charles (d. 1576) was
+granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vöhringen by the
+emperor Charles V. In 1576 the sons of Charles divided their
+lands, and founded three branches of the family, one of which
+is still flourishing. Eitel Frederick IV. took Hohenzollern with
+the title of Hohenzollern-Hechingen; Charles II. Sigmaringen
+and Vöhringen and the title of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen;
+and Christopher took Haigerloch. Christopher&rsquo;s family died
+out in 1634, but the remaining lines are of some importance.
+Count John George of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was made a
+prince in 1623, and John of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen soon
+received the same honour. In 1695 these two branches of the
+family entered conjointly into an agreement with Brandenburg,
+which provided that, in case of the extinction of either of the
+Swabian branches, the remaining branch should inherit its
+lands; and if both branches became extinct the principalities
+should revert to Brandenburg. During the 17th and 18th
+centuries and during the period of the Napoleonic wars the
+history of these lands was very similar to that of the other
+small estates of Germany. In consequence of the political
+troubles of 1848 Princes Frederick William of Hohenzollern-Hechingen
+and Charles Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen
+resigned their principalities, and accordingly these fell to the
+king of Prussia, who took possession on the 12th of March 1850.
+By a royal decree of the 20th of May following the title of &ldquo;highness,&rdquo;
+with the prerogatives of younger sons of the royal house,
+was conferred on the two princes. The proposal to raise Prince
+Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1835-1905) to the Spanish
+throne in 1870 was the immediate cause of the war between
+France and Germany. In 1908 the head of this branch of the
+Hohenzollerns, the only one existing besides the imperial house,
+was Leopold&rsquo;s son William (b. 1864), who, owing to the extinction
+of the family of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1869, was called
+simply prince of Hohenzollern. In 1866 Prince Charles of
+Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Rumania,
+becoming king in 1881.</p>
+
+<p>The modern Prussian province of Hohenzollern is a long,
+narrow strip of territory bounded on the S.W. by Baden and
+in other directions by Württemberg. It was divided into two
+principalities, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen,
+until 1850, when these were united. They now
+form the government of Sigmaringen (q.v.).</p>
+
+<p>The castle of Hohenzollern was destroyed in 1423, but it has
+been restored several times. Some remains of the old building
+may still be seen adjoining the present castle, which was built
+by King Frederick William IV.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Monumenta Zollerana</i>, edited by R. von Stillfried and T.
+Märker (Berlin, 1852-1890); <i>Quellen und Untersuchungen zur
+Geschichte des Hauses Hohenzollern</i>, edited by E. Berner (Berlin,
+1901 fol.); R. von Stillfried, <i>Altertümer und Kunstdenkmale des
+erlauchten Hauses von Hohenzollern</i> (Berlin, 1852-1867) and
+<i>Stammtafeln des Gesamthauses Hohenzollern</i> (Berlin, 1869); L.
+Schmid, <i>Die älteste Geschichte des erlauchten Gesamthauses der
+königlichen und fürstlichen Hohenzollern</i> (Tübingen, 1884-1888);
+E. Schwartz, <i>Stammtafel des preussischen Königshauses</i> (Breslau
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span>
+1898); <i>Hohenzollernsche Forschungen, Jahrbuch für die Geschichte der
+Hohenzollern</i>, edited by C. Meyer (Berlin, 1891-1902); <i>Hohenzollern
+Jahrbuch, Forschungen und Abbildungen zur Geschichte der Hohenzollern
+in Brandenburg-Freussen</i>, edited by Seidel (Leipzig, 1897-1903),
+and T. Carlyle, <i>History of Frederick the Great</i> (London, 1872-1873).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOKKAIDO,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> the Japanese name for the northern division
+of the empire (<i>Hoku</i> = north, <i>kai</i> = sea, and <i>do</i> = road), including
+Yezo, the Kuriles and their adjacent islets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOKUSAI<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1760-1849), the greatest of all the Japanese painters
+of the Popular School (<i>Ukiyo-ye</i>), was born at Yedo (T&#333;ky&#333;)
+in the 9th month of the 10th year of the period Horeki, <i>i.e.</i>
+October-November 1760. He came of an artisan family, his
+father having been a mirror-maker, Nakajima Issai. After
+some practice as a wood-engraver he, at the age of eighteen,
+entered the studio of Katsugawa Shunsh&#333;, a painter and
+designer of colour-prints of considerable importance. His disregard
+for the artistic principles of his master caused his expulsion
+in 1785; and thereafter&mdash;although from time to time
+Hokusai studied various styles, including especially that of
+Shiba Gokan, from whom he gained some fragmentary knowledge
+of European methods&mdash;he kept his personal independence.
+For a time he lived in extreme poverty, and, although he must
+have gained sums for his work which might have secured him
+comfort, he remained poor, and to the end of his life proudly
+described himself as a peasant. He illustrated large numbers
+of books, of which the world-famous <i>Mangwa</i>, a pictorial encyclopaedia
+of Japanese life, appeared in fifteen volumes from
+1812 to 1875. Of his colour-prints the &ldquo;Thirty-six Views of
+Mount Fuji&rdquo; (the whole set consisting of forty-six prints) were
+made between 1823 and 1829; &ldquo;Views of Famous Bridges&rdquo;
+(11), &ldquo;Waterfalls&rdquo; (8), and &ldquo;Views of the Lu-chu Islands&rdquo;
+(8), are the best known of those issued in series; but Hokusai
+also designed some superb broadsheets published separately,
+and his <i>surimono</i> (small prints made for special occasions and
+ceremonies) are unequalled for delicacy and beauty. The
+&ldquo;Hundred Views of Mount Fuji&rdquo; (1834-1835), 3 vols., in
+monochrome, are of extraordinary originality and variety.
+As a painter and draughtsman Hokusai is not held by Japanese
+critics to be of the first rank, but this verdict has never been
+accepted by Europeans, who place him among the greatest
+artists of the world. He possessed great powers of observation
+and characterization, a singular technical skill, an unfailing
+gift of good humour, and untiring industry. He was an eager
+student to the end of his long life, and on his death-bed said,
+&ldquo;If Heaven had lent me but five years more, I should have
+become a great painter.&rdquo; He died on the 10th of May 1849.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. de Goncourt, <i>Hokousaï</i> (1896); M. Revon, <i>Étude sur
+Hokusaï</i> (1896); E. F. Fenollosa, <i>Catalogue of the Exhibition of
+Paintings by Hokusai at T&#333;ky&#333;</i> (1901); E. F. Strange, Hokusai (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron d&rsquo;</span> (1723-1789),
+French philosopher and man of letters, of German origin,
+was born at Heidelsheim in the palatinate in 1723. Of his family
+little is known; according to J. J. Rousseau his father was a
+rich parvenu, who brought his son at an early age to Paris,
+where the latter spent most of his life. Much of Holbach&rsquo;s fame
+is due to his intimate connexion with the brilliant coterie of
+bold thinkers and polished wits whose creed, the new philosophy,
+is concentrated in the famous <i>Encyclopédie</i>. Possessed of easy
+means and being of hospitable disposition, he kept open house
+for Helvétius, D&rsquo;Alembert, Diderot, Condillac, Turgot, Buffon,
+Grimm, Hume, Garrick, Wilkes, Sterne, and for a time J. J.
+Rousseau, guests who, while enjoying the intellectual pleasure
+of their host&rsquo;s conversation, were not insensible to his excellent
+cuisine and costly wines. For the <i>Encyclopédie</i> he compiled
+and translated a large number of articles on chemistry and
+mineralogy, chiefly from German sources. He attracted more
+attention, however, in the department of philosophy. In 1767
+<i>Christianisme dévoilé</i> appeared, in which he attacked Christianity
+and religion as the source of all human evils. This was followed
+up by other works, and in 1770 by a still more open attack in
+his most famous book, <i>Le Système de la nature</i>, in which it
+is probable he was assisted by Diderot. Denying the existence
+of a deity, and refusing to admit as evidence all a priori arguments,
+Holbach saw in the universe nothing save matter in spontaneous
+movement. What men call their souls become extinct when
+the body dies. Happiness is the end of mankind. &ldquo;It would
+be useless and almost unjust to insist upon a man&rsquo;s being virtuous
+if he cannot be so without being unhappy. So long as vice
+renders him happy, he should love vice.&rdquo; The restraints of
+religion were to be replaced by an education developing an
+enlightened self-interest. The study of science was to bring
+human desires into line with their natural surroundings. Not
+less direct and trenchant are his attacks on political government,
+which, interpreted by the light of after events, sound like the
+first distant mutterings of revolution. Holbach exposed the
+logical consequences of the theories of the Encyclopaedists.
+Voltaire hastily seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the
+Système in the article &ldquo;Dieu&rdquo; in his <i>Dictionnaire philosophique</i>,
+while Frederick the Great also drew up an answer to it. Though
+vigorous in thought and in some passages clear and eloquent,
+the style of the Système is diffuse and declamatory, and asserts
+rather than proves its statements. Its principles are summed
+up in a more popular form in <i>Bon Sens, ou idées naturelles
+opposées aux idées surnaturelles</i> (Amsterdam, 1772). In the
+Système social (1773), the <i>Politique naturelle</i> (1773-1774) and
+the <i>Morale universelle</i> (1776) Holbach attempts to rear a system
+of morality in place of the one he had so fiercely attacked, but
+these later writings had not a tithe of the popularity and influence
+of his earlier work. He published his books either anonymously
+or under borrowed names, and was forced to have them printed
+out of France. The uprightness and sincerity of his character
+won the friendship of many to whom his philosophy was repugnant.
+J. J. Rousseau is supposed to have drawn his portrait
+in the virtuous atheist Wolmar of the <i>Nouvelle Héloïse</i>. He
+died on the 21st of January 1789.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Holbach is also the author of the following and other works:
+<i>Esprit du clergé</i> (1767); <i>De l&rsquo;imposture sacerdotale</i> (1767); <i>Prêtres
+démasqués</i> (1768); <i>Examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de St
+Paul</i> (1770); <i>Histoire critique de Jésus-Christ</i> (1770), and <i>Ethocratie</i>
+(1776). For further particulars as to his life and doctrines
+see Grimm&rsquo;s <i>Correspondance littéraire</i>, &amp;c. (1813); Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Confessions</i>;
+Morellet&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i> (1821); Madame de Genlis, <i>Les Dîners
+du Baron Holbach</i>; Madame d&rsquo;Épinay&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i>; Avezac-Lavigne,
+<i>Diderot et la société du Baron d&rsquo;Holbach</i> (1875), and Morley&rsquo;s <i>Diderot</i>
+(1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLBEACH,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a market town in the Holland or Spalding
+parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, on the
+Midland and Great Northern joint railway, 23½ m. N.E. of
+Peterborough. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4755. All Saints&rsquo;
+Church, with a lofty spire, is a fine specimen of late Decorated
+work. The grammar school, founded in 1669, occupies a building
+erected in 1877. Other public buildings are the assembly
+rooms and a market house. Roman and Saxon remains have
+been found, and the market dates from the 13th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLBEIN, HANS,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> the elder (<i>c.</i> 1460-1524), belonged to a
+celebrated family of painters in practice at Augsburg and Basel
+from the close of the 15th to the middle of the 16th century.
+Though closely connected with Venice by her commercial
+relations, and geographically nearer to Italy than to Flanders,
+Augsburg at the time of Maximilian cultivated art after the
+fashion of the Flemings, and felt the influence of the schools
+of Bruges and Brussels, which had branches at Cologne and in
+many cities about the headwaters of the Rhine. It was not
+till after the opening of the 16th century, and between that
+and the era of the Reformation, that Italian example mitigated
+to some extent the asperity of South German painting. Flemish
+and German art was first tempered with Italian elements at
+Augsburg by Hans Holbein the elder. Hans first appears at
+Augsburg as partner to his brother Sigismund, who survived
+him and died in 1540 at Berne. Sigismund is described as a
+painter, but his works have not come down to us. Hans had
+the lead of the partnership at Augsburg, and signed all the
+pictures which it produced. In common with Herlen, Schöngauer,
+and other masters of South Germany, he first cultivated a style
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span>
+akin to that of Memlinc and other followers of the schools of
+Brussels and Bruges, but he probably modified the systems
+of those schools by studying the works of the masters of Cologne.
+As these early impressions waned, they were replaced by others
+less favourable to the expansion of the master&rsquo;s fame; and as
+his custom increased between 1499 and 1506, we find him relying
+less upon the teaching of the schools than upon a mere observation
+and reproduction of the quaintnesses of local passion plays.
+Most of his early works indeed are taken from the Passion, and
+in these he obviously marshalled his figures with the shallow
+stage effect of the plays, copying their artificial system of grouping,
+careless to some extent of proportion in the human shape,
+heedless of any but the coarser forms of expression, and technically
+satisfied with the simplest methods of execution. If in any
+branch of his art he can be said to have had a conscience at this
+period, we should say that he showed it in his portrait drawings.
+It is seldom that we find a painted likeness worthy of the name.
+The drawings of which numbers are still preserved in the galleries
+of Basel, Berlin and Copenhagen show extraordinary quickness
+and delicacy of hand, and a wonderful facility for seizing
+character; and this happily is one of the features which Holbein
+bequeathed to his more famous son, Hans the younger. It is
+between 1512 and 1522 that Holbein tempered the German
+quality of his style with some North Italian elements. A purer
+taste and more pleasing realism mark his work, which in drapery,
+dress and tone is as much more agreeable to the eye as in
+respect of modelling and finish it is smoother and more carefully
+rounded. Costume, architecture, ornament and colour are
+applied with some knowledge of the higher canons of art. Here,
+too, advantage accrued to Hans the younger, whose independent
+career about this time began.</p>
+
+<p>The date of the elder Holbein&rsquo;s birth is unknown. But his
+name appears in the books of the tax-gatherers of Augsburg
+in 1494, superseding that of Michael Holbein, who is supposed
+to have been his father. Previous to that date, and as early as
+1493, he was a painter of name, and he executed in that year,
+it is said, for the abbey at Weingarten, the wings of an altarpiece
+representing Joachim&rsquo;s Offering, the Nativity of the Virgin,
+Mary&rsquo;s Presentation in the Temple, and the Presentation of
+Christ, which now hang in separate panels in the cathedral of
+Augsburg. In these pieces and others of the same period,
+for instance in two Madonnas in the Moritz chapel and castle
+of Nuremberg, we mark the clear impress of the schools of Van
+der Weyden and Memlinc; whilst in later works, such as the
+Basilica of St Paul (1504) in the gallery of Augsburg, the wane of
+Flemish influence is apparent. But this altarpiece, with its
+quaint illustrations of St Paul&rsquo;s life and martyrdom, is not alone
+of interest because its execution is characteristic of old Holbein.
+It is equally so because it contains portraits of the master himself,
+accompanied by his two sons, the painters Ambrose (<i>c.</i> 1494-<i>c.</i> 1519)
+and Hans the younger. Later pictures, such as the
+Passion series in the Fürstenberg gallery at Donaueschingen, or
+the Martyrdom of St Sebastian in the Munich Pinakothek,
+contain similar portraits, the original drawings of which are found
+in old Holbein&rsquo;s sketch-book at Berlin, or in stray leaves like
+those possessed by the duke of Aumale in Paris. Not one of
+these fails to give us an insight into the character, or a reflex
+of the features, of the members of this celebrated family. Old
+Holbein seems to ape Leonardo, allowing his hair and beard
+to grow wildly, except on the upper lip. Hans the younger
+is a plain-looking boy. But his father points to him with his
+finger, and hints that though but a child he is clearly a prodigy.</p>
+
+<p>After 1516 Hans Holbein the elder appears as a defaulter
+in the registers of the tax-gatherers at Augsburg; but he
+willingly accepts commissions abroad. At Issenheim in Alsace,
+where Grünewald was employed in 1516, old Holbein also finds
+patrons, and contracts to complete an altarpiece. But misfortune
+or a bailiff pursues him, and he leaves Issenheim, abandoning
+his work and tools. According to Sandrart, he wanders to
+Basel and takes the freedom of its gild. His brother Sigismund
+and others are found suing him for debt before the courts of
+Augsburg. Where he lived when he executed the altarpiece,
+of which two wings with the date of 1522 are in the gallery of
+Carlsruhe, is uncertain; where he died two years later is unknown.
+He slinks from ken at the close of a long life, and disappears
+at last heeded by none but his own son, who claims his brushes
+and paints from the monks of Issenheim without much chance
+of obtaining them. His name is struck off the books of the
+Augsburg gild in 1524.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The elder Holbein was a prolific artist, who left many pictures
+behind him. Earlier than the Basilica of St Paul, already mentioned,
+is the Basilica of St Mary Maggiore, and a Passion in eleven pieces,
+in the Augsburg gallery, both executed in 1499. Another Passion,
+with the root of Jesse and a tree of the Dominicans, is that preserved
+in the Staedel, Saalhof, and church of St Leonard at Frankfort. It
+was executed in 1501. The Passion of Donaueschingen was finished
+after 1502, in which year was completed the Passion of Kaisheim, a
+conglomerate of twenty-seven panels, now divided amongst the
+galleries of Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Schleissheim. An
+altarpiece of the same class, commissioned for the monastery of
+St Moritz at Augsburg in 1504-1508, has been dispersed and lost.
+1512 is the date of a Conception in the Augsburg gallery, long
+assigned, in consequence of a forged inscription, to Hans Holbein the
+younger. A diptych, with a Virgin and Child, and a portrait of an
+old man, dated 1513, came in separate parts into the collections of
+Mr Posonyi and Count Lanckoronski at Vienna. The sketch-books
+of Berlin, Copenhagen and Augsburg give a lively picture of the
+forms and dress of Augsburg residents at the beginning of the 16th
+century. They comprise portraits of the emperor Maximilian, the
+future Charles V., Kunz von der Rosen, the fool of Maximilian, the
+Fuggers, friars, merchants, and at rare intervals ladies.</p>
+
+<p>See also the biography by Stödtner (Berlin, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLBEIN, HANS,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> the younger (1497-1543), German painter,
+favourite son of Hans Holbein the elder, was probably born at
+Augsburg about the year 1497. Though Sandrart and Van
+Mander declare that they do not know who gave him the first
+lessons, he doubtless received an artist&rsquo;s education from his
+father. About 1515 he left Augsburg with Ambrose, his elder
+brother, to seek employment as an illustrator of books at Basel.
+His first patron is said to have been Erasmus, for whom, shortly
+after his arrival, he illustrated with pen-and-ink sketches an
+edition of the <i>Encomium Moriae</i>, now in the museum of Basel.
+But his chief occupation was that of drawing titlepage-blocks
+and initials for new editions of the Bible and classics issued
+from the presses of Froben and other publishers. His leisure
+hours, it is supposed, were devoted to the production of rough
+painter&rsquo;s work, a schoolmaster&rsquo;s sign in the Basel collection,
+a table with pictures of St Nobody in the library of the university
+at Zürich. In contrast with these coarse productions, the portraits
+of Jacob Meyer and his wife in the Basel museum, one of which
+purports to have been finished in 1516, are miracles of workmanship.
+It has always seemed difficult indeed to ascribe such
+excellent creations to Holbein&rsquo;s nineteenth year; and it is
+hardly credible that he should have been asked to do things
+of this kind so early, especially when it is remembered that
+neither he nor his brother Ambrose were then allowed to matriculate
+in the guild of Basel. Not till 1517 did Ambrose, whose
+life otherwise remains obscure, join that corporation; Hans,
+not overburdened with practice, wandered into Switzerland,
+where (1517) he was employed to paint in the house of Jacob
+Hertenstein at Lucerne. In 1519 Holbein reappeared at Basel,
+where he matriculated and, there is every reason to think,
+married. Whether, previous to this time, he took advantage of
+his vicinity to the Italian border to cross the Alps is uncertain.
+Van Mander says that he never was in Italy; yet the large
+wall-paintings which he executed after 1519 at Basel, and the
+series of his sketches and pictures which is still extant, might
+lead to the belief that Van Mander was misinformed. The
+spirit of Holbein&rsquo;s compositions for the Basel town hall, the
+scenery and architecture of his numerous drawings, and the cast
+of form in some of his imaginative portraits, make it more
+likely that he should have felt the direct influence of North
+Italian painting than that he should have taken Italian elements
+from imported works or prints. The Swiss at this period
+wandered in thousands to swell the ranks of the French or
+imperial armies fighting on Italian soil, and the road they took
+may have been followed by Hans on a more peaceful mission.
+He shows himself at all events familiar with Italian examples
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span>
+at various periods of his career; and if we accept as early works the
+&ldquo;Flagellation,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Last Supper&rdquo; at Basel, coarse as they
+are, they show some acquaintance with Lombard methods of
+painting, whilst in other pieces, such as the series of the Passion in
+oil in the same collection, the modes of Hans Holbein the elder are
+agreeably commingled with a more modern, it may be said Italian,
+polish. Again, looking at the &ldquo;Virgin&rdquo; and &ldquo;Man of Sorrows&rdquo;
+in the Basel museum, we shall be struck by a searching metallic
+style akin to that of the Ferrarese; and the &ldquo;Lais&rdquo; or the &ldquo;Venus
+and Amor&rdquo; of the same collection reminds us of the Leonardesques
+of the school of Milan. When Holbein settled down to an
+extensive practice at Basel in 1519, he decorated the walls of
+the house &ldquo;Zum Tanz&rdquo; with simulated architectural features
+of a florid character after the fashion of the Veronese; and his
+wall paintings in the town-hall, if we can truly judge of them
+by copies, reveal an artist not unfamiliar with North Italian
+composition, distribution, action, gesture and expression. In
+his drawings too, particularly in a set representing the Passion
+at Basel, the arrangement, and also the perspective, form and
+decorative ornament, are in the spirit of the school of Mantegna.
+Contemporary with these, however, and almost inexplicably
+in contrast with them as regards handling, are portrait-drawings
+such as the likenesses of Jacob Meyer, and his wife, which are
+finished with German delicacy, and with a power and subtlety
+of hand seldom rivalled in any school. Curiously enough, the
+same contrast may be observed between painted compositions
+and painted portraits. The &ldquo;Bonifacius Amerbach&rdquo; of 1519 at
+Basel is acknowledged to be one of the most complete examples
+of smooth and transparent handling that Holbein ever executed.
+His versatility at this period is shown by a dead Christ (1521),
+a corpse in profile on a dissecting table, and a set of figures in
+couples; the &ldquo;Madonna and St Pantalus,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Kaiser Henry
+with the Empress Kunigunde&rdquo; (1522), originally composed for
+the organ loft of the Basel cathedral, now in the Basel museum.
+Equally remarkable, but more attractive, though injured, is
+the &ldquo;Virgin and Child between St Ursus and St Nicholas&rdquo; (not
+St Martin) giving alms to a beggar, in the gallery of Solothurn.
+This remarkable picture is dated 1522, and seems to have been
+ordered for an altar in the minster of St Ursus of Solothurn by
+Nicholas Conrad, a captain and statesman of the 16th century,
+whose family allowed the precious heirloom to fall into decay
+in a chapel of the neighbouring village of Grenchen. Numerous
+drawings in the spirit of this picture, and probably of the same
+period in his career, might have led Holbein&rsquo;s contemporaries
+to believe that he would make his mark in the annals of Basel
+as a model for painters of altarpieces as well as a model for
+pictorial composition and portrait. The promise which he gave
+at this time was immense. He was gaining a freedom in draughtsmanship
+that gave him facility to deal with any subject. Though
+a realist, he was sensible of the dignity and severity of religious
+painting. His colour had almost all the richness and sweetness
+of the Venetians. But he had fallen on evil times, as the next
+few years undoubtedly showed. Amongst the portraits which
+he executed in these years are those of Froben, the publisher,
+known only by copies at Basel and Hampton Court, and Erasmus,
+who sat in 1523, as he likewise did in 1530, in various positions,
+showing his face threequarters as at Longford, Basel, Turin,
+Parma, the Hague and Vienna, and in profile as in the Louvre
+or at Hampton Court. Besides these, Holbein made designs
+for glass windows, and for woodcuts, including subjects of every
+sort, from the Virgin and Child with saints of the old time to
+the Dance of Death, from gospel incidents extracted from
+Luther&rsquo;s Bible to satirical pieces illustrating the sale of indulgences
+and other abuses denounced by Reformers. Holbein, in this
+way, was carried irresistibly with the stream of the Reformation,
+in which, it must now be admitted, the old traditions of religious
+painting were wrecked, leaving nothing behind but unpictorial
+elements which Cranach and his school vainly used for pictorial
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Once only, after 1526, and after he had produced the &ldquo;Lais&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Venus and Amor,&rdquo; did Holbein with impartial spirit give
+his services and pencil to the Roman Catholic cause. The burgomaster
+Meyer, whose patronage he had already enjoyed, now
+asked him to represent himself and his wives and children in
+prayer before the Virgin; and Holbein produced the celebrated
+altarpiece now in the palace of Prince William of Hesse at
+Darmstadt, the shape and composition of which are known to
+all the world by its copy in the Dresden museum. The drawings
+for this masterpiece are amongst the most precious relics in the
+museum of Basel. The time now came when art began to suffer
+from unavoidable depression in all countries north of the Alps.
+Holbein, at Basel, was reduced to accept the smallest commissions&mdash;even
+for scutcheons. Then he saw that his chances were
+dwindling to nothing, and taking a bold resolution, armed with
+letters of introduction from Erasmus to More, he crossed the
+Channel to England, where in the one-sided branch of portrait
+painting he found an endless circle of clients. Eighty-seven
+drawings by Holbein in Windsor Castle, containing an equal
+number of portraits, of persons chiefly of high quality, testify
+to his industry in the years which divide 1528 from 1543. They
+are all originals of pictures that are still extant, or sketches
+for pictures that were lost or never carried out. Sir Thomas
+More, with whom he seems to have had a very friendly connexion,
+sat to him for likenesses of various kinds. The drawing of his
+head is at Windsor. A pen-and-ink sketch, in which we see
+More surrounded by all the members of his family, is now in
+the gallery of Basel, and numerous copies of a picture from it
+prove how popular the lost original must once have been. At
+the same period were executed the portraits of Warham (Lambeth
+and Louvre), Wyatt (Louvre), Sir Henry Guildford and his
+wife (Windsor), all finished in 1527, the astronomer Nicholas
+Kratzer (Louvre), Thomas Godsalve (Dresden), and Sir Bryan
+Tuke (Munich) in 1528. In this year, 1528, Holbein returned
+to Basel, taking to Erasmus the sketch of More&rsquo;s family. With
+money which he brought from London he purchased a house
+at Basel wherein to lodge his wife and children, whose portraits
+he now painted with all the care of a husband and father (1528).
+He then witnessed the flight of Erasmus and the fury of the
+iconoclasts, who destroyed in one day almost all the religious
+pictures at Basel. The municipality, unwilling that he should
+suffer again from the depression caused by evil times, asked him
+to finish the frescoes of the town-hall, and the sketches from these
+lost pictures are still before us to show that he had not lost the
+spirit of his earlier days, and was still capable as a composer. His
+&ldquo;Rehoboam receiving the Israelite Envoys,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Saul at the
+Head of his Array meeting Samuel,&rdquo; testify to Holbein&rsquo;s power
+and his will, also proved at a later period by the &ldquo;Triumphs of
+Riches and Poverty,&rdquo; executed for the Steelyard in London
+(but now lost), to prefer the fame of a painter of history to that
+of a painter of portraits. But the reforming times still remained
+unfavourable to art. With the exception of a portrait of
+Melanchthon (Hanover) which he now completed, Holbein
+found little to do at Basel. The year 1530, therefore, saw him
+again on the move, and he landed in England for the second
+time with the prospect of bettering his fortunes. Here indeed
+political changes had robbed him of his earlier patrons. The
+circle of More and Warham was gone. But that of the merchants
+of the Steelyard took its place, for whom Holbein executed the
+long and important series of portraits that lie scattered throughout
+the galleries and collections of England and the Continent, and
+bear date after 1532. Then came again the chance of practice
+in more fashionable circles. In 1533 the &ldquo;Ambassadors&rdquo;
+(National Gallery), and the &ldquo;Triumphs of Wealth and Poverty&rdquo;
+were executed, then the portraits of Leland and Wyatt (Longford),
+and (1534) the portrait of Thomas Cromwell. Through Cromwell
+Holbein probably became attached to the court, in the pay of
+which he appears permanently after 1537. From that time
+onwards he was connected with all that was highest in the
+society of London. Henry VIII. invited him to make a family
+picture of himself, his father and family, which obtained a
+post of honour at Whitehall. The beautiful cartoon of a part
+of this fine piece at Hardwicke Hall enables us to gauge its
+beauty before the fire which destroyed it in the 17th century.
+Then Holbein painted Jane Seymour in state (Vienna), employing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span>
+some English hand perhaps to make the replicas at the Hague,
+Sion House and Woburn; he finished the Southwell of the
+Uffizi (copy at the Louvre), the jeweller Morett at Dresden,
+and last, not least, Christine of Denmark, who gave sittings at
+Brussels in 1538. During the journey which this work involved
+Holbein took the opportunity of revisiting Basel, where he made
+his appearance in silk and satin, and <i>pro forma</i> only accepted
+the office of town painter. He had been living long and continuously
+away from home, not indeed observing due fidelity
+to his wife, who still resided at Basel, but fairly performing the
+duties of keeping her in comfort. His return to London in
+autumn enabled him to do homage to the king in the way
+familiar to artists. He presented to Henry at Christmas a
+portrait of Prince Edward. Again abroad in the summer of
+1539, he painted with great fidelity the princess Anne of Cleves,
+at Düren near Cologne, whose form we still see depicted in the
+great picture of the Louvre. That he could render the features
+of his sitter without flattery is plain from this one example.
+Indeed, habitual flattery was contrary to his habits. His
+portraits up to this time all display that uncommon facility for
+seizing character which his father enjoyed before him, and
+which he had inherited in an expanded form. No amount of
+labour, no laboriousness of finish&mdash;and of both he was ever
+prodigal&mdash;betrayed him into loss of resemblance or expression.
+No painter was ever quicker at noting peculiarities of physiognomy,
+and it may be observed that in none of his faces, as
+indeed in none of the faces one sees in nature, are the two sides
+alike. Yet he was not a child of the 16th century, as the
+Venetians were, in substituting touch for line. We must not
+look in his works for modulations of surface or subtle contrasts
+of colour in juxtaposition. His method was to the very last
+delicate, finished and smooth, as became a painter of the old
+school.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the more important creations of Holbein&rsquo;s later time
+we should note his &ldquo;Duke of Norfolk&rdquo; at Windsor, the hands
+of which are so perfectly preserved as to compensate for the
+shrivel that now disfigures the head. Two other portraits of
+1541 (Berlin and Vienna), the Falconer at the Hague, and John
+Chambers at Vienna (1542), are noble specimens of portrait
+art; most interesting and of the same year are the likenesses
+of Holbein himself, of which several examples are extant&mdash;one
+particularly good at Fähna, the seat of the Stackelberg family
+near Riga, and another at the Uffizi in Florence. Here Holbein
+appears to us as a man of regular features, with hair just turning
+grey, but healthy in colour and shape, and evidently well to
+do in the world. Yet a few months only separated him then
+from his death-bed. He was busy painting a picture of Henry
+the VIII. confirming the Privileges of the Barber Surgeons
+(Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields), when he sickened of the plague and died
+after making a will about November 1543. His loss must have
+been seriously felt in England. Had he lived his last years in
+Germany, he would not have changed the current which decided
+the fate of painting in that country; he would but have shared
+the fate of Dürer and others who merely prolonged the agony
+of art amidst the troubles of the Reformation.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The early authorities are Karel Van Mander&rsquo;s <i>Het Schilder Boek</i>
+(1604), and J. von Sandrart, <i>Accademia Todesca</i> (1675). See also
+R. N. Wornum, <i>Life and Work of Holbein</i> (1867); H. Knackfuss,
+<i>Holbein</i> (1899); G. S. Davies, <i>Holbein</i> (1903); A. F. G. A. Woltmann,
+<i>Holbein und seine Zeit</i> (1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1684-1754), the
+great Scandinavian writer, was born at Bergen, in Norway, on
+the 3rd of December 1684. Both Holberg&rsquo;s parents died in
+his childhood, his father first, leaving a considerable property;
+and in his eleventh year he lost his mother also. Before the
+latter event, however, the family had been seriously impoverished
+by a great fire, which destroyed several valuable
+buildings, but notwithstanding this, the mother left to each of
+her six children some little fortune. In 1695 the boy Holberg
+was taken into the house of his uncle, Peder Lem, who sent him
+to the Latin school, and prepared him for the profession of a
+soldier; but soon after this he was adopted by his cousin Otto
+Munthe, and went to him up in the mountains. His great
+desire for instruction, however, at last induced his family to
+send him back to Bergen, to his uncle, and there he remained,
+eagerly studying, until the destruction of that city by fire in
+1702, when he was sent to the university of Copenhagen. But
+he soon exhausted his resources, and, having nothing to live
+upon, was glad to hurry back to Norway, where he accepted
+the position of tutor in the house of a rural dean at Voss. He
+soon returned to Copenhagen, where in 1704 he took his degree,
+and worked hard at French, English and Italian. But he had
+to gain his living, and accordingly he accepted the post of tutor
+once more, this time in the house of Dr Smith, vice-bishop of
+Bergen. The good doctor had travelled much, and the reading
+of his itineraries and note-books awakened such a longing for
+travel in the young Holberg that at last, at the close of 1704,
+having scraped together 60 dollars, he went on board a ship
+bound for Holland. He proceeded as far as Aix-la-Chapelle,
+where he fell sick of a fever, and suffered so much from weakness
+and poverty, that he made his way on foot to Amsterdam, and
+came back to Norway. Ashamed to be seen so soon in Bergen,
+he stopped at Christianssand, where he lived through the winter,
+supporting himself by giving lessons in French. In the spring
+of 1706 he travelled, in company with a student named Brix,
+through London to Oxford, where he studied for two years,
+gaining his livelihood by giving lessons on the violin and the flute.
+He mentions, with gratitude, the valuable libraries of Oxford,
+and it is pleasant to record that it was while he was there that
+it first occurred to him, as he says, &ldquo;how splendid and glorious a
+thing it would be to take a place among the authors.&rdquo; Through
+London and Elsinore he reached Copenhagen a third time, and
+began to lecture at the university; his lectures were attended,
+but he got no money. He was asked in 1709 to conduct a rich
+young gentleman to Dresden, and on his return journey he
+lectured at Leipzig, Halle and Hamburg. Once more in Copenhagen,
+he undertook to teach the children of Admiral Gedde.
+Weary with this work, he took a post at Borch College in 1710,
+where he wrote, and printed in 1711, his first work, <i>An Introduction
+to the History of the Nations of Europe</i>, and was permitted
+to present to King Frederick IV. two manuscript essays on
+Christian IV. and Frederick III. The king soon after presented
+him with the title of Professor, and with the Rosenkrantz grant
+of 100 dollars for four years, the holder of which was expected
+to travel. Holberg accordingly started in 1714, and visited, chiefly
+on foot, a great portion of Europe. From Amsterdam he walked
+through Rotterdam to Antwerp, took a boat to Brussels, and on
+foot again reached Paris. Walking and skating, he proceeded
+in the depth of winter to Marseilles, and on by sea to Genoa.
+On the last-mentioned voyage he caught a fever, and nearly
+died in that city. On his recovery he pushed on to Civita Vecchia
+and Rome. When the spring had come, being still very poor
+and in feeble health, he started homewards on foot by Florence,
+across the Apennines, through Bologna, Parma, Piacenza, Turin,
+over the Alps, through Savoy and Dauphiné to Lyons, and
+finally to Paris, where he arrived in excellent health. After
+spending a month in Paris, he walked on to Amsterdam, took
+sail to Hamburg, and so went back to Denmark in 1716. He
+spent the next two years in extreme poverty, and published his
+<i>Introduction to Natural and Popular Law</i>. But at last, in 1718,
+his talents were recognized by his appointment as professor
+of metaphysics at the university of Copenhagen; and in 1720
+he was promoted to the lucrative chair of public eloquence,
+which gave him a seat in the consistory. His pecuniary troubles
+were now at an end. Hitherto he had written only on law,
+history and philology, although in a Latin controversy with
+the jurist Andreas Hojer of Flensborg his satirical genius had
+flashed out. But now, and until 1728, he created an entirely
+new class of humorous literature under the pseudonym of Hans
+Mikkelsen. The serio-comic epic of <i>Peder Paars</i>, the earliest
+of the great classics of the Danish language, appeared In 1719.
+This poem was a brilliant satire on contemporary manners, and
+enjoyed an extraordinary success. But the author had offended
+in it several powerful persons who threatened his life, and if
+Count Danneskjold had not personally interested the king in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span>
+him, Holberg&rsquo;s career might have had an untimely close. During
+the next two years he published five shorter satires, all of which
+were well received by the public. The great event of 1721 was
+the erection of the first Danish theatre in Grönnegade, Copenhagen;
+Holberg took the direction of this house, in which was
+played, in September 1722, a Danish translation of L&rsquo;Avare.
+Until this time no plays had been acted in Denmark except in
+French and German, but Holberg now determined to use his
+talent in the construction of Danish comedy. The first of his
+original pieces performed was <i>Den politiske Kandestöber</i> (The
+Pewterer turned Politician); he wrote other comedies with
+miraculous rapidity, and before 1722 was closed, there had been
+performed in succession, and with immense success, <i>Den Vaegelsindede</i>
+(The Waverer), <i>Jean de France</i>, <i>Jeppe paa Bjerget</i>, and
+<i>Gert the Westphalian</i>. Of these five plays, four at least are
+masterpieces; and they were almost immediately followed by
+others. Holberg took no rest, and before the end of 1723
+the comedies of <i>Barselstuen</i> (The Lying-in Room), <i>The Eleventh
+of July</i>, <i>Jakob von Thyboe</i>, <i>Den Bundeslöse</i> (The Fidget), <i>Erasmus
+Montanus</i>, <i>Don Ranudo</i>, <i>Ulysses of Ithaca</i>, <i>Without Head or Tail</i>,
+<i>Witchcraft</i> and <i>Melampe</i> had all been written, and some of them
+acted. In 1724 the most famous comedy that Holberg produced
+was <i>Henrik and Pernille</i>. But in spite of this unprecedented
+blaze of dramatic genius the theatre fell into pecuniary difficulties,
+and had to be closed, Holberg composing for the last night&rsquo;s
+performance, in February 1727, a <i>Funeral of Danish Comedy</i>.
+All this excessive labour for the stage had undermined the great
+poet&rsquo;s health, and in 1725 he had determined to take the baths
+at Aix-la-Chapelle; but instead of going thither he wandered
+through Belgium to Paris, and spent the winter there. In the
+spring he returned to Copenhagen with recovered health and
+spirits, and worked quietly at his protean literary labours until
+the great fire of 1728. In the period of national poverty and
+depression that followed this event, a puritanical spirit came
+into vogue which was little in sympathy with Holberg&rsquo;s dramatic
+or satiric genius. He therefore closed his career as a dramatic
+poet by publishing in 1731 his acted comedies, with the addition
+of five which he had no opportunity of putting on the stage.
+With characteristic versatility, he adopted the serious tone of
+the new age, and busied himself for the next twenty years with
+historical, philosophical and statistical writings. During this
+period he published his poetical satire called <i>Metamorphosis</i>
+(1726), his <i>Epistolae ad virum perillustrem</i> (1727), his <i>Description
+of Denmark and Norway</i> (1729), <i>History of Denmark</i>, <i>Universal
+Church History</i>, <i>Biographies of Famous Men</i>, <i>Moral Reflections</i>,
+<i>Description of Bergen</i> (1737), <i>A History of the Jews</i>, and other
+learned and laborious compilations. The only poem he published
+at this time was the famous <i>Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum</i>
+(1741), afterwards translated into Danish by Baggesen. When
+Christian VI. died in 1747, pietism lost its sway; the theatre
+was reopened and Holberg was appointed director, but he soon
+resigned this arduous post. The six comedies he wrote in his
+old age did not add to his reputation. His last published work
+was his <i>Epistles</i>, in 5 vols. the last of them posthumous (1754).
+In 1747 he was created by the new king Baron of Holberg. In
+August 1753 he took to his bed, and he died at Copenhagen
+on the 28th of January 1754, in the seventieth year of his age.
+He was buried at Sorö, in Zealand. He had never married, and
+he bequeathed all his property, which was considerable, to Sorö
+College.</p>
+
+<p>Holberg was not only the founder of Danish literature and the
+greatest of Danish authors, but he was, with the exception of
+Voltaire, the first writer in Europe during his own generation.
+Neither Pope nor Swift, who perhaps excelled him in particular
+branches of literary production, approached him in range of
+genius, or in encyclopaedic versatility. Holberg found Denmark
+provided with no books, and he wrote a library for her. When
+he arrived in the country, the Danish language was never heard
+in a gentleman&rsquo;s house. Polite Danes were wont to say that a
+man wrote Latin to his friends, talked French to the ladies,
+called his dogs in German, and only used Danish to swear at
+his servants. The single genius of Holberg revolutionized this
+system. He wrote poems of all kinds in a language hitherto
+employed only for ballads and hymns; he instituted a theatre,
+and composed a rich collection of comedies for it; he filled the
+shelves of the citizens with works in their own tongue on history,
+law, politics, science, philology and philosophy, all written in
+a true and manly style, and representing the extreme attainment
+of European culture at the moment. Perhaps no author
+who ever lived has had so vast an influence over his countrymen,
+an influence that is still at work after 200 years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The editions of Holberg&rsquo;s works are legion. Complete editions of
+the <i>Comedies</i> are too numerous to be quoted; the best is that brought
+out in 3 vols. by F. I. Lichtenberg, in 1870. Of <i>Peder Paars</i> there
+exist at least twenty-three editions, besides translations in Dutch,
+German and Swedish. The <i>Iter subterraneum</i> has been three several
+times translated into Danish, ten times into German, thrice into
+Swedish, thrice into Dutch, thrice into English, twice into French,
+twice into Russian and once into Hungarian. The life of Holberg
+was written by Welhaven in 1858 and by Georg Brandes in 1884.
+Among works on his genius by foreigners may be mentioned an
+exhaustive study by Robert Prutz (1857), and <i>Holberg considéré
+comme imitateur de Molière</i>, by A. Legrelle (Paris, 1864).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLBORN,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a central metropolitan borough of London,
+England, bounded N.W. by St Pancras, N.E. by Finsbury,
+S.E. by the City of London, S. and W. by the City of Westminster
+and St Marylebone. Pop. (1901), 59,405. Area 405.1 acres.
+Its main thoroughfare is that running E. and W. under the
+names of Holborn Viaduct, High Holborn and New Oxford
+Street.</p>
+
+<p>The name of Holborn was formerly derived from Old Bourne,
+a tributary of the Fleet, the valley of which is clearly seen where
+Holborn Viaduct crosses Farringdon Street. Of the existence
+of this tributary, however, there is no evidence, and the origin
+of the name is found in <i>Hole-bourne</i>, the stream in the hollow,
+in allusion to the Fleet itself. The fall and rise of the road across
+the valley before the construction of the viaduct (1869) was
+abrupt and inconvenient. In earlier times a bridge here crossed
+the Fleet, leading from Newgate, while a quarter of a mile west
+of the viaduct is the site of Holborn Bars, at the entrance to
+the City, where tolls were levied. The better residential district
+of Holborn, which extends northward to Euston Road in the
+borough of St Pancras, is mainly within the parish of St George,
+Bloomsbury. The name of Bloomsbury is commonly derived
+from William Blemund, a lord of the manor in the 15th century.
+A dyke called Blemund&rsquo;s Ditch, of unknown origin, bounded
+it on the south, where the land was marshy. During the 18th
+century Bloomsbury was a fashionable and wealthy residential
+quarter. The reputation of the district immediately to the
+south, embraced in the parish of St Giles in the Fields, was far
+different. From the 17th century until modern times this was
+notorious as a home of crime and poverty. Here occurred some
+of the earliest cases of the plague which spread over London
+in 1664-1665. The opening of the thoroughfares of New Oxford
+Street (1840) and Shaftesbury Avenue (1855) by no means
+wholly destroyed the character of the district. The circus
+of Seven Dials, east of Shaftesbury Avenue, affords a typical
+name in connexion with the lowest aspect of life in London.
+A similar notoriety attached to Saffron Hill on the eastern
+confines of the borough. By a singular contrast, the neighbouring
+thoroughfare of Hatton Garden, leading north from Holborn
+Circus, is a centre of the diamond trade.</p>
+
+<p>Of the ecclesiastical buildings of Holborn that of first
+interest is the chapel of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, opening
+from Holborn Circus. Ely Place takes its name from a palace
+of the bishops of Ely, who held land here as early as the 13th
+century. Here died John of Gaunt in 1399. The property was
+acquired by Sir Christopher Hatton, Lord Chancellor under
+Queen Elizabeth, after whom Hatton Garden is named; though
+the bishopric kept some hold upon it until the 18th century.
+The chapel, the only remnant of the palace, is a beautiful
+Decorated structure with a vaulted crypt, itself above ground-level.
+Both are used for worship by Roman Catholics, by whom
+the chapel was acquired in 1874 and opened five years later
+after careful restoration. The present parish church of St
+Giles in the Fields, between Shaftesbury Avenue and New
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span>
+Oxford Street, dates from 1734, but here was situated a leper&rsquo;s
+hospital founded by Matilda, wife of Henry I., in 1101. Its
+chapel became the parish church on the suppression of the
+monasteries. The church of St Andrew, the parish of which
+extends into the City, stands near Holborn Viaduct. It is by
+Wren, but there are traces of the previous Gothic edifice in the
+tower. Sacheverell was among its rectors (1713-1724), and
+Thomas Chatterton (1770) was interred in the adjacent burial
+ground, no longer extant, of Shoe Lane Workhouse; the register
+recording his Christian name as William. Close to this church
+Is the City Temple (Congregational).</p>
+
+<p>Two of the four Inns of Court, Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn and Gray&rsquo;s
+Inn, lie within the borough. Of the first the Tudor gateway
+opens upon Chancery Lane. The chapel, hall and residential
+buildings surrounding the squares within, are picturesque, but
+of later date. To the west lie the fine square, with public gardens,
+still called, from its original character, Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields.
+Gray&rsquo;s Inn, between High Holborn and Theobald&rsquo;s Road, and
+west of Gray&rsquo;s Inn Road, is of similar arrangement. The fabric
+of the small chapel is apparently of the 14th century, and may
+have been attached to the manor house of Portpool, held at
+that period by the Lords Grey of Wilton. Of the former Inns
+of Chancery attached to these Inns of Court the most noteworthy
+buildings remaining are those of Staple Inn, of which
+the timbered and gabled Elizabethan front upon High Holborn
+is a unique survival of its character in a London thoroughfare;
+and of Barnard&rsquo;s Inn, occupied by the Mercer&rsquo;s School. Both
+these were attached to Gray&rsquo;s Inn. Of Furnival&rsquo;s and Thavies
+Inns, attached to Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, only the names remain. The
+site of the first is covered by the fine red brick buildings of the
+Prudential Assurance Company, Holborn Viaduct. Among
+other institutions in Holborn, the British Museum, north of
+New Oxford Street, is pre-eminent. The varied collections
+of Sir John Soane, accumulated at his house in Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn
+Fields, are open to view as the Soane Museum. There may also
+be mentioned the Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn
+Fields, with museum; the Royal Colleges of Organists, and of
+Veterinary Surgeons, the College of Preceptors, the Jews&rsquo;
+College, and the Metropolitan School of Shorthand. Among
+hospitals are the Italian, the Homoeopathic, the National for
+the paralysed and epileptic, the Alexandra for children with
+hip disease, and the Hospital for sick children. The Foundling
+Hospital, Guilford Street, was founded by Thomas Coram in
+1739.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLCROFT, THOMAS<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1745-1809), English dramatist and
+miscellaneous writer, was born on the 10th of December 1745
+(old style) in Orange Court, Leicester Fields, London. His
+father, besides having a shoemaker&rsquo;s shop, kept riding horses for
+hire; but having fallen into difficulties was reduced ultimately
+to the necessity of hawking pedlary. The son accompanied
+his parents in their tramps, and succeeded in procuring the
+situation of stable boy at Newmarket, where he spent his evenings
+chiefly in miscellaneous reading and the study of music.
+Gradually he obtained a knowledge of French, German and
+Italian. At the end of his term of engagement as stable boy he
+returned to assist his father, who had again resumed his trade
+of shoemaker in London; but after marrying in 1765, he became
+a teacher in a small school in Liverpool. He failed in an attempt
+to set up a private school, and became prompter in a Dublin
+theatre. He acted in various strolling companies until 1778,
+when he produced <i>The Crisis; or, Love and Famine</i>, at Drury
+Lane. <i>Duplicity</i> followed in 1781. Two years later he went
+to Paris as correspondent of the <i>Morning Herald</i>. Here he
+attended the performances of Beaumarchais&rsquo;s <i>Mariage de Figaro</i>
+until he had memorized the whole. The translation of it, with
+the title <i>The Follies of the Day</i>, was produced at Drury Lane
+in 1784. <i>The Road to Ruin</i>, his most successful melodrama,
+was produced in 1792. A revival in 1873 ran for 118 nights.
+Holcroft died on the 23rd of March 1809. He was a member
+of the Society for Constitutional Information, and on that
+account was, in 1794, indicted of high treason, but was discharged
+without a trial. Among his novels may be mentioned <i>Alwyn</i>
+(1780), an account, largely autobiographical, of a strolling
+comedian, and <i>Hugh Trevor</i> (1794-1797). He also was the author
+of <i>Travels from Hamburg through Westphalia, Holland and the
+Netherlands to Paris</i>, of some volumes of verse and of translations
+from the French and German.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Memoirs written by Himself and continued down to the Time of
+his Death, from his Diary, Notes and other Papers</i>, by William Hazlitt,
+appeared in 1816, and was reprinted, in a slightly abridged form, in
+1852.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1822-1896), English classical
+scholar, came of an old Staffordshire family. He was educated
+at King Edward&rsquo;s school, Birmingham, and Trinity College,
+Cambridge (senior classic, 1845; fellow, 1847). He was vice-principal
+of Cheltenham College (1853-1858), and headmaster
+of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s school, Ipswich (1858-1883). He died
+in London on the 1st of December 1896. In addition to several
+school editions of portions of Cicero, Thucydides, Xenophon
+and Plutarch, he published an expurgated text of Aristophanes
+with a useful onomasticon (re-issued separately, 1902) and larger
+editions of Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De officiis</i> (revised ed., 1898) and of the
+<i>Octavius</i> of Minucius Felix (1853). His chief works, however,
+were his <i>Foliorum silvula</i> (1852), a collection of English extracts
+for translation into Greek and Latin verse; <i>Folia silvulae</i>
+(translations of the same); and <i>Foliorum centuriae</i>, a companion
+volume of extracts for Latin prose translation. In English
+schools these books have been widely used for the teaching of
+Latin and Greek composition.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1807-1897), English inventor
+and manufacturer, was the son of Isaac Holden, a native of
+Cumberland, and was born at Hurlet, a village between Paisley
+and Glasgow, on the 7th of May 1807. His early life was passed
+in very straitened circumstances, but his father spared no pains
+to give him as much elementary education as possible. At the
+age of ten he began to work as weaver&rsquo;s draw-boy, and afterwards
+was employed in a cotton mill. Meanwhile his education
+was continued at the night schools, and from time to time,
+as funds allowed, he was taken from work and sent to the
+grammar-school, to which he at last went regularly for a year
+or two until he was fifteen, when his father removed to Paisley
+and apprenticed him to an uncle, a shawl-weaver there. This
+proving too much for his strength, in 1823 he became assistant
+teacher in a school at Paisley, and in 1828 he was appointed
+mathematical teacher in the Queen&rsquo;s Square Academy, Leeds.
+At the end of six months he was transferred to Lingard&rsquo;s grammar
+school, near Huddersfield, and shortly afterwards became
+classical master at Castle Street Academy, Reading. It was here
+that in 1829 he invented a lucifer match by adopting sulphur
+as the medium between the explosive material and the wood,
+but he refused to patent the invention. In 1830 his health
+again failed, and he returned to Scotland, where a Glasgow
+friend set up a school for him. After six months, however,
+he was recommended for the post of bookkeeper to Messrs.
+Townend Brothers, worsted manufacturers, of Cullingworth,
+where his interest in machinery soon led to his transfer from
+the counting-house to the mill. There his experiments led him
+to the invention of his square motion wool-comber and of a
+process for making genappe yarns, a patent for which was taken
+out by him in conjunction with S. C. Lister (Lord Masham)
+in 1847. The firm of Lister &amp; Holden, which established a
+factory near Paris in 1848, carried on a successful business, and
+in 1859, when Lister retired, was succeeded by Isaac Holden
+and Sons, which became the largest wool-combing business in
+the world, employing upwards of 4000 workpeople. In 1865
+Holden&rsquo;s medical advisers insisted on complete change of
+occupation, and he entered parliament as Liberal member for
+Knaresborough. From 1868 to 1882 he was without a seat,
+but in the latter year he was elected for the northern division
+of the West Riding, and in 1885 for Keighley. He was created
+a baronet in 1893, and died suddenly at Oakworth House,
+near Keighley, on the 13th of August 1897.</p>
+
+<p>His son and heir, Sir Angus Holden, was in 1908 created a
+peer with the title of Baron Holden of Alston.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÖLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1770-1843),
+German poet, was born on the 20th of March 1770, at
+Lauffen on the Neckar. His mother removing, after a second
+marriage, to Nürtingen, he began his education at the classical
+school there. He was destined by his relations for the church,
+and with this view was later admitted to the seminaries at
+Denkendorf and Maulbronn. At the age of eighteen he entered
+as a student of theology the university of Tübingen, where he
+remained till 1793. He was already the writer of occasional
+verses, and had begun to sketch his novel <i>Hyperion</i>, when he
+was introduced in this year to Schiller, and obtained through
+him the post of tutor to the young son of Charlotte von Kalb.
+A year later he left this situation to attend Fichte&rsquo;s lectures,
+and to be near Schiller in Jena. The latter recognized in the
+young poet something of his own genius, and encouraged him
+by publishing some of his early writings in his periodicals <i>Die
+neue Thalia</i> and <i>Die Horen</i>. In 1796 Hölderlin obtained the
+post of tutor in the family of the banker J. F. Gontard in Frankfort-on-Main.
+For Gontard&rsquo;s beautiful and gifted wife, Susette,
+the &ldquo;Diotima&rdquo; of his <i>Hyperion</i>, he conceived a violent passion;
+and she became at once his inspiration and his ruin. At the
+end of two years, during which time the first volume of <i>Hyperion</i>
+was published (1797), a crisis appears to have occurred in their
+relations, for the young poet suddenly left Frankfort. In spite
+of ill-health, he now completed <i>Hyperion</i>, the second volume of
+which appeared in 1799, and began a tragedy, <i>Der Tod des
+Empedokles</i>, a fragment of which is published among his works.
+His friends became alarmed at the alternate depression and
+nervous irritability from which he suffered, and he was induced
+to go to Switzerland, as tutor in a family at Hauptwill. There
+his health improved; and several of his poems, among which
+are <i>Der blinde Sänger</i>, <i>An die Hoffnung</i> and <i>Dichtermut</i>, were
+written at this time. In 1801 he returned home to arrange for
+the publication of a volume of his poems; but, on the failure
+of this enterprise, he was obliged to accept a tutorship at
+Bordeaux. &ldquo;Diotima&rdquo; died a year later, in June 1802, and the
+news is supposed to have reached Hölderlin shortly afterwards,
+for in the following month he suddenly left Bordeaux, and
+travelled homewards on foot through France, arriving at
+Nürtingen destitute and insane. Kind treatment gradually
+alleviated his condition, and in lucid intervals he occupied himself
+by writing verses and translating Greek plays. Two of these
+translations&mdash;the <i>Antigone</i> and <i>Oedipus rex</i> of Sophocles&mdash;appeared
+in 1804, and several of his short poems were published
+by Franz K. L. von Seckendorff in his <i>Musenalmanach</i>, 1807
+and 1808. In 1804 Hölderlin obtained the sinecure post of
+librarian to the landgrave Frederick V. of Hesse-Homburg,
+and went to live in Homburg under the supervision of friends;
+but two years later becoming irremediably but harmlessly insane,
+he was taken in the summer of 1807 to Tübingen, where he
+remained till his death on the 7th of June 1843.</p>
+
+<p>Hölderlin&rsquo;s writings are the production of a beautiful and
+sensitive mind; but they are intensely, almost morbidly, subjective,
+and they lack real human strength. Perhaps his strongest
+characteristic was his passion for Greece, the result of which
+was that he almost entirely discarded rhyme in favour of the
+ancient verse measures. His poems are all short pieces; of
+his tragedy only a fragment was written. <i>Hyperion, oder der
+Eremit in Griechenland</i> (1797-1799), is a romance in letters, in
+which the stormy fervour of the &ldquo;Sturm und Drang&rdquo; is combined
+with a romantic enthusiasm for Greek antiquity. The interest
+centres not in the story, for the novel has little or none&mdash;Hyperion
+is a young Greek who takes part in the rising of his
+people against the Turks in 1770&mdash;but in its lyric subjectivity
+and the dithyrambic beauty of its language.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hölderlin&rsquo;s lyrics, <i>Lyrische Gedichte</i>, were edited by L. Uhland and
+G. Schwab in 1826. A complete edition of his works, <i>Sämtliche
+Werke</i>, with a biography by C. T. Schwab, appeared in 1846; also
+<i>Dichtungen</i> by K. Köstlin (Tübingen, 1884), and (the best edition)
+<i>Gesammelte Dichtungen</i> by B. Litzmann (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1897).
+For biography and criticism, see C. C. T. Litzmann, <i>F. Hölderlins
+Leben</i> (Berlin, 1890), A. Wilbrandt, <i>Hölderlin</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1891),
+and C. Müller, <i>Friedrich Hölderlin, sein Leben und sein Dichten</i>
+(Bremen, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> an English title borne by Sir
+John Ramsay and later by the family of Darcy. John Ramsay
+(<i>c.</i> 1580-1626), a member of the Scottish family of Ramsay of
+Dalhousie, was knighted for his share in rescuing James VI.
+from the hands of John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, in August
+1600. In 1606 the king created him Viscount Haddington and
+Lord Ramsay of Barns, and in 1621 made him an English peer
+as earl of Holdernesse. Ramsay died without surviving issue
+in February 1626, when his titles became extinct. In 1644
+Charles I. created his nephew, Prince Rupert, earl of Holdernesse,
+but when the prince died unmarried in November 1682 the
+earldom again became extinct. Conyers Darcy (1599-1689),
+who was made earl of Holdernesse in 1682 only a few days after
+the death of Rupert, was the son and heir of Conyers Darcy,
+Lord Darcy and Conyers (<i>c.</i> 1571-1654), and succeeded his
+father in these baronies in March 1654. He was succeeded as 2nd
+earl by his only son Conyers (<i>c.</i> 1620-1692), who was member
+of parliament for Yorkshire during the reign of Charles II. In
+his turn he was succeeded by his grandson Robert (1681-1722).
+Robert&rsquo;s only son, Robert Darcy, 4th earl of Holdernesse (1718-1778),
+was a diplomatist and a politician. From 1744 to 1746 he
+was ambassador at Venice and from 1749 to 1751 he represented
+his country at the Hague. In 1751 he became one of the secretaries
+of state, and he remained in office until March 1761, when he
+was dismissed by George III. From 1771 to 1776 he acted as
+governor to two of the king&rsquo;s sons, a &ldquo;solemn phantom&rdquo; as
+Horace Walpole calls him. He left no sons, and all his titles
+became extinct except the barony of Conyers, which had been
+created by writ in 1509 in favour of his ancestor Sir William
+Conyers (d. 1525). This descended to his only daughter Amelia
+(1754-1784), the wife of Francis Osborne, afterwards 5th duke of
+Leeds, and when the 7th duke of Leeds died in 1859 it passed to
+his nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling
+into abeyance on his death. Hornby castle in Yorkshire, now
+the principal seat of the dukes of Leeds, came to them through
+marriage of the 5th duke with the heiress of the families of
+Conyers and of Darcy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1806-1860), Jewish rabbi, a leader
+of reform in the German Synagogue, was born in Posen in 1806
+and died in Berlin in 1860. In 1836 he was appointed rabbi
+at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in 1840 he was transferred to the
+rabbinate of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He then became prominent
+as an advocate on the one hand of religious freedom (much
+trammelled at the time by Prussian state laws) and on the
+other of reform within the Jewish community. Various rabbinical
+conferences were held, at Brunswick (1844), Frankfort-on-the-Main
+(1845) and Breslau (1846). At all of these Holdheim was
+a strong supporter of the policy of modifying ritual (especially
+with regard to Sabbath observance, marriage laws and liturgical
+customs). In 1846 he was chosen Rabbi of the new Berlin
+congregation and there exercised considerable influence on the
+course of Jewish reform.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See I. H. Ritter in the <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, i. 202. The
+same authority has written the life of Holdheim in vol. iii. of his
+<i>Geschichte der jüdischen Reformation</i> (Berlin, 1865). Graetz in
+his <i>History</i> passes an unfavourable judgment on Holdheim, and
+there were admittedly grounds for opposition to Holdheim&rsquo;s
+attitude. A moderate criticism is contained in Dr D. Philipson&rsquo;s
+<i>History of the Reform Movement</i> in Judaism (London, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLGUÍN,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a town of the high plateau country in the interior
+of Oriente province, Cuba, about 65 m. N.W. of Santiago de
+Cuba. Pop. (1907) 7592. The town is near the Marañon and
+Jigüé rivers, on a plain from which hills rise on all sides except
+the E., on which side it is open to the winds of the plateau.
+Holguín was long the principal acclimatization station for
+Spanish troops. The oldest public buildings are two churches
+built in 1800 and 1809 respectively. Holguín has trade in
+cabinet woods, tobacco, Indian corn and cattle products, which
+it exports through its port Gibara, about 25 m. N.N.E., with
+which it is connected by railway. Holguín was settled about
+1720 and became a <i>ciudad</i> (city) in 1751. In the Ten Years&rsquo;
+War of 1868-78 and in the revolution of 1895-98 Holguín was
+an insurgent centre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLIDAY,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> originally the &ldquo;holy day,&rdquo; a festival set apart
+for religious observances as a memorial of some sacred event
+or sacred person; hence a day on which the ordinary work or
+business ceases. For the religious sense see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feasts and
+Festivals</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sunday</a></span>. Apart from the use of the term for
+a single day of rest or enjoyment, it is commonly used in the
+plural for a recognized and regular period (as at schools, &amp;c.) of
+absence from work. It is unnecessary here to deal with what
+may be regarded as private holidays, which are matters of
+agreement between employer and employed or between the
+authorities of this or that institution and those who attend it.
+In recent years there has been a notable tendency in most
+occupations to shorten the hours of labour, and make holidays
+more regular. It will suffice to deal here with public holidays,
+the observance of which is prescribed by the state. In one
+respect these have been diminished, in so far as saints&rsquo; days are
+no longer regarded as entailing non-attendance at the government
+offices in England, as was the case at the beginning of the 19th
+century. But while the influence of religion in determining
+such holidays has waned, the importance of making some compulsory
+provision for social recreation has made itself felt. In
+England four days, known as Bank Holidays (q.v.), are set apart
+by statute to be observed as general holidays, while the sovereign
+may by proclamation appoint any day to be similarly observed.
+Endeavours have been made from time to time to get additional
+days recognized as general holidays, such as Empire Day
+(May 24th), Arbor Day, &amp;c. In the British colonies there is
+no uniform practice. In Canada eight days are generally observed
+as public holidays: New Year&rsquo;s Day, Good Friday,
+Easter Monday, Christmas Day, the birthday of the sovereign,
+Victoria Day, Dominion Day and Labour Day. Some of the
+provinces have followed the American example by adding an
+Arbor Day. Alberta and Saskatchewan observe Ash Wednesday.
+In Quebec, where the majority of the population is Roman
+Catholic, the holy days are also holidays, namely, the Festival
+of the Epiphany, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Easter Monday,
+the Ascension, All Saint&rsquo;s Day, Conception Day, Christmas
+Day. In 1897 Labour Day was added. In New South Wales,
+the 1st of January, Good Friday, Easter Eve, Easter Monday,
+the birthday of the sovereign, the 1st of August, the birthday
+of the prince of Wales, Christmas Day and the 26th of December,
+are observed as holidays. In Victoria there are thirteen public
+holidays during the year, and in Queensland fourteen. In New
+Zealand the public holidays are confined to four, Christmas
+Day, New Year&rsquo;s Day, Good Friday and Labour Day. In most
+of the other British colonies the usual number of public holidays
+is from six to eight.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States there is no legal holiday in the sense of
+the English bank holidays. A legal holiday is dependent upon
+state and territorial legislation. It is usual for the president
+to proclaim the last Thursday in November as a day of thanksgiving;
+this makes it only a legal holiday in the District of
+Columbia, and in the territories, but most states make it a
+general holiday. Independence Day (July 4th) and Labour Day
+(first Monday in September) are legal holidays in most states.
+There are other days which, in connexion with particular events
+or in remembrance of particular persons, have been made legal
+holidays by particular states. For example, Lincoln&rsquo;s birthday,
+Washington&rsquo;s birthday, Memorial Day (May 30th), Patriots&rsquo; Day
+(April 19th, Maine and Mass.), R. E. Lee&rsquo;s birthday (Jan. 19th,
+Ala., Fla., Ga., Va.), Pioneers&rsquo; Day (July 24th, Utah), Colorado
+Day (Aug. 1st), Battle of New Orleans (Jan. 8th, La.), Bennington
+Battle Day (Aug. 16th, Vt.), Defender&rsquo;s Day (Sept, 12th, Md.),
+Arbor Day (April 22nd, Nebraska; second Friday in May R.I.,
+&amp;c.), Admission Day (September 9th, Cal.; Oct. 31st, Nev.), Confederate
+Memorial Day (April 26th, Ala., Fla., Ga., Miss., May
+10th, N. &amp; S. Car., June 3rd, La., Miss., Texas), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M&lsquo;Curdy, <i>Bibliography of Articles relating to Holidays</i> (Boston,
+1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLINSHED<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Hollingshead</span>), <b>RAPHAEL</b> (d. <i>c.</i> 1580),
+English chronicler, belonged probably to a Cheshire family, and
+according to Anthony Wood was educated at one of the English
+universities, afterwards becoming a &ldquo;minister of God&rsquo;s Word.&rdquo;
+The authenticity of these facts is doubtful, although it is possible
+that Raphael was the Holinshed who matriculated from Christ&rsquo;s
+College, Cambridge, in 1544. About 1560 he came to London
+and was employed as a translator by Reginald or Reyner Wolfe,
+to whom he says he was &ldquo;singularly beholden.&rdquo; Wolfe was
+already engaged in the preparation of a universal history, and
+Holinshed worked for some years on this undertaking; but
+after Wolfe&rsquo;s death in 1573 the scope of the work was abridged,
+and it appeared in 1578 as the <i>Chronicles of England, Scotland,
+and Ireland</i>. The work was in two volumes, which were illustrated,
+and although Holinshed did a great deal of the work he
+received valuable assistance from William Harrison (1534-1593)
+and others, while the part dealing with the history of Scotland
+is mainly a translation of Hector Boece&rsquo;s <i>Scotorum historiae</i>.
+Afterwards, as is shown by his will, Holinshed served as steward to
+Thomas Burdet of Bramcott, Warwickshire, and died about 1580.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A second edition of the <i>Chronicles</i>, enlarged and improved but
+without illustrations, which appeared in 1587, contained statements
+which were offensive to Queen Elizabeth and her advisers, and immediately
+after publication some of the pages were excised by order
+of the privy council. These excisions were published separately in
+1723. An edition of the <i>Chronicles</i>, in accordance with the original
+text, was published in six volumes in 1808. The work contains a
+large amount of information, and shows that its compilers were men
+of great industry; but its chief interest lies in the fact that it was
+largely used by Shakespeare and other Elizabethan dramatists;
+Shakespeare, who probably used the edition of 1587, obtaining from
+the <i>Chronicles</i> material for most of his historical plays, and also for
+<i>Macbeth</i>, <i>King Lear</i> and part of <i>Cymbeline</i>. A single manuscript by
+Holinshed is known to be extant. This is a translation of Florence
+of Worcester, and is in the British Museum. See W. G. Boswell-Stone,
+<i>Shakspere&rsquo;s Holinshed</i>. <i>The Chronicle and the historical plays
+compared</i> (London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLKAR,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> the family name of the Mahratta ruler of Indore
+(q.v.), which has been adopted as a dynastic title. The termination -<i>kar</i>
+implies that the founder of the family came from the
+village of Hol near Poona.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLL, FRANK<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1845-1888), English painter, was born in
+London on the 4th of July 1845, and was educated chiefly at
+University College School. He was a grandson of William
+Holl, an engraver of note, and the son of Francis Holl, A.R.A.,
+another engraver, whose profession he originally intended to
+follow. Entering the Royal Academy schools as a probationer
+in painting in 1860, he rapidly progressed, winning silver and
+gold medals, and making his début as an exhibitor in 1864 with
+&ldquo;A Portrait,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Turned out of Church,&rdquo; a subject picture.
+&ldquo;A Fern Gatherer&rdquo; (1865); &ldquo;The Ordeal&rdquo; (1866); &ldquo;Convalescent&rdquo;
+(the somewhat grim pathos of which attracted
+much attention), and &ldquo;Faces in the Fire&rdquo; (1867), succeeded.
+Holl gained the travelling studentship in 1868; the successful
+work was characteristic of the young painter&rsquo;s mood, being
+&ldquo;The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away.&rdquo; His insatiable
+zeal for work of all kinds began early to undermine the artist&rsquo;s
+health, but his position was assured by the studentship picture,
+which created a sort of <i>furore</i>, although, as with most of his
+works, the blackness of its coloration, probably due to his
+training as an engraver, was even more decidedly against it
+than the sadness of its theme. Otherwise, this painting exhibited
+nearly all the best technical qualities to which he ever
+attained, except high finish and clearness, and a very sincere
+vein of pathos. Holl was much below Millais In portraiture,
+and far inferior In all the higher ways of design; in technical
+resources, relatively speaking, he was but scantily provided.
+The range of his studies and the manner of his painting were
+narrower than those of Josef Israels, with whom, except as a
+portrait-painter, he may better be compared than with Millais.
+In 1870 he painted &ldquo;Better is a Dinner of Herbs where Love is,
+than a Stalled Ox and Hatred therewith&rdquo;; &ldquo;No Tidings from
+the Sea,&rdquo; a scene in a fisherman&rsquo;s cottage, in 1871&mdash;a story told
+with breath-catching pathos and power; &ldquo;I am the Resurrection
+and the Life&rdquo; (1872); &ldquo;Leaving Home&rdquo; (1873), &ldquo;Deserted&rdquo;
+(1874), both of which had great success; &ldquo;Her First-born,&rdquo;
+girls carrying a baby to the grave (1876); and &ldquo;Going Home&rdquo;
+(1877). In 1877 he painted the two pictures &ldquo;Hush&rdquo; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span>
+&ldquo;Hushed.&rdquo; &ldquo;Newgate, Committed for Trial,&rdquo; a very sad and
+telling piece, first attested the breaking down of the painter&rsquo;s
+health in 1878. In this year he was elected A.R.A., and exhibited
+&ldquo;The Gifts of the Fairies,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Daughter of the House,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Absconded,&rdquo; and a very fine portrait of Samuel Cousins, the
+mezzotint engraver. This last canvas is a masterpiece, and
+deserved the success which attended the print engraved from
+it. Holl was overwhelmed with commissions, which he would
+not decline. The consequences of this strain upon a constitution
+which was never strong were more or less, though unequally,
+manifest in &ldquo;Ordered to the Front,&rdquo; a soldier&rsquo;s departure
+(1880); &ldquo;Home Again,&rdquo; its sequel, in 1883 (after which he
+was made R.A.). In 1886 he produced a portrait of Millais
+as his diploma work, but his health rapidly declined and he
+died at Hampstead, on the 31st of July 1888. Holl&rsquo;s better
+portraits, being of men of rare importance, attest the commanding
+position he occupied in the branch of art he so unflinchingly
+followed. They include likenesses of Lord Roberts, painted
+for queen Victoria (1882); the prince of Wales, Lord
+Dufferin, the duke of Cleveland (1885); Lord Overstone,
+Mr Bright, Mr Gladstone, Mr Chamberlain, Sir J. Tenniel, Earl
+Spencer, Viscount Cranbrook, and a score of other important
+subjects.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. G. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, CHARLES<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1733-1769), English actor, was born
+in Chiswick, the son of a baker. He made his first appearance
+on the stage in the title rôle of <i>Oroonoko</i> at Drury Lane in 1755,
+John Palmer, Richard Yates and Mrs Cibber being in the cast.
+He played under Garrick, and was the original Florizel in the
+latter&rsquo;s adaptation of Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Winter&rsquo;s Tale</i>. Garrick
+thought highly of him, and wrote a eulogistic epitaph for his
+monument in Chiswick church.</p>
+
+<p>His nephew, Charles Holland (1768-1849) was also an actor,
+who played with Mrs Siddons and Kean.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, SIR HENRY,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1788-1873), English
+physician and author, was born at Knutsford, Cheshire, on the
+27th of October 1788. His maternal grandmother was the
+sister of Josiah Wedgwood, whose grandson was Charles Darwin;
+and his paternal aunt was the mother of Mrs Gaskell. After
+spending some years at a private school at Knutsford, he was
+sent to a school at Newcastle-on-Tyne, whence after four years
+he was transferred to Dr J. P. Estlin&rsquo;s school near Bristol.
+There he at once took the position of head boy, in succession to
+John Cam Hobhouse, afterwards Lord Broughton, an honour
+which required to be maintained by physical prowess. On
+leaving school he became articled clerk to a mercantile firm
+in Liverpool, but, as the privilege was reserved to him of passing
+two sessions at Glasgow university, he at the close of his second
+session sought relief from his articles, and in 1806 began the
+study of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, where he
+graduated in 1811. After several years spent in foreign travel,
+he began practice in 1816 as a physician in London&mdash;according
+to his own statement, &ldquo;with a fair augury of success speedily
+and completely fulfilled.&rdquo; This &ldquo;success,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;was
+materially aided by visits for four successive years to Spa, at
+the close of that which is called the London season.&rdquo; It must
+also, however, be in a great degree attributed to his happy
+temperament and his gifts as a conversationalist&mdash;qualities
+the influence of which, in the majority of cases belonging to
+his class of practice, is often of more importance than direct
+medical treatment. In 1816 he was elected F.R.S., and in
+1828 F.R.C.S. He became physician in ordinary to Prince
+Albert in 1840, and was appointed in 1852 physician in ordinary
+to the queen. In April 1853 he was created a baronet. He was
+also a D.C.L. of Oxford and a member of the principal learned
+societies of Europe. He was twice married, his second wife
+being a daughter of Sydney Smith, a lady of considerable literary
+talent, who published a biography of her father. Sir Henry
+Holland at an early period of his practice resolved to devote
+to his professional duties no more of his time than was necessary
+to secure an income of £5000 a year, and also to spend two
+months of every year solely in foreign travel. By the former
+resolution he secured leisure for a wide acquaintance with
+general literature, and for a more than superficial cultivation
+of several branches of science; and the latter enabled him,
+besides visiting, &ldquo;and most of them repeatedly, every country
+of Europe,&rdquo; to make extensive tours in the other three continents,
+journeying often to places little frequented by European
+travellers. As, moreover, he procured an introduction to nearly
+all the eminent personages in his line of travel, and knew many
+of them in his capacity of physician, his acquaintance with
+&ldquo;men and cities&rdquo; was of a species without a parallel. The
+<i>London Medical Record</i>, in noticing his death, which took place
+on his eighty-fifth birthday, October 27, 1873, remarked that
+it &ldquo;had occurred under circumstances highly characteristic
+of his remarkable career.&rdquo; On his return from a journey in
+Russia he was present, on Friday, October 24th, at the trial of
+Marshal Bazaine in Paris, dining with some of the judges in
+the evening. He reached London on the Saturday, took ill
+the following day, and died quietly on the Monday afternoon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Sir Henry Holland was the author of <i>General View of the Agriculture
+of Cheshire</i> (1807); <i>Travels in the Ionian Isles, Albania,
+Thessaly and Greece</i> (1812-1813, 2nd ed., 1819); <i>Medical Notes and
+Reflections</i> (1839); <i>Chapters on Mental Physiology</i> (1852); <i>Essays on
+Scientific and other Subjects contributed to the Edinburgh and Quarterly
+Reviews</i> (1862); and <i>Recollections of Past Life</i> (1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, HENRY FOX,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1705-1774), English
+statesman, second son of Sir Stephen Fox, was born on the
+28th of September 1705. Inheriting a large share of the riches
+which his father had accumulated, he squandered it soon after
+attaining his majority, and went to the Continent to escape from
+his creditors. There he made the acquaintance of a countrywoman
+of fortune, who became his patroness and was so lavish
+with her purse that, after several years&rsquo; absence, he was in a
+position to return home and, in 1735, to enter parliament as
+member for Hindon in Wiltshire. He became the favourite
+pupil and devoted supporter of Sir Robert Walpole, achieving
+unequalled and unenviable proficiency in the worst political
+arts of his master and model. As a speaker he was fluent
+and self-possessed, imperturbable under attack, audacious in
+exposition or retort, and able to hold his own against Pitt
+himself. Thus he made himself a power in the House of Commons
+and an indispensable member of several administrations. He
+was surveyor-general of works from 1737 to 1742, was member
+for Windsor from 1741 to 1761; lord of the treasury in 1743,
+secretary at war and member of the privy council in 1746, and
+in 1755 became leader of the House of Commons, secretary
+of state and a member of the cabinet under the duke of Newcastle.
+In 1757, in the rearrangements of the government,
+Fox was ultimately excluded from the cabinet, and given the
+post of paymaster of the forces. During the war, which Pitt
+conducted with extraordinary vigour, and in which the nation
+was intoxicated with glory, Fox devoted himself mainly to
+accumulating a vast fortune. In 1762 he again accepted the
+leadership of the House, with a seat in the cabinet, under the
+earl of Bute, and exercised his skill in cajolery and corruption
+to induce the House of Commons to approve of the treaty of
+Paris of 1763; as a recompense, he was raised to the House of
+Lords with the title of Baron Holland of Foxley, Wiltshire,
+on the 16th of April 1763. In 1765 he was forced to resign the
+paymaster generalship, and four years later a petition of the
+livery of the city of London against the ministers referred to
+him as &ldquo;the public defaulter of unaccounted millions.&rdquo; The
+proceedings brought against him in the court of exchequer
+were stayed by a royal warrant; and in a statement published
+by him he proved that in the delays in making up the accounts
+of his office he had transgressed neither the law nor the custom
+of the time. From the interest on the outstanding balances
+he had, none the less, amassed a princely fortune. He strove,
+but in vain, to obtain promotion to the dignity of an earl, a
+dignity upon which he had set his heart, and he died at Holland
+House, Kensington, on the 1st of July 1774, a sorely disappointed
+man, with a reputation for cunning and unscrupulousness
+which cannot easily be matched, and with an unpopularity
+which justifies the conclusion that he was the most thoroughly
+hated statesman of his day. Lord Holland married in 1744
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span>
+Lady Georgina Caroline Lennox, daughter of the duke of
+Richmond, who was created Baroness Holland, of Holland,
+Lincolnshire, in 1762. There were four sons of the marriage:
+Stephen, 2nd Lord Holland (d. 1774); Henry (d. an infant);
+Charles James (the celebrated statesman); and Henry Edward
+(1755-1811), soldier and diplomatist.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Walpole&rsquo;s and other memoirs of the time, also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fox,
+Charles James</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, HENRY RICH,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1590-1649), 2nd
+son of Robert, 1st earl of Warwick, and of Penelope, Sir Philip
+Sidney&rsquo;s &ldquo;Stella,&rdquo; daughter of Walter Devereux, 1st earl of
+Essex, was baptized on the 19th of August 1590, educated at
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge, knighted on the 3rd of June
+1610, and returned to parliament for Leicester in 1610 and 1614.
+In 1610 he was present at the siege of Juliers. Favours were
+showered upon him by James I. He was made gentleman of
+the bedchamber to Charles, prince of Wales, and captain of the
+yeomen of the guard; and on the 8th of March 1623 he was
+raised to the peerage as Baron Kensington. In 1624 he was
+sent to Paris to negotiate the marriage treaty between Charles
+and Henrietta Maria. On the 15th of September he was created
+earl of Holland, and in 1625 was sent on two further missions,
+first to Paris to arrange a treaty between Louis XIII. and the
+Huguenots, and later to the Netherlands in company with
+Buckingham. In October 1627 he was given command of the
+troops sent to reinforce Buckingham at Rhé, but through
+delay in starting only met the defeated troops on their return.
+He succeeded Buckingham as chancellor of Cambridge University;
+was master of the horse in 1628, and was appointed
+constable of Windsor and high steward to the queen in 1629.
+He interested himself, like his elder brother, Lord Warwick,
+in the plantations; and was the first governor of the Providence
+company in 1630, and one of the proprietors of Newfoundland
+in 1637. In 1631 he was made chief-justice-in-eyre south of
+the Trent, and in this capacity was responsible for the unpopular
+revival of the obsolete forest laws. He intrigued at court against
+Portland and against Strafford, who expressed for him the
+greatest contempt. In 1636 he was disappointed at not obtaining
+the great office of lord high admiral, but was made instead
+groom of the stole. In 1639 he was appointed general of the
+horse, and drew ridicule upon himself by the fiasco at Kelso.
+In the second war against the Scots he was superseded in favour
+of Conway. He opposed the dissolution of the Short Parliament,
+joined the peers who supported the parliamentary cause, and
+gave evidence against Strafford. He was, however, won back
+to the king&rsquo;s side by the queen, and on the 16th of April 1641
+made captain general north of the Trent. Dissatisfied, however,
+with Charles&rsquo;s refusal to grant him the nomination of a new
+baron, he again abandoned him, refused the summons to York,
+and was deprived of his office as groom of the stole at the instance
+of the queen, who greatly resented his ingratitude. He was
+chosen by the parliament in March and July 1642 to communicate
+its votes to Charles, who received him, much to his indignation,
+with studied coldness. He was appointed one of the committee
+of safety in July; made zealous speeches on behalf of the
+parliamentary cause to the London citizens; and joined Essex&rsquo;s
+army at Twickenham, where, it is said, he persuaded him to
+avoid a battle. In 1643 he appeared as a peacemaker, and after
+failing to bring over Essex, he returned to the king. His reception,
+however, was not a cordial one, and he was not reinstated
+in his office of groom of the stole. After, therefore, accompanying
+the king to Gloucester and taking part in the first battle of
+Newbury, he once more returned to the parliament, declaring
+that the court was too much bent on continuing hostilities,
+and the influence of the &ldquo;papists&rdquo; too strong for his patriotism.
+He was restored to his estates, but the Commons obliged the
+Lords to exclude him from the upper house, and his petition
+in 1645 for compensation for his losses and for a pension was
+refused. His hopes being in this quarter also disappointed, he
+once again renewed his allegiance to the king&rsquo;s cause; and
+after endeavouring to promote the negotiations for peace in
+1645 and 1647 he took up arms in the second Civil War, received
+a commission as general, and put himself at the head of 600 men
+at Kingston. He was defeated on the 7th of July 1647, captured
+at St Neots shortly afterwards, and imprisoned at Warwick
+Castle. He was tried before a &ldquo;high court of justice&rdquo; on the
+3rd of February 1649, and in spite of his plea that he had received
+quarter was sentenced to death. He was executed together with
+Hamilton and Capel on the 9th of March. Clarendon styles
+him &ldquo;a very well-bred man and a fine gentleman in good times.&rdquo;<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+He was evidently a man of shallow character, devoid of ability,
+raised far above his merits and hopelessly unfit for the great
+times in which he lived. Lord Holland married Elizabeth,
+daughter and heiress of Sir Walter Cope of Kensington, and,
+besides several daughters, had four sons, of whom the eldest,
+Robert, succeeded him as 2nd earl of Holland, and inherited
+the earldom of Warwick in 1673.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. of the Rebellion</i>, xi. 263.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Baron</span>
+(1773-1840), was the son of Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland,
+his mother, Lady Mary Fitzpatrick, being the daughter of the
+earl of Upper Ossory. He was born at Winterslow House in
+Wiltshire, on the 21st of November 1773, and his father died
+in the following year. He was educated at Eton and at Christ
+Church, Oxford, where he became the friend of Canning, of
+Hookham Frere, and of other wits of the time. Lord Holland
+did not take the same political side as his friends in the conflicts
+of the revolutionary epoch. He was from his boyhood deeply
+attached to his uncle, C. J. Fox, and remained steadily loyal
+to the Whig party. In 1791 he visited Paris and became acquainted
+with Lafayette and Talleyrand, and in 1793 he again
+went abroad to travel in France and Italy. At Florence he
+met with Lady Webster, wife of Sir Godfrey Webster, Bart.,
+who left her husband for him. She was by birth Elizabeth
+Vassall (1770-1845), daughter of Richard Vassall, a planter
+in Jamaica. A son was born of their irregular union, a Charles
+Richard Fox (1796-1873), who after some service in the navy
+entered the Grenadiers, and was known in later life as a collector
+of Greek coins. His collection was bought for the royal museum
+of Berlin when he died in 1873. He married Lady Mary Fitzclarence,
+a daughter of William IV. by Mrs Jordan. Sir Godfrey
+Webster having obtained a divorce, Lord Holland was enabled
+to marry on the 6th of July 1797. He had taken his seat in
+the House of Lords on the 5th of October 1796. During several
+years he may be said almost to have constituted the Whig party
+in the Upper House. His protests against the measures of the
+Tory ministers were collected and published, as the <i>Opinions
+of Lord Holland</i> (1841), by Dr Moylan of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. In 1800
+he was authorized to take the name of Vassall, and after 1807
+he signed himself Vassall Holland, though the name was no part
+of his title. In 1800 Lord and Lady Holland went abroad and
+remained in France and Spain till 1805, visiting Paris during
+the Peace of Amiens, and being well received by Napoleon.
+Lady Holland always professed a profound admiration of
+Napoleon, of which she made a theatrical display after his fall,
+and he left her a gold snuff-box by his will. In public life Lord
+Holland took a share proportionate to his birth and opportunities.
+He was appointed to negotiate with the American envoys,
+Monroe and W. Pinkney, was admitted to the privy council on the
+27th of August 1806, and on the 15th of October entered the
+cabinet &ldquo;of all the talents&rdquo; as lord privy seal, retiring with
+the rest of his colleagues in March 1807. He led the opposition
+to the Regency bill in 1811, and he attacked the &ldquo;orders in
+council&rdquo; and other strong measures of the government taken
+to counteract Napoleon&rsquo;s Berlin decrees. He was in fact in
+politics a consistent Whig, and in that character he denounced
+the treaty of 1813 with Sweden which bound England to consent
+to the forcible union of Norway, and he resisted the bill of 1816
+for confining Napoleon in St Helena. His loyalty as a Whig
+secured recognition when his party triumphed in the struggle
+for parliamentary reform, by his appointment as chancellor of
+the duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Lord Grey and Lord
+Melbourne, and he was still in office when he died on the 22nd
+of October 1840. Lord Holland is notable, not for his somewhat
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span>
+insignificant political career, but as a patron of literature, as
+a writer on his own account, and because his house was the
+centre and the headquarters of the Whig political and literary
+world of the time; and Lady Holland (who died on the 16th
+of November 1845) succeeded in taking the sort of place in
+London which had been filled in Paris during the 18th century
+by the society ladies who kept &ldquo;salons.&rdquo; Lord Holland&rsquo;s
+<i>Foreign Reminiscences</i> (1850) contain much amusing gossip
+from the Revolutionary and Napoleonic era. His <i>Memoirs of
+the Whig Party</i> (1852) is an important contemporary authority.
+His small work on <i>Lope de Vega</i> (1806) is still of some value.
+Holland had two legitimate sons, Stephen, who died in 1800,
+and Henry Edward, who became 4th Lord Holland. When this
+peer died in December 1859 the title became extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Journal of Elizabeth, Lady Holland</i>, edited by the earl of
+Ilchester (1908); and Lloyd Sanders, <i>The Holland House Circle</i>
+(1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1819-1881), American author
+and editor, was born in Belchertown, Massachusetts, on the
+24th of July 1819. He graduated in 1843 at the Berkshire
+Medical College (no longer in existence) at Pittsfield, Mass.,
+and after practising medicine in 1844-1847, and making an
+unsuccessful attempt, with Charles Robinson (1818-1894),
+later first governor of the state of Kansas, to establish a hospital
+for women, he taught for a brief period in Richmond, Virginia,
+and in 1848 was superintendent of schools in Vicksburg, Mississippi.
+In 1849 he became assistant editor under Samuel Bowles,
+and three years later one of the owners, of the Springfield (Massachusetts)
+<i>Republican</i>, with which he retained his connexion
+until 1867. He then travelled for some time in Europe, and
+in 1870 removed to New York, where he helped to establish
+and became editor and one-third owner of <i>Scribner&rsquo;s Monthly</i> (the
+title of which was changed in 1881 to <i>The Century</i>), which
+absorbed the periodicals <i>Hours at Home</i>, <i>Putnam&rsquo;s Magazine</i>
+and the <i>Riverside Magazine</i>. He remained editor of this
+magazine until his death. Dr Holland&rsquo;s books long enjoyed
+a wide popularity. The earlier ones were published over the
+pseudonym &ldquo;Timothy Titcomb.&rdquo; His writings fall into four
+classes: history and biography, represented by a <i>History of
+Western Massachusetts</i> (1855), and a <i>Life of Abraham Lincoln</i>
+(1865); fiction, of which <i>Miss Gilbert&rsquo;s Career</i> (1860) and <i>The
+Story of Sevenoaks</i> (1875) remain faithful pictures of village
+life in eastern United States; poetry, of which <i>Bitter-Sweet</i>
+(1858) and <i>Kathrina, Her Life and Mine</i> (1867) were widely
+read; and a series of homely essays on the art of living, of
+which the most characteristic were <i>Letters to Young People,
+Single and Married</i> (1858), <i>Gold Foil, hammered from Popular
+Proverbs</i> (1859), <i>Letters to the Jonses</i> (1863), and <i>Every-Day
+Topics</i> (2 series, 1876 and 1882). While a resident of New
+York, where he died on the 12th of October 1881, he identified
+himself with measures for good government and school reform,
+and in 1872 became a member and for a short time in 1873 was
+president of the Board of Education.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mrs H. M. Plunkett&rsquo;s <i>Josiah Gilbert Holland</i> (New York,
+1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, PHILEMON<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1552-1637), English scholar, &ldquo;the
+translator-general in his age,&rdquo; was born at Chelmsford in Essex.
+He was the son of a clergyman, John Holland, who had been
+obliged to take refuge in Germany and Denmark with Miles
+Coverdale during the Marian persecution. Having become a
+fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and taken the degree of
+M.A., he was incorporated at Oxford (July 11th, 1585). Having
+subsequently studied medicine, about 1595 he settled as a
+doctor in Coventry, but chiefly occupied himself with translations.
+In 1628 he was appointed headmaster of the free school, but,
+owing probably to advancing age, he held office for only eleven
+months. His latter days were oppressed by poverty, partly
+relieved by the generosity of the common council of Coventry,
+which in 1632 assigned him £3, 6s. 8d. for three years, &ldquo;if he
+should live so long.&rdquo; He died on the 9th of February, 1636-1637.
+His fame is due solely to his translations, which included
+Livy, Pliny&rsquo;s <i>Natural History</i>, Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Morals</i>, Suetonius,
+Ammianus Marcellinus and Xenophon&rsquo;s <i>Cyropaedia</i>. He
+published also an English version, with additions, of Camden&rsquo;s
+<i>Britannia</i>. His Latin translation of Brice Bauderon&rsquo;s <i>Pharmacopaea</i>
+and his <i>Regimen sanitatis Salerni</i> were published after
+his death by his son, <span class="sc">Henry Holland</span> (1583-?1650), who
+became a London bookseller, and is known to bibliographers
+for his <i>Bazili&omega;logia; a Booke of Kings, beeing the true and liuely
+Effigies of all our English Kings from the Conquest</i> (1618), and
+his <i>Her&omega;ologia Anglica</i> (1620).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, RICHARD,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Richard de Holande</span> (fl. 1450),
+Scottish writer, author of the <i>Buke of the Howlat</i>, was secretary
+or chaplain to the earl of Moray (1450) and rector of Halkirk,
+near Thurso. He was afterwards rector of Abbreochy, Loch
+Ness, and later held a chantry in the cathedral of Norway.
+He was an ardent partisan of the Douglases, and on their overthrow
+retired to Orkney and later to Shetland. He was employed
+by Edward IV. in his attempt to rouse the Western Isles through
+Douglas agency, and in 1482 was excluded from the general
+pardon granted by James III. to those who would renounce
+their fealty to the Douglases.</p>
+
+<p>The poem, entitled the <i>Buke of the Howlat</i>, written about
+1450, shows his devotion to the house of Douglas:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;On ilk beugh till embrace</p>
+<p class="i05">Writtin in a bill was</p>
+<p class="i05">O Dowglass, O Dowglass</p>
+<p class="i05">Tender and trewe!&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author1 f90">(ii. 400-403).</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and is dedicated to the wife of a Douglas&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Thus for ane Dow of Dunbar drew I this Dyte,</p>
+<p class="i05">Dowit with ane Dowglass, and boith war thei dowis.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">but all theories of its being a political allegory in favour of that
+house may be discarded. Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s judgment that the
+<i>Buke</i> is &ldquo;a poetical apologue ... without any view whatever
+to local or natural politics&rdquo; is certainly the most reasonable.
+The poem, which extends to 1001 lines written in the irregular
+alliterative rhymed stanza, is a bird-allegory, of the type familiar
+in the <i>Parlement of Foules</i>. It has the incidental interest of
+showing (especially in stanzas 62 and 63) the antipathy of the
+&ldquo;Inglis-speaking Scot&rdquo; to the &ldquo;Scots-speaking Gael&rdquo; of the
+west, as is also shown in Dunbar&rsquo;s <i>Flyting with Kennedy</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The text of the poem is preserved in the Asloan and Bannatyne
+MSS. Fragments of an early 16th century black-letter edition,
+discovered by D. Laing, are reproduced in the <i>Adversaria</i> of the
+Bannatyne Club. The poem has been frequently reprinted, by
+Pinkerton, in his <i>Scottish Poems</i> (1792); by D. Laing (Bannatyne
+Club 1823; reprinted in &ldquo;New Club&rdquo; series, Paisley, 1882); by the
+Hunterian Club in their edition of the Bannatyne MS., and by A.
+Diebler (Chemnitz, 1893). The latest edition is that by F. J. Amours
+in <i>Scottish Alliterative Poems</i> (Scottish Text Society, 1897), pp. 47-81.
+(See also Introduction pp. xx.-xxxiv.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> officially the kingdom of the Netherlands
+(<i>Koningrijk der Nederlanden</i>), a maritime country in the north-west
+of Europe. The name Holland is that of the former countship,
+which forms part of the political, as well as the geographical
+centre of the kingdom (see the next article).</p>
+
+<p><i>Topography.</i>&mdash;Holland is bounded on the E. by Germany,
+on the S. by Belgium, on the W. and N. by the North Sea, and
+at the N.E. corner by the Dollart. From Stevensweert southward
+to the extreme corner of Limburg the boundary line is
+formed by the river Maas or Meuse.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On the east a natural
+geographical boundary was formed by the long line of marshy
+fens extending along the borders of Overysel, Drente and
+Groningen. The kingdom extends from 53° 32&prime; 21&Prime; (Groningen
+Cape on Rottum Island) to 50° 45&prime; 49&Prime; N. (Mesch in the
+province of Limburg), and from 3° 23&prime; 27&Prime; (Sluis in the province
+of Zeeland) to 7° 12&prime; 20&Prime; E. (Langakkerschans in the province
+of Groningen). The greatest length from north to south, viz.
+that from Rottum Island to Eisden near Maastricht is 164 m.,
+and the greatest breadth from south-west to north-east, or from
+Zwin near Sluis to Losser in Overysel, 144 m. The area is subject
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span>
+to perpetual variation owing, on the one hand, to the erosion
+of the coasts, and, on the other, to reclamation of land by means
+of endiking and drainage operations. In 1889 the total area
+was calculated at 12,558 sq. m., and, including the Zuider Zee
+and the Wadden (2050 sq. m.) and the Dutch portion of the
+Dollart (23 sq. m.), 14,613 sq. m. In no country in Europe has
+the character of the territory exercised so great an influence on
+the inhabitants as in the Netherlands; and, on the other hand,
+no people has so extensively modified the condition of its territory
+as the Dutch. The greatest importance attaches therefore to
+the physical conformation of the country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The coast-line extends in a double curve from south-west to north-east,
+and is formed by a row of sand dunes, 171 m. in length, fringed
+by a broad sandy beach descending very gradually into
+the sea. In the north and south, however, this line is
+<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span>
+broken by the inlets of the sea which form the Frisian and the South
+Holland and Zeeland islands respectively; but the dunes themselves
+are found continued along the seaward side of these islands, thus
+indicating the original continuity of the coast-line. The breadth of
+the dunes naturally varies greatly, the maximum width of about
+4375 yds. being found at Schoorl, north-west of Alkmaar. The
+average height of the individual dune-tops is not above 33 ft., but
+attains a maximum of 197 ft. at the High Blinkert, near Haarlem.
+The steepness of the dunes on the side towards the sea is caused by
+the continual erosion, probably traceable, in part at least, to the
+channel current (which at mean tide has a velocity of 14 or 15 in.
+per second), and to the strong west or north-west winds which carry
+off large quantities of material. This alteration of coast-line appears
+at Loosduinen, where the moor or fenland formerly developed
+behind the dunes now crops out on the shore amid the sand, being
+pressed to the compactness of lignite by the weight of the sand
+drifted over it. Again, the remains of the Roman camp Brittenburg
+or Huis te Britten, which originally lay within the dunes and, after
+being covered by them, emerged again in 1520, were, in 1694, 1600
+paces out to sea, opposite Katwijk; while, besides Katwijk itself,
+several other villages of the west coast, as Domburg, Scheveningen,
+Egmond, have been removed further inland. The tendency of the
+dunes to drift off on the landward side is prevented by the planting
+of bent-grass (<i>Arundo arenaria</i>), whose long roots serve to bind the
+sand together. It must be further remarked that both the &ldquo;dune-pans,&rdquo;
+or depressions, which are naturally marshy through their
+defective drainage, and the <i>geest</i> grounds&mdash;that is, the grounds along
+the foot of the downs&mdash;have been in various places either planted
+with wood or turned into arable and pasture land; while the
+numerous springs at the base of the dunes are of the utmost value to
+the great cities situated on the marshy soil inland, the example set
+by Amsterdam in 1853 in supplying itself with this water having
+been readily followed by Leiden, the Hague, Flushing, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>As already remarked, the coast-line of Holland breaks up into a
+series of islands at its northern and southern extremities. The
+principal sea-inlets in the north are the Texel Gat or Marsdiep and
+the Vlie, which lead past the chain of the Frisian Islands into the
+large inland sea or gulf called the Zuider Zee, and the Wadden or
+&ldquo;shallows,&rdquo; which extend along the shores of Friesland and
+Groningen as far as the Dollart and the mouth of the Ems. The
+inland sea-board thus formed consists of low coasts of sea-clay
+protected by dikes, and of some high diluvial strata which rise far
+enough above the level of the sea to make dikes unnecessary, as in
+the case of the Gooi hills between Naarden and the Eem, the Veluwe
+hills between Nykerk and Elburg, and the steep cliffs of the Gaasterland
+between Oude Mirdum and Stavoren. The Dollart was formed
+in 1277 by the inundation of the Ems basin, more than thirty villages
+being destroyed at once. The Zuider Zee and the bay in the Frisian
+coast known as the Lauwers Zee also gradually came into existence
+in the 13th century. The extensive sea-arms forming the South
+Holland and Zeeland archipelago are the Hont or West Scheldt, the
+East Scheldt, the Grevelingen (communicating with Krammer
+and the Volkerak) and the Haringvliet, which after being joined by
+the Volkerak is known as the Hollandsch Diep. These inlets were
+formerly of much greater extent than now, but are gradually closing
+up owing to the accumulation of mud deposits, and no longer have
+the same freedom of communication with one another. At the head
+of the Hollandsch Diep is the celebrated railway bridge of the
+Moerdyk (1868-1871) 1607 yds. in length; and above this bridge lies
+the Biesbosch (&ldquo;reed forest&rdquo;), a group of marshy islands formed by
+a disastrous inundation in 1421, when seventy-two villages and
+upwards of 100,000 lives were destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the dunes the only hilly regions of Holland are the southern
+half of the province of Limburg, the neighbourhood of Nijmwegen,
+the hills of Utrecht, including the Gooi hills, the Veluwe
+region in Gelderland, the isolated hills in the middle and
+<span class="sidenote">Relief and levels.</span>
+east of Overysel and the Hondsrug range in Drente.
+The remainder of the country is flat, and shows a regular
+downward slope from south-east to north-west, in which direction
+the rivers mainly flow. The elevation of the surface of the country
+ranges between the extreme height of 1057 ft. near Vaals in the
+farthest corner of Limburg, and 16-20 ft. below the Amsterdam zero<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+in some of the drained lands in the western half of the country. In
+fact, one quarter of the whole kingdom, consisting of the provinces
+of North and South Holland, the western portion of Utrecht as
+far as the Vaart Rhine, Zeeland, except the southern part of Zeeland-Flanders,
+and the north-west part of North Brabant, lies below the
+Amsterdam zero; and altogether 38% of the country, or all that
+part lying west of a line drawn through Groningen, Utrecht and
+Antwerp, lies within one metre above the Amsterdam zero and would
+be submerged if the sea broke down the barrier of dunes and dikes.
+This difference between the eastern and western divisions of Holland
+has its counterpart in the landscape and the nature of the soil. The
+western division consists of low fen or clay soil and presents a
+monotonous expanse of rich meadow-land, carefully drained in
+regular lines of canals bordered by stunted willows, and dotted over
+with windmills, the sails of canal craft and the clumps of elm and
+poplar which surround each isolated farm-house. The landscape of
+the eastern division is considered less typical. Here the soil consists
+mainly of sand and gravel, and the prevailing scenery is formed of
+waste heaths and patches of wood, while here and there fertile
+meadows extend along the banks of the streams, and the land is laid
+out in the highly regular manner characteristic of fen reclamation
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drente</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The entire drainage of Holland is into the North Sea. The three
+principal rivers are the Rhine, the Maas (Meuse) and the Scheldt
+(Schelde), and all three have their origin outside the
+country, whilst the Scheldt has its mouth only in Holland,
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+giving its name to the two broad inlets of the sea which bound the
+Zeeland islands. The Rhine in its course through Holland is merely
+the parent stream of several important branches, splitting up into
+Rhine and Waal, Rhine and Ysel, Crooked Rhine and Lek (which
+takes two-thirds of the waters), and at Utrecht into Old Rhine and
+Vecht, finally reaching the sea through the sluices at Katwijk as
+little more than a drainage canal. The Ysel and the Vecht flow to
+the Zuider Zee; the other branches to the North Sea. The Maas,
+whose course is almost parallel to that of the Rhine, follows in a wide
+curve the general slope of the country, receiving the Roer, the Mark
+and the Aa. Towards its mouth its waters find their way into all
+the channels intersecting the South Holland archipelago. The main
+stream joining the Waal at Gorinchem flows on to Dordrecht as the
+Merwede, and is continued thence to the sea by the Old Maas, the
+North, and the New Maas, the New Maas being formed by the
+junction of the Lek and the North. From Gorinchem the New
+Merwede (constructed in the second half of the 19th century) extends
+between dykes through the marshes of the Biesbosch to the
+Hollandsch Diep. These great rivers render very important service
+as waterways. The mean velocity of their flow seldom exceeds 4.9
+ft., but rises to 6.4 ft. when the river is high. In the lower reaches of
+the streams the velocity and slope are of course affected by the tides.
+In the Waal ordinary high water is perceptible as far up as Zalt
+Bommel in Gelderland, in the Lek the maximum limits or ordinary
+and spring tides are at Vianen and Kuilenburg respectively, in the
+Ysel above the Katerveer at the junction of the Willemsvaart and
+past Wyhe midway between Zwolle and Deventer; and in the Maas
+near Heusden and at Well in Limburg. Into the Zuider Zee there
+also flow the Kuinder, the Zwarte Water, with its tributary the Vecht,
+and the Eem. The total length of navigable channels is about
+1150 m., but sand banks and shallows not infrequently impede the
+shipping traffic at low water during the summer. The smaller
+streams are often of great importance. Except where they rise in
+the fens they call into life a strip of fertile grassland in the midst
+of the barren sand, and are responsible for the existence of many
+villages along their banks. Following the example of the great
+Kampen irrigation canal in Belgium, artificial irrigation is also
+practised by means of some of the smaller streams, especially in
+North Brabant, Drente and Overysel, and in the absence of streams,
+canals and sluices are sometimes specially constructed to perform the
+same service. The low-lying spaces at the confluences of the rivers,
+being readily laid under water, have been not infrequently chosen as
+sites for fortresses. As a matter of course, the streams are also
+turned to account in connexion with the canal system&mdash;the Dommel,
+Berkel, Vecht, Regge, Holland Ysel, Gouwe, Rotte, Schie, Spaarne,
+Zaan, Amstel, Dieze, Amer, Mark, Zwarte Water, Kuinder and the
+numerous Aas in Drente and Groningen being the most important
+in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to mention the names of the numerous marshy
+lakes which exist, especially in Friesland and Groningen, and are
+connected with rivers or streamlets. Those of Friesland
+are of note for the abundance of their fish and their beauty
+<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span>
+of situation, on which last account the Uddelermeer in Gelderland is
+also celebrated. The Rockanje Lake near Brielle is remarkable for
+the strong salty solution which covers even the growing reeds with a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span>
+hard crust. Many of the lakes are nothing more than deep pits or
+marshes from which the peat has been extracted.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:1136px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img588a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img588b.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Dikes.</i>&mdash;The circumstance that so much of Holland is below
+the sea-level necessarily exercises a very important influence
+on the drainage, the climate and the sanitary conditions of the
+country, as well as on its defence by means of inundation. The
+endiking of low lands against the sea which had been quietly
+proceeding during the first eleven centuries of the Christian era,
+received a fresh impetus in the 12th and 13th centuries from the
+fact that the level of the sea then became higher in relation to
+that of the land. This fact is illustrated by the broadening of
+river mouths and estuaries at this time, and the beginning of
+the formation of the Zuider Zee. A new feature in diking was
+the construction of dams or sluices across the mouths of rivers,
+sometimes with important consequences for the villages situated
+on the spot. Thus the dam on the Amstel (1257) was the origin
+of Amsterdam, and the dam on the Ye gave rise to Edam. But
+Holland&rsquo;s chief protection against inundation is its long line of
+sand dunes, in which only two real breaches have been effected
+during the centuries of erosion. These are represented by the
+famous sea dikes called the Westkapelle dike and the Hondsbossche
+Zeewering, or sea-defence, which were begun respectively
+in the first and second halves of the 15th century. The first
+extends for a distance of over 4000 yds. between the villages
+of Westkapelle and Domburg in the island of Walcheren; the
+second is about 4900 yds. long, and extends from Kamperduin
+to near Petten, whence it is continued for another 1100 yds.
+by the Pettemer dike. These two sea dikes were reconstructed
+by the state at great expense between the year 1860 and 1884,
+having consisted before that time of little more than a protected
+sand dike. The earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and
+by piles, and at the more dangerous points also by <i>zinkstukken</i>
+(sinking pieces), artificial structures of brushwood laden with
+stones, and measuring some 400 yds. in circuit, by means of
+which the current is to some extent turned aside. The Westkapelle
+dike, 12,468 ft. long, has a seaward slope of 300 ft., and
+is protected by rows of piles and basalt blocks. On its ridge,
+39 ft. broad, there is not only a roadway but a service railway.
+The cost of its upkeep is more than £6000 a year, and of the
+Hondsbossche Zeewering £2000 a year. When it is remembered
+that the woodwork is infested by the pile worm (<i>Teredo navalis</i>),
+the ravages of which were discovered in 1731, the labour and
+expense incurred in the construction and maintenance of the
+sea dikes now existing may be imagined. In other parts of the
+coast the dunes, though not pierced through, have become so
+wasted by erosion as to require artificial strengthening. This
+is afforded, either by means of a so-called sleeping dike (<i>slaperdyk</i>)
+behind the weak spot, as, for instance, between Kadzand
+and Breskens in Zeeland-Flanders, and again between &rsquo;s Gravenzande
+and Loosduinen; or by means of piers or breakwaters
+(<i>hoofden</i>, heads) projecting at intervals into the sea and composed
+of piles, or brushwood and stones. The first of such breakwaters
+was that constructed in 1857 at the north end of the island of
+Goeree, and extends over 100 yds. into the sea at low water.
+Similar constructions are to be found on the seaward side of
+the islands of Walcheren, Schouwen and Voorne, and between &rsquo;s
+Gravenzande and Scheveningen, and Katwijk and Noordwijk.
+Owing to the obstruction which they offer to drifting sands,
+artificial dunes are in course of time formed about them, and
+in this way they become at once more effective and less costly
+to maintain. The firm and regular dunes which now run from
+Petten to Kallantsoog (formerly an island), and thence northwards
+to Huisduinen, were thus formed about the Zyper (1617)
+and Koegras (1610) dikes respectively. From Huisduinen to
+Nieuwediep the dunes are replaced by the famous Helder sea-wall.
+The shores of the Zuider Zee and the Wadden, and the
+Frisian and Zuider Zee islands, are also partially protected by
+dikes. In more than one quarter the dikes have been repeatedly
+extended so as to enclose land conquered from the sea, the work
+of reclamation being aided by a natural process. Layer upon
+layer of clay is deposited by the sea in front of the dikes, until
+a new fringe has been added to the coast-line on which sea-grasses
+grasses begin to grow. Upon these clay-lands (<i>kwelders</i>) horses,
+cattle and sheep are at last able to pasture at low tide, and in
+course of time they are in turn endiked.</p>
+
+<p>River dikes are as necessary as sea dikes, elevated banks
+being found only in a few places, as on the Lower Rhine. Owing
+to the unsuitability of the foundations, Dutch dikes are usually
+marked by a great width, which at the crown varies between
+13 and 26 ft. The height of the dike ranges to 40 in. above
+high water-level. Between the dikes and the stream lie &ldquo;forelands&rdquo;
+(<i>interwaarden</i>), which are usually submerged in winter,
+and frequently lie 1 or 2 yds, higher than the country
+within the dikes. These forelands also offer in course of time
+an opportunity for endiking and reclamation. In this way
+the towns of Rotterdam, Schiedam, Vlaardingen and Maasluis
+have all gradually extended over the Maas dike in order to
+keep in touch with the river, and the small town of Delftshaven
+is built altogether on the outer side of the same dike.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Impoldering.</i>&mdash;The first step in the reclamation of land is to &ldquo;impolder&rdquo;
+it, or convert it into a &ldquo;polder&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> a section of artificially
+drained land), by surrounding it with dikes or quays for the two-fold
+purpose of protecting it from all further inundation from outside and
+of controlling the amount of water inside. Impoldering for its own
+sake or on a large scale was impossible as long as the means of
+drainage were restricted. But in the beginning of the 15th century
+new possibilities were revealed by the adaptation of the windmill to
+the purpose of pumping water. It was gradually recognized that the
+masses of water which collected wherever peat-digging had been
+carried on were an unnecessary menace to the neighbouring lands,
+and also that a more enduring source of profit lay in the bed of the
+fertile sea-clay under the peat. It became usual, therefore, to make
+the subsequent drainage of the land a condition of the extraction of
+peat from it, this condition being established by proclamation in 1595.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drainage.</i>&mdash;It has been shown that the western provinces of
+Holland may be broadly defined as lying below sea-level. In fact
+the surface of the sea-clay in these provinces is from 11½ to 16½ ft.
+below the Amsterdam zero. The ground-water is, therefore, relatively
+very high and the capacity of the soil for further absorption
+proportionately low. To increase the reservoir capacity of the polder,
+as well as to conduct the water to the windmills or engines, it is
+intersected by a network of ditches cut at right angles to each other,
+the amount of ditching required being usually one-twelfth of the area
+to be drained. In modern times pumping engines have replaced
+windmills, and the typical old Dutch landscape with its countless
+hooded heads and swinging arms has been greatly transformed by
+the advent of the chimney stacks of the pumping-stations. The
+power of the pumping-engines is taken on the basis of 12 h.p. per
+1000 hectares for every metre that the water has to be raised, or
+stated in another form, the engines must be capable of raising nearly
+9 &#8468; of water through 1 yd. per acre per minute. The main ditches,
+or canals, afterwards also serve as a means of navigation. The level
+at which it is desired to keep the water in these ditches constitutes
+the unit of water measurement for the polder, and is called the
+polder&rsquo;s <i>zomer peil</i> (Z.P.) or summer water-level. In pasture-polders
+(<i>koepolders</i>) Z.P. is 1 to 1½ ft. below the level of the polder,
+and in agricultural polders 2½ to 3½ ft. below. Owing to the shrinkage
+of the soil in reclaimed lands, however, that is, lands which have been
+drained after fen or other reclamation, the sides of the polder are
+often higher than the middle, and it is necessary by means of small
+dams or sluices to make separate water-tight compartments
+(<i>afpolderingen</i>), each having its own unit of measurement. Some
+polders also have a winter peil as a precaution against the increased
+fall of water in that season. The summer water-level of the pasture
+polders south of the former Y is about 4 to 8 ft. below the Amsterdam
+zero, but in the Noorderkwartier to the north, it reaches 10½ ft. below
+A. P. in the Beschotel polder, and in reclaimed lands (<i>droogmakerijen</i>)
+may be still lower, thus in the Reeuwyk polder north of Gouda it is
+21¼ ft. below.</p>
+
+<p>The drainage of the country is effected by natural or artificial
+means, according to the slope of the ground. Nearly all the polders
+of Zeeland and South Holland are able to discharge naturally into
+the sea at average low water, self-regulating sluices being used.
+But in North Holland and Utrecht on the contrary the polder
+water has generally to be raised. In some deep polders and drained
+lands where the water cannot be brought to the required height
+at once, windmills are found at two or even three different levels.
+The final removal of polder water, however, is only truly effected
+upon its discharge into the &ldquo;outer waters&rdquo; of the country, that is,
+the sea itself or the large rivers freely communicating with it; and
+this happens with but a small proportion of Dutch polders, such
+as those of Zeeland, the Holland Ysel and the Noorderkwartier.</p>
+
+<p>As the system of impoldering extended, the small sluggish rivers
+were gradually cut off by dikes from the marshy lands through
+which they flowed, and by sluices from the waters with which they
+communicated. Their level ranges from about 1½ to 4 ft. above
+that of the pasture polders. In addition, various kinds of canals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span>
+and endiked or embanked lakes had come into existence, forming
+altogether a vast network of more or less stagnant waters. These waters
+are utilized as the temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder
+water, each system of reservoirs being termed a <i>boezem</i> (bosom or
+basin), and all lands watering into the same boezem being considered
+as belonging to it. The largest boezem is that of Friesland, which
+embraces nearly the whole province. It sometimes happens that
+a polder is not in direct contact with the boezem to which it belongs,
+but first drains into an adjacent polder, from which the water is
+afterwards removed. In the same way, some boezems discharge
+first into others, which then discharge into the sea or rivers. This
+is usually the case where there is a great difference in height between
+the surface of the boezem and the outer waters, and may be illustrated
+by the Alblasserwaard and the Rotte boezems in the provinces
+of South and North Holland respectively. In time of drought
+the water in the canals and boezems is allowed to run back into the
+polders, and so serve a double purpose as water-reservoirs. Boezems,
+like polders, have a standard water-level which may hot be exceeded,
+and as in the polder this level may vary in the different
+parts of an extended boezem. The height of the <i>boezem peil</i> ranges
+<span class="correction" title="amended from beween">between</span> 1<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ft. above to 1<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">6</span> ft. below the Amsterdam zero, though
+the average is about 1 to 1<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ft. below. Some boezems, again, which
+are less easily controlled, have a &ldquo;danger water-level&rdquo; at which
+they refuse to receive any more water from the surrounding polders.
+The Schie or Delflands boezem of South Holland is of this kind,
+and such a boezem is termed <i>besloten</i> or &ldquo;sequestered,&rdquo; in contradistinction
+to a &ldquo;free&rdquo; boezem. A third kind of boezem is the
+reserve or <i>berg-boezem</i>, which in summer may be made dry and used
+for agriculture, while in winter it serves as a special reserve. The
+centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this
+complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclamation
+are better imagined than described, and even at the present
+day the evidences of the struggle are far less apparent than real.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Except in Limburg, where, in the neighbourhood of
+Maastricht, the upper layers of the chalk are exposed and followed
+by Oligocene and Miocene beds, the whole of Holland is covered
+by recent deposits of considerable thickness, beneath which deep
+borings have revealed the existence of Pliocene beds similar to the
+&ldquo;Crags&rdquo; of East Anglia. They are divided into the <i>Diestien</i>,
+corresponding in part with the English Coralline Crag, the <i>Scaldisien</i>
+and <i>Poederlien</i> corresponding with the Walton Crag, and the
+<i>Amstelien</i> corresponding with the Red Crag of Suffolk. In the
+south of Holland the total thickness of the Pliocene series is only
+about 200 ft., and they are covered by about 100 ft. of Quaternary
+deposits; but towards the north the beds sink down and at the
+same time increase considerably in thickness, so that at Utrecht a
+deep boring reached the top of the Pliocene at a depth of 513 ft.
+and at 1198 ft. it had not touched the bottom. At Amsterdam
+the top of the Pliocene lay 625 ft. below the surface, but the boring,
+1098 ft. deep, did not reach the base of the uppermost division of the
+Pliocene, viz. the <i>Amstelien</i>. Eastward and westward of Amsterdam,
+as well as southward, the Pliocene beds rise slowly to the surface,
+and gradually decrease in thickness. They were laid down in a
+broad bay which covered the east of England and nearly the whole
+of the Netherlands, and was open to the North Sea. There is
+evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the
+deposition of these beds, until at length the Rhine flowed over to
+England and entered the sea north of Cromer. The appearance of
+northern shells in the upper divisions of the Pliocene series indicates
+the approach of the Glacial period, and glacial drift containing
+Scandinavian boulders now covers much of the country east of the
+Zuider Zee. The more modern deposits of Holland consist of
+alluvium, wind-blown sands and peat.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;Situated in the temperate zone between 50° and 53° N.
+the climate of Holland shows a difference in the lengths of day and
+night extending in the north to nine hours, and there is a correspondingly
+wide range of temperature; it also belongs to the
+region of variable winds. On an average of fifty years the mean
+annual temperature was 49.8° Fahr.; the maximum, 93.9° Fahr.;
+the minimum, -5.8° Fahr. The mean annual barometric height is
+29.93 in.; the mean annual moisture, 81%; the mean annual
+rainfall, 27.99 in. The mean annual number of days with rain is
+204, with snow 19, and with thunder-storms 18. The increased
+rainfall from July to December (the summer and autumn rains), and
+the increased evaporation in spring and summer (5.2 in. more than
+the rainfall), are of importance as regards &ldquo;poldering&rdquo; and draining
+operations. The prevalence of south-west winds during nine
+months of the year and of north-west during three (April-June) has
+a strong influence on the temperature and rainfall, tides, river
+mouths and outlets, and also, geologically, on dunes and sand drifts,
+and on fens and the accumulation of clay on the coast. The west
+winds of course increase the moisture, and moderate both the winter
+cold and the summer heat, while the east winds blowing over the
+continent have an opposite influence. It cannot be said that the
+climate is particularly good, owing to the changeableness of the
+weather, which may alter completely within a single day. The
+heavy atmosphere likewise, and the necessity of living within doors
+or in confined localities, cannot but exercise an influence on the
+character and temperament of the inhabitants. Only of certain
+districts, however, can it be said that they are positively unhealthy;
+to this category belong some parts of the Holland provinces, Zeeland,
+and Friesland, where the inhabitants are exposed to the exhalations
+from the marshy ground, and the atmosphere is often burdened
+with sea-fogs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;In the densely populated Netherlands, with no extensive
+forests, the fauna does not present any unusual varieties. The otter,
+martin and badger may be mentioned among the rarer wild animals,
+and the weasel, ermine and pole-cat among the more common.
+In the 18th century wolves still roamed the country in such large
+numbers that hunting parties were organized against them; now
+they are unknown. Roebuck and deer are found in a wild state
+in Gelderland and Overysel, foxes are plentiful in the dry wooded
+regions on the borders of the country, and hares and rabbits in the
+dunes and other sandy stretches. Among birds may be reckoned
+about two hundred and forty different kinds which are regular
+inhabitants, although nearly two hundred of these are migratory.
+The woodcock, partridge, hawk, water-ousel, magpie, jay, raven,
+various kinds of owls, wood-pigeon, golden-crested wren, tufted lark
+and titmouse are among the birds which breed here. Birds of
+passage include the buzzard, kite, quail, wild fowl of various kinds,
+golden thrush, wagtail, linnet, finch and nightingale. Storks are
+plentiful in summer and might almost be considered the most
+characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four
+physiographical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely,
+the heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts. Heath (<i>Erica
+tetralix</i>) and ling (<i>Calluna vulgaris</i>) cover all the waste sandy regions
+in the eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the
+meadow-lands is monotonous. In the more damp and marshy
+places the bottom is covered with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth
+equisetum, and rush. In the ditches and pools common yellow and
+white water-lilies are seen, as well as water-soldier (<i>Stratiotes aloides</i>),
+great and lesser reed-mace, sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant
+forms of the dunes are stunted and meagre as compared with the
+same forms elsewhere. The most common plant here is the stiff
+sand-reed (<i>Arundo arenaria</i>), called sand-oats in Drente and Overysel,
+where it is much used for making mats. Like the sand-reed,
+the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the buckthorn (<i>Hippophae
+rhamnoides</i>) perform a useful service in helping to bind the sand
+together. Furze and the common juniper are regular dune plants,
+and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel and
+Gelderland. Thyme and the small white dune-rose (<i>Rosa pimpinellifolia</i>)
+also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (<i>Sedum acre</i>), field
+fever-wort, reindeer moss, common asparagus, sheep&rsquo;s fescue grass,
+the pretty Solomon-seal (<i>Polygonatum officinale</i>), and the broad-leaved
+or marsh orchis (<i>Orchis latifolia</i>). The sea-plants which
+flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly assist
+the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated in places.
+Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and Groningen, the
+Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer the shore
+to sandspurry (<i>Spergularia</i>), or sea-poa or floating meadow grass
+(<i>Glyceria maritima</i>), which grows up to the dikes, and affords pasture
+for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the Biesbosch
+lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable quantities
+for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (<i>Zostera
+marina</i>) is found in large patches in the northern half of the Zuider
+Zee, where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of
+June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along
+the rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the
+sand and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The following table shows the area and population
+in the eleven provinces of the Netherlands:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Province</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population<br />1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population<br />1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Density per<br />sq. m. in<br />1900.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Brabant</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,980</td> <td class="tcr rb">509,628</td> <td class="tcr rb">553,842</td> <td class="tcc rb">280</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gelderland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,965</td> <td class="tcr rb">512,202</td> <td class="tcr rb">566,549</td> <td class="tcc rb">288</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">949,641</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,144,448</td> <td class="tcc rb">981</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,070</td> <td class="tcr rb">829,489</td> <td class="tcr rb">968,131</td> <td class="tcc rb">905</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Zeeland</td> <td class="tcr rb">690</td> <td class="tcr rb">199,234</td> <td class="tcr rb">216,295</td> <td class="tcc rb">313</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Utrecht</td> <td class="tcr rb">534</td> <td class="tcr rb">221,007</td> <td class="tcr rb">251,034</td> <td class="tcc rb">470</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Friesland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,282</td> <td class="tcr rb">335,558</td> <td class="tcr rb">340,262</td> <td class="tcc rb">265</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Overysel</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,291</td> <td class="tcr rb">295,445</td> <td class="tcr rb">333,338</td> <td class="tcc rb">258</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Groningen</td> <td class="tcr rb">790</td> <td class="tcr rb">272,786</td> <td class="tcr rb">299,602</td> <td class="tcc rb">379</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Drente</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,030</td> <td class="tcr rb">130,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">148,544</td> <td class="tcc rb">144</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Limburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">850</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,721</td> <td class="tcr rb">281,934</td> <td class="tcc rb">332</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> &emsp; Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">12,648</td> <td class="tcr allb">4,511,415</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,104,137*</td> <td class="tcc allb">404</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="5">* This total includes 158 persons assigned to no province.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span></p>
+
+<p>The extremes of density of population are found in the provinces
+of North Holland and South Holland on the one hand, and
+Drente on the other. This divergence is partly explained by
+the difference of soil&mdash;which in Drente comprises the maximum
+of waste lands, and in South Holland the minimum&mdash;and partly
+also by the greater facilities which the seaward provinces enjoy
+of earning a subsistence, and the greater variety of their industries.
+The largest towns are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague,
+Utrecht, Groningen, Haarlem, Arnhem, Leiden, Nijmwegen,
+Tilburg. Other considerable towns are Dordrecht, Maastricht,
+Leeuwarden, Zwolle, Delft, &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch, Schiedam,
+Deventer, Breda, Apeldoorn, Helder, Enschedé, Gouda, Zaandam,
+Kampen, Hilversum, Flushing, Amersfoort, Middelburg, Zutphen
+and Alkmaar. Many of the smaller towns, such as Assen,
+Enschedé, Helmond, Hengelo, Tiel, Venlo, Vlaardingen, Zaandam,
+Yerseke, show a great development, and it is a noteworthy
+fact that the rural districts, taken as a whole, have borne an
+equal share in the general increase of population. This, taken
+in conjunction with the advance in trade and shipping, the
+diminution in emigration, and the prosperity of the savings
+banks, points to a favourable state in the condition of the people.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The roads are divided into national or royal
+roads, placed directly under the control of the <i>water-staat</i> and supported
+by the state; provincial roads, under the direct
+<span class="sidenote">Roads.</span>
+control of the states of the provinces, and almost all
+supported by the provincial treasuries; communal and polder
+roads, maintained by the communal authorities and the polder
+boards; and finally, private roads. The system of national roads,
+mainly constructed between 1821 and 1827, but still in process of
+extension, brings into connexion nearly all the towns.</p>
+
+<p>The canal system of Holland is peculiarly complete and extends
+into every part of the country, giving to many inland towns almost
+a maritime appearance. The united length of the canals
+exceeds 1500 m. As a matter of course the smaller
+<span class="sidenote">Canals.</span>
+streams have been largely utilized in their formation, while the
+necessity for a comprehensive drainage system has also contributed
+in no small degree. During the years 1815-1830 a large part of the
+extensive scheme of construction inaugurated by King William I.
+was carried out, the following canals, among others, coming into
+existence in that period: the North Holland ship canal (depth,
+16½ ft.) from Amsterdam to den Helder, the Grift canal between
+Apeldoorn and Hattem, the Willemsvaart connecting Zwolle with
+the Ysel, the Zuid Willemsvaart, or South William&rsquo;s canal (6½ ft.),
+from &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch to Maastricht, and the Ternuzen-Ghent ship
+canal. After 1849 the canal programme was again taken up by the
+state, which alone or in conjunction with the provincial authorities
+constructed the Apeldoorn-Dieren canal (1859-1869), the drainage
+canals of the &ldquo;Peel&rdquo; marsh in North Brabant, and of the eastern
+provinces, namely, the Deurne canal (1876-1892) from the Maas to
+Helenaveen, the Almelo (1851-1858) and Overysel (1884-1888)
+canals from Zwolle, Deventer and Almelo to Koevorden, and the
+Stieltjes (1880-1884), and Orange (1853-1858 and 1881-1889) canals
+in Drente, the North Williams canal (1856-1862) between Assen and
+Groningen, the Ems (1866-1876) ship canal from Groningen to
+Delfzyl, and the New Merwede, and enlarged the canal from Harlingen
+by way of Leeuwarden to the Lauwars Zee. The large ship
+canals to Rotterdam and Amsterdam, called the New Waterway
+and the North Sea canal respectively, were constructed in 1866-1872
+and 1865-1876 at a cost of 2½ and 3 million pounds sterling, the
+former by widening the channel of the Scheur north of Rozenburg,
+and cutting across the Hook of Holland, the latter by utilizing the
+bed of the Y and cutting through the dunes at Ymuiden. In 1876
+an agreement was arrived at with Germany for connecting the
+important drainage canals in Overysel, Drente and Groningen with
+the Ems canal system, as a result of which the Almelo-Noordhorn
+(1884-1888) and other canals came into existence.</p>
+
+<p>The canals differ in character in the different provinces. In
+Zeeland they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the
+river mouths; for example, the one from Middelburg to Veere
+and Flushing (1866-1878), from Goes to the East Scheldt, and from
+Zierikzee also to the East Scheldt. The South Beveland (1862-1866)
+canal connects the East and West Scheldt; similarly in South
+Holland the Voorne canal unites the Haringvliet with the New Maas,
+which does not allow the passage of large vessels above Brielle;
+whilst owing lo the banks and shallows in front of Hellevoetsluis
+the New Waterway was cut to Rotterdam. Of another character
+is the Zederik canal, which unites the principal river of central
+Holland, the Lek, at Vianen by means of the Linge with the Merwede
+at Gorkum. Amsterdam is connected with the Lek and the Zederik
+canal via Utrecht by the Vecht and the Vaart Rhine (1881-1893;
+depth 10.2 ft.). Again, a totally different character belongs to the
+canals in North Brabant, and the east and north-east of Holland
+where, in the absence of great rivers, they form the only waterways
+which render possible the drainage of the fens and the export of
+peat; and unite the lesser streams with each other. Thus in
+Overysel, in addition to the canals already mentioned, the Dedemsvaart
+connects the Vecht with the Zwarte Water near Hasselt;
+in Drente the Smildervaart and Drentsche Hoofdvaart unites Assen
+with Meppel, and receives on the eastern side the drainage canals
+of the Drente fens, namely, the Orange canal and the Hoogeveen
+Vaart (1850-1860; 1880-1893). Groningen communicates with the
+Lauwers Zee by the Reitdiep (1873-1876), while the canal to Winschoten
+and the Stadskanaal, or State canal (1877-1880), bring it
+into connexion with the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the
+province and in Drente. In Friesland, finally, besides the ship canal
+from Harlingen to the Lauwers Zee there are canals from Leeuwarden
+to the Lemmer, whence there is a busy traffic with Amsterdam;
+and the Caspar Robles or Kolonels Diep, and the Hoendiep
+connect it with Groningen.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of railways was long deferred and slowly accomplished.
+The first line was that between Amsterdam and Haarlem,
+opened in 1839 by the Holland railway company (<i>Hollandsch
+Yzeren Spoorweg Maatschappij</i>). In 1845 the state undertook
+<span class="sidenote">Railways.</span>
+to develop the railway system, and a company of private
+individuals was formed to administer it under the title of the
+<i>Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Staatspoorwegen</i>. In 1860, however,
+the total length of railways was only 208 m., and in that year
+a parliamentary bill embodying a comprehensive scheme of construction
+was adopted. By 1872 this programme was nearly completed,
+and 542 m. of new railway had been added. In 1873 and
+1875 a second and a third bill provided for the extension of the
+railway system at the cost of the state, and, in 1876, 1882 and 1890
+laws were introduced readjusting the control of the various lines,
+some of which were transferred to the Holland railway. The state
+railway system was completed in 1892, and since that time the
+utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new undertakings.
+These include various local lines such as the line Alkmaar-Hoorn
+(1898), Ede-Barneveld-Nykerk, Enschedé-Ahaus in Germany
+(1902), Leeuwarden to Franeker, Harlingen and Dokkum, and the
+line Zwolle-Almelo (junction at Marienberg) Koevorden-Stadskanal-Veendam-Delfzyl,
+connecting all the fen countries on the eastern
+borders. The electric railway Amsterdam-Zandvoort was opened
+in 1904. The frame upon which the whole network of the Dutch
+railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from
+north and south and four transverse lines from west to east. The
+two longitudinal lines are the railway den Helder via Haarlem
+(1862-1867),<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Rotterdam (1839-1847), and Zwaluwe (1869-1877)
+to Antwerp (1852-1855), belonging to the Holland railway company,
+and the State railway from Leeuwarden and Groningen (1870)
+(junction at Meppel, 1867) Zwolle (1866)&mdash;Arnhem (1865)&mdash;Nijmwegen
+(1879)&mdash;Venlo (1883)&mdash;Maastricht (1865). The four
+transverse lines belong to the State and Holland railways alternately
+and are, beginning with the State railway: (1) the line
+Flushing (1872)&mdash;Rozendaal (1860)&mdash;Tilburg (1863)&mdash;Bokstel
+(whence there is a branch line belonging to the North Brabant and
+Germany railway company via Vechel to Goch in Germany, opened
+in 1873)&mdash;Eindhoven&mdash;Venlo and across Prussian border (1866);
+(2) the line Hook of Holland&mdash;Rotterdam (1893)&mdash;Dordrecht (1872-1877)&mdash;Elst
+(1882-1885)&mdash;Nijmwegen (1879)&mdash;Cleves, Germany
+(1865); (3) the line Rotterdam&mdash;Utrecht (1866-1869) and Amsterdam&mdash;Utrecht&mdash;Arnhem
+(1843-1845) to Emmerich in Germany (1856):
+this line formerly belonged to the Netherlands-Rhine railway company,
+but was bought by the state in 1890; and finally (4) the line
+Amsterdam&mdash;Hilversum&mdash;Amersfoort&mdash;Apeldoorn (1875), whence it
+is continued (<i>a</i>) via Deventer, Almelo and Hengelo to Salzbergen,
+Germany (1865); (<i>b</i>) via Zutphen, Hengelo (1865), Enschedé (1866)
+to Gronau, Germany; (<i>c</i>) via Zutphen (1876) and Ruurlo to Winterswyk
+(1878). Of these (1) and (2) form the main transcontinental
+routes in connexion with the steamboat service to England (ports
+of Queenborough and Harwich respectively). Two other lines of
+railway, both belonging to the state, also traverse the country west
+to east, namely, the line Rozendaal&mdash;&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch (1890)&mdash;Nijmwegen,
+and in the extreme north, the line from Harlingen
+through Leeuwarden (1863) and Groningen (1866) to the border at
+Nieuwe Schans (1869), whence it was connected with the German
+railways in 1876. The northern and southern provinces are further
+connected by the lines Amsterdam&mdash;Zaandam (1878)&mdash;Enkhuizen
+(1885), whence there is a steam ferry across the Zuider Zee to
+Stavoren, from where the railway is continued to Leeuwarden (1883-1885);
+the Netherlands Central railway, Utrecht&mdash;Amersfoort&mdash;Zwoole&mdash;Kampen
+(1863); and the line Utrecht&mdash;&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch
+(1868-1869) which is continued southward into Belgium by the
+lines bought in 1898 from the Grand Central Beige railway, namely,
+via Tilburg to Turnhout (1867), and via Eindhoven (1866) to Hasselt.
+In 1892 Greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in
+the post-offices, making a difference of twenty minutes with mean
+Amsterdam time.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1877 railway communication has been largely supplemented
+by steam-tramways, which either run along the main roads or
+across the country on special embankments, while one of them is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span>
+carried across the river Ysel at Doesburg on a pontoon bridge.
+<span class="sidenote">Tramways.</span>
+The state first began to encourage the construction of these local
+light railways by means of subsidies in 1893, since when
+some of the most prominent lines have come into existence,
+such as Purmerend&mdash;Alkmaar (1898), Zutphen&mdash;Emmerich
+(1902), along the Dedemsvaart in Overysel (1902), from
+&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch via Utrecht and Eindhoven to Turnhout in
+Belgium (1898), and especially those connecting the South Holland
+and Zeeland islands with the railway, namely, between Rotterdam
+and Numansdorp on the Hollandsch Diep (1898), and from Breda
+or Bergen-op-Zoom, via Steenbergen to St Philipsland, Zierikzee
+and Brouwershaven (1900). An electric tramway connects Haarlem
+and Zandvoort. The number of passengers carried by the steam-tramways
+is relatively higher than that of the railways. The value
+of the goods traffic is not so high, owing, principally, to the want of
+intercommunication between the various lines on account of differences
+in the width of the gauge.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren
+stretches of heaths found in Drente, Overysel, Gelderland
+and North Brabant. They formerly served to support large
+flocks of sheep and some cattle, but are gradually transformed
+by the planting of woods, as well as by strenuous efforts at
+cultivation. Zeeland and Groningen are the two principal
+agricultural provinces, and after them follow Limburg, North
+Brabant, Gelderland and South Holland. The chief products
+of cultivation on the heavy clay soil are oats, barley and wheat,
+and on the sand-grounds rye, buckwheat and potatoes. Flax
+and beetroot are also cultivated on the clay lands. Tobacco,
+hemp, hops, colza and chicory form special cultures. With the
+possible exception of oats, the cereals do not suffice for home
+consumption, and maize is imported in large quantities for
+cattle-feeding, and barley for the distilleries and breweries.
+Horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order, and
+flourish especially on the low fen soil and <i>geest</i> grounds along the
+foot of the dunes in the provinces of North and South Holland.
+The principal market products are cauliflower, cabbage, onions,
+asparagus, gherkins, cucumbers, beans, peas, &amp;c. The principal
+flowers are hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus and other
+bulbous plants, the total export of which is estimated at over
+£200,000. Fruit is everywhere grown, and there is a special
+cultivation of grapes and figs in the Westland of South Holland.
+The woods, or rather the plantations, covering 6%, consist
+of (1) the so-called forest timber (<i>opgaandhout</i>; Fr. <i>arbres
+de haute futaie</i>), including the beech, oak, elm, poplar, birch,
+ash, willow and coniferous trees; and (2) the copse wood
+(<i>akkermaal</i> or <i>hakhout</i>), embracing the elder, willow, beech,
+oak, &amp;c. This forms no unimportant branch of the national
+wealth.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>With nearly 35% of the total surface of the country under
+permanent pasture, cattle-breeding forms one of the most characteristic
+industries of the country. The provinces of
+Friesland, North and South Holland, and Utrecht take
+<span class="sidenote">Livestock.</span>
+the lead as regards both quality and numbers. A smaller,
+hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep are kept upon
+the heath-lands in the eastern provinces, which also favour the
+rearing of pigs and bee-culture. Horse-breeding is most important
+in Friesland, which produces the well-known black breed of horse
+commonly used in funeral processions. Goats are most numerous
+in Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry, especially fowls, are
+generally kept. Stock-breeding, like agriculture, has considerably
+improved under the care of the government (state and provincial),
+which grants subsidies for breeding, irrigation of pasture-lands, the
+importation of finer breeds of cattle and horses, the erection of
+factories for dairy produce, schools, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fisheries.</i>&mdash;The fishing industry of the Netherlands may be said
+to have been in existence already in the 13th century, and in the
+following century received a considerable impetus from the discovery
+how to cure herring by William Beukelszoon, a Zeeland
+fisherman. It steadily declined during the 17th and 18th centuries,
+however, but again began to revive in the last half of the 19th century.
+The fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas,
+namely, the &ldquo;deep-sea&rdquo; fishery of the North Sea, and the &ldquo;inner&rdquo;
+(<i>binnengaatsch</i>) fisheries of the Wadden, the Zuider Zee, and the
+South Holland and Zeeland waters. The deep-sea fishery may be
+farther divided into the so-called &ldquo;great&rdquo; or &ldquo;salt-herring&rdquo; fishery,
+mainly carried on from Vlaardingen and Maasluis during the summer
+and autumn, and the &ldquo;fresh-herring&rdquo; fishery, chiefly pursued at
+Scheveningen, Katwijk and Noordwijk. The value of the herring
+fisheries is enhanced by the careful methods of smoking and salting,
+the export of salted fish being considerable. In the winter the
+largest boats are laid up and the remainder take to line-fishing.
+Middelharnis, Pernis and Zwartewaal are the centres of this branch
+of fishery, which yields halibut, cod, ling and haddock. The trawl
+fisheries of the coast yield sole, plaice, turbot, brill, skate, &amp;c., of
+which a large part is brought alive to the market. In the Zuider
+Zee small herring, flat fish, anchovies and shrimps are caught,
+the chief fishing centres being the islands of Texel, Urk and
+Wieringen, and the coast towns of Helder, Bunschoten, Huizen,
+Enkhuizen, Vollendam, Kampen, Harderwyk, Vollenhove. The
+anchovy fishing which takes place in May, June and July sometimes
+yields very productive results. Oysters and mussels are obtained
+on the East Scheldt, and anchovies at Bergen-op-Zoom; while
+salmon, perch and pike are caught in the Maas, the Lek and the
+New Merwede. The oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in
+the hands of the state, which lets them to the highest bidder. Large
+quantities of eels are caught in the Frisian lakes. The fisheries not
+only supply the great local demand, but allow of large exports.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Manufacturing Industries.</i>&mdash;The mineral resources of Holland
+give no encouragement to industrial activity, with the exception
+of the coal-mining in Limburg, the smelting of iron ore in a
+few furnaces in Overysel and Gelderland, the use of stone and
+gravel in the making of dikes and roads, and of clay in brickworks
+and potteries, the quarrying of stone at St Pietersberg,
+&amp;c. Nevertheless the industry of the country has developed
+in a remarkable manner since the separation from Belgium.
+The greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry, which
+flourishes especially in the Twente district of Overysel, where
+jute is also worked into sacks. In the manufacture of woollen
+and linen goods Tilburg ranks first, followed by Leiden, Utrecht
+and Eindhoven; that of half-woollens is best developed at
+Roermond and Helmond. Other branches of industry include
+carpet-weaving at Deventer, the distillation of brandy, gin
+and liqueurs at Schiedam, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and
+beer-brewing in most of the principal towns; shoe-making and
+leather-tanning in the Langstraat district of North Brabant;
+paper-making at Apeldoorn, on the Zaan, and in Limburg;
+the manufacture of earthenware and faïence at Maastricht,
+the Hague and Delft, as well as at Utrecht, Purmerend and
+Makkum; clay pipes and stearine candles at Gouda; margarine
+at Osch; chocolate at Weesp and on the Zaan; mat-plaiting
+and broom-making at Genemuiden and Blokzyl; diamond-cutting
+and the manufacture of quinine at Amsterdam; and
+the making of cigars and snuff at Eindhoven, Amsterdam,
+Utrecht, Kampen, &amp;c. Shipbuilding is of no small importance
+in Holland, not only in the greater, but also in the smaller
+towns along the rivers and canals. The principal shipbuilding
+yards are at Amsterdam, Kinderdijk, Rotterdam and at Flushing,
+where there is a government dockyard for building warships.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Trade and Shipping.</i>&mdash;To obtain a correct idea of the trade of
+Holland, greater attention than would be requisite in the case of
+other countries must be paid to the inland traffic. It is impossible
+to state the value of this in definite figures, but an estimate may be
+formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in
+the rivers and canals, and from the quantity of produce brought to
+the public market. In connexion with this traffic there is a large
+fleet of tug boats; but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are
+becoming more common. Some of the lighters used in the Rhine
+transport trade have a capacity of 3000 tons. A great part of the
+commercial business at Rotterdam belongs to the commission and
+transit trade. The other principal ports are Flushing, Terneuzen
+(for Belgium), Harlingen, Delfzyl, Dordrecht, Zaandam, Schiedam,
+Groningen, den Helder, Middelburg, Vlaardingen. Among the
+national mail steamship services are the lines to the East and West
+Indies, Africa and the United States. An examination of its lists
+of exports and imports will show that Holland receives from its
+colonies its spiceries, coffee, sugar, tobacco, indigo, cinnamon;
+from England and Belgium its manufactured goods and coals;
+petroleum, raw cotton and cereals from the United States; grain
+from the Baltic provinces, Archangel, and the ports of the Black
+Sea; timber from Norway and the basin of the Rhine, yarn from
+England, wine from France, hops from Bavaria and Alsace; iron-ore
+from Spain; while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to
+Germany, its agricultural produce to the London market, its fish
+to Belgium and Germany, and its cheese to France, Belgium and
+Hamburg, as well as England. The bulk of trade is carried on with
+Germany and England; then follow Java, Belgium, Russia, the
+United States, &amp;c. In the last half of the 19th century the total
+value of the foreign commerce was more than trebled.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Constitution and Government.</i>&mdash;The government of the Netherlands
+is regulated by the constitution of 1815, revised in 1848
+and 1887, under which the sovereign&rsquo;s person is inviolable and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span>
+the ministers are responsible. The age of majority of the
+sovereign is eighteen. The crown is hereditary in both the
+male and the female line according to primogeniture; but it
+is only in default of male heirs that females can come to the
+throne. The crown prince or heir apparent is the first subject
+of the sovereign, and bears the title of the prince of Orange. The
+sovereign alone has executive authority. To him belong the
+ultimate direction of foreign affairs, the power to declare war
+and peace, to make treaties and alliances, and to dissolve one
+or both chambers of parliament, the supreme command of the
+army and navy, the supreme administration of the state finances
+and of the colonies and other possessions of the kingdom, and
+the prerogative of mercy. By the provisions of the same constitution
+he establishes the ministerial departments, and shares
+the legislative power with the first and second chambers of
+parliament, which constitute the states-general and sit at
+the Hague. The heads of the departments to whom the especial
+executive functions are entrusted are eight in number&mdash;ministers
+respectively of the interior, of &ldquo;water-staat,&rdquo; trade and industry
+(that is, of public works, including railways, post-office, &amp;c.),
+of justice, of finance, of war, of marine, of the colonies and
+of foreign affairs. There is a department of agriculture, but
+without a minister at its head. The heads of departments are
+appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the sovereign, usually
+determined, however, as in all constitutional states, by the
+will of the nation as indicated by its representatives.</p>
+
+<p>The number of members in the first chamber is 50, South
+Holland sending 10, North Holland 9, North Brabant and
+Gelderland each 6, Friesland 4, Overysel, Limburg and Groningen
+each 3, Zeeland, Utrecht and Drente each 2. According to
+the fundamental law (<i>Grondwet</i>) of 1887, they are chosen by
+the provincial states, not only from amongst those who bear
+the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province, but
+also from amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank.
+Those deputies who are not resident in the Hague are entitled
+to receive 16s. 8d. a day during the session. The duration of
+parliament is nine years, a third of the members retiring every
+three years. The retiring members are eligible for re-election.
+The members of the second chamber are chosen in the electoral
+districts by all capable male citizens not under 23 years of age,
+who pay one or more direct taxes, ranging from a minimum of
+one guilder (1s. 8d.) towards the income tax. The number of
+members is 100, Amsterdam returning 9, Rotterdam 5, the
+Hague 3, Groningen and Utrecht 2 members each. Members must
+be at least thirty years old, and receive an annual allowance
+of £166, besides travelling expenses. They only, and the government,
+have the right of initiating business, and of proposing
+amendments. Their term is four years, but they are re-eligible.
+All communications from the sovereign to the states-general
+and from the states to the sovereign, as well as all measures
+relating to internal administration or to foreign possessions,
+are first submitted to the consideration of the council of state,
+which consists of 14 members appointed by the sovereign, who
+is the president. The state council also has the right of making
+suggestions to the sovereign in regard to subjects of legislation
+and administration.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial
+states, which are returned by direct election by the same electors
+as vote for the second chamber. The term is for six years, but one-half
+of the members retire every three years subject to re-election
+or renewal. The president of the assembly is the royal commissioner
+for the province. As the provincial states only meet a few times in
+the year, they name a committee of deputy-states which manages
+current general business, and at the same time exercises the right
+of control over the affairs of the communes. At the head of every
+commune stands a communal council, whose members must be not
+under 23 years of age. They are elected for six years (one-third of
+the council retiring every two years) by the same voters as for the
+provincial states. Communal franchise is further restricted, however,
+to those electors who pay a certain sum to the communal rates.
+The number of councillors varies according to the population between
+7 and 45. One of the special duties of the council is the supervision
+of education. The president of the communal council is the
+burgomaster, who is named by the sovereign in every instance for
+six years, and receives a salary varying from £40 to over £600.
+Provision is made for paying the councillors a certain fee&mdash;called
+&ldquo;presence-money&rdquo;&mdash;when required. The burgomaster has the
+power to suspend any of the council&rsquo;s decrees for 30 days. The
+executive power is vested in a college formed by the burgomaster
+and two, three or four magistrates (<i>wethouders</i>) to be chosen by and
+from the members of the council. The provinces are eleven in
+number.</p>
+
+<p><i>National Defence.</i>&mdash;The home defence system of Holland is a
+militia with strong cadres based on universal service. Service in
+the &ldquo;militia&rdquo; or 1st line force is for 8 years, in the 2nd line for 7.
+Every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called
+up for long or short periods of training, and the maximum peace
+strength under arms in the summer is about 35,000, of whom half
+are permanent cadres and half militiamen. In 1908 12,300 of the
+year&rsquo;s contingent were trained for eight months and more, and
+5200 for four months. The war strength of the militia is 105,000,
+that of the second line or reserve 70,000. The defence of the country
+is based on the historic principle of concentrating the people and
+their resources in the heart of the country, covered by a wide belt
+of inundations. The chosen line of defence is marked by a series
+of forts which control the sluices, extending from Amsterdam,
+through Muiden, thence along the Vecht and through Utrecht to
+Gorinchem (Gorkum) on the Waal. The line continues thence by
+the Hollandsche Diep and Volkerak to the sea, and the coast also
+is fortified. The army in the colonies numbers in all about 26,000,
+all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily enlisted
+European regulars. The military expenditure in 1908 was £2,331,255.
+The Dutch navy at home and in Indian waters consists (1909) of
+9 small battleships, 6 small cruisers and 80 other vessels, manned by
+8600 officers and men of the navy and about 2250 marines. Recruiting
+is by voluntary enlistment, with contingent powers of
+conscription amongst the maritime population.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;The administration of justice is entrusted (1) to the
+high council (<i>hooge raad</i>) at the Hague, the supreme court of the
+whole kingdom, and the tribunal for all high government officials
+and for the members of the states-general; (2) to the five courts
+of justice established at Amsterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, Leeuwarden
+and &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch; (3) to tribunals established in each
+arrondissement; (4) to cantonal judges appointed over a group of
+communes, whose jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount
+(under 200 guilders), and to breaches of police regulations, and who
+at the same time look after the interest of minors. The high council
+is composed of 12 to 14 councillors, a procureur-general and three
+advocates-general. Criminal and correctional procedure were
+formerly divided between the courts of justice and the arrondissement
+tribunals; but this distinction was suppressed by the penal
+code of 1886, thereby increasing the importance of the arrondissement
+courts, which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal
+courts.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the prisons, which include one built on the cellular principle
+at Breda, the state supports three penal workhouses for
+drunkards and beggars. There are also the penal colonies at Veenhuizen
+in Drente, which were brought from the Society of Charity
+(<i>Maatschappij van Weldadigkeid</i>) in 1859. The inmates practise
+agriculture, as well as various industries for supplying all the requirements
+of the colony. The objection raised against these
+establishments is that the prisoners do not represent the real vagabondage
+of the country, but a class of more or less voluntary inmates.
+Children under 16 years of age are placed in the three state reformatories,
+and there is an institution for vagabond women at
+Rotterdam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charitable and other Institutions.</i>&mdash;Private charities have always
+occupied a distinguished position in the Netherlands, and the
+principle of the law of 1854 concerning the relief of the poor is,
+that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails. All
+private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they
+can collect public funds. In some cases these institutions are
+organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities.
+At the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural
+colonies belonging to the Society of Charity (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drente</a></span>). Of the
+numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and
+the fine arts, the following are strictly national&mdash;the Royal Academy
+of Sciences (1855), the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
+(1854), the National Academy of the Plastic Arts, the Royal School
+of Music, the National Archives, besides various other national
+collections and museums. Provincial scientific societies exist at
+Middelburg, Utrecht, &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, and there
+are private and municipal associations, institutions and collections
+in a large number of the smaller towns. Among societies of general
+utility are the Society for Public Welfare (<i>Maatschappij tot nut
+van&rsquo;t algemeen</i>, 1785), whose efforts have been mainly in the direction
+of educational reform; the Geographical Society at Amsterdam
+(1873); Teyler&rsquo;s Stichting or foundation at Haarlem (1778), and
+the societies for the promotion of industry (1777), and of sciences
+(1752) in the same town; the Institute of Languages, Geography
+and Ethnology of the Dutch Indies (1851), and the Indian Society
+at the Hague, the Royal Institute of Engineers at Delft (1848), the
+Association for the Encouragement of Music at Amsterdam, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;Religious conviction is one of the most characteristic
+traits of the Dutch people, and finds expression in a large number of
+independent religious congregations. The bond between church
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span>
+and state which had been established by the synod of Dort (1618)
+and the organization of the Low-Dutch Reformed Church (<i>Nederlandsche
+Hervormde Kerk</i>) as the national Protestant church, practically
+came to an end in the revolution of 1795, and in the revision
+of the Constitution in 1848 the complete religious liberty and equality
+of all persons and congregations was guaranteed. The present
+organization of the Reformed Church dates from 1852. It is governed
+by a general assembly or &ldquo;synod&rdquo; of deputies from the principal
+judicatures, sitting once a year. The provinces are subdivided into
+&ldquo;classes,&rdquo; and the classes again into &ldquo;circles&rdquo; (<i>ringen</i>), each circle
+comprising from 5 to 25 congregations, and each congregation being
+governed by a &ldquo;church council&rdquo; or session. The provincial synods
+are composed of ministers and elders deputed by the classes; and
+these are composed of the ministers belonging to the particular class
+and an equal number of elders appointed by the local sessions. The
+meetings of the circles have no administrative character, but are
+mere brotherly conferences. The financial management in each
+congregation is entrusted to a special court (<i>kerk-voogdij</i>) composed
+of &ldquo;notables&rdquo; and church wardens. In every province there is
+besides, in the case of the Reformed Church, a provincial committee
+of supervision for the ecclesiastical administration. For the
+whole kingdom this supervision is entrusted to a common &ldquo;collegium&rdquo;
+or committee of supervision, which meets at the Hague,
+and consists of 11 members named by the provincial committee and
+3 named by the synod. Some congregations have withdrawn from
+provincial supervision, and have thus free control of their own
+financial affairs. The oldest secession from the Orthodox Church
+is that of the Remonstrants, who still represent the most liberal
+thought in the country, and have their own training college at
+Leiden. Towards 1840 a new congregation calling itself the
+Christian Reformed Church (<i>Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk</i>) arose as
+a protest against the government and the modern tendencies of the
+Reformed Church; and for the same reason those who had founded
+the Free University of Amsterdam (1880) formed themselves in 1886
+into an independent body called the <i>Nederlandsche Gereformeerde
+Kerk</i>. In 1892 these two churches united under the name of the
+Reformed Churches (<i>Gereformeerde Kerken</i>) with the doctrine and
+discipline of Dort. They have a theological seminary at Kampen.
+Other Protestant bodies are the Walloons, who, though possessing
+an independent church government, are attached to the Low-Dutch
+Reformed Church; the Lutherans, divided into the main body of
+Evangelical Lutherans and a smaller division calling themselves
+the Re-established or Old Lutherans (<i>Herstelde Lutherschen</i>) who
+separated in 1791 in order to keep more strictly to the Augsburg
+confession; the Mennonites founded by Menno Simons of Friesland,
+about the beginning of the 16th century; the Baptists, whose only
+central authority is the General Baptist Society founded at Amsterdam
+in 1811; the Evangelical Brotherhood of Hernhutters
+or Moravians, who have churches and schools at Zeist and
+Haarlem; and a Catholic Apostolic Church (1867) at the Hague.
+There are congregations of English Episcopalians at the Hague,
+Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and German Evangelicals at the
+Hague (1857) and Rotterdam (1861). In 1853 the Roman Catholic
+Church, which before had been a mission in the hands of papal
+legates and vicars, was raised into an independent ecclesiastical
+province with five dioceses, namely, the archbishopric of Utrecht,
+and the suffragan bishoprics of Haarlem, Breda, &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch
+and Roermond, each with its own seminary. Side by side with
+the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the Old
+Catholics or Old Episcopalian Church (<i>Oud Bisschoppelijke Clerezie</i>),
+and the Jansenists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jansenism</a></span>). The Old Catholics, with whom
+the Jansenists are frequently confused, date from the 17th century.
+Besides an archbishop at Utrecht, the Old Catholics have bishops
+at Deventer and Haarlem, and a training college at Amersfoort.
+They numbered in 1905 about 9000 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Utrecht</a></span>). The large
+Jewish population in Holland had its origin in the wholesale influx
+of Portuguese Jews at the end of the 16th, and of German Jews in
+the beginning of the 17th century. In 1870 they were reorganized
+under the central authority of the Netherlands Israelite Church,
+and divided into head and &ldquo;ring&rdquo; synagogues and associated
+churches. The Roman Catholic element preponderates in the
+southern provinces of Limburg, and North Brabant, but in Friesland,
+Groningen and Drente the Baptists and Christian Reformed are
+most numerous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;Every grade of education in the Netherlands is under
+the control and supervision of the state, being administered by a
+special department under the ministry for the interior. In 1889
+the state recognized private denominational schools, and in 1900
+passed a law of compulsory attendance. Infant schools, which are
+generally in the hands of private societies or the municipal authorities,
+are not interfered with by the state. According to the law of
+1889 primary education is carried on in the ordinary and in continuation
+schools for boys and girls (co-education having been long
+in vogue). These schools are established in every commune, the
+state contributing aid at the rate of 25% of the total expenditure.
+The age of admission is six; and the course is for six years, 7-13
+being the legal age limits; the fee, from which poverty exempts,
+is almost nominal. Nature-study, continued in the secondary
+schools, is an essential part in the curriculum of these schools, and
+elementary general history, English, French and German are among
+the optional subjects. While the boys are instructed in woodwork,
+needlework is taught to the girls, its introduction in 1889 having
+been the first recognition of practical instruction in any form.
+Continuation schools (<i>herhalingsscholen</i>) must be organized wherever
+required, and are generally open for six months in winter, pupils
+of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending. Secondary schools were
+established by the law of 1863 and must be provided by every
+commune of 10,000 inhabitants; they comprise the Burgher-Day-and-Evening
+schools and the Higher-Burgher schools. The first
+named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in industrial
+or agricultural pursuits, the day classes gradually fell into
+disuse. The length of the course as prescribed by law is two years,
+but it is usually extended to three or four years, and the instruction,
+though mainly theoretical, has regard to the special local industries;
+the fees, if any, may not exceed one pound sterling per annum.
+Special mention must be made in this connexion of the school of
+engineering in Amsterdam (1878) and the Academy of Plastic Arts
+at Rotterdam. The higher-burgher schools have either a three or
+a five years&rsquo; course, and the fees vary from £2, 10s. to £5 a year.
+The instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific.
+In both schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course,
+that of the higher-burgher schools admitting to the natural science
+and medical branches of university education, a supplementary
+examination in Greek and Latin being required for other branches.
+The gymnasia, or classical schools, fall legally speaking under the
+head of higher education. By the law of 1876, every town of 20,000
+inhabitants, unless specially exempted, must provide a gymnasium.
+A large proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to
+the extent of half their net cost. The curriculum is classical and
+philological, but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in
+favour of scientific subjects for those who wish. The fees vary
+from £5 to £8 a year, but, owing to the absence of scholarships and
+bursaries, are sometimes remitted, as in the case of the higher-burgher
+schools. Among the schools which give specialized instruction,
+mention must be made of the admirable trade schools
+(<i>ambachtsscholen</i>) established in 1861, and the corresponding industrial
+schools for girls; the fishery schools and schools of navigation;
+the many private schools of domestic science, and of
+commerce and industry, among which the municipal school at
+Enschedé (1886) deserves special mention; and the school of social
+work, &ldquo;Das Huis,&rdquo; at Amsterdam (1900). For the education of
+medical practitioners, civil and military, the more important institutions
+are the National Obstetrical College at Amsterdam, the
+National Veterinary School at Utrecht, the National College for
+Military Physicians at Amsterdam and the establishment at Utrecht
+for the training of military apothecaries for the East and West
+Indies. The organization of agricultural education under the state
+is very complete, and includes a state professor of agriculture for
+every province (as well as professors of horticulture in several
+cases), &ldquo;winter schools&rdquo; of agriculture and horticulture, and a
+state agricultural college at Wageningen (1876) with courses in
+home and colonial agriculture. The total fees at this college, including
+board and lodging, are about £50 a year. According to the
+law of 1898, the state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or
+testing-stations. Other schools of the same class are the Gerard
+Adriaan van Swieten schools of agriculture, gardening and forestry
+in Drente, the school of instruction in butter and cheese making
+(<i>zuivelbereiding</i>) at Bolsward and the state veterinary college at
+Utrecht.</p>
+
+<p>There are three state universities in Holland, namely, Leiden
+(1575), Groningen (1585) and Utrecht (1634). The ancient athenaeums
+of Franeker (1585) and Harderwyk (1603) were closed in
+1811, but that of Amsterdam was converted into a municipal
+university in 1877. In each of these universities there are five
+faculties, namely, law, theology, medicine, science and mathematics,
+and literature and philosophy, the courses for which are
+respectively four, five, eight, and six or seven years for the two
+last named. The fees amount to 200 florins (£16, 13s. 4d.) per
+annum and are payable for four years. Two kinds of degrees are
+conferred, namely, the ordinary (<i>candidaats</i>) and the &ldquo;doctor&rsquo;s&rdquo;
+degrees. Pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only eligible
+for the first. There is also a free (Calvinistic) university at Amsterdam
+founded in 1880 and enjoying, since 1905, the right of conferring
+degrees. It has, however, no faculties of law or science.
+The state polytechnic school at Delft (1864) for the study of engineering
+in all its branches, architecture and naval construction,
+has a nominal course of four years, and confers the degree of &ldquo;engineer.&rdquo;
+The fees are the same as those of the universities, and as at
+the universities there are bursaries. A national institution at
+Leiden for the study of languages, geography and ethnology of the
+Dutch Indies has given place to communal institutions of the same
+nature at Delft and at Leiden, founded in 1864 and 1877. The
+centre of Dutch university life, which is non-residential, is the
+students&rsquo; corps, at the head of which is a &ldquo;senate,&rdquo; elected annually
+from among the students of four years&rsquo; standing. Membership of
+the corps is gained after a somewhat trying novitiate, but is the only
+passport to the various social and sports societies.</p>
+
+<p>All teachers in the Netherlands must qualify for their profession
+by examination. Under the act of 1898 they are trained either in
+the state training-colleges, or in state-aided municipal, and private
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span>
+denominational colleges; or else by means of state or private
+state-aided courses of instruction. The age of admission to this
+class of training is from 14 to 18, and the course is for four years.
+In the last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary
+&ldquo;practice&rdquo; school attached to each college, and students are also
+taught to make models explanatory of the various subjects of instruction
+after the manner of the Swedish Sloyd (Slöjd) system.
+Assistant-teachers wishing to qualify as head-teachers must have
+had two years&rsquo; practical experience. Pupil-teachers can only give
+instruction under the supervision of a certificated teacher. The
+minimum salary of teachers is determined by law. The teaching,
+which follows the so-called &ldquo;Heuristic&rdquo; method, and the equipment
+of schools of every description, are admirable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;The following statement shows the revenue and
+expenditure of the kingdom for the years 1889, 1900-1901 and
+1905:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Revenue.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Source.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Excise</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,678,075</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,042,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,514,998</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Direct taxation</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,300,865</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,900,175</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,135,665</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Indirect taxation</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,004,745</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,805,583</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,946,666</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Post Office</td> <td class="tcr rb">539,405</td> <td class="tcr rb">865,750</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,103,333</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Government telegraphs</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,970</td> <td class="tcr rb">187,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">211,333</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Export and Import duties</td> <td class="tcr rb">440,247</td> <td class="tcr rb">801,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">930,912</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">State domains</td> <td class="tcr rb">213,186</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">139,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pilot dues</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,079</td> <td class="tcr rb">191,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">State lotteries</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,609</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,666</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Game and Fisheries</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,660</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,750</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Railways</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">361,512</td> <td class="tcr rb">349,011</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Part paid by East Indies on account of</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; interest and redemption of public debt</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">321,916</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherland Bank contribution</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">160,500</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp; Total*</td> <td class="tcr allb">9,475,337</td> <td class="tcr allb">11,394,220</td> <td class="tcr allb">14,017,079</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">* Including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Expenditure.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Object.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">National Debt</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,727,591</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,906,214</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,899,770</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of War</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,708,698</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,893,036</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,474,011</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Waterstaat</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,790,291</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,448,339</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,869,951</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Finance</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,537,404</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,092,343</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,297,180</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Marine</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,038,536</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,388,141</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,396,137</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Interior</td> <td class="tcr rb">815,188</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,330,563</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,613,134</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Justice</td> <td class="tcr rb">426,343</td> <td class="tcr rb">529,159</td> <td class="tcr rb">592,073</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of Colonies</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,829</td> <td class="tcr rb">109,768</td> <td class="tcr rb">251,150</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dept. of Foreign Affairs</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,312</td> <td class="tcr rb">71,101</td> <td class="tcr rb">82,403</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Royal Household</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,666</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Superior Authorities of the State</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,476</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,792</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,251</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Unforeseen Expenditure</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,745</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,166</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp; Total*</td> <td class="tcr allb">10,393,579</td> <td class="tcr allb">12,896,289</td> <td class="tcr allb">14,907,781</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="4">* Including, besides the ordinary budget, the outlays in payment of<br />
+&emsp; annuities, in funding and discharging debt, in railway extension, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The total debt in 1905 amounted to £96,764,266, the annual
+interest amounted to £3,396,590. During the years 1850-1905,
+£27,416,651 has been devoted to the redemption of the public debt.
+The total wealth of the kingdom is estimated at 900 millions sterling.
+The various provinces and communes have separate budgets. The
+following table gives a statement of the provincial and communal
+finances:&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Revenue.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Provincial</td> <td class="tcr rb">722,583</td> <td class="tcr rb">445,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">718,199</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Communal</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,132,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,311,666</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,750,083</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Expenditure.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Provincial</td> <td class="tcr rb">740,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">445,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">702,718</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Communal</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,683,800</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,503,250</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,085,250</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Colonies.</i>&mdash;The Dutch colonies in the Malay Archipelago have
+an area of 600,000 sq. m., with a population of 23,000,000,
+among which are 35,000 Europeans, 319,000 Chinese, 15,000
+Arabs, and 10,000 other immigrant Asiatics. The West Indian
+possessions of Holland include Dutch Guiana or the government
+of Surinam, and the Dutch Antilles or the government of Curaçoa
+and its dependencies (St Eustatius, Saba, the southern half of
+St Martin, Curaçoa, Bonaire and Aruba), a total area of 60,000
+sq. m., with 90,000 inhabitants, of whom a small portion are
+Europeans, and the rest negroes and other people of colour,
+and Chinese.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The chief place is due to the following geographical
+publications:&mdash;Dr H. Blink, <i>Nederland en zijne Bewoners</i>
+(Amsterdam, 1888-1892), containing a copious bibliography;
+<i>Tegenwoordige Staat van Nederland</i> (Amsterdam, 1897); R.
+Schuiling, <i>Aardrijkskunde van Nederland</i> (Zwolle, 1884); A. A.
+Beekman, <i>De Strijd om het Bestaan</i> (Zutphen, 1887), a manual on
+the characteristic hydrography of the Netherlands; and E. Reclus&rsquo;
+<i>Nouvelle géographie universelle</i> (1879; vol. iv.). The <i>Gedenboek
+uitgeven ter gelegenheid van het fijftig-jarig bestaan van het Koninklijk
+Instituut van Ingenieurs</i>, 1847-1897 (&rsquo;s Gravenhage, 1898), is an
+excellent aid in studying technically the remarkable works on
+Dutch rivers, canals, sluices, railways and harbours, and drainage
+and irrigation works. The <i>Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van
+Nederland</i>, by P. H. Witkamp (Arnhem, 1895), is a complete gazetteer
+with historical notes, and <i>Nomina Geographica Neerlandica</i>, published
+by the Netherlands Geographical Society (Amsterdam, 1885, &amp;c.),
+contains a history of geographical names. <i>Geschiedenis van den
+Boereastand en den landbouw in Nederland</i>, H. Blink (Groningen,
+1902), and the report on agriculture, published at the Hague by the
+Royal Commission appointed in 1896, furnish special information
+in connexion with this subject. Of more general interest are: <i>Eene
+halve Eeuw, 1848-1898</i>, edited by Dr P. H. Ritter (Amsterdam,
+1898), containing a series of articles on all subjects connected with
+the kingdom during the second half of the 19th century, written by
+specialists; and <i>Les Pays Bas</i> (Leiden, 1899), and <i>La Hollande
+géographique, ethnologique, politique, &amp;c.</i> (Paris, 1900), both works
+of the same class as the preceding.</p>
+
+<p>Books of travel include some of considerable topographical as
+well as literary interest, from Lodovico Guicciardini (1567) down to
+Edmondo de Amicis (<i>Holland</i>, translated from the Italian, London,
+1883); H. Havard, <i>Dead Cities of the Zuider Zee, &amp;c.</i> (translated from
+the French, London 1876), and D. S. Meldrum, <i>Holland and the
+Hollanders</i> (London, 1899) in the 19th century. Mention may also
+be made of <i>Old Dutch Towns and Villages of the Zuider Zee</i>, by W. J.
+Tuyn (translated from the Dutch, London, 1901), <i>Nieuwe <span class="correction" title="amended from Wanderlingen">Wandelingen</span>
+door Nederland</i>, by J. Craandijk and P. A. <span class="correction" title="amended from Schipperns">Schipperus</span>
+(Haarlem, 1888); <i>Friesland Meres and through the Netherlands</i>,
+by H. M. Doughty (London, 1887); <i>On Dutch Waterways</i>, by G. C.
+Davis (London, 1887); <i>Hollande et hollandais</i>, by H. Durand
+(Paris, 1893); and <i>Holland and Belgium</i> by Professor N. G. van
+Kampen (translated from the Dutch, London, 1860), the last three
+being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations. Works of
+historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are <i>Merkwaardige
+Kasteelen in Nederland</i>, by J. van Lennep and W. J. Hofdyk (Leiden,
+1881-1884); <i>Noord-Hollandsche Oudheden</i>, by G. van Arkel and
+A. W. Weisman, published by the Royal Antiquarian Society (Amsterdam,
+1891); and <i>Oud Holland</i>, edited by A. D. de Vries and N.
+de Roever (Amsterdam, 1883-1886), containing miscellaneous contributions
+to the history of ancient Dutch art, crafts and letters.
+Natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the
+Royal Zoological Society &ldquo;Natura Artis Magistra&rdquo; at Amsterdam,
+and the <i>Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland</i> (Haarlem, 1856-1863)
+written by specialists, and including ethnology and flora. Military
+and naval defence may be studied in <i>De vesting Holland</i>, by A. L. W.
+Seijffardt (Utrecht, 1887), and the <i>Handbook of the Dutch Army</i>,
+by Major W. L. White, R.A. (London, 1896); ecclesiastical history
+in <i>The Church in the Netherlands</i>, by P. H. Ditchfield (London, 1893);
+and education in vol. viii. of the <i>Special Reports on Educational
+Subjects</i> issued by the Board of Education, London. Statistics are
+furnished by the annual publication of the Society for Statistics in
+the Netherlands, Amsterdam.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">History from 1579 to Modern Times</span><a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href="#ft5h"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The political compact known as the Union of Utrecht differed
+from its immediate predecessors, the Pacification of Ghent, the
+Union of Brussels and the Perpetual Edict, in its
+permanence. The confederacy of the northern provinces
+<span class="sidenote">Consequences of the Union of Utrecht.</span>
+of the Netherlands which was effected (29th
+of January 1579) by the exertions of John of Nassau,
+was destined to be the beginning of a new national
+life. The foundation was laid on which the Republic of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span>
+United Netherlands was to be raised. Its immediate results
+were far from promising. The falling away of the Walloon
+provinces and the Catholic nobles from the patriot cause
+threatened it with ruin. Nothing but the strong personal
+influence and indefatigable labours of the prince of Orange
+stood in the way of a more general defection. Everywhere,
+save in staunch and steadfast Holland and Zeeland, a feeling
+of wavering and hesitation was spreading through the land.
+In Holland and Zeeland William was supreme, but elsewhere
+his aims and his principles were misrepresented and misunderstood.
+He saw that unaided the patriotic party could not hope
+to resist the power of Philip II., and he had therefore resolved
+to gain the support of France by the offer of the sovereignty
+<span class="sidenote">Sovereignty offered to the Duke of Anjou.<br />
+The Ban against William of Orange.<br />
+The Act of Abjuration.<br />
+The Apology.</span>
+of the Netherlands to the duke of Anjou. But Anjou
+was a Catholic, and this fact aroused among the Protestants
+a feeling that they were being betrayed.
+But the prince persisted in the policy he felt to be a
+necessity, and (23rd of Jan. 1581) a treaty was concluded
+with the duke, by which he, under certain
+conditions, agreed to accept the sovereignty of the <span class="correction" title="amended from Netherland">Netherlands</span>
+provinces, except Holland and Zeeland. These two provinces
+were unwilling to have any sovereign but William
+himself, and after considerable hesitation he agreed
+to become their Count (24th of July 1581). He felt
+that he was justified in taking this step because of the
+Ban which Philip had published on the 15th of March
+1581, in which Orange had been proclaimed a traitor and
+miscreant, and a reward offered to any one who would take his
+life. His practical answer to the king was the act
+of Abjuration, by which at his persuasion the representatives
+of the provinces of Brabant, Flanders,
+Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland and Utrecht, assembled
+at the Hague, declared that Philip had forfeited his sovereignty
+over them, and that they held themselves henceforth absolved
+from their allegiance to him. In a written defence,
+the famous <i>Apology</i>, published later in the year, William
+replied at great length to the charges that had been
+brought against him, and carrying the war into the enemy&rsquo;s
+camp, endeavoured to prove that the course he had pursued
+was justified by the crimes and tyranny of the king.</p>
+
+<p>The duke of Anjou was solemnly inaugurated as duke of
+Brabant (February 1582), and shortly afterwards as duke of
+Gelderland, count of Flanders and lord of Friesland.
+<span class="sidenote">Attempt on the Life of Orange by Jean Jaureguy.</span>
+William had taken up his residence at Antwerp in
+order to give the French prince his strongest personal
+support, and while there a serious attempt was made
+upon his life (March 18th) by a youth named Jean
+Jaureguy. He fired a pistol at the prince close to his
+head, and the ball passed under the right ear and out at the left
+jaw. It was a terrible wound, but fortunately not fatal. Meanwhile
+Anjou soon grew tired of his dependent position and of
+the limitations placed upon his sovereignty. He resolved by
+a secret and sudden attack (17th of January 1583) to make
+himself master of Antwerp and of the person of Orange.
+<span class="sidenote">The French Fury.</span>
+The assault was made, but it proved an utter failure.
+The citizens resisted stoutly behind barricades, and
+the French were routed with heavy loss. The &ldquo;French
+Fury&rdquo; as it was called, rendered the position of Anjou in the
+Netherlands impossible, and made William himself unpopular
+in Brabant. He accordingly withdrew to Delft. In the midst
+of his faithful Hollanders he felt that he could still organize
+resistance, and stem the progress made by Spanish arms and
+Spanish influence under the able leadership of Alexander of
+Parma. Antwerp, with St Aldegonde as its burgomaster, was
+still in the hands of the patriots and barred the way to the sea,
+and covered Zeeland from invasion. Never for one moment did
+William lose heart or relax his efforts and vigilance; he felt that
+with the two maritime provinces secure the national cause need
+not be despaired of. But his own days had now drawn to their
+end. The failure of Jaureguy did not deter a young Catholic
+zealot, by name Balthazar Gérard, from attempting to assassinate
+the man whom he looked upon as the arch-enemy of
+God and the king. Under the pretext of seeking a passport,
+<span class="sidenote">Assassination of William the Silent.</span>
+Gérard penetrated into the Prinsenhof at Delft, and
+firing point blank at William as he left the dining
+hall, mortally wounded him (10th of July 1584).
+Amidst general lamentations &ldquo;the Father of his
+Country,&rdquo; as he was called, was buried with great state in the
+Nieuwe Kerk at Delft at the public charge.</p>
+
+<p>But though the great leader was dead, he had not striven or
+worked in vain. The situation was critical, but there was no
+panic. Throughout the revolted provinces there was a general
+determination to continue the struggle to the bitter end. To
+make head, however, against the victorious advance of Parma,
+before whose arms all the chief towns of Brabant and Flanders,
+Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and lastly&mdash;after a valiant defence&mdash;Antwerp
+itself had fallen, it was necessary to look for the protection
+of a foreign ruler. The government, now that the commanding
+personal influence of William was no more, was without
+any central authority which could claim obedience. The States-General
+were but the delegates of a number of sovereign provinces,
+<span class="sidenote">Maurice of Nassau.</span>
+and amongst these Holland by its size and wealth (after
+the occupation by the Spaniards of Brabant and
+Flanders) was predominant. Maurice of Nassau,
+William&rsquo;s second son, had indeed on his father&rsquo;s death
+been appointed captain and admiral-general of the
+Union, president of the Council of State, and stadholder of
+Holland and Zeeland, but he was as yet too young, only seventeen,
+to take a leading part in affairs. Count Hohenloo took the
+command of the troops with the title of lieutenant-general. Two
+devoted adherents of William of Orange, Paul Buys, advocate
+<span class="sidenote">The Sovereignty offered to Henry III. and declined.</span>
+of Holland, and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, pensionary
+of Rotterdam, were the statesmen who at this difficult
+juncture took the foremost part in directing the policy
+of the confederacy. They turned first to France.
+The sovereignty of the provinces was offered to Henry
+III., but the king, harassed by civil discords in his
+own country, declined the dangerous honour (1585). Repelled
+in this direction, the States-General next turned themselves to
+England. Elizabeth was alarmed by the successes of the Spanish
+arms, and especially by the fall of Antwerp; and, though refusing
+the sovereignty, she agreed to send a force of 5000 foot and
+1000 horse to the aid of the Provinces under the command
+of the earl of Leicester, her expenses being
+<span class="sidenote">Leicester Governor-general.</span>
+guaranteed by the handing over to her the towns
+of Flushing, Brill and Rammekens as pledges (10th
+of August 1585). Leicester, on landing in Holland, was in the
+presence of the States-General and of Maurice of Nassau invested
+with the title of governor-general and practically sovereign
+powers (February 1586).</p>
+
+<p>The new governor had great difficulties to contend with. He
+knew nothing of the language or the character of the people he
+was called upon to govern; his own abilities both as
+general and statesman were mediocre; and he was
+<span class="sidenote">Failure and withdrawal of Leicester.</span>
+hampered constantly in his efforts by the niggardliness
+and changing whims of his royal mistress. In trying
+to consolidate the forces of the Provinces for united action and
+to centralize its government, he undoubtedly did his best,
+according to his lights, for the national cause. But he was too
+hasty and overbearing. His edict prohibiting all commercial
+intercourse with the enemy at once aroused against him the
+bitter hostility of the merchants of Holland and Zeeland, who
+thrived by such traffic. His attempts to pack the council of
+State, on which already two Englishmen had seats, with personal
+adherents and to override the opposition of the provincial
+states of Holland to his arbitrary acts, at last made his position
+impossible. The traitorous surrender of Deventer and Zutphen
+by their English governors, Stanley and York, both Catholics,
+rendered all Englishmen suspect. The States of Holland under
+the leadership of Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, took up an attitude
+of resolute hostility to him, and the States of Holland dominated
+the States-General. In the midst of these divided councils the
+important seaport of Sluis was taken by Parma. Utterly discredited,
+Leicester (6th of August 1587) abandoned the task,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span>
+in which he had met with nothing but failure, and returned
+to England.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could have been worse than the position of the States
+at the beginning of 1588. Had Parma had a free hand, in all
+probability he would have crushed out the revolt
+and reconquered the northern Netherlands. But the
+<span class="sidenote">Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.</span>
+attention of the Spanish king was at this time concentrated
+upon the success of the Invincible Armada.
+The army of Parma was held in readiness for the invasion of
+England, and the United Provinces had a respite. They were
+fortunately able to avail themselves of it. The commanding
+abilities of Oldenbarneveldt, now advocate of Holland, gradually
+gathered into his hands the entire administration of the Republic.
+He became indispensable and, as his influence grew, more and
+more did the policy of the provinces acquire unity and consistency
+of purpose. At the same time Maurice of
+<span class="sidenote">Maurice of Nassau.</span>
+Nassau, now grown to man&rsquo;s estate, began to display
+those military talents which were to gain for him the
+fame of being the first general of his time. But
+Maurice was no politician. He had implicit trust in the
+advocate, his father&rsquo;s faithful friend and counsellor, and for
+many years to come the statesman and the soldier worked in
+harmony together for the best interests of their country (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oldenbarneveldt</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maurice</a></span>, prince of Orange). At the
+side of Maurice, as a wise adviser, stood his cousin William Louis,
+stadholder of Friesland, a trained soldier and good commander
+in the field.</p>
+
+<p>After the destruction of the Armada, Parma had been occupied
+with campaigns on the southern frontier against the French,
+and the Netherlanders had been content to stand on
+guard against attack. The surprise of Breda by a
+<span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1591.</span>
+stratagem (8th of March 1590) was the only military
+event of importance up to 1591. But the two stadholders had
+not wasted the time. The States&rsquo; forces had been reorganized
+and brought to a high state of military discipline and training.
+In 1591 the States-General, after considerable hesitation, were
+persuaded by Maurice to sanction an offensive campaign. It
+was attended by marvellous success. Zutphen was captured
+on the 20th of May, Deventer on the 20th of June. Parma,
+who was besieging the fort of Knodsenburg, was forced to retire
+with loss. Hulst fell after a three days&rsquo; investment, and finally
+Nymegen was taken on the 21st of October. The fame of
+Maurice, a consummate general at the early age of twenty-four,
+was on all men&rsquo;s lips. The following campaign was signalized
+<span class="sidenote">Death of Parma.<br />
+New province of Stadt en Landen.</span>
+by the capture of Steenwyk and Koevorden. On the
+8th of December 1592 Parma died, and the States
+were delivered from their most redoubtable adversary.
+In 1593 the leaguer of Geertruidenburg put the seal on Maurice&rsquo;s
+reputation as an invincible besieger. The town fell after an
+investment of three months. Groningen was the
+chief fruit of the campaign of 1594. With its dependent
+district it was formed into a new province under the
+name of Stadt en Landen. William Louis became
+the stadholder (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Groningen</a></span>). The soil of the northern
+Netherlands was at last practically free from the presence of
+Spanish garrisons.</p>
+
+<p>The growing importance of the new state was signalized by
+the conclusion, in 1596, of a triple alliance between England,
+France and the United Provinces. It was of short
+duration and purchased by hard conditions, but it
+<span class="sidenote">Triple Alliance of France, England and the United Provinces.</span>
+implied the recognition by Henry IV. and Elizabeth
+of the States-General, as a sovereign power, with
+whom treaties could be concluded. Such a recognition
+was justified by the brilliant successes of the campaign
+of 1597. It began with the complete rout of a Spanish
+force of 4500 men at Turnhout in January, with scarcely any
+loss to the victors. Then in a succession of sieges Rheinberg,
+Meurs, Groenlo, Bredevoort, Enschedé, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal
+and Lingen fell into the hands of Maurice.</p>
+
+<p>The relations of the Netherlands to Spain were in 1598 completely
+changed. Philip II. feeling death approaching, resolved
+to marry his elder daughter, the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia,
+to her cousin, the Cardinal Archduke Albert of Austria, who
+<span class="sidenote">Albert and Isabel, Sovereigns of the Netherlands.</span>
+had been governor-general of the Netherlands since 1596,
+and to erect the Provinces into an independent sovereignty
+under their joint rule. The instrument was
+executed in May; Philip died in September; the
+marriage took place in November. In case the marriage
+should have no issue, the sovereignty of the
+Netherlands was to revert to the king of Spain. The
+archdukes (such was their official title) did not make their
+<i>joyeuse entrée</i> into Brussels until the close of 1599. The step
+was taken too late to effect a reconciliation with the rebel
+provinces. Peace overtures were made, but the conditions
+were unacceptable. The States-General never seriously considered
+the question of giving in their submission to the new
+sovereigns. The traders of Holland and Zeeland had thriven
+mightily by the war. Their ships had penetrated to the East
+and West Indies, and were to be found in every sea. The year
+1600 saw the foundation of the Chartered East India Company
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch East India Company</a></span>). The question of freedom
+of trade with the Indies had become no less vital to the Dutch
+people than freedom of religious worship. To both these concessions
+Spanish policy was irreconcilably opposed.</p>
+
+<p>Dunkirk, as a nest of freebooters who preyed upon Dutch
+commerce, was made the objective of a daring offensive campaign
+in 1600 by the orders of the States-General under the
+influence of Oldenbarneveldt in the teeth of the opposition
+<span class="sidenote">The Battle of Nieuport.</span>
+of the stadholders Maurice and William Louis.
+By a bold march across Flanders, Maurice reached
+Nieuport on the 1st of July, and proceeded to invest it. The
+archduke Albert, however, followed hard on his steps with an
+army of seasoned troops, and Maurice, with his communications
+cut, was forced to fight for his existence. A desperate combat
+took place on the dunes between forces of equal strength and
+valour. Only by calling up his last reserves did victory declare
+for Maurice. The archduke had to fly for his life. Five thousand
+Spaniards were killed; seven hundred taken, and one hundred
+and five standards. To have thus worsted the dreaded Spanish
+infantry in open fight was a great triumph for the States troops
+and their general, but it was barren of results. Maurice refused
+to run further risks and led back his army to Holland. For the
+following three years all the energies alike of the archdukes and
+<span class="sidenote">Siege of Ostend.</span>
+the States-General were concentrated on the siege
+of Ostend (15th of July 1601-20th of Sept. 1604), the
+solitary possession of the Dutch in Flanders. The
+heroic obstinacy of the defence was equalled by the perseverance
+of the attack, and there was a vast expenditure, especially on
+the side of the Spaniards, of blood and treasure. At last when
+reduced to a heap of ruins, Ostend fell before the resolution of
+Ambrosio de Spinola, a Genoese banker, to whom the command
+of the besiegers had been entrusted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spinola</a></span>). A month
+before the surrender, however, another and more commodious
+seaport, Sluis, had fallen into the possession of the States army
+under Maurice, and thus the loss of Ostend was discounted.</p>
+
+<p>Spinola proved himself to be a general of a high order, and the
+campaigns of 1606 and 1607 resolved themselves into a duel
+of skill between him and Maurice without much advantage
+accruing to either side. But the archdukes&rsquo;
+<span class="sidenote">Negotiations for Peace.</span>
+treasury was now empty, and their credit exhausted;
+both sides were weary of fighting, and serious negotiations
+for peace were set on foot. The disposition of the Spaniards
+to make concessions was further quickened by the destruction
+of their fleet at Gibraltar by the Dutch admiral Heemskerk,
+(April 1607). But there were many difficulties in the way.
+The peace party in the United Provinces headed by Oldenbarneveldt
+was opposed by the stadholders Maurice and William
+Louis, the great majority of the military and naval officers,
+the Calvinist preachers and many leading merchants. The
+Spaniards on their side were obdurate on the subjects of freedom
+of trade in the Indies and of freedom of religious worship. At
+last, after the negotiations had been repeatedly on the point of
+breaking off, a compromise was effected by the mediation of
+the envoys of France and England. On the 9th of April 1609
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span>
+a truce for twelve years was agreed upon. On all points the
+Dutch demands were granted. The treaty was concluded with
+<span class="sidenote">The Twelve Years&rsquo; Truce.</span>
+the Provinces, &ldquo;in the quality of free States over
+whom the archdukes made no pretentions.&rdquo; The <i>uti
+possidetis</i> as regards territorial possession was recognized.
+Neither the granting of freedom of worship
+to Roman Catholics nor the word &ldquo;Indies&rdquo; was mentioned,
+but in a secret treaty King Philip undertook to place no hindrance
+in the way of Dutch trade, wherever carried on.</p>
+
+<p>One of the immediate results of this triumph of his policy was
+the increase of Oldenbarneveldt&rsquo;s influence and authority in the
+government of the Republic. But though Maurice
+and his other opponents had reluctantly yielded to
+<span class="sidenote">Theological strife in Holland.</span>
+the advocate&rsquo;s skilful diplomacy and persuasive
+arguments, a soreness remained between the statesman
+and the stadholder which was destined never to be healed. The
+country was no sooner relieved from the pressure of external
+war than it was torn by internal discords. After a brief interference
+in the affairs of Germany, where the intricate question
+of the Cleves-Jülich succession was already preparing the way
+for the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, the United Provinces became immersed
+in a hot and absorbing theological struggle with which were
+<span class="sidenote">Arminius and Gomarus.</span>
+mixed up important political issues. The province
+of Holland was the arena in which it was fought out.
+Two professors of theology at Leiden, Jacobus Arminius
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arminius</a></span>) and Franciscus Gomarus, became the
+leaders of two parties, who differed from one another upon
+certain tenets of the abstruse doctrine of predestination.
+Gomarus supported the orthodox Calvinist view; Arminius
+assailed it. The Arminians appealed to the States of Holland
+(1610) in a Remonstrance in which their theological position
+was defined. They were henceforth known as &ldquo;Remonstrants&rdquo;;
+<span class="sidenote">Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.</span>
+their opponents were styled &ldquo;Contra-Remonstrants.&rdquo;
+The advocate and the States of
+Holland took sides with the Remonstrants, Maurice
+and the majority of the States-General (four provinces
+out of seven) supported the Contra-Remonstrants. It became
+a question of the extent of the rights of sovereign princes under
+the Union. The States-General wished to summon a national
+synod, the States of Holland refused their assent, and made
+levies of local militia (<i>waard-gelders</i>) for the maintenance of order.
+The States-General (9th of July 1618) took up the challenge,
+and the prince of Orange, as captain-general, was placed at the
+head of a commission to go in the first place to Utrecht, which
+supported Oldenbarneveldt, and then to the various cities of
+<span class="sidenote">Waard-gelders.</span>
+Holland to insist on the disbanding of the <i>waard-gelders</i>.
+On the side of Maurice, whom the army
+obeyed, was the power of the sword. The opposition
+collapsed; the recalcitrant provincial states were purged; and
+the leaders of the party of state rights&mdash;the advocate himself,
+Hugo de Groot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grotius</a></span>), pensionary of Rotterdam, and
+Hoogerbeets, pensionary of Leiden, were arrested and thrown
+into prison. The whole proceedings were illegal, and the illegality
+was consummated by the prisoners being brought before a
+<span class="sidenote">Oldenbarneveldt executed.</span>
+special tribunal of 24 judges, nearly all of whom were
+personal enemies of the accused. The trial was
+merely a preliminary to condemnation. The advocate
+was sentenced to death, and executed (13th of May
+1619) in the Binnenhof at the Hague. The sentences of Grotius
+and Hoogerbeets were commuted to perpetual imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the National Synod had been summoned and had
+met at Dort on the 13th of November 1618. One hundred
+members, many of them foreign divines, composed
+<span class="sidenote">Synod of Dort.</span>
+this great assembly, who after 154 sittings gave their
+seal to the doctrines of the Netherlands Confession and
+the Heidelberg Catechism. The Arminians were condemned,
+their preachers deprived, and the Remonstrant party placed
+under a ban (6th of May 1619).</p>
+
+<p>In 1621 the Twelve Years&rsquo; Truce came to an end, and war
+broke out once more with Spain. Maurice, after the death of
+Oldenbarneveldt, was supreme in the land, but he missed
+sorely the wise counsels of the old statesman whose tragic end
+<span class="sidenote">Renewal of the war.<br />
+Death of Maurice.</span>
+he had been so largely instrumental in bringing about. He
+and Spinola found themselves once more at the head
+of the armies in the field, but the health of the stadholder
+was undermined, and his military genius was
+under a cloud. Deeply mortified by his failure to relieve Breda,
+which was blockaded by Spinola, Maurice fell seriously
+ill, and died on the 23rd of April 1625. He was
+succeeded in his dignities by his younger brother
+Frederick Henry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick Henry</a></span>, prince of Orange),
+who was appointed stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht,
+Overyssel and Gelderland, captain and adjutant-general of the
+Union and head of the Council of State. Frederick Henry was as
+a general scarcely inferior to Maurice, and a far more able statesman.
+The moderation of his views and his conciliatory temper
+did much to heal the wounds left by civil and religious strife,
+and during his time the power and influence of the stadholderate
+<span class="sidenote">The period of Frederick Henry.</span>
+attained their highest point. Such was his popularity
+and the confidence he inspired that in 1631 his great
+offices of state were declared hereditary, in favour of
+his five-year-old son, by the <i>Acte de Survivance</i>. He
+did much to justify the trust placed in him, for the period of
+Frederick Henry is the most brilliant in the history of the Dutch
+Republic. During his time the East India Company, which had
+founded the town of Batavia in Java as their administrative
+<span class="sidenote">The East and West India Companies.</span>
+capital, under a succession of able governor-generals
+almost monopolized the trade of the entire
+Orient, made many conquests and established a network
+of factories and trade posts stretching from the Cape of
+Good Hope to Japan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch East India Company</a></span>). The
+West India Company, erected in 1621, though framed on the
+same model, aimed rather at waging war on the enemies&rsquo; commerce
+than in developing their own. Their fleets for some years
+brought vast booty into the company&rsquo;s coffers. The Mexican
+treasure ships fell into the hands of Piet Heyn, the boldest of
+their admirals, in 1628; and they were able to send armies
+across the ocean, conquer a large part of Brazil, and set up a
+flourishing Dutch dominion in South America (see Dutch West
+India Company). The operations of these two great chartered
+companies occupy a place among memorable events of Frederick
+Henry&rsquo;s stadholderate; they are therefore mentioned here, but
+for further details the special articles must be consulted.</p>
+
+<p>When Frederick Henry stepped into his brother&rsquo;s place, he
+found the United Provinces in a position of great danger and of
+critical importance. The Protestants of Germany
+were on the point of being crushed by the forces of the
+<span class="sidenote">Policy of Frederick Henry.</span>
+Austrian Habsburgs and the Catholic League. It lay
+with the Netherlands to create a diversion in the favour
+of their co-religionists by keeping the forces of the Spanish
+Habsburgs fully occupied. But to do so with their flank exposed
+to imperialist attack from the east, was a task involving grave
+risks and possible disaster. In these circumstances, Frederick
+Henry saw the necessity of securing French aid. It was secured
+by the skilful diplomacy of Francis van Aarssens (q.v.) but
+on hard conditions. Richelieu required the assistance of the
+Dutch fleet to enable him to overcome the resistance of the
+Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle. The far-sighted stadholder,
+despite popular opposition, by his powerful personal influence
+induced the States-General to grant the naval aid, and thus
+obtain the French alliance on which the safety of the republic
+depended.</p>
+
+<p>The first great military success of Frederick Henry was in
+1629. His capture of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-duc), hitherto
+supposed to be impregnable, after a siege of five
+months was a triumph of engineering skill. Wesel
+<span class="sidenote">Sieges of Hertogenbosch and Maestricht.</span>
+also was taken by surprise this same year. In 1631 a
+large Spanish fleet carrying a picked force of 6000
+soldiers, for the invasion of Zeeland, was completely
+destroyed by the Dutch in the Slaak and the troops made
+prisoners. The campaign of the following year was made
+memorable by the siege of Maestricht. This important frontier
+town lying on both sides of the river Meuse was taken by the
+prince of Orange in the teeth of two relieving armies, Spanish
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span>
+and Imperialist, whose united forces were far larger than his own.
+This brilliant feat of arms was the prelude to peace negotiations,
+<span class="sidenote">Death of the Infanta Isabel.</span>
+which led to a lengthy exchange of diplomatic notes.
+No agreement, however, was reached. The death of
+the Infanta Isabel in November 1633, and the reversion
+of the Netherlands to the sovereignty of the king
+of Spain, rendered all efforts to end the war, for the time being,
+fruitless.</p>
+
+<p>At this juncture a strengthening of the French alliance seemed
+to the prince not merely expedient, but necessary. He had
+to contend against a strong peace party in Holland
+headed by the pensionary Pauw, but with the aid of
+<span class="sidenote">Alliance with France.</span>
+the diplomatic skill of Aarssens all opposition was
+overcome. Pauw was replaced as pensionary by
+Jacob Cats, and the objections of Richelieu were met and
+satisfied. A defensive and offensive alliance with France was
+concluded early in 1635 against the king of Spain, and each
+party bound itself not to make a peace or truce without the
+assent of the other. A large French force was sent into the
+Netherlands and placed under the command of the prince of
+Orange. The military results of the alliance were during the
+first two campaigns inconsiderable. The Cardinal Infant
+Ferdinand had been appointed governor of the Netherlands,
+and he proved himself an excellent general, and there were
+dissensions in the councils of the allies. In 1637 the stadholder
+was able to add to his fame as an invincible besieger of cities.
+His failure to relieve Breda had hastened the death of Maurice.
+<span class="sidenote">Capture of Breda.</span>
+It fell in 1625 into the hands of Spinola after a blockade
+of eleven months; it was now retaken by Frederick
+Henry after a siege of eleven weeks, in the face of
+immense difficulties. The reluctance of the States of Holland,
+and of Amsterdam in particular, to grant adequate supplies
+caused the campaigns of 1638 and 1639 to be in the main defensive
+and dilatory. An attempted attack on Antwerp was foiled
+by the vigilance of the Cardinal Infant. A body of 6000 men
+under Count William of Nassau were surprised and utterly
+cut to pieces. The year 1639, which had begun with abortive
+negotiations, and in which the activity of the stadholder had
+been much hampered by ill-health, was not to end, however,
+without a signal triumph of the Dutch arms, but it was to be
+on sea and not on land. A magnificent Spanish armada consisting
+of 77 vessels, manned by 24,000 soldiers and sailors under the
+command of Admiral Oquendo, were sent to the Channel in
+September with orders to drive the Dutch from the narrow
+seas and land a large body of troops at Dunkirk. Attacked by
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of the Downs.</span>
+a small Dutch fleet under Admiral Marten Tromp,
+the Spaniards sheltered themselves under the English
+Downs by the side of an English squadron. Tromp
+kept watch over them until he had received large
+reinforcements, and then (21st of October) boldly attacked them
+as they lay in English waters. Oquendo himself with seven
+vessels escaped under cover of a fog; all the rest of the fleet
+was destroyed. This crushing victory assured to the Dutch
+the command of the sea during the rest of the war. The naval
+power of Spain never in fact recovered from the blow.</p>
+
+<p>The triumph of Tromp had, however, a bad effect on public
+feeling in England. The circumstances under which the battle
+of the Downs was won were galling to the pride of
+the English people, and intensified the growing
+<span class="sidenote">English and Dutch Commercial Rivalry.<br />
+Marriage of William and Mary.</span>
+unfriendliness between two nations, one of whom
+possessed and the other claimed supremacy upon
+the seas. The prosperity of the world-wide Dutch
+commerce was looked upon with eyes of jealousy across the
+Channel. Disputes had been constantly recurring between
+Dutch and English traders in the East Indies and elsewhere,
+and the seeds were already sown of that stern rivalry which was
+to issue in a series of fiercely contested wars. But in
+1639-1640 civil discords in England stood in the way
+of a strong foreign policy, and the adroit Aarssens
+was able so &ldquo;to sweeten the bitterness of the pill&rdquo;
+as to bring King Charles not merely to &ldquo;overlook the scandal
+of the Downs,&rdquo; but to consent to the marriage of the princess
+royal with William, the only son of the stadholder. The wedding
+of the youthful couple (aged respectively 14 and 10 years)
+took place on the 12th of May 1641 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William II., prince
+of Orange</a></span>). This royal alliance gave added influence and
+position to the house of Orange-Nassau.</p>
+
+<p>About this time various causes brought about a change in
+the feelings which had hitherto prevented any possibility of
+peace between Spain and the United Netherlands.
+The revolt of Portugal (December 1640) weakened
+<span class="sidenote">Changed relations of the United Provinces with France and Spain.</span>
+the Spanish power, and involved the loss to Spain of
+the Portuguese colonies. But it was in the Portuguese
+colonies that the conquests of the Dutch East and
+West India Companies had been made, and the
+question of the Indies as between Netherlander and
+Spaniard assumed henceforth quite a different complexion.
+Aarssens, the strongest advocate of the French alliance, passed
+away in 1641, and his death was quickly followed by those of
+Richelieu and Louis XIII. The victory of Condé at Rocroy
+opened the eyes of Frederick Henry to the danger of a French
+conquest of the Belgian provinces; and, feeling his health
+growing enfeebled, the prince became anxious before his death
+to obtain peace and security for his country by means of an
+accommodation with Spain. In 1643 negotiations were opened
+which, after many delays and in the face of countless difficulties,
+were at length, four years later, to terminate successfully.</p>
+
+<p>The course of the <i>pourparlers</i> would doubtless have run
+more smoothly but for the infirm health and finally the death
+of the prince of Orange himself. Frederick Henry
+expired on the 14th of March 1647, and was buried
+<span class="sidenote">Death of Frederick Henry&mdash;his last campaigns.</span>
+by the side of his father and brother in Delft. In
+his last campaigns he had completed with signal
+success the task which, as a military commander, he
+had set himself,&mdash;of giving to the United Provinces a thoroughly
+defensible frontier of barrier fortresses. In 1644 he captured
+Sas de Ghent; in 1645 Hulst. That portion of Flanders which
+skirts the south bank of the Scheldt thus passed into the possession
+of the States, and with it the complete control of all the
+waterways to the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The death of the great stadholder did not, however, long delay
+the carrying out of the policy on which he had set his heart,
+of concluding a separate peace with Spain behind the
+back of France, notwithstanding the compact of 1635
+<span class="sidenote">The Peace of Münster.</span>
+with that power. A provisional draft of a treaty had
+already been drawn up before the demise of Frederick
+Henry, and afterwards, despite the strenuous opposition of the
+new prince of Orange (who, under the <i>Acte de Survivance</i>, had
+inherited all his father&rsquo;s offices and dignities) and of two of the
+provinces, Zeeland and Utrecht, the negotiations were by the
+powerful support of the States of Holland and of the majority
+of the States-General, quickly brought to a successful issue. The
+treaty was signed at Münster on the 30th of January 1648. It
+was a peace practically dictated by the Dutch, and involved
+a complete surrender of everything for which Spain had so
+<span class="sidenote">Complete triumph of the Dutch.</span>
+long fought. The United Provinces were recognized
+as free and independent, and Spain dropped all her
+claims; the <i>uti possidetis</i> basis was adopted in respect
+to all conquests; the Scheldt was declared entirely
+closed&mdash;a clause which meant the ruin of Antwerp for the profit
+of Amsterdam; the right to trade in the East and West Indies
+was granted, and all the conquests made by the Dutch from
+the Portuguese were ceded to them; the two contracting parties
+agreed to respect and keep clear of each other&rsquo;s trading grounds;
+each was to pay in the ports of the other only such tolls as natives
+paid. Thus, triumphantly for the revolted provinces, the eighty
+years&rsquo; war came to an end. At this moment the republic of the
+United Netherlands touched, perhaps, the topmost point of its
+prosperity and greatness.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner was peace concluded than bitter disputes arose
+between the provincial States of Holland and the prince of
+Orange, supported by the other six provinces, upon the question
+of the disbanding of the military forces. William was a young
+<span class="sidenote">The form of Government in the United Provinces.</span>
+man (he was twenty-one at the time of his father&rsquo;s death) of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span>
+the highest abilities and of soaring ambition. He was totally
+opposed to the peace with Spain, and wished to bring about
+a speedy resumption of the war. With this view he
+entered into secret negotiations for a French alliance
+which, as far as can be gathered from extant records,
+had for its objects the conquest and partition by the
+allies of the Belgic provinces, and joint action in
+England on behalf of Charles II. As a preliminary
+step William aimed at a centralization of the powers of government
+in the United Provinces in his own person. He saw clearly
+the inherent defects of the existing federation, and he wished
+to remedy a system which was so complicated as to be at times
+almost unworkable. The States-General were but the delegates,
+the stadholders the servants, of a number of sovereign provinces,
+each of which had different historical traditions and a different
+form of government, and one of which&mdash;Holland&mdash;in wealth and
+importance outweighed the other six taken together. Between
+the States of Holland and the States-General there was constant
+<span class="sidenote">The position of Holland and Amsterdam.</span>
+jealousy and friction. And yet strangely enough
+the States of Holland themselves were not really
+representative of the people of that province, but only
+of the limited, self-coopting burgher aristocracies of
+certain towns, each of which with its rights and liberties
+had a quasi-independence of its own. Foremost among
+these was the great commercial capital, Amsterdam, whose rich
+burgher patriciate did not scruple on occasion to defy the
+authority of the States-General, the stadholder and even of the
+States of Holland themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The States of Holland had, in the years that followed the
+truce of 1609, measured their strength with that of the States-General,
+but the issue had been decided conclusively
+in favour of the federal authority by the sword of
+<span class="sidenote">The position in 1650.</span>
+Maurice. The party and the principles of Oldenbarneveldt,
+however, though crushed, were not extinguished,
+and though Frederick Henry by his personal influence
+and prudent statesmanship had been able to surmount the
+difficulties placed in his way, he had had to encounter at times
+strong opposition, and had been much hampered in the conduct
+both of his campaigns and of his policy. With the conclusion
+of the peace of Münster and the death of the veteran stadholder
+the struggle for predominance in the Union between the Orange-federalist
+and the Hollander States-rights parties was certain
+to be renewed. The moment seemed to be favourable for the
+assertion of provincial sovereignty because of the youth and
+inexperience of the new prince of Orange. But William II.,
+though little more than a boy, was endowed with singular
+capacity and great strength of will, and he was intent upon
+ambitious projects, the scope of which has been already indicated.
+The collision came, which was perhaps inevitable. The States-General
+<span class="sidenote">The question of disbanding the forces.</span>
+in the disbanding of the forces wished to
+retain the <i>cadres</i> of the regiments complete in case of a
+renewal of the war. The States of Holland objected,
+and, although the army was a federal force, gave orders
+for the general disbanding of the troops in the pay of
+the province. The officers refused to obey any orders but those
+of the council of State of the Union. The provincial states, on
+their part, threatened them with loss of pay. At this juncture
+the States-General, as in 1618, appointed a commission headed
+by the prince of Orange to visit the towns of Holland, and
+provide for the maintenance of order and the upholding of the
+Union. Both parties put themselves in the wrong, the province
+by refusing its quota to the federal war-sheet, the generality
+by dealing with individual towns instead of with the states of
+the province. The visitation was a failure. The town councils,
+though most of them willing to receive William in his capacity
+as stadholder, declined to give a hearing to the commission.
+<span class="sidenote">The Prisoners of Loevenstein.</span>
+Amsterdam refused absolutely to admit either stadholder
+or commission. In these circumstances William
+resolved upon strong measures. Six leading members
+of the States of Holland were seized (30th of
+July 1650) and imprisoned in Loevenstein Castle, and troops
+under the command of William Frederick, stadholder of Friesland,
+were sent to surprise Amsterdam. But the town council
+had been warned, and the gates were shut and guarded. The
+<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> nevertheless was completely successful. The anti-Orange
+party, remembering the fate of Oldenbarneveldt, were
+stricken with panic at the imprisonment of their leaders. The
+States of Holland and the town council of Amsterdam gave in
+their submission. The prisoners were released, and public thanks
+were rendered to the prince by the various provincial states for
+&ldquo;his great trouble, care and prudence.&rdquo; William appeared to
+be master of the situation but his plans for future action were
+<span class="sidenote">Sudden Death of William II.</span>
+never to be carried into effect. Busily engaged in
+secret negotiations with France, he had retired to his
+hunting seat at Dieren, when he fell ill with smallpox
+on the 27th of October. A few days later he expired
+at the Hague (6th of November), aged but twenty-four years.
+A week after his death, his widow, the princess Mary of England,
+gave birth to a son who, as William III., was to give added lustre
+to the house of Orange.</p>
+
+<p>The anti-Orange particularist party, which had just suffered
+decisive defeat, now lifted up its head again. At the instance of
+Holland a Grand Assembly was summoned, consisting
+of delegates from all the provinces, to consider the
+<span class="sidenote">The Grand Assembly.</span>
+state of the Union, the army and religion. It met at
+the Hague on the 18th of January 1651. The conclusions
+arrived at were that all sovereign powers resided in the
+provinces, and that to them severally, each within its own
+borders, belonged the control of the military forces and of
+religion. There was to be no captain-general of the Union. All
+the provinces, except Friesland and Groningen, which remained
+true to William Frederick of Nassau-Dietz, agreed to leave the
+office of stadholder vacant. The practical result was the establishment
+of the hegemony of Holland in the Union, and the
+handing over of the control of its policy to the patrician oligarchies
+who formed the town councils of that province.</p>
+
+<p>Such a system would have been unworkable but for the fact
+that with the revival of the political principles of Oldenbarneveldt,
+there was found a statesman of commanding
+ability to fill the office in which the famous advocate
+<span class="sidenote">The office of Grand Pensionary.</span>
+of Holland had for so many years been &ldquo;minister of
+all affairs&rdquo; in the forming state. The title of advocate
+had indeed been replaced by that of grand pensionary (<i>Raad
+Pensionaris</i>), but the duties assigned to the office remained the
+same, the only change of importance being that the advocate
+was appointed for life, the grand pensionary for a term of five
+years. The grand pensionary was nominally the paid servant
+of the States of Holland, but his functions were such as to permit
+a man of talent and industry in the stadholderless republic to
+exercise control in all departments of policy and of government.
+All correspondence passed through his hands, he wrote all
+despatches, conducted the debates over which he presided, kept
+the minutes, drafted the resolutions, and was <i>ex officio</i> the
+leader and spokesman of the delegates who represented the
+Province of Holland in the States-General. Such was the
+<span class="sidenote">John de Witt.</span>
+position to which John de Witt, a young man of
+twenty-eight years of age, belonging to one of the
+most influential patrician families of Dordrecht (his
+father, Jacob de Witt, was one of the prisoners of Loevenstein)
+was appointed in 1653. From that date until 1672 it was his
+brain and his will that guided the affairs of the United Netherlands.
+He was supreme in the States of Holland, and Holland
+was dominant in the States-General (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John de Witt</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The death of William II. had left the Dutch republic at the
+very highest point of commercial prosperity, based upon an
+almost universal carrying trade, and the strictest
+system of monopoly. Friction and disputes had
+<span class="sidenote">Disputes between English and Dutch Traders.</span>
+frequently arisen between the Dutch and the English
+traders in different parts of the world, and especially
+in the East Indies, culminating in the so-called
+&ldquo;Massacre of Amboyna&rdquo;; and the strained relations between
+the two nations would, but for the civil discords in England,
+have probably led to active hostilities during the reign of
+Charles I. With the accession of Cromwell to power the breach
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span>
+was widened. A strong party in the Provinces were unfriendly
+to the Commonwealth, and insults were offered in the Hague
+to the English envoys. The parliament replied by passing the
+memorable Navigation Act (Oct. 1651), which struck a deadly
+blow at the Dutch carrying trade. It was the beginning of that
+struggle for supremacy upon the seas which was to end, after
+<span class="sidenote">Naval struggle with England.</span>
+three great wars, in the defeat of the weaker country.
+The first English war lasted from May 1652 to April
+1654, and within fifteen months twelve sea-fights took
+place, which were desperately contested and with
+varying success. The leaders on both sides&mdash;the Netherlanders
+Tromp (killed in action on the 10th of August 1653) and de
+Ruyter, the Englishmen Blake and Monk&mdash;covered themselves
+with equal glory. But the losses to Dutch trade were so serious
+that negotiations for peace were set on foot by the burgher party
+of Holland, and Cromwell being not unwilling, an agreement
+<span class="sidenote">Peace of Westminster.</span>
+was reached in the Treaty of Westminster, signed on
+the 5th of April 1654. The Dutch conceded the
+striking of the flag and compensation for English
+claims against the Dutch in the East Indies and elsewhere.
+The act of Seclusion, which barred the young prince of
+Orange from holding the office of stadholder and of captain-general,
+had been one of the conditions on which Cromwell had
+insisted. The consent of the States-General was refused, but by
+a secret treaty Holland, under the influence of de
+<span class="sidenote">Act of Seclusion.</span>
+Witt, accepted it in their own name as a sovereign
+province. The popular feeling throughout the United
+Provinces was strongly antagonistic to the act of Seclusion,
+by which at the dictation of a foreign power a ban of exclusion
+was pronounced against the house of Orange-Nassau, to which
+the republic owed its independence.</p>
+
+<p>In 1658, the States-General interfered to save the Danes from
+Charles Gustavus of Sweden. In 1659 a treaty of peace was
+concluded between France, England and the United
+Provinces with a view to the settlement of the Dano-Swedish
+<span class="sidenote">War with Sweden.</span>
+question, which ended in securing a northern
+peace in 1660, and in keeping the Baltic open for Dutch trade.
+The foreign affairs of the republic were throughout these years
+ably conducted by de Witt, and the position of Dutch colonial
+expansion in the Eastern seas made secure and firm. An
+advantageous peace with Portugal was made in 1662.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Commonwealth in England had been followed
+in 1660 by the restoration of the monarchy. To conciliate the
+new king the act of Seclusion was repealed, and the
+education of the young prince of Orange was undertaken
+<span class="sidenote">Second English war.</span>
+by the States of Holland under the superintendence
+of de Witt. But Charles owed a grudge
+against Holland, and he was determined to gratify it. The
+Navigation Act was re-enacted, old grievances revived, and
+finally the Dutch colony of New Netherland was seized in time
+of peace (1664) and its capital, New Amsterdam, renamed New
+York. War broke out in 1665, and was marked by a series of
+terrific battles. On the 13th of June 1665 the Dutch admiral
+Obdam was completely defeated by the English under the
+duke of York. The four days&rsquo; fight (11th-14th of June 1666)
+ended in a hard-won victory by de Ruyter over Monk, but later
+in this year (August 3rd) de Ruyter was beaten by Ayscue
+and forced to take refuge in the Dutch harbours. He had his
+revenge, for on the 22nd of June 1667 the Dutch fleet under
+de Ruyter and Cornelius de Witt made their way up the Medway
+as far as Chatham and burnt the English fleet as it lay at anchor.
+Negotiations between the two countries were already in progress
+<span class="sidenote">Peace of Breda.<br />
+The Triple Alliance.</span>
+and this event hastened a settlement. The peace of
+Breda was signed (31st of July 1667) on terms on
+the whole favourable to the Dutch. New Netherland
+was retained by England in exchange for Suriname. In the
+following year by the efforts of Sir William Temple the much
+vaunted Triple Alliance was concluded between Great
+Britain, the United Provinces and Sweden to check
+the ambitious designs of Louis XIV. The instability
+of Charles II., who sold himself to Louis by the treaty
+of Dover (1670), speedily rendered it of no effect, and left the
+United Provinces to face unaided the vengeance of the French
+king.</p>
+
+<p>From 1668 to 1672 Louis made ready to destroy the Dutch,
+and so well had his diplomacy served him that they were left without
+a friend in Europe. In 1672 the storm broke: the
+English without a declaration of war tried, unsuccessfully,
+<span class="sidenote">The French invasion.</span>
+to intercept the Dutch Mediterranean fleet;
+and the French at the same time set forth in apparently
+irresistible strength to overcome the despised traders of Holland.
+The States were ill-prepared on land though their fleet was
+strong and ready; party spirit had become intensely bitter as
+the prince of Orange (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span>) grew to man&rsquo;s estate,
+and the ruling burgher party, knowing how great was the
+popularity of William, especially in the army, had purposely
+neglected their land forces. Town after town fell before the
+French armies, and to de Witt and his supporters there seemed
+to be nothing left but to make submission and accept the best
+terms that Louis XIV. would grant. The young prince alone
+rose to the height of the occasion, and set his face against such
+<span class="sidenote">William III. Stadholder and Captain-general.<br />
+The third English war.<br />
+Murder of the Brothers de Witt.</span>
+cowardly counsels, and he had the enthusiastic support
+of the great majority of the people. Amidst general
+acclamation William was elected stadholder, first of
+Zeeland, then of Holland, and was appointed captain-general
+of the Union (June 1672). Meanwhile the
+fleet under de Ruyter had encountered a combined English
+and French force in Solebay (7th of June), and after a
+desperate fight, in which the French had but slackly supported
+their allies, had more then held its own. William,
+in his turn, with an army wholly insufficient to meet
+the French in the open field, was able to persuade
+his countrymen to open the dikes and by flooding
+the land to prevent its occupation by the enemy. The courage
+and resourcefulness of their youthful leader inspired
+the people to make heroic sacrifices for their independence,
+but unfortunately such was the revulsion of
+feeling against the grand pensionary, that he himself
+and his brother Cornelius were torn in pieces by an infuriated
+mob at the Hague (20th of August).</p>
+
+<p>William, now supreme in the States, while on land struggling
+with chequered success against the superior forces of the
+French, strove by his diplomacy, and not in vain, to
+gain allies for the republic. The growing power of
+<span class="sidenote">Peace of Westminster.</span>
+France caused alarm to her neighbours, and Sweden,
+Denmark, Spain and the emperor lent a willing ear
+to the persuasions of the stadholder and were ready to aid his
+efforts to curb the ambition of Louis. On sea in 1673 de Ruyter,
+in a series of fiercely contested battles, successfully maintained
+his strenuous and dogged conflict against the united English
+and French fleets. In England the war was exceedingly unpopular,
+and public opinion forced Charles II. to conclude peace.
+The treaty of Westminster, which provided that all conquests
+should be restored, was signed on the 14th of February 1674.
+The French now found themselves threatened on many sides,
+<span class="sidenote">The war with France.<br />
+Death of de Ruyter.<br />
+Peace of Nymwegen.</span>
+and were reduced to the defensive. The prince, however,
+suffered a defeat at Seneff, and was in 1674
+prevented from invading France. The war, nevertheless,
+during the following years was on the whole
+advantageous to the Dutch. In 1676 a Dutch squadron fought
+two hard but indecisive battles with a superior French force,
+off Stromboli (8th of January) and off Messina (22nd of April).
+In the last-named fight Admiral de Ruyter was badly
+wounded and died (29th of April). In 1677 negotiations
+for peace went on, and were forwarded by the
+marriage, at the close of the year, of William of Orange with
+his cousin the princess Mary, daughter of the duke of York.
+At last (August 1678) a peace was concluded at Nymwegen
+by which the Dutch secured the integrity
+and independence of their country. All the conquests
+made by the French were given up.</p>
+
+<p>The aggressive policy of Louis XIV. in the years that followed
+the peace of Nymwegen enabled William to lay the foundations
+of the famous confederacy which changed the whole aspect
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span>
+of European politics. The league of Augsburg (1686), which
+<span class="sidenote">League of Augsburg.</span>
+followed the revocation of the edict of Nantes, placed Orange
+at the head of the resistance to French domination.
+The league was formed by the emperor, Spain, Sweden,
+the United Provinces and by several German states.
+In England William and Mary were looked upon as the natural
+successors to the throne on the death of James II., and William
+kept up close relations with the malcontents in Church and
+State, who disliked the arbitrary and papistical policy of his
+father-in-law. But with the birth of a prince of Wales the
+situation was changed, and William determined to intervene
+actively in English affairs. His opportunity came when Louis
+XIV., having declared war against the Empire, had invaded the
+Palatinate. The opposition of Amsterdam to an English
+<span class="sidenote">Revolution of 1688.</span>
+expedition, in the absence of danger from the side of
+France, was overcome. The Revolution of 1688
+ensued, and England became, under William&rsquo;s strong
+rule, the chief member of the Great Coalition against
+French aggression. In the Grand Alliance of 1689-1690 he was
+accused of sacrificing Dutch to English interests, but there
+can be no doubt that William loved his native country better
+than his adopted one, and was a true patriot. If the United
+Provinces suffered in prosperity through their close relations
+<span class="sidenote">The Grand Alliance.</span>
+with and subordination to Great Britain during a
+long series of years, it was due not to the policy of
+William, but to the fact that the territory of the
+republic was small, open to attack by great military
+powers, and devoid of natural resources. The stadholder&rsquo;s
+authority and popularity continued unimpaired, despite of
+his frequent absences in England. He had to contend, like his
+predecessors, with the perennial hostility of the burgher aristocracy
+of Amsterdam, and at times with other refractory town
+councils, but his power in the States during his life was almost
+autocratic. His task was rendered lighter by the influence and
+ability of Heinsius, the grand pensionary of Holland,
+<span class="sidenote">William and Heinsius.</span>
+a wise and prudent statesman, whose tact and moderation
+in dealing with the details and difficulties of internal
+administration were conspicuous. The stadholder
+gave to Heinsius his fullest confidence, and the pensionary on
+his part loyally supported William&rsquo;s policy and placed his
+services ungrudgingly at his disposal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heinsius</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of the war by the allies was far from successful.
+In 1690 (July 1st) Waldeck was defeated by Luxemburg at
+Fleurus; and the Anglo-Dutch fleet was so severely
+handled by Tourville (10th July) off Beachy Head
+<span class="sidenote">War with France.</span>
+that for two years the command of the sea remained
+in the possession of the French. A striking victory off Cape la
+Hogue (29th of May 1692) restored, however, supremacy to
+the allies. On land the combined armies fared ill. In 1691
+the French took Mons, and in 1692 Namur, in which year after
+a hard-fought battle William was defeated at Steenkirk and in
+1693 at Neerwinden. But William&rsquo;s military genius never shone
+so brightly as in the hour of defeat; he never knew what it was
+to be beaten, and in 1695 his recapture of Namur was a real
+triumph of skill and resolution. At last, after long negotiations,
+exhaustion compelled the French king to sign the peace of
+<span class="sidenote">Peace of Ryswick.<br />
+Death of William III.</span>
+Ryswick in 1697, in which William was recognized
+by France as king of England, the Dutch obtaining
+a favourable commercial treaty, and the right to
+garrison the Netherland barrier towns. This peace, however, did
+no more than afford a breathing space during which Louis XIV.
+prepared for a renewal of the struggle. The great question of
+the Spanish succession was looming in all men&rsquo;s eyes, and
+though partition treaties between the interested
+powers were concluded in 1698 and 1700, it is practically
+certain that the French king held himself little bound
+by them. In 1701 he elbowed the Dutch troops
+out of the barrier towns; he defied England by recognizing
+James III. on the death of his father; and it was clear
+that another war was imminent when William III. died in
+1702.</p>
+
+<p>In 1672 the stadholdership in five provinces had been made
+hereditary in the family of the prince of Orange, but William
+died childless, and the republican burgher party was strong
+enough to prevent the posts being filled up. William
+<span class="sidenote">Stadholderless Government.</span>
+had wished that his cousin, Count John William
+Friso of Nassau, stadholder of Friesland and Groningen,
+should succeed him, but his extreme youth and
+the jealousy of Holland against a &ldquo;Frisian&rdquo; stood in the way
+of his election. The result was a want of unity in counsel and
+action among the provinces, Friesland and Groningen standing
+aloof from the other five, while Holland and Zeeland had to pay
+for their predominance in the Union by being left to bear the
+bulk of the charges. Fortunately there was no break of continuity
+in the policy of the States, the chief conduct of affairs remaining,
+until his death in 1720, in the capable and tried hands of the
+grand pensionary Heinsius, who had at his side a number of
+exceptionally experienced and wise counsellors&mdash;among these
+Simon van Slingeland, for forty-five years (1680-1725) secretary
+of the council of state, and afterwards grand pensionary of
+Holland (1727-1736), and Francis Fagel, who succeeded his
+father in 1699 as recorder (<i>Griffier</i>) of the States-General, and
+held that important office for fifty years. The tradition of
+William III. was thus preserved, but with the loss of the firm
+hand and strong personality of that great ruler the United
+Provinces were relegated to a subordinate place in the councils
+of the nations, and with the gradual decadence of its navy
+the Dutch republic ceased to rank as a power to be reckoned
+with.</p>
+
+<p>In the War of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 1702,
+Dutch troops took part in the campaigns of Marlborough and
+Eugene, and had their share in winning the great
+victories of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde
+<span class="sidenote">War of the Spanish Succession.</span>
+(1708) and Malplaquet (1709). At the peace of
+Utrecht, concluded in 1713, the interests of the
+Netherlands were but half-heartedly supported by
+the English plenipotentiaries, and the French were able to obtain
+far more favourable terms than they had the power to exact.
+But they were compelled to abandon all claim to the Spanish
+Netherlands, which were formally handed over to the United
+Provinces, as trustees, to be by them, after the conclusion of a
+satisfactory barrier treaty, given up to the emperor,
+<span class="sidenote">Treaty of Utrecht.</span>
+and be known henceforth as the Austrian Netherlands.
+The peace of Utrecht taught the Dutch that the great
+powers around them, while ready to use their resources for
+war, would not scruple to abandon them when they wanted
+peace; they, therefore, determined henceforth to stand clear
+of all foreign complications. With 1713 the influence of the
+United Netherlands upon European politics comes almost to
+an end.</p>
+
+<p>The ruling party in the States took an active part in securing
+George I. on the throne of England; and they succeeded in
+coming to an agreement both with France and with
+Austria over the difficulties connected with the barrier
+<span class="sidenote">Peace policy.</span>
+towns, and were thus able in tranquillity to concentrate
+their energies upon furthering the interests of their trade. Under
+the close oligarchical rule of the patrician families, who filled
+all offices in the town councils, the States of Holland, in which
+the influence of Amsterdam was dominant, and which in their
+turn exercised predominance in the States-General, became more
+and more an assembly of &ldquo;shopkeepers&rdquo; whose policy was to
+maintain peace for the sake of the commerce on which they
+thrived. For thirty years after the peace of Utrecht the Provinces
+kept themselves free from entanglement in the quarrels of
+<span class="sidenote">Ostend East India Company.</span>
+their neighbours. The foundation of the Ostend East
+India Company (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ostend Company</a></span>), however,
+by the emperor Joseph II. in 1723, at once aroused
+the strong opposition of the Amsterdam merchants
+who looked upon this invasion of their monopoly with alarm,
+and declared that the Ostend Company had been set up in
+contravention to the terms of Article V. of the treaty of Münster.
+In maintaining this position the States had the support of
+England, but it was not until 1731 that they succeeded in
+obtaining the suppression of the company by consenting to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span>
+guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. This
+step led in 1743 to their being involved in the War of the
+<span class="sidenote">War of the Austrian Succession.<br />
+Revolution of 1747.<br />
+William IV.</span>
+Austrian Succession, and thus being drawn into hostilities
+with France, which invaded the barrier country.
+In 1744 they formed with Great Britain, Austria and
+Saxony, a Quadruple Alliance, and put a contingent
+of troops in the field. The Dutch took an active part in the
+campaign of 1745 and suffered heavily at Fontenoy, after which
+battle Marshal Saxe overran the Austrian Netherlands. The
+French captured all the barrier towns, and in 1747
+entered Dutch Flanders and made an easy conquest.
+The United Provinces, as in 1672, seemed to lie at the
+mercy of their enemies, and as in that eventful year,
+popular feeling broke down the opposition of the burgher
+oligarchies, and turned to William IV., prince of Orange, as the
+saviour of the state. John William Friso had died
+young in 1711, leaving a posthumous son, William
+Charles Henry Friso, who was duly elected stadholder
+by the two provinces, Friesland and Groningen, which were
+always faithful to his family, and in 1722 he became also, though
+with very limited powers, stadholder of Gelderland. The other
+provinces, however, under pressure from Holland, bound themselves
+not to elect stadholders, and they refused to revive the
+office of captain-general of the Union. By the conquest of
+Dutch Flanders Zeeland was threatened, and the states of that
+province, in which there were always many Orange partisans,
+elected (April 1747) William stadholder, captain-general and
+admiral of Zeeland. The example once given was infectious,
+and was followed in rapid succession by Holland, Utrecht and
+Overysel. Finally the States-General (May 4) appointed the
+prince, who was the first member of his family to be stadholder
+of all the seven provinces, captain and admiral-general of
+the Union, and a little later these offices were declared hereditary
+in both the male and female lines.</p>
+
+<p>William IV., though not a man of great ability, was sincerely
+anxious to do his utmost for securing the maintenance of peace,
+and the development of the resources and commercial
+prosperity of the country, and his powerful dynastic
+<span class="sidenote">Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.</span>
+connexions (he had married Anne, eldest daughter
+of George II.) gave him weight in the councils of
+Europe. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, in which the
+influence of Great Britain was exerted on behalf of the States,
+though it nominally restored the old condition of things, left
+the Provinces crippled by debt, and fallen low from their old
+position among the nations. At first the stadholder&rsquo;s efforts
+to promote the trade and welfare of the country were hampered
+by the distrust and opposition of Amsterdam, and other strongholds
+<span class="sidenote">Death of William IV.<br />
+Anne of England Regent.</span>
+of anti-Orange feeling, and just as his good
+intentions were becoming more generally recognized,
+William unfortunately died, on the 22nd of October
+1751, aged forty years, leaving his three-year-old son,
+William V., heir to his dignities. The princess Anne of England
+became regent, but she had a difficult part to play, and on the
+outbreak of the Seven Years&rsquo; War in which the
+Provinces were determined to maintain neutrality,
+her English leanings brought much unpopularity upon
+her. She died in 1759, and for the next seven years
+the regency passed into the hands of the States, and the
+government was practically stadholderless.</p>
+
+<p>In 1766 William V. was declared to be of age; and his accession
+to power was generally welcomed. He was, however, a weak
+man, without energy or resolution, and he allowed
+himself to be entirely led by his old guardian the
+<span class="sidenote">William V.</span>
+duke of Brunswick, and by his wife Frederica Wilhelmina
+of Prussia, a woman of marked ability, to whom he entirely
+deferred. In the American War of Independence William&rsquo;s
+sympathies were strongly on the English side, while those
+of the majority of the Dutch people were with the revolted
+colonies. It is, however, certain that nothing would have driven
+the Provinces to take part in the war but for the overbearing
+attitude of the British government with regard to the right of
+neutral shipping upon the seas, and the heavy losses sustained
+by Dutch commerce at the hands of British privateers. The
+<span class="sidenote">The Armed Neutrality.</span>
+famous agreement, known as the &ldquo;Armed Neutrality,&rdquo; with
+which in 1780 the States of the continent at the
+instigation of Catherine II. of Russia replied to the
+maritime claims put forward by Great Britain drew the
+Provinces once more into the arena of European politics.
+Every effort was made by the English to prevent the Dutch
+from joining the league, and in this they were assisted by the
+stadholder, but at last the States-General, though only by the
+bare majority of four provinces against three, determined to
+throw in their lot with the opponents of England.
+<span class="sidenote">War with England.</span>
+Nothing could have been more unfortunate, for the
+country was not ready for war, and party spirit was too
+strong for united action to be taken or vigorous preparations
+to be made. When war broke out Dutch commerce was
+destroyed, and the Dutch colonies were at the mercy of the
+English fleet without the possibility of a blow being struck in
+their defence. An indecisive, but bravely fought action with
+Admiral Parker at the Dogger Bank showed, however, that the
+Dutch seamen had lost none of their old dogged courage, and did
+much to soothe the national sense of humiliation. In the negotiations
+<span class="sidenote">Peace of Paris.</span>
+of the Treaty of Paris (1783) the Dutch found
+themselves abandoned by their allies, and compelled
+to accept the disadvantageous but not ungenerous
+terms accorded to them by Great Britain. They had to sacrifice
+some of their East Indian possessions and to concede to the
+English freedom of trade in the Eastern seas.</p>
+
+<p>One result of this humiliating and disastrous war was the
+strengthening of the hands of the anti-Orange burgher-regents,
+who had now arrogated to themselves the name of
+&ldquo;patriots.&rdquo; It was they, and not the stadholder, who
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Patriot&rdquo; Party.<br />
+Intervention of the King of Prussia.<br />
+Difficulty with the Emperor.</span>
+had been mainly responsible for the Provinces joining
+&ldquo;the Armed Neutrality,&rdquo; but the consequences of the
+war, in which this act had involved them, was largely visited
+upon the prince of Orange. The &ldquo;patriot&rdquo; party did their
+utmost to curtail his prerogatives, and harass him with petty
+insults, and at last the Prussian king was obliged to
+interfere to save his niece, who was even more unpopular
+than her weak husband, from being driven
+from the country. In 1784 the emperor Joseph II.
+took advantage of the dissensions in the Provinces to
+raise the question of the opening of the Scheldt. He himself
+was, however, no more prepared for attack than the Republic
+for defence, but the Dutch had already sunk so low,
+that they agreed to pay a heavy indemnity to induce
+the Austrians to drop a demand they were unable to
+enforce. To hold the mouth of the Scheldt and
+prevent at all costs a revival of Antwerp as a commercial port
+had been for two centuries a cardinal point of Dutch policy.
+This difficulty removed, the agitation of the &ldquo;patriots&rdquo; against
+the stadholderate form of government increased in violence, and
+William speedily found his position untenable. An insult offered
+<span class="sidenote">Prussian Invasion.<br />
+Restoration to power of William V.</span>
+to the prince of Orange in 1787 led to an invasion
+of the country by a Prussian army. Amsterdam
+capitulated, the country was occupied, and the patriot
+leaders declared incapable of holding any office. The Orange
+party was completely triumphant, and William V., under the
+protection of Prussia and England, with which states
+the United Provinces were compelled to ally themselves,
+was restored to power. It was, however, impossible
+to make the complicated and creaking machinery of
+the constitution of the worn-out republic of the United Netherlands
+work smoothly, and in all probability it would have been
+within a very short time replaced by an hereditary monarchy,
+had not the cataclysm of the French Revolution swept it away
+from its path, never to be revived.</p>
+
+<p>When war broke out between the French revolutionary
+government and the coalition of kings, the Provinces
+remained neutral as long as they could. It was not till
+Dumouriez had overrun all the Austrian Netherlands
+<span class="sidenote">The French invade the Netherlands.</span>
+in 1792, and had thrown open the passage of the Scheldt,
+that they were drawn into the war. The patriot party sided with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span>
+the French, but for various reasons the conquest of the
+country was delayed until 1795. In the closing months
+of 1794 Pichegru, at the head of a large and victorious army,
+invaded the Provinces. The very severe frost of that winter gave
+his troops an easy passage over all the rivers and low-lying
+lands; town after town fell before him; he occupied
+<span class="sidenote">Overthrow of the Stadholderate.<br />
+Flight of William V.<br />
+The Batavian Republic.<br />
+Changes of Government.</span>
+Amsterdam, and crossing the ice with his cavalry
+took the Dutch fleet, as it lay frost-bound at the
+Texel. The stadholder and his family fled to England,
+and the disorganized remnants of the allied forces under
+the duke of York retreated into Germany. The &ldquo;patriots,&rdquo; as
+the anti-Orange republicans still styled themselves,
+received the French with open arms and public rejoicings,
+and the government was reorganized so as
+to bring it into close harmony with that of Paris. The stadholderate,
+the offices of captain and admiral-general, and all the
+ancient organization of the United Netherlands were abolished,
+and were transformed into the Batavian Republic, in close
+alliance with France. But the Dutch had soon cause
+to regret their revolutionary ardour. French alliance
+meant French domination, and participation in the
+wars of the Revolution. Its consequences were the
+total ruin of Dutch commerce, and the seizure of all the Dutch
+colonies by the English. Internally one change of government
+succeeded another; after the States-General came a
+national convention; then in 1798 a constituent
+assembly with an executive directory; then chambers
+of representatives; then a return to the earlier systems
+under the names of the eight provincial and one central Commissions
+(1801). These changes were the outcome of a gradual
+reaction in a conservative direction.</p>
+
+<p>The peace of Amiens gave the country a little rest, and the
+Dutch got back the Cape of Good Hope and their West Indian
+colonies; it was, however, but the brief and deceptive
+interlude between two storms; when war began
+<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1805.</span>
+again England once more took possession of all she
+had restored. In 1805 the autocratic will of Napoleon
+Bonaparte imposed upon them a new constitution, and Rutger
+Jan Schimmelpenninck (1765-1825) was made, under the
+ancient title of grand pensionary, head of the government.
+In the next year the French emperor added Holland,
+as the United Provinces were now named, to the ring of
+dependent sovereignties, by means of which he sought to
+build up a universal empire, and he forced his brother Louis
+to be the unwilling king of an unwilling people. The new
+<span class="sidenote">Louis Bonaparte King of Holland.</span>
+king was a man of excellent intentions and did his
+best to promote the interest of his subjects, but finding
+himself unable to protect them from the despotic
+overlordship of his brother, after a four years&rsquo; reign,
+Louis abdicated. In 1810 the Northern Netherlands by decree
+of Napoleon were incorporated in the French empire, and had
+to bear the burdens of conscription and of a crushing weight of
+taxation. The defeat of Leipzig in 1813 was the signal for a
+general revolt in the Netherlands; the prince of Orange (son
+<span class="sidenote">The Sovereign Prince.<br />
+Creation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.<br />
+The Hundred Days.</span>
+of William V.) was recalled, and amidst general
+rejoicing accepted at Amsterdam the offer of the
+sovereignty under a free constitution (Dec. 1, 1813),
+with the title of sovereign prince. On the downfall
+of Napoleon the great powers determined to create in the Low
+Countries a powerful state, and by the treaty of London (June
+14, 1814) the Belgians were united with the Dutch
+provinces to form the kingdom of the Netherlands,
+which was also to include the bishopric of Liège and
+the duchy of Bouillon, and the prince of Orange was
+placed upon the throne on the 15th of March 1815 as
+William I., king of the Netherlands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William I.</a></span>,
+king of the Netherlands). The ancestral possessions of the
+House of Nassau were exchanged for Luxemburg, of which
+territory King William in his personal capacity
+became grand duke. The carrying out of the treaty
+was delayed by the Hundred Days&rsquo; campaign,
+which for a short time threatened its very existence. The
+daring invasion of Napoleon, however, afforded the Dutch and
+Belgian contingents of the allied army the opportunity to fight
+side by side under the command of William, prince of Orange,
+eldest son of the new king, who highly distinguished himself by
+his gallantry at Quatre Bras, and afterwards at Waterloo where
+<span class="sidenote">William I. crowned at Brussels.<br />
+Constitution of the Netherlands.</span>
+he was wounded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William II.</a></span>, king of the Netherlands).
+The Congress of Vienna confirmed the
+arrangements made by the treaty of London, and
+William I. was crowned king of the Netherlands at
+Brussels on the 27th of September 1815. Under the constitution
+the king, as hereditary sovereign, possessed full executive
+powers, and the initiative in proposing laws. He had
+the power of appointing his own council of state.
+The legislative body bore the time-honoured title of
+States-General, and was divided into an Upper
+Chamber nominated by the king, and a Lower Chamber
+elected by the people. Freedom of worship, freedom of the
+press, and political equality were principles of the constitution,
+guaranteed to all.</p>
+
+<p>The union of the Dutch and Belgian provinces, like so many
+of the territorial arrangements of the Congress of Vienna, was
+an attempt to create a strong state out of diverse
+and jarring elements. It was an artificial union,
+<span class="sidenote">Difference between the Dutch and Belgic provinces.</span>
+which nothing but consummate tact and statesmanship
+could have rendered permanent and solid. North
+and south were divided from one another by religious
+belief, by laws and usages, by material interests, and
+by two centuries and a half of widely severed national
+life. The Belgians were strict Catholics, the Dutch Calvinistic
+Protestants. The Dutch were chiefly a commercial and seafaring
+people, with interests in distant lands and colonial
+possessions; the Belgians were agriculturists, except where
+their abundance of minerals made them manufacturers. The
+national traits of the Dutch were a blend of German and English,
+the national leaning of the Belgians was towards France and
+French ideals. Nevertheless the materials were there out of
+which a really broad-minded and conciliatory handling of religion
+and racial difficulties might have gradually built up a Netherland
+nation able to hold from its population and resources
+a considerable place among European powers. For it must not
+be forgotten that some two-thirds of the Belgian people are by
+origin and language of the same race as the Dutch. But when
+difficulties and differences arose between North and South, as
+they were sure to arise, they were not dealt with wisely. The
+king had good intentions, but his mind was warped by Dutch
+prejudices, and he was ill-advised and acted unadvisedly. The
+<span class="sidenote">The Belgian Revolution.<br />
+Reign of William II.<br />
+Accession of William III.<br />
+The Constitution of 1848.</span>
+consequences were the Belgian Revolution of 1830,
+which ended in the intervention of the great powers,
+and the setting up, in 1831, of Belgium as an independent
+kingdom. The final settlement of outstanding
+questions between the two countries was not reached till 1839
+(for an account of the Belgian Revolution, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Belgium</a></span>). King
+William I. in the following year, having become unpopular
+through his resistance to reform, resigned his crown to
+his son William II., who reigned in peace till his
+death in 1849, when he was succeeded by his eldest
+son William III. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span>, king of the Netherlands).
+His accession marked the beginning of constitutional government
+in the Netherlands. William I. had been to
+a large extent a personal ruler, but William II.,
+though for a time following in his father&rsquo;s steps, had
+been moved by the revolutionary outbreaks of 1848
+to concede a revision of the constitution. The fundamental
+law of 1848 enacted that the first chamber of the States-General
+should be elected by the Provincial Estates
+instead of being appointed by the king, and that the
+second chamber should be elected directly by all
+persons paying a certain amount in taxation. Ministers
+were declared responsible to the States-General, and a liberal
+measure of self-government was also granted. During the long
+reign of William III. (1849-1890) the chief struggles of parties
+in the Netherlands centred round religious education. On
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span>
+the one side are the liberals, divided into moderates and
+progressives, the representatives to a large extent of the commercial
+towns. Opposed to them is the coalition of
+<span class="sidenote">Political parties in the Netherlands.</span>
+the orthodox Protestant conservatives, styled anti-revolutionaries,
+supported by the Calvinistic peasantry,
+and the Catholics, who represent about one-third of
+the population and have their headquarters in Dutch Brabant,
+Dutch Flanders and Limburg. There is also in the Netherlands
+a small, but very strenuous socialist party, which was founded
+by the active propaganda of an ex-pastor Domela-Nieuwenhuis.
+It draws its chief strength from Amsterdam and certain country
+districts of Friesland.</p>
+
+<p>The liberals were in power from 1871 to 1888 continuously,
+but a Catholic-anti-revolutionary ministry under Baron Mackay
+held office from 1888 to 1891, and again a coalition
+ministry was formed in 1901 with Dr Kuyper at its
+<span class="sidenote">Religious education.</span>
+head. From 1894 to 1897 a ministry of moderate
+liberals supported by a large part of the Catholic
+and anti-revolutionary parties were in power. The constitution
+of 1848 made it the duty of the state to provide free primary
+secular education, but it allowed to members of all creeds the
+liberty of establishing private schools, and this was carried into
+effect by a law passed in 1857 by the joint efforts of the liberals
+and Catholics against the opposition of the orthodox Calvinists.
+But the long liberal ascendancy closed the ranks of the Catholic-Calvinist
+coalition, and united them against the neutral schools,
+and in 1889 they were able to pass a law enabling not only the
+unsectarian public schools, but all private schools organized
+by societies and bodies recognized by the law to receive subventions
+from the state. In 1890 there were 3000 public schools
+with 450,000 scholars and 1300 private schools with 195,000
+scholars.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of the extension of the franchise has also been
+the cause of violent party strife and controversy. It was taken
+in hand as early as 1872, but as a revision of the constitution
+was necessary, no change was actually carried out till 1887.
+The law of that year lowered the qualification of the payer of
+a direct tax to 10 fl. Votes were given to all householders
+paying a certain <i>minimum</i> house duty, and to all lodgers who
+had for a given time paid a <i>minimum</i> of rent, also to all who
+possessed certain educational and social qualifications, whose
+definition was left to be specified by a later law. The passing
+of such a law was deferred by the coalition (Catholic-Orthodox)
+ministry of 1888-1891. The liberal ministry of 1891 attempted
+to deal with the question, and a proposal was made by the
+minister Tak van Poortvliet, which almost amounted to universal
+<span class="sidenote">Extension of the suffrage.</span>
+suffrage. The educational qualification was to be
+able to write, the social that of not receiving charitable
+relief. This proposal caused a cleavage right through
+all parties. It was supported by the radical left, by
+a large portion of the Orthodox-Calvinists under Dr Kuyper,
+and by some Catholics; it had against it the moderate liberals,
+the aristocratic section of the Orthodox-Calvinists, the bulk of
+the Catholics, and a few radicals under an influential leader
+van Houten. After a fierce electoral fight the Takkians were
+victors at the first polls, but were beaten at the second ballots.
+Of the 46 Takkians, 35 were liberals; of the 54 anti-Takkians,
+24 were Catholics. A moderate liberal ministry was formed
+(1894) and in 1896 carried into law what was known as the
+van Houten project. It gave the right of voting to all Dutchmen
+over twenty-five years of age, who paid 1 fl. in direct taxation;
+were householders or lodgers as defined in 1887, or tenants of
+a vessel of, at least, 24 tons; were the recipients of certain
+salaries or had certain deposits in the public funds or savings
+banks. By this reform the number of electors, which had been
+raised in 1887 from 140,000 to 300,000, was augmented to
+<span class="sidenote">Military service.</span>
+700,000. The question of universal military service
+has also divided parties. The principle of personal
+service has been strongly opposed by the Catholics
+and conservatives, but became the law of the land in 1898, though
+exemptions were conceded in favour of ecclesiastics and certain
+classes of students.</p>
+
+<p>The long-continued and costly wars with the sultan of Achin
+have during a series of years been a source of trouble to Dutch
+ministries. In 1871-1872 Great Britain, in exchange
+for certain possessions of Holland on the coast of
+<span class="sidenote">The Achin war.</span>
+Guinea, agreed to recognize the right of the Dutch
+to occupy the north of Sumatra. The sultan of
+Achin opposed by force of arms the efforts of the Dutch to make
+their occupation effective, and has succeeded in maintaining a
+vigorous resistance, the Dutch colonial troops suffering severely
+from the effects of the insalubrious climate. Until 1871 the
+surplus derived from the colonial budget had been turned into
+a deficit, and the necessity of imposing fresh taxes to meet the
+war expenses has led to the downfall both of individual ministries
+and of cabinets.</p>
+
+<p>William III. dying in 1890 was succeeded by his only surviving
+child, Wilhelmina. The new queen being a minor, her mother,
+the queen-dowager Emma, became regent. One
+effect of the accession of Queen Wilhelmina was the
+<span class="sidenote">Queen Wilhelmina.</span>
+severance of the bond between the Netherlands and
+Luxemburg. The grand duchy, being hereditary
+only in the male line, passed to the nearest agnate, the duke of
+Nassau. In 1898 the queen, having reached the age of eighteen,
+assumed the government. She married in 1901 Prince Henry of
+Mecklenburg. The outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 led to
+a strong outburst of sympathy among the Dutch on behalf of
+their kinsmen in South Africa, and there were times during the
+war, especially after President Kruger had fled from the
+Transvaal in a Dutch war vessel and had settled in Holland,
+when it was a task of some difficulty for the Dutch government
+to prevent the relations between Great Britain and the Netherlands
+from becoming strained. The ministry, however, under
+Dr Kuyper were able to keep the popular feeling in favour of
+the Boers in restraint, and to maintain towards Great Britain
+a correct attitude of strict neutrality. In 1903 the government
+took strong measures to prevent a threatened general strike of
+railway employees, the military were called out, and occupied the
+stations. A bill was passed by the States-General declaring
+railway strikes illegal. The elections of 1905 for the Second
+Chamber gave the liberals a narrow majority of four. Dr Kuyper
+accordingly resigned, and a moderate liberal cabinet was formed
+by Th. H. de Meester. The fact that up to 1908 the queen had
+not become a mother gradually caused some public concern as
+to the succession; but in 1909 Queen Wilhelmina, amid national
+rejoicings, gave birth to a princess.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See (for the general history) J. Wagenaar,
+<i>Vaderlandsche historie</i>, to 1751 (21 vols., 1749-1759); continuation
+by Az. P. Loosjes, from 1751-1810 (48 vols., 1786-1811); W.
+Bilderdijk, <i>Geschiedenis der Vaderlands</i> (13 vols., 1832-1853);
+Groen G. van Prinsterer, <i>Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland</i>
+(6th ed., 1895); (for particular periods): L. ab Aitzema,
+<i>Saken van spaet en oorlogh in ende om trent de Vereenigde Nederlanden
+(1621-1668)</i> (15 vols., 1657-1671); continuation by Lambert van
+den Bos (Lambertus Sylvius) (4 vols., 1685-1699). The work of
+Aitzema contains a large number of important diplomatic and other
+documents; A. de Wicquefort, <i>Histoire des provinces des Pays-Bas
+depuis la paix de Munster</i> (1648-1658) (2 vols., 1719-1743); in these
+volumes will be also found a rich collection of original documents;
+R. Fruin, <i>Tien jaren uit den tactig jarigen oorlog</i> (<i>1588-1598</i>), (6th ed.,
+1905), a standard work; J. L. Motley, <i>History of the United Netherlands</i>
+(<i>1584-1609</i>), (4 vols., 1860-1868); P. J. Blok, <i>History of the
+People of the Netherlands</i>, vol. iii. (1568-1621) (trans. by Ruth Putnam,
+1900); <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. iii. ch. xix. and vol. iv. ch. xxv.
+(see the bibliographies); Ant. L. Pontales, <i>Vingt années de république
+parlementaire au 17me siècle. Jean de Witt, grand pensionnaire
+de Hollande</i> (1884); E. C. de Gerlache, <i>Histoire du royaume des
+Pays-Bas 1814-1830</i> (3 vols., 1859); Bosch J. de Kemper, <i>Geschiedenis
+van Nederland na 1830</i> (5 vols., 1873-1882); also the
+following important works: Groen G. van Prinsterer, <i>Archives ou
+correspondance inédite de la maison d&rsquo;Orange-Nassau</i>, 2<span class="sp">e</span> série (1584-1688)
+(5 vols., 1857-1860); J. de Witt, <i>Brieven (1652-1669)</i> (6 vols.,
+1723-1725); A. Kluit, <i>Historie der Hollandsche Staatsregering tot
+1795</i> (5 vols., 1802-1805); G. W. Vreede, <i>Inleiding tot eene geschiedenis
+der Nederlandsche diplomatic</i> (6 vols., 1850-1865); J. C. de
+Jonge, <i>Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewesen</i>, (6 vols., 1833-1848);
+E. Luzac, <i>Holland&rsquo;s Rijkdom</i> (4 vols., 1781); R. Fruin,
+<i>Geschiedenis der Staatsinstellingen in Nederland tot den val der Republick</i>,
+edn. Colenbrander (1901); N. G. van Kampen, <i>Geschiedenis
+der Nederlanders buiten Europa</i> (4 vols., 1833); W. J. A. Jonckbloet,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span>
+<i>Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde</i> (2 vols. 1881); C. Busken
+Hüet, <i>Het Land van Rembrandt-studien over de Nordnederlandsche
+beschaving in de 17<span class="sp">e</span> eeuw</i> (2 vols., 1886); L. D. Petit, <i>Repertorium
+der verhandelingen en bijdragen betreffende de geschiedenis des Vaterlands
+in tijdschriften en mengel werken tot op 1900 verschenen</i>, 2 parts
+(1905); other parts of this valuable <i>repertorium</i> are in course of
+publication.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> At Maastricht, however, a portion lies on the left bank of the
+river, measured, according to the treaty with Belgium, 19th of April
+1839, art. 4, by an average radius of 1200 Dutch fathoms (7874 ft.)
+from the outer glacis of the fortress.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The datum plane, or basis of the measurement of heights, is
+throughout Holland, and also in some of the border districts of
+Germany, the <i>Amsterdamsch Peil</i> (A.P.), or Amsterdam water-level,
+and represents the average high water-level of the Y at Amsterdam
+at the time when it was still open to the Zuider Zee. Local and
+provincial &ldquo;peils&rdquo; are, however, also in use on some waterways.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See J. Lorié, <i>Contributions à la géologie des Pays-bas</i> (1885-1895),
+<i>Archives du Mus. Teyler</i> (Haarlem), ser. 2, vol. ii. pp. 109-240,
+vol. iii. pp. 1-160, 375-461, vol. iv. pp. 165-309 and <i>Bull. soc.
+belge géol.</i> vol. iii. (1889); <i>Mém.</i> pp. 409-449; F. W. Harmer,
+&ldquo;On the Pliocene Deposits of Holland,&rdquo; &amp;c., <i>Quart. Journ. Geol.
+Soc., London</i>, vol. lii. (1896) pp. 748-781, pls. xxxiv., xxxv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The dates indicate the period of construction of the different
+sections.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For the history of the Netherlands previous to the confederacy
+of the northern provinces in 1579 see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF.<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span>&mdash;The first mention
+of Holland in any document is found in an imperial <i>gift brief</i>
+dated May 2nd, 1064. In this the phrase &ldquo;<i>omnis comitatus
+in Hollandt</i>&rdquo; occurs, but without any further description of the
+locality indicated. A comparison with other documentary
+evidence, however, leads to the identification of Holland with
+the <i>forestum Merweda</i>, or the bush-grown fenland lying between
+the Waal, the old Meuse and the Merwe. It is the district
+surrounding the town of Dordrecht. A portion of the original
+Holland was submerged by a great inundation in 1421, and its
+modern appellation of Biesbosch (reed-forest) is descriptive of
+what must have been the condition of the entire district in early
+times. The word Holland is indeed by many authorities thought
+to be a corruption of Holt-land (it was sometimes so spelt by
+13th-century writers) and to signify wood-land. The earliest
+spelling is, however, Holland, and it is more probable that it
+means lowlying-land (hol = hollow), a derivation which is
+equally applicable to the district in Lincolnshire which bears
+the same name.</p>
+
+<p>The title count of Holland appears to have been first borne
+by the Frisian count Dirk III., who founded Dordrecht (about
+1015) and made it his residence (see below). It was
+<span class="sidenote">The first Count of Holland.</span>
+not, however, till late in the 11th century that his
+successors adopted the style &ldquo;<i>Hollandensis comes</i>&rdquo; as
+their territorial designation (it is found for the first
+time on a seal of Dirk V. 1083), and that the name Holland
+became gradually extended northwards to connote all the
+land subject to the rule of the counts between Texel and
+the Maas.</p>
+
+<p>The beginnings of the history of this feudal state (the later
+Holland) centre round the abbey of Egmont in whose archives
+its records have been preserved. In 922 Charles the
+Simple gave in full possession to a count in Frisia,
+<span class="sidenote">Dirk I.</span>
+Dirk by name (a shortened form of Diederic, Latin Theodoricus),
+&ldquo;the church of Egmont with all that belonged to it from Swithardeshage
+to Kinhem.&rdquo; This man, usually known as Dirk I.,
+died about 939 and was succeeded by his son of the same name.
+Among the records of the abbey of Egmont is a document by
+which the emperor Arnulf gave to a certain count Gerolf the
+same land &ldquo;between Swithardeshage and Kinhem,&rdquo; afterwards
+held by Dirk I. It is generally assumed that this Gerolf was
+his father, otherwise their deed of gift would not have been
+<span class="sidenote">Dirk II.<br />
+Extent of his dominions.<br />
+Arnulf.<br />
+Dirk III.</span>
+preserved among the family papers. Dirk II. was
+the founder of the abbey of Egmont. His younger
+son Egbert became archbishop of Treves. His elder son Arnulf
+married Liutgardis, daughter of Siegfried of Luxemburg and
+sister-in-law of the emperor Henry II. He obtained from the
+emperor Otto III., with whom he was in great favour
+in 983, a considerable extension of territory, that now
+covered by the Zuider Zee and southward down to
+Nijmwegen. In the deed of gift he is spoken of as
+holding the three countships of Maasland, Kinhem or Kennemerland
+and Texla or Texel; in other words his rule extended over
+the whole country from the right bank of the Maas or Meuse to
+the Vlie. He appears also to have exercised authority at Ghent.
+He died in 988. Arnulf was count till 993, when he was
+slain in battle against the west Frisians, and was
+succeeded by his twelve-year-old son Dirk III. During the
+guardianship of his mother, Liutgardis, the boy was despoiled of
+almost all his possessions, except Kennemerland and Maasland.
+But no sooner was he arrived at man&rsquo;s estate than
+Dirk turned upon his enemies with courage and vigour.
+He waged war, successfully with Adelbold, the powerful bishop
+of Utrecht, and made himself master not only of his ancestral
+possessions, but of the district on the Meuse known as the
+Bushland of Merweda (<i>forestum Merweda</i>), hitherto subject to
+the see of Utrecht. In the midst of this marshy tract, at a
+point commanding the courses of the Meuse and the Waal,
+<span class="sidenote">Foundation of Dordrecht.<br />
+Defeat of Godfrey of Lorraine.<br />
+Beginning of the County of Holland.</span>
+he built a castle (about 1015) and began to levy
+tolls. Around this castle sprang up the town of Thuredrecht
+or Dordrecht. The possession of this stronghold
+was so injurious to the commerce of Tiel, Cologne
+and the Rhenish towns with England that complaints were
+made by the bishop of Utrecht and the archbishop of Cologne
+to the emperor. Henry II. took the part of the complainants
+and commissioned Duke Godfrey of Lorraine to
+chastise the young Frisian count. Duke Godfrey
+invaded Dirk&rsquo;s lands with a large army, but they were
+impeded by the swampy nature of the country and
+totally defeated with heavy loss (July 29, 1018). The duke
+was himself taken prisoner. The result was that Dirk was not
+merely confirmed in his possession of Dordrecht and the Merweda
+Bushland (the later Holland) but also of the territory of a vassal
+of the Utrecht see, Dirk Bavo by name, which he
+conquered. This victory of 1018 is often regarded as
+the true starting-point of the history of the county of
+Holland. Having thus established his rule in the
+south, Dirk next proceeded to bring into subjection the
+Frisians in the north. He appointed his brother Siegfrid or
+Sikka as governor over them. In his later years Dirk went
+upon a pilgrimage to the Holy Land from which he returned in
+1034; and ruled in peace until his death in 1039.</p>
+
+<p>His son, Dirk IV., was one of the most enterprising of his
+warlike and strenuous race. He began the long strife with the
+counts of Flanders, as to the lordship over Walcheren
+and other islands of Zeeland; the quarrel was important,
+<span class="sidenote">Dirk IV.<br />
+Quarrel with Flanders about Zeeland.</span>
+as dealing with the borderland between French and
+German overlordship. This strife, which lasted 400 years, did
+not at first break out into actual warfare, because both Dirk
+and Baldwin V. of Flanders had a common danger in
+the emperor Henry III., who in 1046 occupied the
+lands in dispute. Dirk allied himself with Godfrey
+the Bearded of Lorraine, who was at war with the
+emperor, and his territory was invaded by a powerful
+imperial fleet and army (1047). But Dirk entrenched himself
+in his stronghold at Vlaardingen, and when winter came on he
+surrounded and cut off with his light boats a number of the
+enemy&rsquo;s ships, and destroyed a large part of their army as they
+made their way amidst the marches, which impeded their
+retreat. He was able to recover what he had lost and to make
+peace on his own terms. Two years later he was again assailed by
+a coalition headed by the archbishop of Cologne and the bishop
+of Utrecht. They availed themselves of a very hard winter to
+penetrate into the land over the frozen water. Dirk offered a
+stout resistance, but, according to the most trustworthy account,
+was enticed into an ambuscade and was killed in the fight (1049).
+He died unmarried and was succeeded by his brother Floris I.</p>
+
+<p>Floris, like his predecessors, was hard-fighting and tenacious.
+He gradually recovered possession of his ancestral lands. He
+found a formidable adversary in the able and warlike
+William, who, becoming bishop of Utrecht in 1054,
+<span class="sidenote">Floris I.</span>
+was determined to recover the lost possessions of his see; and
+in 1058, in alliance with Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, Egbert,
+margrave of Brandenburg, the bishop of Liége and others,
+invaded the Frisian territory. At first success attended the
+invaders and many places fell into their hands, but finally they
+were surprised and defeated near Dordrecht. The counts of
+Guelders and Louvain were among the prisoners that fell into
+the hands of Floris. The attack was renewed in 1061. In a
+battle at Nederhemert Floris met with his death in the hour
+of victory. He is said to have been killed as, wearied with
+pursuing, he lay asleep under a tree. He was succeeded by his
+<span class="sidenote">Dirk V.</span>
+son, Dirk V., a child, under the guardianship of his
+mother, Gertrude of Saxony. Bishop William seems
+now to have seized his opportunity and occupied all the territory
+that he claimed. In this he was confirmed by two charters of
+the emperor Henry IV. (April 30 and May 2, 1064). Among
+the possessions thus assigned to him is found <i>comitatus omnis</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span>
+<i>in Hollandt cum omnibus ad bannum regalem pertinentibus</i>. An
+examination of these documents shows the possessions of Dirk
+as <i>in Westflinge et circa oras Rheni</i>, <i>i.e.</i> west of the Vlie and
+around the mouths of the Rhine. Gertrude and her son appear
+to have withdrawn to the islands of Frisia (Zeeland), leaving
+William in undisturbed occupation of the disputed lands.
+In 1063 Gertrude contracted a marriage with Robert, the
+second son of Baldwin V. of Flanders, a man famous for his
+adventurous career (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>). On his marriage his father
+<span class="sidenote">Robert the Frisian guardian to his stepson</span>
+invested him with Imperial Flanders, as an apanage
+including the islands of Frisia (Zeeland) west of the
+Scheldt. He now became guardian to his stepson,
+in whose inheritance lay the islands east of the Scheldt.
+Robert thus, in his own right and that of Dirk, was
+ruler of all Frisia (Zeeland), and thus became known
+among his Flemish countrymen as Robert the Frisian. The
+death of his brother Baldwin VI. in 1070 led to civil war in
+Flanders, the claim of Robert to the guardianship of his nephew
+Arnulf being disputed by Richilde, the widow of Baldwin.
+The issue was decided by the decisive victory of Robert at
+Cassel (February 1071) when Arnulf was killed and Richilde
+taken prisoner (see Flanders). While Robert was thus engaged
+in Flanders, an effort was made to recover &ldquo;the County of
+Holland&rdquo; and other lands now held by William of Utrecht.
+The people rose in revolt, but by command of the emperor
+Henry IV. were speedily brought back under episcopal rule by
+<span class="sidenote">Godfrey the Hunchback of Lorraine conquers Holland.<br />
+The Bishop of Utrecht surrenders it to Dirk V.<br />
+Floris II.<br />
+Dirk VI.</span>
+an army under the command of Godfrey the Hunchback,
+duke of Lower Lorraine. Again in 1076, at the request
+of the bishop, Duke Godfrey visited his domains in
+the Frisian borderland. At Delft, of which town
+tradition makes Godfrey the founder, the duke was
+treacherously murdered (February 26, 1076). William
+of Utrecht died on the 17th of the following April.
+Dirk V., now grown to man&rsquo;s estate, was not slow to take
+advantage of the favourable juncture. With the help of Robert
+(his stepfather) he raised an army, besieged Conrad,
+the successor of William, in the castle of Ysselmonde
+and took him prisoner. The bishop purchased his
+liberty by surrendering all claim to the disputed lands.
+Henceforth the Frisian counts became definitively
+known as counts of Holland. Dirk V. died in 1091
+and was succeeded by his son Floris II. the Fat. This count
+had a peaceful and prosperous reign of thirty-one years.
+After his death (1122) his widow, Petronilla of Saxony,
+governed in the name of Dirk VI., who was a minor.
+The accession of her half-brother, Lothaire of Saxony, to the
+imperial throne on the death of Henry V. greatly strengthened
+her position. The East Frisian districts, Oostergoo
+and Westergoo, were by Lothaire transferred from
+the rule of the bishops of Utrecht to that of the counts of Holland
+(1125). These Frisians proved very troublesome subjects to
+Dirk VI. In 1132 they rose in insurrection under the leadership
+of Dirk&rsquo;s own brother, Floris the Black. The emperor
+Conrad III. (1138), who was of the rival house of Hohenstaufen,
+gave back these Frisian districts to the bishop; it
+was in truth somewhat of an empty gift. The Frisian
+peasants and fisher folk loved their independence, and
+were equally refractory to the rule of any distant overlord,
+whether count or bishop. Dirk VI. was succeeded in 1157 by
+Floris III.</p>
+
+<p>Floris III. reversed the traditional policy of his house by
+allying himself with the Hohenstaufens. He became a devoted
+adherent and friend of Frederick Barbarossa. He had
+<span class="sidenote">Floris III.</span>
+troubles with West Friesland and Groningen, and a
+war with the count of Flanders concerning their
+respective rights in West Zeeland, in which he was beaten.
+In 1170 a great flood caused immense devastation in the north
+and helped to form the Zuider Zee. In 1189 Floris accompanied
+Frederick Barbarossa upon the third Crusade, of which he was a
+distinguished leader. He died in 1190 at Antioch of
+<span class="sidenote">Dirk VII.</span>
+pestilence. His son, Dirk VII., had a stormy, but on
+the whole successful reign. Contests with the Flemings in West
+Zeeland and with the West Frisians, stirred up to revolt by his
+brother William, ended in his favour. The brothers were
+reconciled and William was made count of East Friesland. In
+1202, however, Dirk was defeated and taken prisoner by the
+duke of Brabant, and had to purchase peace on humiliating terms.
+He only survived his defeat a short time and died early in
+1204, leaving as his only issue a daughter, Ada, 17 years of age.
+The question of female succession thus raised was not likely
+to be accepted without a challenge by William. It had been the
+intention of Dirk VII. to secure the recognition of his daughter&rsquo;s
+rights by appointing his brother her guardian. His widow
+Alida, however, an ambitious woman of strong character, as
+soon as her husband was dead, hurried on a marriage between
+Ada and Count Louis of Loon; and attempted with the nobles
+of Holland, who now for the first time make their appearance as
+a power in the country, to oppose the claim which William had
+made to the countship as heir in the male line. A struggle
+<span class="sidenote">William I.</span>
+ensued. William was supported by the Zeelanders
+and Ada was forced to fly to England. William,
+by a treaty concluded with Louis of Loon in 1206, became
+undisputed count. He took an active part in the events of his
+time. He fought by the side of the emperor Otto IV. in the great
+battle of Bouvines in 1214 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philip Augustus</a></span>), and was
+taken prisoner. Two years later he accompanied Louis, the
+eldest son of Philip Augustus, in his expedition against King
+John of England. William is perhaps best known in history by
+his taking part in the fourth Crusade. He distinguished himself
+greatly at the capture of Damietta (1219). He did not long
+survive his return home, dying in 1222. The earliest charters
+conveying civic privileges in the county of Holland date from
+his reign&mdash;those of Geertruidenberg (1213) and of Dordrecht
+<span class="sidenote">Floris IV.</span>
+(1220). His son Floris IV., being a minor, succeeded
+him under the guardianship of his maternal uncle,
+Gerard III. of Gelderland. He maintained in later life close
+relations of friendship with Gerard, and supported him in his
+quarrel with the bishop of Utrecht (1224-1226). Floris was
+murdered in 1235 at a tournament at Corbie in Picardy by the
+count of Clermont. Another long minority followed his death,
+during which his brother Otto, bishop of Utrecht, acted as
+guardian to his nephew William II.</p>
+
+<p>William II. became a man of mark. Pope Innocent IV.,
+having deposed the emperor Frederick II., after several princes
+had refused to allow themselves to be nominated in
+the place of the Hohenstaufen, caused the young
+<span class="sidenote">William II.<br />
+Elected King of the Romans.<br />
+Floris V.</span>
+count of Holland to be elected king of the Romans
+(1247) by an assembly composed chiefly of German ecclesiastics.
+William took Aachen in 1248 and was there crowned
+king; and after Frederick&rsquo;s death in 1250, he had a
+considerable party in Germany. He brought a war
+with Margaret of Flanders (Black Margaret) to a
+successful conclusion (1253). He was on the point of proceeding
+to Rome to be crowned emperor, when in an expedition against
+the West Frisians he perished, going down, horse and armour,
+through the ice (1256). Like so many of his predecessors he
+left his inheritance to a child. Floris V. was but
+two years old on his father&rsquo;s death; and he was
+destined during a reign of forty years to leave a deeper
+impress upon the history of Holland than any other of its
+counts. Floris was a man of chivalrous character and high
+capacity, and throughout his reign he proved himself an able
+and beneficent ruler. Alike in his troubles with his turbulent
+subjects and in the perennial disputes with his neighbours
+he pursued a strong, far-sighted and successful policy. But his
+active interest in affairs was not limited to the Netherlands.
+<span class="sidenote">Alliance with Edward I. of England.</span>
+He allied himself closely with Edward I. of England
+in his strife with France, and secured from the English
+king great trading advantages for his people; the
+staple of wool was placed at Dort (Dordrecht) and
+the Hollanders and Zeelanders got fishing rights on
+the English coast. So intimate did their relations become that
+Floris sent his son John to be educated at the court of Edward
+with a view to his marriage with an English princess. To
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span>
+balance the power of the nobles he granted charters to many of
+the towns. Floris made himself master of Amstelland and
+<span class="sidenote">First Charter to Amsterdam.</span>
+Gooiland; and Amsterdam, destined to become the
+chief commercial town of Holland, counts him the
+founder of its greatness. Its earliest extant charter
+dates from 1275. In 1296 Floris forsook the alliance
+of Edward I. for that of Philip IV. of France, probably because
+Edward had given support to Guy, count of Flanders, in his
+dynastic dispute with John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut,
+Floris&rsquo;s nephew (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>). The real motives of his policy
+will, however, never be known, for shortly afterwards a conspiracy
+of disaffected nobles, headed by Gijsbrecht van Amstel,
+<span class="sidenote">Murder of Floris V.</span>
+Gerard van Velzen and Wolfert van Borselen, was
+formed against him. He was by them basely murdered
+in the castle of Muiden (June 27, 1296). The tragic
+event has been immortalized in dramas from the pens of
+Holland&rsquo;s most famous writers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vondel</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hooft</a></span>). The
+burghers and people, who knew him to be their best friend,
+took such vengeance on his slayers as permanently to reduce
+the power of the nobles.</p>
+
+<p>John I., his son, was in England when his father was murdered;
+he was but 15 years of age, feeble in body and mind. He was
+married to Eleanor, daughter of Edward I. His
+reign was a struggle between John of Avesnes, the
+<span class="sidenote">John I.</span>
+young count&rsquo;s guardian and next heir, and Wolfert van Borselen,
+who had a strong following in Zeeland. In 1299 van Borselen
+was killed, and a few months later John I. died. John of
+Avesnes was at once recognized as his successor by the Hollanders.
+Thus with John I. ended the first line of counts, after a rule
+of nearly 400 years. Europe has perhaps never seen
+<span class="sidenote">Extinction of the first line of Counts. Their high character.</span>
+an abler series of princes than these fourteen lineal
+descendants of Dirk I. Excepting the last there
+is not a weak man among them. Physically handsome
+and strong, model knights of the days of chivalry,
+hard fighters, wise statesmen, they were born leaders
+of men; always ready to advance the commerce of
+the country, they were the supporters of the growing towns,
+and likewise the pioneers in the task of converting a land
+of marshes and swamps into a fertile agricultural territory
+rich in flocks and herds. As individuals they had their
+failings, but one and all were worthy members of a high-souled
+race.</p>
+
+<p>John of Avesnes, who took the title of John II., was the son
+of John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut, and Alida, sister of
+William II. of Holland. On his succession to the
+countship the Hollanders were willing to receive him,
+<span class="sidenote">John II. of the House of Avesnes.</span>
+but the Zeelanders were hostile; and a long struggle
+ensued before his authority was generally recognized.
+In 1301 Bishop William of Utrecht invaded Amstelland, but
+was killed in battle. John made use of his victory to secure the
+election of his brother Guy as bishop in his place. A war with
+the Flemings followed, in which the Flemings were at first
+victorious, but after a struggle of many vicissitudes they were at
+length driven out of Holland and Zeeland In 1304. John II. died
+in that year and was succeeded by his son William III., surnamed
+the Good (1304-1337). In his reign the long-standing quarrel
+<span class="sidenote">William III.</span>
+with Flanders, which had during a century and a half
+caused so many wars, was finally settled by the treaty
+of 1323, by which the full possession of West Zeeland
+was granted to William, who on his part renounced all claim in
+Imperial Flanders. The Amstelland with its capital, Amsterdam,
+which had hitherto been held as a fief of Utrecht, was by William,
+on the death of his uncle Bishop Guy, finally annexed to Holland.
+This count did much to encourage civic life and to develop the
+resources of the country. He had close relations through
+marriage with the three principal European dynasties of his
+time. His wife was Jeanne of Valois, niece of the French king;
+in 1323 the emperor Louis the Bavarian wedded his daughter
+Margaret; and in 1328 his third daughter, Philippa of Hainaut,
+was married to Edward III. of England. By their alliance
+William III. occupied a position of much dignity and influence,
+which he used to further the interests and increase the welfare
+of his hereditary lands. He was in all respects a great prince
+and a wise and prudent statesman. He was succeeded by his
+<span class="sidenote">William IV.</span>
+son, William IV., who was the ally of his brother-in-law,
+Edward III., in his French wars. He was fond of adventure,
+and in 1343 made a journey to the Holy Land in
+disguise, and on his way took part in an expedition of the
+knights of the Teutonic Order against the infidel Wends and
+Lithuanians. He was killed in battle against the Frisians in
+1345. He left no children, and the question as to the succession
+now brought on Holland a period of violent civil commotions.
+<span class="sidenote">The Empress Margaret.</span>
+His inheritance was claimed by his eldest sister,
+the empress Margaret, as well as by Philippa of
+Hainaut, or in other words, by Edward III. of England.
+Margaret came in person and was duly recognized
+as countess in Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut; but returned
+to her husband after appointing her second son (the eldest,
+Louis, renounced his rights) Duke William of Bavaria, as
+stadholder in her place. William was but sixteen, and disorder
+and confusion soon reigned in the land. The sudden death of
+the emperor in 1347 added to the difficulties of his position.
+In 1349 Margaret was induced to resign her sovereignty, and
+<span class="sidenote">William V. of the House of Bavaria.</span>
+the stadholder became count under the title of William
+V. This was the time of the formation of the famous
+parties in Holland, known as Kabbeljauws (Cods)
+and Hoeks (Hooks); the former, the burgher party,
+were the supporters of William (possibly the name was
+derived from the light blue, scaly looking Bavarian coat of
+arms), the latter the party of the disaffected nobles, who wanted
+to catch and devour the fat burgher fish. In 1350 such was
+the disorder in the land that Margaret, at the request of the nobles,
+came to Holland to take into her own hands the reins of government.
+The struggle between the nobles and the cities broke out
+into civil war. Edward III. came to Margaret&rsquo;s aid, winning
+a sea-fight off Veere in 1351; a few weeks later the Hooks
+and their English allies were defeated by William and the Cods
+at Vlaardingen&mdash;an overthrow which ruined Margaret&rsquo;s cause.
+Edward III. shortly afterwards changed sides, and the empress
+saw herself compelled (1354) to come to an understanding with
+her son, he being recognized as count of Holland and Zeeland,
+she of Hainaut. Margaret died two years later, leaving William,
+who had married Matilda of Lancaster, in possession of the
+entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance (July 1356). His tenure
+of power was, however, very brief. Before the close of 1357
+he showed such marked signs of insanity that his wife, with his
+<span class="sidenote">Albert of Bavaria.</span>
+own consent and the support of both parties, invited
+Duke Albert of Bavaria, younger brother of William
+V., to be regent, with the title of Ruward (1358).
+William lived in confinement for 31 years. Albert died
+in 1404, having ruled the land well and wisely for 46 years,
+first as Ruward, then as count. Despite outbreaks from time
+to time of the Hook and Cod troubles, he was able to make his
+authority respected, and to help forward in many ways the
+social progress of the country. The influence of the towns was
+steadily on the increase, and their government began to fall
+into the hands of the burgher patrician class, who formed the
+Cod party. Opposed to them were the nobility and the lower
+classes, forming the Hook party. In Albert&rsquo;s latter years a
+fresh outbreak of civil war (1392-1395) was caused by the count&rsquo;s
+espousing the side of the Cods, while the Hooks had the support
+of his eldest son, William. Albert was afterwards reconciled
+<span class="sidenote">William VI.<br />
+Jacqueline of Bavaria.</span>
+to his son, who succeeded him as William VI. in 1404.
+On his accession to power William upheld the Hooks,
+and secured their ascendancy. His reign was much
+troubled with civil discords, but he was a brave soldier, and was
+generally successful in his enterprises. He died in 1417, leaving
+an only child, a daughter, Jacqueline (or Jacoba),
+who had in her early youth been married to John,
+heir to the throne of France. At a gathering held at
+the Hague (August 15, 1416) the nobles and representatives
+of the cities of Holland and Zeeland had promised at
+William&rsquo;s request to support his daughter&rsquo;s claims to the succession.
+But John of France died (April 1417), and William VI.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span>
+about a month later, leaving the widowed Jacqueline at
+17 years of age face to face with a difficult situation. She
+was at first welcomed in Holland and Zeeland, but found
+her claims opposed by her uncle, John of Bavaria, supported
+by the Cod party. Every one from whom she might have
+expected help betrayed her in turn, her second husband John
+IV. of Brabant, her third husband Humphrey of Gloucester,
+her cousin Philip the Good of Burgundy, all behaved shamefully
+to her. Her romantic and sad life has rendered the courageous
+and accomplished Jacqueline the most picturesque figure in
+the whole history of Holland. She struggled long against her
+powerful kinsfolk, nor did she know happiness till near the end
+of her life, when she abandoned the unequal strife, and found
+repose with Francis of Borselen, Ruward of Holland, her fourth
+husband. Him Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, craftily
+seized; and thereby in 1433 the Duchess Jacqueline was compelled
+to cede her rights over the counties of Holland and
+Hainaut. Consequently at her death in 1436, as she left no
+<span class="sidenote">Accession of the Burgundian Dynasty.<br />
+Philip the Good.<br />
+Flourishing state of Holland.</span>
+children, Philip succeeded to the full and undisputed
+possession of her lands. He had already acquired by
+inheritance, purchase or force almost all the other
+Netherland states; and now, with the extinction of
+the Bavarian line of counts, Holland ceased to have
+an independent existence and became an outlying province
+of the growing Burgundian power (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgundy</a></span>). During
+the years that followed the accession to the sovereignty
+of Duke Philip, Holland plays but an insignificant
+part. It was governed by a stadholder, and but
+small respect was shown for its chartered rights and privileges.
+The quarrels between the Hook and Cod factions still continued,
+but the outbreaks of civil strife were quickly repressed by the
+strong hand of Philip. Holland during this time contented
+herself with growing material prosperity. Her
+herring fishery, rendered more valuable by the curing
+process discovered or introduced by Benkelszoon,
+brought her increasing wealth, and her fishermen
+were already laying the foundations of her future maritime
+greatness. It was in the days of Duke Philip that Lorenz
+Koster of Haarlem contributed his share to the discovery of
+printing. During the reign of Charles the Bold (1467-1477)
+<span class="sidenote">Charles the Bold.<br />
+Mary of Burgundy.</span>
+the Hollanders, like the other subjects of that warlike
+prince, suffered much from the burden of taxation
+An outbreak at Hoorn was by Charles sternly repressed.
+The Hollanders were much aggrieved by the establishment
+of a high court of justice for the entire Netherlands at Mechlin.
+(1474). This was regarded as a serious breach of their privileges.
+The succession of Mary of Burgundy led to the granting
+to Holland as to the other provinces of the Netherlands,
+of the Great Privilege of March 1477, which
+restored the most important of their ancient rights and liberties
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>). A high court of justice was established
+for Holland, Zeeland and Friesland, and the use of the native
+language was made official. The Hook and Cod troubles
+again disturbed the country. Hook uprisings took place at
+Leiden and Dordrecht and had to be repressed by armed
+force.</p>
+
+<p>By the sudden death of the Duchess Mary in 1482 her possessions,
+including the county of Holland, passed to her infant son
+Philip, under the guardianship of his father the Archduke
+Maximilian of Austria. Thus the Burgundian
+<span class="sidenote">Maximilian of Austria.<br />
+Philip II. the Fair.</span>
+dynasty was succeeded by that of the Habsburgs.
+During the regency of Maximilian the turbulence of
+the Hooks caused much strife and unrest in Holland. Their
+leaders. Francis of Brederode and John of Naaldwijk, seized
+Rotterdam and other places. Their overthrow finally ended
+the strife between Hooks and Cods. The &ldquo;Bread
+and Cheese War,&rdquo; an uprising of the peasants in
+North Holland caused by famine, is a proof of the
+misery caused by civil discords and oppressive taxation. In
+1494, Maximilian having been elected emperor, Philip was
+declared of age. His assumption of the government was greeted
+with joy in Holland, and in his reign the province enjoyed rest
+and its fisheries benefited from the commercial treaty concluded
+<span class="sidenote">The Emperor Charles V. (Charles III.).<br />
+Philip III.<br />
+William of Orange Stadholder.<br />
+The revolt of the Netherlands.<br />
+Union of Utrecht.<br />
+Abjuration of Philip&rsquo;s Sovereignty.</span>
+with England. The story of Holland during
+the long reign of his son and successor Charles III.
+(1506-1555), better known as the emperor Charles V.,
+belongs to the general history of the Netherlands
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>). On the abdication of Charles, his
+son Philip II. of Spain became Philip III., count of Holland, the
+ruler whose arbitrary rule in church and state brought about
+the revolt of the Netherlands. His appointment of
+William, prince of Orange, as stadholder of Holland
+and Zeeland was destined to have momentous results to the
+future of those provinces (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William the Silent</a></span>). The
+capture of Brill and of Flushing in 1572 by the Sea-Beggars
+led to the submission of the greater part of
+Holland and Zeeland to the authority of the prince
+of Orange, who, as stadholder, summoned the states
+of Holland to meet at Dordrecht. This act was the beginning of
+Dutch independence. From this time forward William made
+Holland his home. It became the bulwark of the
+Protestant faith in the Netherlands, the focus of the
+resistance to Spanish tyranny. The sieges of Haarlem,
+Alkmaar and Leiden saved Holland from being
+overwhelmed by the armies of Alva and Requesens and stemmed
+the tide of Spanish victory. The act of federation between
+Holland and Zeeland brought about by the influence
+of William was the germ of the larger union of Utrecht
+between the seven northern provinces in 1579. But
+within the larger union the inner and closer union between
+Holland and Zeeland continued to subsist. In 1580, when the
+sovereignty of the Netherlands was offered to the
+duke of Anjou, the two maritime provinces refused
+to acquiesce, and forced William to accept the title
+of count of Holland and Zeeland. In the following
+year William in the name of the two provinces
+solemnly abjured the sovereignty of the Spanish king (July 24).
+After the assassination of William (1584) the title of count of
+Holland was never revived.</p>
+
+<p>In the long struggle of the united provinces with Spain,
+which followed the death of Orange, the brunt of the conflict
+fell upon Holland. More than half the burden of the charges
+of the war fell upon this one province; and with Zeeland it
+furnished the fleets which formed the chief defence of the country.
+Hence the importance attached to the vote of Holland in the
+assembly of the States-General. That vote was given by deputies
+at the head of whom was the advocate (in later times called
+the grand pensionary) of Holland, and who were responsible to,
+and the spokesmen of, the provincial states. These states, which
+met at the Hague in the same building as the States-General,
+consisted of representatives of the burgher oligarchies (regents)
+of the principal towns, together with representatives of the
+nobles, who possessed one vote only. The advocate was the
+<span class="sidenote">Government of Holland.<br />
+Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.</span>
+paid minister of the states. He presided over their
+meetings, kept their minutes and conducted all
+correspondence, and, as stated above, was their
+spokesman in the States-General. The advocate (or
+grand pensionary) of Holland therefore, if an able man, had
+opportunities for exercising a very considerable influence,
+becoming in fact a kind of minister of all affairs. It was this
+influence as exerted by the successive advocates of
+Holland, Paul Buys and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt,
+which rendered abortive the well-meant efforts of the
+earl of Leicester to centralize the government of the
+United Provinces. After his departure (1587) the advocate of
+Holland, Oldenbarneveldt, became the indispensable statesman
+of the struggling republic. The multiplicity of his functions
+gave to the advocate an almost unlimited authority in the details
+of administration, and for thirty years the conduct of affairs
+remained in his hands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oldenbarneveldt</a></span>). This meant
+the undisputed hegemony of Holland in the federation, in other
+words of the burgher oligarchies who controlled the town corporations
+of the province, and especially of Amsterdam. This
+authority of Holland was, however, more than counterbalanced
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span>
+by the extensive powers with which the stadholder princes
+of Orange were invested; and the chief crises in the internal
+<span class="sidenote">Contest between the Principles of National and Provincial Sovereignty.</span>
+history of the Dutch republic are to be found in
+the struggles for supremacy between two, in reality,
+different principles of government. On the one side
+the principle of provincial sovereignty which gave to
+the voice of Holland a preponderating weight that was
+decisive; on the other side the principle of national
+sovereignty personified in the princes of Orange, to
+whom the States-General and the provincial states
+delegated executive powers that were little less than monarchical.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion of the twelve years&rsquo; truce in 1609 was a triumph
+for Oldenbarneveldt and the province of Holland over the
+opposition of Maurice, prince of Orange. In 1617 the
+outbreak of the religious dispute between the Remonstrant
+<span class="sidenote">Maurice Prince of Orange and John of Oldenbarneveldt.<br />
+Frederick Henry Prince of Orange.<br />
+William II. Prince of Orange.</span>
+and Contra-remonstrant parties brought on a
+life and death struggle between the sovereign province
+of Holland and the States-General of the union. The
+sword of Maurice decided the issue in favour of the
+States-General. The claims of Holland were overthrown
+and the head of Oldenbarneveldt fell upon the scaffold (1619).
+The stadholder, Frederick Henry of Orange, ruled with well-nigh
+monarchical authority (1625-1647), but even he at the
+height of his power and popularity had always to
+reckon with the opposition of the states of Holland
+and of Amsterdam, and many of his plans of campaign
+were thwarted by the refusal of the Hollanders to furnish supplies.
+His son William II. was but 21 years of age on succeeding
+to the stadholdership, and the states of Holland were
+sufficiently powerful to carry through the negotiations
+for the peace of Münster (1648) in spite of his opposition.
+A life and death conflict again ensued, and once
+more in 1650 the prince of Orange by armed force crushed the
+opposition of the Hollanders. The sudden death of William in
+the hour of his triumph caused a complete revolution in the
+government of the republic. He left no heir but a posthumous
+infant, and the party of the burgher regents of Holland was
+<span class="sidenote">John de Witt.</span>
+once more in the ascendant. The office of stadholder
+was abolished, and John de Witt, the grand pensionary
+(<i>Raad-Pensionaris</i>) of Holland, for two decades held
+in his hands all the threads of administration, and occupied the
+same position of undisputed authority in the councils of the land
+as Oldenbarneveldt had done at the beginning of the century.
+Amsterdam during this period was the centre and head of the
+United Provinces. The principle of provincial sovereignty was
+carried to its extreme point in the separate treaty concluded
+with Cromwell in 1654, in which the province of Holland agreed
+to exclude for ever the prince of Orange from the office of stadholder
+of Holland or captain-general of the union. In 1672
+<span class="sidenote">William III. Prince of Orange.</span>
+another revolution took place. John de Witt was
+murdered, and William III. was called to fill the office
+of dignity and authority which had been held by his
+ancestors of the house of Orange, and the stadholdership
+was declared to be hereditary in his family. But William
+died without issue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span>) and a stadholderless period,
+during which the province of Holland was supreme in the union,
+followed till 1737. This change was effected smoothly, for
+though William had many differences with Amsterdam, he had
+in Anthony Heinsius (van der Heim), who was grand pensionary
+of Holland from 1690 to his death in 1720, a statesman whom
+he thoroughly trusted, who worked with him in the furtherance
+of his policy during life and who continued to carry out that
+policy after his death. In 1737 there was once more a reversion
+<span class="sidenote">William IV. Prince of Orange.</span>
+to the stadholdership in the person of William IV.,
+whose powers were strengthened and declared hereditary
+both in the male and female line in 1747. But
+until the final destruction of the federal republic by
+the French armies, the perennial struggle went on between the
+Holland or federal party (<i>Staatsgesinden</i>) centred at Amsterdam&mdash;out
+of which grew the patriot party under William V.&mdash;and the
+Orange or unionist party (<i>Oranjegesinden</i>), which was strong in
+the smaller provinces and had much popular support among
+the lower classes. The French conquest swept away the old
+condition of things never to reappear; but allegiance to the
+Orange dynasty survived, and in 1813 became the rallying
+point of a united Dutch people. At the same time the leading
+part played by the province of Holland in the history of the
+republic has not been unrecognized, for the country ruled over
+by the sovereigns of the house of Orange is always popularly,
+and often officially, known as Holland.</p>
+
+<p>The full title of the states of Holland in the 17th and 18th
+centuries was: <i>de Edele Groot Mogende Heeren Staaten van
+Holland en Westfriesland</i>. After 1608 this assembly
+consisted of nineteen members, one representing the
+<span class="sidenote">Constitution of the States of Holland.</span>
+nobility (<i>ridderschap</i>), and eighteen, the towns. The
+member for the nobles had precedence and voted first.
+The interests of the country districts (<i>het platte land</i>)
+were the peculiar charges of the member for the nobles.
+The nobles also retained the right of appointing representatives
+to sit in the College of Deputed Councillors, in certain
+colleges of the admiralty, and upon the board of directors of
+the East India Company, and to various public offices. The
+following eighteen towns sent representatives: South Quarter&mdash;(1)
+Dordrecht, (2) Haarlem, (3) Delft, (4) Leiden, (5) Amsterdam,
+(6) Gouda, (7) Rotterdam, (8) Gorinchem, (9) Schiedam, (10)
+Schoonhoven, (11) Brill; North Quarter:&mdash;(12) Alkmaar,
+(13) Hoorn, (14) Enkhuizen, (15) Edam, (16) Monnikendam,
+(17) Medemblik, (18) Purmerend. Each town (as did also the
+nobles) sent as many representatives as they pleased, but the
+nineteen members had only one vote each. Each town&rsquo;s deputation
+was headed by its pensionary, who was the spokesman
+on behalf of the representatives. Certain questions such as
+peace and war, voting of subsidies, imposition of taxation,
+changes in the mode of government, &amp;c., required unanimity
+of votes. The grand pensionary (<i>Raad-Pensionaris</i>)
+<span class="sidenote">The Grand Pensionary.</span>
+was at once the president and chief administrative
+officer of the states. He presided over all meetings,
+conducted the business, kept the minutes, and was
+charged with the maintenance of the rights of the states, with the
+execution of their resolutions and with the entire correspondence.
+Nor were his functions only provincial. He was the head and
+the spokesman of the deputation of the states to the States-General
+of the union; and in the stadholderless period the
+influence of such grand pensionaries of Holland as John de Witt
+and Anthony Heinsius enabled the complicated and intricate
+machinery of government in a confederacy of many sovereign
+and semi-sovereign authorities without any recognized head
+of the state, to work with comparative smoothness and a remarkable
+unity of policy. This was secured by the indisputable
+predominance in the union of the province of Holland. The
+policy of the states of Holland swayed the policy of the generality,
+and historical circumstances decreed that the policy of the
+states of Holland during long and critical periods should be
+controlled by a succession of remarkable men filling the office
+of grand pensionary. The states of Holland sat at the Hague in
+the months of March, July, September and November. During
+the periods of prorogation the continuous oversight of the business
+and interests of the province was, however, never neglected.
+<span class="sidenote">College of Deputed Councillors.</span>
+This duty was confided to a body called the College
+of Deputed Councillors (<i>het Kollegie der Gekommitteerde
+Raden</i>), which was itself divided into two sections,
+one for the south quarter, another for the north
+quarter. The more important&mdash;that for the south quarter&mdash;consisted
+of ten members, (1) the senior member of the
+nobility, who sat for life, (2) representatives (for periods of three
+years) of the eight towns: Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft, Leiden,
+Amsterdam, Gouda, Rotterdam and Gorinchem, with a tenth
+member (usually elected biennially) for the towns of Schiedam,
+Schoonhoven and Brill conjointly. The grand pensionary
+presided over the meetings of the college, which had the general
+charge of the whole provincial administration, especially of
+finance, the carrying out of the resolutions of the states, the
+maintenance of defences, and the upholding of the privileges
+and liberties of the land. With particular regard to this last-named
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span>
+duty the college deputed two of its members to attend
+all meetings of the states-general, to watch the proceedings and
+report at once any proposals which they held to be contrary
+to the interests or to infringe upon the rights of the province
+of Holland. The institution of the College of Deputed Councillors
+might thus be described as a vigilance committee of the states in
+perpetual session. The existence of the college, with its many
+weighty and important functions, must never be lost sight of
+by students who desire to have a clear understanding of the
+remarkable part played by the province of Holland in the history
+of the United Netherlands.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a city of Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
+Macatawa Bay (formerly called Black Lake), near Lake Michigan,
+and 25 m. W.S.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 3945; (1900)
+7790, of whom a large portion were of Dutch descent; (1904) 8966;
+(1910) 10,490. It is served by the Père Marquette Railroad,
+by steamboat lines to Chicago and other lake ports, and by
+electric lines connecting with Grand Rapids, Saugatuck, and the
+neighbouring summer resorts. On Macatawa Bay are Ottawa
+Beach, Macatawa Park, Jenison Park, Central Park, Castle
+Park and Waukezoo. In the city itself are Hope College
+(co-educational; founded in 1851 and incorporated as a college
+in 1866), an institution of the (Dutch) Reformed Church in
+America; and the Western Theological Seminary (1869;
+suspended 1877-1884) of the same denomination. Holland is a
+grain and fruit shipping centre, and among its manufactures
+are furniture, leather, grist mill products, iron, beer, pickles,
+shoes, beet sugar, gelatine, biscuit (Holland rusk), electric and
+steam launches, and pianos. In 1908 seven weekly, one daily,
+and two monthly papers (four denominational) were published
+at Holland, five of them in Dutch. The municipality owns its
+water-works and electric-lighting plant. Holland was founded
+in 1847 by Dutch settlers, under the leadership of the Rev.
+A. C. Van Raalte, and was chartered as a city in 1867. In 1871
+much of it was destroyed by a forest fire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAND,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> a cloth so called from the country where it was
+first made. It was originally a fine plain linen fabric of a brownish
+colour&mdash;unbleached flax. Several varieties are now made:
+hollands, pale hollands and fine hollands. They are used for
+aprons, blinds, shirts, blouses and dresses.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLAR, WENZEL<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> or <b>WENCESLAUS</b> [<span class="sc">Vaclaf Holar</span>] (1607-1677),
+Bohemian etcher, was born at Prague on the 13th of July
+1607, and died in London, being buried at St Margaret&rsquo;s church,
+Westminster, on the 28th of March 1677. His family was
+ruined by the capture of Prague in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and
+young Hollar, who had been destined for the law, determined
+to become an artist. The earliest of his works that have come
+down to us are dated 1625 and 1626; they are small plates,
+and one of them is a copy of a Virgin and Child by Dürer, whose
+influence upon Hollar&rsquo;s work was always great. In 1627 he was
+at Frankfort, working under Matthew Merian, an etcher and
+engraver; thence he passed to Strassburg, and thence, in 1633,
+to Cologne. It was there that he attracted the notice of the
+famous amateur Thomas, earl of Arundel, then on an embassy
+to the imperial court; and with him Hollar travelled to Vienna
+and Prague, and finally came in 1637 to England, destined to
+be his home for many years. Though he lived in the household
+of Lord Arundel, he seems to have worked not exclusively for
+him, but to have begun that slavery to the publishers which was
+afterwards the normal condition of his life. In his first year in
+England he made for Stent, the printseller, the magnificent
+View of Greenwich, nearly a yard long, and received thirty
+shillings for the plate,&mdash;perhaps a twentieth part of what would
+now be paid for a single good impression. Afterwards we hear
+of his fixing the price of his work at fourpence an hour, and
+measuring his time by a sandglass. The Civil War had its effect
+on his fortunes, but none on his industry. Lord Arundel left
+England in 1642, and Hollar passed into the service of the
+duke of York, taking with him a wife and two children. With
+other royalist artists, notably Inigo Jones and Faithorne, he
+stood the long and eventful siege of Basing House; and as we
+have some hundred plates from his hand dated during the years
+1643 and 1644 he must have turned his enforced leisure to good
+purpose. Taken prisoner, he escaped or was released, and joined
+Lord Arundel at Antwerp, and there he remained eight years,
+the prime of his working life, when he produced his finest plates
+of every kind, his noblest views, his miraculous &ldquo;muffs&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;shells,&rdquo; and the superb portrait of the duke of York. In 1652
+he returned to London, and lived for a time with Faithorne the
+engraver near Temple Bar. During the following years were
+published many books which he illustrated:&mdash;Ogilby&rsquo;s <i>Virgil</i>
+and <i>Homer</i>, Stapylton&rsquo;s <i>Juvenal</i>, and Dugdale&rsquo;s <i>Warwickshire</i>,
+<i>St Paul&rsquo;s</i> and <i>Monasticon</i> (part i.). The booksellers continued
+to impose on the simple-minded foreigner, pretending to decline
+his work that he might still further reduce the wretched price
+he charged them. Nor did the Restoration improve his position.
+The court did nothing for him, and in the great plague he lost
+his young son, who, we are told, might have rivalled his father
+as an artist. After the great fire he produced some of his famous
+&ldquo;Views of London&rdquo;; and it may have been the success of these
+plates which induced the king to send him, in 1668, to Tangier,
+to draw the town and forts. During his return to England
+occurred the desperate and successful engagement fought by his
+ship the &ldquo;Mary Rose,&rdquo; under Captain Kempthorne, against
+seven Algerine men-of-war,&mdash;a brilliant affair which Hollar
+etched for Ogilby&rsquo;s <i>Africa</i>. He lived eight years after his
+return, still working for the booksellers, and retaining to the end
+his wonderful powers; witness the large plate of Edinburgh
+(dated 1670), one of the greatest of his works. He died in extreme
+poverty, his last recorded words being a request to the bailiffs
+that they would not carry away the bed on which he was dying.</p>
+
+<p>Hollar&rsquo;s variety was boundless; his plates number some 2740,
+and include views, portraits, ships, religious subjects, heraldic
+subjects, landscapes, and still life in a hundred different forms.
+No one that ever lived has been able to represent fur, or shells,
+or a butterfly&rsquo;s wing as he has done. His architectural drawings,
+such as those of Antwerp and Strassburg cathedrals, and his
+views of towns, are mathematically exact, but they are pictures
+as well. He could reproduce the decorative works of other
+artists quite faultlessly, as in the famous chalice after Mantegna&rsquo;s
+drawing. His <i>Theatrum mulierum</i> and similar collections
+reproduce for us with literal truth the outward aspects of the
+people of his day; and his portraits, a branch of art in which
+he has been unfairly disparaged, are of extraordinary refinement
+and power.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Almost complete collections of Hollar&rsquo;s works exist in the British
+Museum and in the library at Windsor Castle. Two admirable
+catalogues of his plates have been made, one in 1745 (2nd ed. 1759)
+by George Vertue, and one in 1853 by Parthey. The latter, published
+at Berlin, is a model of German thoroughness and accuracy.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1599-1680), English
+statesman and writer, second son of John Holles, 1st earl of
+Clare (<i>c.</i> 1564-1637), by Anne, daughter of Sir Thomas Stanhope,
+was born on the 31st of October 1599. The favourite son of his
+father and endowed with great natural abilities, Denzil Holles
+grew up under advantageous circumstances. Destined to
+become later one of the most formidable antagonists of King
+Charles&rsquo;s arbitrary government, he was in early youth that
+prince&rsquo;s playmate and intimate companion. The earl of Clare
+was, however, no friend to the Stuart administration, being
+especially hostile to the duke of Buckingham; and on the
+accession of Charles to the throne the king&rsquo;s offers of favour
+were rejected. In 1624 Holles was returned to parliament for
+Mitchell in Cornwall, and in 1628 for Dorchester. He had from
+the first a keen sense of the humiliations which attended the
+foreign policy of the Stuart kings. Writing to Strafford, his
+brother-in-law, on the 29th of November 1627, he severely
+censures Buckingham&rsquo;s conduct of the expedition to the Isle
+of Rhé; &ldquo;since England was England,&rdquo; the declared, &ldquo;it
+received not so dishonourable a blow&rdquo;; and he joined in the
+demand for Buckingham&rsquo;s impeachment in 1628. To these
+discontents were now added the abuses arising from the king&rsquo;s
+arbitrary administration. On the 2nd of March 1629, when
+Sir John Finch, the speaker, refused to put Sir John Eliot&rsquo;s
+Protestations and was about to adjourn the House by the king&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span>
+command, Holles with another member thrust him back into
+the chair and swore &ldquo;he should sit still till it pleased them to
+rise.&rdquo; Meanwhile Eliot, on the refusal of the speaker to read
+the Protestations, had himself thrown them into the fire; the
+usher of the black rod was knocking at the door for admittance,
+and the king had sent for the guard. But Holles, declaring that
+he could not render the king or his country better service, put
+the Protestations to the House from memory, all the members
+rising to their feet and applauding. In consequence a warrant
+was issued for his arrest with others on the following day.
+They were prosecuted first in the Star Chamber and subsequently
+in the King&rsquo;s Bench. When brought upon his <i>habeas corpus</i>
+before the latter court Holles offered with the rest to give bail,
+but refused sureties for good behaviour, and argued that the
+court had no jurisdiction over offences supposed to have been
+committed in parliament. On his refusal to plead he was
+sentenced to a fine of 1000 marks and to imprisonment during
+the king&rsquo;s pleasure. Holles had at first been committed and
+remained for some time a close prisoner in the Tower of London.
+The &ldquo;close&rdquo; confinement, however, was soon changed to a
+&ldquo;safe&rdquo; one, the prisoner then having leave to take the air and
+exercise, but being obliged to maintain himself at his own expense.
+On the 29th of October Holles, with Eliot and Valentine, was
+transferred to the Marshalsea. His resistance to the king&rsquo;s
+tyranny did not prove so stout as that of some of his comrades
+in misfortune. Among the papers of the secretary Sir John
+Coke is a petition of Holles, couched in humble and submissive
+terms, to be restored to the king&rsquo;s favour;<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> having given the
+security demanded for his good behaviour, he was liberated
+early in 1630, and on the 30th of October was allowed bail.
+Being still banished from London he retired to the country,
+paying his fine in 1637 or 1638. The fine was repaid by the
+parliament in July 1644, and the judgment was revised on a
+writ of error in 1668. In 1638 we find him, notwithstanding
+his recent experiences, one of the chief leaders in his county
+of the resistance to ship money, though it would appear that
+he subsequently made submission.</p>
+
+<p>Holles was a member of the Short and Long Parliaments
+assembled in 1640. According to Laud he was now &ldquo;one of the
+great leading men in the House of Commons,&rdquo; and in Clarendon&rsquo;s
+opinion he was &ldquo;a man of more accomplished parts than any
+of his party&rdquo; and of most authority. He was not, however,
+in the confidence of the republican party. Though he was at
+first named one of the managers for the impeachment of Strafford,
+Holles had little share in his prosecution. According to Laud
+he held out to Strafford hopes of saving his life if he would use
+his influence with the king to abolish episcopacy, but the earl
+refused, and Holles advised Charles that Strafford should demand
+a short respite, of which he would take advantage to procure
+a commutation of the death sentence. In the debate on the
+attainder he spoke on behalf of Strafford&rsquo;s family, and later
+obtained some favours from the parliament for his eldest son.
+In all other matters in parliament Holles took a principal part.
+He was one of the chief movers of the Protestation of the 3rd
+of May 1641, which he carried up to the Lords, urging them to
+give it their approval. Although, according to Clarendon,
+he did not wish to change the government of the church, he
+showed himself at this time decidedly hostile to the bishops.
+He took up the impeachment of Laud to the House of Peers,
+supported the Londoners&rsquo; petition for the abolition of episcopacy
+and the Root and Branch Bill, and afterwards urged that the
+bishops impeached for their conduct in the affair of the late
+canons should be accused of treason. He showed equal energy
+in the affairs of Ireland at the outbreak of the rebellion, supported
+strongly the independence and purity of the judicial bench,
+and opposed toleration of the Roman Catholics. On the 9th
+of July 1641 he addressed the Lords on behalf of the queen of
+Bohemia, expressing great loyalty to the king and royal family
+and urging the necessity of supporting the Protestant religion
+everywhere. Together with Pym, Holles drew up the Grand
+Remonstrance, and made a vigorous speech in its support on
+the 22nd of November 1641, in which he argued for the right
+of one House to make a declaration, and asserted: &ldquo;If kings
+are misled by their counsellors we may, we must tell them of
+it.&rdquo; On the 15th of December he was a teller in the division
+in favour of printing it. On the great subject of the militia
+he also showed activity. He supported Hesilriges&rsquo; Militia Bill
+of the 7th of December 1641, and on the 31st of December he
+took up to the king the Commons&rsquo; demand for a guard under
+the command of Essex. &ldquo;Holles&rsquo;s force and reputation,&rdquo;
+said Sir Ralph Verney, &ldquo;are the two things that give the success
+to all actions.&rdquo; After the failure of the attempt by the court
+to gain over Holles and others by offering them posts in the
+administration, he was one of the &ldquo;five members&rdquo; impeached
+by the king.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Holles at once grasped the full significance of the
+king&rsquo;s action, and after the triumphant return to the House
+of the five members, on the 11th of January, threw himself
+into still more pronounced opposition to the arbitrary policy
+of the crown. He demanded that before anything further was
+done the members should be cleared of their impeachment;
+was himself leader in the impeachment of the duke of Richmond;
+and on the 31st of January, when taking up the militia petition
+to the House of Lords, he adopted a very menacing tone, at the
+same time presenting a petition of some thousands of supposed
+starving artificers of London, congregated round the House.
+On the 15th of June he carried up the impeachment of the nine
+Lords who had deserted the parliament; and he was one of
+the committee of safety appointed on the 4th of July.</p>
+
+<p>On the outbreak of the Civil War (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></span>)
+Holles, who had been made lieutenant of Bristol, was sent
+with Bedford to the west against the marquess of Hertford,
+and took part in the unsuccessful siege of the latter at Sherborne
+Castle. He was present at Edgehill, where his regiment of
+Puritans recruited in London was one of the few which stood
+firm and saved the day for the parliament. On the 13th of
+November his men were surprised at Brentford during his
+absence, and routed after a stout resistance. In December
+he was proposed for the command of the forces in the west,
+an appointment which he appears to have refused. Notwithstanding
+his activity in the field for the cause of the parliament,
+the appeal to arms had been distasteful to Holles from the
+first. As early as September he surprised the House by the
+marked abatement of his former &ldquo;violent and fiery spirit,&rdquo;
+and his changed attitude did not escape the taunts of his enemies,
+who attributed it scornfully to his disaster at Brentford or to
+his new wife. He probably foresaw that, to whichever side
+victory fell, the struggle could only terminate in the suppression
+of the constitution and of the moderate party on which all his
+hopes were based. His feelings and political opinions, too,
+were essentially aristocratic, and he regarded with horror the
+transference of the government of the state from the king and
+the ruling families to the parliamentary leaders. He now
+advocated peace and a settlement of the disputes by concessions
+on both sides; a proposal full of danger because impracticable,
+and one therefore which could only weaken the parliamentary
+resistance and prolong the struggle. He warmly supported
+the peace negotiations on the 21st of November and the 22nd
+of December, and his attitude led to a breach with Pym and the
+more determined party. In June 1643 he was accused of
+complicity in Waller&rsquo;s plot, but swore to his innocency; and
+his arrest with others of the peace party was even proposed
+in August, when Holles applied for a pass to leave the country.
+The king&rsquo;s successes, however, for the moment put a stop to
+all hopes of peace; and in April 1644 Holles addressed the
+citizens of London at the Guildhall, calling upon them &ldquo;to
+join with their purses, their persons, and their prayers together&rdquo;
+to support the army of Essex. In November Holles and Whitelocke
+headed the commission appointed to treat with the king
+at Oxford. He endeavoured to convince the royalists of the
+necessity of yielding in time, before the &ldquo;new party of hot men&rdquo;
+should gain the upper hand. Holles and Whitelocke had a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span>
+private meeting with the king, when at Charles&rsquo;s request they
+drew up the answer which they advised him to return to the
+parliament. This interview was not communicated to the other
+commissioners or to parliament, and though doubtless their
+motives were thoroughly patriotic, their action was scarcely
+compatible with their position as trustees of the parliamentary
+cause. Holles was also appointed a commissioner at Uxbridge
+in January 1645 and endeavoured to overcome the crucial
+difficulty of the militia by postponing its discussion altogether.
+As leader of the moderate (or Presbyterian) party Holles now
+came into violent antagonism with Cromwell and the army
+faction. &ldquo;They hated one another equally&rdquo;; and Holles
+would not allow any merit in Cromwell, accusing him of cowardice
+and attributing his successes to chance and good fortune.
+With the support of Essex and the Scottish commissioners
+Holles endeavoured in December 1644 to procure Cromwell&rsquo;s
+impeachment as an incendiary between the two nations, and
+&ldquo;passionately&rdquo; opposed the self-denying ordinance. In return
+Holles was charged with having held secret communications
+with the king at Oxford and with a correspondence with Lord
+Digby; but after a long examination by the House he was
+pronounced innocent on the 19th of July 1645. Determined
+on Cromwell&rsquo;s destruction, he refused to listen to the prudent
+counsels of Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, who urged that Cromwell
+was too strong to be resisted or provoked, and on the 29th of
+March 1647 drew up in parliament a hasty proclamation declaring
+the promoters of the army petition enemies to the state; in
+April challenging Ireton to a duel.</p>
+
+<p>The army party was now thoroughly exasperated against
+Holles. &ldquo;They were resolved one way or other to be rid of
+him,&rdquo; says Clarendon. On the 16th of June 1647 eleven members
+including Holles were charged by the army with various offences
+against the state, followed on the 23rd by fresh demands for
+their impeachment and for their suspension, which was refused.
+On the 26th, however, the eleven members, to avoid violence,
+asked leave to withdraw. Their reply to the charges against
+them was handed into the House on the 19th of July, and on
+the 20th Holles took leave of the House in <i>A grave and learned
+speech...</i>. After the riot of the apprentices on the 26th, for
+which Holles disclaimed any responsibility, the eleven members
+were again (30th of July) recalled to their seats, and Holles was
+one of the committee of safety appointed. On the flight of the
+speaker, however, and part of the parliament to the army, and
+the advance of the latter to London, Holles, whose party and
+policy were now entirely defeated, left England on the 22nd of
+August for Sainte-Mère <span class="correction" title="amended from Eglide">Eglise</span> in Normandy. On the 26th of
+January 1648 the eleven members, who had not appeared
+when summoned to answer the charges against them, were
+expelled. Not long afterwards, however, on the 3rd of June,
+these proceedings were annulled; and Holles, who had then
+returned and was a prisoner in the Tower with the rest of the
+eleven members, was discharged. He returned to his seat on
+the 14th of August.</p>
+
+<p>Holles was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with
+the king at Newport on the 18th of September 1648. Aware
+of the plans of the extreme party, Holles threw himself at the
+king&rsquo;s feet and implored him not to waste time in useless negotiations,
+and he was one of those who stayed behind the rest in
+order to urge Charles to compliance. On the 1st of December
+he received the thanks of the House. On the occasion of Pride&rsquo;s
+Purge on the 6th of December Holles absented himself and
+escaped again to France. From his retirement there he wrote
+to Charles II. in 1651, advising him to come to terms with the
+Scots as the only means of effecting a restoration; but after
+the alliance he refused Charles&rsquo;s offer of the secretaryship of
+state. In March 1654 Cromwell, who in alarm at the plots being
+formed against him was attempting to reconcile some of his
+opponents to his government, sent Holles a pass &ldquo;with notable
+circumstances of kindness and esteem.&rdquo; His subsequent movements
+and the date of his return to England are uncertain, but in
+1656 Cromwell&rsquo;s resentment was again excited against him as
+the supposed author of a tract, really written by Clarendon.
+He appears to have been imprisoned, for his release was ordered
+by the council on the 2nd of September 1659.</p>
+
+<p>Holles took part in the conference with Monk at Northumberland
+House, when the Restoration was directly proposed, and
+with the secluded members took his seat again in parliament on
+the 21st of February 1660. On the 23rd of February he was
+chosen one of the council to carry on the government during
+the interregnum; on the 2nd of March the votes passed against
+him and the sequestration of his estates were repealed, and on
+the 7th he was made custos rotulorum for Dorsetshire. He
+took a leading part in bringing about the Restoration, was
+chairman of the committee of seven appointed to prepare an
+answer to the king&rsquo;s letter, and as one of the deputed Lords
+and Commons he delivered at the Hague the invitation to Charles
+to return. He preceded Charles to England to prepare for his
+reception, and was sworn of the privy council on the 5th of June.
+He was one of the thirty-four commissioners appointed to try
+the regicides in September and October. On the 20th of April
+1661 he was created Baron Holles of Ifield in Sussex, and became
+henceforth one of the leading members of the Upper House.</p>
+
+<p>Holles, who was a good French scholar, was sent as ambassador
+to France on the 7th of July 1663. He was ostentatiously
+English, and a zealous upholder of the national honour and
+interests; but his position was rendered difficult by the absence
+of home support. On the 27th of January 1666 war was declared,
+but Holles was not recalled till May. Pepys remarks on the
+14th of November: &ldquo;Sir G. Cartaret tells me that just now my
+Lord Holles had been with him and wept to think in what a
+condition we are fallen.&rdquo; Soon afterwards he was employed
+on another disagreeable mission in which the national honour
+was again at stake, being sent to Breda to make a peace with
+Holland in May 1667. He accomplished his task successfully,
+the articles being signed on the 21st of June.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th of December he protested against Lord Clarendon&rsquo;s
+banishment and was nearly put out of the council in consequence.
+In 1668 he was manager for the Lords in the celebrated Skinner&rsquo;s
+case, in which his knowledge of precedents was of great service,
+and on which occasion he published the tract <i>The Grand
+Question concerning the Judicature of the House of Peeres</i> (1669).
+Holles, who was honourably distinguished by Charles as a &ldquo;stiff
+and sullen man,&rdquo; and as one who would not yield to solicitation,
+now became with Halifax and Shaftesbury a leader in the
+resistance to the domestic and foreign policy of the court.
+Together with Halifax he opposed both the arbitrary Conventicle
+Act of 1670 and the Test Oath of 1675, his objection to the
+latter being chiefly founded on the invasion of the privileges
+of the peers which it involved; and he defended with vigour
+the right of the Peers to record their protests. On the 7th of
+January 1676 Holles with Halifax was summarily dismissed
+from the council. On the occasion of the Commons petitioning
+the king in favour of an alliance with the Dutch, Holles addressed
+a Letter to Van Beuninghen at Amsterdam on &ldquo;Love to our
+Country and Hatred of a Common Enemy,&rdquo; enlarging upon the
+necessity of uniting in a common defence against French aggression
+and in support of the Protestant religion. &ldquo;The People
+are strong but the Government is weak,&rdquo; he declares; and he
+attributes the cause of weakness to the transference of power
+from the nobility to the people, and to a succession of three weak
+princes. &ldquo;Save what (the Parliament) did, we have not taken
+one true step nor struck one true stroke since Queen Elizabeth.&rdquo;
+He endeavoured to embarrass the government this year in his
+tract on <i>Some Considerations upon the Question whether the
+parliament is dissolved by its prorogation for 15 months</i>. It was
+held by the Lords to be seditious and scandalous; while for
+publishing another pamphlet written by Holles entitled <i>The
+Grand Question concerning the Prorogation of this Parliament</i>
+(otherwise <i>The Long Parliament dissolved</i>) the corrector of the
+proof sheets was committed to the Tower and fined £1000.
+In order to bring about the downfall of Danby (afterwards duke
+of Leeds) and the disbanding of the army, which he believed
+to be intended for the suppression of the national liberties, Holles
+at this time (1677-1679) engaged, as did many others, in a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span>
+dangerous intrigue with Courtin and Barillon, the French envoys,
+and Louis XIV.; he refused, however, the latter&rsquo;s presents on
+the ground that he was a member of the council, having been
+appointed to Sir William Temple&rsquo;s new modelled cabinet in
+1679. Barillon described him as at this period in his old age
+&ldquo;the man of all England for whom the different cabals have the
+most consideration,&rdquo; and as firmly opposed to the arbitrary
+designs of the court. He showed moderation in the Popish
+Plot, and on the question of the exclusion followed Halifax
+rather than Shaftesbury. His long and eventful career closed
+by his death on the 17th of February 1680.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Holles has been drawn by Burnet, with whom
+he was on terms of friendship. &ldquo;Hollis was a man of great
+courage and of as great pride.... He was faithful and firm to his
+side and never changed through the whole course of his life....
+He argued well but too vehemently; for he could not bear
+contradiction. He had the soul of an old stubborn Roman
+in him. He was a faithful but a rough friend, and a severe
+but fair enemy. He had a true sense of religion; and was a
+man of an unblameable course of life and of a sound judgment
+when it was not biased by passion.&rdquo;<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Holles was essentially
+an aristocrat and a Whig in feeling, making Cromwell&rsquo;s supposed
+hatred of &ldquo;Lords&rdquo; a special charge against him; regarding the
+civil wars rather as a social than as a political revolution, and
+attributing all the evils of his time to the transference of political
+power from the governing families to the &ldquo;meanest of men.&rdquo;
+He was an authority on the history and practice of parliament
+and the constitution, and besides the pamphlets already mentioned
+was the author of <i>The Case Stated concerning the Judicature
+of the House of Peers in the Point of Appeals</i> (1675); <i>The Case
+Stated of the Jurisdiction of the House of Lords in the point of
+Impositions</i> (1676); <i>Letter of a Gentleman to his Friend showing
+that the Bishops are not to be judges in Parliament in Cases Capital</i>
+(1679); <i>Lord Holles his Remains, being a 2nd letter to a Friend
+concerning the judicature of the Bishops in Parliament...</i>.<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> He
+also published <i>A True Relation of the unjust accusation of certain
+French gentlemen</i> (1671), an account of Holles&rsquo;s intercession on
+their behalf and of his dispute with Lord Chief Justice Keeling;
+and he left <i>Memoirs</i>, written in exile in 1649, and dedicated
+&ldquo;to the unparalleled Couple, Mr Oliver St John ... and Mr
+Oliver Cromwell....&rdquo; published in 1699 and reprinted in Baron
+Maseres&rsquo;s <i>Select Tracts relating to the Civil Wars</i>, i. 189. Several
+speeches of Holles were printed and are extant, and his Letter
+to Van Beuninghen has been already quoted.</p>
+
+<p>Holles married (1) in 1628 Dorothy, daughter and heiress of
+Sir Francis Ashley; (2) in 1642 Jane, daughter and co-heiress of
+Sir John Shirley of Ifield in Sussex and widow of Sir Walter
+Covert of Slougham, Sussex; and (3) in 1666 Esther, daughter
+and co-heiress of Gideon Le Lou of Columbiers in Normandy,
+widow of James Richer. By his first wife he left one son, Francis,
+who succeeded him as 2nd baron. He had no children by his
+other wives, and the peerage became extinct in the person of
+his grandson Denzil, 3rd Baron Holles, in 1694, the estates
+devolving on John Holles (1662-1711), 4th earl of Clare and duke
+of Newcastle.</p>
+
+<p>Holles&rsquo;s brother, <span class="sc">John Holles</span>, 2nd earl of Clare (1595-1666),
+was member of parliament for East Retford in three parliaments
+before succeeding to the peerage in 1637. He took some part in
+the Civil War, but &ldquo;he was very often of both parties, and never
+advantaged either.&rdquo; The earldom of Clare, which had been
+granted in 1624 by James I. to his father, John Holles, in return
+for the payment of £5000, became merged in the dukedom of
+Newcastle in 1694, when John Holles, the 4th earl, was created
+duke of Newcastle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Holles&rsquo;s Life has been written by C. H. Firth in the <i>Dictionary
+of National Biography</i>; by Horace Walpole in <i>Royal and Noble
+Authors</i>, ii. 28; by Guizot in <i>Monk&rsquo;s Contemporaries</i> (Eng. trans.,
+1851); and by A. Collins in <i>Historical Collections of Noble Families</i>
+(1752), and in the <i>Biographia Britannica</i>. See also S. R. Gardiner,
+<i>History of England</i> (1883-1884), and <i>History of the Great Civil War</i>
+(1893); Lord Clarendon, <i>History of the Rebellion</i>, edited by W. D.
+Macray; G. Burnet, <i>History of His Own Time</i> (1833); and B. Whitelock,
+<i>Memorials</i> (1732).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Earl Cowper</i>, i. 422.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The speech of January 5 attributed to him and printed in
+<i>Thomason Tracts</i>, E 199 (55), is a forgery.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Burnet&rsquo;s <i>History of His Own Times</i>, vi. 257, 268.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The rough draft, apparently in Holles&rsquo;s handwriting, is in <i>Egerton
+MSS.</i> ff. 136-149.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLOWAY, THOMAS<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1800-1883), English patent-medicine
+vendor and philanthropist, was born at Devonport, on the 22nd
+of September 1800, of humble parents. Until his twenty-eighth
+year he lived at Penzance, where he assisted his mother and
+brother in the baker&rsquo;s shop which his father, once a warrant
+officer in a militia regiment, had left them at his death. On
+coming to London he made the acquaintance of Felix Albinolo,
+an Italian, from whom he obtained the idea for the ointment
+which was to carry his name all over the world. The secret of
+his enormous success in business was due almost entirely to
+advertisement, in the efficacy of which he had great faith. He
+soon added the sale of pills to that of the ointment, and began
+to devote the larger part of his profits to advertising. Holloway&rsquo;s
+first newspaper announcement appeared on the 15th of October
+1837, and in 1842 his yearly expenses for publicity had reached
+the sum of £5000; this expenditure went on steadily increasing
+as his sales increased, until it had reached the figure of £50,000
+per annum at the time of his death. It is, however, chiefly
+by the two princely foundations&mdash;the Sanatorium and the
+College for Women at Egham (q.v.), endowed by Holloway
+towards the close of his life&mdash;that his name will be perpetuated,
+more than a million sterling having been set apart by him for the
+erection and permanent endowment of these institutions. In
+the deed of gift of the college the founder credited his wife, who
+died in 1875, with the advice and counsel that led him to provide
+what he hoped might ultimately become the nucleus of a university
+for women. The philanthropic and somewhat eccentric
+donor (he had an unconcealed prejudice against doctors, lawyers
+and parsons) died of congestion of the lungs at Sunninghill on
+the 26th of December 1883.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLY<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (<i>Ilex Aquifolium</i>), the European representative of a
+large genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Ilicineae,
+containing about 170 species. The genus finds its chief development
+in Central and South America; is well developed in Asia,
+especially the Chinese-Japanese area, and has but few species
+in Europe, Africa and Australia. In Europe, where <i>I. Aquifolium</i>
+is the sole surviving species, the genus was richly represented
+during the Miocene period by forms at first South American and
+Asiatic, and later North American in type (Schimper, <i>Paléont.
+végét.</i> iii. 204, 1874). The leaves are generally leathery and
+evergreen, and are alternate and stalked; the flowers are commonly
+dioecious, are in axillary cymes, fascicles or umbellules,
+and have a persistent four- to five-lobed calyx, a white, rotate
+four- or rarely five- or six-cleft corolla, with the four or five
+stamens adherent to its base in the male, sometimes hypogynous
+in the female flowers, and a two- to twelve-celled ovary; the
+fruit is a globose, very seldom ovoid, and usually red drupe,
+containing two to sixteen one-seeded stones.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:389px; height:510px" src="images/img615.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><i>Ilex Aquifolium.</i> Shoot bearing leaves and fruit about ½ nat. size.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1. Flower with abortive stamens.</p>
+<p>2. Flower with abortive pistil.</p>
+<p>3. Floral diagram showing arrangement of parts in horizontal section.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>4. Fruit.</p>
+<p>5. Fruit cut transversely showing the four one-seeded stones.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The common holly, or Hulver (apparently the <span class="grk" title="kêlastros">&#954;&#942;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span> of
+Theophrastus;<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Ang.-Sax. <i>holen</i> or <i>holegn</i>; Mid. Eng. <i>holyn</i> or
+<i>holin</i>, whence <i>holm</i> and <i>holmtree</i>;<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Welsh, <i>celyn</i>; Ger. <i>Stechpalme</i>,
+<i>Hulse</i>, <i>Hulst</i>; O. Fr. <i>houx</i>; and Fr. <i>houlx</i>),<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> <i>I. Aquifolium</i>,
+is an evergreen shrub or low tree, having smooth, ash-coloured
+bark, and wavy, pointed, smooth and glossy leaves, 2 to 3 in.
+long, with a spinous margin, raised and cartilaginous below, or,
+as commonly on the upper branches of the older trees, entire&mdash;a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span>
+peculiarity alluded to by Southey in his poem <i>The Holly
+Tree</i>. The flowers, which appear in May, are ordinarily dioecious,
+as in all the best of the cultivated varieties in nurseries (<i>Gard.
+Chron.</i>, 1877, i. 149). Darwin (<i>Diff. Forms of Flow.</i>, 1877, p.
+297) says of the holly: &ldquo;During several years I have examined
+many plants, but have never found one that was really hermaphrodite.&rdquo;
+Shirley Hibberd, however (<i>Gard. Chron.</i>, 1877,
+ii. 777), mentions the occurrence of &ldquo;flowers bearing globose
+anthers well furnished with pollen, and also perfect ovaries.&rdquo;
+In his opinion, <i>I. Aquifolium</i> changes its sex from male to female
+with age. In the female flowers the stamens are destitute of
+pollen, though but slightly or not at all shorter than in the male
+flowers; the latter are more numerous than the female, and have
+a smaller ovary and a larger corolla, to which the filaments
+adhere for a greater length. The corolla in male plants falls
+off entire, whereas in fruit-bearers it is broken into separate
+segments by the swelling of the young ovary. The holly occurs
+in Britain, north-east Scotland excepted, and in western and
+southern Europe, from as high as 62° N. lat. in Norway to Turkey
+and the Caucasus and in western Asia. It is found generally
+in forest glades or in hedges, and does not flourish under the
+shade of other trees. In England it is usually small, probably
+on account of its destruction for timber, but it may attain to
+60 or 70 ft. in height, and Loudon mentions one tree at Claremont,
+in Surrey, of 80 ft. Some of the trees on Bleak Hill, Shropshire,
+are asserted to be 14 ft. in girth at some distance from the
+ground (<i>N. and Q.</i>, 5th ser., xii. 508). The holly is abundant in
+France, especially in Brittany. It will grow in almost any soil
+not absolutely wet, but flourishes best in rather dry than moist
+sandy loam. Beckmann (<i>Hist. of Invent.</i>, 1846, i. 193) says that
+the plant which first induced J. di Castro to search for alum in
+Italy was the holly, which is there still considered to indicate
+that its habitat is aluminiferous. The holly is propagated by
+means of the seeds, which do not normally germinate until their
+second year, by whip-grafting and budding, and by cuttings of
+the matured summer shoots, which, placed in sandy soil and
+kept under cover of a hand-glass in sheltered situations, generally
+strike root in spring. Transplantation should be performed in
+damp weather in September and October, or, according to some
+writers, in spring or on mild days in winter, and care should be
+taken that the roots are not dried by exposure to the air. It is
+rarely injured by frosts in Britain, where its foliage and bright
+red berries in winter render it a valuable ornamental tree. The
+yield of berries has been noticed to be less when a warm spring,
+following on a wet winter season, has promoted excess of growth.
+There are numerous varieties of the holly. Some trees have
+yellow, and others white or even black fruit. In the fruitless
+variety <i>laurifolia</i>, &ldquo;the most floriferous of all hollies&rdquo; (Hibberd),
+the flowers are highly fragrant; the form known as <i>femina</i> is,
+on the other hand, remarkable for the number of its berries.
+The leaves in the unarmed varieties <i>aureo-marginata</i> and <i>albo-marginata</i>
+are of great beauty, and in <i>ferox</i> they are studded with
+sharp prickles. The holly is of importance as a hedge-plant,
+and is patient of clipping, which is best performed by the knife.
+Evelyn&rsquo;s holly hedge at Say&rsquo;s Court, Deptford, was 400 ft. long,
+9 ft. high and 5 ft. in breadth. To form fences, for which Evelyn
+recommends the employment of seedlings from woods, the
+plants should be 9 to 12 in. in height, with plenty of small
+fibrous roots, and require to be set 1 to 1½ ft. apart, in well-manured
+and weeded ground and thoroughly watered.</p>
+
+<p>The wood of the holly is even-grained and hard, especially
+when from the heartwood of large trees, and almost as white
+as ivory, except near the centre of old trunks, where it is brownish.
+It is employed in inlaying and turning, and, since it stains well,
+in the place of ebony, as for teapot handles. For engraving it
+is inferior to box. When dry it weighs about 47½ &#8468; per cub. ft.
+From the bark of the holly bird-lime is manufactured. From
+the leaves are obtainable a colouring matter named <i>ilixanthin</i>,
+<i>ilicic acid</i>, and a bitter principle, <i>ilicin</i>, which has been variously
+described by different analytical chemists. They are eaten by
+sheep and deer, and in parts of France serve as a winter fodder
+for cattle. The berries provoke in man violent vomiting and
+purging, but are eaten with immunity by thrushes and other
+birds. The larvae of the moths <i>Sphinx ligustri</i> and <i>Phoxopteryx
+naevana</i> have been met with on holly. The leaves are mined
+by the larva of a fly, <i>Phytomyza ilicis</i>, and both on them and
+the tops of the young twigs occurs the plant-louse <i>Aphis ilicis</i>
+(Kaltenbach, <i>Pflanzenfeinde</i>, 1874, p. 427). The custom of
+employing holly and other plants for decorative purposes at
+Christmas is one of considerable antiquity, and has been regarded
+as a survival of the usages of the Roman Saturnalia, or of an old
+Teutonic practice of hanging the interior of dwellings with evergreens
+as a refuge for sylvan spirits from the inclemency of
+winter. A Border proverb defines an habitual story-teller as
+one that &ldquo;lees never but when the hollen is green.&rdquo; Several
+popular superstitions exist with respect to holly. In the county
+of Rutland it is deemed unlucky to introduce it into a house
+before Christmas Eve. In some English rural districts the prickly
+and non-prickly kinds are distinguished as &ldquo;he&rdquo; and &ldquo;she&rdquo;
+holly; and in Derbyshire the tradition obtains that according
+as the holly brought at Christmas into a house is smooth or
+rough, the wife or the husband will be master. Holly that has
+adorned churches at that season is in Worcestershire and Herefordshire
+much esteemed and cherished, the possession of a
+small branch with berries being supposed to bring a lucky year;
+and Lonicerus mentions a notion in his time vulgarly prevalent
+in Germany that consecrated twigs of the plant hung over a door
+are a protection against thunder.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the North American species of <i>Ilex</i> are <i>I. opaca</i>, which
+resembles the European tree, the Inkberry, <i>I.</i> (<i>Prinos</i>) <i>glabra</i>, and
+the American Black Alder, or Winterberry, <i>I.</i> (<i>Prinos</i>) <i>verticillata</i>.
+Hooker (<i>Fl. of Brit. India</i>, i. 598, 606) enumerates twenty-four Indian
+species of <i>Ilex</i>. The Japanese <i>I. crenata</i>, and <i>I. latifolia</i>, a remarkably
+hardy plant, and the North American <i>I. Cassine</i>, are among
+the species cultivated in Britain. The leaves of several species of
+<i>Ilex</i> are used by dyers. The member of the genus most important
+economically is <i>I. paraguariensis</i>, the prepared leaves of which constitute
+Paraguay tea, or <span class="sc">Maté</span> (q.v.). Knee holly is <i>Ruscus aculeatus</i>,
+or butcher&rsquo;s broom (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Broom</a></span>); sea holly, <i>Eryngium maritimum</i>,
+an umbelliferous plant; and the mountain holly of America, <i>Nemopanthes
+canadensis</i>, also a member of the order Ilicineae.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the works above mentioned, see Louden, <i>Arboretum</i>, ii.
+506 (1844).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. Plant.</i> i. 9. 3, iii. 3. 1, and 4. 6, <i>et passim</i>. On the <i>aquifolium</i>
+or <i>aquifolia</i> of Latin authors, commonly regarded as the
+holly, see A. de Grandsagne, <i>Hist. Nat. de Pline</i>, bk. xvi., &ldquo;Notes,&rdquo;
+pp. 199, 206.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The term &ldquo;holm,&rdquo; as indicative of a prevalence of holly, is
+stated to have entered into the names of several places in Britain.
+From its superficial resemblance to the holly, the tree <i>Quercus Ilex</i>,
+the evergreen oak, received the appellation of &ldquo;holm-oak.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Skeat (<i>Etymolog. Dict.</i>, 1879) with reference to the word holly
+remarks: &ldquo;The form of the base <span class="sc">Kul</span> (= Teutonic <span class="sc">Hul</span>) is probably
+connected with Lat. <i>culmen</i>, a peak, <i>culmus</i>, a stalk; perhaps
+because the leaves are &lsquo;pointed.&rsquo;&rdquo; Grimm (<i>Deut. Wörterb.</i> Bd. iv.)
+suggests that the term <i>Hulst</i>, as the O.H.G. <i>Hulis</i>, applied to the
+butcher&rsquo;s broom, or knee-holly, in the earliest times used for hedges,
+may have reference to the holly as a protecting (<i>hüllender</i>) plant.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLYHOCK<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (from M.E. <i>holi</i>&mdash;doubtless because brought
+from the Holy Land, where it is indigenous (Wedg.)&mdash;and A.-S.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span>
+<i>hoc</i>, a mallow), <i>Althaea rosea</i>, a perennial plant of the natural
+order <i>Malvaceae</i>, a native of the East, which has been cultivated
+in Great Britain for about three centuries. The ordinary
+hollyhock is single-blossomed, but the florists&rsquo; varieties have
+all double flowers, of white, yellow, rose, purple, violet and
+other tints, some being almost black. The plant is in its prime
+about August, but by careful management examples may be
+obtained in blossom from July to as late as November. Hollyhocks
+are propagated from seed, or by division of the root, or
+by planting out in rich sandy soil, in a close frame, with a gentle
+bottom heat, single eyes from woodshoots, or cuttings from
+outgrowths of the old stock or of the lateral offsets of the spike.
+The seed may be sown in October under cover, the plants
+obtained being potted in November, and kept under glass till
+the following April, or, if it be late-gathered, in May or June,
+in the open ground, whence, if required, the plants are best
+removed in October or April. In many gardens, when the plants
+are not disturbed, self-sown seedlings come up in abundance
+about April and May. Seedlings may also be raised in February
+or March, by the aid of a gentle heat, in a light and rich moist
+soil; they should not be watered till they have made their
+second leaves, and when large enough for handling should be
+pricked off in a cold frame; they are subsequently transferred
+to the flower-bed. Hollyhocks thrive best in a well-trenched
+and manured sandy loam. The spikes as they grow must be
+staked; and water and, for the finest blossoms, liquid manure
+should be liberally supplied to the roots. Plants for exhibition
+require the side growths to be pinched out; and it is recommended,
+in cold, bleak or northerly localities, when the flowering
+is over, and the stalks have been cut off 4 to 6 in. above the soil,
+to earth up the crowns with sand. Some of the finest double-flowered
+kinds of hollyhock do not bloom well in Scotland.
+The plant is susceptible of great modification under cultivation.
+The forms now grown are due to the careful selection and
+crossing of varieties. It is found that the most diverse varieties
+may be raised with certainty from plants growing near together.</p>
+
+<p>The young shoots of the hollyhock are very liable to the
+attacks of slugs, and to a disease occasioned by a fungus, <i>Puccinia
+malvacearum</i>, which is a native of Chile, attained notoriety
+in the Australian colonies, and finally, reaching Europe in
+1869, threatened the extermination of the hollyhock, the soft
+parts of the leaves of which it destroys, leaving the venation
+only remaining. It has been found especially hurtful to the
+plant in dry seasons. It is also parasitic on the wild mallows.
+The disease appears on the leaves as minute hard pale-brown
+pustules, filled with spores which germinate without a resting-period,
+but when produced late in the season may last as resting-spores
+until next spring. Spraying early in the season with
+Bordeaux mixture is an effective preventive, but the best means
+of treatment is to destroy all leaves as soon as they show signs
+of being attacked, and to prevent the growth of other host-plants
+such as mallows, in the neighbourhood. In hot dry seasons, red-spider
+injures the foliage very much, but may be kept at bay
+by syringing the plants frequently with plenty of clean water.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLLY SPRINGS,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Marshall
+county, Mississippi, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, 45 m.
+S.E. of Memphis. Pop. (1890) 2246; (1900) 2815 (1559
+negroes); (1910) 2192. Holly Springs is served by the Illinois
+Central and the Kansas City, Memphis &amp; Birmingham (Frisco
+System) railways. The city has broad and well-shaded streets,
+and a fine court-house and court-house square. It is the seat
+of Rust University (opened in 1867), a Methodist Episcopal
+institution for negroes; of the Mississippi Synodical College
+(1905; Presbyterian), for white girls; and of the North Mississippi
+Agricultural Experiment Station. The principal industries
+are the ginning, compressing and shipping of cotton, and the
+manufacture of cotton-seed oil, but the city also manufactures
+pottery and brick from clay obtained in the vicinity, and has
+an ice factory, bottling works and marble works. The municipality
+owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting
+plant. Holly Springs was founded in 1837 and was chartered
+as a city in 1896. Early in December 1862 General Grant
+established here a large depot of supplies designed for the use
+of the Federal army while on its march toward Vicksburg, but
+General Earl Van Dorn, with a brigade of cavalry, surprised
+the post at daylight on the 20th of this month, burned the supplies
+and took 1500 prisoners. Holly Springs was the home and is
+the burial-place of Edward Cary Walthall (1831-1898), a Democratic
+member of the United States Senate in 1885-1894 and
+in 1895-1898.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLMAN, JAMES<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1786-1857), known as the &ldquo;Blind
+Traveller,&rdquo; was born at Exeter on the 15th of October 1786.
+He entered the British navy in 1798 as first-class volunteer, and
+was appointed lieutenant in April 1807. In 1810 he was invalided
+by an illness which resulted in total loss of sight. In consideration
+of his helpless circumstances he was in 1812 appointed one
+of the royal knights of Windsor, but the quietness of such a
+life harmonized so ill with his active habits and keen interests
+that he requested leave of absence to go abroad, and in 1819,
+1820 and 1821 journeyed through France, Italy, Switzerland,
+the parts of Germany bordering on the Rhine, Belgium and the
+Netherlands. On his return he published <i>The Narrative of a
+Journey through France</i>, &amp;c. (London, 1822). He again set out
+in 1822 with the design of making the circuit of the world, but
+after travelling through Russia into Siberia, he was suspected
+of being a spy, was arrested when he had managed to penetrate
+1000 m. beyond Smolensk, and after being conducted to the
+frontiers of Poland, returned home by Austria, Saxony, Prussia
+and Hanover. He now issued <i>Travels through Russia, Siberia</i>,
+&amp;c. (London, 1825). Shortly afterwards he again set out to
+accomplish by a somewhat different method the design which
+had been frustrated by the Russian authorities; and an account
+of his remarkable achievement was published in four volumes
+in 1834-1835, under the title of <i>A Voyage round the World,
+including Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, &amp;c.,
+from 1827 to 1832</i>. His last journeys were through Spain,
+Portugal, Moldavia, Montenegro, Syria and Turkey; and he
+was engaged in preparing an account of this tour when he died
+in London on the 29th of July 1857.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1809-1894), American writer
+and physician, was born on the 29th of August 1809 at Cambridge,
+Mass. His father, Abiel Holmes (1763-1837), was a Calvinist
+clergyman, the writer of a useful history, <i>Annals of America</i>,
+and of much very dull poetry. His mother (the second wife of
+Abiel) was Sarah Wendell, of a distinguished New York family.
+Through her Dr Holmes was descended from Governors Thomas
+Dudley and Simon Bradstreet of Massachusetts, and from her
+he derived his cheerfulness and vivacity, his sympathetic
+humour and wit. From Phillips (Andover) Academy he entered
+Harvard in the &ldquo;famous class of &rsquo;29,&rdquo; made further illustrious
+by the charming lyrics which he wrote for the anniversary
+dinners from 1851 to 1889, closing with the touching &ldquo;After
+the Curfew.&rdquo; After graduation he studied law perfunctorily
+for a year and dabbled in literature, winning the public ear by
+a spirited lyric called forth by the order to destroy the old
+frigate <i>Constitution</i>. These verses were sung all over the land,
+and induced the Navy Department to revoke its order and save
+the old ship. Turning next to medicine, and convinced by a
+brief experience in Boston that he liked it, he went to Paris in
+March 1833. He studied industriously under Louis and other
+famous physicians and surgeons in France, and in his vacations
+visited the Low Countries, England, Scotland and Italy. Returning
+to Boston at the close of 1835, filled with a high professional
+ambition, he sought practice, but achieved only
+moderate success. Social, brilliant in conversation, and a writer
+of gay little poems, he seemed to the grave Bostonians not sufficiently
+serious. He won prizes, however, for professional papers,
+and lectured on anatomy at Dartmouth College. He wrote
+two papers on homoeopathy, which he attacked with trenchant
+wit; also a valuable paper on the malarial fevers of New England.
+In 1843 he published his essay on the <i>Contagiousness of Puerperal
+Fever</i>, which stirred up a fierce controversy and brought upon
+him bitter personal abuse; but he maintained his position
+with dignity, temper and judgment; and in time he was honoured
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span>
+as the discoverer of a beneficent truth. The volume of his
+medical essays holds some of his most sparkling wit, his shrewdest
+observation, his kindliest humanity. In 1840 he married Amelia
+Lee Jackson, daughter of the Hon. Charles Jackson (1775-1855),
+formerly associate justice of the State supreme judicial court,
+a lady of rare charm alike of mind and character. She died in
+the winter of 1887-1888. Their first-born child, Oliver Wendell
+Holmes, afterwards became chief justice of that same bench
+on which his grandfather sat. In 1847 Dr Holmes was appointed
+professor of anatomy and physiology In the Medical School
+of Harvard University, the duties involving the giving of instruction
+also in kindred departments, so that, as he said, he
+occupied &ldquo;not a chair, but a settee in the school.&rdquo; He delivered
+the anatomical lectures until November 1882, and in later years
+these were his only link with the medical profession. They were
+fresh, witty and lively; and the students were sent to him at
+the end of the day, when they were fagged, because he alone
+could keep them awake. In later years he made few finished
+contributions to medical knowledge; his eager and impetuous
+temperament caused him to leave more patient investigators
+to push to ultimate results the suggestions thrown out by his
+fertile and imaginative mind.</p>
+
+<p>In 1836, being in that year the Phi Beta Kappa poet at
+Harvard University, he published his first volume of <i>Poems</i>,
+which afterwards reached a second edition. Among these earlier
+lyrics was &ldquo;The Last Leaf,&rdquo; one of the most delicate combinations
+of pathos and humour in literature. His collected poetry
+fills three volumes. In 1856-1857 a Boston publishing house
+(Phillips, Sampson, and Co.) invited James Russell Lowell to
+edit a new magazine, which he agreed to do on condition that
+he could secure the assistance of Dr Holmes. By this urgent
+invitation the Doctor was equally surprised and flattered, for
+heretofore he had stood rather outside the literary coterie of
+Cambridge and Boston. He accepted with pleasure, and at once
+threw himself into the enterprise with zeal. He christened it
+<i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>; and, as Mr Howells afterwards said, he
+&ldquo;not only named but made&rdquo; it, for in each number of its first
+volume there appeared one of the papers of the <i>Autocrat of the
+Breakfast Table</i>. The opening of the <i>Autocrat</i>&mdash;&ldquo;I was just
+going to say when I was interrupted&rdquo;&mdash;is explained by the fact
+that in the old <i>New England Magazine</i> (1831 to 1833) the Doctor
+had published two <i>Autocrat</i> papers, which, by his wish, have
+never been reprinted. In the commercial panic of 1857 the new
+magazine would inevitably have failed had it not been for these
+fascinating essays. Their originality of conception, their wit
+and humour, their suggestions of what then seemed bold ideas,
+and their expression of New Englandism, all combined to make
+them so popular that the most harassed merchant in that gloomy
+winter purchased them as a dose of cheering medicine. Thus Dr
+Holmes made <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>, which in return made
+him. A success so immediate and so splendid settled the rest
+of his career; he ceased to be a physician and became an author.
+These twelve papers were immediately (1858) published as a
+volume. No sooner was the <i>Autocrat</i> silent than the <i>Professor</i>
+(1859) succeeded him at the breakfast table. The <i>Professor</i>
+was preferred by more thoughtful readers, though it has hardly
+been so widely popular as the <i>Autocrat</i>. Its theology, which
+seemed in those days audacious, frightened many of the strict
+and old-fashioned religionists of New England, though to-day
+it seems mild enough. Twelve years later, in 1871, the Landlady
+had another boarder, who took the vacant chair&mdash;the <i>Poet</i>
+(published 1872). But here Holmes fell a little short. In these
+three books, especially in the <i>Autocrat</i> and the <i>Professor</i>, the
+Doctor wrote as he talked at many a dinner table in Boston,
+but less well. The animation and clash of talk roused him. The
+dinners of the Saturday Club are among Boston&rsquo;s proudest
+traditions, as they were the chief pleasure of Dr Holmes&rsquo;s life.
+There he met Emerson, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Sumner,
+Agassiz, Motley, and many other charming talkers, and among
+them all he was admitted to be the best.</p>
+
+<p>There were characters and incidents, but hardly a story, in
+the <i>Autocrat</i> and the <i>Professor</i>. Holmes had an ambition for
+more sustained work, and in 1861 his novel, <i>Elsie Venner</i>, at
+first called <i>The Professor&rsquo;s Story</i>, was published. The book
+was illuminated throughout by admirable pictures of character
+and society in the typical New England town. But the rattlesnake
+element was unduly extravagant, and in other respects
+the book was open to criticism as a work of art. It was written
+with the same purpose which informed the greatest part of the
+Doctor&rsquo;s literary work, and which had already been scented
+and nervously condemned by the religious world. By heredity
+the Doctor was a theologian; no other topic enchained him
+more than did the stern and merciless dogmas of his Calvinist
+forefathers. His humanity revolted against them, his reason condemned
+them, and he set himself to their destruction as his task
+in literature. The religious world of his time was still so largely
+under the control of old ideas that he was assailed as a freethinker
+and a subverter of Christianity; though before his death opinions
+had so changed that the bitterness of the attacks upon him
+seemed incredible, even to some of those who had most
+vehemently made them. None the less, undaunted and profoundly
+earnest, he returned, six years later, to the same line of
+thought in his second novel, <i>The Guardian Angel</i> (published
+1867). This, though less well known than <i>Elsie Venner</i>, is in
+many respects better. No more lifelike and charming picture
+of the society of the New England country-town of the middle
+third of the 19th century has ever been drawn, and every page
+sparkles with wit and humour. In 1884 and 1885 it was followed,
+still in the same line, by <i>A Mortal Antipathy</i>, a production
+inferior to its predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>Holmes generally held himself aloof from politics, and from
+those &ldquo;causes&rdquo; of temperance, abolition and woman&rsquo;s rights
+which enthralled most of his contemporaries in New England.
+The Civil War, however, aroused him for the time; finding him
+first a strenuous Unionist, it quickly converted him into an
+ardent advocate of emancipation. His interest was enhanced
+by the career of his elder son Oliver (see below), who was three
+times severely wounded, and finally rose to the rank of lieut.-colonel
+in the Northern army. He wrote some ringing war
+lyrics, and in 1863 delivered the Fourth of July oration in
+Boston, which showed a masterly appreciation of the stirring
+public questions of the day. In 1878 Dr Holmes wrote a memoir
+of the historian John Lothrop Motley, an affectionate tribute to
+one who had been his dear friend. In 1884 he contributed the
+life of Emerson to the American &ldquo;Men of Letters&rdquo; series. He
+admired the &ldquo;Sage of Concord,&rdquo; but was not quite in intellectual
+sympathy with him. Both were Liberals in thought, but in
+widely different ways. But in spite of this handicap the volume
+proved very popular. In 1888 he began the papers which he
+happily christened <i>Over the Tea Cups</i>. As a <i>tour de force</i> on the
+part of a man of nearly fourscore years they are very remarkable.</p>
+
+<p>After his return from Paris in 1835 Dr Holmes lived in Boston,
+with summer sojournings at Pittsfield and Beverly Farms, and
+occasional trips to neighbouring cities, until 1886. He then
+undertook a four months&rsquo; journey in Europe, and in England
+had a sort of triumphal progress. On his return he wrote <i>Our
+Hundred Days in Europe</i> (1887), a courteous recognition of the
+hospitality and praise which had been accorded to him. During
+this visit Cambridge University made him Doctor of Letters,
+Edinburgh University made him Doctor of Laws, and Oxford
+University made him Doctor of Civil Law. Already, in 1880,
+Harvard University had made him Doctor of Laws. He died
+on the 7th of October 1894, and was buried from King&rsquo;s Chapel,
+Boston, in the cemetery of Mount Auburn.</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son Oliver Wendell (b. 1841), who graduated from
+Harvard in 1861 and fought in the Civil War, retiring from the
+army as brevet lieut.-colonel in 1864, took up the study of
+law and was admitted to the bar in Boston in 1866. He was
+for some years editor of the <i>American Law Review</i>, and after
+being professor in the Harvard Law School in 1882 was appointed
+in the same year a judge of the Massachusetts supreme court,
+rising to be chief justice in 1899. In 1902 he was made a judge
+of the United States Supreme Court. His work on <i>The Common
+Law</i> (1881) and his edition (1873) of Kent&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span>
+are his principal publications; and he became widely recognized
+as one of the great jurists of his day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Holmes&rsquo;s <i>Complete Works</i>, in 13 volumes, were
+published at Boston in 1891. See J. T. Morse, <i>Life and Letters of Oliver
+Wendell Holmes</i> (London, 1896); G. B. Ives, <i>Bibliography</i> (Boston,
+1907); and the bibliography in P. K. Foley&rsquo;s <i>American Authors</i>
+(Boston, 1897). An essay by Sir Leslie Stephen is prefixed to the
+&ldquo;Golden Treasury&rdquo; edition (1903) of <i>The Autocrat of the Breakfast
+Table</i>. See also monographs by William Sloane Kennedy
+(Boston, 1882); Emma E. Brown (Boston, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. Mo.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLMFIRTH,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> an urban district in the Holmfirth parliamentary
+division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on
+and Holme and the Ribble, 6 m. S. of Huddersfield, and on the
+Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 8977. The
+valley, walled by bold hills, is very picturesque. In 1852 great
+destruction was wrought in the town by the bursting of a reservoir
+in the vicinity. The large industrial population is employed in
+woollen manufactories, and in the neighbouring stone quarries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLOCAUST<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="holokauston">&#8001;&#955;&#959;&#954;&#945;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#957;</span>, or <span class="grk" title="holokauton">&#8001;&#955;&#972;&#954;&#945;&#965;&#964;&#959;&#957;</span>, wholly burnt),
+strictly a sacrifice wholly destroyed by fire, such as the sacrifices
+of the Jews, described in the Pentateuch as &ldquo;whole burnt
+offerings&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sacrifice</a></span>). The term is now often applied to a
+catastrophe on a large scale, whether by fire or not, or to a
+massacre or slaughter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLOCENE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="holos">&#8005;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, whole, <span class="grk" title="kainos">&#954;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>, recent), in geology,
+the time division which embraces the youngest of all the formations;
+it is equivalent to the &ldquo;Recent&rdquo; of some authors. The
+name was proposed in 1860 by P. Gervais. The oldest deposits
+that may be included are those containing neolithic implements;
+deposits of historic times should also be grouped here; presumably
+the youngest are those to be chronicled by the last man.
+The Holocene formations obviously include all the varieties of
+deposits which are accumulating at the present day: the gravels
+and alluvia of rivers; boulder clays, moraines and fluvio-glacial
+deposits; estuarine, coastal and abyssal deposits of the seas,
+and their equivalents in lakes; screes, taluses, wind-borne dust
+and sand and desert formations; chemical deposits from saline
+waters; peat, diatomite, marls, foraminiferal and other oozes;
+coral, algal and shell banks, and other organic deposits; mud,
+lava and dust deposits of volcanic origin and extrusions of asphalt
+and pitch; to all these must be added the works of man.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1861-&emsp;&emsp;), British artist, was
+born in Leeds on the 9th of April 1861. He received his art
+education under Professor Legros at the Slade School, University
+College, London, where he had a distinguished career. After
+passing six months at Newlyn, where he painted his first picture
+exhibited in the Royal Academy, &ldquo;Fishermen Mending a Sail&rdquo;
+(1885), he obtained a travelling scholarship and studied for two
+years in Italy, a sojourn which greatly influenced his art. At his
+return, on the invitation of Legros, he became for two years
+assistant-master at the Slade School, and there devoted himself
+to painting and etching. Among his pictures may be mentioned
+&ldquo;The Death of Torrigiano&rdquo; (1886), &ldquo;The Satyr King&rdquo; (1889),
+&ldquo;The Supper at Emmaus,&rdquo; and, perhaps his best picture, &ldquo;Pan
+and Peasants&rdquo; (1893). For the church of Aveley, Essex, he
+painted a triptych altarpiece, &ldquo;The Adoration of the Shepherds,&rdquo;
+with wings representing &ldquo;St Michael&rdquo; and &ldquo;St Gabriel,&rdquo; and
+designed as well the window, &ldquo;The Resurrection.&rdquo; His portraits,
+such as that of &ldquo;G. F. Watts, R.A.,&rdquo; in the Legros manner, show
+much dignity and distinction. Sir Charles Holroyd has made his
+chief reputation as an etcher of exceptional ability, combining
+strength with delicacy, and a profound technical knowledge of
+the art. Among the best known are the &ldquo;Monte Oliveto&rdquo;
+series, the &ldquo;Icarus&rdquo; series, the &ldquo;Monte Subasio&rdquo; series, and
+the &ldquo;Eve&rdquo; series, together with the plates, &ldquo;The Flight into
+Egypt,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Prodigal Son,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Barn on Tadworth Common&rdquo;
+(etched in the open air), and &ldquo;The Storm.&rdquo; His etched
+heads of &ldquo;Professor Legros,&rdquo; &ldquo;Lord Courtney&rdquo; and &ldquo;Night,&rdquo;
+are admirable alike in knowledge and in likeness. His principal
+dry-point is &ldquo;The Bather.&rdquo; In all his work Holroyd displays
+an impressive sincerity, with a fine sense of composition, and of
+style, allied to independent and modern feeling. He was
+appointed the first keeper of the National Gallery of British Art
+(Tate Gallery), and on the retirement of Sir Edward Poynter
+in 1906 he received the directorship of the National Gallery.
+He was knighted in 1903. His <i>Michael Angelo Buonarotti</i>
+(London, Duckworth, 1903) is a scholarly work of real value.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1837-1909), German statesman,
+for more than thirty years head of the political department
+of the German Foreign Office. Holstein&rsquo;s importance began
+with the dismissal of Bismarck in 1890. The new chancellor,
+Caprivi, was ignorant of foreign affairs; and Holstein, as the
+repository of the Bismarckian tradition, became indispensable.
+This reluctance to emerge into publicity has been ascribed to the
+part he had played under Bismarck in the Arnim affair, which
+had made him powerful enemies; it was, however, possibly due
+to a shrinking from the responsibility of office. Yet the weakness
+of his position lay just in the fact that he was not ultimately
+responsible. He protested against the despatch of the &ldquo;Kruger
+telegram,&rdquo; but protested in vain. On the other hand, where
+his ideas were acceptable, he was generally able to realize them.
+Thus it was almost entirely due to him that Germany acquired
+Kiao-chau and asserted her interests in China, and the acquisition
+of Samoa was also largely his work. If the skill and pertinacity
+with which Holstein carried through his plans in these matters
+was learned in the school of Bismarck, he had not acquired
+Bismarck&rsquo;s faculty for foreseeing their ulterior consequences.
+This is true of his Chinese policy, and true also of his part in the
+Morocco crisis. The emperor William II.&rsquo;s journey to Tangier
+was undertaken on his advice, as a protest against the supposed
+attempt at the isolation of Germany; but of the later developments
+of German policy in the Morocco question he did not
+approve, on the ground that the result would merely be to
+strengthen the Anglo-French <i>entente</i>; and from the 12th of
+March 1906 onwards he took no active part in the matter. To
+the last he believed that the position of Germany would remain
+unsafe until an understanding had been arrived at with Great
+Britain, and it was this belief that determined his attitude
+towards the question of the fleet, &ldquo;beside which,&rdquo; he wrote in
+February 1909, &ldquo;all other questions are of lesser account.&rdquo;
+His views on this question were summarized in a memorandum
+of December 1907, of which Herr von Rath gives a <i>résumé</i>.
+He objected to the programme of the German Navy League on
+three main grounds: (1) the ill-feeling likely to be aroused in
+South Germany, (2) the inevitable dislocation of the finances
+through the huge additional charges involved, (3) the suspicion
+of Germany&rsquo;s motives in foreign countries, which would bind
+Great Britain still closer to France. As for the idea that
+Germany&rsquo;s power would be increased, this&mdash;he wrote in reply
+to a letter from Admiral Galster&mdash;was &ldquo;a simple question of
+arithmetic&rdquo;; for how would the sea-power of Germany be relatively
+increased if for every new German ship Great Britain built
+two? Herr von Holstein retired on the resignation of Prince
+Bülow, and died on the 8th of May 1909.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hermann von Rath, &ldquo;Erinnerungen an Herrn von Holstein&rdquo;
+in the <i>Deutsche Revue</i> for October 1909. He is also frequently
+mentioned <i>passim</i> in Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLSTEIN,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> formerly a duchy of Germany. Until about 1110
+the county of Holstein formed part of the duchy of Saxony, and
+it was made a duchy in 1472. From 1460 to 1864 it was ruled
+by members of the house of Oldenburg, some of whom were also
+kings of Denmark. It is now the southern part of the Prussian
+province of Schleswig-Holstein. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein</a></span>, and
+for history <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1825-1897), German
+theologian, was born at Güstrow, Mecklenburg, on the 31st of
+March 1825, and educated at Leipzig, Berlin and Rostock,
+where in 1852 he became a teacher of religion in the Gymnasium.
+In 1870 he went to Bern as professor of New Testament studies,
+passing thence in 1876 to Heidelberg, where he remained until
+his death on the 26th of January 1897. Holsten was an adherent
+of the Tübingen school, and held to Baur&rsquo;s views on the alleged
+antagonism between Petrinism and Paulinism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his writings are <i>Zum Evangelium d. Paulus und d. Petrus</i>
+(1867); <i>Das Evangelium des Paulus dargestellt</i> (1880); <i>Die synoptischen
+Evangelien nach der Form ihres Inhalts</i> (1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> the Latinized name of Luc Holste
+(1596-1661), German humanist, geographer and theological
+writer, was born at Hamburg. He studied at Leiden university,
+where he became intimate with the most famous scholars of the
+age&mdash;J. Meursius, D. Heinsius and P. Cluverius, whom he
+accompanied on his travels in Italy and Sicily. Disappointed
+at his failure to obtain a post in the gymnasium of his native
+town, he left Germany for good. Having spent two years in
+Oxford and London, he went to Paris. Here he obtained the
+patronage of N. de Peiresc, who recommended him to Cardinal
+Francesco Barberini, papal nuncio and the possessor of the most
+important private library in Rome. On the cardinal&rsquo;s return
+in 1627 he took Holstenius to live with him in his palace and
+made him his librarian. Although converted to Roman Catholicism
+in 1625, Holstenius showed his liberal-mindedness by
+strenuously opposing the strict censorship exercised by the
+Congregation of the Index. He was appointed librarian of the
+Vatican by Innocent X., and was sent to Innsbruck by Alexander
+VII. to receive Queen Christina&rsquo;s abjuration of Protestantism.
+He died in Rome on the 2nd of February 1661. Holstenius was
+a man of unwearied industry and immense learning, but he
+lacked the persistency to carry out the vast literary schemes he
+had planned. He was the author of notes on Cluvier&rsquo;s <i>Italia
+antiqua</i> (1624); an edition of portions of Porphyrius (1630),
+with a dissertation on his life and writings, described as a model
+of its kind; notes on Eusebius <i>Against Hierocles</i> (1628), on
+the Sayings of the later Pythagoreans (1638), and the <i>De diis
+et mundo</i> of the neo-Platonist Sallustius (1638); <i>Notae et
+castigationes in Stephani Bysantini ethnica</i> (first published in
+1684); and <i>Codex regularum, Collection of the Early Rules of the
+Monastic Orders</i> (1661). His correspondence (<i>Epistolae ad
+diversos</i>, ed. J. F. Boissonade, 1817) is a valuable source of
+information on the literary history of his time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See N. Wilckens, <i>Leben des gelehrten Lucae Holstenii</i> (Hamburg,
+1723); Johann Moller, <i>Cimbria literata</i>, iii. (1744).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLSTER,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> a leather case to hold a pistol, used by a horseman
+and properly fastened to the saddle-bow, but sometimes worn
+in the belt. The same word appears in Dutch, from which the
+English word probably directly derives. The root is <i>hel</i>- or <i>hul</i>- to
+cover, and is seen in the O. Eng. <i>heolster</i>, a place of shelter or
+concealment, and in &ldquo;hull&rdquo; a sheath or covering. The German
+word for the same object, <i>holfter</i>, is, according to the New
+<i>English Dictionary</i>, from a different root.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLT, SIR JOHN<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1642-1710), lord chief justice of England,
+was born at Thame, Oxfordshire, on the 30th of December 1642.
+His father, Sir Thomas Holt, possessed a small patrimonial
+estate, but in order to supplement his income had adopted the
+profession of law, in which he was not very successful, although
+he became sergeant in 1677, and afterwards for his political
+services to the &ldquo;Tories&rdquo; was rewarded with knighthood. After
+attending for some years the free school of the town of Abingdon,
+of which his father was recorder, young Holt in his sixteenth year
+entered Oriel College, Oxford. He is said to have spent a very
+dissipated youth, and even to have been in the habit of taking
+purses on the highway, but after entering Gray&rsquo;s Inn about 1660
+he applied himself with exemplary diligence to the study of law.
+He was called to the bar in 1663. An ardent supporter of civil
+and religious liberty, he distinguished himself in the state trials
+which were then so common by the able and courageous manner in
+which he supported the pleas of the defendants. In 1685-1686
+he was appointed recorder of London, and about the same time
+he was made king&rsquo;s sergeant and received the honour of knighthood.
+His giving a decision adverse to the pretensions of the
+king to exercise martial law in time of peace led to his dismissal
+from the office of recorder, but he was continued in the office
+of king&rsquo;s sergeant in order to prevent him from becoming counsel
+for accused persons. Having been one of the judges who acted
+as assessors to the peers in the Convention parliament, he took
+a leading part in arranging the constitutional change by which
+William III. was called to the throne, and after his accession he
+was appointed lord chief justice of the King&rsquo;s Bench. His merits
+as a judge are the more apparent and the more remarkable
+when contrasted with the qualities displayed by his predecessors
+in office. In judicial fairness, legal knowledge and ability, clearness
+of statement and unbending integrity he has had few if
+any superiors on the English bench. Over the civil rights of his
+countrymen he exercised a jealous watchfulness, more especially
+when presiding at the trial of state prosecutions, and he was
+especially careful that all accused persons should be treated with
+fairness and respect. He is, however, best known for the firmness
+with which he upheld his own prerogatives in opposition to the
+authority of the Houses of Parliament. On several occasions
+his physical as well as his moral courage was tried by extreme
+tests. Having been requested to supply a number of police
+to help the soldiery in quelling a riot, he assured the messenger
+that if any of the people were shot he would have the soldiers
+hanged, and proceeding himself to the scene of riot he was
+successful in preventing bloodshed. While steadfast in his
+sympathies with the Whig party, Holt maintained on the bench
+entire political impartiality, and always held himself aloof from
+political intrigue. On the retirement of Somers from the chancellorship
+in 1700 he was offered the great seal, but declined it.
+His death took place in London on the 5th of March 1710.
+He was buried in the chancel of Redgrave church.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Reports of Cases determined by Sir John Holt</i> (1681-1710) appeared
+at London in 1738; and <i>The Judgments delivered in the case of Ashby
+v. White and others, and in the case of John Paty and others, printed
+from original MSS.</i>, at London (1837). See Burnet&rsquo;s <i>Own Times</i>;
+<i>Tatler</i>, No. xiv.; a <i>Life</i>, published in 1764; Welsby, <i>Lives of Eminent
+English Judges of the 17th and 18th Centuries</i> (1846); Campbell&rsquo;s
+<i>Lives of the Lord Chief Justices</i>; and Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1798-1880), German poet
+and actor, was born at Breslau on the 24th of January 1798,
+the son of an officer of Hussars. Having served in the Prussian
+army as a volunteer in 1815, he shortly afterwards entered the
+university of Breslau as a student of law; but, attracted by
+the stage, he soon forsook academic life and made his début
+in the Breslau theatre as Mortimer in Schiller&rsquo;s <i>Maria Stuart</i>.
+He led a wandering life for the next two years, appearing less
+on the stage as an actor than as a reciter of his own poems.
+In 1821 he married the actress Luise Rogée (1800-1825), and
+was appointed theatre-poet to the Breslau stage. He next
+removed to Berlin, where his wife fulfilled an engagement at
+the Court theatre. During his sojourn here he produced the
+vaudevilles <i>Die Wiener in Berlin</i> (1824), and <i>Die Berliner in Wien</i>
+(1825), pieces which enjoyed at the time great popular favour.
+In 1825 his wife died; but soon after her death he accepted an
+engagement at the Königsstädter theatre in Berlin, when he
+wrote a number of plays, notably <i>Lenore</i> (1829) and <i>Der alte
+Feldherr</i> (1829). In 1830 he married Julie Holzbecher (1809-1839),
+an actress engaged at the same theatre, and with her
+played in Darmstadt. Returning to Berlin in 1831 he wrote
+for the composer Franz Gläser (1798-1861) the text of the opera
+<i>Des Adlers Horst</i> (1835), and for Ludwig Devrient the drama,
+<i>Der dumme Peter</i> (1837). In 1833 Holtei again went on the
+stage and toured with his wife to various important cities,
+Hamburg, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich and Vienna. In the last
+his declamatory powers as a reciter, particularly of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+plays, made a furore, and the poet-actor was given the appointment
+of manager of the Josefstädter theatre in the last-named
+city. Though proud of his successes both as actor and reciter,
+Holtei left Vienna in 1836, and from 1837 to 1839 conducted the
+theatre in Riga. Here his second wife died, and after wandering
+through Germany reciting and accepting a short engagement
+at Breslau, he settled in 1847 at Graz, where he devoted himself
+to a literary life and produced the novels <i>Die Vagabunden</i> (1851),
+<i>Christian Lammfell</i> (1853) and <i>Der letzte Komödiant</i> (1863).
+The last years of his life were spent at Breslau, where being in
+poor circumstances he found a home in the <i>Kloster der barmherzigen
+Brüder</i>, and here he died on the 12th of February 1880.</p>
+
+<p>As a dramatist Holtei may be said to have introduced the
+&ldquo;vaudeville&rdquo; into Germany; as an actor, although remaining
+behind the greater artists of his time, he contrived to fascinate
+his audience by the dramatic force of his exposition of character;
+as a reciter, especially of Shakespeare, he knew no rival. August
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span>
+Lewald said of Holtei that by the energy of his poetic conception
+and plastic force he brought his audience round to his own ideas;
+and he added, &ldquo;an eloquence such as his I have never met with
+in any other German.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Holtei was not only a stage-poet but a lyric-writer of great
+charm. Notable among such productions are <i>Schlesische
+Gedichte</i> (1830; 20th ed., 1893), <i>Gedichte</i> (5th ed., 1861), <i>Stimmen
+des Waldes</i> (2nd ed., 1854). Mention ought also to be made
+of Holtei&rsquo;s interesting autobiography, <i>Vierzig Jahre</i> (8 vols.,
+1843-1850; 3rd ed., 1862) with the supplementary volume
+<i>Noch ein Jahr in Schlesien</i> (1864).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Holtei&rsquo;s <i>Theater</i> appeared in 6 vols. (1867); his <i>Erzählende Schriften</i>,
+39 vols. (1861-1866). See M. Kurnick, <i>Karl von Holtei, ein
+Lebensbild</i> (1880); F. Wehl, <i>Zeit und Menschen</i> (1889); O. Storch,
+<i>K. von Holtei</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÖLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1748-1776),
+German poet, was born on the 21st of December 1748 at the
+village of Mariensee in Hanover, where his father was pastor.
+In 1769 he went to study theology at Göttingen. Here he formed
+a close friendship with J. M. Miller, J. H. Voss, H. Boie, the
+brothers Stolberg and others, and became one of the founders
+of the famous society of young poets known as the <i>Göttinger
+Dichterbund</i> or <i>Hain</i>. When in 1774 he left the university he
+had abandoned all intention of becoming a clergyman; but he
+was not destined to enter any other profession. He died of
+consumption on the 1st of September 1776 at Hanover. Hölty
+was the most gifted lyric poet of the Göttingen circle. He was
+influenced both by Uz and Klopstock, but his love for the
+Volkslied and his delight in nature preserved him from the
+artificiality of the one poet and the unworldliness of the other.
+A strain of melancholy runs through all his lyrics. His ballads
+are the pioneers of the rich ballad literature on English models,
+which sprang up in Germany during the next few years. Among
+his most familiar poems may be mentioned <i>Üb&rsquo; immer Treu&rsquo; und
+Redlichkeit</i>, <i>Tanzt dem schönen Mai entgegen</i>, <i>Rosen auf dem
+Weg gestreut</i>, and <i>Wer wollte sich mit Grillen plagen?</i></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hölty&rsquo;s <i>Gedichte</i> were published by his friends Count Friedrich
+Leopold zu Stolberg and J. H. Voss (Hamburg, 1783); a new edition,
+enlarged by Voss, with a biography (1804); a more complete but
+still imperfect edition by F. Voigts (Hanover, 1857). The first
+complete edition was that of Karl Halm (Leipzig, 1870), who had
+access to MSS. not hitherto known. See H. Ruete, <i>Hölty, sein Leben
+und Dichten</i> (Guben, 1883), and A. Sauer, <i>Der Göttinger Dichterbund</i>,
+vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1894), where an excellent selection of Hölty&rsquo;s
+poetry will be found.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span>
+(1829-1889), German jurist, born at Vietmannsdorf, in
+the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 14th of October 1829, was
+descended from a family of the old nobility. He was educated
+at Berlin and at Pforta, afterwards studying law at the universities
+of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. The struggles of
+1848 inspired him with youthful enthusiasm, and he remained
+for the rest of his life a strong advocate of political liberty.
+In 1852 he graduated LL.D. at Berlin; in 1857 he became a
+Privatdocent, and in 1860 he was nominated a professor extraordinary.
+The predominant party in Prussia regarded his
+political opinions with mistrust, and he was not offered an
+ordinary professorship until February 1873, after he had decided
+to accept a chair at the university of Munich. At Munich he
+passed the last nineteen years of his life. During the thirty
+years that he was professor he successively taught several
+branches of jurisprudence, but he was chiefly distinguished as
+an authority on criminal and international law. He was
+especially well fitted for organizing collective work, and he has
+associated his name with a series of publications of the first
+value. While acting as editor he often reserved for himself,
+among the independent monographs of which the work was
+composed, only those on subjects distasteful to his collaborators
+on account of their obscurity or lack of importance. Among
+the compilations which he superintended may be mentioned
+his <i>Encyclopädie der Rechtswissenschaft</i> (Leipzig, 1870-1871,
+2 vols.); his <i>Handbuch des deutschen Strafrechts</i> (Berlin, 1871-1877,
+4 vols.), and his <i>Handbuch des Völkerrechts auf Grundlage
+europäischer Staatspraxis</i> (Berlin, 1885-1890, 4 vols.). Among
+his many independent works may be mentioned: <i>Das irische
+Gefängnissystem</i> (Leipzig, 1859), <i>Französische Rechtszustände</i>
+(Leipzig, 1859), <i>Die Deportation als Strafmittel</i> (Leipzig, 1859),
+<i>Die Kürzungsfähigkeit der Freiheitsstrafen</i> (Leipzig, 1861), <i>Die
+Reform der Staatsanwaltschaft in Deutschland</i> (Berlin, 1864),
+<i>Die Umgestaltung der Staatsanwaltschaft</i> (Berlin, 1865), <i>Die
+Principien der Politik</i> (Berlin, 1869), <i>Das Verbrechen des Mordes
+und die Todesstrafe</i> (Berlin, 1875), <i>Rumäniens Uferrechte an
+der Donau</i> (Leipzig, 1883; French edition, 1884). He also
+edited or assisted in editing a number of periodical publications
+on legal subjects. From 1866 to the time of his death he was
+associated with Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow in editing <i>Sammlung
+gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher Vorträge</i> (Berlin).
+Von Holtzendorff died at Munich on the 4th of February 1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1832-&emsp;&emsp;), German
+Protestant theologian, son of Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804-1877),
+was born on the 17th of May 1832 at Karlsruhe, where
+his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor to the supreme
+consistory. He studied at Berlin, and eventually (1874) was
+appointed professor ordinarius at Strassburg. A moderately
+liberal theologian, he became best known as a New Testament
+critic and exegete, being the author of the Commentary on the
+Synoptics (1889; 3rd ed., 1901), the Johannine books (1890;
+2nd ed., 1893), and the Acts of the Apostles (1901), in the series
+<i>Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament</i>. On the question of
+the relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, Holtzmann in his
+early work, <i>Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und
+geschichtlicher Charakter</i> (1863), presents a view which has been
+widely accepted, maintaining the priority of Mark, deriving
+Matthew in its present form from Mark and from Matthew&rsquo;s
+earlier &ldquo;collection of Sayings,&rdquo; the Logia of Papias, and Luke
+from Matthew and Mark in the form in which we have them.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Other noteworthy works are the <i>Lehrbuch der histor.-kritischen
+Einleitung in das Neue Testament</i> (1885, 3rd ed., 1892), and the
+<i>Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie</i> (2 vols., 1896-1897). He
+also collaborated with R. Zöpffel in the preparation of a small
+<i>Lexikon für Theologie und Kirchenwesen</i> (1882; 3rd ed., 1895), and in
+1893 became editor of the <i>Theol. Jahresbericht</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLUB, EMIL<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1847-1902), Bohemian traveller in south-central
+Africa, was born at Holitz, eastern Bohemia, on the
+7th of October 1847. He was educated at Prague University,
+where he graduated M.D. In 1872 he went to the Kimberley
+diamond-fields, and with the money earned by his practice
+as a surgeon undertook expeditions into the northern Transvaal,
+Mashonaland and through Bechuanaland to the Victoria
+Falls, making extensive natural history collections, which he
+brought to Europe in 1879 and distributed among over a hundred
+museums and schools. In 1883 he went back to South Africa
+with his wife, intending to cross the continent to Egypt. In
+June 1886 the party crossed the Zambezi west of the Victoria
+Falls, and explored the then almost unknown region between
+that river and its tributary the Kafue. When beyond the
+Kafue the camp was attacked by the Mashukulumbwe, and
+Holub was obliged to retrace his steps. He returned to Austria
+in 1887 with a collection of great scientific interest, of over
+13,000 objects, now in various museums. Holub died at Vienna
+on the 21st of February 1902.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal works are: <i>Eine Culturskizze des Marutse-Mambunda-reichs</i>
+(Vienna, 1879); <i>Sieben Jahre in Südafrika</i>, &amp;c. (2 vols.,
+Vienna, 1880-1881), of which an English translation appeared; <i>Die
+Colonisation Afrikas</i> (Vienna, 1882); and <i>Von der Kapstadt ins Land
+der Maschukulumbe</i> (2 vols., Vienna, 1818-1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLY,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> sacred, devoted or set apart for religious worship or
+observance; a term characteristic of the attributes of perfection
+and sinlessness of the Persons of the Trinity, as the objects of
+human worship and reverence, and hence transferred to those
+human persons who, either by their devotion to a spiritual
+ascetic life or by their approximation to moral perfection,
+are considered worthy of reverence. The word in Old English
+was <i>hálig</i>, and is common to other Teutonic languages;
+cf. Ger. and Dutch <i>heilig</i>, Swed. <i>helig</i>, Dan. <i>hellig</i>. It is
+derived from <i>hál</i>, hale, whole, and cognate with &ldquo;health.&rdquo;
+The <i>New English Dictionary</i> suggests that the sense-development
+may be from &ldquo;whole,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> inviolate, from &ldquo;health,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span>
+well-being,&rdquo; or from &ldquo;good-omen,&rdquo; &ldquo;augury.&rdquo; It is impossible
+to get behind the Christian uses, in which from the earliest
+times it was employed as the equivalent of the Latin <i>sacer</i> and
+<i>sanctus</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLY ALLIANCE, THE.<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> The famous treaty, or declaration,
+known by this name was signed in the first instance by Alexander
+I., emperor of Russia, Francis I., emperor of Austria, and
+Frederick William III., king of Prussia, on the 26th of September
+1815, and was proclaimed by the emperor Alexander the same
+day at a great review of the allied troops held on the Champ
+des Vertus near Paris. The English version of the text is as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Holy Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia.</i></p>
+
+<p>Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and
+the Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events
+which have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and
+especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to
+shower down upon those States which place their confidence and
+their hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the
+necessity of settling the steps to be observed by the Powers, in their
+reciprocal relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion
+of our Saviour teaches;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Government and Political Relations.</i></p>
+
+<p>They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object
+than to publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution,
+both in the administration of their respective States, and in their
+political relations with every other Government, to take for their
+sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts
+of Justice, Christian Charity and Peace, which, far from being
+applicable only to private concerns, must have an immediate
+influence on the councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being
+the only means of consolidating human institutions and remedying
+their imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed
+on the following Articles:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Principles of the Christian Religion.</i></p>
+
+<p>Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures which
+command all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three contracting
+Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and
+indissoluble fraternity, and, considering each other as fellow countrymen,
+they will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid
+and assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects
+and armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same
+spirit of fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion,
+Peace and Justice.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Fraternity and Affection.</i></p>
+
+<p>Art. II. In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether
+between the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be
+that of doing each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by unalterable
+good will the mutual affection with which they ought to be
+animated, to consider themselves all as members of one and the same
+Christian nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as
+merely delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One
+family, namely, Austria, Prussia and Russia, thus confessing that the
+Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in
+reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really
+belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love,
+science and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our Divine Saviour,
+the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties
+consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender
+solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace which arises
+from a good conscience, and which alone is durable, to strengthen
+themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise
+of the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Accession of Foreign Powers.</i></p>
+
+<p>Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the
+sacred principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall
+acknowledge how important it is for the happiness of nations, too
+long agitated, that these truths should henceforth exercise over the
+destinies of mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will
+be received with equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The credit for inspiring this singular document was claimed by
+the Baroness von Krüdener (<i>q.v.</i>); in any case it was the outcome
+of the tsar&rsquo;s mood of evangelical exaltation, and was in its
+inception perfectly sincere. Neither Frederick William nor
+Francis signed willingly, the latter remarking that &ldquo;if it was a
+question of politics, he must refer it to his chancellor, if of
+religion, to his confessor.&rdquo; Metternich called it a &ldquo;loud-sounding
+nothing,&rdquo; Castlereagh, &ldquo;a piece of sublime mysticism and
+nonsense.&rdquo; None the less, in accordance with its last article,
+the signatures of all the European sovereigns were invited to the
+instrument, the pope and the Ottoman sultan alone being
+excepted. The prince regent courteously declined to sign, on
+the constitutional ground that all acts of the British crown
+required the counter-signature of a minister, but he sent a letter
+expressing his &ldquo;entire concurrence with the principles laid down
+by the &lsquo;august sovereigns&rsquo; and stating that it would always be
+his endeavour to regulate his conduct by their &lsquo;sacred maxims.&rsquo;&rdquo;
+With these exceptions, all the European sovereigns sooner or
+later appended their names.</p>
+
+<p>In popular parlance, which has found its way into the language
+of serious historians, the &ldquo;Holy Alliance&rdquo; soon became
+synonymous with the combination of the great powers by whom
+Europe was ruled in concert during the period of the congresses,
+and associated with the policy of reaction which gradually
+dominated their counsels. For the understanding of the inner
+history of the diplomacy of this period, however, a clear distinction
+must be drawn between the Holy Alliance and the Grand,
+or Quadruple (Quintuple) Alliance. The Grand Alliance was
+established on definite treaties concluded for definite purposes,
+of which the chief was the preservation of peace on the basis of
+the territorial settlement of 1815. The Holy Alliance was a
+general treaty&mdash;hardly indeed a treaty at all&mdash;which bound its
+signatories to act on certain vague principles for no well-defined
+end; and in its essence it was so far from necessarily reactionary
+that the emperor Alexander at one time declared that it involved
+the grant of liberal constitutions by princes to their subjects.
+Its main significance was due to the persistent efforts of the tsar
+to make it the basis of the &ldquo;universal union,&rdquo; or general confederation
+of Europe, which he wished to substitute for the actual
+committee of the great powers, efforts which were frustrated
+by the vigorous diplomacy of Castlereagh, acting as the
+mouthpiece of the British government (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander I.</a></span> of Russia; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Londonderry, Robert Stewart,
+2nd Marquis of</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>As a diplomatic instrument the Holy Alliance never, as a
+matter of fact, became effective. None the less, its principles
+and the fact of its signature powerfully affected the course of
+European diplomacy during the 19th century. It strongly
+influenced the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia, to whom the
+brotherhood of sovereigns by divine right was an article of
+faith, inspiring the principles of the convention of Berlin (between
+Russia, Austria and Prussia) in 1833, and the tsar&rsquo;s intervention
+in 1849 to crush the Hungarian insurrection on behalf of his
+brother of Austria. That it had become synonymous with a
+conspiracy against popular liberties was, however, a mere
+accident of the point of view of those who interpreted its principles.
+It was capable of other and more noble interpretations,
+and it was avowedly the inspiration of the famous rescript of
+the emperor Nicholas II., embodied in the circular of Count
+Muraviev to the European courts (August 4th, 1898), which
+issued in the first international peace conference at the Hague
+in 1899.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLYHEAD<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Caergybi, the fort of Cybi, the saint mentioned
+by Matthew Arnold as meeting St Seiriol of Penmôn, Anglesey),
+a seaport and market-town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on
+the small Holy Island, at the western end of the county. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 10,079. Here the London and North-Western
+railway has a terminus, 263½ m. from London by rail.
+Holy Island is connected with Anglesey by an embankment,
+¾ m. long, over which pass the railway and main road, the tide
+flowing fast under the central piers. Once a small fishing village,
+the town has since William IV.&rsquo;s reign acquired importance as
+the Dublin mail steam station. Its magnificent harbour of refuge
+was begun in 1847 and opened in September 1873. The east
+breakwater scheme, which would have covered the Platter&rsquo;s
+rocks&mdash;still very troublesome&mdash;and the Skinner&rsquo;s, was abandoned
+for buoys which mark the spots. The north breakwater is
+7860 ft. long (instead of 5360, as originally planned). The
+roadstead (400 acres) and enclosed area (267 acres) together
+make a magnificent shelter for shipping. The rubble mound
+of the breakwater was very costly to the railway company, as
+time after time it was swept away by storms. On it is a central
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span>
+wall of some 38 ft. above low water, and on the wall a promenade
+sheltered by a parapet. The lighthouse is at the end of the
+breakwater, of which the whole cost was nearly 1½ million
+sterling. Additional works, begun in 1873 by the company, to
+extend the old harbour and lengthen the quay by 4000 ft.,
+were opened by King Edward VII. (as prince of Wales) in 1880.
+These cost another half million. George IV. passed through
+Holyhead in 1821 on his way to Ireland, and there is a commemorative
+tablet on the old harbour pier. The church is said
+to occupy the site of the old monastery (6th or early 7th century)
+of St Cybi, of whom there is a rude figure in the porch. The
+churchyard wall, 6 ft. thick, is possibly partly Roman. On the
+south of the harbour is an obelisk in memory of Captain Skinner,
+of the steam packets, washed overboard in 1833. Pen Caergybi
+rises perpendicularly from the sea to the height of 719 ft., at
+some 2 m. from the town; it is a mass of serpentine rocks, off
+which lie the North and South Stacks, each with a lighthouse
+with a revolving light, visible for 20 m., and 197 ft. above high
+water on the South Stack. On the hill are traces of British
+fortification, including a circular building, probably a Roman
+watch-tower. Coasting trade and fishing, with some shipbuilding
+and the Irish traffic, occupy most of the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hon. W. Stanley&rsquo;s <i>Holy Island and Holyhead</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLY ISLAND,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Lindisfarne</span>, an irregularly shaped island
+in the North Sea, 2 m. from the coast of Northumberland, in
+which county it is included. Pop. (1901) 405. It is joined to
+the mainland at low water by flat sands, over which a track,
+marked by wooden posts and practicable for vehicles, leads to the
+island. There is a station on the North-Eastern railway at
+Beak 9 m. S.E. of Berwick, opposite the island, but 1¼ m. inland.
+The island measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 1½ N. to S., extreme
+distances. Its total area is 1051 acres. On the N. it is sandy
+and barren, but on the S. very fertile and under cultivation.
+Large numbers of rabbits have their warrens among the sands,
+and, with fish, oysters and agricultural produce, are exported.
+There are several fresh springs on the island, and in the north-east
+is a lake of 6 acres. At the south-west angle is the little
+fishing village (formerly much larger) which is now a favourite
+summer watering-place. Here is the harbour, offering good
+shelter to small vessels. Holy Island derives its name from a
+monastery founded on it by St Aidan, and restored in 1082 as a
+cell of the Benedictine monastery at Durham. Its ruins, still
+extensive and carefully preserved, justify Scott&rsquo;s description
+of it as a &ldquo;solemn, huge and dark-red pile.&rdquo; An islet, lying off
+the S.W. angle, has traces of a chapel upon it, and is believed to
+have offered a retreat to St Cuthbert and his successors. The
+castle, situated east of the village, on a basaltic rock about 90 ft.
+high, dates from <i>c.</i> 1500.</p>
+
+<p>When St Aidan came at the request of King Oswald to preach
+to the Northumbrians he chose the island of Lindisfarne as the
+site of his church and monastery, and made it the head of the
+diocese which he founded in 635. For some years the see continued
+in peace, numbering among its bishops St Cuthbert,
+but in 793 the Danes landed on the island and burnt the settlement,
+killing many of the monks. The survivors, however,
+rebuilt the church and continued to live there until 883, when,
+through fear of a second invasion of the Danes, they fled inland,
+taking with them the body of St Cuthbert and other holy relics.
+The church and monastery were again destroyed and the bishop
+and monks, on account of the exposed situation of the island,
+determined not to return to it, and settled first at Chester-le-Street
+and finally at Durham. With the fall of the monastery
+the island appears to have become again untenanted, and
+probably continued so until the prior and convent of Durham
+established there a cell of monks from their own house. The
+inhabitants of Holy Island were governed by two bailiffs at
+least as early as the 14th century, and, according to J. Raine
+in his <i>History of North Durham</i> (1852), are called &ldquo;burgesses
+or freemen&rdquo; in a private paper dated 1728. In 1323 the bailiffs
+and community of Holy Island were commanded to cause all
+ships of the burthen of thirty tons or over to go to Ereswell
+with their ships provisioned for a month at least and under
+double manning to be ready to set out on the kings service.
+Towards the end of the 16th century the fort on Holy Island
+was garrisoned for fear of foreign invasion by Sir William
+Read, who found it very much in need of repair, the guns being
+so decayed that the gunners &ldquo;dare not give fire but by trayne,&rdquo;
+and the master gunner had been &ldquo;miserably slain&rdquo; in discharging
+one of them. During the Civil Wars the castle was held for
+the king until 1646, when it was taken and garrisoned by the
+parliamentarians. The only other historical event connected
+with the island is the attempt made by two Jacobites in 1715 to
+hold it for the Pretender.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1817-1906), English secularist
+and co-operator, was born at Birmingham, on the 13th of April
+1817. At an early age he became an Owenite lecturer, and in
+1841 was the last person convicted for blasphemy in a public
+lecture, though this had no theological character and the incriminating
+words were merely a reply to a question addressed
+to him from the body of the meeting. He nevertheless underwent
+six months&rsquo; imprisonment, and upon his release invented
+the inoffensive term &ldquo;secularism&rdquo; as descriptive of his opinions,
+and established the <i>Reasoner</i> in their support. He was also
+the last person indicted for publishing an unstamped newspaper,
+but the prosecution dropped upon the repeal of the tax. His
+later years were chiefly devoted to the promotion of the co-operative
+movement among the working classes. He wrote
+the history of the Rochdale Pioneers (1857), <i>The History of
+Co-operation in England</i> (1875; revised ed., 1906), and <i>The
+Co-operative Movement of To-day</i> (1891). He also published
+(1892) his autobiography, under the title of <i>Sixty Years of an
+Agitator&rsquo;s Life</i>, and in 1905 two volumes of reminiscences,
+<i>Bygones worth Remembering</i>. He died at Brighton on the 22nd
+of January 1906.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. McCabe, <i>Life and Letters of G. J. Holyoake</i> (2 vols., 1908);
+C. W. F. Goss, <i>Descriptive Bibliography of the Writings of G. J.
+Holyoake</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLYOKE,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., in a bend of the Connecticut river, about 8 m. N.
+of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 21,915; (1890) 35,637; (1900)
+45,712; (1910 census) 57,730. Of the total population in
+1900, 18,921 were foreign-born, including 6991 French-Canadians,
+5650 Irish, 1602 Germans and 1118 English; and 33,626 were
+of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including
+12,370 of Irish and 11,050 of French-Canadian parentage. The
+city&rsquo;s area is about 17 sq. m. The city is served by the Boston
+&amp; Maine, and the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railways,
+and by an interurban line. Holyoke is characteristically an
+industrial and mercantile city; it has some handsome public
+buildings (the city hall and the public library, founded in 1870,
+being especially noteworthy) and attractive environs. Holyoke
+is the railway station for Mt Holyoke College, in South Hadley,
+about 4 m. N. by E. of Holyoke; the city is connected with
+South Hadley by an electric line. Just above Holyoke the
+Connecticut leaves the rugged highlands through a rift between
+Mt Tom (1214 ft.; ascended by a mountain-railway from
+Holyoke) and Mt Holyoke (954 ft.), and begins a meandering
+valley course, falling (in the Hadley halls) in great volume some
+60 ft. in about 1½ m. The water-power was unutilized until
+1849, when a great dam (1017 ft. long) was completed, which
+enabled vast power to be developed along a series of canals
+laid out from the river. This was, in its day, a colossal undertaking;
+and its success transformed Holyoke from a farming
+village into a great manufacturing centre&mdash;in 1900 and 1905
+the ninth largest of the commonwealth. In 1900 a stone dam
+(1020 ft.), said to be the second largest in New England, was
+completed at a cost of about $750,000. Cotton manufactures
+first, and later paper products were chief in importance, and
+Holyoke now leads all the cities in the United States in the
+manufacture of fine paper. In 1905 the total value of all factory
+products was $30,731,332, of which $10,620,255 (or 34.6% of
+the total) represented paper and wood pulp; $5,019,817, cotton
+goods; $1,318,409, woollen goods; $1,756,473, book binding
+and blank books, and $2,022,759, foundry and machine-shop
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span>
+products. Silk and worsted goods are other important manufactures.
+Opposite Holyoke, in Hampshire county, is South
+Hadley Falls. The municipality owns and operates the gas
+and electric-lighting plants and the water works (the water-supply
+being derived from natural ponds, some of which are
+outside the city limits), and owns and leases (to the New York,
+New Haven &amp; Hartford railroad) a railway extending (10.3 m.)
+to Westfield, Mass. Holyoke was originally a part of Springfield,
+and after 1774 of West Springfield. In 1850 it was incorporated
+as a township, and in 1873 was chartered as a city.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLYSTONE,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a soft kind of sandstone used by sailors for
+scrubbing and cleaning the decks of ships. The origin of the word
+is doubtful. Some authorities hold that it arose from the general
+practice of scrubbing the decks for Sunday service; while others
+think the name arises from the fact that the stone so employed
+is naturally porous and full of holes. A small flint or stone having
+a natural hole in it, and worn as a charm, is also called a holystone.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLY WATER,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> technically the water with which Christian
+believers sign the cross on their foreheads on entering or leaving
+church. The edict of Gratian lays down that it should be
+exorcized and blessed by the priest and sprinkled with exorcized
+salt. This rite is found in the Gelasian, Gregorian and other
+sacramentaries. In the East the water was blessed once a
+month, in the Latin Church it is now blessed every Sunday.
+In the 4th century in the East it was usual to wash the hands on
+entering the church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ablution</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the early church water was not expressly consecrated for
+baptisms and other lustrations. &ldquo;Water,&rdquo; says Tertullian in
+his tract on baptism, &ldquo;was the abode at the first of the divine
+Spirit, being more acceptable then (to God) than the other
+elements.&rdquo; He pictures the world in the beginning: &ldquo;total
+darkness, formless as yet, without tending of stars, the melancholy
+abyss, the earth unprepared, the heaven undevelopt. The liquid
+alone an ever perfect material, smiling, simple, pure in its own
+right, as a worthy vehicle underlay the God.&rdquo; Water was
+similarly pure in itself in the old Persian religion.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Canons of Hippolytus</i>, or Egyptian church order, of about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250, give no prayer for consecration of fonts, but enact
+that &ldquo;at cock crow the baptismal party shall take their stand
+near waving water, pure, prepared, sacred, of the sea.&rdquo; The
+<i>Teaching of the Apostles</i>, <i>c.</i> 100, merely insists on &ldquo;living,&rdquo;
+that is, clear and running water. The ancient feeling, especially
+Jewish, was that in lustrations the same water must not pass
+twice over the body. A stagnant pool was useless. Bubbling
+waters too seemed to have a spirit in them.</p>
+
+<p>Either because running water was not always at hand, or
+as part of the growing tendency of the church to multiply
+ceremonies, rituals arose late in the 3rd century for consecrating
+water. The sacramentary of Serapion, <i>c.</i> 350, provides a prayer
+asking that the divine Word may descend into the water and
+hallow it, as of old it hallowed the Jordan. In the Roman order
+of baptism the priest prays that &ldquo;the font may receive the grace
+of the only begotten Son from the holy Spirit, and that the latter
+may impregnate with hidden admixture of His light this water
+prepared for the regeneration of mankind, to the end that man
+through a sanctification conceived from the immaculate womb
+of the divine font, may emerge a heavenly offspring reborn as a
+new creature.&rdquo; The water is then exorcized and evil spirits
+warned off, and lastly blessed. During the prayer the priest
+twice signs the water with the cross, and once blows upon it.</p>
+
+<p>The first mention of a special consecration of water for other
+ends than baptism is in the <i>Acts of Thomas</i> (? <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200); it is
+for the purgation of a youth already baptized who had killed
+his mistress because she would not live chastely with him. The
+apostle prays: &ldquo;Fountain sent unto us from Rest, Power of
+Salvation from that Power proceeding which overcomes and
+subjects all to its own will, come and dwell within these waters,
+that the <i>Charisma</i> (gift) of the holy Spirit may be fully perfected
+through them.&rdquo; The youth then washes his hands, which on
+touching the sacrament had withered up, and is healed.</p>
+
+<p>The church shared the universal belief that holiness or the holy
+Spirit is quasi-material and capable of being held in suspense
+in water, just as sin is a half material infection, absorbed and
+carried away by it. So Tertullian writes: &ldquo;The water which
+carried the Spirit of God (probably regarded as a shadow or
+reflection-soul) borrowed holiness from that which was carried
+upon it; for every underlying matter must needs absorb and
+take up the quality of that matter which overhangs it; especially
+does a corporeal so absorb a spiritual, as this can easily penetrate
+and settle into it owing to the subtlety of its substance.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Water,&rdquo; he continues, &ldquo;was generically hallowed by the
+Spirit of God brooding over it at creation, and therefore all
+special waters are holy, and at once obtain the sacrament of
+sanctification when God is invoked (over them.) For the Spirit
+from heaven instantly supervenes and is upon the waters, hallowing
+them out of itself, and being so hallowed they drink up a
+power of hallowing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>What is done in material semblance, he then argues, is repeated
+in the unseen medium of the Spirit. The stains of idolatry, vice
+and fraud are not visible on the flesh, yet they resemble real dirt.
+&ldquo;The waters are medicated in a manner through the intervention
+of the angel, and the Spirit is corporeally washed in the water
+and the flesh is spiritually purified in the same.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Tertullian believed that an angel was sent down, when God
+was invoked, like that which stirred the pool of Bethesda. As
+regards rival Isiac and Mithraic baptisms, he asserts that their
+waters are destitute of divine power; nay, are rather tenanted
+by the devil who in this matter sets himself to rival God. &ldquo;Without
+any religious rite at all,&rdquo; he urges, &ldquo;unclean spirits brood
+upon waters, aspiring to repeat that primordial gestation of the
+divine Spirit.&rdquo; And he instances the &ldquo;darkling springs and
+lonely rivers which are said to snatch, to wit by force of a harmful
+spirit.&rdquo; In the sequel he defines the rôle of the angel of baptism
+who does not infuse himself in waters, already holy from the first;
+but merely presides over the washing of the faithful, and ensures
+their being made pure for the reception of the holy Spirit in the
+rite of confirmation which immediately follows. &ldquo;The devil
+who till now ruled over us, we leave behind overwhelmed in the
+water.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From all this we conclude that what is poetry to us&mdash;akin to
+the folk-lore of water-sprites, naiads, kelpies, river-gods and
+water-worship in general&mdash;was to Tertullian and to the generations
+of believers who fashioned the baptismal rites, ablutions
+and beliefs of the church, nothing less than grim reality and
+unquestionable fact.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See John, marquess of Bute, and E. A. Wallis Budge, <i>The Blessing
+of the Waters</i> (London, 1901); E. B. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>
+(London, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLY WEEK<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="hebdomas megalê, hagia">&#7953;&#946;&#948;&#959;&#956;&#8048;&#962; &#956;&#949;&#947;&#940;&#955;&#951;, &#7937;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span> or <span class="grk" title="tôn hagiôn, xêrophagias,
+apraktos">&#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7937;&#947;&#943;&#969;&#957;, &#958;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#945;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#962;, &#7940;&#960;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+also <span class="grk" title="hêmerai pathêmatôn, hêmerai staurôsimai">&#7969;&#956;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#953; &#960;&#945;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;, &#7969;&#956;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#953; &#963;&#964;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#974;&#963;&#953;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>: <i>hebdomas</i>
+[or <i>septimana</i>] <i>major</i>, <i>sancta</i>, <i>authentica</i> [<i>i.e.</i> <i>canonizata</i>, du
+Cange], <i>ultima</i>, <i>poenosa</i>, <i>luctuosa</i>, <i>nigra</i>, <i>inofficiosa</i>, <i>muta</i>, <i>crucis</i>,
+<i>lamentationum</i>, <i>indulgentiae</i>), in the Christian ecclesiastical year
+the week immediately preceding Easter. The earliest allusion
+to the custom of marking this week as a whole with special
+observances is to be found in the <i>Apostolical Constitutions</i>
+(v. 18, 19), dating from the latter half of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+Abstinence from wine and flesh is there commanded for all the
+days, while for the Friday and Saturday an absolute fast is
+enjoined. Dionysius Alexandrinus also, in his canonical epistle
+(260 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), refers to the six fasting days (<span class="grk" title="hex tôn nêsteiôn hêmerai">&#7957;&#958; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#957;&#951;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#8182;&#957; &#7969;&#956;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#953;</span>)
+in a manner which implies that the observance of them had
+already become an established usage in his time. There is
+some doubt about the genuineness of an ordinance attributed
+to Constantine, in which abstinence from public business was
+enforced for the seven days immediately preceding Easter
+Sunday, and also for the seven which followed it; the <i>Codex
+Theodosianus</i>, however, is explicit in ordering that all actions
+at law should cease, and the doors of all courts of law be closed
+during those fifteen days (l. ii. tit. viii.). Of the particular days
+of the &ldquo;great week&rdquo; the earliest to emerge into special prominence
+was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum
+Magnum (Holy Saturday or Easter Eve) with its vigil, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span>
+in the early church was associated with an expectation that the
+second advent would occur on an Easter Sunday.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For details of the ceremonial observed in the Roman Catholic
+Church during this week, reference must be made to the <i>Missal</i> and
+<i>Breviary</i>. In the Eastern Church the week is marked by similar
+practices, but with less elaboration and differentiation of rite. See
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Easter</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Good Friday</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maundy Thursday</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palm Sunday</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Passion Week</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLYWELL<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (<i>Tre&rsquo;ffynnon</i>, well-town), a market town and
+contributory parliamentary borough of Flintshire, N. Wales,
+situated on a height near the left bank of the Dee estuary, 196 m.
+from London by the London &amp; North-Western railway (the
+station being 2 m. distant). Pop. of urban district (1901) 2652.
+The parish church (1769) has some columns of an earlier building,
+interesting brasses and strong embattled tower. The remains of
+Basingwerk Abbey (<i>Maes glas</i>, green field), partly Saxon and
+partly Early English, are near the station. It is of uncertain
+origin but was used as a monastery before 1119. In 1131
+Ranulph, 2nd earl of Chester, introduced the Cistercians. In
+1535, when Its revenues were £150, 7s. 3d., it was dissolved, but
+revived under Mary I. and used as a Roman Catholic burial
+place in 1647. Scarcely any traces remain of Basingwerk castle,
+an old fort. Small up to the beginning of the 19th century,
+Holywell has increasingly prospered, thanks to lime quarries,
+lead, copper and zinc mines, smelting works, a shot manufactory,
+copper, brass, iron and zinc works; brewing, tanning and
+mineral water, flannel and cement works. St Winifred&rsquo;s holy
+well, one of the wonders of Wales, sends up water at the rate
+of 21 tons a minute, of an almost unvarying temperature,
+higher than that of ordinary spring water. To its curative
+powers many crutches and <i>ex voto</i> objects, hung round the well,
+as in the Lourdes Grot, bear ample witness. The stones at the
+bottom are slightly reddish, owing to vegetable substances.
+The well itself is covered by a fine Gothic building, said to have
+been erected by Margaret, countess of Richmond and mother
+of Henry VII., with some portions of earlier date. The chapel
+(restored) is used for public service. Catholics and others visit
+it in great numbers. There are swimming baths for general use.
+In 1870 a hospice for poorer pilgrims was erected. Other public
+buildings are St Winifred&rsquo;s (Catholic) church and a convent,
+a town hall and a market-hall. The export trade is expedited
+by quays on the Dee.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLYWOOD,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> a seaport of county Down, Ireland, on the east
+shore of Belfast Lough, 4½ m. N.E. from Belfast by the Belfast
+&amp; County Down railway. Its pleasant situation renders it a
+favourite residential locality of the wealthier classes in Belfast.
+There was a religious settlement here from the 7th century, which
+subsequently became a Franciscan monastery. The old church
+dating from the late 12th or early 13th century marks its site.
+A Solemn League and Covenant was signed here in 1644 for the
+defence of the kingdom, and the document is preserved at Belfast.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOLZMINDEN,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick,
+on the right bank of the Weser, at the foot of the Sollinger
+Mountains, at the junction of the railways Scherfede-Holzminden
+and Soest-Börssum, 56 m. S.W. of Brunswick. Pop.
+(1905) 9938. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
+church, a gymnasium, an architectural school and a school of
+engineering. The prosperity of the town depends chiefly on
+agriculture and the manufacture of iron and steel wares, and of
+chemicals, but weaving and the making of pottery are also
+carried on, and there are baryta mills and polishing-mills for
+sandstone. By means of the Weser it carries on a lively trade.
+Holzminden obtained municipal rights from Count Otto of
+Eberstein in 1245, and in 1410 it came into the possession of
+Brunswick.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 275px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:225px; height:62px" src="images/img624.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HOLZTROMPETE<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (Wooden Trumpet), an instrument somewhat
+resembling the Alpenhorn (q.v.) in tone-quality, designed
+by Richard Wagner for representing the natural pipe of the
+peasant in <i>Tristan and Isolde</i>. This instrument is not unlike
+the cor anglais in rough outline, being a conical tube of approximately
+the same length, terminating in a small globular bell,
+but having neither holes nor keys; it is blown through a cup-shaped
+mouthpiece made of horn. The Holztrompete is in
+the key of C; the scale is produced by overblowing, whereby
+the upper partials from the 2nd to the 6th are produced. A
+single piston placed at a third of the distance from the mouthpiece
+to the bell gives the notes D and F. Wagner inserted a
+note in the score concerning the
+cor anglais for which the part
+was originally scored, and advised
+the use of oboe or clarinet to
+reinforce the latter, the effect intended being that of a powerful
+natural instrument, unless a wooden instrument with a natural
+scale be specially made for the part, which would be preferable.
+The Holztrompete was used at Munich for the first performance
+of <i>Tristan and Isolde</i>, and was still in use there in 1897. At
+Bayreuth it was also used for the Tristan performances at the
+festivals of 1886 and 1889, but in 1891 W. Heckel&rsquo;s clarina,
+an instrument partaking of the nature of both oboe and clarinet,
+was substituted for the Holztrompete and has been retained
+ever since, having been found more effective.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Communicated by Madame Wagner, December 28th, 1897.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMAGE<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (from <i>homo</i>, through the Low Lat. <i>hominaticum</i>,
+which occurs in a document of 1035), one of the ceremonies used
+in the granting of a fief, and indicating the submission of a
+vassal to his lord. It could be received only by the suzerain
+in person. With head uncovered the vassal humbly requested
+to be allowed to enter into the feudal relation; he then laid
+aside his sword and spurs, ungirt his belt, and kneeling before
+his lord, and holding his hands extended and joined between
+the hands of his lord, uttered words to this effect: &ldquo;I become
+your man from this day forth, of life and limb, and will hold
+faith to you for the lands I claim to hold of you.&rdquo; The oath of
+fealty, which could be received by proxy, followed the act of
+homage; then came the ceremony of investiture, either directly
+on the ground or by the delivery of a turf, a handful of earth, a
+stone, or some other symbolical object. Homage was done not
+only by the vassal to whom feudal lands were first granted but
+by every one in turn by whom they were inherited, since they
+were not granted absolutely but only on condition of military
+and other service. An infant might do homage, but he did not
+thus enter into full possession of his lands. The ceremony was
+of a preliminary nature, securing that the fief would not be
+alienated; but the vassal had to take the oath of fealty, and
+to be formally invested, when he reached his majority. The
+obligations involved in the act of homage were more general
+than those associated with the oath of fealty, but they provided
+a strong moral sanction for more specific engagements. They
+essentially resembled the obligations undertaken towards a
+Teutonic chief by the members of his &ldquo;comitatus&rdquo; or &ldquo;gefolge,&rdquo;
+one of the institutions from which feudalism directly sprang.
+Besides <i>homagium ligeum</i>, there was a kind of homage which
+imposed no feudal duty; this was <i>homagium per paragium</i>,
+such as the dukes of Normandy rendered to the kings of France,
+and as the dukes of Normandy received from the dukes of
+Brittany. The act of liege homage to a particular lord did not
+interfere with the vassal&rsquo;s allegiance as a subject to his sovereign,
+or with his duty to any other suzerain of whom he might hold
+lands.</p>
+
+<p>The word is also used of the body of tenants attending a
+manorial court, or of the court in a court baron (consisting of
+the tenants that do homage and make inquiries and presentments,
+termed a <i>homage jury</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMBERG, WILHELM<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1652-1715), Dutch natural philosopher,
+was the son of an officer of the Dutch East India Company,
+and was born at Batavia (Java) on the 8th of January 1652.
+Coming to Europe with his family in 1670, he studied law at
+Jena and Leipzig, and in 1674 became an advocate at Magdeburg.
+In that town he made the acquaintance of Otto von Guericke,
+and under his influence determined to devote himself to natural
+science. He, therefore, travelled in various parts of Europe for
+study, and after graduating in medicine at Wittenberg, settled
+in Paris in 1682. From 1685 to 1690 he practised as a physician
+at Rome; then returning to Paris in 1691, he was elected a
+member of the Academy of Sciences and appointed director of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span>
+its chemical laboratory. Subsequently he became teacher of
+physics and chemistry (1702), and private physician (1705) to
+the duke of Orleans. His death occurred at Paris on the 24th of
+September 1715. Homberg was not free from alchemistical
+tendencies, but he made many solid contributions to chemical
+and physical knowledge, recording observations on the preparation
+of Kunkel&rsquo;s phosphorus, on the green colour produced in
+flames by copper, on the crystallization of common salt, on the
+salts of plants, on the saturation of bases by acids, on the freezing
+of water and its evaporation <i>in vacuo</i>, &amp;c. Much of his work
+was published in the <i>Recueil de l&rsquo;Académie des Sciences</i> from
+1692 to 1714. The <i>Sal Sedativum Hombergi</i> is boracic acid,
+which he discovered in 1702, and &ldquo;Homberg&rsquo;s phosphorus&rdquo;
+is prepared by fusing sal-ammoniac with quick lime.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HÖHE,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> a town and watering-place
+of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, prettily
+situated at the south-east foot of the Taunus Mountains, 12 m.
+N. of Frankfort-on-Main, with which it is connected by rail.
+Pop. (1905) 13,740. Homburg consists of an old and a new
+town, the latter, founded by the landgrave of Hesse-Homburg
+Frederick II. (d. 1708), being regular and well-built. Besides
+the palatial edifices erected in connexion with the mineral
+water-cure, there are churches of various denominations,
+Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Russian-Greek and Anglican,
+schools and benevolent institutions. On a neighbouring hill
+stands the palace of the former landgraves, built in 1680 and
+subsequently enlarged and improved. The White Tower,
+183 ft. in height, is said to date from Roman times, and certainly
+existed under the lords of Eppstein, who held the district in
+the 12th century. The palace is surrounded by extensive
+grounds, laid out in the manner of an English park. The eight
+mineral springs which form the attraction of the town to
+strangers belong to the class of saline acidulous chalybeates
+and contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime.
+Their use is beneficial for diseases of the stomach and intestines,
+and externally, for diseases of the skin and rheumatism. The
+establishments connected with the springs are arranged on a
+scale of great magnificence, and include the Kurhaus (built
+1841-1843), with a theatre, the Kaiser Wilhelmsbad and the
+Kurhausbad. They lie grouped round a pretty park which
+also furnishes the visitors with facilities for various recreations,
+such as lawn tennis, croquet, polo and other games. The
+industries of Homburg embrace iron founding and the manufacture
+of leather and hats, but they are comparatively unimportant,
+the prosperity of the town being almost entirely
+due to the annual influx of visitors, which during the season
+from May to October inclusive averages 12,000. In the beautiful
+neighbourhood lies the ancient Roman castle of Saalburg,
+which can be reached by an electric tramway.</p>
+
+<p>Homburg first came into repute as a watering-place in 1834,
+and owing to its gaming-tables, which were set up soon after,
+it rapidly became one of the favourite and most fashionable
+health-resorts of Europe. In 1849 the town was occupied by
+Austrian troops for the purpose of enforcing the imperial decree
+against gambling establishments, but immediately on their
+withdrawal the bank was again opened, and play continued
+unchecked until 1872, when the Prussian government refused
+to renew the lease for gambling purposes, which then expired.
+As the capital of the former landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg,
+the town shared the vicissitudes of that state.</p>
+
+<p>Homburg is also the name of a town in Bavaria. Pop. (1900)
+4785. It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church,
+and manufactures of iron goods. In the neighbourhood are the
+ruins of the castles of Karlsberg and of Hohenburg. The family
+of the counts of Homburg became extinct in the 15th century.
+The town came into the possession of Zweibrücken in 1755
+and later into that of Bavaria.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Supp, <i>Bad Homburg</i> (7th ed., Homburg, 1903); Baumstark,
+<i>Bad Homburg und seine Heilquellen</i> (Wiesbaden, 1901); Schiek,
+<i>Homburg und Umgebung</i> (Homburg, 1896); Will, <i>Der Kurort
+Homburg, seine Mineralquellen</i> (Homburg, 1880); Hoeben, <i>Bad
+Homburg und sein Heilapparat</i> (Homburg, 1901); and N. E. Yorke-Davies,
+<i>Homburg and its Waters</i> (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOME, EARLS OF.<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> Alexander Home or Hume, 1st earl of
+Home (<i>c.</i> 1566-1619), was the son of Alexander, 5th Lord Home
+(d. 1575), who fought against Mary, queen of Scots, at Carberry
+Hill and at Langside, but was afterwards one of her most stalwart
+supporters, being taken prisoner when defending Edinburgh
+castle in her interests in 1573 and probably dying in captivity.
+He belonged to an old and famous border family, an early member
+of which, Sir Alexander Home, was killed at the battle of Verneuil
+in 1424. This Sir Alexander was the father of Sir Alexander
+Home (d. 1456), warden of the marches and the founder of the
+family fortunes, whose son, another Sir Alexander (d. 1491),
+was created a lord of parliament as Lord Home in 1473, being
+one of the band of nobles who defeated the forces of King James
+III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in 1488. Other distinguished
+members of the family were: the first lord&rsquo;s grandson and
+successor, Alexander, 2nd Lord Home (d. 1506), chamberlain
+of Scotland; and the latter&rsquo;s son, Alexander, 3rd Lord Home
+(d. 1516), a person of great importance during the reign of
+James IV., whom he served as chamberlain. He fought at
+Flodden, but before the death of the king he had led his men
+away to plunder. During the minority of the new king, James
+V., he was engaged in quarrelling with the regent, John Stewart,
+duke of Albany, and in intriguing with England. In September
+1516 he was seized, was charged with treachery and beheaded,
+his title and estates being restored to his brother George in 1522.
+George, who was killed in September 1547 during a skirmish
+just before the battle of Pinkie, was the father of Alexander,
+the 5th lord.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander Home became 6th Lord Home on his father&rsquo;s death
+in August 1575, and took part in many of the turbulent incidents
+which marked the reign of James VI. He was warden of the
+east marches, and was often at variance with the Hepburns,
+a rival border family whose head was the earl of Bothwell;
+the feud between the Homes and the Hepburns was an old one,
+and it was probably the main reason why Home&rsquo;s father, the
+5th lord, sided with the enemies of Mary during the period of
+her intimacy with Bothwell. Home accompanied James to
+England in 1603 and was created earl of Home in 1605; he died
+in April 1619.</p>
+
+<p>His son James, the 2nd earl, died childless in 1633 when his
+titles passed to a distant kinsman, Sir James Home of Coldingknows
+(d. 1666), a descendant of the 1st Lord Home. This
+earl was in the Scottish ranks at the battle of Preston and lost
+his estates under the Commonwealth, but these were restored
+to him in 1661. His descendant, William, the 8th earl (d. 1761)
+fought on the English side at Prestonpans, and from his brother
+Alexander, the 9th earl (d. 1786), the present earl of Home
+is descended. In 1875 Cospatrick Alexander, the 11th earl
+(1799-1881), was created a peer of the United Kingdom as
+Baron Douglas, and his son Charles Alexander, the 12th earl
+(b. 1834), took the additional name of Douglas. The principal
+strongholds of the Homes were Douglas castle in Haddington
+and Home castle in Berwickshire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Drummond, <i>Histories of Noble British Families</i> (1846).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 5 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 39232-h.htm or 39232-h.zip *****
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,19065 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5
+       "Hinduism" to "Home, Earls of"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 23, 2012 [EBook #39232]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HINDUISM: "But, in this respect, we also meet in the epics
+      with the first clear evidence of what in after time became the
+      prominent feature of the worship of Siva and his consort all over
+      India ..." 'respect' amended from 'repect'.
+
+    ARTICLE HINDUISM: "Though the Lingayats still show a certain
+      animosity towards the Brahmans, and in the Census lists are
+      accordingly classed as an independent group beside the Hindus ..."
+      'classed' amended from 'classes'.
+
+    ARTICLE HINTERLAND: "In the purely physical sense 'interior' or
+      'back country' is more commonly used, but the word has gained a
+      distinct political significance." 'or' amended from 'on'.
+
+    ARTICLE HIPPODROME: "... so that the width was far greater, being
+      about 400 ft., the course being 600 to 700 ft. long." 'course'
+      amended from 'cource'.
+
+    ARTICLE HIRSAU: "C. H. Klaiber, Das Kloster Hirschau (Tubingen,
+      1886); and Baer, Die Hirsauer Bauschule (Freiburg, 1897)."
+      'Hirsauer' amended from 'Hirsauers'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOBBES, THOMAS: "In politics the revulsion from his
+      particular conclusions did not prevent the more clear-sighted of
+      his opponents from recognizing the force of his supreme
+      demonstration of the practical irresponsibility of the sovereign
+      power ..." 'particular' amended from 'particuar'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH: "His Japanese grammar (Japanische
+      Sprachlehre) was published in Dutch and English in 1867, and in
+      English and German in 1876." 'Sprachlehre' amended from
+      'Sprechlehre'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK: "He was editor of the Zuid Afrikaan
+      till its incorporation with Ons Land, and of the Zuid Afrikaansche
+      Tijdschrift." 'Tijdschrift' amended from 'Tidjschrift'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOHENLOHE: "... which was to exercise an important
+      influence on his political activity. As the younger son of a cadet
+      line of his house it was necessary for Prince Chlodwig to follow a
+      profession." 'political' amended from 'politcal'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOLLAND: "The height of the boezem peil ranges between
+      1(1/3) ft. above to 1(5/6) ft. below the Amsterdam zero ..."
+      'between' amended from 'beween'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOLLAND: "... Nieuwe Wandelingen door Nederland, by J.
+      Craandijk and P. A. Schipperus (Haarlem, 1888) ..." 'Wandelingen'
+      amended from 'Wanderlingen'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOLLAND: "... agreed to accept the sovereignty of the
+      Netherlands provinces, except Holland and Zeeland." 'Netherlands'
+      amended from 'Netherland'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOLLAND: "left England on the 22nd of August for
+      Sainte-Mere Eglise in Normandy." 'Eglise' amended from 'Eglide'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XIII, SLICE V
+
+         Hinduism to Home, Earls of
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HINDUISM                         HODY, HUMPHREY
+  HINDU KUSH                       HOE, RICHARD MARCH
+  HINDUR                           HOE
+  HINGANGHAT                       HOEFNAGEL, JORIS
+  HINGE                            HOF
+  HINGHAM                          HOFER, ANDREAS
+  HINRICHS, HERMANN WILHELM        HOFFDING, HARALD
+  HINSCHIUS, PAUL                  HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH
+  HINTERLAND                       HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM
+  HINTON, JAMES                    HOFFMANN, FRANCOIS BENOIT
+  HIOGO                            HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH
+  HIP                              HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH
+  HIP-KNOB                         HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON
+  HIPPARCHUS                       HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON
+  HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM           HOFMANN, MELCHIOR
+  HIPPEASTRUM                      HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT
+  HIPPED ROOF                      HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK
+  HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON     HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS
+  HIPPIAS OF ELIS                  HOGARTH, WILLIAM
+  HIPPO                            HOGG, JAMES
+  HIPPOCRAS                        HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON
+  HIPPOCRATES                      HOGMANAY
+  HIPPOCRENE                       HOGSHEAD
+  HIPPODAMUS                       HOHENASPERG
+  HIPPODROME                       HOHENFRIEDBERG
+  HIPPOLYTUS (Greek legend hunter) HOHENHEIM
+  HIPPOLYTUS (Church writer)       HOHENLIMBURG
+  HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF        HOHENLOHE
+  HIPPONAX                         HOHENSTAUFEN
+  HIPPOPOTAMUS                     HOHENSTEIN
+  HIPPURIC ACID                    HOHENZOLLERN
+  HIPURNIAS                        HOKKAIDO
+  HIRA                             HOKUSAI
+  HIRADO                           HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH
+  HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT          HOLBEACH
+  HIRING                           HOLBEIN, HANS (the elder)
+  HIROSAKI                         HOLBEIN, HANS (the younger)
+  HIROSHIGE                        HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG
+  HIROSHIMA                        HOLBORN
+  HIRPINI                          HOLCROFT, THOMAS
+  HIRSAU                           HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON
+  HIRSCH, MAURICE DE               HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC
+  HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL           HOLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH
+  HIRSCHBERG                       HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF
+  HIRSON                           HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL
+  HIRTIUS, AULUS                   HOLGUIN
+  HISHAM IBN AL-KALBI              HOLIDAY
+  HISPELLUM                        HOLINSHED, RAPHAEL
+  HISSAR (district in Asia)        HOLKAR
+  HISSAR (Indian town & district)  HOLL, FRANK
+  HISTIAEUS                        HOLLAND, CHARLES
+  HISTOLOGY                        HOLLAND, SIR HENRY
+  HISTORY                          HOLLAND, HENRY FOX
+  HIT                              HOLLAND, HENRY RICH
+  HITA, GINES PEREZ DE             HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX
+  HITCHCOCK, EDWARD                HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT
+  HITCHCOCK, GEORGE                HOLLAND, PHILEMON
+  HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT        HOLLAND, RICHARD
+  HITCHIN                          HOLLAND (country)
+  HITTITES                         HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
+  HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE         HOLLAND (Michigan, U.S.A.)
+  HITZACKER                        HOLLAND (cloth)
+  HITZIG, FERDINAND                HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS
+  HIUNG-NU                         HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES
+  HIVITES                          HOLLOWAY, THOMAS
+  HJORRING                         HOLLY
+  HKAMTI LONG                      HOLLYHOCK
+  HLOTHHERE                        HOLLY SPRINGS
+  HOACTZIN                         HOLMAN, JAMES
+  HOADLY, BENJAMIN                 HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL
+  HOAR, SAMUEL                     HOLMFIRTH
+  HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT          HOLOCAUST
+  HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS          HOLOCENE
+  HOBART, JOHN HENRY               HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES
+  HOBART PASHA                     HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON
+  HOBART (capital of Tasmania)     HOLSTEIN (duchy of Germany)
+  HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT                HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN
+  HOBBES, THOMAS                   HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS
+  HOBBY                            HOLSTER
+  HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE        HOLT, SIR JOHN
+  HOBOKEN (town of Belgium)        HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON
+  HOBOKEN (New Jersey, U.S.A.)     HOLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH
+  HOBSON'S CHOICE                  HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM FRANZ PHILIPP VON
+  HOBY, SIR THOMAS                 HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS
+  HOCHE, LAZARE                    HOLUB, EMIL
+  HOCHHEIM                         HOLY
+  HOCHST                           HOLY ALLIANCE, THE
+  HOCHSTADT                        HOLYHEAD
+  HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND VON       HOLY ISLAND
+  HOCKEY                           HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB
+  HOCK-TIDE                        HOLYOKE
+  HOCUS                            HOLYSTONE
+  HODDEN                           HOLY WATER
+  HODDESDON                        HOLY WEEK
+  HODEDA                           HOLYWELL
+  HODENING                         HOLYWOOD
+  HODGE, CHARLES                   HOLZMINDEN
+  HODGKIN, THOMAS                  HOLZTROMPETE
+  HODGKINSON, EATON                HOMAGE
+  HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON          HOMBERG, WILHELM
+  HODMEZO-VASARHELY                HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HOHE
+  HODOGRAPH                        HOME, EARLS OF
+  HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES
+
+
+
+
+HINDUISM, a term generally employed to comprehend the social
+institutions, past and present, of the Hindus who form the great
+majority of the people of India; as well as the multitudinous crop of
+their religious beliefs which has grown up, in the course of many
+centuries, on the foundation of the Brahmanical scriptures. The actual
+proportion of the total population of India (294 millions) included
+under the name of "Hindus" has been computed in the census report for
+1901 at something like 70% (206 millions); the remaining 30% being made
+up partly of the followers of foreign creeds, such as Mahommedans,
+Parsees, Christians and Jews, partly of the votaries of indigenous forms
+of belief which have at various times separated from the main stock, and
+developed into independent systems, such as Buddhism, Jainism and
+Sikhism; and partly of isolated hill and jungle tribes, such as the
+Santals, Bhils (Bhilla) and Kols, whose crude animistic tendencies have
+hitherto kept them, either wholly or for the most part, outside the pale
+of the Brahmanical community. The name "Hindu" itself is of foreign
+origin, being derived from the Persians, by whom the river Sindhu was
+called Hindhu, a name subsequently applied to the inhabitants of that
+frontier district, and gradually extended over the upper and middle
+reaches of the Gangetic valley, whence this whole tract of country
+between the Himalaya and the Vindhya mountains, west of Bengal, came to
+be called by the foreign conquerors "Hindustan," or the abode of the
+Hindus; whilst the native writers called it "Aryavarta," or the abode
+of the Aryas.
+
+But whilst, in its more comprehensive acceptation, the term Hinduism
+would thus range over the entire historical development of Brahmanical
+India, it is also not infrequently used in a narrower sense, as denoting
+more especially the modern phase of Indian social and religious
+institutions--from the earlier centuries of the Christian era down to
+our own days--as distinguished from the period dominated by the
+authoritative doctrine of pantheistic belief, formulated by the
+speculative theologians during the centuries immediately succeeding the
+Vedic period (see BRAHMANISM). In this its more restricted sense the
+term may thus practically be taken to apply to the later bewildering
+variety of popular sectarian forms of belief, with its social
+concomitant, the fully developed caste-system. But, though one may at
+times find it convenient to speak of "Brahmanism and Hinduism," it must
+be clearly understood that the distinction implied in the combination of
+these terms is an extremely vague one, especially from the chronological
+point of view. The following considerations will probably make this
+clear.
+
+
+  Connexion with Brahmanism.
+
+The characteristic tenet of orthodox Brahmanism consists in the
+conception of an absolute, all-embracing spirit, the Brahma (neutr.),
+being the one and only reality, itself unconditioned, and the original
+cause and ultimate goal of all individual souls (_jiva_, i.e. living
+things). Coupled with this abstract conception are two other doctrines,
+viz. first, the transmigration of souls (_samsara_), regarded by Indian
+thinkers as the necessary complement of a belief in the essential
+sameness of all the various spiritual units, however contaminated, to a
+greater or less degree, they may be by their material embodiment; and in
+their ultimate re-union with the _Paramatman_, or Supreme Self; and
+second, the assumption of a triple manifestation of the ceaseless
+working of that Absolute Spirit as a creative, conservative and
+destructive principle, represented respectively by the divine
+personalities of Brahma (masc.), Vishnu and Siva, forming the _Trimurti_
+or Triad. As regards this latter, purely exoteric, doctrine, there can
+be little doubt of its owing its origin to considerations of theological
+expediency, as being calculated to supply a sufficiently wide formula of
+belief for general acceptance; and the very fact of this divine triad
+including the two principal deities of the later sectarian worship,
+Vishnu and Siva, goes far to show that these two gods at all events must
+have been already in those early days favourite objects of popular
+adoration to an extent sufficient to preclude their being ignored by a
+diplomatic priesthood bent upon the formulation of a common creed. Thus,
+so far from sectarianism being a mere modern development of Brahmanism,
+it actually goes back to beyond the formulation of the Brahmanical
+creed. Nay, when, on analysing the functions and attributes of those two
+divine figures, each of them is found to be but a compound of several
+previously recognized deities, sectarian worship may well be traced
+right up to the Vedic age. That the theory of the triple manifestation
+of the deity was indeed only a compromise between Brahmanical
+aspirations and popular worship, probably largely influenced by the
+traditional sanctity of the number three, is sufficiently clear from the
+fact that, whilst Brahma, the creator, and at the same time the very
+embodiment of Brahmanical class pride, has practically remained a mere
+figurehead in the actual worship of the people, Siva, on the other hand,
+so far from being merely the destroyer, is also the unmistakable
+representative of generative and reproductive power in nature. In fact,
+Brahma, having performed his legitimate part in the mundane evolution by
+his original creation of the universe, has retired into the background,
+being, as it were, looked upon as _functus officio_, like a venerable
+figure of a former generation, whence in epic poetry he is commonly
+styled _pitamaha_, "the grandsire." But despite the artificial character
+of the _Trimurti_, it has retained to this day at least its theoretical
+validity in orthodox Hinduism, whilst it has also undoubtedly exercised
+considerable influence in shaping sectarian belief, in promoting
+feelings of toleration towards the claims of rival deities; and in a
+tendency towards identifying divine figures newly sprung into popular
+favour with one or other of the principal deities, and thus helping to
+bring into vogue that notion of avatars, or periodical descents or
+incarnations of the deity, which has become so prominent a feature of
+the later sectarian belief.
+
+Under more favourable political conditions,[1] the sacerdotal class
+might perhaps, in course of time, have succeeded in imposing something
+like an effective common creed on the heterogeneous medley of races and
+tribes scattered over the peninsula, just as they certainly did succeed
+in establishing the social prerogative of their own order over the
+length and breadth of India. They were, however, fated to fall far short
+of such a consummation; and at all times orthodox Brahmanism has had to
+wink at, or ignore, all manner of gross superstitions and repulsive
+practices, along with the popular worship of countless hosts of
+godlings, demons, spirits and ghosts, and mystic objects and symbols of
+every description. Indeed, according to a recent account by a close
+observer of the religious practices prevalent in southern India, fully
+four-fifths of the people of the Dravidian race, whilst nominally
+acknowledging the spiritual guidance of the Brahmans, are to this day
+practically given over to the worship of their nondescript local village
+deities (_grama-devata_), usually attended by animal sacrifices
+frequently involving the slaughter, under revolting circumstances, of
+thousands of victims. Curiously enough these local deities are nearly
+all of the female, not the male sex. In the estimation of these people
+"Siva and Vishnu may be more dignified beings, but the village deity is
+regarded as a more present help in trouble, and more intimately
+concerned with the happiness and prosperity of the villagers. The origin
+of this form of Hinduism is lost in antiquity, but it is probable that
+it represents a pre-Aryan religion, more or less modified in various
+parts of south India by Brahmanical influence. At the same time, many of
+the deities themselves are of quite recent origin, and it is easy to
+observe a deity in making even at the present day."[2] It is a
+significant fact that, whilst in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, at
+which no animal sacrifices are offered, the officiating priests are
+almost invariably Brahmans, this is practically never the case at the
+popular performance of those "gloomy and weird rites for the
+propitiation of angry deities, or the driving away of evil spirits, when
+the pujaris (or ministrants) are drawn from all other castes, even from
+the Pariahs, the out-caste section of Indian society."
+
+
+  Caste.
+
+As from the point of view of religious belief, so also from that of
+social organization no clear line of demarcation can be drawn between
+Brahmanism and Hinduism. Though it was not till later times that the
+network of class divisions and subdivisions attained anything like the
+degree of intricacy which it shows in these latter days, still in its
+origin the caste-system is undoubtedly coincident with the rise of
+Brahmanism, and may even be said to be of the very essence of it.[3] The
+cardinal principle which underlies the system of caste is the
+preservation of purity of descent, and purity of religious belief and
+ceremonial usage. Now, that same principle had been operative from the
+very dawn of the history of Aryanized India. The social organism of the
+Aryan tribe did not probably differ essentially from that of most
+communities at that primitive stage of civilization; whilst the body of
+the people--the _Vis_ (or aggregate of _Vaisyas_)--would be mainly
+occupied with agricultural and pastoral pursuits, two professional
+classes--those of the warrior and the priest--had already made good
+their claim to social distinction. As yet, however, the tribal community
+would still feel one in race and traditional usage. But when the
+fair-coloured Aryan immigrants first came in contact with, and drove
+back or subdued the dark-skinned race that occupied the northern
+plains--doubtless the ancestors of the modern Dravidian people--the
+preservation of their racial type and traditionary order of things would
+naturally become to them a matter of serious concern. In the extreme
+north-western districts--the Punjab and Rajputana, judging from the
+fairly uniform physical features of the present population of these
+parts--they seem to have been signally successful in their endeavour to
+preserve their racial purity, probably by being able to clear a
+sufficiently extensive area of the original occupants for themselves
+with their wives and children to settle upon. The case was, however,
+very different in the adjoining valley of the Jumna and Ganges, the
+sacred _Madhyadesa_ or Middle-land of classical India. Here the Aryan
+immigrants were not allowed to establish themselves without undergoing a
+considerable admixture of foreign blood. It must remain uncertain
+whether it was that the thickly-populated character of the land scarcely
+admitted of complete occupation, but only of a conquest by an army of
+fighting men, starting from the Aryanized region--who might, however,
+subsequently draw women of their own kin after them--or whether, as has
+been suggested, a second Aryan invasion of India took place at that time
+through the mountainous tracts of the upper Indus and northern Kashmir,
+where the nature of the road would render it impracticable for the
+invading bands to be accompanied by women and children. Be this as it
+may, the physical appearance of the population of this central region of
+northern India--Hindustan and Behar--clearly points to an intermixture
+of the tall, fair-coloured, fine-nosed Aryan with the short-sized,
+dark-skinned, broad-nosed Dravidian; the latter type becoming more
+pronounced towards the lower strata of the social order.[4] Now, it was
+precisely in this part of India that mainly arose the body of literature
+which records the gradual rise of the Brahmanical hierarchy and the
+early development of the caste-system.
+
+The problem that now lay before the successful invaders was how to deal
+with the indigenous people, probably vastly outnumbering them, without
+losing their own racial identity. They dealt with them in the way the
+white race usually deals with the coloured race--they kept them socially
+apart. The land being appropriated by the conquerors, husbandry, as the
+most respectable industrial occupation, became the legitimate calling of
+the Aryan settler, the _Vaisya_; whilst handicrafts, gradually
+multiplying with advancing civilization and menial service, were
+assigned to the subject race. The generic name applied to the latter was
+_Sudra_, originally probably the name of one of the subjected tribes. So
+far the social development proceeded on lines hardly differing from
+those with which one is familiar in the history of other nations. The
+Indo-Aryans, however, went a step farther. What they did was not only to
+keep the native race apart from social intercourse with themselves, but
+to shut them out from all participation in their own higher aims, and
+especially in their own religious convictions and ceremonial practices.
+So far from attempting to raise their standard of spiritual life, or
+even leaving it to ordinary intercourse to gradually bring about a
+certain community of intellectual culture and religious sentiment, they
+deliberately set up artificial barriers in order to prevent their own
+traditional modes of worship from being contaminated with the obnoxious
+practices of the servile race. The serf, the _Sudra_, was not to worship
+the gods of the Aryan freemen. The result was the system of four castes
+(_varna_, i.e. "colour"; or _jati_, "gens"). Though the Brahman, who by
+this time had firmly secured his supremacy over the _kshatriya_, or
+noble, in matters spiritual as well as in legislative and administrative
+functions, would naturally be the prime mover in this regulation of the
+social order, there seems no reason to believe that the other two upper
+classes were not equally interested in seeing their hereditary
+privileges thus perpetuated by divine sanction. Nothing, indeed, is more
+remarkable in the whole development of the caste-system than the jealous
+pride which every caste, from the highest to the lowest, takes in its
+own peculiar occupation and sphere of life. The distinctive badge of a
+member of the three upper castes was the sacred triple cord or thread
+(_sutra_)--made of cotton, hemp or wool, according to the respective
+caste--with which he was invested at the _upanayana_ ceremony, or
+initiation into the use of the sacred _savitri_, or prayer to the sun
+(also called _gayatri_), constituting his second birth. Whilst the Arya
+was thus a _dvi-ja_, or twice-born, the Sudra remained unregenerate
+during his lifetime, his consolation being the hope that, on the
+faithful performance of his duties in this life, he might hereafter be
+born again into a higher grade of life. In later times, the strict
+adherence to caste duties would naturally receive considerable support
+from the belief in the transmigration of souls, already prevalent before
+Buddha's time, and from the very general acceptance of the doctrine of
+_karma_ ("deed"), or retribution, according to which a man's present
+station and manner of life are the result of the sum-total of his
+actions and thoughts in his former existence; as his actions here will
+again, by the same automatic process of retribution, determine his
+status and condition in his next existence. Though this doctrine is
+especially insisted upon in Buddhism, and its designation as a specific
+term (Pali, _Kamma_) may be due to that creed, the notion itself was
+doubtless already prevalent in pre-Buddhist times. It would even seem to
+be necessarily and naturally implied in Brahmanical belief in
+metempsychosis; whilst in the doctrine of Buddha, who admits no soul,
+the theory of the net result or fruit of a man's actions serving
+hereafter to form or condition the existence of some new individual who
+will have no conscious identity with himself, seems of a peculiarly
+artificial and mystic character. But, be this as it may, "the doctrine
+of _karma_ is certainly one of the firmest beliefs of all classes of
+Hindus, and the fear that a man shall reap as he has sown is an
+appreciable element in the average morality ... the idea of forgiveness
+is absolutely wanting; evil done may indeed be outweighed by meritorious
+deeds so far as to ensure a better existence in the future, but it is
+not effaced, and must be atoned for" (_Census Report_, i. 364).
+
+In spite, however, of the artificial restrictions placed on the
+intermarrying of the castes, the mingling of the two races seems to have
+proceeded at a tolerably rapid rate. Indeed, the paucity of women of the
+Aryan stock would probably render these mixed unions almost a necessity
+from the very outset; and the vaunted purity of blood which the caste
+rules were calculated to perpetuate can scarcely have remained of more
+than a relative degree even in the case of the Brahman caste. Certain it
+is that mixed castes are found referred to at a comparatively early
+period; and at the time of Buddha--some five or six centuries before the
+Christian era--the social organization would seem to have presented an
+appearance not so very unlike that of modern times. It must be
+confessed, however, that our information regarding the development of
+the caste-system is far from complete, especially in its earlier stages.
+Thus, we are almost entirely left to conjecture on the important point
+as to the original social organization of the subject race. Though
+doubtless divided into different tribes scattered over an extensive
+tract of land, the subjected aborigines were slumped together under the
+designation of Sudras, whose duty it was to serve the upper classes in
+all the various departments of manual labour, save those of a downright
+sordid and degrading character which it was left to _vratyas_ or
+outcasts to perform. How, then, was the distribution of crafts and
+habitual occupations of all kinds brought about? Was the process one of
+spontaneous growth adapting an already existing social organization to a
+new order of things; or was it originated and perpetuated by regulation
+from above? Or was it rather that the status and duties of existing
+offices and trades came to be determined and made hereditary by some
+such artificial system as that by which the Theodosian Code succeeded
+for a time in organizing the Roman society in the 5th century of our
+era? "It is well known" (says Professor Dill) "that the tendency of the
+later Empire was to stereotype society, by compelling men to follow the
+occupation of their fathers, and preventing a free circulation among
+different callings and grades of life. The man who brought the grain
+from Africa to the public stores at Ostia, the baker who made it into
+loaves for distribution, the butchers who brought pigs from Samnium,
+Lucania or Bruttium, the purveyors of wine and oil, the men who fed the
+furnaces of the public baths, were bound to their callings from one
+generation to another. It was the principle of rural serfdom applied to
+social functions. Every avenue of escape was closed. A man was bound to
+his calling not only by his father's but also by his mother's condition.
+Men were not permitted to marry out of their gild. If the daughter of
+one of the baker caste married a man not belonging to it, her husband
+was bound to her father's calling. Not even a dispensation obtained by
+some means from the imperial chancery, not even the power of the Church
+could avail to break the chain of servitude." It can hardly be gainsaid
+that these artificial arrangements bear a very striking analogy to those
+of the Indian caste-system; and if these class restrictions were
+comparatively short-lived on Italian ground, it was not perhaps so much
+that so strange a plant found there an ethnic soil less congenial to its
+permanent growth, but because it was not allowed sufficient time to
+become firmly rooted; for already great political events were impending
+which within a few decades were to lay the mighty empire in ruins. In
+India, on the other hand, the institution of caste--even if artificially
+contrived and imposed by the Indo-Aryan priest and ruler--had at least
+ample time allowed it to become firmly established in the social habits,
+and even in the affections, of the people. At the same time, one could
+more easily understand how such a system could have found general
+acceptance all over the Dravidian region of southern India, with its
+merest sprinkling of Aryan blood, if it were possible to assume that
+class arrangements of a similar kind must have already been prevalent
+amongst the aboriginal tribes prior to the advent of the Aryan. Whether
+a more intimate acquaintance with the manners and customs of those rude
+tribes that have hitherto kept themselves comparatively free from Hindu
+influences may yet throw some light on this question, remains to be
+seen. But, by this as it may, the institution of caste, when once
+established, certainly appears to have gone on steadily developing; and
+not even the long period of Buddhist ascendancy, with its uncompromising
+resistance to the Brahman's claim to being the sole arbiter in matters
+of faith, seems to have had any very appreciable retardant effect upon
+the progress of the movement. It was not only by the formation of ever
+new endogamous castes and sub-castes that the system gained in extent
+and intricacy, but even more so by the constant subdivision of the
+castes into numerous exogamous groups or septs, themselves often
+involving gradations of social status important enough to seriously
+affect the possibility of intermarriage, already hampered by various
+other restrictions. Thus a man wishing to marry his son or daughter had
+to look for a suitable match outside his sept, but within his caste. But
+whilst for his son he might choose a wife from a lower sept than his
+own, for his daughter, on the other hand, the law of hypergamy compelled
+him, if at all possible, to find a husband in a higher sept. This would
+naturally lead to an excess of women over men in the higher septs, and
+would render it difficult for a man to get his daughter respectably
+married without paying a high price for a suitable bridegroom and
+incurring other heavy marriage expenses. It can hardly be doubted that
+this custom has been largely responsible for the crime of female
+infanticide, formerly so prevalent in India; as it also probably is to
+some extent for infant marriages, still too common in some parts of
+India, especially Bengal; and even for the all but universal repugnance
+to the re-marriage of widows, even when these had been married in early
+childhood and had never joined their husbands. Yet violations of these
+rules are jealously watched by the other members of the sept, and are
+liable--in accordance with the general custom in which communal matters
+are regulated in India--to be brought before a special council
+(_panchayat_), originally consisting of five (_pancha_), but now no
+longer limited to that number, since it is chiefly the greater or less
+strictness in the observance of caste rules and the orthodox ceremonial
+generally that determine the status of the sept in the social scale of
+the caste. Whilst community of occupation was an important factor in the
+original formation of non-tribal castes, the practical exigencies of
+life have led to considerable laxity in this respect--not least so in
+the case of Brahmans who have often had to take to callings which would
+seem altogether incompatible with the proper spiritual functions of
+their caste. Thus, "the prejudice against eating cooked food that has
+been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong that, although
+the Shastras do not prohibit the eating of food cooked by a Kshatriya or
+Vaisya, yet the Brahmans, in most parts of the country, would not eat
+such food. For these reasons, every Hindu household--whether Brahman,
+Kshatriya or Sudra--that can afford to keep a paid cook generally
+entertains the services of a Brahman for the performance of its
+_cuisine_--the result being that in the larger towns the very name of
+Brahman has suffered a strange degradation of late, so as to mean only a
+cook" (Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_). In this
+caste, however, as in all others, there are certain kinds of occupation
+to which a member could not turn for a livelihood without incurring
+serious defilement. In fact, adherence to the traditional ceremonial and
+respectability of occupation go very much hand-in-hand. Thus, amongst
+agricultural castes, those engaged in vegetable-growing or
+market-gardening are inferior to the genuine peasant or yeoman, such as
+the Jat and Rajput; whilst of these the Jat who practises widow-marriage
+ranks below the Rajput who prides himself on his tradition of ceremonial
+orthodoxy--though racially there seems little, if any, difference
+between the two; and the Rajput, again, is looked down upon by the
+Babhan of Behar because he does not, like himself, scruple to handle the
+plough, instead of invariably employing low-caste men for this manual
+labour. So also when members of the Baidya, or physician, caste of
+Bengal, ranging next to that of the Brahman, farm land on tenure, "they
+will on no account hold the plough, or engage in any form of manual
+labour, and thus necessarily carry on their cultivation by means of
+hired servants" (H. H. Risley, _Census Report_).
+
+  The scale of social precedence as recognized by native public opinion
+  is concisely reviewed (ib.) as revealing itself "in the facts that
+  particular castes are supposed to be modern representatives of one or
+  other of the original castes of the theoretical Hindu system; that
+  Brahmans will take water from certain castes; that Brahmans of high
+  standing will serve particular castes; that certain castes, though not
+  served by the best Brahmans, have nevertheless got Brahmans of their
+  own whose rank varies according to circumstances; that certain castes
+  are not served by Brahmans at all but have priests of their own; that
+  the status of certain castes has been raised by their taking to
+  infant-marriage or abandoning the re-marriage of widows; that the
+  status of others has been modified by their pursuing some occupations
+  in a special or peculiar way; that some can claim the services of the
+  village barber, the village palanquin-bearer, the village midwife,
+  &c., while others cannot; that some castes may not enter the
+  courtyards of certain temples; that some castes are subject to special
+  taboos, such as that they must not use the village well, or may draw
+  water only with their own vessels, that they must live outside the
+  village or in a separate quarter, that they must leave the road on the
+  approach of a high-caste man and must call out to give warning of
+  their approach." ... "The first point to observe is the predominance
+  throughout India of the influence of the traditional system of four
+  original castes. In every scheme of grouping the Brahman heads the
+  list. Then come the castes whom popular opinion accepts as the modern
+  representatives of the Kshatriyas; and these are followed by the
+  mercantile groups supposed to be akin to the Vaisyas. When we leave
+  the higher circles of the twice-born, the difficulty of finding a
+  uniform basis of classification becomes apparent. The ancient
+  designation Sudra finds no great favour in modern times, and we can
+  point to no group that is generally recognized as representing it. The
+  term is used in Bombay, Madras and Bengal to denote a considerable
+  number of castes of moderate respectability, the higher of whom are
+  considered 'clean' Sudras, while the precise status of the lower is a
+  question which lends itself to endless controversy." ... In northern
+  and north-western India, on the other hand, "the grade next below the
+  twice-born rank is occupied by a number of castes from whose hands
+  Brahmans and members of the higher castes will take water and certain
+  kinds of sweetmeats. Below these again is rather an indeterminate
+  group from whom water is taken by some of the higher castes, not by
+  others. Further down, where the test of water no longer applies, the
+  status of the caste depends on the nature of its occupation and its
+  habits in respect of diet. There are castes whose touch defiles the
+  twice-born, but who do not commit the crowning enormity of eating
+  beef.... In western and southern India the idea that the social state
+  of a caste depends on whether Brahmans will take water and sweetmeats
+  from its members is unknown, for the higher castes will as a rule take
+  water only from persons of their own caste and sub-caste. In Madras
+  especially the idea of ceremonial pollution by the proximity of an
+  unclean caste has been developed with much elaboration. Thus the table
+  of social precedence attached to the Cochin report shows that while a
+  Nayar can pollute a man of a higher caste only by touching him, people
+  of the Kammalan group, including masons, blacksmiths, carpenters and
+  workers in leather, pollute at a distance of 24 ft., toddy-drawers at
+  36 ft., Pulayan or Cheruman cultivators at 48 ft., while in the case
+  of the Paraiyan (Pariahs) who eat beef the range of pollution is no
+  less than 64 ft."
+
+In this bewildering maze of social grades and class distinctions, the
+Brahman, as will have been seen, continues to hold the dominant
+position, being respected and even worshipped by all the others. "The
+more orthodox Sudras carry their veneration for the priestly class to
+such a degree that they will not cross the shadow of a Brahman, and it
+is not unusual for them to be under a vow not to eat any food in the
+morning, before drinking _Bipracharanamrita_, i.e. water in which the
+toe of a Brahman has been dipped. On the other hand, the pride of the
+Brahmans is such that they do not bow to even the images of the gods
+worshipped in a Sudra's house by Brahman priests" (Jog. Nath Bh.). There
+are, however, not a few classes of Brahmans who, for various reasons,
+have become degraded from their high station, and formed separate castes
+with whom respectable Brahmans refuse to intermarry and consort. Chief
+amongst these are the Brahmans who minister for "unclean" Sudras and
+lower castes, including the makers and dealers in spirituous liquors; as
+well as those who officiate at the great public shrines or places of
+pilgrimage where they might be liable to accept forbidden gifts, and, as
+a matter of fact, often amass considerable wealth; and those who
+officiate as paid priests at cremations and funeral rites, when the
+wearing apparel and bedding of the deceased are not unfrequently claimed
+by them as their perquisites.
+
+As regards the other two "twice-born" castes, several modern groups do
+indeed claim to be their direct descendants, and in vindication of their
+title make it a point to perform the _upanayana_ ceremony and to wear
+the sacred thread. But though the Brahmans, too, will often acquiesce in
+the reasonableness of such claims, it is probably only as a matter of
+policy that they do so, whilst in reality they regard the other two
+higher castes as having long since disappeared and been merged by
+miscegenation in the Sudra mass. Hence, in the later classical Sanskrit
+literature, the term _dvija_, or twice-born, is used simply as a synonym
+for a Brahman. As regards the numerous groups included under the term of
+Sudras, the distinction between "clean" and "unclean" Sudras is of
+especial importance for the upper classes, inasmuch as only the
+former--of whom nine distinct castes are usually recognized--are as a
+rule considered fit for employment in household service.
+
+
+  Theology.
+
+The picture thus presented by Hindu society--as made up of a confused
+congeries of social groups of the most varied standing, each held
+together and kept separate from others by a traditional body of
+ceremonial rules and by the notion of social gradations being due to a
+divinely instituted order of things--finds something like a counterpart
+in the religious life of the people. As in the social sphere, so also in
+the sphere of religious belief, we find the whole scale of types
+represented from the lowest to the highest; and here as there, we meet
+with the same failure of welding the confused mass into a well-ordered
+whole. In their theory of a triple manifestation of an impersonal deity,
+the Brahmanical theologians, as we have seen, had indeed elaborated a
+doctrine which might have seemed to form a reasonable, authoritative
+creed for a community already strongly imbued with pantheistic notions;
+yet, at best, that creed could only appeal to the sympathies of a
+comparatively limited portion of the people. Indeed, the sacerdotal
+class themselves had made its universal acceptance an impossibility,
+seeing that their laws, by which the relations of the classes were to be
+regulated, aimed at permanently excluding the entire body of aboriginal
+tribes from the religious life of their Aryan masters. They were to be
+left for all time coming to their own traditional idolatrous notions and
+practices. However, the two races could not, in the nature of things, be
+permanently kept separate from each other. Indeed, even prior to the
+definite establishment of the caste-system, the mingling of the lower
+race with the upper classes, especially with the aristocratic landowners
+and still more so with the yeomanry, had probably been going on to such
+an extent as to have resulted in two fairly well-defined intermediate
+types of colour between the priestly order and the servile race and to
+have facilitated the ultimate division into four "colours" (_varna_). In
+course of time the process of intermingling, as we have seen, assumed
+such proportions that the priestly class, in their pride of blood, felt
+naturally tempted to recognize, as of old, only two "colours," the Aryan
+Brahman and the non-Aryan Sudra. Under these conditions the religious
+practices of the lower race could hardly have failed in the long run to
+tell seriously upon the spiritual life of the lay body of the
+Brahmanical community. To what extent this may have been the case, our
+limited knowledge of the early phases of the sectarian worship of the
+people does not enable us to determine. But, on the other hand, the same
+process of racial intermixture also tended to gradually draw the lower
+race more or less under the influence of the Brahmanical forms of
+worship, and thus contributed towards the shaping of the religious
+system of modern Hinduism. The grossly idolatrous practices, however,
+still so largely prevalent in the Dravidian South, show how superficial,
+after all, that influence has been in those parts of India where the
+admixture of Aryan blood has been so slight as to have practically had
+no effect on the racial characteristics of the people. These present-day
+practices, and the attitude of the Brahman towards them, help at all
+events to explain the aversion with which the strange rites of the
+subjected tribes were looked upon by the worshippers of the Vedic
+pantheon. At the same time, in judging the apparently inhuman way in
+which the Sudras were treated in the caste rules, one has always to bear
+in mind the fact that the belief in metempsychosis was already universal
+at the time, and seemed to afford the only rational explanation of the
+apparent injustice involved in the unequal distribution of the good
+things in this world; and that, if the Sudra was strictly excluded from
+the religious rites and beliefs of the superior classes, this exclusion
+in no way involved the question of his ultimate emancipation and his
+union with the Infinite Spirit, which were as certain in his case as in
+that of any other sentient being. What it did make impossible for him
+was to attain that union immediately on the cessation of his present
+life, as he would first have to pass through higher and purer stages of
+mundane existence before reaching that goal; but in this respect he only
+shared the lot of all but a very few of the saintliest in the higher
+spheres of life, since the ordinary twice-born would be liable to sink,
+after his present life, to grades yet lower than that of the Sudra.
+
+To what extent the changes, which the religious belief of the Aryan
+classes underwent in post-Vedic times, may have been due to aboriginal
+influences is a question not easily answered, though the later creeds
+offer only too many features in which one might feel inclined to suspect
+influences of that kind. The literary documents, both in Sanskrit and
+Pali, dating from about the time of Buddha onwards--particularly the two
+epic poems, the _Mahabharata_ and _Ramayana_--still show us in the main
+the _personnel_ of the old pantheon; but the character of the gods has
+changed; they have become anthropomorphized and almost purely
+mythological figures. A number of the chief gods, sometimes four, but
+generally eight of them, now appear as _lokapalas_ or world-guardians,
+having definite quarters or intermediate quarters of the compass
+assigned to them as their special domains. One of them, Kubera, the god
+of wealth, is a new figure; whilst another, Varuna, the most spiritual
+and ethical of Vedic deities--the king of the gods and the universe; the
+nightly, star-spangled firmament--has become the Indian Neptune, the god
+of waters. Indra, their chief, is virtually a kind of superior raja,
+residing in _svarga_, and as such is on visiting terms with earthly
+kings, driving about in mid-air with his charioteer Matali. As might
+happen to any earth-lord, Indra is actually defeated in battle by the
+son of the demon-king of Lanka (Ceylon), and kept there a prisoner till
+ransomed by Brahma and the gods conferring immortality on his conqueror.
+A quaint figure in the pantheon of the heroic age is Hanuman, the
+deified chief of monkeys--probably meant to represent the aboriginal
+tribes of southern India--whose wonderful exploits as Rama's ally on the
+expedition to Lanka Indian audiences will never weary of hearing
+recounted. The Gandharvas figure already in the Veda, either as a single
+divinity, or as a class of genii, conceived of as the body-guard of Soma
+and as connected with the moon. In the later Vedic times they are
+represented as being fond of, and dangerous to, women; the Apsaras,
+apparently originally water-nymphs, being closely associated with them.
+In the heroic age the Gandharvas have become the heavenly minstrels
+plying their art at Indra's court, with the Apsaras as their wives or
+mistresses. These fair damsels play, however, yet another part, and one
+far from complimentary to the dignity of the gods. In the epics
+considerable merit is attached to a life of seclusion and ascetic
+practices by means of which man is considered capable of acquiring
+supernatural powers equal or even superior to those of the gods--a
+notion perhaps not unnaturally springing from the pantheistic
+conception. Now, in cases of danger being threatened to their own
+ascendancy by such practices, the gods as a rule proceed to employ the
+usually successful expedient of despatching some lovely nymph to lure
+the saintly men back to worldly pleasures. Seeing that the epic poems,
+as repeated by professional reciters, either in their original Sanskrit
+text, or in their vernacular versions, as well as dramatic compositions
+based on them, form to this day the chief source of intellectual
+enjoyment for most Hindus, the legendary matter contained in these
+heroic poems, however marvellous and incredible it may appear, still
+enters largely into the religious convictions of the people. "These
+popular recitals from the Ramayan are done into Gujarati in easy,
+flowing narrative verse ... by Premanand, the sweetest of our bards.
+They are read out by an intelligent Brahman to a mixed audience of all
+classes and both sexes. It has a perceptible influence on the Hindu
+character. I believe the remarkable freedom from infidelity which is to
+be seen in most Hindu families, in spite of their strange gregarious
+habits, can be traced to that influence; and little wonder" (B. M.
+Malabari, _Gujarat and the Gujaratis_). Hence also the universal
+reverence paid to serpents (_naga_) since those early days; though
+whether it simply arose from the superstitious dread inspired by the
+insidious reptile so fatal to man in India, or whether the verbal
+coincidence with the name of the once-powerful non-Aryan tribe of Nagas
+had something to do with it must remain doubtful. Indian myth represents
+them as a race of demons sprung from Kadru, the wife of the sage
+Kasyapa, with a jewel in their heads which gives them their sparkling
+look; and inhabiting one of the seven beautiful worlds below the earth
+(and above the hells), where they are ruled over by three chiefs or
+kings, Sesha, Vasuki and Takshaka; their fair daughters often entering
+into matrimonial alliances with men, like the mermaids of western
+legend.
+
+In addition to such essentially mythological conceptions, we meet in the
+religious life of this period with an element of more serious aspect in
+the two gods, on one or other of whom the religious fervour of the large
+majority of Hindus has ever since concentrated itself, viz. Vishnu and
+Siva. Both these divine figures have grown out of Vedic conceptions--the
+genial Vishnu mainly out of a not very prominent solar deity of the same
+name; whilst the stern Siva, i.e. the kind or gracious one--doubtless a
+euphemistic name--has his prototype in the old fierce storm-god Rudra,
+the "Roarer," with certain additional features derived from other
+deities, especially Pushan, the guardian of flocks and bestower of
+prosperity, worked up therewith. The exact process of the evolution of
+the two deities and their advance in popular favour are still somewhat
+obscure. In the epic poems which may be assumed to have taken their
+final shape in the early centuries before and after the Christian era,
+their popular character, so strikingly illustrated by their inclusion in
+the Brahmanical triad, appears in full force; whilst their cult is
+likewise attested by the coins and inscriptions of the early centuries
+of our era. The co-ordination of the two gods in the Trimurti does not
+by any means exclude a certain rivalry between them; but, on the
+contrary, a supreme position as the true embodiment of the Divine Spirit
+is claimed for each of them by their respective votaries, without,
+however, an honourable, if subordinate, place being refused to the rival
+deity, wherever the latter, as is not infrequently the case, is not
+actually represented as merely another form of the favoured god. Whilst
+at times a truly monotheistic fervour manifests itself in the adoration
+of these two gods, the polytheistic instincts of the people did not fail
+to extend the pantheon by groups of new deities in connexion with them.
+Two of such new gods actually pass as the sons of Siva and his consort
+Parvati, viz. Skanda--also called Kumara (the youth), Karttikeya, or
+Subrahmanya (in the south)--the six-headed war-lord of the gods; and
+Ganese, the lord (or leader) of Siva's troupes of attendants, being at
+the same time the elephant-headed, paunch-bellied god of wisdom; whilst
+a third, Kama (Kamadeva) or Kandarpa, the god of love, gets his popular
+epithet of Ananga, "the bodiless," from his having once, in frolicsome
+play, tried the power of his arrows upon Siva, whilst engaged in austere
+practices, when a single glance from the third (forehead) eye of the
+angry god reduced the mischievous urchin to ashes. For his chief
+attendant, the great god (Mahadeva, Mahesvara) has already with him the
+"holy" Nandi--presumably, though his shape is not specified, identical
+in form as in name with Siva's sacred bull of later times, the
+appropriate symbol of the god's reproductive power. But, in this
+respect, we also meet in the epics with the first clear evidence of what
+in after time became the prominent feature of the worship of Siva and
+his consort all over India, viz. the feature represented by the _linga_,
+or phallic symbol.
+
+As regards Vishnu, the epic poems, including the supplement to the
+Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, supply practically the entire framework of
+legendary matter on which the later Vaishnava creeds are based. The
+theory of Avataras which makes the deity--also variously called
+Narayana, Purushottama, or Vasudeva--periodically assume some material
+form in order to rescue the world from some great calamity, is fully
+developed; the ten universally recognized "descents" being enumerated in
+the larger poem. Though Siva, too, assumes various forms, the
+incarnation theory is peculiarly characteristic of Vaishnavism; and the
+fact that the principal hero of the Ramayana (Rama), and one of the
+prominent warriors of the Mahabharata (Krishna) become in this way
+identified with the supreme god, and remain to this day the chief
+objects of the adoration of Vaishnava sectaries, naturally imparts to
+these creeds a human interest and sympathetic aspect which is wholly
+wanting in the worship of Siva. It is, however, unfortunately but too
+true that in some of these creeds the devotional ardour has developed
+features of a highly objectionable character.
+
+  Even granting the reasonableness of the triple manifestation of the
+  Divine Spirit, how is one to reconcile all these idolatrous practices,
+  this worship of countless gods and godlings, demons and spirits
+  indwelling in every imaginable object round about us, with the
+  pantheistic doctrine of the _Ekam Advitiyam_, "the One without a
+  Second"? The Indian theosophist would doubtless have little difficulty
+  in answering that question. For him there is only the One Absolute
+  Being, the one reality that is all in all; whilst all the phenomenal
+  existences and occurrences that crowd upon our senses are nothing more
+  than an illusion of the individual soul estranged for a time from its
+  divine source--an illusion only to be dispelled in the end by the
+  soul's fuller knowledge of its own true nature and its being one with
+  the eternal fountain of blissful being. But to the man of ordinary
+  understanding, unused to the rarefied atmosphere of abstract thought,
+  this conception of a transcendental, impersonal Spirit and the
+  unreality of the phenomenal world can have no meaning: what he
+  requires is a deity that stands in intimate relation to things
+  material and to all that affects man's life. Hence the exoteric theory
+  of manifestations of the Supreme Spirit; and that not only the
+  manifestations implied in the triad of gods representing the cardinal
+  processes of mundane existence--creation, preservation, and
+  destruction or regeneration--but even such as would tend to supply a
+  rational explanation for superstitious imaginings of every kind. For
+  "the Indian philosophy does not ignore or hold aloof from the religion
+  of the masses: it underlies, supports and interprets their polytheism.
+  This may be accounted the keystone of the fabric of Brahmanism, which
+  accepts and even encourages the rudest forms of idolatry, explaining
+  everything by giving it a higher meaning. It treats all the worships
+  as outward, visible signs of some spiritual truth, and is ready to
+  show how each particular image or rite is the symbol of some aspect of
+  universal divinity. The Hindus, like the pagans of antiquity, adore
+  natural objects and forces--a mountain, a river or an animal. The
+  Brahman holds all nature to be the vesture or cloak of indwelling,
+  divine energy, which inspires everything that produces awe or passes
+  man's understanding" (Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Brahminism_).
+
+
+  Sectarianism.
+
+During the early centuries of our era, whilst Buddhism, where
+countenanced by the political rulers, was still holding its own by the
+side of Brahmanism, sectarian belief in the Hindu gods seems to have
+made steady progress. The caste-system, always calculated to favour
+unity of religious practice within its social groups, must naturally
+have contributed to the advance of sectarianism. Even greater was the
+support it received later on from the Puranas, a class of poetical works
+of a partly legendary, partly discursive and controversial character,
+mainly composed in the interest of special deities, of which eighteen
+principal (_maha-purana_) and as many secondary ones (_upa-purana_) are
+recognized, the oldest of which may go back to about the 4th century of
+our era. It was probably also during this period that the female element
+was first definitely admitted to a prominent place amongst the divine
+objects of sectarian worship, in the shape of the wives of the principal
+gods viewed as their _sakti_, or female energy, theoretically identified
+with the _Maya_, or cosmic Illusion, of the idealistic Vedanta, and the
+_Prakriti_, or plastic matter, of the materialistic Sankhya philosophy,
+as the primary source of mundane things. The connubial relations of the
+deities may thus be considered "to typify the mystical union of the two
+eternal principles, spirit and matter, for the production and
+reproduction of the universe." But whilst this privilege of divine
+worship was claimed for the consorts of all the gods, it is principally
+to Siva's consort, in one or other of her numerous forms, that adoration
+on an extensive scale came to be offered by a special sect of votaries,
+the _Saktas_.
+
+
+  Sankara.
+
+In the midst of these conflicting tendencies, an attempt was made, about
+the latter part of the 8th century, by the distinguished Malabar
+theologian and philosopher Sankara Acharya to restore the Brahmanical
+creed to something like its pristine purity, and thus once more to bring
+about a uniform system of orthodox Hindu belief. Though himself, like
+most Brahmans, apparently by predilection a follower of Siva, his aim
+was the revival of the doctrine of the Brahma as the one self-existent
+Being and the sole cause of the universe; coupled with the recognition
+of the practical worship of the orthodox pantheon, especially the gods
+of the Trimurti, as manifestations of the supreme deity. The practical
+result of his labours was the foundation of a new sect, the _Smartas_,
+i.e. adherents of the _smriti_ or tradition, which has a numerous
+following amongst southern Brahmans, and, whilst professing Sankara's
+doctrines, is usually classed as one of the Saiva sects, its members
+adopting the horizontal sectarial mark peculiar to Saivas, consisting in
+their case of a triple line, the _tripundra_, prepared from the ashes of
+burnt cow-dung and painted on the forehead. Sankara also founded four
+Maths, or convents, for Brahmans; the chief one being that of Sringeri
+in Mysore, the spiritual head (_Guru_) of which wields considerable
+power, even that of excommunication, over the Saivas of southern India.
+In northern India, the professed followers of Sankara are mainly limited
+to certain classes of mendicants and ascetics, although the tenets of
+this great Vedanta teacher may be said virtually to constitute the creed
+of intelligent Brahmans generally.
+
+  Whilst Sankara's chief title to fame rests on his philosophical works,
+  as the upholder of the strict monistic theory of Vedanta, he doubtless
+  played an important part in the partial remodelling of the Hindu
+  system of belief at a time when Buddhism was rapidly losing ground in
+  India. Not that there is any evidence of Buddhists ever having been
+  actually persecuted by the Brahmans, or still less of Sankara himself
+  ever having done so; but the traditional belief in some personal god,
+  as the principal representative of an invisible, all-pervading deity,
+  would doubtless appeal more directly to the minds and hearts of the
+  people than the colourless ethical system promulgated by the Sakya
+  saint. Nor do Buddhist places of worship appear as a rule to have been
+  destroyed by Hindu sectaries, but they seem rather to have been taken
+  over by them for their own religious uses; at any rate there are to
+  this day not a few Hindu shrines, especially in Bengal, dedicated to
+  Dharmaraj, "the prince of righteousness," as the Buddha is commonly
+  styled. That the tenets and practices of so characteristic a faith as
+  Buddhism, so long prevalent in India, cannot but have left their marks
+  on Hindu life and belief may readily be assumed, though it is not so
+  easy to lay one's finger on the precise features that might seem to
+  betray such an influence. If the general tenderness towards animals,
+  based on the principle of _ahimsa_, or inflicting no injury on
+  sentient beings, be due to Buddhist teaching, that influence must have
+  made itself felt at a comparatively early period, seeing that
+  sentiments of a similar nature are repeatedly urged in the Code of
+  Manu. Thus, in v. 46-48, "He who does not willingly cause the pain of
+  confinement and death to living beings, but desires the good of all,
+  obtains endless bliss. He who injures no creature obtains without
+  effort what he thinks of, what he strives for, and what he fixes his
+  mind on. Flesh-meat cannot be procured without injury to animals, and
+  the slaughter of animals is not conducive to heavenly bliss: from
+  flesh-meat, therefore, let man abstain." Moreover, in view of the fact
+  that Jainism, which originated about the same time as Buddhism,
+  inculcates the same principle, even to an extravagant degree, it seems
+  by no means improbable that the spirit of kindliness towards living
+  beings generally was already widely diffused among the people when
+  these new doctrines were promulgated. To the same tendency doubtless
+  is due the gradual decline and ultimate discontinuance of animal
+  sacrifices by all sects except the extreme branch of
+  Sakti-worshippers. In this respect, the veneration shown to serpents
+  and monkeys has, however, to be viewed in a somewhat different light,
+  as having a mythical background; whilst quite a special significance
+  attaches to the sacred character assigned to the cow by all classes of
+  Hindus, even those who are not prepared to admit the claim of the
+  Brahman to the exalted position of the earthly god usually conceded to
+  him. In the Veda no tendency shows itself as yet towards rendering
+  divine honour to the cow; and though the importance assigned her in an
+  agricultural community is easily understood, still the exact process
+  of her deification and her identification with the mother earth in the
+  time of Manu and the epics requires further elucidation. An idealized
+  type of the useful quadruped--likewise often identified with the
+  earth--presents itself in the mythical Cow of Plenty, or "wish-cow"
+  (Kamadhenu, or Kamadugha, i.e. wish-milker), already appearing in the
+  Atharvaveda, and in epic times assigned to Indra, or identified with
+  Surabhi, "the fragrant," the sacred cow of the sage Vasishtha.
+  Possibly the growth of the legend of Krishna--his being reared at
+  Gokula (cow-station); his tender relations to the _gopis_, or
+  cow-herdesses, of Vrindavana; his epithets _Gopala_, "the cowherd,"
+  and _Govinda_, "cow-finder," actually explained as "recoverer of the
+  earth" in the great epic, and the _go-loka_, or "cow-world," assigned
+  to him as his heavenly abode--may have some connexion with the sacred
+  character ascribed to the cow from early times.
+
+
+  Worship.
+
+Since the time of Sankara, or for more than a thousand years, the gods
+Vishnu and Siva, or _Hari_ and _Hara_ as they are also commonly
+called--with their wives, especially that of the latter god--have shared
+between them the practical worship of the vast majority of Hindus. But,
+though the people have thus been divided between two different religious
+camps, sectarian animosity has upon the whole kept within reasonable
+limits. In fact, the respectable Hindu, whilst owning special allegiance
+to one of the two gods as his _ishta devata_ (favourite deity), will not
+withhold his tribute of adoration from the other gods of the pantheon.
+The high-caste Brahman will probably keep at his home a salagram stone,
+the favourite symbol of Vishnu, as well as the characteristic emblems of
+Siva and his consort, to both of which he will do reverence in the
+morning; and when he visits some holy place of pilgrimage, he will not
+fail to pay his homage at both the Saiva and the Vaishnava shrines
+there. Indeed, "sectarian bigotry and exclusiveness are to be found
+chiefly among the professional leaders of the modern brotherhoods and
+their low-caste followers, who are taught to believe that theirs are the
+only true gods, and that the rest do not deserve any reverence whatever"
+(Jog. Nath). The same spirit of toleration shows itself in the
+celebration of the numerous religious festivals. Whilst some of
+these--e.g. the _Sankranti_ (called _Pongal_, i.e. "boiled rice," in the
+south), which marks the entrance of the sun into the sign of Capricorn
+and the beginning of its northward course (_uttarayana_) on the 1st day
+of the month Magha (c. Jan. 12); the _Ganesa-caturthi_, or 4th day of
+the light fortnight of Bhadra (August-September), considered the
+birthday of Ganesa, the god of wisdom; and the _Holi_, the Indian
+Saturnalia in the month of Phalguna (February to March)--have nothing of
+a sectarian tendency about them; others again, which are of a distinctly
+sectarian character--such as the _Krishna-janmashtami_, the birthday of
+Krishna on the 8th day of the dark half of Bhadra, or (in the south) of
+Sravana (July-August), the _Durga-puja_ and the _Dipavali_, or lamp
+feast, celebrating Krishna's victory over the demon Narakasura, on the
+last two days of Asvina (September-October)--are likewise observed and
+heartily joined in by the whole community irrespective of sect. Widely
+different, however, as is the character of the two leading gods are also
+the modes of worship practised by their votaries.
+
+_Siva_ has at all times been the favourite god of the Brahmans,[5] and
+his worship is accordingly more widely extended than that of his rival,
+especially in southern India. Indeed there is hardly a village in India
+which cannot boast of a shrine dedicated to Siva, and containing the
+emblem of his reproductive power; for almost the only form in which the
+"Great God" is adored is the _Linga_, consisting usually of an upright
+cylindrical block of marble or other stone, mostly resting on a circular
+perforated slab. The mystic nature of these emblems seems, however, to
+be but little understood by the common people; and, as H. H. Wilson
+remarks, "notwithstanding the acknowledged purport of this worship, it
+is but justice to state that it is unattended in Upper India by any
+indecent or indelicate ceremonies, and it requires a rather lively
+imagination to trace any resemblance in its symbols to the objects they
+are supposed to represent." In spite, however, of its wide diffusion,
+and the vast number of shrines dedicated to it, the worship of Siva has
+never assumed a really popular character, especially in northern India,
+being attended with scarcely any solemnity or display of emotional
+spirit. The temple, which usually stands in the middle of a court, is as
+a rule a building of very moderate dimensions, consisting either of a
+single square chamber, surmounted by a pyramidal structure, or of a
+chamber for the linga and a small vestibule. The worshipper, having
+first circumambulated the shrine as often as he pleases, keeping it at
+his right-hand side, steps up to the threshold of the sanctum, and
+presents his offering of flowers or fruit, which the officiating priest
+receives; he then prostrates himself, or merely lifts his hands--joined
+so as to leave a hollow space between the palms--to his forehead,
+muttering a short prayer, and takes his departure. Amongst the many
+thousands of Lingas, twelve are usually regarded as of especial
+sanctity, one of which, that of Somnath in Gujarat, where Siva is
+worshipped as "the lord of Soma," was, however, shattered by Mahmud of
+Ghazni; whilst another, representing Siva as _Visvesvara_, or "Lord of
+the Universe," is the chief object of adoration at Benares, the great
+centre of Siva-worship. The Saivas of southern India, on the other hand,
+single out as peculiarly sacred five of their temples which are supposed
+to enshrine as many characteristic aspects (linga) of the god in the
+form of the five elements, the most holy of these being the shrine of
+Chidambaram (i.e. "thought-ether") in S. Arcot, supposed to contain the
+ether-linga. According to Pandit S. M. Natesa (_Hindu Feasts, Fasts and
+Ceremonies_), "the several forms of the god Siva in these sacred shrines
+are considered to be the bodies or casements of the soul whose natural
+bases are the five elements--earth, water, fire, air and ether. The
+apprehension of God in the last of these five as ether is, according to
+the Saiva school of philosophy, the highest form of worship, for it is
+not the worship of God in a tangible form, but the worship of what, to
+ordinary minds, is vacuum, which nevertheless leads to the attainment of
+a knowledge of the all-pervading without physical accessories in the
+shape of any linga, which is, after all, an emblem. That this is the
+case at Chidambaram is known to every Hindu, for if he ever asks the
+priests to show him the God in the temple he is pointed to an empty
+space in the holy of holies, which has been termed the Akasa, or
+ether-linga." But, however congenial this refined symbolism may be to
+the worshipper of a speculative turn of mind, it is difficult to see how
+it could ever satisfy the religious wants of the common man little given
+to abstract conceptions of this kind.
+
+
+  Mendicant orders.
+
+From early times, detachment from the world and the practice of
+austerities have been regarded in India as peculiarly conducive to a
+spirit of godliness, and ultimately to a state of ecstatic communion
+with the deity. On these grounds it was actually laid down as a rule for
+a man solicitous for his spiritual welfare to pass the last two of the
+four stages (_asrama_) of his life in such conditions of renunciation
+and self-restraint. Though there is hardly a sect which has not
+contributed its share to the element of religious mendicancy and
+asceticism so prevalent in India, it is in connexion with the Siva-cult
+that these tendencies have been most extensively cultivated. Indeed, the
+personality of the stern God himself exhibits this feature in a very
+marked degree, whence the term _mahayogi_ or "great ascetic" is often
+applied to him.
+
+  Of Saiva mendicant and ascetic orders, the members of which are
+  considered more or less followers of Sankara Acharya, the following
+  may be mentioned: (1) _Dandis_, or staff-bearers, who carry a wand
+  with a piece of red cloth, containing the sacred cord, attached to it,
+  and also wear one or more pieces of cloth of the same colour. They
+  worship Siva in his form of Bhairava, the "terrible." A sub-section of
+  this order are the Dandi Dasnamis, or Dandi of ten names, so called
+  from their assuming one of the names of Sankara's four disciples, and
+  six of their pupils. (2) _Yogis_ (or popularly, Jogis), i.e. adherents
+  of the Yoga philosophy and the system of ascetic practices enjoined by
+  it with the view of mental abstraction and the supposed attainment of
+  superhuman powers--practices which, when not merely pretended, but
+  rigidly carried out, are only too apt to produce vacuity of mind and
+  wild fits of frenzy. In these degenerate days their supernatural
+  powers consist chiefly in conjuring, sooth-saying, and feats of
+  jugglery, by which they seldom fail in imposing upon a credulous
+  public. (3) _Sannyasis_, devotees who "renounce" earthly concerns, an
+  order not confined either to the Brahmanical caste or to the Saiva
+  persuasion. Those of the latter are in the habit of smearing their
+  bodies with ashes, and wearing a tiger-skin and a necklace or rosary
+  of _rudraksha_ berries (Elaeocarpus Ganitrus, lit. "Rudra's eye"),
+  sacred to Siva, and allowing their hair to grow till it becomes matted
+  and filthy. (4) _Parama-hamsas_, i.e. "supreme geese (or swans)," a
+  term applied to the world-soul with which they claim to be identical.
+  This is the highest order of asceticism, members of which are supposed
+  to be solely engaged in meditating on the Brahma, and to be "equally
+  indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible of heat or cold, and
+  incapable of satiety or want." Some of them go about naked, but the
+  majority are clad like the Dandis. (5) _Aghora Panthis_, a vile and
+  disreputable class of mendicants, now rarely met with. Their filthy
+  habits and disgusting practices of gross promiscuous feeding, even to
+  the extent of eating offal and dead men's flesh, look almost like a
+  direct repudiation of the strict Brahmanical code of ceremonial purity
+  and cleanliness, and of the rules regulating the matter and manner of
+  eating and drinking; and they certainly make them objects of loathing
+  and terror wherever they are seen.
+
+  On the general effect of the manner of life led by _Sadhus_ or "holy
+  men," a recent observer (J. C. Oman, _Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of
+  India_, p. 273) remarks: "_Sadhuism_, whether perpetuating the
+  peculiar idea of the efficiency of austerities for the acquisition of
+  far-reaching powers over natural phenomena, or bearing its testimony
+  to the belief in the indispensableness of detachment from the world as
+  a preparation for the ineffable joy of ecstatic communion with the
+  Divine Being, has undoubtedly tended to keep before men's eyes, as the
+  highest ideal, a life of purity, self-restraint, and contempt of the
+  world and human affairs. It has also necessarily maintained amongst
+  the laity a sense of the righteous claims of the poor upon the charity
+  of the more affluent members of the community. Moreover, _sadhuism_,
+  by the multiplicity of the independent sects which have arisen in
+  India, has engendered and favoured a spirit of tolerance which cannot
+  escape the notice of the most superficial observer."
+
+
+  Lingayats.
+
+An independent Saiva sect, or, indeed, the only strictly Saiva sect, are
+the _Vira Saivas_, more commonly called _Lingayats_ (popularly Lingaits)
+or _Lingavats_, from their practice of wearing on their person a phallic
+emblem of Siva, made of copper or silver, and usually enclosed in a case
+suspended from the neck by a string. Apparently from the movable nature
+of their badge, their _Gurus_ are called _Jangamas_ ("movable"). This
+sect counts numerous adherents in southern India; the Census Report of
+1901 recording nearly a million and a half, including some 70 or 80
+different, mostly endogamous, castes. The reputed founder, or rather
+reformer, of the sect was Basava (or Basaba), a Brahman of the Belgaum
+district who seems to have lived in the 11th or 12th century. According
+to the Basava-purana he early in life renounced his caste and went to
+reside at Kalyana, then the capital of the Chalukya kingdom, and later
+on at Sangamesvara near Ratnagiri, where he was initiated into the Vira
+Saiva faith which he subsequently made it his life's work to propagate.
+His doctrine, which may be said to constitute a kind of reaction against
+the severe sacerdotalism of Sankara, has spread over all classes of the
+southern community, most of the priests of Saiva temples there being
+adherents of it; whilst in northern India its votaries are only
+occasionally met with, and then mostly as mendicants, leading about a
+neatly caparisoned bull as representing Siva's sacred bull _Nandi_.
+Though the Lingayats still show a certain animosity towards the
+Brahmans, and in the Census lists are accordingly classed as an
+independent group beside the Hindus, still they can hardly be excluded
+from the Hindu community, and are sure sooner or later to find their way
+back to the Brahmanical fold.
+
+
+  Avatars.
+
+Vishnu, whilst less popular with Brahmans than his rival, has from early
+times proved to the lay mind a more attractive object of adoration on
+account of the genial and, so to speak, romantic character of his
+mythical personality. It is not, however, so much the original figure of
+the god himself that enlists the sympathies of his adherents as the
+additional elements it has received through the theory of periodical
+"descents" (_avatara_) or incarnations applied to this deity. Whilst the
+Saiva philosophers do not approve of the notion of incarnations, as
+being derogatory to the dignity of the deity, the Brahmans have
+nevertheless thought fit to adopt it as apparently a convenient
+expedient for bringing certain tendencies of popular worship within the
+pale of their system, and probably also for counteracting the Buddhist
+doctrines; and for this purpose Vishnu would obviously offer himself as
+the most attractive figure in the Brahmanical trinity. Whether the
+incarnation theory started from the original solar nature of the god
+suggestive of regular visits to the world of men, or in what other way
+it may have originated, must remain doubtful. Certain, however, it is
+that at least one of his Avatars is clearly based on the Vedic
+conception of the sun-god, viz. that of the dwarf who claims as much
+ground as he can cover by three steps, and then gains the whole universe
+by his three mighty strides. Of the ten or more Avatars, assumed by
+different authorities, only two have entered to any considerable extent
+into the religious worship of the people, viz. those of _Rama_ (or
+Ramachandra) and _Krishna_, the favourite heroes of epic romance. That
+these two figures would appeal far more strongly to the hearts and
+feelings of the people, especially the warlike Kshatriyas,[6] than the
+austere Siva is only what might have been expected; and, indeed, since
+the time of the epics their cult seems never to have lacked numerous
+adherents. But, on the other hand, the essentially human nature of these
+two gods would naturally tend to modify the character of the relations
+between worshipper and worshipped, and to impart to the modes and forms
+of adoration features of a more popular and more human kind. And
+accordingly it is exactly in connexion with these two incarnations of
+Vishnu, especially that of Krishna, that a new spirit was infused into
+the religious life of the people by the sentiment of fervent devotion to
+the deity, as it found expression in certain portions of the epic poems,
+especially the _Bhagavadgita_, and in the _Bhagavata-purana_ (as against
+the more orthodox Vaishnava works of this class such as the
+Vishnu-purana), and was formulated into a regular doctrine of faith in
+the _Sandilya-sutra_, and ultimately translated into practice by the
+Vaishnava reformers.
+
+
+  Ramanujas.
+
+The first successful Vaishnava reaction against Sankara's reconstructed
+creed was led by Ramanuja, a southern Brahman of the 12th century. His
+followers, the Ramanujas, or Sri-Vaishnavas as they are usually called,
+worship Vishnu (Narayana) with his consort Sri or Lakshmi (the goddess
+of beauty and fortune), or their incarnations Rama with Sita and Krishna
+with Rukmini. Ramanuja's doctrine, which is especially directed against
+the Linga-worship, is essentially based on the tenets of an old
+Vaishnava sect, the Bhagavatas or Pancharatras, who worshipped the
+Supreme Being under the name of Vasudeva (subsequently identified with
+Krishna, as the son of Vasudeva, who indeed is credited by some scholars
+with the foundation of that monotheistic creed). The sectarial mark of
+the Ramanujas resembles a capital U (or, in the case of another
+division, a Y), painted with a white clay called gopi-chandana, between
+the hair and the root of the nose, with a red or yellow vertical stroke
+(representing the female element) between the two white lines. They also
+usually wear, like all Vaishnavas, a necklace of _tulasi_, or basil
+wood, and a rosary of seeds of the same shrub or of the lotus. Their
+most important shrines are those of Srirangam near Trichinopoly,
+Mailkote in Mysore, Dvaraka (the city of Krishna) on the Kathiawar
+coast, and Jagannath in Orissa; all of them decorated with Vishnu's
+emblems, the tulasi plant and salagram stone. The Ramanuja Brahmans are
+most punctilious in the preparation of their food and in regard to the
+privacy of their meals, before taking which they have to bathe and put
+on woollen or silk garments. Whilst Sankara's mendicant followers were
+prohibited to touch fire and had to subsist entirely on the charity of
+Brahman householders, Ramanuja, on the contrary, not only allowed his
+followers to use fire, but strictly forbade their eating any food
+cooked, or even seen, by a stranger. On the speculative side, Ramanuja
+also met Sankara's strictly monistic theory by another recognizing
+Vishnu as identical with Brahma as the Supreme Spirit animating the
+material world as well as the individual souls which have become
+estranged from God through unbelief, and can only attain again conscious
+union with him through devotion or love (_bhakti_). His tenets are
+expounded in various works, especially in his commentaries on the
+Vedanta-sutras and the Bhagavadgita. The followers of Ramanuja have
+split into two sects, a northern one, recognizing the Vedas as their
+chief authority, and a southern one, basing their tenets on the Nalayir,
+a Tamil work of the Upanishad order. In point of doctrine, they differ
+in their view of the relation between God Vishnu and the human soul;
+whilst the former sect define it by the _ape_ theory, which makes the
+soul cling to God as the young ape does to its mother, the latter
+explain it by the cat theory, by which Vishnu himself seizes and rescues
+the souls as the mother cat does her young ones.
+
+
+  Madhvas.
+
+_Madhva Acharya_, another distinguished Vedanta teacher and founder of a
+Vaishnava sect, born in Kanara in A.D. 1199, was less intolerant of the
+Linga cult than Ramanuja, but seems rather to have aimed at a
+reconciliation of the Saiva and Vaishnava forms of worship. The
+_Madhvas_ or _Madhvacharis_ favour Krishna and his consort as their
+special objects of adoration, whilst images of Siva, Parvati, and their
+son Ganesa are, however, likewise admitted and worshipped in some of
+their temples, the most important of which is at Udipi in South Kanara,
+with eight monasteries connected with it. This shrine contains an image
+of Krishna which is said to have been rescued from the wreck of a ship
+which brought it from Dvaraka, where it was supposed to have been set up
+of old by no other than Krishna's friend Arjuna, one of the five Pandava
+princes. Followers of the Madhva creed are but rarely met with in Upper
+India. Their sectarial mark is like the U of the Sri-Vaishnavas, except
+that their central line is black instead of red or yellow. Madhva--who
+after his initiation assumed the name Anandatirtha--composed numerous
+Sanskrit works, including commentaries on the Brahma sutras (i.e. the
+Vedanta aphorisms), the Gita, the Rigveda and many Upanishads. His
+philosophical theory was a dualistic one, postulating distinctness of
+nature for the divine and the human soul, and hence independent
+existence, instead of absorption, after the completion of mundane
+existence.
+
+
+  Ramats.
+
+The Ramanandis or Ramavats (popularly Ramats) are a numerous northern
+sect of similar tenets to those of the Ramanujas. Indeed its founder,
+Ramananda, who probably flourished in the latter part of the 14th
+century, according to the traditional account, was originally a
+Sri-Vaishnava monk, and, having come under the suspicion of laxity in
+observing the strict rules of food during his peregrinations, and been
+ordered by his superior (Mahant) to take his meals apart from his
+brethren, left the monastery in a huff and set up a schismatic math of
+his own at Benares. The sectarial mark of his sect differs but slightly
+from that of the parent stock. The distinctive features of their creed
+consist in their making Rama and Sita, either singly or conjointly, the
+chief objects of their adoration, instead of Vishnu and Lakshmi, and
+their attaching little or no importance to the observance of privacy in
+the cooking and eating of their food. Their mendicant members, usually
+known as Vairagis, are, like the general body of the sect, drawn from
+all castes without distinction. Thus, the founder's twelve chief
+disciples include, besides Brahmans, a weaver, a currier, a Rajput, a
+Jat and a barber--for, they argue, seeing that Bhagavan, the Holy One
+(Vishnu), became incarnate even in animal form, a Bhakta (believer) may
+be born even in the lowest of castes. Ramananda's teaching was thus of a
+distinctly levelling and popular character; and, in accordance
+therewith, the Bhakta-mala and other authoritative writings of the sect
+are composed, not in Sanskrit, but in the popular dialects. A follower
+of this creed was the distinguished poet Tulsidas, the composer of the
+beautiful Hindi version of the Ramayana and other works which "exercise
+more influence upon the great body of Hindu population than the whole
+voluminous series of Sanskrit composition" (H. H. Wilson).
+
+
+  Kabir.
+
+The traditional list of Ramananda's immediate disciples includes the
+name of Kabir, the weaver, a remarkable man who would accordingly have
+lived in the latter part of the 15th century, and who is claimed by both
+Hindus and Moslems as having been born within their fold. The story goes
+that, having been deeply impressed by Ramananda's teaching, he sought to
+attach himself to him; and, one day at Benares, in stepping down the
+ghat at daybreak to bathe in the Ganges, and putting himself in the way
+of the teacher, the latter, having inadvertently struck him with his
+foot, uttered his customary exclamation "Ram Ram," which, being also the
+initiatory formula of the sect, was claimed by Kabir as such, making him
+Ramananda's disciple. Be this as it may, Kabir's own reformatory
+activity lay in the direction of a compromise between the Hindu and the
+Mahommedan creeds, the religious practices of both of which he
+criticized with equal severity. His followers, the Kabir Panthis ("those
+following Kabir's path"), though neither worshipping the gods of the
+pantheon, nor observing the rites and ceremonial of the Hindus, are
+nevertheless in close touch with the Vaishnava sects, especially the
+Ramavats, and generally worship Rama as the supreme deity, when they do
+not rather address their homage, in hymns and otherwise, to the founder
+of their creed himself. Whilst very numerous, particularly amongst the
+low-caste population, in western, central and northern India, resident
+adherents of Kabir's doctrine are rare in Bengal and the south; although
+"there is hardly a town in India where strolling beggars may not be
+found singing songs of Kabir in the original or as translated into the
+local dialects." The mendicants of this creed, however, never actually
+solicit alms; and, indeed, "the quaker-like spirit of the sect, their
+abhorrence of all violence, their regard for truth and the
+inobtrusiveness of their opinions render them very inoffensive members
+of the state" (H. H. Wilson). The doctrines of Kabir are taught, mostly
+in the form of dialogues, in numerous Hindi works, composed by his
+disciples and adherents, who, however, usually profess to give the
+teacher's own words.
+
+The peculiar conciliatory tendencies of Kabir were carried on with even
+greater zeal from the latter part of the 15th century by one of his
+followers, Nanak Shah, the promulgator of the creed of the _Nanak
+Shahis_ or _Sikhs_--i.e. (Sanskr.) _sishya_, disciples, whose guru, or
+teacher, he called himself--a peaceful sect at first until, in
+consequence of Mahommedan persecution, a martial spirit was infused into
+it by the tenth, and last, guru, Govind Shah, changing it into a
+political organization. Whilst originally more akin in its principles to
+the Moslem faith, the sect seems latterly to have shown tendencies
+towards drifting back to the Hindu pale.
+
+  Of Ramananda's disciples and successors several others, besides Kabir,
+  have established schismatic divisions of their own, which do not,
+  however, offer any very marked differences of creed. The most
+  important of these, the Dadu Panthi sect, founded by Dadu about the
+  year 1600, has a numerous following in Ajmir and Marwar, one section
+  of whom, the Nagas, engage largely in military service, whilst the
+  others are either householders or mendicants. The followers of this
+  creed wear no distinctive sectarial mark or badge, except a skull-cap;
+  nor do they worship any visible image of any deity, the repetition
+  (_japa_) of the name of Rama being the only kind of adoration
+  practised by them.
+
+
+  Eroticism and Krishna worship.
+
+Although the Vaishnava sects hitherto noticed, in their adoration of
+Vishnu and his incarnations, Krishna and Ramachandra, usually associate
+with these gods their wives, as their _saktis_, or female energies, the
+sexual element is, as a rule, only just allowed sufficient scope to
+enhance the emotional character of the rites of worship. In some of the
+later Vaishnava creeds, on the other hand, this element is far from
+being kept within the bounds of moderation and decency. The favourite
+object of adoration with adherents of these sects is Krishna with his
+mate--but not the devoted friend and counsellor of the Pandavas and
+deified hero of epic song, nor the ruler of Dvaraka and wedded lord of
+Rukmini, but the juvenile Krishna, Govinda or Bala Gopala, "the cowherd
+lad," the foster son of the cowherd Nanda of Gokula, taken up with his
+amorous sports with the _Gopis_, or wives of the cowherds of Vrindavana
+(Brindaban, near Mathura on the Yamuna), especially his favourite
+mistress Radha or Radhika. This episode in the legendary life of Krishna
+has every appearance of being a later accretion. After barely a few
+allusions to it in the epics, it bursts forth full-blown in the
+Harivansa, the Vishnu-purana, the Narada-Pancharatra and the
+Bhagavata-purana, the tenth canto of which, dealing with the life of
+Krishna, has become, through vernacular versions, especially the Hindi
+_Prem-sagar_, or "ocean of love," a favourite romance all over India,
+and has doubtless helped largely to popularize the cult of Krishna.
+Strange to say, however, no mention is as yet made by any of these works
+of Krishna's favourite Radha; it is only in another Purana--though
+scarcely deserving that designation--that she makes her appearance, viz.
+in the Brahma-vaivarta, in which Krishna's amours in Nanda's cow-station
+are dwelt upon in fulsome and wearisome detail; whilst the poet
+Jayadeva, in the 12th century, made her love for the gay and inconstant
+boy the theme of his beautiful, if highly voluptuous, lyrical drama,
+_Gita-govinda_.
+
+  The earliest of the sects which associate Radha with Krishna in their
+  worship is that of the Nimavats, founded by Nimbaditya or Nimbarka
+  (i.e. "the sun of the Nimba tree"), a teacher of uncertain date, said
+  to have been a Telugu Brahman who subsequently established himself at
+  Mathura (Muttra) on the Yamuna, where the headquarters of his sect
+  have remained ever since. The Mahant of their monastery at Dhruva
+  Kshetra near Mathura, who claims direct descent from Nimbarka, is said
+  to place the foundation of that establishment as far back as the 5th
+  century--doubtless an exaggerated claim; but if Jayadeva, as is
+  alleged, and seems by no means improbable, was really a follower of
+  Nimbarka, this teacher must have flourished, at latest, in the early
+  part of the 12th century. He is indeed taken by some authorities to be
+  identical with the mathematician Bhaskara Acharya, who is known to
+  have completed his chief work in A.D. 1150. It is worthy of remark, in
+  this respect, that--in accordance with Ramanuja's and Nimbarka's
+  philosophical theories--Jayadeva's presentation of Krishna's fickle
+  love for Radha is usually interpreted in a mystical sense, as
+  allegorically depicting the human soul's striving, through love, for
+  reunion with God, and its ultimate attainment, after many
+  backslidings, of the longed-for goal. As the chief authority of their
+  tenets, the Nimavats recognize the Bhagavata-purana; though several
+  works, ascribed to Nimbarka--partly of a devotional character and
+  partly expository of Vedanta topics--are still extant. Adherents of
+  this sect are fairly numerous in northern India, their frontal mark
+  consisting of the usual two perpendicular white lines, with, however,
+  a circular black spot between them.
+
+  Of greater importance than the sect just noticed, because of their far
+  larger following, are the two sects founded early in the 16th century
+  by Vallabha (Ballabha) Acharya and Chaitanya. In the forms of worship
+  favoured by votaries of these creeds the emotional and erotic elements
+  are allowed yet freer scope than in those that preceded them; and, as
+  an effective auxiliary to these tendencies, the use of the vernacular
+  dialects in prayers and hymns of praise takes an important part in the
+  religious service. The Vallabhacharis, or, as they are usually called,
+  from the title of their spiritual heads, the Gokulastha Gosains, i.e.
+  "the cow-lords (_gosvamin_) residing in Gokula," are very numerous in
+  western and central India. Vallabha, the son of a Telinga Brahman,
+  after extensive journeyings all over India, settled at Gokula near
+  Mathura, and set up a shrine with an image of Krishna Gopala. About
+  the year 1673, in consequence of the fanatical persecutions of the
+  Mogul emperor, this image was transferred to Nathdvara in Udaipur
+  (Mewar), where the shrine of Srinatha ("the lord of Sri," i.e. Vishnu)
+  continues to be the chief centre of worship for adherents of this
+  creed; whilst seven other images, transferred from Mathura at the same
+  time, are located at different places in Rajputana. Vallabha himself
+  went subsequently to reside at Benares, where he died. In the doctrine
+  of this Vaishnava prophet, the adualistic theory of Sankara is
+  resorted to as justifying a joyful and voluptuous cult of the deity.
+  For, if the human soul is identical with God, the practice of
+  austerities must be discarded as directed against God, and it is
+  rather by a free indulgence of the natural appetites and the pleasures
+  of life that man's love for God will best be shown. The followers of
+  his creed, amongst whom there are many wealthy merchants and bankers,
+  direct their worship chiefly to Gopal Lal, the boyish Krishna of
+  Vrindavana, whose image is sedulously attended like a revered living
+  person eight times a day--from its early rising from its couch up to
+  its retiring to repose at night. The sectarial mark of the adherents
+  consists of two red perpendicular lines, meeting in a semicircle at
+  the root of the nose, and having a round red spot painted between
+  them. Their principal doctrinal authority is the Bhagavata-purana, as
+  commented upon by Vallabha himself, who was also the author of several
+  other Sanskrit works highly esteemed by his followers. In this sect,
+  children are solemnly admitted to full membership at the early age of
+  four, and even two, years of age, when a rosary, or necklace, of 108
+  beads of basil (tulsi) wood is passed round their necks, and they are
+  taught the use of the octo-syllabic formula _Sri-Krishnah saranam
+  mama_, "Holy Krishna is my refuge." Another special feature of this
+  sect is that their spiritual heads, the Gosains, also called
+  Maharajas, so far from submitting themselves to self-discipline and
+  austere practices, adorn themselves in splendid garments, and allow
+  themselves to be habitually regaled by their adherents with choice
+  kinds of food; and being regarded as the living representatives of the
+  "lord of the Gopis" himself, they claim and receive in their own
+  persons all acts of attachment and worship due to the deity, even, it
+  is alleged, to the extent of complete self-surrender. In the final
+  judgment of the famous libel case of the Bombay Maharajas, before the
+  Supreme Court of Bombay, in January 1862, these improprieties were
+  severely commented upon; and though so unsparing a critic of Indian
+  sects as Jogendra Nath seems not to believe in actual immoral
+  practices on the part of the Maharajas, still he admits that "the
+  corrupting influence of a religion, that can make its female votaries
+  address amorous songs to their spiritual guides, must be very great."
+
+  A modern offshoot of Vallabha's creed, formed with the avowed object
+  of purging it of its objectionable features, was started, in the early
+  years of the 19th century, by Sahajananda, a Brahman of the Oudh
+  country, who subsequently assumed the name of Svami Narayana. Having
+  entered on his missionary labours at Ahmadabad, and afterwards removed
+  to Jetalpur, where he had a meeting with Bishop Heber, he subsequently
+  settled at the village of Wartal, to the north-west of Baroda, and
+  erected a temple to Lakshmi-Narayana, which, with another at
+  Ahmadabad, forms the two chief centres of the sect, each being
+  presided over by a Maharaja. Their worship is addressed to Narayana,
+  i.e. Vishnu, as the Supreme Being, together with Lakshmi, as well as
+  to Krishna and Radha. The sect is said to be gaining ground in
+  Gujarat. Chaitanya, the founder of the great Vaishnava sect of
+  Bengal, was the son of a high-caste Brahman of Nadiya, the famous
+  Bengal seat of Sanskrit learning, where he was born in 1485, two years
+  after the birth of Martin Luther, the German reformer. Having married
+  in due time, and a second time after the death of his first wife, he
+  lived as a "householder" (_grihastha_) till the age of 24, when he
+  renounced his family ties and set out as a religious mendicant
+  (_vairagin_), visiting during the next six years the principal places
+  of pilgrimage in northern India, and preaching with remarkable success
+  his doctrine of Bhakti, or passionate devotion to Krishna, as the
+  Supreme Deity. He subsequently made over to his principal disciples
+  the task of consolidating his community, and passed the last twelve
+  years of his life at Puri in Orissa, the great centre of the worship
+  of Vishnu as Jagannatha, or "lord of the world," which he remodelled
+  in accordance with his doctrine, causing the mystic songs of Jayadeva
+  to be recited before the images in the morning and evening as part of
+  the daily service; and, in fact, as in the other Vaishnava creeds,
+  seeking to humanize divine adoration by bringing it into accord with
+  the experience of human love. To this end, music, dancing,
+  singing-parties (_sankirtan_), theatricals--in short anything
+  calculated to produce the desired impression--would prove welcome to
+  him. His doctrine of Bhakti distinguishes five grades of devotional
+  feeling in the _Bhaktas_, or faithful adherents: viz. (_santi_) calm
+  contemplation of the deity; (_dasya_) active servitude; (_sakhya_)
+  friendship or personal regard; (_vatsalya_) tender affection as
+  between parents and children; (_madhurya_) love or passionate
+  attachment, like that which the Gopis felt for Krishna. Chaitanya also
+  seems to have done much to promote the celebration on an imposing
+  scale of the great Puri festival of the Ratha-yatra, or
+  "car-procession," in the month of Ashadha, when, amidst multitudes of
+  pilgrims, the image of Krishna, together with those of his brother
+  Balarama and his sister Subhadra, is drawn along, in a huge car, by
+  the devotees. Just as this festival was, and continues to be, attended
+  by people from all parts of India, without distinction of caste or
+  sex, so also were all classes, even Mahommedans, admitted by Chaitanya
+  as members of his sect. Whilst numerous observances are recommended as
+  more or less meritorious, the ordinary form of worship is a very
+  simple one, consisting as it does mainly of the constant repetition of
+  names of Krishna, or Krishna and Radha, which of itself is considered
+  sufficient to ensure future bliss. The partaking of flesh food and
+  spirituous liquor is strictly prohibited. By the followers of this
+  sect, also, an extravagant degree of reverence is habitually paid to
+  their gurus or spiritual heads. Indeed, Chaitanya himself, as well as
+  his immediate disciples, have come to be regarded as complete or
+  partial incarnations of the deity to whom adoration is due, as to
+  Krishna himself; and their modern successors, the Gosains, share to
+  the fullest extent in the devout attentions of the worshippers.
+  Chaitanya's movement, being chiefly directed against the vile
+  practices of the Saktas, then very prevalent in Bengal, was doubtless
+  prompted by the best and purest of intentions; but his own doctrine of
+  divine, though all too human, love was, like that of Vallabha, by no
+  means free from corruptive tendencies,--yet, how far these tendencies
+  have worked their way, who would say? On this point, Dr W. W.
+  Hunter--who is of opinion that "the death of the reformer marks the
+  beginning of the spiritual decline of Vishnu-worship," observes
+  (_Orissa_, i. 111), "The most deplorable corruption of Vishnu-worship
+  at the present day is that which has covered the temple walls with
+  indecent sculptures, and filled its innermost sanctuaries with
+  licentious rites" ... yet ... "it is difficult for a person not a
+  Hindu to pronounce upon the real extent of the evil. None but a Hindu
+  can enter any of the larger temples, and none but a Hindu priest
+  really knows the truth about their inner mysteries"; whilst the
+  well-known native scholar Babu Rajendralal Mitra points out
+  (_Antiquities of Orissa_, i. 111) that "such as they are, these
+  sculptures date from centuries before the birth of Chaitanya, and
+  cannot, therefore, be attributed to his doctrines or to his followers.
+  As a Hindu by birth, and a Vaishnava by family religion, I have had
+  the freest access to the innermost sanctuaries and to the most secret
+  of scriptures. I have studied the subject most extensively, and have
+  had opportunities of judging which no European can have, and I have no
+  hesitation in saying that, 'the mystic songs' of Jayadeva and the
+  'ocean of love' notwithstanding, there is nothing in the rituals of
+  Jagannatha which can be called licentious." Whilst in Chaitanya's
+  creed, Krishna, in his relations to Radha, remains at least
+  theoretically the chief partner, an almost inevitable step was taken
+  by some minor sects in attaching the greater importance to the female
+  element, and making Krishna's love for his mistress the guiding
+  sentiment of their faith. Of these sects, it will suffice to mention
+  that of the Radha-Vallabhis, started in the latter part of the 16th
+  century, who worship Krishna as Radha-vallabha, "the darling of
+  Radha." The doctrines and practices of these sects clearly verge upon
+  those obtaining in the third principal division of Indian sectarians
+  which will now be considered.
+
+
+  Saktas
+
+The Saktas, as we have seen, are worshippers of the _sakti_, or the
+female principle as a primary factor in the creation and reproduction of
+the universe. And as each of the principal gods is supposed to have
+associated with him his own particular _sakti_, as an indispensable
+complement enabling him to properly perform his cosmic functions,
+adherents of this persuasion might be expected to be recruited from all
+sects. To a certain extent this is indeed the case; but though
+Vaishnavism, and especially the Krishna creed, with its luxuriant growth
+of erotic legends, might have seemed peculiarly favourable to a
+development in this direction, it is practically only in connexion with
+the Saiva system that an independent cult of the female principle has
+been developed; whilst in other sects--and, indeed, in the ordinary
+Saiva cult as well--such worship, even where it is at all prominent, is
+combined with, and subordinated to, that of the male principle. What has
+made this cult attach itself more especially to the Saiva creed is
+doubtless the character of Siva as the type of reproductive power, in
+addition to his function as destroyer which, as we shall see, is
+likewise reflected in some of the forms of his Sakti. The theory of the
+god and his Sakti as cosmic principles is perhaps already foreshadowed
+in the Vedic couple of Heaven and Earth, whilst in the speculative
+treatises of the later Vedic period, as well as in the post-Vedic
+Brahmanical writings, the assumption of the self-existent being dividing
+himself into a male and a female half usually forms the starting-point
+of cosmic evolution.[7] In the later Saiva mythology this theory finds
+its artistic representation in Siva's androgynous form of Ardha-narisa,
+or "half-woman-lord," typifying the union of the male and female
+energies; the male half in this form of the deity occupying the
+right-hand, and the female the left-hand side. In accordance with this
+type of productive energy, the Saktas divide themselves into two
+distinct groups, according to whether they attach the greater importance
+to the male or to the female principle; viz. the _Dakshinacharis_, or
+"right-hand-observers" (also called _Dak-shina-margis_, or followers "of
+the right-hand path"), and the _Vamacharis_, or "left-hand-observers"
+(or _Vama-margis_, followers "of the left path"). Though some of the
+Puranas, the chief repositories of sectarian doctrines, enter largely
+into Sakta topics, it is only in the numerous Tantras that these are
+fully and systematically developed. In these works, almost invariably
+composed in the form of a colloquy, Siva, as a rule, in answer to
+questions asked by his consort Parvati, unfolds the mysteries of this
+occult creed.
+
+  The principal seat of Sakta worship is the north-eastern part of
+  India--Bengal, Assam and Behar. The great majority of its adherents
+  profess to follow the right-hand practice; and apart from the implied
+  purport and the emblems of the cult, their mode of adoration does not
+  seem to offer any very objectionable features. And even amongst the
+  adherents of the left-hand mode of worship, many of these are said to
+  follow it as a matter of family tradition rather than of religious
+  conviction, and to practise it in a sober and temperate manner; whilst
+  only an extreme section--the so-called _Kaulas_ or _Kulinas_, who
+  appeal to a spurious Upanishad, the Kaulopanishad, as the divine
+  authority of their tenets--persist in carrying on the mystic and
+  licentious rites taught in many of the Tantras. But strict secrecy
+  being enjoined in the performance of these rites, it is not easy to
+  check any statements made on this point. The Sakta cult is, however,
+  known to be especially prevalent--though apparently not in a very
+  extreme form--amongst members of the very respectable Kayastha or
+  writer caste of Bengal, and as these are largely employed as clerks
+  and accountants in Upper India, there is reason to fear that their
+  vicious practices are gradually being disseminated through them.
+
+The divine object of the adoration of the Saktas, then, is Siva's
+wife--the _Devi_ (goddess), _Mahadevi_ (great goddess), or _Jagan-mata_
+(mother of the world)--in one or other of her numerous forms, benign or
+terrible. The forms in which she is worshipped in Bengal are of the
+latter category, viz. _Durga_, "the unapproachable," and _Kali_, "the
+black one," or, as some take it, the wife of _Kala_, "time," or death
+the great dissolver, viz. Siva. In honour of the former, the
+_Durga-puja_ is celebrated during ten days at the time of the autumnal
+equinox, in commemoration of her victory over the buffalo-headed demon
+Mahishasura; when the image of the ten-armed goddess, holding a weapon
+in each hand, is worshipped for nine days, and cast into the water on
+the tenth day, called the Dasahara, whence the festival itself is
+commonly called Dasara in western India. _Kali_, on the other hand, the
+most terrible of the goddess's forms, has a special service performed to
+her, at the _Kali-puja_, during the darkest night of the succeeding
+month; when she is represented as a naked black woman, four-armed,
+wearing a garland of heads of giants slain by her, and a string of
+skulls round her neck, dancing on the breast of her husband (Mahakala),
+with gaping mouth and protruding tongue; and when she has to be
+propitiated by the slaughter of goats, sheep and buffaloes. On other
+occasions also Vamacharis commonly offer animal sacrifices, usually one
+or more kids; the head of the victim, which has to be severed by a
+single stroke, being always placed in front of the image of the goddess
+as a blood-offering (_bali_), with an earthen lamp fed with ghee burning
+above it, whilst the flesh is cooked and served to the guests attending
+the ceremony, except that of buffaloes, which is given to the low-caste
+musicians who perform during the service. Even some adherents of this
+class have, however, discontinued animal sacrifices, and use certain
+kinds of fruit, such as coco-nuts or pumpkins, instead. The use of wine,
+which at one time was very common on these occasions, seems also to have
+become much more restricted; and only members of the extreme section
+would still seem to adhere to the practice of the so-called five _m's_
+prescribed by some of the Tantras, viz. _mamsa_ (flesh), _matsya_
+(fish), _madya_ (wine), _maithuna_ (sexual union), and _mudra_ (mystical
+finger signs)--probably the most degrading cult ever practised under the
+pretext of religious worship.
+
+  In connexion with the principal object of this cult, Tantric theory
+  has devised an elaborate system of female figures representing either
+  special forms and personifications or attendants of the "Great
+  Goddess." They are generally arranged in groups, the most important of
+  which are the _Mahavidyas_ (great sciences), the 8 (or 9) _Mataras_
+  (mothers) or _Mahamataras_ (great mothers), consisting of the wives of
+  the principal gods; the 8 _Nayikas_ or mistresses; and different
+  classes of sorceresses and ogresses, called _Yoginis_, _Dakinis_ and
+  _Sakinis_. A special feature of the Sakti cult is the use of obscure
+  Vedic _mantras_, often changed so as to be quite meaningless and on
+  that very account deemed the more efficacious for the acquisition of
+  superhuman powers; as well as of mystic letters and syllables called
+  _bija_ (germ), of magic circles (_chakra_) and diagrams (_yantra_),
+  and of amulets of various materials inscribed with formulae of fancied
+  mysterious import.
+
+
+  General conclusions.
+
+This survey of the Indian sects will have shown how little the character
+of their divine objects of worship is calculated to exert that elevating
+and spiritualizing influence, so characteristic of true religious
+devotion. In all but a few of the minor groups religious fervour is only
+too apt to degenerate into that very state of sexual excitation which
+devotional exercises should surely tend to repress. If the worship of
+Siva, despite the purport of his chief symbol, seems on the whole less
+liable to produce these undesirable effects than that of the rival
+deity, it is doubtless due partly to the real nature of that emblem
+being little realized by the common people, and partly to the somewhat
+repellent character of the "great god," more favourable to evoking
+feelings of awe and terror than a spirit of fervid devotion. All the
+more are, however, the gross stimulants, connected with the adoration of
+his consort, calculated to work up the carnal instincts of the devotees
+to an extreme degree of sensual frenzy. In the Vaishnava camp, on the
+other hand, the cult of Krishna, and more especially that of the
+youthful Krishna, can scarcely fail to exert an influence which, if of a
+subtler and more insinuating, is not on that account of a less
+demoralizing kind. Indeed, it would be hard to find anything less
+consonant with godliness and divine perfection than the pranks of this
+juvenile god; and if poets and thinkers try to explain them away by dint
+of allegorical interpretation, the plain man will not for all their
+refinements take these amusing adventures any the less _au pied de la
+lettre_. No fault, in this respect, can assuredly be found with the
+legendary Rama, a very paragon of knightly honour and virtue, even as
+his consort Sita is the very model of a noble and faithful wife; and yet
+this cult has perhaps retained even more of the character of mere
+hero-worship than that of Krishna. Since by the universally accepted
+doctrine of _karman_ (deed) or _karmavipaka_ ("the maturing of deeds")
+man himself--either in his present, or some future, existence--enjoys
+the fruit of, or has to atone for, his former good and bad actions,
+there could hardly be room in Hindu pantheism for a belief in the
+remission of sin by divine grace or vicarious substitution. And
+accordingly the "descents" or incarnations of the deity have for their
+object, not so much the spiritual regeneration of man as the deliverance
+of the world from some material calamity threatening to overwhelm it.
+The generally recognized principal Avatars do not, however, by any means
+constitute the only occasions of a direct intercession of the deity in
+worldly affairs, but--in the same way as to this day the eclipses of the
+sun and moon are ascribed by the ordinary Hindu to these luminaries
+being temporarily swallowed by the dragon _Rahu_ (or _Graha_, "the
+seizer")--so any uncommon occurrence would be apt to be set down as a
+special manifestation of divine power; and any man credited with
+exceptional merit or achievement, or even remarkable for some strange
+incident connected with his life or death, might ultimately come to be
+looked upon as a veritable incarnation of the deity, capable of
+influencing the destinies of man, and might become an object of local
+adoration or superstitious awe and propitiatory rites to multitudes of
+people. That the transmigration theory, which makes the spirit of the
+departed hover about for a time in quest of a new corporeal abode, would
+naturally lend itself to superstitious notions of this kind can scarcely
+be doubted. Of peculiar importance in this respect is the worship of the
+_Pitris_ ("fathers") or deceased ancestors, as entering largely into the
+everyday life and family relations of the Hindus. At stated intervals to
+offer reverential homage and oblations of food to the forefathers up to
+the third degree is one of the most sacred duties the devout Hindu has
+to discharge. The periodical performance of the commemorative rite of
+obsequies called _Sraddha_--i.e. an oblation "made in faith" (_sraddha_,
+Lat. _credo_)--is the duty and privilege of the eldest son of the
+deceased, or, failing him, of the nearest relative who thereby
+establishes his right as next of kin in respect of inheritance; and
+those other relatives who have the right to take part in the ceremony
+are called _sapinda_, i.e. sharing in the _pindas_ (or balls of cooked
+rice, constituting along with libations of water the usual offering to
+the Manes)--such relationship being held a bar to intermarriage. The
+first _Sraddha_ takes place as soon as possible after the _antyeshti_
+("final offering") or funeral ceremony proper, usually spread over ten
+days; being afterwards repeated once a month for a year, and
+subsequently at every anniversary and otherwise voluntarily on special
+occasions. Moreover, a simple libation of water should be offered to the
+Fathers twice daily at the morning and evening devotion called _sandhya_
+("twilight"). It is doubtless a sense of filial obligation coupled with
+sentiments of piety and reverence that gave rise to this practice of
+offering gifts of food and drink to the deceased ancestors. Hence also
+frequent allusion is made by poets to the anxious care caused to the
+Fathers by the possibility of the living head of the family being
+afflicted with failure of offspring; this dire prospect compelling them
+to use but sparingly their little store of provisions, in case the
+supply should shortly cease altogether. At the same time one also meets
+with frank avowals of a superstitious fear lest any irregularity in the
+performance of the obsequial rites should cause the Fathers to haunt
+their old home and trouble the peace of their undutiful descendant, or
+even prematurely draw him after them to the Pitri-loka or world of the
+Fathers, supposed to be located in the southern region. Terminating as
+it usually does with the feeding and feeing of a greater or less number
+of Brahmans and the feasting of members of the performers' own caste,
+the Sraddha, especially its first performance, is often a matter of very
+considerable expense; and more than ordinary benefit to the deceased is
+supposed to accrue from it when it takes place at a spot of recognized
+sanctity, such as one of the great places of pilgrimage like Prayaga
+(Allahabad, where the three sacred rivers, Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati,
+meet), Mathura, and especially Gaya and Kasi (Benares). But indeed the
+_tirtha-yatra_, or pilgrimage to holy bathing-places, is in itself
+considered an act of piety conferring religious merit in proportion to
+the time and trouble expended upon it. The number of such places is
+legion and is constantly increasing. The banks of the great rivers such
+as the Ganga (Ganges), the Yamuna (Jumna), the Narbada, the Krishna
+(Kistna), are studded with them, and the water of these rivers is
+supposed to be imbued with the essence of sanctity capable of cleansing
+the pious bather of all sin and moral taint. To follow the entire course
+of one of the sacred rivers from the mouth to the source on one side and
+back again on the other in the sun-wise (pradakshina) direction--that
+is, always keeping the stream on one's right-hand side--is held to be a
+highly meritorious undertaking which it requires years to carry through.
+No wonder that water from these rivers, especially the Ganges, is sent
+and taken in bottles to all parts of India to be used on occasion as
+healing medicine or for sacramental purposes. In Vedic times, at the
+_Rajasuya_, or inauguration of a king, some water from the holy river
+Sarasvati was mixed with the sprinkling water used for consecrating the
+king. Hence also sick persons are frequently conveyed long distances to
+a sacred river to heal them of their maladies; and for a dying man to
+breathe his last at the side of the Ganges is devoutly believed to be
+the surest way of securing for him salvation and eternal bliss.
+
+  Such probably was the belief of the ordinary Hindu two thousand years
+  ago, and such it remains to this day. In the light of facts such as
+  these, who could venture to say what the future of Hinduism is likely
+  to be? Is the regeneration of India to be brought about by the modern
+  theistic movements, such as the Brahma-samaj and Arya-samaj, as so
+  close and sympathetic an observer of Hindu life and thought as Sir A.
+  Lyall seems to think? "The Hindu mind," he remarks, "is essentially
+  speculative and transcendental; it will never consent to be shut up in
+  the prison of sensual experience, for it has grasped and holds firmly
+  the central idea that all things are manifestations of some power
+  outside phenomena. And the tendency of contemporary religious
+  discussion in India, so far as it can be followed from a distance, is
+  towards an ethical reform on the old foundations, towards searching
+  for some method of reconciling their Vedic theology with the practices
+  of religion taken as a rule of conduct and a system of moral
+  government. One can already discern a movement in various quarters
+  towards a recognition of impersonal theism, and towards fixing the
+  teaching of the philosophical schools upon some definitely authorized
+  system of faith and morals, which may satisfy a rising ethical
+  standard, and may thus permanently embody that tendency to substitute
+  spiritual devotion for external forms and caste rules which is the
+  characteristic of the sects that have from time to time dissented from
+  orthodox Brahminism."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Census of India_ (1901), vol. i. part i.; _India_, by
+  H. H. Risley and E. A. Gait; vol. i. _Ethnographical Appendices_, by
+  H. H. Risley; _The Indian Empire_, vol. i. (new ed., Oxford, 1907); J.
+  Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_ (2nd ed., 5 vols., London, 1873);
+  Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in India_ (London, 1883);
+  _Modern India and the Indians_ (London, 1878, 3rd ed. 1879);
+  _Hinduism_ (London, 1877); Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Asiatic Studies_ (2
+  series, London, 1899); "Hinduism" in _Religious Systems of the World_
+  (London, 1904); "Brahminism" in _Great Religions of the World_ (New
+  York and London, 1902); W. J. Wilkins, _Modern Hinduism_ (London,
+  1887); J. C. Oman, _Indian Life, Religious and Social_ (London, 1879);
+  _The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India_ (London, 1903); _The
+  Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India_ (London, 1907); S. C. Bose,
+  _The Hindus as they are_ (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1883); J. Robson,
+  _Hinduism and Christianity_ (Edinburgh and London, 3rd ed., 1905); J.
+  Murray Mitchell, _Hinduism Past and Present_ (2nd ed., London, 1897);
+  Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_ (Calcutta, 1896);
+  A. Barth, _The Religions of India_ (London, 1882); E. W. Hopkins, _The
+  Religions of India_ (London, 1896).     (J. E.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "It is, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can best
+    represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform worked
+    upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organized and
+    executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the Holy
+    Roman Empire and the Church Apostolic." Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Asiatic
+    Studies_, i. 2.
+
+  [2] Henry Whitehead, D. D., bishop of Madras, _The Village Deities of
+    Southern India_ (Madras, 1907).
+
+  [3] "The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious
+    basis." Sir A. C. Lyall, _Brahmanism_.
+
+  [4] Thus, in Berar, "there is a strong non-Aryan leaven in the dregs
+    of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races which
+    have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become fused
+    with the general community, while these same races are still distinct
+    tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle." Sir Alfred C. Lyall,
+    _As. St._, i. 6.
+
+  [5] Siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the
+    present age as Sveta, the White, for the purpose of benefiting the
+    Brahmans, and he is invariably painted white; whilst Vishnu, when
+    pictured, is always of a dark-blue colour.
+
+  [6] As in the case of Siva's traditional white complexion, it may not
+    be without significance, from a racial point of view, that Vishnu,
+    Rama and Krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed to
+    them, viz. blue, hyacinthine, and dark azure or dark brown
+    respectively. The names of the two heroes meaning simply "black" or
+    "dark," the blue tint may originally have belonged to Vishnu, who is
+    also called _pitavasas_, dressed in yellow garment, i.e. the colours
+    of sky and sun combined.
+
+  [7] This notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic
+    cosmogonic hymn, Rigv. x. 129, where it is said that--"that one
+    (existent, neutr.) breathed breathless by (or with) its _svadha_ (?
+    inherent power, or nature), beyond that there was nothing whatever
+    ... that one live (germ) which was enclosed in the void was generated
+    by the power of heat (or fervour); desire then first came upon it,
+    which was the first seed of the mind ... fertilizing forces there
+    were, _svadha_ below, _prayati_ (? will) above."
+
+
+
+
+HINDU KUSH, a range of mountains in Central Asia. Throughout 500 m. of
+its length, from its roots in the Pamir regions till it fades into the
+Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, this great range forms the water-divide
+between the Kabul and the Oxus basins, and, for the first 200 m.
+reckoning westwards, the southern boundary of Afghanistan. It may be
+said to spring from the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, where it unites
+with the great meridional system of Sarikol stretching northwards, and
+the yet more impressive mountain barrier of Muztagh, the northern base
+of which separates China from the semi-independent territory of Kanjut.
+The Wakhjir pass, crossing the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir into the
+sources of the river Hunza, almost marks the tri-junction of the three
+great chains of mountains. As the Hindu Kush strikes westwards, after
+first rounding the head of an Oxus tributary (the Ab-i-Panja, which
+Curzon considers to be the true source of the Oxus), it closely
+overlooks the trough of that glacier-fed stream under its northern
+spurs, its crest at the nearest point being separated from the river by
+a distance which cannot much exceed 10 m. As the river is here the
+northern boundary of Afghanistan, and the crest of the Hindu Kush the
+southern boundary, this distance represents the width of the Afghan
+kingdom at that point.
+
+  _Physiography._--For the first 100 m. of its length the Hindu Kush is
+  a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width, permitting
+  the formation of small lakes on the crest, and possessing no
+  considerable peaks. It is crossed by many passes, varying in height
+  from 12,500 ft. to 17,500 ft., the lowest and the easiest being the
+  well-known group about Baroghil, which has from time immemorial
+  offered a line of approach from High Asia to Chitral and Jalalabad. As
+  the Hindu Kush gradually recedes from the Ab-i-Panja and turns
+  south-westwards it gains in altitude, and we find prominent peaks on
+  the crest which measure more than 24,000 ft. above sea-level. Even
+  here, however, the main central water-divide, or axis of the chain, is
+  apparently not the line of highest peaks, which must be looked for to
+  the south, where the great square-headed giant called Tirach Mir
+  dominates Chitral from a southern spur. For some 40 or 50 m. of this
+  south-westerly bend, bearing away from the Oxus, where the Hindu Kush
+  overlooks the mountain wilderness of Badakshan to the west, the crest
+  is intersected by many passes, of which the most important is the
+  Dorah group (including the Minjan and the Mandal), which rise to about
+  15,000 ft., and which are, under favourable conditions, practicable
+  links between the Oxus and Chitral basins.
+
+
+    Kafiristan section.
+
+  From the Dorah to the Khawak pass (or group of passes, for it is
+  seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the Hindu
+  Kush), which is between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in altitude, the
+  water-divide overlooks Kafiristan and Badakshan. Here its exact
+  position is matter of conjecture. It lies amidst a wild, inaccessible
+  region of snowbound crests, and is certainly nowhere less than 15,000
+  ft. above sea-level. There is a tradition that Timur attempted the
+  passage of the Hindu Kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts,
+  and that, having failed, he left a record of his failure engraved on a
+  rock in the pass.
+
+
+    Passes.
+
+  The Khawak, at the head of the Panjshir tributary of the Kabul river,
+  leading straight from Badakshan to Charikar and the city of Kabul, is
+  now an excellent kafila route, the road having been engineered under
+  the amir Abdur Rahman's direction, and it is said to be available for
+  traffic throughout the year. From the Khawak to the head of the
+  Ghorband (a river of the Hindu Kush which, rising to the north-west of
+  Kabul, flows north-east to meet the Panjshir near Charikar, whence
+  they run united into the plains of Kohistan) the Hindu Kush is
+  intersected by passes at intervals, all of which were surveyed, and
+  several utilized, during the return of the Russo-Afghan boundary
+  commission from the Oxus to Kabul in 1886. Those utilized were the
+  Kaoshan (the "Hindu Kush" pass _par excellence_), 14,340 ft.; the
+  Chahardar (13,900 ft.), which is a link in one of the amir of
+  Afghanistan's high roads to Turkestan; and the Shibar (9800 ft.),
+  which is merely a diversion into the upper Ghorband of that group of
+  passes between Bamian and the Kabul plains which are represented by
+  the Irak, Hajigak, Unai, &c. About this point it is geographically
+  correct to place the southern extremity of the Hindu Kush, for here
+  commences the Koh-i-Baba system into which the Hindu Kush is merged.
+
+
+    General conformation.
+
+  The general conformation of the Hindu Kush system south of the Khawak,
+  no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock composition as at
+  present exists to the north, points to its construction under the same
+  conditions of upheaval and subsequent denudation as are common to the
+  western Himalaya and the whole of the trans-Indus borderland. Its
+  upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the north-west of the
+  Indian peninsula long after the Himalaya had massed itself as a
+  formidable mountain chain, belongs to a comparatively recent geologic
+  period, and the same thrust upwards of vast masses of cretaceous
+  limestone has disturbed the overlying recent beds of shale and clays
+  with very similar results to those which have left so marked an
+  impress on the Baluch frontier. Successive flexures or ridges are
+  ranged in more or less parallel lines, and from between the bands of
+  hard, unyielding rock of older formation the soft beds of recent shale
+  have been washed out, to be carried through the enclosing ridges by
+  rifts which break across their axes. The Hindu Kush is, in fact, but
+  the face of a great upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it
+  northwards, just as the Himalaya forms the southern face of the great
+  central tableland of Tibet, and its general physiography, exhibiting
+  long, narrow, lateral valleys and transverse lines of "antecedent"
+  drainage, is similar. There are few passes across the southern
+  section of the Hindu Kush (and this section is, from the
+  politico-geographical point of view, more important to India than the
+  whole Himalayan system) which have not to surmount a succession of
+  crests or ridges as they cross from Afghan Turkestan to Afghanistan.
+  The exceptions are, of course, notable, and have played an important
+  part in the military history of Asia from time immemorial. From a
+  little ice-bound lake called Gaz Kul, or Karambar, which lies on the
+  crest of the Hindu Kush near its northern origin at the head of the
+  Taghdumbash Pamir, two very important river systems (those of Chitral
+  and Hunza) are believed to originate. The lake really lies on the
+  watershed between the two, and is probably a glacial relic. Its
+  contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on conditions
+  of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses towards one end.
+  It marks the commencement of the water-divide which primarily
+  separates the Gilgit basin from that of the Yashkun, or Chitral,
+  river, and subsequently divides the drainage of Swat and Bajour from
+  that of the Chitral (or Kunar). The Yashkun-Chitral-Kunar river (it is
+  called by all three names) is the longest affluent of the Kabul, and
+  it is in many respects a more important river than the Kabul.
+  Throughout its length it is closely flanked on its left bank by this
+  main water-divide, which is called Moshabar or Shandur in its northern
+  sections, and owns a great variety of names where it divides Bajour
+  from the Kunar valley. It is this range, crowned by peaks of 22,000
+  ft. altitude and maintaining an average elevation of some 10,000 ft.
+  throughout its length of 250 m., that is the real barrier of the
+  north--not the Hindu Kush itself. Across it, at its head, are the
+  glacial passes which lead to the foot of the Baroghil. Of these
+  Darkot, with a glacial staircase on each side, is typical. (See
+  GILGIT.) Those passes (the Kilik and Mintaka) from the Pamir regions,
+  which lead into the rocky gorges and defiles of the upper affluents of
+  the Hunza to the east of the Darkot, belong rather to the Muztagh
+  system than to the Hindu Kush. Other passes across this important
+  water-divide are the Shandur (12,250 ft.), between Gilgit and Mastuj;
+  the Lowarai (10,450 ft.), between the Panjkora and Chitral valleys;
+  and farther south certain lower crossings which once formed part of
+  the great highway between Kabul and India.
+
+
+    Chitral.
+
+  Deep down in the trough of the Chitral river, about midway between its
+  source and its junction with the Kabul at Jalalabad, is the village
+  and fort of Chitral (q.v.). Facing Chitral, on the right bank of the
+  river, and extending for some 70 m. from the Hindu Kush, is the lofty
+  snow-clad spur of the Hindu Kush known as Shawal, across which one or
+  two difficult passes lead into the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This
+  spur carries the boundary of Afghanistan southwards to Arnawai (some
+  50 m. below Chitral), where it crosses the river to the long Shandur
+  watershed. South of Arnawai the Kunar valley becomes a part of
+  Afghanistan (see KUNAR). The value of Chitral as an outpost of British
+  India may be best gauged by its geographical position. It is about 100
+  m. (direct map measurement) from the outpost of Russia at Langar Kisht
+  on the river Panja, with the Dorah pass across the Hindu Kush
+  intervening. The Dorah may be said to be about half-way between the
+  two outposts, and the mountain tracks leading to it on either side are
+  rough and difficult. The Dorah, however, is not the only pass which
+  leads into the Chitral valley from the Oxus. The Mandal pass, a few
+  miles south of the Dorah, is the connecting link between the Oxus and
+  the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan; and the Bashgol valley leads
+  directly to the Chitral valley at Arnawai, about 50 m. below Chitral.
+  Nor must we overlook the connexion between north and south of the
+  Hindu Kush which is afforded by the long narrow valley of the Chitral
+  (or Yashkun) itself, leading up to the Baroghil pass. This route was
+  once made use of by the Chinese for purposes of pilgrimage, if not for
+  invasion. Access to Chitral from the north is therefore but a matter
+  of practicable tracks, or passes, in two or three directions, and the
+  measure of practicability under any given conditions can best be
+  reckoned from Chitral itself. By most authorities the possibility of
+  an advance in force from the north, even under the most favourable
+  conditions, is considered to be exceedingly small; but the tracks and
+  passes of the Hindu Kush are only impracticable so long as they are
+  left as nature has made them.
+
+_Historical Notices._--Hindu Kush is the Caucasus of Alexander's
+historians. It is also included in the Paropamisus, though the latter
+term embraces more, Caucasus being apparently used only when the alpine
+barrier is in question. Whether the name was given in mere vanity to the
+barrier which Alexander passed (as Arrian and others repeatedly allege),
+or was founded also on some verbal confusion, cannot be stated. It was
+no doubt regarded (and perhaps not altogether untruly) as a part of a
+great alpine zone believed to traverse Asia from west to east, whether
+called Taurus, Caucasus or Imaus. Arrian himself applies Caucasus
+distinctly to the Himalaya also. The application of the name Tanais to
+the Syr seems to indicate a real confusion with Colchian Caucasus.
+Alexander, after building an Alexandria at its foot (probably at Hupian
+near Charikar), crossed into Bactria, first reaching Drapsaca, or
+Adrapsa. This has been interpreted as Anderab, in which case he probably
+crossed the Khawak Pass, but the identity is uncertain. The ancient Zend
+name is, according to Rawlinson, Paresina, the essential part of
+Paropamisus; this accounts for the great Asiastic _Parnassus_ of
+Aristotle, and the _Pho-lo-sin-a_ of Hsuan Tsang.
+
+The name Hindu Kush is used by Ibn Batuta, who crossed (c. 1332) from
+Anderab, and he gives the explanation of the name which, however
+doubtful, is still popular, as (Pers.) Hindu-Killer, "because of the
+number of Indian slaves who perished in passing" its snows. Baber always
+calls the range Hindu Kush, and the way in which he speaks of it shows
+clearly that it was a range that was meant, not a solitary pass or peak
+(according to modern local use, as alleged by Elphinstone and Burnes).
+Probably, however, the title was confined to the section from Khawak to
+Koh-i-Baba. The name has by some later Oriental writers been modified
+into Hindu _Koh_ (mountain), but this is factitious, and throws no more
+light on the origin of the title. The name seems to have become known to
+European geographers by the Oriental translations of the two Petis de la
+Croix, and was taken up by Delisle and D'Anville. Rennell and
+Elphinstone familiarized it. Burnes first crossed the range (1832). A
+British force was stationed at Bamian beyond it in 1840, with an outpost
+at Saighan.
+
+The Hindu Kush, formidable as it seems, and often as it has been the
+limit between petty states, has hardly ever been the boundary of a
+considerable power. Greeks, White Huns, Samanidae of Bokhara,
+Ghaznevides, Mongols, Timur and Timuridae, down to Saddozais and
+Barakzais, have ruled both sides of this great alpine chain.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Information about the Hindu Kush and Chitral is now
+  comparatively exact. The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884 and
+  the Chitral expedition of 1895 opened up a vast area for geographical
+  investigation, and the information collected is to be found in the
+  reports and gazetteers of the Indian government. The following are the
+  chief recent authorities:--Report of the Russo-Afghan Boundary
+  Commission (1886); Report of Lockhart's Mission (1886); Report of
+  Asmar Boundary Commission (1895); Report of Pamir Boundary Commission
+  (1896); J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta, 1880); W.
+  M'Nair, "Visit to Kafiristan," vol. vi. _R.G.S. Proc._, 1884; F.
+  Younghusband, "Journeys on the Pamirs, &c.," vol. xiv. _R.G.S. Proc._,
+  1892; Colonel Durand, _Making a Frontier_ (London, 1899); Sir G.
+  Robertson, _Chitral_ (London, 1899).     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HINDUR, or NALAGARH, one of the Simla hill states, under the government
+of the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901) 52,551; area, 256 sq. m.; estimated
+revenue, L8600. The country was overrun by the Gurkhas for some years
+before 1815, when they were driven out by the British, and the raja was
+confirmed in possession of the territory. The principal products are
+grain and opium.
+
+
+
+
+HINGANGHAT, a town of British India in Wardha district, Central
+Provinces, 21 m. S.W. of Wardha town. Pop (1901) 12,662. It is a main
+seat of the cotton trade, the cotton here produced in the rich Wardha
+valley having given its name to one of the best indigenous staples of
+India. The principal native traders are Marwaris, many of whom have
+large transactions and export on their own account; but the greater
+number act as middle-men. There are two cotton-mills and several ginning
+and pressing factories.
+
+
+
+
+HINGE (in Mid. Eng. _henge_ or _heeng_, from _hengen_, to hang), a
+movable joint, particularly that by which a door or window "hangs" from
+its side-post, or by which a lid or cover is attached to that which it
+closes; also any device which allows two parts to be joined together and
+move upon each other (see JOINERY). Figuratively the word is used of
+that on which something depends, a cardinal or turning point, a crisis.
+
+
+
+
+HINGHAM, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on
+Massachusetts Bay. Pop (1890) 4564; (1900) 5059 (969 being
+foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4819; (1910) 4965. Area, about 30
+sq. m. The township is traversed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
+railway, and contains the villages of Hingham, West Hingham, Hingham
+Center, and South Hingham. Derby Academy, a co-educational school
+founded and endowed with about L12,000 in 1784 by Sarah Derby
+(1714-1790), was opened in 1791. Hingham has a public library (1868),
+with 12,000 volumes in 1908. The Old Meeting House, erected in 1681, is
+one of the oldest church buildings in the country used continuously.
+Manufactures were relatively much more important in the 17th and 18th
+centuries than since. There were settlers here as early as 1633, some of
+them--notably Edmund Hobart, ancestor of Bishop John Henry
+Hobart,--being natives of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whence the name;
+and in 1635 common land called Barecove became the township of Hingham.
+
+  See _History of the Town of Hingham_ (4 vols., Hingham, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1794-1861), German philosopher,
+studied theology at Strassburg, and philosophy at Heidelberg under Hegel
+(q.v.), who wrote a preface to his _Religion im innern Verhaltniss zur
+Wissenschaft_ (Heidelberg, 1722). He became a _Privatdozent_ in 1819,
+and held professorships at Breslau (1822) and Halle (1824).
+
+  WORKS.--(1) Philosophical: _Grundlinien der Philosophie der Logik_
+  (Halle, 1826); _Genesis des Wissens_ (Heidelberg, 1835). (2) On
+  aesthetics: _Vorlesungen uber Goethes Faust_ (Halle, 1825); _Schillers
+  Dichtungen nach ihrem historischen Zusammenhang_ (Leipzig, 1837-1839).
+  By these works he became a recognized exponent of orthodox
+  Hegelianism. (3) Historical: _Geschichte der Rechts- und
+  Staatsprinzipien seit der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart_ (Leipzig,
+  1848-1852); _Die Konige_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1853).
+
+
+
+
+HINSCHIUS, PAUL (1835-1898), German jurist, was the son of Franz Sales
+August Hinschius (1807-1877), and was born in Berlin on the 25th of
+December 1835. His father was not only a scientific jurist, but also a
+lawyer in large practice in Berlin. After working under his father,
+Hinschius in 1852 began to study jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Berlin,
+the teacher who had most influence upon him being Aemilius Ludwig
+Richter (1808-1864), to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of
+the study of ecclesiastical law in Germany. In 1855 Hinschius took the
+degree of _doctor utriusque juris_, and in 1859 was admitted to the
+juridical faculty of Berlin. In 1863 he went as professor
+extraordinarius to Halle, returning in the same capacity to Berlin in
+1865; and in 1868 became professor ordinarius at the university of Kiel,
+which he represented in the Prussian Upper House (1870-1871). He also
+assisted his father in editing the _Preussische Anwaltszeitung_ from
+1862 to 1866 and the _Zeitschrift fur Gesetzgebung und Rechtspflege in
+Preussen_ from 1867 to 1871. In 1872 he was appointed professor
+ordinarius of ecclesiastical law at Berlin. In the same year he took
+part in the conferences of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs, which
+issued in the famous "Falk laws." In connexion with the developments of
+the _Kulturkampf_ which resulted from the "Falk laws," he wrote several
+treatises: e.g. on "The Attitude of the German State Governments towards
+the Decrees of the Vatican Council" (1871), on "The Prussian Church Laws
+of 1873" (1873), "The Prussian Church Laws of the years 1874 and 1875"
+(1875), and "The Prussian Church Law of 14th July 1880" (1881). He sat
+in the Reichstag as a National Liberal from 1872 to 1878, and again in
+1881 and 1882, and from 1889 onwards he represented the university of
+Berlin in the Prussian Upper House. He died on the 13th of December
+1898.
+
+The two great works by which Hinschius established his fame are the
+_Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (2 parts,
+Leipzig, 1863) and _Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken und Protestanten in
+Deutschland_, vols, i.-vi. (Berlin, 1869-1877). The first of these, for
+which during 1860 and 1861 he had gathered materials in Italy, Spain,
+France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland and Belgium, was the first
+critical edition of the False Decretals. His most monumental work,
+however, is the _Kirchenrecht_, which remains incomplete. The six
+volumes actually published (_System des katholischen Kirchenrechts_)
+cover only book i. of the work as planned; they are devoted to an
+exhaustive historical and analytical study of the Roman Catholic
+hierarchy and its government of the church. The work is planned with
+special reference to Germany; but in fact its scheme embraces the whole
+of the Roman Catholic organization in its principles and practice.
+Unfortunately even this part of the work remains incomplete; two
+chapters of book i. and the whole of book ii., which was to have dealt
+with "the rights and duties of the members of the hierarchy," remain
+unwritten; the most notable omission is that of the ecclesiastical law
+in relation to the regular orders. Incomplete as it is, however, the
+_Kirchenrecht_ remains a work of the highest scientific authority.
+Epoch-making in its application of the modern historical method to the
+study of ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice, it has become
+the model for the younger school of canonists.
+
+  See the articles s.v. by E. Seckel in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_
+  (3rd ed., 1900), and by Ulrich Steitz in the _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_, vol. 50 (Leipzig, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+HINTERLAND (German for "the land behind"), the region lying behind a
+coast or river line, or a country dependent for trade or commerce on any
+other region. In the purely physical sense "interior" or "back country"
+is more commonly used, but the word has gained a distinct political
+significance. It first came into prominence during 1883-1885, when
+Germany insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the
+territory behind those parts of the African coast that she had occupied.
+The "doctrine of the hinterland" was that the possessor of the littoral
+was entitled to as much of the back country as geographically,
+economically or politically was dependent upon the coast lands, a
+doctrine which, in the space of ten years, led to the partition of
+Africa between various European powers.
+
+
+
+
+HINTON, JAMES (1822-1875), English surgeon and author, son of John
+Howard Hinton (1791-1873), Baptist minister and author of the _History
+and Topography of the United States_ and other works, was born at
+Reading in 1822. He was educated at his grandfather's school near
+Oxford, and at the Nonconformist school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on
+his father's removal to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in
+Whitechapel. After retaining this situation about a year he became clerk
+in an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study, and
+this, joined to the ardour, amounting to morbidness, of his interest in
+moral problems, so affected his health that in his nineteenth year he
+resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts by running away to sea.
+His intention having, however, been discovered, he was sent, on the
+advice of the physician who was consulted regarding his health, to St
+Bartholomew's Hospital to study for the medical profession. After
+receiving his diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at
+Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone to take
+medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage thence to Jamaica,
+where he stayed some time. He returned to England in 1850, and entered
+into partnership with a surgeon in London, where he soon had his
+interest awakened specially in aural surgery, and gave also much of his
+attention to physiology. He made his first appearance as an author in
+1856 by contributing papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the
+_Christian Spectator_; and in 1859 he published _Man and his
+Dwelling-place_. A series of papers entitled "Physiological Riddles," in
+the _Cornhill Magazine_, afterwards published as _Life in Nature_
+(1862), as well as another series entitled _Thoughts on Health_ (1871),
+proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition. After being
+appointed aural surgeon to Guy's Hospital in 1863, he speedily acquired
+a reputation as the most skilful aural surgeon of his day, which was
+fully borne out by his works, _An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana
+tympani_ (1874), and _Questions of Aural Surgery_ (1874). But his health
+broke down, and in 1874 he gave up practice; and he died at the Azores
+of acute inflammation of the brain on the 16th of December 1875. In
+addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author of _The
+Mystery of Pain_ (1866) and _The Place of the Physician_ (1874). On
+account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of many of the important
+moral and social problems of the time, his writings had a wide
+circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.
+
+  His _Life and Letters_, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction
+  by Sir W. W. Gull, appeared in 1878.
+
+
+
+
+HIOGO [HYOGO], a town of Japan in the province of Settsu, Nippon, on the
+western shore of the bay of Osaka, adjoining the foreign settlement of
+Kobe, 21 m. W. of Osaka by rail. The growth of its prosperity has been
+very remarkable. Its population, including that of Kobe, was 135,639 in
+1891, and 285,002 in 1903. From 1884 to the close of the century its
+trade increased nearly eightfold, and the increase was not confined to a
+few staples of commerce, but was spread over almost the whole trade, in
+which silk and cotton fabrics, floor-mats, straw-plaits, matches, and
+cotton yarns are specially important. Kobe owes much of its prosperity
+to the fact of serving largely as the shipping port of Osaka, the chief
+manufacturing town in Japan. The foreign community, exclusive of
+Chinese, exceeds 1000 persons. Kobe is considered the brightest and
+healthiest of all the places assigned as foreign settlements in Japan,
+its pure, dry air and granite subsoil constituting special advantages.
+It is in railway communication with all parts of the country, and
+wharves admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo
+without the aid of lighters. The area originally appropriated for a
+foreign settlement soon proved too restricted, and foreigners received
+permission to lease lands and houses direct from Japanese owners beyond
+the treaty limits, a privilege which, together with that of building
+villas on the hills behind the town, ultimately involved some diplomatic
+complications. Kobe has a shipbuilding yard, and docks in its immediate
+neighbourhood.
+
+Hiogo has several temples of interest, one of which has near it a huge
+bronze statue of Buddha, while by the Minatogawa, which flows into the
+sea between Hiogo and Kobe, a temple commemorates the spot where
+Kusunoki Masashige, the mirror of Japanese loyalty, met his death in
+battle in 1336. The temple of Ikuta was erected on the site of the
+ancient fane built by Jingo on her return from Korea in the 3rd century.
+
+Hiogo's original name was Bako. Its position near the entrance of the
+Inland Sea gave it some maritime importance from a very early period,
+but it did not become really prominent until the 12th century, when
+Kiyomori, chief of the Taira clan, transferred the capital from Kioto to
+Fukuhara, in Hiogo's immediate neighbourhood, and undertook various
+public works for improving the place. The change of capital was very
+brief, but Hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction.
+
+
+
+
+HIP. (1) (From O. Eng. _hype_, a word common in various forms to many
+Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch _heup_, and Ger. _Hufte_), the projecting
+part of the body formed by the top of the thighbone and the side of the
+pelvis, in quadrupeds generally known as the haunch (see JOINTS). (2)(O.
+Eng. _heope_, from same root as M.H. Ger. _hiefe_, a thorn-bush), the
+fruit of the dog-rose (_Rosa canina_); "hips" are usually joined with
+"haws," the fruit of the hawthorn.
+
+
+
+
+HIP-KNOB, in architecture, the finial on the hip of a roof, between the
+barge-boards of a gable.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPARCHUS (fl. 146-126 B.C.), Greek astronomer, was born at Nicaea in
+Bithynia early in the 2nd century B.C. He observed in the island of
+Rhodes probably from 161, certainly from 146 until about 126 B.C., and
+made the capital discovery of the precession of the equinoxes in 130
+(see ASTRONOMY: _History_). The outburst of a new star in 134 B.C. is
+stated by Pliny (_Hist. nat._ ii. 26) to have prompted the preparation
+of his catalogue of 1080 stars, substantially embodied in Ptolemy's
+_Almagest_. Hipparchus founded trigonometry, and compiled the first
+table of chords. Scientific geography originated with his invention of
+the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude and
+longitude. There can be little doubt that the fundamental part of his
+astronomical knowledge was derived from Chaldaea. None of his many works
+has survived except a Commentary on the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus and
+Eudoxus, published by P. Victorius at Florence in 1567, and included by
+D. Petavius in his _Uranologium_ (Paris, 1630). A new edition was
+published by Carolus Manitius (Leipzig, 1894).
+
+  See J. B. J. Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie ancienne_, i. 173; P.
+  Tannery, _Recherches sur l'histoire de l'astr. ancienne_, p. 130; A.
+  Berry, _Hist. of Astronomy_, pp. 40-61; M. Marie, _Hist. des
+  sciences_, i. 207; G. Cornewall Lewis, _Astronomy of the Ancients_, p.
+  207; R. Grant, _Hist. of Phys. Astronomy_, pp. 318, 437; F. Boll,
+  _Sphaera_, p. 61 (Leipzig, 1903); R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
+  Astronomie_, p. 45; J. F. Montucla, _Hist. des mathematiques_, t. i.
+  p. 257; J. A. Schmidt, _Variorum philosophicorum decas_, cap. i.
+  (Jenae, 1691).     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+
+HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM, Pythagorean philosopher, was one of the earliest
+of the disciples of Pythagoras. He is mentioned both by Diogenes
+Laertius and by Iamblichus, but nothing is known of his life. Diogenes
+says that he left no writings, but other authorities make him the author
+of a [Greek: mystikos logos] directed against the Pythagoreans.
+According to Aristotle (_Metaphysica_, i. 3), he was an adherent of the
+Heraclitean fire-doctrine, whereas the Pythagoreans maintained the
+theory that number is the principle of everything. He seems to have
+regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter, and so approximates the
+orthodox Pythagorean doctrine of the central fire, or Hestia, to the
+more detailed theories of Heraclitus. In spite of this divergence,
+Hippasus is always regarded as a Pythagorean.
+
+  See Diogenes viii. 84; Brandis, _History of Greek and Roman
+  Philosophy_; also PYTHAGORAS.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPEASTRUM, in botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae,
+containing about 50 species of bulbous plants, natives of tropical and
+sub-tropical South America. In cultivation they are generally known as
+_Amaryllis_. The handsome funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster
+of two to many, at the end of a short hollow scape. The species and the
+numerous hybrids which have been obtained artificially, show a great
+variety in size and colour of the flower, including the richest deep
+crimson and blood-red, white, or with striped, mottled or blended
+colours. They are of easy culture, and free-blooming habit. Like other
+bulbs they are increased by offsets, which should be carefully removed
+when the plants are at rest, and should be allowed to attain a fair size
+before removal. These young bulbs should be potted singly in February or
+March, in mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand, about
+two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil, which
+should be made quite solid. They should be removed to a temperature of
+60 deg. by night and 70 deg. by day, very carefully watered until the
+roots have begun to grow freely, after which the soil should be kept
+moderately moist. As they advance the temperature should be raised to 70
+deg. at night, and to 80 deg. or higher with sun heat by day. They do
+not need shading, but should have plenty of air, and be syringed daily
+in the afternoon. When growing they require a good supply of water.
+After the decay of the flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist
+temperature of from 70 deg. to 80 deg. by day during summer to perfect
+their leaves, and then be ripened off in autumn. Through the winter they
+should have less water, but must not be kept entirely dry. The minimum
+temperature should now be about 55 deg., to be increased 10 deg. or 15
+deg. in spring. As the bulbs get large they will occasionally need
+shifting into larger pots. Propagation is also readily effected by seeds
+for raising new varieties. Seeds are sown when ripe in well drained pans
+of sandy loam at a temperature of about 65 deg. The seedlings when large
+enough to handle are placed either singly in very small pots or several
+in a pot or shallow pan, and put in a bottom heat, in a moist atmosphere
+with a temperature from 60 deg. to 70 deg. _H. Ackermanni_, with large,
+handsome, crimson flowers--itself a hybrid--is the parent of many of the
+large-flowered forms; _H. equestre_ (Barbados lily), with
+yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet, has also given rise to
+several handsome forms; _H. aulicum_ (flowers crimson and green), _H.
+pardinum_ (flowers creamy-white spotted with crimson), and _H. vittatum_
+(flowers white with red stripes, a beautiful species and the parent of
+many varieties), are stove or warm greenhouse plants. These kinds,
+however, are now only regarded as botanical curiosities, and are rarely
+grown in private or commercial establishments. They have been ousted by
+the more gorgeous looking hybrids, which have been evolved during the
+past 100 years. _H. Johnsoni_ is named after a Lancashire watchmaker who
+raised it in 1799 by crossing _H. Reginae_ with _H. vittatum_. Since
+that time other species have been used for hybridizing, notably _H.
+reticulatum_, _H. aulicum_, _H. solandriflorum_, and sometimes _H.
+equestre_ and _H. psittacinum_. The finest forms since 1880 have been
+evolved from _H. Leopoldi_ and _H. pardinum_.     (J. Ws.)
+
+
+
+
+HIPPED ROOF, the name given in architecture to a roof which slopes down
+on all four sides instead of terminating on two sides against a
+vertical gable. Sometimes a compromise is made between the two, half the
+roof being hipped and half resting on the vertical wall; this gives much
+more room inside the roof, and externally a most picturesque effect,
+which is one of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the
+south of England, and is rarely found in other countries.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON (1741-1796), German satirical and humorous
+writer, was born on the 31st of January 1741, at Gerdauen in East
+Prussia, where his father was rector of a school. He enjoyed an
+excellent education at home, and in his sixteenth year he entered
+Konigsberg university as a student of theology. Interrupting his
+studies, he went, on the invitation of a friend, to St Petersburg, where
+he was introduced at the brilliant court of the empress Catherine II.
+Returning to Konigsberg he became a tutor in a private family; but,
+falling in love with a young lady of high position, his ambition was
+aroused, and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with enthusiasm
+to legal studies. He was successful in his profession, and in 1780 was
+appointed chief burgomaster in Konigsberg, and in 1786 privy councillor
+of war and president of the town. As he rose in the world, however, his
+inclination for matrimony vanished, and the lady who had stimulated his
+ambition was forgotten. He died at Konigsberg on the 23rd of April 1796,
+leaving a considerable fortune. Hippel had extraordinary talents, rich
+in wit and fancy; but his was a character full of contrasts and
+contradictions. Cautiousness and ardent passion, dry pedantry and piety,
+morality and sensuality; simplicity and ostentation composed his nature;
+and, hence, his literary productions never attained artistic finish. In
+his _Lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ (1778-1781) he intended to
+describe the lives of his father and grandfather, but he eventually
+confined himself to his own. It is an autobiography, in which persons
+well known to him are introduced, together with a mass of heterogeneous
+reflections on life and philosophy. _Kreuz- und Querzuge des Ritters A
+bis Z_ (1793-1794) is a satire levelled against the follies of the
+age--ancestral pride and the thirst for orders, decoration and the like.
+Among others of his better known works are _Uber die Ehe_ (1774) and
+_Uber die burgerliche Verbesserung der Weiber_ (1792). Hippel has been
+called the fore-runner of Jean Paul Richter, and has some resemblance to
+this author, in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of
+scientific matter in his narrative. Like Richter he was strongly
+influenced by Laurence Sterne.
+
+  In 1827-1838 a collected edition of Hippel's works in 14 vols., was
+  issued at Berlin. _Uber die Ehe_ has been edited by E. Brenning
+  (Leipzig, 1872), and the _Lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ has in
+  a modernized edition by A. von Ottingen (1878), gone through several
+  editions. See J. Czerny, _Sterne, Hippel und Jean Paul_ (Berlin,
+  1904).
+
+
+
+
+HIPPIAS OF ELIS, Greek sophist, was born about the middle of the 5th
+century B.C. and was thus a younger contemporary of Protagoras and
+Socrates. He was a man of great versatility and won the respect of his
+fellow-citizens to such an extent that he was sent to various towns on
+important embassies. At Athens he made the acquaintance of Socrates and
+other leading thinkers. With an assurance characteristic of the later
+sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and
+lectured, at all events with financial success, on poetry, grammar,
+history, politics, archaeology, mathematics and astronomy. He boasted
+that he was more popular than Protagoras, and was prepared at any moment
+to deliver an extempore address on any subject to the assembly at
+Olympia. Of his ability there is no question, but it is equally certain
+that he was superficial. His aim was not to give knowledge, but to
+provide his pupils with the weapons of argument, to make them fertile in
+discussion on all subjects alike. It is said that he boasted of wearing
+nothing which he had not made with his own hands. Plato's two dialogues,
+the _Hippias major_ and _minor_, contain an expose of his methods,
+exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument but written with full
+knowledge of the man and the class which he represented. Ast denies
+their authenticity, but they must have been written by a contemporary
+writer (as they are mentioned in the literature of the 4th century), and
+undoubtedly represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing
+influence of the professional Sophists. There is, however, no question
+that Hippias did a real service to Greek literature by insisting on the
+meaning of words, the value of rhythm and literary style. He is credited
+with an excellent work on Homer, collections of Greek and foreign
+literature, and archaeological treatises, but nothing remains except the
+barest notes. He forms the connecting link between the first great
+sophists, Protagoras and Prodicus, and the innumerable eristics who
+brought their name into disrepute.
+
+  For the general atmosphere in which Hippias moved see SOPHISTS; also
+  histories of Philosophy (e.g. Windelband, Eng. trans. by Tufts, pt. 1,
+  c. 2, SS 7 and 8).
+
+
+
+
+HIPPO, a Greek philosopher and natural scientist, classed with the
+Ionian or physical school. He was probably a contemporary of Archelaus
+and lived chiefly in Athens. Aristotle declared that he was unworthy of
+the name of philosopher, and, while comparing him with Thales in his
+main doctrine, adds that his intellect was too shallow for serious
+consideration. He held that the principle of all things is moisture
+([Greek: to hygron]); that fire develops from water, and from fire the
+material universe. Further he denied all existence save that of material
+things as known through the senses, and was, therefore, classed among
+the "Atheists." The gods are merely great men canonized by popular
+tradition. It is said that he composed his own epitaph, wherein he
+claims for himself a place in this company.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOCRAS, an old medicinal drink or cordial, made of wine mixed with
+spices--such as cinnamon, ginger and sugar--and strained through woollen
+cloths. The early spelling usual in English was _ipocras_, or _ypocras_.
+The word is an adaptation of the Med. Lat. _Vinum Hippocraticum_, or
+wine of Hippocrates, so called, not because it was supposed to be a
+receipt of the physician, but from an apothecary's name for a strainer
+or sieve, "Hippocrates' sleeve" (see W. W. Skeat, _Chaucer_, note to the
+_Merchant's Tale_).
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOCRATES, Greek philosopher and writer, termed the "Father of
+Medicine," was born, according to Soranus, in Cos, in the first year of
+the 80th Olympiad, i.e. in 460 B.C. He was a member of the family of the
+Asclepiadae, and was believed to be either the nineteenth or seventeenth
+in direct descent from Aesculapius. It is also claimed for him that he
+was descended from Hercules through his mother, Phaenarete. He studied
+medicine under Heraclides, his father, and Herodicus of Selymbria; in
+philosophy Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus of Abdera were his
+masters. His earlier studies were prosecuted in the famous Asclepion of
+Cos, and probably also at Cnidos. He travelled extensively, and taught
+and practised his profession at Athens, probably also in Thrace,
+Thessaly, Delos and his native island. He died at Larissa in Thessaly,
+his age being variously stated as 85, 90, 104 and 109. The incidents of
+his life are shrouded by uncertain traditions, which naturally sprang up
+in the absence of any authentic record; the earliest biography was by
+one of the Sorani, probably Soranus the younger of Ephesus, in the 2nd
+century; Suidas, the lexicographer, wrote of him in the 11th, and
+Tzetzes in the 12th century. In all these biographies there is internal
+evidence of confusion; many of the incidents related are elsewhere told
+of other persons, and certain of them are quite irreconcilable with his
+character, so far as it can be judged of from his writings and from the
+opinions expressed of him by his contemporaries; we may safely reject,
+for instance, the legends that he set fire to the library of the Temple
+of Health at Cnidos, in order to destroy the evidence of plagiarism, and
+that he refused to visit Persia at the request of Artaxerxes Longimanus,
+during a pestilential epidemic, on the ground that he would in so doing
+be assisting an enemy. He is referred to by Plato (_Protag._ p. 283;
+_Phaedr._ p. 211) as an eminent medical authority, and his opinion is
+also quoted by Aristotle. The veneration in which he was held by the
+Athenians serves to dissipate the calumnies which have been thrown on
+his character by Andreas, and the whole tone of his writings bespeaks a
+man of the highest integrity and purest morality.
+
+Born of a family of priest-physicians, and inheriting all its traditions
+and prejudices, Hippocrates was the first to cast superstition aside,
+and to base the practice of medicine on the principles of inductive
+philosophy. It is impossible to trace directly the influence exercised
+upon him by the great men of his time, but one cannot fail to connect
+his emancipation of medicine from superstition with the widespread power
+exercised over Greek life and thought by the living work of Socrates,
+Plato, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus and Thucydides. It was
+a period of great intellectual development, and it only needed a
+powerful mind such as his to bring to bear upon medicine the same
+influences which were at work in other sciences. It must be remembered
+that his training was not altogether bad, although superstition entered
+so largely into it. He had a great master in Democritus, the originator
+of the doctrine of atoms, and there is every reason to believe that the
+various "asclepia" were very carefully conducted hospitals for the sick,
+possessing a curious system of case-books, in the form of votive
+tablets, left by the patients, on which were recorded the symptoms,
+treatment and result of each case. He had these records at his command;
+and he had the opportunity of observing the system of training and the
+treatment of injuries in the gymnasia. One of his great merits is that
+he was the first to dissociate medicine from priest-craft, and to direct
+exclusive attention to the natural history of disease. How strongly his
+mind revolted against the use of charms, amulets, incantations and such
+devices appears from his writings; and he has expressly recorded, as
+underlying all his practice, the conviction that, however diseases may
+be regarded from the religious point of view, they must all be
+scientifically treated as subject to natural laws (_De aere_, 29). Nor
+was he anxious to maintain the connexion between philosophy and medicine
+which had for long existed in a confused and confusing fashion.[1] His
+knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology was necessarily
+defective, the respect in which the dead body was held by the Greeks
+precluding him from practising dissection; thus we find him writing of
+the tissues without distinguishing between the various textures of the
+body, confusing arteries, veins and nerves, and speaking vaguely of the
+muscles as "flesh." But when we come to study his observations on the
+natural history of disease as presented in the living subject, we
+recognize at once the presence of a great clinical physician.
+Hippocrates based his principles and practice on the theory of the
+existence of a spiritual restoring essence or principle, [Greek:
+physis], the _vis medicatrix naturae_, in the management of which the
+art of the physician consisted. This art could, he held, be only
+obtained by the application of experience, not only to disease at large,
+but to disease in the individual. He strongly deprecated blind
+empiricism; the aphorism "[Greek: he peira sphalere, he krisis chalepe]"
+(whether it be his or not), tersely illustrates his position. Holding
+firmly to the principle, [Greek: nouson physies ietroi], he did not
+allow himself to remain inactive in the presence of disease; he was not
+a merely "expectant" physician; as Sydenham puts it, his practice was
+"the support of enfeebled and the coercion of outrageous nature." He
+largely employed powerful medicines and blood-letting both ordinary and
+by cupping. He advises, however, great caution in their application. He
+placed great dependence on diet and regimen, and here, quaint as many of
+his directions may now sound, not only in themselves, but in the reasons
+given, there is much which is still adhered to at the present day. His
+treatise [Greek: Peri aeron, hydaton, kai topon] (_Airs, Waters, and
+Places_) contains the first enunciation of the principles of public
+health. Although the treatises [Greek: Peri krisimon] cannot be accepted
+as authentic, we find in the [Greek: Prognostikon] evidence of the
+acuteness of observation in the manner in which the occurrence of
+critical days in disease is enunciated. His method of reporting cases is
+most interesting and instructive; in them we can read how thoroughly he
+had separated himself from the priest-physician. Laennec, to whom we are
+indebted for the practice of auscultation, freely admits that the idea
+was suggested to him by study of Hippocrates, who, treating of the
+presence of morbid fluids in the thorax, gives very particular
+directions, by means of succussion, for arriving at an opinion
+regarding their nature. Laennec says, "Hippocrate avait tente
+l'auscultation immediate." Although the treatise [Greek: Peri nouson] is
+doubtfully from the pen of Hippocrates, it contains strong evidence of
+having been the work of his grandson, representing the views of the
+Father of Medicine. Although not accurate in the conclusions reached at
+the time, the value of the method of diagnosis is shown by the retention
+in modern medicine of the name and the practice of "Hippocratic
+succussion." The power of graphic description of phenomena in the
+Hippocratic writings is illustrated by the retention of the term "facies
+Hippocratica," applied to the appearance of a moribund person, pictured
+in the _Prognostics_. In surgery his writings are important and
+interesting, but they do not bear the same character of caution as the
+treatises on medicine; for instance, in the essay _On Injuries of the
+Head_, he advocates the operation "of trephining" more strongly and in
+wider classes of cases than would be warranted by the experience of
+later times.
+
+  The _Hippocratic Collection_ consists of eighty-seven treatises, of
+  which a part only can be accepted as genuine. The collection has been
+  submitted to the closest criticism in ancient and modern times by a
+  large number of commentators (for full list of the early commentators,
+  see Adams's _Genuine Works of Hippocrates_, Sydenham Society, i. 27,
+  28). The treatises have been classified according to (1) the direct
+  evidence of ancient writers, (2) peculiarities of style and method,
+  and (3) the presence of anachronisms and of opinions opposed to the
+  general Hippocratic teaching--greatest weight being attached to the
+  opinions of Erotian and Galen. The general estimate of commentators is
+  thus stated by Adams: "The peculiar style and method of Hippocrates
+  are held to be conciseness of expression, great condensation of
+  matter, and disposition to regard all professional subjects in a
+  practical point of view, to eschew subtle hypotheses and modes of
+  treatment based on vague abstractions." The treatises have been
+  grouped in the four following sections: (1) genuine; (2) those
+  consisting of notes taken by students and collected after the death of
+  Hippocrates; (3) essays by disciples; (4) those utterly spurious.
+  Littre accepts the following thirteen as absolutely genuine: (1) _On
+  Ancient Medicine_ ([Greek: Peri archaies ietrikes]); (2) _The
+  Prognostics_ ([Greek: Prognostikon]); (3) _The Aphorisms_ ([Greek:
+  Aphorismoi]); (4) _The Epidemics_, i. and iii. ([Greek: Epidemion a'
+  kai g']); (5) _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_ ([Greek: Peri diaites
+  oxeon]); (6) _On Airs, Waters, and Places_ ([Greek: Peri aeron,
+  hydaton, kai topon]); (7) _On the Articulations_ ([Greek: Peri
+  arthron]); (8) _On Fractures_ ([Greek: Peri agmon]); (9) _The
+  Instruments of Reduction_ ([Greek: Mochlikos]); (10) _The Physician's
+  Establishment, or Surgery_ ([Greek: Kat' ietreion]); (11) _On Injuries
+  of the Head_ ([Greek: Peri ton en kephale tromaton]); (12) _The Oath_
+  ([Greek: Horkos]); (13) _The Law_ ([Greek: Nomos]). Of these Adams
+  accepts as certainly genuine the 2nd, 6th, 5th, 3rd (7 books), 4th,
+  7th, 8th, 9th and 12th, and as "pretty confidently acknowledged as
+  genuine, although the evidence in their favour is not so strong," the
+  1st, 10th and 13th, and, in addition, (14) _On Ulcers_ ([Greek: Peri
+  helkon]); (15) _On Fistulae_ ([Greek: Peri syringon]); (16) _On
+  Hemorrhoids_ ([Greek: Peri haimorrhoidon]); (17) _On the Sacred
+  Disease_ ([Greek: Peri hieres nousou]). According to the sceptical and
+  somewhat subjective criticism of Ermerins, the whole collection is to
+  be regarded as spurious except _Epidemics_, books i. and iii. (with a
+  few interpolations), _On Airs, Waters, and Places_, _On Injuries of
+  the Head_ ("insigne fragmentum libri Hippocratei"), the former portion
+  of the treatise _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_, and the "obviously
+  Hippocratic" fragments of the _Coan Prognostics_. Perhaps also the
+  _Oath_ may be accepted as genuine; its comparative antiquity is not
+  denied. The _Aphorisms_ are certainly later and inferior. In the other
+  non-Hippocratic writings Ermerins thinks he can distinguish the hands
+  of no fewer than nineteen different authors, most of them anonymous,
+  and some of them very late.
+
+  The earliest Greek edition of the Hippocratic writings is that which
+  was published by Aldus and Asulanus at Venice in 1526 (folio); it was
+  speedily followed by that of Frobenius, which is much more accurate
+  and complete (fol., Basel, 1538). Of the numerous subsequent editions,
+  probably the best was that of Foesius (Frankfort, 1595, 1621, Geneva,
+  1657), until the publication of the great works of Littre, _Oeuvres
+  completes d'Hippocrate, traduction nouvelle avec le texte grec en
+  regard, collationnee sur les manuscrits et toutes les editions,
+  accompagnee d'une introduction, de commentaires medicaux, de
+  variantes, et de notes philologiques_ (10 vols., Paris, 1839-1861),
+  and of F. Z. Ermerins, _Hippocratis et aliorum medicorum veterum
+  reliquiae_ (3 vols., Utrecht, 1859-1864). See also Adams (as cited
+  above), and Reinhold's _Hippocrates_ (2 vols., Athens, 1864-1867).
+  Daremberg's edition of the _Oeuvres choisies_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1855)
+  includes the _Oath_, the _Law_, the _Prorrhetics_, book i., the
+  _Prognostics, On Airs, Waters, and Places, Epidemics_, books i. and
+  iii., _Regimen_, and _Aphorisms_. Of the separate works attributed to
+  Hippocrates the editions and translations are almost innumerable; of
+  the _Prognostics_, for example, seventy editions are known, while of
+  the _Aphorisms_ there are said to exist as many as three hundred. For
+  some notice of the Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew translations of works
+  professedly by Hippocrates (Ibukrat or Bukrat), the number of which
+  greatly exceeds that of the extant Greek originals, reference may be
+  made to Flugel's contribution to the article "Hippokrates" in the
+  _Encyklopadie_ of Ersch and Gruber. They have been partially
+  catalogued by Fabricius in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_.     (J. B. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "Hippocrates Cous, primus quidem ex omnibus memoria dignus, ab
+    studio sapientiae disciplinam hanc separavit, vir et arte et facundia
+    insignis" (Celsus, _De medicina_).
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOCRENE (the "fountain of the horse," [Greek: he hippou krene]), the
+spring on Mt Helicon, in Boeotia, which, like the other spring there,
+Aganippe, was sacred to the Muses and Apollo, and hence taken as the
+source of poetic inspiration. The spring, surrounded by an ancient wall,
+is now known as _Kryopegadi_ or the cold spring. According to the
+legend, it was produced by the stamping of the hoof of Bellerophon's
+horse Pegasus. The same story accounts for the Hippocrene in Troezen and
+the spring Peirene at Corinth.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPODAMUS, of Miletus, a Greek architect of the 5th century B.C. It was
+he who introduced order and regularity into the planning of cities, in
+place of the previous intricacy and confusion. For Pericles he planned
+the arrangement of the harbour-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the
+Athenians founded Thurii in Italy he accompanied the colony as
+architect, and afterwards, in 408 B.C., he superintended the building of
+the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of series of broad,
+straight streets, cutting one another at right angles.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPODROME (Gr. [Greek: hippodromos], from [Greek: hippos], horse, and
+[Greek: dromos], racecourse), the course provided by the Greeks for
+horse and chariot racing; it corresponded to the Roman _circus_, except
+that in the latter only four chariots ran at a time, whereas ten or more
+contended in the Greek games, so that the width was far greater, being
+about 400 ft., the course being 600 to 700 ft. long. The Greek
+hippodrome was usually set out on the slope of a hill, and the ground
+taken from one side served to form the embankment on the other side. One
+end of the hippodrome was semicircular, and the other end square with an
+extensive portico, in front of which, at a lower level, were the stalls
+for the horses and chariots. The modern hippodrome is more for
+equestrian and other displays than for horse racing. The Hippodrome in
+Paris somewhat resembles the Roman amphitheatre, being open in the
+centre to the sky, with seats round on rising levels.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOLYTUS, in Greek legend, son of Theseus and Hippolyte, queen of the
+Amazons (or of her sister Antiope), a famous hunter and charioteer and
+favourite of Artemis. His stepmother Phaedra became enamoured of him,
+but, finding her advances rejected, she hanged herself, leaving a letter
+in which she accused Hippolytus of an attempt upon her virtue. Theseus
+thereupon drove his son from his presence with curses and called upon
+his father Poseidon to destroy him. While Hippolytus was driving along
+the shore at Troezen (the scene of the _Hippolytus_ of Euripides), a
+sea-monster (a bull or _phoca_) sent by Poseidon emerged from the waves;
+the horses were scared, Hippolytus was thrown out of the chariot, and
+was dragged along, entangled in the reins, until he died. According to a
+tradition of Epidaurus, Asclepius restored him to life at the request of
+Artemis, who removed him to Italy (see VIRBIUS). At Troezen, where he
+had a special sanctuary and priest, and was worshipped with divine
+honours, the story of his death was denied. He was said to have been
+rescued by the gods at the critical moment, and to have been placed
+amongst the stars as the Charioteer (Auriga). It was also the custom of
+the Troezenian maidens to cut off a lock of their hair and to dedicate
+it to Hippolytus before marriage (see Frazer on Pausanias ii. 32. 1).
+Well-known classical parallels to the main theme are Bellerophon and
+Antea (or Stheneboea) and Peleus and Astydamia. The story was the
+subject of two plays by Euripides (the later of which is extant), of a
+tragedy by Seneca and of Racine's _Phedre_. A trace of it has survived
+in the legendary death of the apocryphal martyr Hippolytus, a Roman
+officer who was torn to pieces by wild horses as a convert to
+Christianity (see J. J. Dollinger, _Hippolytus and Callistus_, Eng. tr.
+by A. Plummer, 1876, pp. 28-39, 51-60).
+
+According to the older explanations, Hippolytus represented the sun,
+which sets in the sea (cf. the scene of his death and the story of
+Phaethon), and Phaedra the moon, which travels behind the sun, but is
+unable to overtake it. It is more probable, however, that he was a local
+hero famous for his chastity, perhaps originally a priest of Artemis,
+worshipped as a god at Troezen, where he was closely connected and
+sometimes confounded with Asclepius. It is noteworthy that, in a speech
+put into the mouth of Theseus by Euripides, the father, who of course
+believes his wife's story and regards Hippolytus as a hypocrite, throws
+his son's pretended misogyny and asceticism (Orphism) in his teeth. This
+seems to point to a struggle between a new ritual and that of Poseidon,
+the chief deity of Troezen, in which the representative of the intruding
+religion meets his death through the agency of the offended god, as
+Orpheus (q.v.) was torn to pieces by the votaries of the jealous
+Dionysus. According to S. Reinach (_Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft_,
+x., 1907, p. 47), the Troezenian Hippolytus was a horse, the hypostasis
+of an equestrian divinity periodically torn to pieces by the faithful,
+who called themselves, and believed themselves to be, horses. Death was
+followed by resuscitation, as in the similar myths of Adonis (the sacred
+boar), Orpheus (the fox), Pentheus (the fawn), Phaethon (the white
+sun-horse).
+
+  See Wilamowitz-Mollendorff's Introduction to his German translation of
+  Euripides' _Hippolytus_ (1891); A. Kalkmann, _De Hippolytis
+  Euripideis_ (Bonn, 1882); and (for representations in art) "Uber
+  Darstellung der Hippolytussage" in _Archaologische Zeitung_ (xli.
+  1883); J. E. Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_
+  (1890), cl.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOLYTUS, a writer of the early Church. The mystery which enveloped
+the person and writings of Hippolytus,[1] one of the most prolific
+ecclesiastical writers of early times, had some light thrown upon it for
+the first time about the middle of the 19th century by the discovery of
+the so-called _Philosophumena_ (see below). Assuming this writing to be
+the work of Hippolytus, the information given in it as to the author and
+his times can be combined with other traditional dates to form a
+tolerably clear picture. Hippolytus must have been born in the second
+half of the 2nd century, probably in Rome. Photius describes him in his
+_Bibliotheca_ (cod. 121) as a disciple of Irenaeus, and from the context
+of this passage it is supposed that we may conclude that Hippolytus
+himself so styled himself. But this is not certain, and even if it were,
+it does not necessarily imply that Hippolytus enjoyed the personal
+teaching of the celebrated Gallic bishop; it may perhaps merely refer to
+that relation of his theological system to that of Irenaeus which can
+easily be traced in his writings. As a presbyter of the church at Rome
+under Bishop Zephyrinus (199-217), Hippolytus was distinguished for his
+learning and eloquence. It was at this time that Origen, then a young
+man, heard him preach (Hieron. _Vir. ill._ 61; cp. Euseb. _H.E._ vi. 14,
+10). It was probably not long before questions of theology and church
+discipline brought him into direct conflict with Zephyrinus, or at any
+rate with his successor Calixtus I. (q.v.). He accused the bishop of
+favouring the Christological heresies of the Monarchians, and, further,
+of subverting the discipline of the Church by his lax action in
+receiving back into the Church those guilty of gross offences. The
+result was a schism, and for perhaps over ten years Hippolytus stood as
+bishop at the head of a separate church. Then came the persecution under
+Maximinus the Thracian. Hippolytus and Pontius, who was then bishop,
+were transported in 235 to Sardinia, where it would seem that both of
+them died. From the so-called chronograph of the year 354 (_Catalogus
+Liberianus_) we learn that on the 13th of August, probably in 236, the
+bodies of the exiles were interred in Rome and that of Hippolytus in the
+cemetery on the Via Tiburtina. So we must suppose that before his death
+the schismatic was received again into the bosom of the Church, and this
+is confirmed by the fact that his memory was henceforth celebrated in
+the Church as that of a holy martyr. Pope Damasus I. dedicated to him
+one of his famous epigrams, and Prudentius (_Peristephanon_, 11) drew a
+highly coloured picture of his gruesome death, the details of which are
+certainly purely legendary: the myth of Hippolytus the son of Theseus
+was transferred to the Christian martyr. Of the historical Hippolytus
+little remained in the memory of after ages. Neither Eusebius (_H.E._
+vi. 20, 2) nor Jerome (_Vir. ill._ 61) knew that the author so much read
+in the East and the Roman saint were one and the same person. The notice
+in the _Chronicon Paschale_ preserves one slight reminiscence of the
+historical facts, namely, that Hippolytus's episcopal see was situated
+at Portus near Rome. In 1551 a marble statue of a seated man was found
+in the cemetery of the Via Tiburtina: on the sides of the seat were
+carved a paschal cycle, and on the back the titles of numerous writings.
+It was the statue of Hippolytus, a work at any rate of the 3rd century;
+at the time of Pius IX. it was placed in the Lateran Museum, a record in
+stone of a lost tradition.
+
+Hippolytus's voluminous writings, which for variety of subject can be
+compared with those of Origen, embrace the spheres of exegesis,
+homiletics, apologetics and polemic, chronography and ecclesiastical
+law. His works have unfortunately come down to us in such a fragmentary
+condition that it is difficult to obtain from them any very exact notion
+of his intellectual and literary importance. Of his exegetical works the
+best preserved are the _Commentary on the Prophet Daniel_ and the
+_Commentary on the Song of Songs_. In spite of many instances of a want
+of taste in his typology, they are distinguished by a certain sobriety
+and sense of proportion in his exegesis. We are unable to form an
+opinion of Hippolytus as a preacher, for the _Homilies on the Feast of
+Epiphany_ which go under his name are wrongly attributed to him. He
+wrote polemical words directed against the pagans, the Jews and
+heretics. The most important of these polemical treatises is the
+_Refutation of all Heresies_, which has come to be known by the
+inappropriate title of the _Philosophumena_. Of its ten books, the
+second and third are lost; Book i. was for a long time printed (with the
+title _Philosophumena_) among the works of Origen; Books iv.-x. were
+found in 1842 by the Greek Minoides Mynas, without the name of the
+author, in a MS. at Mount Athos. It is nowadays universally admitted
+that Hippolytus was the author, and that Books i. and iv.-x. belong to
+the same work. The importance of the work has, however, been much
+overrated; a close examination of the sources for the exposition of the
+Gnostic system which is contained in it has proved that the information
+it gives is not always trustworthy. Of the dogmatic works, that on
+_Christ and Antichrist_ survives in a complete state. Among other things
+it includes a vivid account of the events preceding the end of the
+world, and it was probably written at the time of the persecution under
+Septimius Severus, i.e. about 202. The influence of Hippolytus was felt
+chiefly through his works on chronographic and ecclesiastical law. His
+chronicle of the world, a compilation embracing the whole period from
+the creation of the world up to the year 234, formed a basis for many
+chronographical works both in the East and West. In the great
+compilations of ecclesiastical law which arose in the East since the 4th
+century (see below: also APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS) much of the material
+was taken from the writings of Hippolytus; how much of this is genuinely
+his, how much of it worked over, and how much of it wrongly attributed
+to him, can no longer be determined beyond dispute even by the most
+learned investigation.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The edition of J. A. Fabricius, _Hippolyti opera graece
+  et latine_ (2 vols., Hamburg, 1716-1718, reprinted in Gallandi,
+  _Bibliotheca veterum patrum_ (vol. ii., 1766), and Migne, _Cursus
+  patrol. ser. Graeca_, vol. x.) is out of date. The preparation of a
+  complete critical edition has been undertaken by the Prussian Academy
+  of Sciences. The task is one of extraordinary difficulty, for the
+  textual problems of the various writings are complex and confused: the
+  Greek original is extant in a few cases only (the _Commentary on
+  Daniel_, the _Refutation, on Antichrist_, parts of the _Chronicle_,
+  and some fragments); for the rest we are dependent on fragments of
+  translations, chiefly Slavonic, all of which are not even published.
+  Of the Academy's edition one volume was published at Berlin in 1897,
+  containing the _Commentaries on Daniel_ and on the _Song of Songs_,
+  the treatise on _Antichrist_, and the _Lesser Exegetical_ and
+  _Homiletic Works_, edited by Nathanael Bonwetsch and Hans Achelis. The
+  _Commentary on the Song of Songs_ has also been published by Bonwetsch
+  (Leipzig, 1902) in a German translation based on a Russian translation
+  by N. Marr of the Grusian (Georgian) text, and he added to it
+  (Leipzig, 1904) a translation of various small exegetical pieces,
+  which are preserved in a Georgian version only (_The Blessing of
+  Jacob_, _The Blessing of Moses_, _The Narrative of David and
+  Goliath_). A great part of the original of the _Chronicle_ has been
+  published by Adolf Bauer (Leipzig, 1905) from the _Codex Matritensis
+  Graecus_, 221. For the _Refutation_ we are still dependent on the
+  editions of Miller (Oxford, 1851), Duncker and Schneidewin (Gottingen,
+  1859), and Cruice (Paris, 1860). An English translation is to be found
+  in the _Ante-Nicene Christian Library_ (Edinburgh, 1868-1869).
+
+  See Bunsen, _Hippolytus and his Age_ (1852, 2nd ed., 1854; Ger. ed.,
+  1853); Dollinger, _Hippolytus und Kallistus_ (Regensb. 1853; Eng.
+  transl., Edinb., 1876); Gerhard Ficker, _Studien zur Hippolytfrage_
+  (Leipzig, 1893); Hans Achelis, _Hippolytstudien_ (Leipzig, 1897); Karl
+  Johannes Neumann, _Hippolytus von Rom in seiner Stellung zu Staat und
+  Welt_, part i. (Leipzig, 1902); Adhemar d'Ales, _La Theologie de Saint
+  Hippolyte_ (Paris, 1906).     (G. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to the legend St Hippolytus was a Roman soldier who was
+    converted by St Lawrence.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF. This book stands at the head of a series of
+Church Orders, which contain instructions in regard to the choice and
+ordination of Christian ministers, regulations as to widows and virgins,
+conditions of reception of converts from heathenism, preparation for and
+administration of baptism, rules for the celebration of the eucharist,
+for fasting, daily prayers, charity suppers, memorial meals,
+first-fruits, &c. We shall give (1) a description of the book as we have
+it at present; (2) a brief statement of its relation to allied
+documents; (3) some remarks on the evidence for its date and authorship.
+
+1. We possess the _Canons of Hippolytus_ only in an Arabic version,
+itself made from a Coptic version of the original Greek. Attention was
+called to the book by Wansleben and Ludolf towards the end of the 17th
+century, but it was only in 1870 that it was edited by Haneberg, who
+added a Latin translation, and so made it generally accessible. In 1891
+H. Achelis reproduced this translation in a revised form, embodying it
+in a synopsis of allied documents. He suspected much interpolation and
+derangement of order, and consequently rearranged its contents with a
+free hand. In 1900 a German translation was made by H. Riedel, based on
+fresh MSS. These showed that the book, as hitherto edited, had been
+thrown into disorder by the displacement of two pages near the end; they
+also removed other difficulties upon which the theory of interpolation
+had been based. Further discoveries, to be spoken of presently, have
+added to our materials for the study of the book.
+
+  The book is attributed to "Hippolytus, the chief of the bishops of
+  Rome," and is divided into thirty-eight canons, to which short
+  headings are prefixed. This division is certainly not original, but it
+  is convenient for purposes of reference. Canon 1 is prefatory; it
+  contains a brief confession of faith in the Trinity, and especially in
+  the Word, the Son of God; and it speaks of the expulsion of heretics
+  from the Church. Canons 2-5 give regulations for the selection and
+  ordination of bishops, presbyters and deacons. The bishop is chosen by
+  the whole congregation: "one of the bishops and presbyters" is to lay
+  hands upon him and say a prayer which follows (3): he is at once to
+  proceed with "the offering," taking up the eucharistic service at the
+  point where the _sursum corda_ comes in. A presbyter (4) is to be
+  ordained with the same prayer as a bishop, "with the exception of the
+  word bishop"; but he is given no power of ordination (this appears to
+  be inconsistent with c. 2). The duties of a deacon are described, and
+  the prayer of his ordination follows (5). Canons 6-9 deal with various
+  classes in the Church. One who has suffered punishment for the faith
+  (6) is to be counted a presbyter without ordination: "his confession
+  is his ordination." Readers and sub-deacons (7) are given the Gospel,
+  but are not ordained by laying-on of hands. A claim to ordination on
+  the ground of gifts of healing (8) is to be admitted, if the facts are
+  clear and the healing is from God. Widows are not ordained (9):
+  "ordination is for men only." Canons 10-15 describe conditions for the
+  admission of converts. Certain occupations are incompatible with
+  Christian life: only under compulsion may a Christian be a soldier.
+  Canons 16-18 deal chiefly with regulations concerning women. Canon 19
+  is a long one dealing with catechumens, preparation for baptism,
+  administration of that sacrament, and of the eucharist for the newly
+  baptized. The candidate is twice anointed: first, with the oil of
+  exorcism, after he has said, with his face westward, "I renounce thee,
+  O devil, and all thy following"; and, again, immediately after the
+  baptism. As he stands in the water, he declares his faith in response
+  to an interrogatory creed; and after each of the three clauses he is
+  immersed. After the second anointing the bishop gives thanks "for that
+  Thou hast made them worthy that they should be born again, and hast
+  poured out Thy Holy Ghost upon them, so that they may belong, each one
+  of them, to the body of the Church": he signs them with the cross on
+  their foreheads, and kisses them. The eucharist then proceeds: "the
+  bishop gives them of the body of Christ and says, This is the body of
+  Christ, and they answer Amen"; and similarly for the cup. Milk and
+  honey are then given to them as being "born a second time as little
+  children." A warning is added against eating anything before
+  communicating. Canons 20-22 deal with fast-days, daily services in
+  church, and the fast of the passover-week. Canon 23 seems as if it
+  closed the series, speaking, as it does, of "our brethren the bishops"
+  who in their cities have made regulations "according to the commands
+  of our fathers the apostles": "let none of our successors alter them;
+  because it saith that the teaching is greater than the sea, and hath
+  no end." We pass on, however, to regulations about the sick (24) who
+  are to be visited by the bishop, "because it is a great thing for the
+  sick that the high-priest should visit them (for the shadow of Peter
+  healed the sick)." Canons 25-27 deal again with prayers and
+  church-services. The "seven hours" are specified, with reasons for
+  their observance (25): attendance at sermons is urged (26), "for the
+  Lord is in the place where his lordship is proclaimed" (comp.
+  _Didache_ 4, part of the _Two Ways_). When there are no prayers in
+  church, reading at home is enjoined (27): "let the sun each morning
+  see the book upon thy knees" (comp. Ath. _Ad virg._, S 12, "Let the
+  sun when he ariseth see the book in thy hands"). Prayer must be
+  preceded by the washing of the hands. "No believer must take food
+  before communicating, especially on fast-days": only believers may
+  communicate (28). The sacred elements must be guarded, "lest anything
+  fall into the cup, and it be a sin unto death for the presbyters." No
+  crumb must be dropped, "lest an evil spirit get possession of it."
+  Canons 30-35 contain various rules, and specially deal with suppers
+  for the poor (i.e. _agapae_) and memorial feasts. Then we have a
+  prayer for the offering of first-fruits (36); a direction that
+  ministers shall wear fair garments at "the mysteries" (37); and a
+  command to watch during the night of the resurrection (38). The last
+  canon hereupon passes into a general exhortation to right living,
+  which forms a sixth part of the whole book. In Riedel's translation we
+  read this for the first time as a connected whole. It falls into two
+  parts, and describes, first, the true life of ordinary Christians,
+  warning them against an empty profession, and laying down many
+  precepts of morality; and then it addresses itself to the "ascete" who
+  "wishes to belong to the rank of the angels," and who lives a life of
+  solitude and poverty. He is encouraged by an exposition, on somewhat
+  strange lines, of the temptations of our Lord, and is specially warned
+  against spiritual pride and contempt of other men. The book closes
+  with an appeal for love and mutual service, based on the parables in
+  St Matthew xxv.
+
+2. It is impossible to estimate the position of the Canons of Hippolytus
+without some reference to allied documents (see APOSTOLICAL
+CONSTITUTIONS). (a) The most important of these is what is now commonly
+called the _Egyptian Church Order_. This is preserved to us in Coptic
+and Aethiopic versions, of which Achelis, in his synopsis, gives German
+translations. The subject-matter and arrangement of these canons
+correspond generally to those of Hippolytus; but many of the details are
+modified to bring them into accord with a later practice. A new light
+was thrown on the criticism of this work by Hauler's discovery (1900) of
+a Latin version (of which, unfortunately, about half is missing) in the
+Verona palimpsest, from which he has also given us large Latin fragments
+of the _Didascalia_ (which underlies books i.-vi. of the Apostolic
+Constitutions, and which hitherto we have only known from the Syriac).
+The Latin of the Egyptian Church Order is somewhat more primitive than
+the Coptic, and approaches more nearly, at some points, to the _Canons
+of Hippolytus_. It has a preface which refers to a treatise _Concerning
+Spiritual Gifts_, as having immediately preceded it; but neither this
+nor the Coptic-Aethiopic form has either the introduction or concluding
+exhortation which is found in the _Canons of Hippolytus_. (b) _The
+Testament of the Lord_ is a document in Syriac, of which the opening
+part had been published by Lagarde, and of which Rahmani (1899) has
+given us the whole. It professes to contain instructions given by our
+Lord to the apostles after the resurrection. After an introduction
+containing apocalyptical matter, it passes on to give elaborate
+directions for the ordering of the Church, embodying, in a much-expanded
+form, the Egyptian Church Order, and showing a knowledge of the preface
+to that document which appears in the Latin version. It cannot be placed
+with probability earlier than the latter part of the 4th century. (c)
+The _Apostolic Constitutions_ is a composite document, which probably
+belongs to the end of the 4th century. Its first six books are an
+expanded edition of a _Didascalia_ which we have already mentioned: its
+seventh book similarly expands and modifies the _Didache_ its eighth
+book begins by treating of "spiritual gifts," and then in c. 3 passes on
+to expand in like manner the Egyptian Church Order. The hand which has
+wrought up all these documents has been shown to be that of the
+interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek recension. (d)
+The _Canons of Basil_ is the title of an Arabic work, of which a German
+translation has been given us by Riedel, who thinks that they have come
+through Coptic from an original Greek book. They embody, in a modified
+form, considerable portions of the Canons of Hippolytus.
+
+3. We now approach the difficult questions of date and authorship. Much
+of the material has been quite recently brought to light, and criticism
+has not had time to investigate and pronounce upon it. Some provisional
+remarks, therefore, are all that can prudently be made. It seems plain
+that we have two lines of tradition: (1) The Canons of Hippolytus,
+followed by the Canons of Basil; (2) the Egyptian Church Order, itself
+represented (a) by the Latin version, the Testament of the Lord, and the
+Apostolic Constitutions, which are linked together by the same preface
+(or portions of it); (b) by the Coptic and Aethiopic versions. Now, the
+preface of the Latin version points to a time when the canons were
+embodied in a _corpus_ of similar materials, or, at the least, were
+preceded by a work on "Spiritual Gifts." The Canons of Hippolytus have a
+wholly different preface, and also a long exhortation at the close. The
+question which criticism must endeavour to answer is, whether the Canons
+of Hippolytus are the original from which the Egyptian Church Order is
+derived, or whether an earlier body of canons lies behind them both. At
+present it is probably wise to assume that the latter is the true
+explanation. For the Canons of Hippolytus appear to contain
+contradictory regulations (e.g. cc. 2 and 4 of the presbyters), and also
+suggest that they have received a considerable supplement (after c. 23).
+There is, however, no doubt that they present us with a more primitive
+stage of Church life than we find in the Egyptian Church Order. The
+mention of sub-deacons (which, after Riedel's fresh manuscript evidence,
+cannot now be dismissed as due to interpolation) makes it difficult to
+assign a date much earlier than the middle of the 3rd century.
+
+The Puritan severity of the canons well accords with the temper of the
+writer to whom the Arabic title attributes them; and it is to be noted
+that the exhortation at the close contains a quotation from 2 Peter
+actually attributed to the apostle, and Hippolytus is perhaps the
+earliest author who can with certainty be said to have used this
+epistle. But the general style of Hippolytus, which is simple,
+straight-forward and strong, is in marked contrast with that of the
+closing passage of the canons; moreover, his mind, as presented to us in
+his extant writings, appears to be a much larger one than that of the
+writer of these canons; it is as difficult to think of Hippolytus as it
+would be to think of Origen in such a connexion. How, then, are we to
+account for the attribution? There is evidence to show that Hippolytus
+was highly reverenced throughout the East: his writings, which were in
+Greek, were known, but his history was entirely unknown. He was supposed
+to be "a pupil ([Greek: gnorimos]) of apostles" (Palladius, 4th
+century), and the Arabic title calls him "chief of the bishops of Rome,"
+i.e. archbishop of Rome. It is hard to trust this attribution more than
+the attribution of a Coptic discourse on the _Dormitio Mariae_ to
+"Evodius, archbishop of the great city Rome, who was the second after
+Peter the apostle" (_Texts and Studies_, iv. 2-44)--Evodius being by
+tradition first bishop of Antioch. A whole group of books on Church
+Order bears the name of Clement of Rome; and the attribution of our
+canons to Hippolytus may be only an example of the same tendency. The
+fact that Hippolytus wrote a treatise _Concerning Spiritual Gifts_, and
+that some such treatise is not only referred to in the Latin preface to
+the Egyptian Church Order, but is actually found at the beginning of
+book viii. of the Apostolic Constitutions, introduces an interesting
+complication; but we cannot here pursue the matter further. Dom Morin's
+ingenious attribution of the canons to Dionysius of Alexandria (on the
+ground of Eusebius, _H.E._ vi. 46., 5) cannot be accepted in view of the
+broader church policy which that writer represents. If the Hippolytean
+authorship be given up, it is probable that Egypt will make the
+strongest claim to be the locality in which the canons were compiled in
+their present form.
+
+  The authorities of chief practical importance are H. Achelis, _Texte
+  u. Unters._ vi. 4 (1891); Rahmani, _Testamentum Domini_ (1899);
+  Hauler, _Didascaliae Apostolorum_ (1900); Riedel,
+  _Kirchenrechtsquellen des Patriarchats Alexandrien_ (1900).
+       (J. A. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HIPPONAX, of Ephesus, Greek iambic poet. Expelled from Ephesus in 540
+B.C. by the tyrant Athenagoras, he took refuge in Clazomenae, where he
+spent the rest of his life in poverty. His deformed figure and malicious
+disposition exposed him to the caricature of the Chian sculptors Bupalus
+and Athenis, upon whom he revenged himself by issuing against them a
+series of satires. They are said to have hanged themselves like Lycambes
+and his daughters when assailed by Archilochus, the model and
+predecessor of Hipponax. His coarseness of thought and feeling, his rude
+vocabulary, his want of grace and taste, and his numerous allusions to
+matters of merely local interest prevented his becoming a favourite in
+Attica. He was considered the inventor of parody and of a peculiar
+metre, the _scazon_ or _choliambus_, which substitutes a spondee for the
+final iambus of an iambic senarius, and is an appropriate form for the
+burlesque character of his poems.
+
+  Fragments in Bergk, _Poetae lyrici Graeci_; see also B. J. Peltzer,
+  _De parodica Graecorum poesi_ (1855), containing an account of
+  Hipponax and the fragments.
+
+
+
+
+HIPPOPOTAMUS ("river-horse," Gr. [Greek: hippos], horse and [Greek:
+potamos], river), the name of the largest representative of the
+non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mammals, and its living and extinct
+relatives. The common hippopotamus (_Hippopotamus amphibius_), which
+formerly inhabited all the great rivers of Africa but whose range has
+now been much restricted, is most likely the _behemoth_ of Scripture,
+and may very probably in Biblical times have been found in the Jordan
+valley, since at a still earlier (Pleistocene) epoch it ranged over a
+large part of Europe. It typifies not only a genus, but likewise a
+family, _Hippopotamidae_, distinguished from its relatives the pigs and
+peccaries, or _Suidae_, by the following assemblage of characters:
+Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, with four subequal
+toes, bearing short rounded hoofs, and all reaching the ground in
+walking. Incisors not rooted but continuously growing; those of the
+upper jaw curved and directed downwards; those of the lower straight and
+procumbent. Canines very large, curved, continuously growing; upper ones
+directed downwards. Premolars 4/4; molars 3/3. Stomach complex. No
+caecum.
+
+[Illustration: The Hippopotamus (_Hippopotamus amphibius_).]
+
+In form the hippopotamus is a huge, unwieldy creature, measuring in the
+largest specimens fully 14 ft. from the extremity of the upper lip to
+the tip of the tail, while it ordinarily attains a length of 12 ft.,
+with a height of 5 ft. at the shoulders, and a girth round the thickest
+part of the body almost equal to its length. The small ears are
+exceedingly flexible, and kept in constant motion when the animal is
+seeking to catch a distant sound; the eyes are placed high up on the
+head, but little below the level of the ears; while the gape is wide,
+and the upper lip thick and bulging so as to cover over even its large
+tusks when the mouth is closed. The molars, which show trefoil-shaped
+grinding-surfaces are well adapted for masticating vegetable substances,
+while the formidable array of long spear-like incisors and curved
+chisel-edged canines or tusks root up rank grass like an agricultural
+implement. The legs are short, so that the body is but little elevated
+above the ground; and the feet, which are small in proportion to the
+size of the animal, terminate in four short toes each bearing a small
+hoof. With the exception of a few tufts of hair on the lips, on the
+sides of the head and neck, and at the extremity of the short robust
+tail, the skin of the hippopotamus, some portions of which are 2 in. in
+thickness, is destitute of covering. Hippopotamuses are gregarious
+animals, living in herds of from 20 to 40 individuals on the banks and
+in the beds of rivers, in the neighbourhood of which they most readily
+find appropriate food. This consists chiefly of grass and of aquatic
+plants, of which these animals consume enormous quantities, the stomach
+being capable of containing from 5 to 6 bushels. They feed principally
+by night, remaining in the water during the day, although in districts
+where they are little disturbed they are less exclusively aquatic. In
+such remote quarters, they put their heads boldly out of the water to
+blow, but when rendered suspicious they become exceedingly cautious in
+this respect, only exposing their nostrils above the water, and even
+this they prefer doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of
+their enormous size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and
+divers, and can remain easily under the water from five to eight
+minutes. They walk on the bottoms of rivers, beneath at least 1 ft. of
+water. At nightfall they come on land to feed; and when, as often
+happens on the banks of the Nile, they reach cultivated ground, they do
+immense damage to growing crops, destroying by their ponderous tread
+even more than they devour. To scare away these unwelcome visitors the
+natives in such districts are in the habit of kindling fires at night.
+Although hippopotamuses do not willingly go far from the water on which
+their existence depends, they occasionally travel long distances by
+night in search of food, and in spite of their clumsy appearance are
+able to climb steep banks and precipitous ravines with ease. Of a
+wounded hippopotamus which Sir S. Baker saw leaving the water and
+galloping inland, he writes: "I never could have imagined that so
+unwieldy an animal could have exhibited such speed. No man could have
+had a chance of escape." The hippopotamus does not confine itself to
+rivers and lakes, but has been known to prefer the waters of the ocean
+as its home during the day. Of a mild and inoffensive disposition, it
+seeks to avoid collision with man; when wounded, however, or in defence
+of its young, it exhibits great ferocity, and native canoes are capsized
+and occasionally demolished by its infuriated attacks; the bellowing
+grunt then becoming loud enough to be heard a mile away. As among
+elephants, so also among hippopotamuses there are "rogues"--old bulls
+which have become soured in solitude, and are at all times dangerous.
+Assuming the offensive on every occasion, they attack all and sundry
+without shadow of provocation; and the natives avoid their haunts, which
+are usually well known.
+
+The only other living species is the pygmy hippopotamus, _H.
+(Choeropsis) liberiensis_, of West Africa, an animal not larger than a
+clumsily made pig of full dimensions, and characterized by having
+generally one (in place of two) pair of incisors. It is much less
+aquatic than its giant relative, having, in fact, the habits of a pig.
+
+A small extinct species (_H. lemerlei_) inhabited Madagascar at a
+comparatively recent date; while other dwarf kinds were natives of Crete
+(_H. minutus_) and Malta and Sicily (_H. pentlandi_) during the
+Pleistocene. A large form of the ordinary species (_H. amphibius major_)
+was distributed over Europe as far north as Yorkshire at the same epoch;
+while an allied species (_H. palaeindicus_) inhabited Pleistocene India.
+Contemporary with the latter was, however, a species (_H. namadicus_)
+with three pairs of incisors; and "hexaprotodont" hippopotamuses are
+also characteristic of the Pliocene of India and Burma (_H. sivalensis_
+and _H. iravadicus_), and of Algeria, Egypt and southern Europe (_H.
+hipponensis_).
+
+  For the ancestral genera of the hippopotamus line, see ARTIODACTYLA.
+       (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+HIPPURIC ACID (Gr. [Greek: hippos], horse, [Greek: ouron], urine),
+benzoyl glycocoll or benzoyl amidoacetic acid, C9H9NO3 or
+C6H5CO.NH.CH2.CO2H, an organic acid found in the urine of horses and
+other herbivorae. It is excreted when many aromatic compounds, such as
+benzoic acid and toluene, are taken internally. J. v. Liebig in 1829
+showed that it differed from benzoic acid, and in 1839 determined its
+constitution, while in 1853 V. Dessaignes (_Ann._ 87, p. 325)
+synthesized it by acting with benzoyl chloride on zinc glycocollide. It
+is also formed by heating benzoic anhydride with glycocoll (Th. Curtius,
+_Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 1662), and by heating benzamide with
+monochloracetic acid. It crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are
+readily soluble in hot water, melt at 187 deg. C. and decompose at about
+240 deg. C. It is readily hydrolysed by hot caustic alkalis to benzoic
+acid and glycocoll. Nitrous acid converts it into benzoyl glycollic
+acid, C6H5CO.O.CH2.CO2H. Its ethyl ester reacts with hydrazine to form
+hippuryl hydrazine, C6H5CO.NH.CH2.CO.NH.NH2, which was used by Curtius
+for the preparation of azoimide (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+HIPURNIAS, a tribe of South American Indians, 2000 or 3000 in number,
+living on the river Purus, western Brazil. Their houses are long, low
+and narrow: the side walls and roof are one, poles being fixed in the
+ground and then bent together so as to meet and form a pointed arch for
+the cross-sections. They use small bark canoes. Their chief weapons are
+poisoned arrows. They have a native god called Guintiniri.
+
+
+
+
+HIRA, the capital of an Arabian kingdom, founded in the 2nd century
+A.D., on the western edge of Irak, was situated at 32 deg. N., 44 deg.
+20' E., about 4 m. S.E. of modern Nejef, by the Sa'ade canal, on the
+shore of the Bahr Nejef or Assyrium Stagnum. Its kings governed the
+western shore of the lower Euphrates and of the Persian Gulf, their
+kingdom extending inland to the confines of the Nejd. This Lakhmid
+kingdom was more or less dependent, during the four centuries of its
+existence, on the Sassanian empire, to which it formed a sort of buffer
+state towards Arabia. After the battle of Kadesiya and the founding of
+Kufa by the Arabs, Hira lost its importance and fell into decay. The
+ruin mounds covering the ancient site, while extensive, are
+insignificant in appearance and give no indications of the existence of
+important buildings.
+
+
+
+
+HIRADO, an island belonging to Japan, 19(1/2) m. long and 6 m. wide,
+lying off the west coast of the province of Hizen, Kiushiu, in 33 deg.
+15' N. and 129 deg. 25' E. It is celebrated as the site of the original
+Dutch factory--often erroneously written Firando--and as the place where
+one of the finest blue-and-white porcelains of Japan (_Hiradoyaki_) was
+produced in the 17th and 18th centuries. The kilns are still active.
+
+
+
+
+HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT, in the law of contract, a form of bailment of
+goods, on credit, which has extended very considerably of late years.
+Originally applied to the sale of the more expensive kinds of goods,
+such as pianos and articles of furniture, the hire-purchase agreement
+has now been extended to almost every description. The agreement is
+usually in writing, with a stipulation that the payments to purchase
+shall be by weekly, monthly or other instalments. The agreement is
+virtually one to purchase, but in order that the vendor may be able to
+recover the goods at any time on non-payment of an instalment, it is
+treated as an agreement to let and hire, with a provision that when the
+last instalment has been paid the goods shall become the property of the
+hirer. A clause provides that in case of default of any instalment, or
+breach of any part of the agreement, all previous payments shall be
+forfeited to the lender, who can forcibly recover the goods. Such
+agreements, therefore, do not pass the property in the goods, which
+remains in the lender until all the instalments have been paid. But the
+terms of the agreement may sometimes purposely obscure the nature of the
+transaction between the parties, where, for example, the hire-purchase
+is merely to create a security for money. In such a case a judge will
+look to the true nature of the transaction. If it is not a real letting
+and hiring, the agreement will require registration under the Bills of
+Sale Acts. If the agreement contains words to the effect that a person
+has "bought or agreed to buy" goods, the transaction comes under the
+Factors Act 1889, and the person in possession of the goods may dispose
+of them and give a good title. The doctrine of reputed ownership, by
+which a bankrupt is deemed the reputed owner of goods in his apparent
+possession, has been somewhat modified by trade customs, in accordance
+with which property is frequently let out on the hire-purchase system
+(see BANKRUPTCY).
+
+
+
+
+HIRING (from O. Eng. _hyrian_, a word common to many Teutonic languages
+cf. Ger. _heuern_, Dutch _huren_, &c.), in law, a contract by which one
+man grants the use of a thing to another in return for a certain price.
+It corresponds to the _locatio-conductio_ of Roman law. That contract
+was either a letting of a thing (_locatio-conductio rei_) or of labour
+(_locatio operarum_). The distinguishing feature of the contract was
+the price. Thus the contracts of _mutuum_, _commodatum_, _depositum_
+and _mandatum_, which are all gratuitous contracts, become, if a price
+is fixed, cases of _locatio-conductio_. In modern English law the term
+can scarcely be said to be used in a strictly technical sense. The
+contracts which the Roman law grouped together under the head of
+_locatio-conductio_--such as those of landlord and tenant, master and
+servant, &c.--are not in English law treated as cases of hiring but as
+independent varieties of contract. Neither in law books nor in ordinary
+discourse could a tenant farmer be said to hire his land. Hiring would
+generally be applied to contracts in which the services of a man or the
+use of a thing are engaged for a short time.
+
+_Hiring Fairs_, or _Statute Fairs_, still held in Wales and some parts
+of England, were formerly an annual fixture in every important country
+town. These fairs served to bring together masters and servants. The men
+and maids seeking work stood in rows, the males together and the females
+together, while masters and mistresses walked down the lines and
+selected those who suited them. Originally these hiring-fairs were
+always held on Martinmas Day (11th of November). Now they are held on
+different dates in different towns, usually in October or November. In
+Cumberland the men seeking work stood with straws in their mouths. In
+Lincolnshire the bargain between employer and employed was closed by the
+giving of the "fasten-penny," the earnest money, usually a shilling,
+which "fastened" the contract for a twelvemonth. Some few days after the
+Statute Fair it was customary to hold a second called a Mop Fair or
+Runaway Mop. "Mop" (from Lat. _mappa_, napkin, or small cloth) meant in
+Old English a tuft or tassel, and the fair was so called, it is
+suggested, in allusion to tufts or badges worn by those seeking
+employment. Thus the carter wore whipcord on his hat, the cowherd a tuft
+of cow's hair, and so on. Another possible explanation would be to take
+the word "mop" in its old provincial slang sense of "a fool," mop fair
+being the fools' fair, a sort of last chance offered to those who were
+too dull or slovenly-looking to be hired at the statute fair. Perhaps
+"runaway" suggests the idea of those absent through drunkenness, or
+those who simply feared to face the ordeal of the larger hiring and so
+ran away.
+
+
+
+
+HIROSAKI, a town of Japan in the province of Michmoku or Rikuchiu, north
+Nippon, 22 m. S.W. of Aomori by rail. Pop. about 37,000. The fine
+isolated cone of Iwakisan, a mountain of pilgrimage, rises to the west.
+Hirosaki is a very old place, formerly residence of a great daimio (or
+daimyo) and capital of a vast principality, and still the seat of a high
+court with jurisdiction over the surrounding districts of Aomori and
+Akita. Like most places in north Nippon, it is built with continuous
+verandas extending from house to house, and affording a promenade
+completely sheltered from the snows of winter. Apples of fine flavour
+grow in the district, which also enjoys some reputation for its peculiar
+green lacquer-ware.
+
+
+
+
+HIROSHIGE (1797-1858), Japanese artist, was one of the principal members
+of that branch of the _Ukiyo-ye_ or Popular School of Painting in Japan,
+a school which chiefly made colour-prints. His family name was Ando
+Tokitaro; that under which he is known having been, in accordance with
+Japanese practice, adopted by him in recognition of the fact that he was
+a pupil of Toyohiro. The earliest reference to him is in the account
+given by an inhabitant of the Lu-chu islands of a visit to Japan; where
+a sketch of a procession drawn with great skill by Hiroshige at the age
+of ten years only is mentioned as one of the remarkable sights seen. At
+the age of fifteen he applied unsuccessfully to be admitted to the
+studio of the elder Toyokuni; but was eventually received by Toyohiro.
+On the death of the latter in 1828, he began to practise on his own
+account, but finding small encouragement at Yedo (Tokyo) he removed to
+Kioto, where he published a set of landscapes. He soon returned to Yedo,
+where his work soon became popular, and was imitated by other artists.
+He died in that city on the 6th day of the 9th month of the year, Ansei
+5th, at the age of sixty-two, and was buried at Asakusa. One of his
+pupils, Hironobu, received from him the name of Hiroshige II. and
+another, Ando Tokubei, that of Hiroshige III. All three were closely
+associated with the work signed with the name of the master. Hiroshige
+II. some time after the year 1863 fell into disgrace and was compelled
+to leave Yedo for Nagasaki, where he died; Hiroshige III. then called
+himself Hiroshige II. He died in 1896. The earlier prints by these
+artists, whose work can hardly be separated, are of extraordinary merit.
+They applied the process of colour block printing to the purposes of
+depicting landscape, with a breadth, skill and suitability of convention
+that has been equalled only by Hokusai in Japan, and by no European.
+Most of their subjects were derived from the neighbourhood of Yedo, or
+were scenes on the old high road--the Tokaido--that ran from that city
+to Kioto. The two elder of the name were competent painters, and
+pictures and drawings by them are occasionally to be met with.
+
+  See E. F. Strange, "Japanese Colour-prints" (_Victoria and Albert
+  Museum Handbook_, 1904).     (E. F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HIROSHIMA, a city and seaport of Japan, capital of the government of its
+name in central Nippon. Pop. (1903) 113,545. It is very beautifully
+situated on a small plain surrounded by hills, the bay being studded
+with islands. In its general aspect it resembles Osaka, from which it is
+190 m. W. by rail, and next to that place and Hiogo it is the most
+important commercial centre on the Inland Sea. The government has an
+area of about 3000 sq. m., with a population of about 1,500,000.
+Hiroshima is famous all over Japan owing to its association with the
+neighbouring islet of Itaku-Shima, "Island of Light," which is dedicated
+to the goddess Bentin and regarded as one of the three wonders of Japan.
+The chief temple dates from the year 587, and the island, which is
+inhabited largely by priests and their attendants, is annually visited
+by thousands of pilgrims. But the hallowed soil is never tilled, so that
+all provisions have to be brought from the surrounding districts.
+
+
+
+
+HIRPINI (from an Oscan or Sabine stem _hirpo-_, "wolf"), an inland
+Samnite tribe in the south of Italy, whose territory was bounded by that
+of the Lucani on the S., the Campani on the S.W., the Appuli (Apuli) and
+Frentani on the E. and N.E. On the N. we find them, politically
+speaking, identified with the Pentri and Caraceni, and with them
+constituting the Samnite alliance in the wars of the 4th century B.C.
+(see SAMNITES). The Roman policy of separation cut them off from these
+allies by the foundation of Beneventum in 268 B.C., and henceforward
+they are a separate unit; they joined Hannibal in 216 B.C., and retained
+their independence until, after joining in the Social war, which in
+their part of Italy can hardly be said to have ceased till the final
+defeat of the Samnites by Sulla in 83 B.C., they received the Roman
+franchise. Of their Oscan speech, besides the evidence of their
+place-names, only a few fragments survive (R. S. Conway, _The Italic
+Dialects_, pp. 170 ff.; and for _hirpo-_, ib. p. 200). In the ethnology
+of Italy the Hirpini appear from one point of view as the purest type of
+Safine stock, namely, that in which the proportion of ethnica formed
+with the suffix _-no-_ is highest, thirty-three out of thirty-six tribal
+or municipal epithets being formed thereby (e.g. _Caudini_, _Compsani_)
+and only one with the suffix -_ti_- (_Abellinates_), where it is
+clearly secondary. On the significance of this see SABINI.     (R. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HIRSAU (formerly _Hirschau_), a village of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Wurttemberg, on the Nagold and the Pforzheim-Horb railway, 2 m. N. of
+Calw. Pop. 800. Hirsau has some small manufactures, but it owes its
+origin and historical interest to its former Benedictine monastery,
+_Monasterium Hirsaugiense_, at one period one of the most famous in
+Europe. Its picturesque ruins, of which only the chapel with the library
+hall are still in good preservation, testify to the pristine grandeur of
+the establishment. It was founded about 830 by Count Erlafried of Calw,
+at the instigation of his son, Bishop Notting of Vercelli, who enriched
+it with, among other treasures, the body of St Aurelius. Its first
+occupants (838) were a colony of fifteen monks from Fulda, disciples of
+Hrabanus Maurus and Walafrid Strabo, headed by the abbot Liudebert.
+During about a century and a half, under the fostering care of the
+counts of Calw, it enjoyed great prosperity, and became an important
+seat of learning; but towards the end of the 10th century the ravages of
+the pestilence combined with the rapacity of its patrons, and the
+selfishness and immorality of its inmates, to bring it to the lowest
+ebb. After it had been desolate and in ruins for upwards of sixty years
+it was rebuilt in 1059, and under Abbot William--Wilhelm von
+Hirsau--abbot from 1069 to 1091, it more than regained its former
+splendour. By his _Constitutiones Hirsaugienses_, a new religious order,
+the Ordo Hirsaugiensis, was formed, the rule of which was afterwards
+adopted by many monastic establishments throughout Germany, such as
+those of Blaubeuren, Erfurt and Schaffhausen. The friend and
+correspondent of Pope Gregory VII., and of Anselm of Canterbury, Abbot
+William took active part in the politico-ecclesiastical controversies of
+his time; while a treatise from his pen, _De musica et tonis_, as well
+as the _Philosophicarum et astronomicarum institutionum libri iii._,
+bears witness to his interest in science and philosophy. About the end
+of the 12th century the material and moral welfare of Hirsau was again
+very perceptibly on the decline; and it never afterwards again rose into
+importance. In consequence of the Reformation it was secularized in
+1558; in 1692 it was laid in ruins by the French. The _Chronicon
+Hirsaugiense_, or, as in the later edition it is called, _Annales
+Hirsaugienses_ of Abbot Trithemius (Basel, 1559; St Gall, 1690), is,
+although containing much that is merely legendary, an important source
+of information, not only on the affairs of this monastery, but also on
+the early history of Germany. The _Codex Hirsaugiensis_ was edited by A.
+F. Gfrorer and printed at Stuttgart in 1843.
+
+  See Steck, _Das Kloster Hirschau_ (1844); Helmsdorfer, _Forschungen
+  zur Geschichte des Abts Wilhelm von Hirschau_ (Gottingen, 1874);
+  Weizsacker, _Fuhrer durch die Geschichte des Klosters Hirschau_
+  (Stuttgart, 1898); Sussmann, _Forschungen zur Geschichte des Klosters
+  Hirschau_ (Halle, 1903); Giseke, _Die Hirschauer wahrend des
+  Investiturstreits_ (Gotha, 1883); C. H. Klaiber, _Das Kloster
+  Hirschau_ (Tubingen, 1886); and Baer, _Die Hirsauer Bauschule_
+  (Freiburg, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+HIRSCH, MAURICE DE, BARON HIRSCH AUF GEREUTH, in the baronage of Bavaria
+(1831-1896), capitalist and philanthropist (German by birth,
+Austro-Hungarian by domicile), was born at Munich, 9th December 1831.
+His grandfather, the first Jewish landowner in Bavaria, was ennobled
+with the _pradikat_ "auf Gereuth" in 1818; his father, who was banker to
+the Bavarian king, was created a baron in 1869. The family for
+generations has occupied a prominent position in the German Jewish
+community. At the age of thirteen young Hirsch was sent to Brussels to
+school, but when seventeen years old he went into business. In 1855 he
+became associated with the banking house of Bischoffsheim & Goldschmidt,
+of Brussels, London and Paris. He amassed a large fortune, which he
+increased by purchasing and working railway concessions in Austria,
+Turkey and the Balkans, and by speculations in sugar and copper. While
+living in great splendour in Paris and London and on his estates in
+Hungary, he devoted much of his time to schemes for the relief of his
+Hebrew co-religionists in lands where they were persecuted and
+oppressed. He took a deep interest in the educational work of the
+Alliance Israelite Universelle, and on two occasions presented the
+society with gifts of a million francs. For some years he regularly
+paid the deficits in the accounts of the Alliance, amounting to several
+thousand pounds a year. In 1889 he capitalized his donations and
+presented the society with securities producing an annual income of
+L16,000. On the occasion of the fortieth anniversary of the emperor
+Francis Joseph's accession to the Austrian throne he gave L500,000 for
+the establishment of primary and technical schools in Galicia and the
+Bukowina. The greatest charitable enterprise on which he embarked was in
+connexion with the persecution of the Jews in Russia (see
+ANTI-SEMITISM). He gave L10,000 to the funds raised for the repatriation
+of the refugees in 1882, but, feeling that this was a very lame
+conclusion to the efforts made in western Europe for the relief of the
+Russian Jews, he offered the Russian Government L2,000,000 for the
+endowment of a system of secular education to be established in the
+Jewish pale of settlement. The Russian Government was willing to accept
+the money, but declined to allow any foreigner to be concerned in its
+control or administration. Thereupon Baron de Hirsch resolved to devote
+the money to an emigration and colonization scheme which should afford
+the persecuted Jews opportunities of establishing themselves in
+agricultural colonies outside Russia. He founded the Jewish Colonization
+Association as an English society, with a capital of L2,000,000, and in
+1892 he presented to it a further sum of L7,000,000. On the death of his
+wife in 1899 the capital was increased to L11,000,000, of which
+L1,250,000 went to the Treasury, after some litigation, in death duties.
+This enormous fund, which is probably the greatest charitable trust in
+the world, is now managed by delegates of certain Jewish societies,
+chiefly the Anglo-Jewish Association of London and the Alliance
+Israelite Universelle of Paris, among whom the shares in the association
+have been divided. The association, which is prohibited from working for
+profit, possesses large colonies in South America, Canada and Asia
+Minor. In addition to its vast agricultural work it has a gigantic and
+complex machinery for dealing with the whole problem of Jewish
+persecution, including emigration and distributing agencies, technical
+schools, co-operative factories, savings and loan banks and model
+dwellings in the congested Russian jewries. It also subventions and
+assists a large number of societies all over the world whose work is
+connected with the relief and rehabilitation of Jewish refugees. Besides
+this great organization, Baron de Hirsch founded in 1891 a benevolent
+trust in the United States for the benefit of Jewish immigrants, which
+he endowed with L493,000. His minor charities were on a princely scale,
+and during his residence in London he distributed over L100,000 among
+the local hospitals. It was in this manner that he disposed of the whole
+gross proceeds derived from his successes on the English turf, of which
+he was a lavish patron. He raced, as he said himself, "for the London
+hospitals," and in 1892, when his filly, La Fleche, won the Oaks, St
+Leger and One Thousand Guineas, his donations from this source amounted
+to about L40,000. Baron de Hirsch married on 28th June 1855 Clara,
+daughter of Senator Bischoffsheim of Brussels (b. 1833), by whom he had
+a son and daughter, both of whom predeceased him. He died at Ogyalla,
+near Komorn, in Hungary, 21st April 1896. The baroness, who seconded her
+husband's charitable work with great munificence--their total
+benefactions have been estimated at L18,000,000,--died at Paris on the
+1st of April 1899.
+
+  For details of Baron de Hirsch's chief charities see the annual
+  reports of the Alliance Israelite Universelle and of the
+  "Administration Centrale" of the Jewish Colonization Association.
+       (L. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL (1808-1888), Jewish theologian, was born in
+Hamburg in 1808 and died at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1888. He opposed
+the reform tendency of Geiger (q.v.), and presented Jewish orthodoxy in
+a new and attractive light. His philosophical conception of tradition,
+associated as it was with conservatism in ritual practice, created what
+is often known as the Frankfort "Neo-Orthodoxy." Hirsch exercised a
+profound influence on the Synagogue and undoubtedly stemmed the tide of
+liberalism. His famous _Nineteen Letters_ (1836), with which the
+Neo-Orthodoxy began, were translated into English by Drachmann (New
+York, 1899). Other works by Hirsch were _Horeb_, and commentaries on
+the Pentateuch and Psalms. These are marked by much originality, but
+their exegesis is fanciful. Three volumes of his essays have been
+published (1902-1908); these were collected as _Gesammelte Schriften_
+from his periodical _Jeschurun_.
+
+  For Hirsch's religious philosophy see S. A. Hirsch, _A Book of Essays_
+  (London, 1905).     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HIRSCHBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia,
+beautifully situated at the confluence of the Bober and Zacken, 1120 ft.
+above the sea-level, 48 m. S.E. of Gorlitz, on the railway to Glatz,
+with branches to Grunthal and Schmiedeberg. Pop. (1905) 19,317. It is
+surrounded by pleasant promenades occupying the site of its former
+fortifications. It possesses an Evangelical church, the church of the
+Holy Cross, one of the six _Gnaden Kirchen_ for the Silesian Protestants
+stipulated for in the agreement at Altranstadt between Charles XII. of
+Sweden and the emperor Joseph I. in 1707, four Roman Catholic churches,
+one of which dates from the 14th century, a synagogue, several schools,
+an orphanage and an asylum. The town is the principal emporium of
+commerce in the Silesian mountains, and its industries include the
+carding and spinning of wool, and the manufacture of linen and cotton
+fabrics, yarn, artificial flowers, paper, cement, porcelain,
+sealing-wax, blacking, chemicals and cider. There is also a lively trade
+in corn, wine and agricultural produce. The town is celebrated for its
+romantic surroundings, including the Cavalierberg, from which there is a
+splendid view, the Hausberg, the Helicon, crowned by a small Doric
+temple, the Kreuzberg, with walks commanding beautiful views, and the
+Sattler ravine, over which there is a railway viaduct. Hirschberg was in
+existence in the 11th century, and obtained town rights in 1108 from
+Duke Boleslaus of Poland. It withstood a siege by the Hussites in 1427,
+and an attack of the imperial troops in 1640. The foundation of its
+prosperity was laid in the 16th century by the introduction of the
+manufacture of linen and veils.
+
+Hirschberg is also the name of a town of Thuringia on the Saale with
+manufactures of leather and knives. Pop. 2000.
+
+
+
+
+HIRSON, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne, 35 m. by
+rail N.E. of Laon, on the Oise. Pop. (1906) 8335. It occupies an
+important strategic position close to the point of intersection of
+several railway lines, and not far from the Belgian frontier. For its
+defence there are a permanent fort and two batteries, near the railway
+junction. The town carries on the manufacture of glass bottles, tiles,
+iron and tin goods, wool-spinning and brewing.
+
+
+
+
+HIRTIUS, AULUS (c. 90-43 B.C.), Roman historian and statesman. He was
+with Julius Caesar as legate in Gaul, but after the civil war broke out
+in 49 he seems to have remained in Rome to protect Caesar's interests.
+He was also a personal friend of Cicero. He was nominated with C. Vibius
+Pansa by Caesar for the consulship of 43; and after the dictator's
+assassination in March 44, he and his colleague supported the senatorial
+party against M. Antonius, with whom Hirtius had at first sided. The
+consuls set out for Mutina, where Antonius was besieging Decimus Brutus.
+On the 15th of April, Pansa was attacked by Antonius at Forum Gallorum,
+about 8 m. from Mutina, and lost his life in the engagement. Hirtius,
+however, compelled Antonius to retire on Mutina, where another battle
+took place on the 25th (or 27th) of April, in which Hirtius was slain.
+Of the continuations of Caesar's _Commentaries_--the eighth book of the
+Gallic war, the history of the Alexandrian, African and Spanish
+wars--the first is generally allowed to be by Hirtius; the Alexandrian
+war is perhaps by him (or Oppius); the last two are supposed to have
+been written at his request, by persons who had taken part in the events
+described, with a view to subsequent revision and incorporation in his
+proposed work on military commanders. The language of Hirtius is good,
+but his style is monotonous and lacks vigour.
+
+  Hirtius and the other continuators of Caesar are discussed in M.
+  Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Literatur_, i.; also R. Schneider,
+  _Bellum Africanum_ (1905). For the history of the period see under
+  ANTONIUS; Cicero's _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier,
+  _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng. trans., 1897).
+
+
+
+
+HISHAM IBN AL-KALBI [Abu-l Mundhir Hisham ibn Mahommed ibn us-Sa'b
+ul-Kalb] (d. c. 819), Arabic historian, was born in Kufa, but spent
+much of his life in Bagdad. Like his father, on whose authority he
+relied largely, he collected information about the genealogies and
+history of the ancient Arabs. According to the _Fihrist_ (see NADIM) he
+wrote 140 works. As independent works they have almost entirely ceased
+to exist, but his account of the genealogies of the Arabs is continually
+quoted in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_.
+
+  Large extracts from another of his works, the _Kitab ul-Asnam_, are
+  contained in the _Khizanat ul-Adab_ (iii. 242-246) and in the
+  geography of Yaqut (q.v.). These latter have been translated with
+  comments by J. Wellhausen in his _Reste des arabischen Heidentums_
+  (2nd ed., Berlin, 1897).     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+HISPELLUM (mod. Spello, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, 3 m. N.
+of Fulginiae, on the road between it and Perusia, 1030 ft. above
+sea-level. It does not appear to be mentioned before the time of
+Augustus, who founded a colony there (_Colonia Iulia Hispellum_) and
+extended its territory to the springs of the Clitumnus, which had
+originally belonged to the territory of Mevania. It received the name of
+Flavia Constans by a rescript of the emperor Constantine, a copy of
+which on a marble tablet is still preserved at Spello. The gate by which
+the town is entered is ancient and has three portrait statues above it;
+two other gates and a part of the city wall, built of rectangular blocks
+of local limestone, may still be seen, as also the ruins of what is
+possibly a triumphal arch (attributed to Augustus) and an amphitheatre,
+and perhaps of a theatre, close to the modern high-road, outside the
+town.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+HISSAR, a district in Central Asia, lying between 66 deg. 30' and 70
+deg. E. and 39 deg. 15' and 37 deg. N. and dependent on the amir of
+Bokhara. It forms that part of the basin of the Amu-darya or Oxus which
+lies on the north side of the river, opposite the Afghan province of
+Balkh. The western prolongation of the Tian-shan, which divides the
+basin of the Zarafshan from that of the upper Amu, after rising to a
+height of 12,300 ft., bifurcates in 67 deg. 45' E. The main chain, the
+southern arm of this bifurcation, designated the Hissar range, but
+sometimes called also Koh-i-tau, forms the N. and N.W. boundaries of
+Hissar. On the W. it is wholly bounded by the desert; the Amu limits it
+on the S. and S.E.; and Karateghin and Darvaz complete the boundary on
+the E. Until 1875 it was one of the least known tracts of Central Asia.
+Hissar is traversed from north to south by four tributaries of the Amu,
+viz. the Surkhab or Vakhsh, Kafirnihan, Surkhan and Shirabad-darya,
+which descend from the snowy mountains to the north and form a series of
+fertile valleys, disposed in a fan-shape, within which lie the principal
+towns. In the N.W. boundary range between Khuzar and Derbent is situated
+the defile formerly called the Iron Gate (Caspian Gates, Bab-al-Hadid,
+Dar Ahanin and in Chinese T'ie-men-kuan) but now styled Buzghol-khana or
+the Goat-house. It was also called Kohluga, said to be a Mongol word
+meaning barrier. This pass is described as a deep but narrow chasm in a
+transverse range, whose rocks overhang and threaten to choke the
+tortuous and gloomy corridor (in places but five paces wide) which
+affords the only exit from the valley. In ancient times it was a vantage
+point of much importance and commanded one of the chief routes between
+Turkestan and India. Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese traveller, who passed
+through it in the 7th century, states that there were then two folding
+doors or gates, cased with iron and hung with bells, placed across the
+pass. Clavijo, the Spanish ambassador to the court of Timur, heard of
+this when he passed through the defile nearly 800 years later, but the
+gates had then disappeared.
+
+The Surkhan valley is highly cultivated, especially in its upper
+portion. It supplies Bokhara with corn and sheep, but its chief products
+are rice and flax. The town of Hissar (pop. 15,000) commands the
+entrance into the fertile valleys of the Surkhan and Kafirnihan, just as
+Kabadian at the southern end of the latter defends them from the south.
+Hissar was long famous for its damascened swords and its silk goods.
+Kulab produces wheat in abundance, and gold is brought thither from the
+surrounding districts. Kabadian is a large, silk-producing town, and is
+surrounded with rice-fields.
+
+The population consists principally of Uzbegs and Tajiks, the former
+predominating and gradually pushing the Tajiks into the hills. On the
+banks of the Amu there are Turkomans who work the ferries, drive sheep
+and accompany caravans. Lyuli (gipsies), Jews, Hindus and Afghans are
+other elements of the population. The climate of the valleys of Hissar
+and Kulab is pleasant, as they are protected by mountains to the north
+and open towards the south. They produce all the cereals and garden
+plants indigenous to Central Asia. Cotton is grown in the district of
+Shirabad; and cotton, wheat, flax, sheep and rock-salt are all exported.
+
+_History._--This country was anciently part of the Persian empire of the
+Achaemenidae, and probably afterwards of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom,
+and then subject to the invading Asiatic tribes who broke up that
+kingdom, e.g. the Yue-chi. It was afterwards conquered by the
+Ephthalites or White Huns, who were subdued by the Turks in the early
+part of the 7th century. It then became subject successively to the
+Mahommedan invaders from Persia, and after to the Mongol dynasty of
+Jenghiz Khan, and to Timur and his successors. It subsequently became a
+cluster of Uzbeg states and was annexed by the amir of Bokhara (q.v.) in
+1869-1870, soon after the Russian occupation of Samarkand.
+     (J. T. Be.; C. El.)
+
+
+
+
+HISSAR, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of
+the Punjab. The town is situated on the Rajputana railway and the
+Western Jumna canal, 102 m. W.N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901) 17,647. It was
+founded in 1356 by the emperor Feroz Shah, who constructed the canal to
+supply it with water; but this fell into decay during the 18th century,
+owing to the constant inroads of marauders. Hissar was almost completely
+depopulated during the famine of 1783, but was afterwards occupied by
+the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who built a fort and
+collected inhabitants. It is now chiefly known for its cattle and horse
+fairs, and has a cotton factory.
+
+The DISTRICT comprises an area of 5217 sq. m. It forms the western
+border district of the great Bikanir desert, and consists for the most
+part of sandy plains dotted with shrub and brushwood, and broken by
+undulations towards the south, which rise into hills of rock like
+islands out of a sea of sand. The Ghaggar is its only river, whose
+supply is uncertain, depending much on the fall of rain in the lower
+Himalayas; its overflow in times of heavy rain is caught by _jhils_,
+which dry up in the hot season. The Western Jumna canal crosses the
+district from east to west, irrigating many villages. The soil is in
+places hard and clayey, and difficult to till; but when sufficiently
+irrigated it is highly productive. Old mosques and other buildings exist
+in parts of the district. Hissar produces a breed of large milk-white
+oxen, which are in great request for the carriages of natives. The
+district has always been subject to famine. The first calamity of this
+kind of which there is authentic record was in 1783; and Hissar has
+suffered severely in more recent famines. Its population in 1901 was
+781,717, showing practically no increase in the decade, whereas in the
+previous decade there had been an increase of 15%. The climate is very
+dry, hot westerly winds blowing from the middle of March till July.
+Cotton weaving, ginning and pressing are carried on. The district is
+served by the Rajputana-Malwa, the Southern Punjab and the
+Jodhpur-Bikanir railways. The chief trading centres are Bhiwani, Hansi,
+Hissar and Sirsa.
+
+Before the Mahommedan conquest, the semi-desert tract of which Hissar
+district now forms part was the retreat of Chauhan Rajputs. Towards the
+end of the 18th century the Bhattis of Bhattiana gained ascendancy after
+bloody struggles. To complete the ruin brought on by these conflicts,
+nature lent her aid in the great famine of 1783. Hissar passed nominally
+to the British in 1803, but they could not enforce order till 1810.
+Early in the mutiny of 1857 Hissar was wholly lost for a time to British
+rule, and all Europeans were either murdered or compelled to fly. The
+Bhattis rose under their hereditary chiefs, and the majority of the
+Mahommedan population followed their example. Before Delhi had been
+recovered, the rebels were utterly routed.
+
+
+
+
+HISTIAEUS (d. 494 B.C.), tyrant of Miletus under the Persian king Darius
+Hystaspis. According to Herodotus he rendered great service to Darius
+while he was campaigning in Scythia by persuading his fellow-despots not
+to destroy the bridge over the Danube by which the Persians must return.
+Choosing his own reward for this service, he became possessor of
+territory near Myrcinus (afterwards Amphipolis), rich in timber and
+minerals. The success of his enterprise led to his being invited to
+Susa, where in the midst of every kind of honour he was virtually a
+prisoner of Darius, who had reason to dread his growing power in Ionia.
+During this period the Greek cities were left under native despots
+supported by Persia, Aristagoras, son-in-law of Histiaeus, being ruler
+of Miletus in his stead. This prince, having failed against Naxos in a
+joint expedition with the satrap Artaphernes, began to stir up the
+Ionians to revolt, and this result was brought to pass, according to
+Herodotus, by a secret message from Histiaeus. The revolt assumed a
+formidable character and Histiaeus persuaded Darius that he alone could
+quell it. He was allowed to leave Susa, but on his arrival at the coast
+found himself suspected by the satrap, and was ultimately driven to
+establish himself (Herodotus says as a pirate; more probably in charge
+of the Bosporus route) at Byzantium. After the total failure of the
+revolt at the battle of Lade, he made various attempts to re-establish
+himself, but was captured by the Persian Harpagus and crucified by
+Artaphernes at Sardis. His head was embalmed and sent to Darius, who
+gave it honourable burial. The theory of Herodotus that the Ionian
+revolt was caused by the single message of Histiaeus is incredible;
+there is evidence to show that the Ionians had been meditating since
+about 512 a patriotic revolt against the Persian domination and the
+"tyrants" on whom it rested (see Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, ed. 1907,
+especially p. 122 note; art. IONIA, and authorities; also S. Heinlein in
+_Klio_, 1909, pp. 341-351).
+
+
+
+
+HISTOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: histos], web, tissue, properly the web-beam of
+the loom, from [Greek: histanai], to make to stand), the science which
+deals with the structure of the tissues of plants and animals (see
+CYTOLOGY).
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY. The word "history" is used in two senses. It may mean either
+the record of events, or events themselves. Originally (see below)
+limited to inquiry and statement, it was only in comparatively modern
+times that the meaning of the word was extended to include the phenomena
+which form or might form their subject. It was perhaps by a somewhat
+careless transference of ideas that this extension was brought about.
+Now indeed it is the commoner meaning. We speak of the "history of
+England" without reference to any literary narrative. We term kings and
+statesmen the "makers of history," and sometimes say that the historian
+only records the history which they make. History in this connexion is
+obviously not the record, but the thing to be recorded. It is
+unfortunate that such a double meaning of the word should have grown up,
+for it is productive of not a little confusion of thought.
+
+History in the wider sense is all that has happened, not merely all the
+phenomena of human life, but those of the natural world as well. It
+includes everything that undergoes change; and as modern science has
+shown that there is nothing absolutely static, therefore the whole
+universe, and every part of it, has its history. The discovery of ether
+brought with it a reconstruction of our ideas of the physical universe,
+transferring the emphasis from the mathematical expression of static
+relationships to a dynamic conception of a universe in constant
+transformation; matter in equipoise became energy in gradual
+readjustment. Solids are solids no longer. The universe is in motion in
+every particle of every part; rock and metal merely a transition stage
+between crystallization and dissolution. This idea of universal activity
+has in a sense made physics itself a branch of history. It is the same
+with the other sciences--especially the biological division, where the
+doctrine of evolution has induced an attitude of mind which is
+distinctly historical.
+
+But the tendency to look at things historically is not merely the
+attitude of men of science. Our outlook upon life differs in just this
+particular from that of preceding ages. We recognize the unstable
+nature of our whole social fabric, and are therefore more and more
+capable of transforming it. Our institutions are no longer held to be
+inevitable and immutable creations. We do not attempt to fit them to
+absolute formulae, but continually adapt them to a changing environment.
+Even modern architecture, notably in America, reflects the consciousness
+of change. The permanent character of ancient or medieval buildings was
+fitted only to a society dominated by static ideals. Now the architect
+builds, not for all time, but for a set of conditions which will
+inevitably cease in the not distant future. Thus our whole society not
+only bears the marks of its evolution, but shows its growing
+consciousness of the fact in the most evident of its arts. In
+literature, philosophy and political science, there is the same
+historical trend. Criticism no longer judges by absolute standards; it
+applies the standards of the author's own environment. We no longer
+condemn Shakespeare for having violated the ancient dramatic laws, nor
+Voltaire for having objected to the violations. Each age has its own
+expression, and in judging each we enter the field of history. In
+ethics, again, the revolt against absolute standards limits us to the
+relative, and morals are investigated on the basis of history, as
+largely conditioned by economic environment and the growth of
+intellectual freedom. Revelation no longer appeals to scientific minds
+as a source of knowledge. Experience on the other hand is history. As
+for political science, we do not regard the national state as that
+ultimate and final product which men once saw in the Roman Empire. It
+has hardly come into being before forces are evident which aim at its
+destruction. Internationalism has gained ground in Europe in recent
+years; and Socialism itself, which is based upon a distinct
+interpretation of history, is regarded by its followers as merely a
+stage in human progress, like those which have gone before it. It is
+evident that Freeman's definition of history as "past politics" is
+miserably inadequate. Political events are mere externals. History
+enters into every phase of activity, and the economic forces which urge
+society along are as much its subject as the political result.
+
+In short the historical spirit of the age has invaded every field. The
+world-picture presented in this encyclopaedia is that of a dynamic
+universe, of phenomena in process of ceaseless change. Owing to this
+insistent change all things which happen, or seem to happen, are history
+in the broader sense of the word. The encyclopaedia itself is a history
+of them in the stricter sense,--the description and record of this
+universal process. This narrower meaning is the subject of the rest of
+this article.
+
+The word "history" comes from the Gr. [Greek: historia], which was used
+by the Ionians in the 6th century B.C. for the search for knowledge in
+the widest sense. It meant inquiry, investigation, not narrative. It was
+not until two centuries later that the historikos, the reciter of
+stories, superseded the _historeon_ ([Greek: historeon]), the seeker
+after knowledge. Thus history began as a branch of scientific
+research,--much the same as what the Athenians later termed philosophy.
+Herodotus himself was as much a scientific explorer as a reciter of
+narrative, and his life-long investigation was _historie_ in his Ionian
+speech. Yet it was Herodotus himself who first hinted at the new use of
+the word, applied merely to the details accumulated during a long search
+for knowledge. It is not until Aristotle, however, that we have it
+definitely applied to the literary product instead of the inquiry which
+precedes it. From Aristotle to modern times, history (Lat. _historia_)
+has been a form of literature. It is only in the scientific environment
+of to-day that we recognize once more, with those earliest of the
+forerunners of Herodotus, that history involves two distinct operations,
+one of which, investigation, is in the field of science, while the
+other, the literary presentation, is in the field of art.
+
+The history of history itself is therefore two-fold. History as art
+flourishes with the arts. It calls upon the imagination and the literary
+gifts of expression. Its history does not run parallel with the
+scientific side, but rather varies in inverse ratio with scientific
+activity. Those periods which have been dominated by the great masters
+of style have been less interested in the criticism of the historian's
+methods of investigation than in the beauty of his rhetoric. The
+scientific historian, deeply interested in the search for truth, is
+generally but a poor artist, and his uncoloured picture of the past will
+never rank in literature beside the splendid distortions which glow in
+the pages of a Michelet or Macaulay. History the art, in so far as it is
+conditioned upon genius, has no single traceable line of development.
+Here the product of the age of Pericles remains unsurpassed still; the
+works of Herodotus and Thucydides standing along with those of Pheidias
+as models for all time. On the other hand, history the science has
+developed so that it has not only gained recognition among historians as
+a distinct subject, but it has raised with it a group of auxiliary
+sciences which serve either as tools for investigation or as a basis for
+testing the results. The advance in this branch of history in the 19th
+century was one of its greatest achievements. The vast gulf which lies
+between the history of Egypt by Herodotus and that by Flinders Petrie is
+the measure of its achievement. By the mechanism now at his disposal the
+scientific explorer can read more history from the dust-heaps of Abydos
+than the greatest traveller of antiquity could gather from the priests
+of Sais. In tracing the history of history we must therefore keep in
+mind the double aspect.
+
+History itself, this double subject, the science and the art combined,
+begins with the dawn of memory and the invention of speech. It is wrong
+to term those ages _pre-historic_ whose history has not come down to us,
+including in one category the pre-literary age and the literary whose
+traces have been lost. Even the pre-literary had its history, first in
+myth and then in saga. The saga, or epos, was a great advance upon the
+myth, for in it the deeds of men replace or tend to replace the deeds of
+the gods. But we are still largely in the realm of imagination. Poetry,
+as Thucydides complained, is a most imperfect medium for fact. The bard
+will exaggerate or distort his story. True history, as a record of what
+really has happened, first reached maturity in prose. Therefore,
+although much of the past has been handed down to us in epic, in ballad
+and in the legends of folk-lore, we must turn from them to what became
+history in the narrower sense.
+
+The earliest prose origins of history are the inscriptions. Their
+inadequacy is evident from two standpoints. Their permanence depends not
+upon their importance, but upon the durability of the substance on which
+they are inscribed. A note for a wedding ring baked into the clay of
+Babylon has been preserved, while the history of the greatest events has
+perished. In the second place they are sealed to all but those who know
+how to read them, and so they lie forgotten for centuries while oral
+tradition flourishes,--being within the reach of every man. It is only
+recently that archaeology, turning from the field of art, has undertaken
+to interpret for us this first written history. The process by which the
+modern fits together all the obtainable remains of an antiquity, and
+reconstructs even that past which left no written record, lies outside
+the field of this article. But such enlargement of the field of history
+is a modern scientific product, and is to be distinguished from the
+imperfect beginnings of history-writing which the archaeologist is able
+to decipher.
+
+Next to the inscriptions,--sometimes identical with them,--are the early
+chronicles. These are of various kinds. Family chronicles preserved the
+memory of heroic ancestors whose deeds in the earliest age would have
+passed into the keeping of the bards. Such family archives were perhaps
+the main source for Roman historians. But they are not confined to Rome
+or Greece. Genealogies also pass from the bald verse, which was the
+vehicle for oral transmission, to such elaborate tables as those in
+which Manetho has preserved the dynasties of Egyptian Pharaohs.
+
+In this field the priest succeeds the poet. The temple itself became the
+chief repository of records. There were simple religious annals, votive
+tablets recording miracles accomplished at a shrine, lists of priests
+and priestesses, accounts of benefactions, of prodigies and portents. In
+some cases, as in Rome, the pontiffs kept a kind of register, not merely
+of religious history, but of important political events as well. Down to
+the time of the Gracchi (131 B.C.) the Pontifex Maximus inscribed the
+year's events upon annual tablets of wood which were preserved in the
+Regia, the official residence of the pontiff in the Forum. These
+pontifical "annals" thus came to be a sort of civic history. Chronicles
+of the Greek cities were commonly ascribed to mythical authors, as for
+instance that of Miletus, the oldest, to Cadmus the inventor of letters.
+But they were continued and edited by men in whom the critical spirit
+was awakening, as when the chroniclers of Ionian towns began the
+criticism of Homer.
+
+The first historians were the logographi of these Ionian cities; men who
+carried their inquiry (_historie_) beyond both written record and oral
+tradition to a study of the world around them. Their "saying" (_logos_)
+was gathered mostly from contemporaries; and upon the basis of a widened
+experience they became critics of their traditions. The opening lines of
+Hecataeus of Miletus begin the history of the true historic spirit in
+words which read like a sentence from Voltaire. "Hecataeus of Miletus
+thus speaks: I write as I deem true, for the traditions of the Greeks
+seem to me manifold and laughable." Those words mark an epoch in the
+history of thought. They are the introduction to historical criticism
+and scientific investigation. Whatever the actual achievement of
+Hecataeus may have been, from his time onward the scientific movement
+was set going. Herodotus of Heraclea struggled to rationalize mythology,
+and established chronology on a solid basis. And finally Herodotus, a
+professional story-teller, rose to the height of genuine scientific
+investigation. Herodotus' inquiry was not simply that of an idle
+tourist. He was a critical observer, who tested his evidence. It is easy
+for the student now to show the inadequacy of his sources, and his
+failure here or there to discriminate between fact and fable. But given
+the imperfect medium for investigation and the absence of an
+archaeological basis for criticism, the work of Herodotus remains a
+scientific achievement, as remarkable for its approximation to truth as
+for the vastness of its scope. Yet it was Herodotus' chief glory to have
+joined to this scientific spirit an artistic sense which enabled him to
+cast the material into the truest literary form. He gathered all his
+knowledge of the ancient world, not simply for itself, but to mass it
+around the story of the war between the east and west, the Greeks and
+the Persians. He is first and foremost a story-teller; his theme is like
+that of the bards, a heroic event. His story is a vast prose epos, in
+which science is to this extent subordinated to art. "This is the
+showing forth of the Inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, to the end
+that neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse of time, nor the
+works, great and marvellous, which have been produced, some by Hellenes,
+some by Barbarians, may lose their renown, and especially that the
+causes may be remembered for which these waged war with one another"
+(i.e. the Persian war).
+
+In Thucydides a higher art than that of Herodotus was combined with a
+higher science. He scorned the story-teller "who seeks to please the ear
+rather than to speak the truth," and yet his rhetoric is the culmination
+of Greek historical prose. He withdrew from vulgar applause, conscious
+that his narrative would be considered "disappointing to the ear," yet
+he recast the materials out of which he constructed it in order to lift
+that narrative into the realm of pure literature. Speeches, letters and
+documents are reworded to be in tone with the rest of the story. It was
+his art, in fact, which really created the Peloponnesian war out of its
+separate parts. And yet this art was merely the language of a scientist.
+The "laborious task" of which he speaks is that of consulting all
+possible evidence, and weighing conflicting accounts. It is this which
+makes his rhetoric worth while, "an everlasting possession, not a prize
+competition which is heard and forgotten."
+
+From the sublimity of Thucydides, and Xenophon's straight-forward story,
+history passed with Theopompus and Ephorus into the field of rhetoric. A
+revival of the scientific instinct of investigation is discernable in
+Timaeus the Sicilian, at the end of the 4th century, but his attack upon
+his predecessors was the text of a more crushing attack upon himself by
+Polybius, who declares him lacking in critical insight and biased by
+passion. Polybius' comments upon Timaeus reach the dignity of a treatise
+upon history. He protests against its use for controversial pamphlets
+which distort the truth. "Directly a man assumes the moral attitude of
+an historian he ought to forget all considerations, such as love of
+one's friends, hatred of one's enemies.... He must sometimes praise
+enemies and blame friends. For as a living creature is rendered useless
+if deprived of its eyes, so if you take truth from History, what is left
+but an improfitable tale" (bk. xii. 14). These are the words of a Ranke.
+Unfortunately Polybius, like most modern scientific historians, was no
+artist. His style is the very opposite of that of Isocrates and the
+rhetoricians. It is often only clear in the light of inscriptions, so
+closely does it keep to the sources. The style found no imitator;
+history passed from Greece to Rome in the guise of rhetoric. In
+Dionysius of Halicarnassus the rhetoric was combined with an extensive
+study of the sources; but the influence of the Greek rhetoricians upon
+Roman prose was deplorable from the standpoint of science. Cicero,
+although he said that the duty of the historian is to conceal nothing
+true, to say nothing false, would in practice have written the kind of
+history that Polybius denounced. He finds fault with those who are _non
+exornatores rerum sed tantum narratores_. History for him is the mine
+from which to draw argument in oratory and example in education. It is
+not the subject of a scientific curiosity.
+
+It should be noted before we pass to Rome that with the expansion of
+Hellenism the subject of historians expanded as well. Universal history
+was begun by Ephorus, the rhetorician, and formed the theme of Polybius
+and Deodorus. Exiled Greeks were the first to write histories of Rome
+worthy of the name. The Alexandrian Eratosthenes placed chronology upon
+the scientific basis of astronomy, and Apollodorus drew up the most
+important _chronica_ of antiquity.
+
+History-writing in Rome,--except for the Greek writers resident
+there,--was until the first half of the 1st century B.C. in the form of
+annals. Then came rhetorical ornamentation,--and the Ciceronian era. The
+first Roman historian who rose to the conception of a science and art
+combined was Sallust, the student of Thucydides. The Augustan age
+produced in Livy a great popular historian and natural artist and a
+trained rhetorician (in the speeches),--but as uncritical and inaccurate
+as he was brilliant. From Livy to Tacitus the gulf is greater than from
+Herodotus to Thucydides. Tacitus is at least a consummate artist. His
+style ranges from the brilliancy of his youth to the sternness and
+sombre gravity of age, passing almost to poetic expression in its
+epigrammatic terseness. Yet in spite of his searching study of
+authorities, his keen judgment of men, and his perception of underlying
+principles of moral law, his view was warped by the heat of faction,
+which glows beneath his external objectivity. After him Roman
+history-writing speedily degenerated. Suetonius' _Lives of the Caesars_
+is but a superior kind of journalism. But his gossip of the court became
+the model for historians, whose works, now lost, furnish the main source
+for the _Historia Augusta_. The importance to us of this uncritical
+collection of biographies is sufficient comment on the decline of
+history-writing in the latter empire. Finally, from the 4th century the
+epitomes of Eutropius and Festus served to satisfy the lessening
+curiosity in the past and became the handbooks for the middle ages. The
+single figure of Ammianus Marcellinus stands out of this age like a
+belated disciple of Tacitus. But the world was changing from antique to
+Christian ideals just as he was writing, and with him we leave this
+outline of ancient history.
+
+The 4th and 5th centuries saw a great revolution in the history of
+history. The story of the pagan past slipped out of mind, and in its
+place was set, by the genius of Eusebius, the story of the world force
+which had superseded it, Christianity, and of that small fraction of
+antiquity from which it sprang,--the Jews. Christianity from the first
+had forced thinking men to reconstruct their philosophy of history, but
+it was only after the Church's triumph that its point of view became
+dominant in historiography. Three centuries more passed before the pagan
+models were quite lost to sight. But from the 7th century to the
+17th--from Isidore of Seville and the English Bede for a thousand
+years,--mankind was to look back along the line of Jewish priests and
+kings to the Creation. Egypt was of interest only as it came into
+Israelite history, Babylon and Nineveh were to illustrate the judgments
+of Yahweh, Tyre and Sidon to reflect the glory of Solomon. The process
+by which the "gentiles" have been robbed of their legitimate history was
+the inevitable result of a religion whose sacred books make them lay
+figures for the history of the Jews. Rejected by the Yahweh who became
+the Christian God, they have remained to the present day, in Sunday
+schools and in common opinion, not nations of living men, with the
+culture of arts and sciences, but outcasts who do not enter into the
+divine scheme of the world's history. When a line was drawn between
+pagan and Christian back to the creation of the world, it left outside
+the pale of inquiry nearly all antiquity. But it must be remembered that
+that antiquity was one in which the German nations had no personal
+interest. Scipio and the Gracchi were essentially unreal to them. The
+one living organization with which they came into touch was the Church.
+So Cicero and Pompey paled before Joshua and Paul. Diocletian, the
+organizing genius, became a bloodthirsty monster, and Constantine, the
+murderer, a saint.
+
+Christian history begins with the triumph of the Church. With Eusebius
+of Caesarea the apologetic pamphlets of the age of persecutions gave way
+to a calm review of three centuries of Christian progress. Eusebius'
+biography of Constantine shows what distortion of fact the father of
+Church history permitted himself, but the Ecclesiastical History was
+fortunately written for those who wanted to know what really happened,
+and remains to-day an invaluable repository of Christian antiquities.
+With the continuations of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and the Latin
+manual which Cassiodorus had woven from them (the _Historia
+tripartita_), it formed the body of Church history during all the middle
+ages. An even greater influence, however, was exercised by Eusebius'
+_Chronica_. Through Jerome's translation and additions, this scheme of
+this world's chronology became the basis for all medieval world
+chronicles. It settled until our own day the succession of years from
+the Creation to the birth of Christ,--fitting the Old Testament story
+into that of ancient history. Henceforth the Jewish past,--that one path
+back to the beginning of the world,--was marked out by the absolute laws
+of mathematics and revelation. Jerome had marked it out; Sulpicius
+Severus, the biographer of St Martin, in his _Historia sacra_, adorned
+it with the attractions of romance. Sulpicius was admirably fitted to
+interpret the miraculous Bible story to the middle ages. But there were
+few who could write like him, and Jerome's _Chronicle_ itself, or rather
+portions of it, became, in the age which followed, a sort of universal
+preface for the monastic chronicler. For a time there were even attempts
+to continue "imperial chronicles," but they were insignificant compared
+with the influence of Eusebius and Jerome.
+
+From the first, Christianity had a philosophy of history. Its earliest
+apologists sought to show how the world had followed a divine plan in
+its long preparation for the life of Christ. From this central fact of
+all history, mankind should continue through war and suffering until the
+divine plan was completed at the judgment day. The fate of nations is in
+God's hands; history is the revelation of His wisdom and power. Whether
+He intervenes directly by miracle, or merely sets His laws in operation,
+He is master of men's fate. This idea, which has underlain all Christian
+philosophy of history, from the first apologists who prophesied the fall
+of the Empire and the coming of the millennium, down to our own day,
+received its classic statement in St Augustine's _City of God_. The
+terrestrial city, whose eternity had been the theme of pagan history,
+had just fallen before Alaric's Goths. Augustine's explanation of its
+fall passes in review not only the calamities of Roman history--combined
+with a pathetic perception of its greatness,--but carries the survey
+back to the origin of evil at the creation. Then over against this
+_civitas terrena_ he sets the divine city which is to be realized in
+Christendom. The Roman Empire,--the last general form of the earthly
+city,--gives way slowly to the heavenly. This is the main thread of
+Augustine's philosophy of history. The mathematical demonstration of its
+truth was left by Augustine for his disciple, Paulus Orosius.
+
+Orosius' _Seven Books of Histories against the Pagans_, written as a
+supplement to the _City of God_, is the first attempt at a Christian
+"World History." This manual for the middle ages arranged the rise and
+fall of empires with convincing exactness. The history of antiquity,
+according to it, begins with Ninus. His realm was overthrown by the
+Medes in the same year in which the history of Rome began. From the
+first year of Ninus' reign until the rebuilding of Babylon by Semiramis
+there were sixty-four years; the same between the first of Procas and
+the building of Rome. Eleven hundred and sixty-four years after each
+city was built, it was taken,--Babylon by Cyrus, Rome by Alaric, and
+Cyrus' conquest took place just when Rome began the Republic. But before
+Rome becomes a world empire, Macedon and Carthage intervene, guardians
+of Rome's youth (_tutor curatorque_). This scheme of the four
+world-monarchies, which was to prevail through all the middle ages, was
+developed through seven books filled with the story of war and
+suffering. As it was Orosius' aim to show that the world had improved
+since the coming of Christ, he used Trogus Pompeius' war history,
+written to exalt Roman triumphs, to show the reverse of
+victory,--disaster and ruin. Livy, Caesar, Tacitus and Suetonius were
+plundered for the story of horrors; until finally even the Goths in
+Spain shine by contrast with the pagan heroes; and through the confusion
+of the German invasions one may look forward to Christendom,--and its
+peace.
+
+The commonest form of medieval historical writing was the chronicle,
+which reaches all the way from monastic annals, mere notes on Easter
+tables, to the dignity of national monuments. Utterly lacking in
+perspective, and dominated by the idea of the miraculous, they are for
+the most part a record of the trivial or the marvellous. Individual
+historians sometimes recount the story of their own times with sober
+judgment, but seldom know how to test their sources when dealing with
+the past. Contradictions are often copied down without the writer
+noticing them; and since the middle ages forged and falsified so many
+documents,--monasteries, towns and corporations gaining privileges or
+titles of possession by the bold use of them,--the narrative of medieval
+writers cannot be relied upon unless we can verify it by collateral
+evidence. Some historians, like Otto of Freising, Guibert of Nogent or
+Bernard Gui, would have been scientific if they had had our appliances
+for comparison. But even men like Roger Bacon, who deplored the
+inaccuracy of texts, had worked out no general method to apply in their
+restoration. Toward the close of the middle ages the vernacular
+literatures were adorned with Villani's and Froissart's chronicles. But
+the merit of both lies in their journalistic qualities of contemporary
+narrative. Neither was a history in the truest sense.
+
+The Renaissance marked the first great gain in the historic sense, in
+the efforts of the humanists to realize the spirit of the antique world.
+They did not altogether succeed; antiquity to them meant largely Plato
+and Cicero. Their interests were literary, and the un-Ciceronian
+centuries were generally ignored. Those in which the foundations of
+modern Europe were laid, which produced parliaments, cathedrals, cities,
+Dante and Chaucer, were grouped alike on one dismal level and christened
+the middle ages. The perspective of the humanists was only one degree
+better than that of the middle ages. History became the servant to
+literature, an adjunct to the classics. Thus it passed into the schools,
+where text-books still in use devote 200 pages to the Peloponnesian war
+and two to the Athens of Pericles.
+
+But if the literary side of humanism has been a barrier to the progress
+of scientific history, the discovery and elucidation of texts first made
+that progress possible. Historical criticism soon awoke. Laurentius
+Valla's brilliant attack on the "Donation of Constantine" (1440), and
+Ulrich von Hutten's rehabilitation of Henry IV. from monkish tales mark
+the rise of the new science. One sees at a glance what an engine of
+controversy it was to be; yet for a while it remained but a phase of
+humanism. It was north of the Alps that it parted company with the
+grammarians. Classical antiquity was an Italian past, the German
+scholars turned back to the sources of their national history. Aeneas
+Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had discovered Otto of Freising and
+Jordanes. Maximilian I. encouraged the search for manuscripts, and
+Vienna became a great humanistic centre. Conrad Celtes left his
+_Germania illustrata_ unfinished, but he had found the works of
+Hroswitha. Conrad Peutinger gathered all sorts of Chronicles in his room
+in Vienna, and published several,--among them Gregory of Tours. This
+national movement of the 15th century was not paralleled in France or
+England, where the classical humanities reigned. The Reformation
+meanwhile gave another turn to the work of German scholars.
+
+The Reformation, with its heated controversies, seems a strange
+starting-point for science, yet it, even more than the Renaissance,
+brought out scientific methods of historical investigation. It not only
+sobered the humanist tendency to sacrifice truth for aesthetic effect,
+it called for the documents of the Church and subjected them to the most
+hostile criticism. Luther himself challenged them. Then in the
+_Magdeburg Centuries_ (1559-1574) Protestantism tried to make good its
+attack on the medieval Church by a great collection of sources
+accompanied with much destructive criticism. This gigantic work is the
+first monument of modern historical research. The reply of Cardinal
+Baronius (_Annales ecclesiastici_, 1588-1697) was a still greater
+collection, drawn from archives which till then had not been used for
+scientific history. Baronius' criticism and texts are faulty, though far
+surpassing anything before his day, and his collection is the basis for
+most subsequent ones,--in spite of J. J. Scaliger's refutation, which
+was to contain an equal number of volumes of the errors in Baronius.
+
+The movement back to the sources in Germany until the Thirty Years' War
+was a notable one. Collections were made by Simon Schard (1535-1573),
+Johannes Pistorius (1576-1608), Marquard Freher (1565-1614), Melchior
+Goldast (1576-1635) and others. After the war Leibnitz began a new
+epoch, both by his philosophy with its law of continuity in phenomena,
+and by his systematic attempt to collect sources through an association
+(1670). His plan to have documents printed as they were, instead of
+"correcting" them, was a notable advance. But from Leibnitz until the
+19th century German national historiography made little
+progress,--although church historians like Mosheim and Neander stand out
+among the greatest historians of all time.
+
+France had not paralleled the activity of Maximilian's Renaissance
+historians. The father of modern French history, or at least of
+historical research, was Andre Duchesne (1584-1640), whose splendid
+collections of sources are still in use. Jean Bodin wrote the first
+treatise on scientific history (_Methodus ad facilem historiarum
+cognitionem_, 1566), but he did not apply his own principles of
+criticism; and it was left for the Benedictine monks of the Congregation
+of St Maur to establish definitely the new science. The place of this
+school in the history of history is absolutely without a parallel. Few
+of those in the audiences of Moliere, returning home under the grey
+walls of St Germain-des-Pres, knew that within that monastery the men
+whose midnight they disturbed were laying the basis for all scientific
+history; and few of the later historians of that age have been any
+wiser. But when Luc d'Achery turned from exegetics to patristics and the
+lives of the saints, as a sort of Christian humanist, he led the way to
+that vast work of collection and comparison of texts which developed
+through Mabillon, Montfaucon, Ruinart, Martene, Bouquet and their
+associates, into the indispensable implements of modern historians.
+Here, as in the Reformation, controversy called out the richest product.
+Jean Mabillon's treatise, _De re diplomatica_ (1681), was due to the
+criticisms of that group of Belgian Jesuits whose _Acta Sanctorum
+quotquot toto orbe coluntur_ (1643, &c., see BOLLANDISTS) was destined
+to grow into the greatest repository of legend and biography the world
+has seen. In reply to D. Papebroch's criticisms of the chronicle of St
+Denis, Mabillon prepared this manual for the testing of medieval
+documents. Its canons are the basis, indeed, almost the whole, of the
+science of diplomatic (q.v.), the touchstone of truth for medieval
+research. Henceforth even the mediocre scholar had a body of technical
+rules by which to sort out the vast mass of apocrypha in medieval
+documentary sources. Scientific history depends upon implements.
+Without manuals, dictionaries, and easy access to texts, we should go as
+far astray as any medieval chronicler. The France of the Maurists
+supplied the most essential of these instruments. The great "glossary"
+of Ducange is still in enlarged editions the indispensable encyclopaedia
+of the middle ages. Chronology and palaeography were placed on a new
+footing by Dom Bernard de Montfaucon's _Palaeographia graeca_ (1708),
+the monumental _Art de verifier les dates_ (3rd ed., 1818-1831, in 38
+vols.), and the _Nouveau Traite de diplomatique_ (1750-1765) of Dom
+Tassin and Dom Toustain. The collections of texts which the Maurists
+published are too many and too vast to be enumerated here (see C.
+Langlois, _Manuel de bibliographie historique_, pp. 293 ff.). Dom
+Bouquet's _Historiens de la Gaule et de la France_--the national
+repertory for French historians--is but one of a dozen tasks of similar
+magnitude. During the 18th century this deep under-work of scientific
+history continued to advance, though for the most part unseen by the
+brilliant writers whose untrustworthy generalities passed for history in
+the salons of the old regime. Interrupted by the Revolution, it revived
+in the 19th century, and the roll of honour of the French Ecole des
+Chartes has almost rivalled that of St Germain-des-Pres.
+
+The father of critical history in Italy was L. A. Muratori (1672-1750),
+the Italian counterpart of Leibnitz. His vast collection of sources
+(_Rerum Italicarum scriptores_), prepared amid every discouragement,
+remains to-day the national monument of Italian history; and it is but
+one of his collections. His output is perhaps the greatest of any
+isolated worker in the whole history of historiography. The same haste,
+but much less care, marked the work of J. D. Mansi (d. 1769), the
+compiler of the fullest collection of the Councils. Spain, stifled by
+the Inquisition, produced no national collection of sources during the
+17th and 18th centuries, although Nicolas Antonio (d. 1684) produced a
+national literary history of the first rank.
+
+England in the 16th century kept pace with Continental historiography.
+Henry VIII.'s chaplain, John Leland, is the father of English
+antiquaries. Three of the most precious collections of medieval
+manuscripts still in existence were then begun by Thomas Bodley (the
+Bodleian at Oxford), Archbishop Matthew Parker (Corpus Christi at
+Cambridge), and Robert Cotton (the Cottonian collection of the British
+Museum). In Elizabeth's reign a serious effort was made to arrange the
+national records, but until the end of the 18th century they were
+scattered in not less than fifteen repositories. In the 17th and 18th
+centuries English scholarship was enriched by such monuments of research
+as William Dugdale's _Monasticon_, Thomas Madox's _History of the
+Exchequer_, Wilkins's _Concilia_, and Thomas Rymer's _Foedera_. But
+these works, important as they were, gave but little idea of the wealth
+of historical sources which the 19th century was to reveal in England.
+
+In the 19th century the science of history underwent a sort of
+industrial revolution. The machinery of research, invented by the genius
+of men like Mabillon, was perfected and set going in all the archives of
+Europe. Isolated workers or groups of workers grew into national or
+international associations, producing from archives vast collections of
+material to be worked up into the artistic form of history. The result
+of this movement has been to revolutionize the whole subject. These men
+of the factory--devoting their lives to the cataloguing of archives and
+libraries, to the publication of material, and then to the gigantic task
+of indexing what they have produced--have made it possible for the
+student in an American or Australian college to master in a few hours in
+his library sources of history which baffled the long years of research
+of a Martene or Rymer. The texts themselves have mostly become as
+correct as they can ever be, and manuals and bibliographies guide one to
+and through them, so that no one need go astray who takes the trouble to
+make use of the mechanism which is at his hand. For example, since the
+papal archives were opened, so many _regesta_ have appeared that soon it
+will be possible to follow the letter-writing of the medieval popes day
+by day for century after century.
+
+The apparatus for this research is too vast to be described here.
+Archives have been reformed, their contents catalogued or calendared;
+government commissions have rescued numberless documents from oblivion
+or destruction, and learned societies have supplemented and criticized
+this work and co-ordinated the results. Every state in Europe now has
+published the main sources for its history. The "Rolls" series, the
+_Monumenta Germaniae historica_, and the _Documents inedits_ are but the
+more notable of such national products. A series of periodicals keeps
+watch over this enormous output. The files and indices of the _English
+Historical Review_, _Historische Zeitschrift_, _Revue historique_, or
+_American Historical Review_ will alone reveal the strength and
+character of historical research in the later 19th century.
+
+Every science which deals with human phenomena is in a way an implement
+in this great factory system, in which the past is welded together
+again. Psychology has been drawn upon to interpret the movements of
+revolutions or religions, anthropology and ethnology furnish a clue to
+problems to which the key of documents has been lost. Genealogy,
+heraldry and chronology run parallel with the wider subject. But the
+real auxiliary sciences to history are those which deal with those
+traces of the past that still exist, the science of language
+(philology), of writing (palaeography), of documents (diplomatic), of
+seals (sphragistics), of coins (numismatics), of weights and measures,
+and archaeology in the widest sense of the word. These sciences underlie
+the whole development of scientific history. Dictionaries and manuals
+are the instruments of this industrial revolution. Without them the
+literary remains of the race would still be as useless as Egyptian
+inscriptions to the fellaheen. Archaeology itself remained but a minor
+branch of art until the machinery was perfected which enabled it to
+classify and interpret the remains of the "pre-historic" age.
+
+This is the most remarkable chapter in the whole history of history--the
+recovery of that past which had already been lost when our literary
+history began. The perspective stretches out as far the other side of
+Homer as we are this. The old "providential" scheme of history
+disintegrates before a new interest in the "gentile" nations to whose
+high culture Hebrew sources bore unwilling testimony. Biblical criticism
+is a part of the historic process. The Jewish texts, once the infallible
+basis of history, are now tested by the libraries of Babylon, from which
+they were partly drawn, and Hebrew history sinks into its proper place
+in the wide horizon of antiquity. The finding of the Rosetta stone left
+us no longer dependent upon Greek, Latin or Hebrew sources, and now
+fifty centuries of Egyptian history lie before us. The scientific
+historian of antiquity works on the hills of Crete, rather than in the
+quiet of a library with the classics spread out before him. There he can
+reconstruct the splendour of that Minoan age to which Homeric poems look
+back, as the Germanic epics looked back to Rome or Verona. His
+discoveries, co-ordinated and arranged in vast _corpora inscriptionum_,
+stand now alongside Herodotus or Livy, furnishing a basis for their
+criticism. Medieval archaeology has, since Quicherat, revealed how men
+were living while the monks wrote chronicles, and now cathedrals and
+castles are studied as genuine historic documents.
+
+The immense increase in available sources, archaeological and literary,
+has remade historical criticism. Ranke's application of the principles
+of "higher criticism" to works written since the invention of printing
+(_Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber_) was an epoch-making challenge of
+narrative sources. Now they are everywhere checked by contemporary
+evidence, and a clearer sense of what constitutes a primary source has
+discredited much of what had been currently accepted as true. This is
+true not only of ancient history, where last year's book may be a
+thousand years out of date, but of the whole field. Hardly an "old
+master" remains an authoritative book of reference. Gibbon, Grote,
+Giesebrecht, Guizot stand to-day by reason of other virtues than their
+truth. Old landmarks drop out of sight--e.g. the fall of the Western
+Empire in 476, the coming of the Greeks to Italy in 1450, dates which
+once enclosed the middle ages. The perspective changes--the Renaissance
+grows less and the middle ages more; the Protestant Revolution becomes
+a complex of economics and politics and religion; the French Revolution
+a vast social reform in which the Terror was an incident, &c., &c. The
+result has been a complete transformation of history since the middle of
+the 19th century.
+
+In the 17th century the Augustinian scheme of world history received its
+last classic statement in Bossuet's _Histoire universelle_. Voltaire's
+reply to it in the 18th (_Essai sur les moeurs_) attacked its
+limitations on the basis of deism, and its miraculous procedure on that
+of science. But while there are foreshadowings of the evolutionary
+theory in this work, neither the _philosophe_ historians nor Hume nor
+Gibbon arrived at a constructive principle in history which could take
+the place of the Providence they rejected. Religion, though false, might
+be a real historic force. History became the tragic spectacle of a game
+of dupes--the real movers being priests, kings or warriors. The pawns
+slowly acquired reason, and then would be able to regulate the moves
+themselves. But all this failed to give a satisfactory explanation of
+the laws which determine the direction of this evolution. Giovanni
+Battista Vico (1668-1744) was the first to ask why there is no science
+of human history. But his lonely life and unrecognized labours leave him
+apart from the main movement, until his works were discovered again in
+the 19th century. It was A. L. H. Heeren who, at the opening of the 19th
+century, first laid that emphasis upon the economic factors in history
+which is to-day slowly replacing the Augustinian explanation of its
+evolution. Heeren's own influence, however, was slight. The first half
+of the century (apart from the scientific activity of Pertz, Guizot,
+&c.) was largely dominated by the romanticists, with their exaggeration
+of the individual. Carlyle's "great man theory of history" is logically
+connected with the age of Scott. It was a philosophy of history which
+lent itself to magnificent dramatic creations; but it explained nothing.
+It substituted the work of the genius for the miraculous intervention of
+Providence, but, apart from certain abstract formulae such as Truth and
+Right, knew nothing of why or how. It is but dealing in words to say
+that the meaning of it all is God's revelation of Himself. Granting
+that, what is the process? Why does it so slowly reveal the Right of the
+middle ages (as in slavery for instance) to be the Wrong to-day? Carlyle
+stands to Bossuet as the sage to the myth. Hegel got no closer to
+realities. His idealistic scheme of history, which makes religion the
+keynote of progress, and describes the function of each--Judaism to
+typify duty, Confucianism order, Mahommedanism justice, Buddhism
+patience, and Christianity love--does not account for the facts of the
+history enacted by the devotees. It characterizes, not the real process
+of evolution, but an ideal which history has not realized. Besides, it
+does not face the question how far religion itself is a product or a
+cause, or both combined.
+
+In the middle of the century two men sought to incorporate in their
+philosophy the physical basis which Hegel had ignored in his
+spiritism--recognizing that life is conditioned by an environment and
+not an abstraction for metaphysics. H. T. Buckle, in his _History of
+Civilization in England_ (1857), was the first to work out the
+influences of the material world upon history, developing through a
+wealth of illustration the importance of food, soil and the general
+aspect of nature upon the formation of society. Buckle did not, as is
+generally believed, make these three factors dominate all history. He
+distinctly stated that "the advance of European civilization is
+characterized by a diminishing influence of physical laws and an
+increasing influence of mental laws," and "the measure of civilization
+is the triumph of mind over external agents." Yet his challenge, not
+only to the theologian, but also to those "historians whose indolence of
+thought" or "natural incapacity" prevented them from attempting more
+than the annalistic record of events, called out a storm of protest from
+almost every side. Now that the controversy has cleared away, we see
+that in spite of Buckle's too confident formulation of his laws, his
+pioneer work in a great field marks him out as the Augustine of the
+scientific age. Among historians, however, Buckle's theory received but
+little favour for another generation. Meanwhile the economists had
+themselves taken up the problem, and it was from them that the
+historians of to-day have learned it. Ten years before Buckle published
+his history, Karl Marx had already formulated the "economic theory of
+history." Accepting with reservation Feuerbach's attack on the Hegelian
+"absolute idea," based on materialistic grounds (_Der Mensch ist, was er
+isst_), Marx was led to the conclusion that the causes of that process
+of growth which constitutes the history of society are to be found in
+the economic conditions of existence. From this he went on to socialism,
+which bases its militant philosophy upon this interpretation of history.
+But the truth or falseness of socialism does not affect the theory of
+history. In 1845 Marx wrote of the Young-Hegelians that to separate
+history from natural science and industry was like separating the soul
+from the body, and "finding the birthplace of history, not in the gross
+material production on earth, but in the misty cloud formation of
+heaven" (_Die heilige Familie_, p. 238). In his _Misere de la
+philosophie_ (1847) he lays down the principle that social relationships
+largely depend upon modes of production, and therefore the principles,
+ideas and categories which are thus evolved are no more eternal than the
+relations they express, but are historical and transitory products. In
+the famous _Manifesto of the Communist Party_ (1848) the theory was
+applied to show how the industrial revolution had replaced feudal with
+modern conditions. But it had little vogue, except among Socialists,
+until the third volume of _Das Kapital_ was published in 1894, when its
+importance was borne in upon continental scholars. Since then the
+controversy has been almost as heated as in the days of the Reformation.
+It is an exaggeration of the theory which makes it an explanation of all
+human life, but the whole science of dynamic sociology rests upon the
+postulate of Marx.
+
+The content of history always reflects the interests of the age in which
+it is written. It was so in Herodotus and in medieval chronicles. Modern
+historians began with politics. But as the complex nature of society
+became more evident in the age of democracy, the economic or
+sociological history gained ground. Histories of commerce and cities now
+rank beside those on war and kings, although there are readers still who
+prefer to follow the pennants of robber barons rather than to watch the
+slow evolution of modern conditions. The drum-and-trumpet history has
+its place like that of art, jurisprudence, science or philosophy. Only
+now we know that no one of these is more than a single glimpse at a vast
+complex of phenomena, most of which lie for ever beyond our ken.
+
+This expansion of interest has intensified specialization. Historians no
+longer attempt to write world histories; they form associations of
+specialists for the purpose. Each historian chooses his own epoch or
+century and his own subject, and spends his life mastering such traces
+of it as he can find. His work there enables him to judge of the methods
+of his fellows, but his own remains restricted by the very wealth of
+material which has been accumulated on the single subject before him.
+Thus the great enterprises of to-day are co-operative--the _Cambridge
+Modern History_, Lavisse and Rambaud's _Histoire generale_, or Lavisse's
+_Histoire de France_, like Hunt and Poole's _Political History of
+England_, and Oncken's _Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen_.
+But even these vast sets cover but the merest fraction of their
+subjects. The Cambridge history passes for the most part along the
+political crust of society, and seldom glances at the social forces
+within. This limitation of the professed historian is made up for by the
+growingly historical treatment of all the sciences and arts--a tendency
+noted before, to which this edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ is
+itself a notable witness. Indeed, for a definition of that limitless
+subject which includes all the phenomena that stand the warp and stress
+of change, one might adapt a famous epitaph--_si historiam requiris,
+circumspice_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Ch. V. Langlois, _Manuel de bibliographie
+  historique_ (2 vols., 1904). This forms the logical bibliography of
+  this article. It is a general survey of the whole apparatus of
+  historical research, and is the indispensable guide to the subject.
+  Similar bibliographies covering sections of history are noted with the
+  articles where they properly belong, e.g. in English medieval history
+  the manual of Chas. Gross, _Sources and Literature of English
+  History_; in German history the _Quellenkunde_ of Dahlmann-Waitz (7th
+  ed.); for France the _Bibliographie de l'histoire de France_ of G.
+  Monod (antiquated, 1888), or the _Sources de l'histoire de France_ so
+  ably begun by A. Molinier's volumes on the medieval period. Perhaps
+  the sanest survey of the present scientific movement in history is the
+  clear summary of Ch. V. Langlois and Ch. Seignobos, _Introduction to
+  the Study of History_ (trans. with preface by F. York Powell, London,
+  1898). Much more ambitious is E. Bernheim's _Lehrbuch der historischen
+  Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie mit Nachweis der wichtigsten
+  Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Studium der Geschichte_ (3rd and 4th ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1903).     (J. T. S.*)
+
+
+
+
+HIT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Bagdad, on the west
+bank of the Euphrates, 70 m. W.N.W. of Bagdad, in 33 deg. 38' 8" N., 42
+deg. 52' 15" E. It is picturesquely situated on a line of hills, partly
+natural, but in large part certainly artificial, the accumulation of
+centuries of former habitation, from 30 to 100 ft. in height, bordering
+the river. The houses are built of field stones and mud. A striking
+feature of the town is a lofty and well-proportioned minaret, which
+leans quite perceptibly. Behind and around Hit is an extensive but
+utterly barren plain, through which flow several streams of bitter
+water, coming from mineral springs. Directly behind the town are two
+bitumen springs, one cold and one hot, within 30 ft. of one another. The
+gypsum cliffs on the edge of the plain, and the rocks which crop out
+here and there in the plain, are full of seams of bitumen, and the whole
+place is redolent of sulphuretted hydrogen. Across the river there are
+naphtha springs. Indeed, the entire region is one possessing great
+potential wealth in mineral oils and the like. Hit, with its fringe of
+palms, is like an oasis in the desert occasioned by the outcrop of these
+deposits. From time immemorial it has been the chief source of supply of
+bitumen for Babylonia, the prosperity of the town depending always upon
+its bitumen fountains, which are still the property of the government,
+but are rented out to any one who wishes to use them. There is also a
+shipyard at Hit, where the characteristic Babylonian boats are still
+made, smeared within and without with bitumen. Hit is the head of
+navigation on the Euphrates. It is also the point from which the
+camel-post starts across the desert to Damascus. About 8 m. inland from
+Hit, on a bitter stream, lies the small town of Kubeitha. Hit is
+mentioned, under the name of Ist, in the Karnak inscription as paying
+tribute to Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. In the Bible (Ezra viii. 15) it is
+called Ahava; the original Babylonian name seems to have been _Ihi_,
+which becomes in the Talmud _Ihidakira_, in Ptolemy [Greek: Idikara],
+and in Zosimus and Ammianus [Greek: Dakira] and Diacira.
+
+  See Geo. Rawlinson's _Herodotus_, i. 179, and note by H. C. Rawlinson;
+  J. P. Peters, _Nippur_ (1897); H. V. Geere, _By Nile and Euphrates_
+  (1904).     (J. P. Pe.)
+
+
+
+
+HITA, GINES PEREZ DE (1544?-1605?), Spanish novelist and poet, was born
+at Mula (Murcia) about the middle of the 16th century. He served in the
+campaign of 1569-1571 against the Moriscos, and in 1572 wrote a rhymed
+history of the city of Lorca which remained unpublished till 1889. He
+owes his wide celebrity to the _Historia de los bandos de Zegries y
+Abencerrajes_ (1595-1604), better known as the _Guerras civiles de
+Granada_, which purports to be a chronicle based on an Arabic original
+ascribed to a certain Aben-Hamin. Aben-Hamin is a fictitious personage,
+and the _Guerras de Granada_ is in reality a historical novel, perhaps
+the earliest example of its kind, and certainly the first historical
+novel that attained popularity. In the first part the events which led
+to the downfall of Granada are related with uncommon brilliancy, and
+Hita's sympathetic transcription of life at the Emir's court has clearly
+suggested the conventional presentation of the picturesque, chivalrous
+Moor in the pages of Mlle de Scudery, Mme de Lafayette, Chateaubriand
+and Washington Irving. The second part is concerned with the author's
+personal experiences, and the treatment is effective; yet, though
+Calderon's play, _Amar despues de la muerte_, is derived from it, the
+second part has never enjoyed the vogue or influence of the first. The
+exact date of Hita's death is unknown. His blank verse rendering of the
+_Cronica Troyana_, written in 1596, exists in manuscript.
+
+
+
+
+HITCHCOCK, EDWARD (1793-1864), American geologist, was born of poor
+parents at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the 24th of May 1793. He owed
+his education chiefly to his own exertions, and was preparing himself
+to enter Harvard College when he was compelled to interrupt his studies
+from a weakness in his eyesight. In 1815 he became principal of the
+academy of his native town; but he resigned this office in 1818 in order
+to study for the ministry. Having been ordained in 1821 pastor of the
+Congregational church of Conway, Mass., he employed his leisure in
+making a scientific survey of the western counties of the state. From
+1825 to 1845 he was professor of chemistry and natural history, from
+1845 to 1864 was professor of natural theology and geology at Amherst
+College, and from 1845 to 1854 was president; the college owed its early
+success largely to his energetic efforts, especially during the period
+of his presidency. In 1830 he was appointed state geologist of
+Massachusetts, and in 1836 was made geologist of the first district of
+the state of New York. In 1840 he received the degree of LL.D. from
+Harvard, and in 1846 that of D.D. from Middlebury College, Vermont.
+Besides his constant labours in geology, zoology and botany, Hitchcock
+took an active interest in agriculture, and in 1850 he was sent by the
+Massachusetts legislature to examine into the methods of the
+agricultural schools of Europe. In geology he made a detailed
+examination and exposition of the fossil footprints from the Triassic
+sandstones of the Connecticut valley. His collection is preserved in the
+Hitchcock Ichnological Museum of Amherst College, and a description of
+it was published in 1858 in his report to the Massachusetts legislature
+on the ichnology of New England. The footprints were regarded as those
+of reptiles, amphibia and birds (?). In 1857 he undertook, with the aid
+of his two sons, the geological survey of Vermont, which was completed
+in 1861. As a writer on geological science, Hitchcock was largely
+concerned in determining the connexion between it and religion, and
+employing its results to explain and support what he regarded as the
+truths of revelation. He died at Amherst, on the 27th of February 1864.
+
+His son, CHARLES HENRY HITCHCOCK (1836-   ), did good service in geology,
+in Vermont, New Hampshire (1868-1878), and other parts of America, and
+became professor of geology at Dartmouth in 1868.
+
+  The following are Edward Hitchcock's principal works: _Geology of the
+  Connecticut Valley_ (1823); _Catalogue of Plants growing without
+  cultivation in the vicinity of Amherst_ (1829); _Reports on the
+  Geology of Massachusetts_ (1833-1841); _Elementary Geology_ (1840; ed.
+  2, 1841; and later ed. with C. H. Hitchcock, 1862); _Fossil Footmarks
+  in the United States_ (1848); _Outline of the Geology of the Globe and
+  of the United States in particular_ (1853); _Illustrations of Surface
+  Geology_ (1856); _Ichnology of New England_ (1858); _The Religion of
+  Geology and its Connected Sciences_ (1851; new ed., 1869);
+  _Reminiscences of Amherst College_ (1863); and various papers in the
+  _American Journal of Science_, and other periodicals.
+
+
+
+
+HITCHCOCK, GEORGE (1850-   ), American artist, was born at Providence,
+Rhode Island, in 1850. He graduated from Brown University in 1872 and
+from the law school of Harvard University in 1874; then turned his
+attention to art and became a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris.
+He attracted notice in the Salon of 1885 with his "Tulip Growing," a
+Dutch garden which he painted in Holland. He had for years a studio at
+Egmond, in the Netherlands. He became a Chevalier of the Legion of
+Honour, France; a member of the Vienna Academy of Arts, the Munich
+Secession Society, and other art bodies; and is represented in the
+Dresden gallery; the imperial collection, Vienna; the Chicago Art
+Institute, and the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts.
+
+
+
+
+HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT (1817-1887), American divine, was born at East
+Machias, Maine, on the 15th of August 1817, graduated at Amherst College
+in 1836, and later studied at Andover Theological Seminary, Mass. After
+a visit to Germany he was a tutor at Amherst in 1839-1842, and was
+minister of the First (Congregational) Church, Exeter, New Hampshire, in
+1845-1852. He became professor of natural and revealed religion in
+Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1852, and in 1855 professor of
+church history in the Union Theological Seminary in New York, of which
+he was president in 1880-1887. He died at Somerset, Mass., on the 16th
+of June 1887.
+
+  Among his works are: _Life of Edward Robinson_ (1863); _Socialism_
+  (1879); _Carmina Sanctorum_ (with Z. Eddy and L. W. Mudge, 1885); and
+  _Eternal Atonement_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+HITCHIN, a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary division of
+Hertfordshire, England, on the small river Hiz, 32 m. N. from London by
+the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 10,072. It is
+the junction of the main line with the Cambridge branch, and with a
+branch of the Midland railway to Bedford. The church of St Mary is
+Perpendicular, with a fine porch, a painting of the Adoration of the
+Magi, attributed to Rubens, a small crypt said to have been used by
+Cromwell as a prison for the Royalists, and many interesting monuments.
+Hitchin Priory is a mansion on the site of a Carmelite foundation of the
+early 14th century. A Gilbertine nunnery, founded later in the same
+century, stood adjacent to the church, and portions of the buildings
+appear in an existing block of almshouses. The grammar school (1632) was
+reconstituted in 1889 for boys and girls. Straw-plaiting, malting,
+brewing, and the cultivation and distillation of lavender and peppermint
+are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+HITTITES, an ancient people, alluded to frequently in the earlier
+records of Israel, and also, under slightly variant names, in Egyptian
+records of the XVIIIth, XIXth and XXth Dynasties, and in Assyrian from
+about 1100 to 700 B.C. They appear also in the Vannic cuneiform texts,
+and are believed to be the authors of a class of monuments bearing
+inscriptions in a peculiar pictographic character, and widely
+distributed over Asia Minor and N. Syria, around which much controversy
+has raged during the past thirty years.
+
+1. _The Bible._--In the Old Testament the name of the race is written
+_Heth_ (with initial aspirate), members of it being _Hitti_, _Hittim_,
+which the Septuagint renders [Greek: chet], [Greek: chettaios], [Greek:
+chettein] or [Greek: chetteim], keeping, it will be noted, [epsilon] in
+the stem throughout. The race appears in two connexions, (a) In
+pre-Israelite Palestine, it is resident about Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 3),
+and in the central uplands (Num. xiii. 29). To Joshua (i. 4) is promised
+"from the wilderness and this Lebanon even unto the great river, the
+river Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites." The term "wilderness"
+here is of geographical ambiguity; but the promise is usually taken to
+mean that Palestine itself was part of the Hittite land before the
+coming of Israel; and an apostrophe of Ezekiel (xvi. 3) to Jerusalem,
+"thy mother (was) an Hittite," is quoted in confirmation. Under the
+monarchy we hear frequently of Hittites within the borders of Israel,
+but either as a small subject people, coupled with other petty tribes,
+or as individuals in the Jewish service (e.g. Uriah, in the time of
+David). It appears, therefore, that there survived in Palestine to late
+times a detached Hittite population, with which Hebrews sometimes
+intermarried (Judges iii. 5-6; Gen. xxvi. 34) and lived in relations now
+amicable, now tyrannical (e.g. Hittites were made tributary bondsmen by
+Solomon, 1 Kings ix. 20, 21; 2 Chron. viii. 7, 8). (b) An independent
+and powerful Hittite people was domiciled N. of Palestine proper,
+organized rather as a confederacy of tribes than a single monarchy (1
+Kings x. 28; 2 Kings vii. 6). Presumably it was a daughter of these
+Hittites that Solomon took to wife. If the emendation of 2 Sam. xxiv.
+64, "Tahtim-hodshi," based on the Septuagint version [Greek: gen
+chetteim kades] be accepted, we hear of them at Kadesh on Orontes; and
+some minor Hittite cities are mentioned, e.g. Luz; but no one capital
+city of the race is clearly indicated. Carchemish, on the Euphrates,
+though mentioned three times (2 Chron. xxxv. 20; Isa. x. 9; Jer. xlvi.
+2), is not connected explicitly with Hittites, a fact which is not
+surprising, since that city was no longer under a Hatti dynasty at the
+epoch of the Old Testament references. So far as the Old Testament goes,
+therefore, we gather that the Hittites were a considerable people,
+widely spread in Syria, in part subdued and to some extent assimilated
+by Israel, but in part out of reach. The latter portion was not much
+known to the Hebrews, but was vaguely feared as a power in the early
+days of the monarchy, though not in the later pre-Captivity period. The
+identification of the northern and southern Hittites, however, presents
+certain difficulties not yet fully explained; and it seems that we must
+assume Heth to have been the name both of a country in the north and of
+a tribal population not confined to that country.
+
+2. _Egyptian Records._--The decipherment of the inscriptions of the
+XVIIIth Theban Dynasty led, before the middle of the 19th century, to
+the discovery of the important part played in the Syrian campaigns of
+Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. by the H-t8 (vulgarly transliterated _Kheta_,
+though the vocalization is uncertain). The coincidence of this name,
+beginning with an aspirate, led H. K. Brugsch to identify the Kheta with
+Heth. That identification stands, and no earlier Egyptian mention of the
+race has been found. Tethmosis III. found the Kheta ("Great" and
+"Little") in N. Syria, not apparently at Kadesh, but at Carchemish,
+though they had not been in possession of the latter place long (not in
+the epoch of Tethmosis I.'s Syrian campaign). They were a power strong
+enough to give the Pharaoh cause to vaunt his success (see also EGYPT:
+_Ancient History_, S "The New Empire"). Though he says he levied tribute
+upon them, his successors in the dynasty nearly all record fresh wars
+with the Kheta who appear as the northernmost of Pharaoh's enemies, and
+Amenophis or Amenhotep III. saw fit to take to wife Gilukhipa, a Syrian
+princess, who may or may not have been a Hittite. This queen is by some
+supposed to have introduced into Egypt certain exotic ideas which
+blossomed in the reign of Amenophis IV. The first Pharaoh of the
+succeeding dynasty, Rameses I., came to terms with a Kheta king called
+Saplel or Saparura; but Seti I. again attacked the Kheta (1366 B.C.),
+who had apparently pushed southwards. Forced back by Seti, the Kheta
+returned and were found holding Kadesh by Rameses II., who, in his fifth
+year, there fought against them and a large body of allies, drawn
+probably in part from beyond Taurus, the battle which occasioned the
+monumental poem of Pentaur. After long struggles, a treaty was concluded
+in Rameses's twenty-first year, between Pharaoh and "Khetasar" (i.e.
+Kheta-king), of which we possess an Egyptian copy. The discovery of a
+cuneiform tablet containing a copy of this same treaty, in the
+Babylonian language, was reported from Boghaz Keui in Cappadocia by H.
+Winckler in 1907. It argues the Kheta a people of considerable
+civilization. The Kheta king subsequently visited Pharaoh and gave him
+his daughter to wife. Rameses' successor, Mineptah, remained on terms
+with the Kheta folk; but in the reign of Rameses III. (Dyn. XX.) the
+latter seem to have joined in the great raid of northern tribes on Egypt
+which was checked by the battle of Pelusium. From this point (c. 1150
+B.C.)--the point at which (roughly) the monarchic history of Israel in
+Palestine opens--Egyptian records cease to mention Kheta; and as we know
+from other sources that the latter continued powerful in Carchemish for
+some centuries to come, we must presume that the rise of the Israelite
+state interposed an effective political barrier.
+
+3. _Assyrian Records._--In an inscription of Tiglath Pileser I. (about
+1100 B.C.), first deciphered in 1857, a people called _Khatti_ is
+mentioned as powerful in Girgamish on Euphrates (i.e. Carchemish); and
+in other records of the same monarch, subsequently read, much mention is
+made of this and of other N. Syrian names. These Khatti appear again in
+the inscriptions of Assur-nazir-pal (early 9th century B.C.), in whose
+time Carchemish was very wealthy, and the Khatti power extended far over
+N. Syria and even into Mesopotamia. Shalmaneser II. (d. 825 B.C.) raided
+the Khatti and their allies year after year; and at last Sargon III., in
+717 B.C., relates that he captured Carchemish and its king, Pisiris, and
+put an end to its independence. We hear no more of it thenceforward.
+These _Khatti_, there is no reasonable doubt, are identical with
+_Kheta_. (For the chronology see further under BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.)
+
+4. _Other Cuneiform Records._--The name of the race appears in certain
+of the Tel-el-Amarna letters, tablets written in Babylonian script to
+Amenophis (Amenhotep) IV. and found in 1892 on the site of his capital.
+Some of his governors in Syrian districts (e.g. one Aziru of Phoenicia)
+report movements of the Hittites, who were then pursuing an aggressive
+policy (about 1400 B.C.). There are also other letters from rulers of
+principalities in N. Syria (Mitanni) and E. Asia Minor (Arzawa), who
+write in non-Semitic tongues and are supposed to have been Hittites.
+
+Certain _Khate_ or _Khati_ are mentioned in the Vannic inscriptions
+(deciphered partially by A. H. Sayce and others) as attacked by kings
+of Bianas (Van), and apparently domiciled on the middle Euphrates N. of
+Taurus in the 9th century B.C. This name again may safely be identified
+with _Khatti-Kheta_.
+
+The Khatti also appear on a "prophecy-tablet," referring ostensibly to
+the time of Sargon of Agade (middle of 4th millennium B.C.); but the
+document is probably of very much later date. Lastly, a fragmentary
+chronicle of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty mentions an invasion of Akkad by
+them about 1800 B.C.
+
+From all these various sources we should gather that the Hittites were
+among the more important racial elements in N. Syria and S.E. Asia Minor
+for at least a thousand years. The limits at each end, however, are very
+ill defined, the superior falling not later than 2000 B.C. and the
+inferior not earlier than 600 B.C. This people was militant, aggressive
+and unsettled in the earlier part of that time; commercial, wealthy and
+enervated in the latter. A memorial of its trading long remained in Asia
+in the shape of the weight-measure called in cuneiform records the
+_maneh_ "of Carchemish." These Hittites had close relations with other
+Asia Minor peoples, and at times headed a confederacy. During the later
+part of their history they were in continual contact with Assyria, and,
+as a Syrian power, and perhaps also as a Cappadocian one, they finally
+succumbed to Assyrian pressure.
+
+_The "Hittite" Monuments._--It remains to consider in the light of the
+foregoing evidence a class of monuments to which attention began to be
+called about 1870. In that year two Americans, Consul J. A. Johnson and
+the Rev. S. Jessup, rediscovered, at Hamah (Hamath) on Orontes, five
+basaltic blocks bearing pictographic inscriptions in relief, one of
+which had been reported by J. L. Burckhardt in 1812. In spite of their
+efforts and subsequent attempts made by Tyrwhitt Drake and Richard
+Burton, when consul at Damascus, proper copies could not be obtained;
+and it was not till the end of 1872 that, thanks to W. Wright of Beirut,
+casts were taken and the stones themselves sent to Constantinople by
+Subhi Pasha of Damascus. As usually happens when a new class of
+antiquities is announced, it was soon found that the "Hamathite"
+inscriptions did not stand alone. A monument in the same script had been
+seen in Aleppo by Tyrwhitt Drake and George Smith in 1872. It still
+exists, built into a mosque on the western wall of the city. Certain
+clay sealings, eight of which bore pictographic signs, found by A. H.
+Layard in the palace of Assur-bani-pal at Kuyunjik (Nineveh), as long
+ago as 1851 and noticed then as in a "doubtful character," were compared
+by Hayes Ward and found to be of the Hamathite class. A new copy of the
+long known rock-sculpture at Ivriz[1] in S.W. Cappadocia was published
+by E. J. Davis in 1876, and clearly showed Hamathite characters
+accompanying the figures. Davis also reported, but did not see, a
+similar inscription at Bulgar Maden, not far away. Sculptures seen by W.
+Skene and George Smith at Jerablus, on the middle Euphrates, led to
+excavations being undertaken there, in 1878, by the British Museum, and
+to the discovery of certain Hamathite inscriptions accompanying
+sculptures, a few of which were brought to London. The conduct of these
+excavations, owing to the death of George Smith, devolved on Consul
+Henderson of Aleppo, and was not satisfactorily carried out. Meanwhile
+Wright, Ward and Sayce had all suggested "Hittite" as a substitute for
+"Hamathite," because no other N. Syrian people loomed so large in
+ancient records as did the Hittites, and the suggestion began to find
+acceptance. Jerablus was confidently identified with Carchemish (but
+without positive proof to this day), and the occurrence of Hamathite
+monuments there was held to confirm the Hittite theory.
+
+In 1876 Sayce pointed out the resemblance between certain Hittite signs
+and characters in the lately deciphered Cypriote syllabary, and
+suggested that the comparison might lead to a beginning of decipherment;
+but the hope has proved vain. To this scholar, however, is owed the
+next great step ahead. In 1879 it first occurred to him to compare the
+rock-monuments at Boghaz Keui (see PTERIA) and Euyuk in N. Cappadocia,
+discovered by Texier and Hamilton in 1835 and subsequently explored by
+G. Perrot and E. Guillaume. These, he now saw, bore Hittite pictographs.
+Other rock-sculptures at Giaur Kalessi, in Galatia, and in the Karabel
+pass near Smyrna, he suspected of belonging to the same class[2]; and
+visiting the last-named locality in the autumn, he found Hittite
+pictographs accompanying one of the two figures.[3] He announced his
+discoveries in 1880, and proclaimed the fact that a great Hittite
+empire, extending from Kadesh to Smyrna, had risen from the dead. A
+month later he had the good fortune to recover copies of a silver boss,
+or hilt-top, offered to various museums about 1860, but rejected by them
+as a meaningless forgery and for a long time lost again to sight. Round
+the rim was a cuneiform legend, and in the field a Hittite figure with
+six Hittite symbols engraved twice over on either hand of it. Reading
+the cuneiform as _Tarqu-dimme sar mat Erme_ (i.e. "T. king of the
+country E."), Sayce distributed phonetic values, corresponding to the
+syllables of the two proper names, among four of the Hittite characters,
+reserving two as "ideograms" of "king" and "country," and launched into
+the field of decipherment. But he subsequently recognized that this was
+a false start, and began afresh from another basis. Since then a number
+of other monuments have been found, some on new sites, others on sites
+already known to be Hittite, the distribution of which can be seen by
+reference to the accompanying map. It will be observed that, so far as
+at present known, they cluster most closely in Commagene, Cappadocia and
+S. Phrygia.
+
+  The following notes supplement the map:--
+
+  A. WEST ASIA MINOR.--"_Niobe_" (_Suratlu Tash_) and _Karabel_ (two);
+  rock-cut figures with much defaced hieroglyphs in relief. Remains of
+  buildings, not yet explored, lie near the "Niobe" figure. Nothing
+  purely Hittite has been found at Sardis or in any W. Asian excavation;
+  but small Hittite objects have been sold in Smyrna and Aidin.
+
+  B. PHRYGIA.--_Giaur-Kalessi_; rock-cut figures and remains of a
+  stronghold, but no inscriptions. _Doghanludere_ and _Beikeui_ in the
+  Phrygian rock-monument country; at the first is a sculptured
+  rock-panel with a few pictographs in relief; at the latter a fragment
+  of an inscription in relief was disinterred from a mound. _Kolitolu
+  Yaila_, near Ilghin; block inscribed in relief, disinterred from
+  mounds apparently marking a camp or palace-enclosure. _Eflatun Bunar_
+  (= Plato's Spring), W. of Konia; megalithic building with rude and
+  greatly defaced reliefs, not certainly Hittite: no inscription.
+  Fassiler, W. of Konia; gigantic _stela_, or composite statue (figure
+  on animals), not certainly Hittite; no inscription. _Konia_; relief of
+  warrior, drawn by Texier in 1835 and since lost; of very doubtful
+  Hittite character. A gold inscribed Hittite ring, now at Oxford, was
+  bought there in 1903. _Emirghazi_ (anc. _Ardistama_?); three
+  inscriptions in relief (two on altars) and large mounds. Evidently an
+  important Hittite site. _Kara-Dagh_; hill-sanctuary with incised
+  carving of seated figure and inscriptions, found by Miss G. L. Bell
+  and Sir W. M. Ramsay in 1907 (see their _Thousand and One Churches_,
+  1909).
+
+  C. NORTH CAPPADOCIA.--_Boghaz Keui_ (see PTERIA); large city with
+  remains of palace, citadel, walls, &c. Long rock-cut inscription of
+  ten lines in relief, two short relief inscriptions cut on blocks, and
+  also cuneiform tablets in Babylonian and also in a native language,
+  first found in situ in 1893, and showing the site to be the capital of
+  Arzawa, whence came two of the Tell el-Amarna letters. Near the site
+  are the rock reliefs of _Yasili Kaya_ in two hypaethral galleries,
+  showing, in the one, two processions composed of over sixty figures
+  meeting at the head of the gallery; in the other, isolated groups of
+  figures, fifteen in number (see for detailed description _Murray's
+  Guide to Asia Minor_, 1895, pp. 23 ff.). Pictographs accompany many of
+  the figures. The whole makes the most extensive group of Hittite
+  remains yet known. Boghaz Keui was never thoroughly explored until
+  1907, the survey of Perrot and Guillaume having been superficial only
+  and the excavations of E. Chantre (1894) very slight. In 1906 a German
+  expedition under Professor H. Winckler undertook the work, and great
+  numbers of cuneiform tablets were found. These refer to the reigns of
+  at least four kings from Subbiluliuma (= Saplel, see above) to
+  Hattusil II. or Khartusil (= Khetasar, see above). The latter was an
+  ally of Katashmanturgu of Babylon, and powerful enough to write to
+  the Babylonian court as a sovereign of equal standing. His letter
+  shows that he considered the rise of Assyria a menace to himself.
+  Winckler claims to read _Hatti_ as the name of the possessors of
+  Boghaz Keui, and to find in this name the proof of the Hittite
+  character of Syro-Cappadocian power and of the imperial predominance
+  of the city. But it remains to be proved whether these tablets were
+  written there, and not rather, being in a foreign script, abroad, like
+  most of the Tell el-Amarna archives. O. Puchstein has cleared and
+  studied important architectural remains. _Euyuk_; large mound with
+  remains of palace entered between sphinxes. Sculptured wall-dados, but
+  no Hittite inscriptions. Cuneiform tablets; some Babylonian, others in
+  a native language. Also inscriptions in early Phrygian character and
+  language, found in 1894. The most famous of Hittite reliefs is here--a
+  double-headed eagle "displayed" on the flank of one of the gateway
+  sphinxes. This is supposed to have suggested to the Seljuks of Konia
+  their heraldic device adopted in the 13th century, which, brought to
+  Europe by the Crusaders, became the emblem of Teutonic empire in 1345.
+  This derivation must be taken, however, _cum grano_, proof of its
+  successive steps being wanting. Kara-Euyuk; a mound near Dedik,
+  partially excavated by E. Chantre in 1894. Cuneiform tablets and small
+  objects possibly, but not certainly, Hittite. A colossal eagle was
+  found on a deserted site near _Yamuli_ on the middle Halys, in 1907 by
+  W. Attmore Robinson.
+
+  [Illustration: Map of Hittite remains.]
+
+  D. SOUTH CAPPADOCIA.--_Karaburna_; long, incised rock-inscription.
+  _Bogja_, eight hours west of Kaisariye; four-sided _stela_ with
+  incised inscription. _Assarjik_, on the side of Mt. Argaeus; incised
+  rock-inscription. _Ekrek_; a fragmentary inscription in relief and an
+  incised inscription on a _stela_ of very late appearance. _Fraktin_ or
+  _Farakdin_ (probably anc. _Das-tarkon_); sculptured rock-panel showing
+  two groups of figures in act of cult, with hieroglyphs in relief.
+  _Arslan Tash_, near Comana (Cappadocia), on the Soghan Dagh; two
+  colossal lions, one with incised inscription. _Tashji_ in the Zamanti
+  valley; rock-relief with rudely incised inscription. _Andaval_ and
+  _Bor_; inscriptions incised on sculptured _stelae_ of kings (?),
+  probably from Tyana (_Ekuzli Hissar_). All are now in Constantinople.
+  A silver seal with hieroglyphs, now at Oxford, came also from Bor.
+  _Nigdeh_; basalt drum or altar with incised inscription. _Ivriz_;
+  rock-sculpture of king adoring god, with three inscriptions in relief.
+  A second sculpture, similar in subject but smaller and much defaced,
+  was found hard by in 1906. _Bulgar Maden_; long incised rock
+  inscription, near silver-mines. _Gorun_ (Gurun); two rock-inscriptions
+  in relief, much damaged. _Arslan-Tepe_, near Ordasu (two hours from
+  Malatia); large mound whence two sculptured _stelae_ or wall-blocks
+  with inscriptions in relief have been unearthed (now in Constantinople
+  and the Louvre). Four other reliefs, reported found near Malatia and
+  published by J. Garstang in _Annals Arch. and Anthrop._, 1908,
+  probably came also from Arslan Tepe. _Palanga_; lower aniconic half of
+  draped statue with incised inscription, now in Constantinople. Also a
+  small basalt lion. _Arslan Tash_, near Palanga; two rude gateway
+  lions, uninscribed. _Yapalak_; defaced inscription, reported by J. S.
+  Sterrett but never copied. _Izgin_; obelisk with long inscription in
+  relief on all four faces, now in Constantinople. These last four
+  places seem to lie on a main road leading from Cappadocia to Marash
+  and the Syrian sites. The expedition sent out by Cornell University in
+  1907 found several Hittite inscriptions on rocks near _Darende_ in the
+  valley of the Tokhma Su.
+
+  E. NORTH SYRIA.--_Marash_; several monuments (_stelae_, wall-blocks
+  and two lions) with inscriptions, both in relief and incised (part are
+  now at Constantinople, part in Berlin and America); evidently one of
+  the most important of Hittite sites. _Karaburshlu_, _Arbistan_,
+  _Gerchin_, _Sinjerli_; mounds about the head-waters of the Kara Su.
+  The last-named mound, brought to O. Puchstein's notice in 1882 by the
+  chance discovery of sculptured wall-dados, now in Constantinople, was
+  the scene of extensive German excavations in 1893-1894, directed by F.
+  v. Luschan and K. Koldewey, and was found to cover a walled town with
+  central fortified palace. Hittite, cuneiform and old Aramaean
+  monuments were found with many small objects, most of which have been
+  taken to Berlin; but no Hittite inscriptions came to light.
+  _Sakchegeuzu_ (Sakchegozu), a site with several mounds between
+  Sinjerli and Aintab; series of reliefs, once wall-dados, now in Berlin
+  and Constantinople. This site is in process of excavation by Professor
+  J. Garstang of the University of Liverpool. A sculptured portico has
+  come to light in the smallest of the five mounds, and much pottery,
+  with incised and painted decoration, has been recovered. _Aintab_;
+  fragment of relief inscription. _Samsat_ (Samosata); sculptured stela
+  with incised inscription much defaced. _Jerablus_; see above. Several
+  Hittite objects sent from Birejik and Aintab to Europe probably came
+  from Jerablus, others from _Tell Bashar_ on the Sajur. _Kellekli_,
+  near Jerablus; two _stelae_, one with relief inscription. _Iskanderun_
+  (Alexandretta); source of a long inscription cut on both sides of a
+  spheroidal object of unknown origin. _Kirchoglu_, a site on the Afrin,
+  whence a fragmentary draped statue with incised inscription was sent
+  to Berlin. _Aleppo_; inscription in relief (see above). _Tell Ahmar_
+  (on left bank of Euphrates); large _stela_ with sculpture and long
+  relief inscription, found in 1908 with several sculptured slabs and
+  two gateway lions, inscribed in cuneiform. Two hours south, a lion and
+  a fragment of a relief inscription were found in 1909 by Miss G. L.
+  Bell. _Tell Halaf_ in Mid-Mesopotamia, near Ras el-Ain; sculptures on
+  portico of a temple or palace; cuneiform inscriptions and large
+  mounds, explored in 1902 by Oppenheim. _Hamah_; five blocks inscribed
+  in relief (see above).
+
+  F. OUTLYING SITES.--_Erzerum_; source of an incised inscription,
+  perhaps not originally found there. _Kedabeg_; metal boss or hilt-top
+  with pictographs, found in a tomb and stated by F. Hommel to be
+  Hittite, but doubtful. _Toprak Kaleh_; bronze fragments with two
+  pictographs; doubtful if Hittite. _Nineveh_; sealings, see above.
+  Babylon; a bowl and a stela of storm-god, both with incised
+  inscriptions; doubtless spoil of war or tribute brought from Syria.
+  The bowl is inscribed round the outside, the _stela_ on the back.
+
+  (For a detailed description of the subjects of the reliefs, &c., with
+  the necessary illustrations, see the works indicated in the
+  bibliography.)
+
+_Structures._--The structural remains found as yet on Hittite sites are
+few, scanty and far between. They consist of: (a) Ground plans of a
+palatial building and three temples and fortifications with sculptured
+gate at Boghaz Keui. The palace was built round a central court, flanked
+by passages and entered by a doorway of three _battants_ hung on two
+columns. The whole plan bears more than a superficial resemblance to
+those of Cretan palaces in the later Minoan period. Only the rough core
+of the walls is standing to a height of about 3 ft. The fortifications
+of the citadel have an elaborate double gate with flanking towers, (b)
+Fortifications, palace, &c., at Sinjerli. The gates here are more
+elaborate than at Boghaz Keui, but planned with the same idea--that of
+entrapping in an enclosed space, barred by a second door, an enemy who
+may have forced the first door, while flanking towers would add to his
+discomfiture. The palace plan is again rectangular, with a central
+pillared hall, and very similar in plan to that of Boghaz Keui. The
+massive walls are also of similar construction. Dados of
+relief-sculpture run round the inner walls; this feature seems to have
+been common to Hittite buildings of a sumptuous kind, and accounts for
+most of the sculptured blocks that have been found, e.g. at Jerablus,
+Sakhchegeuzu, Euyuk, Arslan Tepe, &c. Columns, probably of wood, rested
+on bases carved as winged lions, (c) Gate with sculptured approach at
+Euyuk. The ground plan of the gate is practically the same in idea as
+that at Sinjerli. Structures were found at Jerablus, but never properly
+uncovered or planned, (d) Sculptured porticoes of temples or palaces
+uncovered at Sakchegeuzu and Tell Halaf (see above). On other sites,
+e.g. Arslan Tepe (Ordasu), Arbistan, Marash (above the modern town and
+near the springs), Beikeui, mounds, doubtless covering structures, may
+be seen, and sculptured slabs have been recovered. The mounds, probably
+Hittite, in N. Syria alone are to be counted by hundreds. No tombs
+certainly Hittite have been found,[4] though it is possible that some of
+the reliefs (e.g. at Fraktin) are of funerary character.
+
+_Sculptures and other Objects of Art._--The sculptures hitherto found
+consist of reliefs on rocks and on _stelae_, either honorific or
+funerary; reliefs on blocks forming parts of wall-dados; and a few
+figures more or less in the round, though most of these (e.g. the
+sphinxes of Euyuk and the lions of Arslan Tash and Marash) are not
+completely disengaged from the block. The most considerable sculptured
+rock-panels are at Boghaz Keui (see Pteria); the others (Ivriz, Fraktin,
+Karabel, Giaur Kalessi, Doghanludere), it should be observed, all lie N.
+of Taurus--a fact of some bearing on the problem of the origin and local
+domicile of the art, since rock-reliefs, at any rate, cannot be
+otherwise than _in situ_. Sculptured _stelae_, honorific or funerary,
+all with pyramidal or slightly rounded upper ends, and showing a single
+regal or divine figure or two figures, have come to light at Bor,
+Marash, Sinjerli, Jerablus, Babylon, &c. These, like most of the
+rock-panels, are all marked as Hittite by accompanying pictographic
+inscriptions. The wall-blocks are seldom inscribed, the exceptions (e.g.
+the Arslan Tepe lion-hunt and certain blocks from Marash and Jerablus)
+being not more certainly wall-dados than _stelae_. The only fairly
+complete anthropoid statue known is the much-defaced "Niobe" at Suratlu
+Tash, engaged in the rock behind. The aniconic lower part of an
+inscribed statue wholly in the round was found at Palanga, and parts of
+others at Kirchoglu and Marash. Despite considerable differences in
+execution and details, all these sculptures show one general type of
+art, a type which recalls now Babylonian, now Assyrian, now Egyptian,
+now archaic Ionian, style, but is always individual and easily
+distinguishable from the actual products of those peoples. The figures,
+whether of men or beasts, are of a squat, heavy order, with internal
+features (e.g. bones, muscles, &c.) shown as if external, as in some
+Mesopotamian sculptures. The human type is always very brachycephalic,
+with brow receding sharply and long nose making almost one line with the
+sloping forehead. In the sculptures of the Commagene and the Tyana
+districts, the nose has a long curving tip, of very Jewish appearance,
+but not unlike the outline given to Kheta warriors in Egyptian scenes.
+The lips are full and the chin short and shaven. The whole physiognomy
+is fleshy and markedly distinct from that of other Syrians. At Boghaz
+Keui, Euyuk and Jerablus, the facial type is very markedly non-Semitic.
+But not much stress can be laid on these differences owing to (1) great
+variety of execution in different sculptures, which argues artists of
+very unequal capacity; (2) doubt whether individual portraits are
+intended in some cases and not in others. The hair of males is
+sometimes, but not always, worn in pigtail. The fashions of
+head-covering and clothes are very various, but several of them--e.g.
+the horned cap of the Ivriz god; the conical hat at Boghaz Keui,
+Fraktin, &c; the "jockey-cap" on the Tarkudimme boss; the broad-bordered
+over-robe, and the upturned shoes--are not found on other Asiatic
+monuments, except where Hittites are portrayed. Animals in profile are
+represented more naturalistically than human beings, e.g. at Yasili
+Kaya, and especially in some pictographic symbols in relief (e.g. at
+Hamah). This, however, is a feature common to Mesopotamian and Egyptian,
+and perhaps to all primitive art.
+
+The subjects depicted are processions of figures, human and divine
+(Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Giaur Kalessi); scenes of sacrifice or adoration,
+or other cult-practice (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Fraktin, Ivriz, and perhaps
+the figures seated beside tables at Marash Sakchegeuzu, Sinjerli, &c.);
+of the chase (Arslan Tepe, Sakchegeuzu); but not, as known at present,
+of battle. Both at Euyuk and Yasili Kaya reliefs in one and the same
+series are widely separated in artistic conception and execution, some
+showing the utmost _naivete_, others expressing both outline and motion
+with fair success. The fact warns us against drawing hasty inductions as
+to relative dates from style and execution.
+
+Besides sculptures, well assured, Hittite art-products include a few
+small objects in metal (e.g. heavy, inscribed gold ring bought by Sir W.
+M. Ramsay at Konia; base silver seal, supported on three lions' claws,
+bought by D. G. Hogarth at Bor; inscribed silver boss of "Tarkudimme,"
+mentioned above, &c. &c.); many intaglios in various stones (chiefly in
+steatite), mostly either spheroidal or gable-shaped, but a few
+scarabaeoid, conical or cylindrical, bearing sometimes pictographic
+symbols, sometimes divine, human or animal figures. The best collection
+is at Oxford. The majority are of very rude workmanship, bodies and
+limbs being represented by mere skeleton lines or unfilled outlines; a
+few vessels (e.g. inscribed basalt bowl found at Babylon) and fragments
+of ware painted with dark ornament on light body-clay, or in polychrome
+on a cream-white slip, or black burnished, found on N. Cappadocian
+sites, &c. The bronzes hitherto claimed as Hittite have been bought on
+the Syrian coast or come from not certainly Hittite sites in Cappadocia
+(see E. Chantre, _Mission en Cappadocie_). A great many small objects
+were found in the excavations at Sinjerli, including carved ivories,
+seals, toilet-instruments, implements, &c., but these have not been
+published. Nor, except provisionally, has the pottery, found at
+Sakchegeuzu.
+
+_Inscriptions._--These, now almost sixty in number (excluding seals),
+are all in a pictographic character which employed symbols somewhat
+elaborately depicted in relief, but reduced to conventional and
+"shorthand" representations in the incised texts. So far, the majority
+of our Hittite inscriptions, like those first found at Hamah, are in
+relief (cameo); but the incised characters, first observed in the Tyana
+district, have since been shown, by discoveries at Marash, Babylon, &c.,
+to have had a wider range. It has usually been assumed that the incised
+inscriptions, being the more conventionalized, are all of later date
+than those in relief; but comparison of Egyptian inscriptions, wherein
+both incised and cameo characters coexisted back to very early times,
+suggests that this assumption is not necessarily correct. The Hittite
+symbols at present known show about two hundred varieties; but new
+inscriptions continually add to the list, and great uncertainty remains
+as to the distinction of many symbols (i.e. whether mere variants or
+not), and as to many others which are defaced or broken in our texts.
+The objects represented by these symbols have been certainly identified
+in only a few instances. A certain number are heads (human and animal)
+detached from bodies, in a manner not known in the Egyptian hieroglyphic
+system, with which some of the other symbols show obvious analogies.
+Articles of dress, weapons, tools, &c., also appear. The longer
+inscriptions are disposed in horizontal zones or panels, divided by
+lines, and, it seems, they were to be read _boustrophedon_, not only as
+regards the lines (which begin right to left) but also the words, which
+are written in columnar fashion, syllable _below_ syllable, and read
+downwards and upwards alternately. The direction of reading is towards
+any faces which may be shown among the pictographs. The words are
+perhaps distinguished in some texts by punctuation marks.
+
+Long and patient efforts have been made to decipher this script, ever
+since it was first restored to our knowledge; and among the would-be
+decipherers honourable mention must be made, for persistence and
+courage, of Professor A. H. Sayce and of Professor P. Jensen. Other
+interpretations have been put forward by F. E. Peiser (based on
+conjectures as to the names on the Nineveh sealings), C. R. Conder
+(based largely on Cypriote comparisons and phonetic values transferred
+from these) and C. J. Ball (based on Hittite names recorded on Egyptian
+and Assyrian monuments, and applied to word-groups on the Hittite
+monuments). These, however, as having arbitrary and inadequate
+foundations, and for other reasons, have not been accepted. F. Hommel,
+J. Halevy and J. Menant have done useful work in distinguishing
+word-groups, and have essayed partial interpretations. No other
+decipherers call for mention. A. H. Sayce and P. Jensen alone have
+enlisted any large body of adherents; and the former, who has worked
+upon his system for thirty years and published in the _Proceedings of
+the Society for Biblical Archaeology_ for 1907 a summary of his method
+and results, has proceeded on the more scientific plan. His system,
+however, like all others, is built in the main upon hypotheses incapable
+at present of quite satisfactory verification, such, for example, as the
+conjectural reading "Gargamish" for a group of symbols which recurs in
+inscriptions from Jerablus and elsewhere. In this case, to add to the
+other obvious elements of uncertainty, it must be borne in mind that the
+location of Carchemish at Jerablus is not proved, though it is very
+probable. Other conjectural identifications of groups of symbols with
+the place-names Hamath, Marash, Tyana are bases of Sayce's system.
+Jensen's system may be said to have been effectually demolished by L.
+Messerschmidt in his _Bemerkungen_ (1898); but Sayce's system, which has
+been approved by Hommel and others, is probably in its main lines
+correct. Its frequent explanation, however, of incompatible symbols by
+the doctrines of phonetic variation and interchange, or by alternative
+values of the same symbol used as ideograph, determinative or phonetic
+complement, and the occasional use of circular argument in the process
+of "verification," do not inspire confidence in other than its broader
+results. Sayce's phonetic values and interpretations of determinatives
+are his best assured achievements. But the words thus arrived at
+represent a language on which other known tongues throw little or no
+light, and their meaning is usually to be guessed only. In some
+significant cases, however, the Boghaz Keui tablets appear to give
+striking confirmation of Sayce's conjectures.
+
+Writing in 1903 L. Messerschmidt, editor of the best collection of
+Hittite texts up to date, made a _tabula rasa_ of all systems of
+decipherment, asserting that only one sign out of two hundred--the
+bisected oval, determinative of divinity--had been interpreted with any
+certainty; and in view of this opinion, coupled with the steady refusal
+of historians to apply the results of any Hittite decipherment, and the
+obvious lack of satisfactory verification, without which the piling of
+hypothesis on hypothesis may only lead further from probability, there
+is no choice but to suspend judgment for some time longer as to the
+inscriptions and all deductions drawn from them.
+
+_Are the Monuments Hittite?_--It is time to ask this question, although
+a perfectly satisfactory answer can only be expected when the
+inscriptions themselves have been deciphered. Almost all "Hittitologues"
+assume a connexion between the monuments and the Kheta-Khatti-Hittites,
+but in various degrees; e.g. while Sayce has said roundly that common
+sense demands the acceptance of all as the work of the Hittites, who
+were the dominant caste throughout a loosely-knit empire extending at
+one time from the Orontes to the Aegean, Messerschmidt has stated with
+equal dogmatism that the Hittites proper were only one people out of
+many[5] in N. Syria and Asia Minor who shared a common civilization, and
+that therefore they were authors of a part of the monuments
+only--presumably the N. Syrian, Commagenian and Cataonian groups. O.
+Puchstein[6] has denied to the Hittites some of the N. Syrian monuments,
+holding these of too late a date (judged by their Assyrian analogies)
+for the flourishing period of the Kheta-Khatti, as known from Egyptian
+and Assyrian records. He would ascribe them to the Kummukh
+(Commagenians), who seem to have succeeded the Khatti as the strongest
+opponents of Assyria in these parts. He was possibly right as regards
+the Sinjerli and Sakchegeuzu sculptures, which are of provincial
+appearance. The following considerations, however, may be stated in
+favour of the ascription of the monuments to the Hittites:--
+
+(1) The monuments in question are found frequently whereever, from other
+records, we know the Hittites to have been domiciled at some period,
+i.e. throughout N. Syria and in Cataonia. (2) It was under the Khatti
+that Carchemish was a flourishing commercial city; and if Jerablus be
+really Carchemish, it is significant that apparently the most numerous
+and most artistic of the monuments occur there. (3) Among all the early
+peoples of N. Syria and Asia Minor known to us from Egyptian and
+Assyrian records, the Kheta-Khatti alone appear frequently as leading to
+war peoples from far beyond Taurus. (4) The Kheta certainly had a system
+of writing and a glyptic art in the time of Rameses II., or else the
+Egyptian account of their copy of the treaty would be baseless. (5) The
+physiognomy given to Kheta warriors by Egyptian artists is fairly
+representative of the prevailing type shown in the Hittite sculptures.
+
+Furthermore, the Boghaz Keui tablets, though only partially deciphered
+as yet, go far to settle the question. They show that whether Boghaz
+Keui was actually the capital of the Hatti or not, it was a great city
+of the Hatti, and that the latter were an important element in
+Cappadocia from very early times. Before the middle of the 16th century
+B.C. the Cappadocian Hatti were already in relations, generally more or
+less hostile, with a rival power in Syria, that of Mitanni; and
+Subbiluliuma (= Saplel or Saparura), king of these Hatti, a contemporary
+of Amenophis IV. and Rameses I., seems to have obtained lasting dominion
+in Syria by subduing Dushratta of Mitanni. Carchemish thenceforward
+became a Hatti city and the southern capital of Cappadocian power. Since
+all the Syrian monuments of the Hittite class, so far known, seem
+comparatively late (most show such strong Assyrian, influence that they
+must fall after 1100 B.C. and probably even considerably later), while
+the North Cappadocian monuments (as Sayce, Ramsay, Perrot and others saw
+long ago) are the earlier in style, we are bound to ascribe the origin
+of the civilization which they represent to the Cappadocian Hatti.
+
+Whether the Mitanni had shared in that civilization while independent,
+and whether they were racially kin to the Hatti, cannot be determined at
+present. Winckler has adduced evidence from names of local gods to show
+that there was an Indo-European racial element in Mitanni; but none for
+a similar element in the Hatti, whose chief god was Teshub. The majority
+of scholars has always regarded the Hittites proper as, at any rate,
+non-Semitic, and some leading authorities have called them
+proto-Armenian, and believed that they have modern descendants in the
+Caucasus. This racial question can hardly be determined till those Hatti
+records, whether in cuneiform or pictographic script, which are couched
+in a native tongue, not in Babylonian, are read. In the meantime we have
+proper names to argue from; and these give us at least the significant
+indication that the Hittite nominative ended in _s_ and the accusative
+in _m_. In any case the connexion of the Hatti with the peculiar class
+of monuments which we have been describing, can hardly be further
+questioned; and it has become more than probable that the Hatti of
+Cappadocia were responsible in the beginning for the art and script of
+those monuments and for the civilization of which they are memorials.
+Other peoples of north Syria and Asia Minor (e.g. the Kummukh or
+Commagenians and the Muski or Phrygians) came no doubt under the
+influence of this civilization and imitated its monuments, while subject
+to or federated with the Hatti. Through Phrygia and Lydia (q.v.)
+influences of this same Cappadocian civilization passed towards the
+west; and indeed, before the Greek colonization of Asia Minor, a loosely
+knit Hatti empire may have stretched even to the Aegean. The Nymphi
+(Kara Bel) and Niobe sculptures near Smyrna are probably memorials of
+that extension. Certainly some inland Anatolian power seems to have kept
+Aegean settlers and culture away from the Ionian coast during the Bronze
+Age, and that power was in all likelihood the Hatti kingdom of
+Cappadocia. Owing perhaps to Assyrian aggression, this power seems to
+have begun to suffer decay about 1000 B.C. and thereafter to have shrunk
+inwards, leaving the coasts open. The powers of Phrygia and Lydia rose
+successively out of its ruins, and continued to offer westward passage
+to influences of Mesopotamian culture till well into historic times. The
+Greeks came too late to Asia to have had any contact with Hatti power
+obscured from their view by the intermediate and secondary state of
+Phrygia. Their earliest writers regarded the latter as the seat of the
+oldest and most godlike of mankind. Only one Greek author, Herodotus,
+alludes to the pre-historic Cappadocian power and only at the latest
+moment of its long decline. At the same time, some of the Greek legends
+seem to show that peoples, with whom the Greeks came into early contact,
+had vivid memories of the Hatti. Such are the Amazon stories, whose
+local range was very extensive, and the myths of Memnon and Pelops. The
+real reference of these stories, however, was forgotten, and it has been
+reserved to our own generation to rediscover the records of a power and
+a civilization which once dominated Asia Minor and north Syria and
+occupied all the continental roads of communication between the East and
+the West of the ancient world. The credit of having been the first to
+divine this importance of the Hittites should always be ascribed to
+Sayce.
+
+The history of the Hatti and their civilization, then, would appear to
+have been, very briefly, this. They belonged to an ethnic scattered
+widely over Eastern Asia Minor and Syria at an early period (Khatti
+invaded Akkad about 1800 B.C. in the reign of Samsuditana); but they
+first formed a strong state in Cappadocia late in the 16th century B.C.
+Subbiluliuma became their first great king, though he had at least one
+dynastic predecessor of the name of Hattusil. The Hatti now pushed
+southwards in force, overcame the kingdom of Mitanni and proceeded
+partly to occupy and partly to make tributary both north Syria and
+western Mesopotamia where some of their congeners were already settled.
+They came early into collision with Egypt, and at the height of their
+power under Hattusil II. fought the battle of Kadesh with Rameses II.,
+on at least equal terms. Both now and previously the diplomatic
+correspondence of the Hatti monarchs shows that they treated on terms
+of practical equality with both the Babylonian and the Egyptian courts;
+and that they waged constant wars in Syria, mainly with the Amorite
+tribes. At this time the Hatti empire or confederacy probably included,
+on the west, both Phrygia and Lydia. The Boghaz Keui correspondence
+ceases to be important with the generation following Hattusil II., and
+in the Assyrian records, which begin about a couple of centuries later,
+we find Carchemish the chief Hatti city and N. Syria called the
+Hatti-land. It is possible therefore that a change of imperial centre
+took place after the Hatti had ceased to fear Egypt in north Syria. If
+so, the continuation of Hittite history will have to be sought among the
+remains at Jerablus and other middle Euphratean sites, rather than in
+those at Boghaz Keui. The establishment of the Hatti at Carchemish not
+only made them a commercial people and probably sapped their highland
+vigour, but also brought them into closer proximity to the rising North
+Semitic power of Assyria, whose advent had been regarded with
+apprehension by Hattusil II. (see above). One of his successors,
+Arnaunta (late 13th century?), was already feeling the effect of
+Assyrian pressure, and with the accession of Tiglath Pileser I., about a
+century later, a long but often interrupted series of Assyrian efforts
+to break up the Hatti power began. A succession of Ninevite armies
+raided north Syria and even south-east Asia Minor, and gradually reduced
+the Hatti. But the resistance of the latter was sturdy and prolonged.
+They remained the strongest power in Syria and eastern Asia Minor till
+well into the first millennium B.C., and their Syrian seat was not lost
+finally till after the great extension of Assyrian power which took
+place in the latter part of the 9th century. What had been happening to
+their Cappadocian province meanwhile we do not yet know; but the
+presence of Phrygian inscriptions at Euyuk and Tyana, ancient seats of
+their power, suggests that the client monarchy in the Sangarius valley
+shook itself free during the early part of the Hittite struggle with
+Assyria, and in the day of Hatti weakness extended its dominion over the
+home territory of its former suzerain. "White Syrians," however, were
+still in Cappadocia even after the Cimmerians had destroyed the Phrygian
+monarchy, allowing Lydia to become independent under the Mermnad
+dynasty. Croesus found them centred at Pteria in the 6th century and
+dealt them a final blow. But much of their secular or religious custom
+lived on to be recorded by Greek writers, and regarded by modern
+scholars as typically "Anatolian."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--General summaries: L. Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_
+  ("Ancient East" series, vi., 1903); A. H. Sayce, _The Hittites_
+  ("Bypaths of Biblical Knowledge" series, xii., 2nd ed. 1892); G.
+  Perrot and C. Chipiez, _History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea, Syria and
+  Asia Minor_ (Eng. trans., vol. ii., 1890); L. Lantsheere, _De la race
+  et de la langue des Heteens_ (1891); P. Jensen, _Hittiter und
+  Armenier_ (1898); M. Jastrow, final chapter in H. V. Hilprecht,
+  _Exploration in Bible Lands_ (1903); W. Wright, _Empire of the
+  Hittites_ (1884); F. Hommel, _Hettiter und Skythen_ (1898); D. G.
+  Hogarth, _Ionia and the East_ (1909); W. Max Muller, _Asien und
+  Europa_, chap. xxv. (1893). See also authorities for Egyptian and
+  Assyrian history.
+
+  Inscriptions: L. Messerschmidt, "Corpus inscr. Hettiticarum,"
+  _Zeitsch. d. d. morgenland. Gesellschaft_ (1900, 1902, 1906, &c.), and
+  "Bemerkungen zu d. Heth. Inschriften," _Mitteil. d. vorderasiat.
+  Gesellschaft_ (1898); P. Jensen, "Grundlagen fur eine Entzifferung der
+  (Hat. oder) Cilicischen Inschriften," _Zeitschr. d. d. morgenland.
+  Gesellschaft_ (1894); F. E. Peiser, _Die Hettitischen Inschriften_
+  (1892); A. H. Sayce, "Decipherment of the Hittite Inscriptions,"
+  _Proc. Soc. of Bibl. Archaeology_ (1903), and "Hittite Inscriptions,
+  translated and annotated," ibid. (1905, 1907); J. Menant, "Etudes
+  Heteennes," _Recueil de travaux rel. a la philologie, &c._, and _Mem.
+  de l'Acad. Inscr._, vol. xxxiv. (1890); J. Halevy in _Revue
+  semitique_, vol. i. Also divers articles by A. H. Sayce, F. Hommel and
+  others in _Proc._ and _Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch._ since 1876, and in
+  _Recueil de travaux, &c._, since its beginning.
+
+  Exploration: G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, _Exploration arch. de la
+  Galatie_, &c. (1862-1872); E. Chantre, _Mission en Cappadocie_ (1898);
+  Sir W. M. Ramsay, "Syro-Cappadocian Monuments," in _Athen.
+  Mitteilungen_ (1889), with D. G. Hogarth, "Pre-Hellenic Monuments of
+  Cappadocia," in _Recueil de travaux_, &c. (1892-1895); and with Miss
+  Gertrude Bell, _The Thousand and One Churches_ (1909); C. Humann and
+  O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Nord-Syrien_, &c. (1890). J. Garstang in
+  _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, i. (1908) and following
+  numbers. Reports on excavations at Sinjerli in _Berl. Philol.
+  Wochenschrift_ (1891), pp. 803, 951; and F. von Luschan, and others,
+  "Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli" in _Mitteil. Orient-Sammlungen_ (Berlin
+  Museum, 1893 ff.); and on excavations at Boghaz-Keui, H. Winckler in
+  _Orient. Literaturzeitung_ (Berlin, 1907); _Mitteil.
+  Orient-Gesellschaft_ (Dec. 1907). See also s.v. PTERIA.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] First described by the Turk, Hajji Khalifa, in the 17th century;
+    first seen by the Swedish traveller Otter in 1736, and first
+    published in 1840 in Ritter's _Erdkunde_, iii., after a drawing by
+    Major Fischer, made in 1837.
+
+  [2] The "Niobe" statue near Manisa was not definitely known for
+    "Hittite" till 1882, when G. Dennis detected pictographs near it.
+
+  [3] The "pseudo-Sesostres" of Herodotus, already demonstrated
+    non-Egyptian by Rosellini. The second figure was unknown, till found
+    by Dr Beddoe in 1856.
+
+  [4] Five intramural graves were explored at Sinjerli, but whether of
+    the Hittite or of the Assyrian occupation is doubtful.
+
+  [5] The Assyrian records, as well as the Egyptian, distinguish many
+    peoples in both areas from the Kheta-Khatti; and the most we can
+    infer from these records is that there was an occasional league
+    formed under the Hittites, not any imperial subjection or even a
+    continuous federation.
+
+  [6] _Pseudo-Hethitische Kunst_ (Berlin, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE (1792-1867), French architect, was born at
+Cologne on the 20th of August 1792. After serving an apprenticeship to a
+mason in his native town, he went in 1810 to Paris, and studied for some
+years at the Academy of Fine Arts, where he was a favourite pupil of
+Belanger, the government architect, who in 1814 appointed him his
+principal inspector. Succeeding Belanger as government architect in
+1818, he designed many important public and private buildings in Paris
+and also in the south of France. From 1819 to 1830 in collaboration with
+le Cointe he directed the royal fetes and ceremonials. After making
+architectural tours in Germany, England, Italy and Sicily, he published
+the result of his observations in the latter country in the work
+_Architecture antique de la Sicile_ (3 vols., 1826-1830; new edition,
+1866-1867), and also in _Architecture moderne de la Sicile_ (1826-1835).
+One of his important discoveries was that colour had been made use of in
+ancient Greek architecture, a subject which he especially discussed in
+_Architecture polychrome chez les Grecs_ (1830) and in _Restitution du
+temple d'Empedocle a Selinunte_ (1851); and in accordance with the
+doctrines enunciated in these works he was in the habit of making colour
+an important feature in most of his architectural designs. His principal
+building is the church of St Vincent de Paul in the basilica style,
+which was constructed between 1830 and 1844. He also designed the two
+fountains in the Place de la Concorde, the Circus of the Empress, the
+Rotunda of the panoramas, many cafes and restaurants of the Champs
+Elysees, the houses forming the circle round the Arc de Triomphe de
+l'Etoile, besides many embellishments of the Bois de Boulogne and other
+places. In 1833 he was elected a member of the Academy of Fine Arts. He
+died in Paris on the 25th of March 1867.
+
+
+
+
+HITZACKER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover at the
+influx of the Jeetze into the Elbe, 33 m. N.E. of Luneburg by the
+railway to Wittenberge. Pop. (1905) 1106. It has an Evangelical church
+and an old castle and numerous medieval remains. There are chalybeate
+springs and a hydropathic establishment in the town. The famous library
+now in Wolfenbuttel was originally founded here by Augustus, duke of
+Brunswick (d. 1666) and was removed to its present habitation in 1643.
+
+
+
+
+HITZIG, FERDINAND (1807-1875), German biblical critic, was born at
+Hauingen, Baden, where his father was a pastor, on the 23rd of June
+1807. He studied theology at Heidelberg under H. E. G. Paulus, at Halle
+under Wilhelm Gesenius and at Gottingen under Ewald. Returning to
+Heidelberg he became _Privatdozent_ in theology in 1829, and in 1831
+published his _Begriff der Kritik am Alten Testamente praktisch
+erortert_, a study of Old Testament criticism in which he explained the
+critical principles of the grammatico-historical school, and his _Des
+Propheten Jonas Orakel uber Moab_, an exposition of the 15th and 16th
+chapters of the book of Isaiah attributed by him to the prophet Jonah
+mentioned in 2 Kings xiv. 25. In 1833 he was called to the university of
+Zurich as professor ordinarius of theology. His next work was a
+commentary on Isaiah with a translation (_Ubersetzung u. Auslegung des
+Propheten Jesajas_), which he dedicated to Heinrich Ewald, and which
+Hermann Hupfeld (1796-1866), well known as a commentator on the Psalms
+(1855-1861), pronounced to be his best exegetical work. At Zurich he
+laboured for a period of twenty-eight years, during which, besides
+commentaries on _The Psalms_ (1835-1836; 2nd ed., 1863-1865), _The Minor
+Prophets_ (1838; 3rd ed., 1863), _Jeremiah_ (1841; 2nd ed., 1866),
+_Ezekiel_ (1847), _Daniel_ (1850), _Ecclesiastes_ (1847), _Canticles_
+(1855), and _Proverbs_ (1858), he published a monograph, _Uber Johannes
+Markus u. seine Schriften_ (1843), in which he maintained the
+chronological priority of the second gospel, and sought to prove that
+the Apocalypse was written by the same author. He also published various
+treatises of archaeological interest, of which the most important are
+_Die Erfindung des Alphabets_ (1840), _Urgeschichte u. Mythologie der
+Philistaer_ (1845), and _Die Grabschrift des Eschmunezar_(1855). After
+the death of Friedrich Umbreit (1795-1860), one of the founders of the
+well-known _Studien und Kritiken_, he was called in 1861 to succeed him
+as professor of theology at Heidelberg. Here he wrote his _Geschichte
+des Volkes Israel_ (1869-1870), in two parts, extending respectively to
+the end of the Persian domination and to the fall of Masada, A.D. 72, as
+well as a work on the Pauline epistles, _Zur Kritik Paulinischer Briefe_
+(1870), on the Moabite Stone, _Die Inschrift des Mescha_ (1870), and on
+Assyrian, _Sprache u. Sprachen Assyriens_ (1871), besides revising the
+commentary on Job by Ludwig Hirzel (1801-1841), which was first
+published in 1839. He was also a contributor to the _Monatsschrift des
+wissenschaftlichen Vereins in Zurich_, the _Zeitschrift der deutschen
+morgenlandischen Gesellschaft_, the _Theologische Studien u. Kritiken_,
+Eduard Zeller's _Theologische Jahrbucher_, and Adolf Hilgenfeld's
+_Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie_. Hitzig died at Heidelberg
+on the 22nd of January 1875. As a Hebrew philologist he holds high rank;
+and as a constructive critic he is remarkable for acuteness and
+sagacity. As a historian, however, some of his speculations have been
+considered fanciful. "He places the cradle of the Israelites in the
+south of Arabia, and, like many other critics, makes the historical
+times begin only with Moses" (F. Lichtenberger, _History of German
+Theology_, p. 569).
+
+  His lectures on biblical theology (_Vorlesungen uber biblische
+  Theologie u. messianische Weissagungen_) were published in 1880 after
+  his death, along with a portrait and biographical sketch by his pupil,
+  J. J. Kneucker (b. 1840), professor of theology at Heidelberg. See
+  Heinrich Steiner, _Ferdinand Hitzig_ (1882); and Adolf Kamphausen's
+  article in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+HIUNG-NU, HIONG-NU, HEUNG-NU, a people who about the end of the 3rd
+century B.C. formed, according to Chinese records, a powerful empire
+from the Great Wall of China to the Caspian. Their ethnical affinities
+have been much discussed; but it is most probable that they were of the
+Turki stock, as were the Huns, their later western representatives. They
+are the first Turkish people mentioned by the Chinese. A theory which
+seems plausible is that which assumes them to have been a heterogenous
+collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki and perhaps even Finnish hordes
+under a Mongol military caste, though the Mongolo-Tungus element
+probably predominated. Towards the close of the 1st century of the
+Christian era the Hiung-nu empire broke up. Their subsequent history is
+obscure. Some of them seem to have gone westward and settled on the Ural
+river. These, de Guiques suggests, were the ancestors of the Huns, and
+many ethnologists hold that the Hiung-nu were the ancestors of the
+modern Turks.
+
+  See _Journal Anthropological Institute_ for 1874; Sir H. H. Howorth,
+  _History of the Mongols_ (1876-1880); 6th Congress of Orientalists,
+  Leiden, 1883 (_Actes_, part iv. pp. 177-195); de Guiques, _Histoire
+  generale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongoles, et des autres Tartares
+  occidentaux_ (1756-1758).
+
+
+
+
+HIVITES, an ancient tribe of Palestine driven out by the invading
+Israelites. In Josh. ix. 7, xi. 19 they are connected with Gibeon. The
+meaning of the name is uncertain; Wellhausen derives it from [Hebrew:
+Hava] "Eve," or "serpent," in which case the Hivites were originally the
+snake clan; others explain it from the Arabic _hayy_, "family," as
+meaning "dwellers in (Bedouin) encampments." (See PALESTINE; JEWS.)
+
+
+
+
+HJORRING, an ancient town of Denmark, capital of the _amt_ (county) of
+its name, in the northern insular part of the peninsula of Jutland. Pop.
+(1901) 7901. It lies 7 m. inland from the shore of Jammer Bay, a stretch
+of coast notoriously dangerous to shipping. On the coast is Lonstrup, a
+favoured seaside resort. In this neighbourhood as well as to the
+south-east of Hjorring, slight elevations are seen, deserving the name
+of hills in this low-lying district. Hjorring is on the northern railway
+of Jutland, which here turns eastward to the Cattegat part of
+Frederikshavn (23 m.), a harbour of refuge.
+
+
+
+
+HKAMTI LONG (called Kantigyi by the Burmese, and Bor Hkampti by the
+peoples on the Assam side), a collection of seven Shan states
+subordinate to Burma, but at present beyond the administrative border.
+Estimated area, 900 sq. m.; estimated pop. 11,000. It lies between 27
+deg. and 28 deg. N. and 97 deg. and 98 deg. E., and is bordered by the
+Mishmi country on the N., by the Patkai range on the W., by the Hukawng
+valley on the S. and E., and indeed all round by various Chingpaw or
+Kachin communities. The country is little known. It was visited by T. T.
+Cooper, the Chinese traveller and political agent at Bhamo, where he was
+murdered; by General Woodthorpe and Colonel Macgregor in 1884, by Mr
+Errol Grey in the following year, and by Prince Henry of Orleans in
+1895. All of these, however, limited their explorations to the valley of
+the Mali-hka, the western branch of the Irrawaddy river. Hkamti has
+shrunk very much from its old size. It was no doubt the northernmost
+province of the Shan kingdom, founded at Mogaung by Sam Long-hpa, the
+brother of the ruler of Kambawsa, when that empire had reached its
+greatest extension. The irruption of Kachins or Chingpaw from the north
+has now completely hemmed the state in. Prince Henry of Orleans
+described it as "a splendid territory, fertile in soil and abundant in
+water, where tropical and temperate culture flourish side by side, and
+the inhabitants are protected on three fronts by mountains." According
+to him the Kiutze, the people of the hills between the Irrawaddy and the
+Salween, call it the kingdom of Moam.
+
+
+
+
+HLOTHHERE, king of Kent, succeeded his brother Ecgberht in 673, and
+appears for a time to have reigned jointly with his nephew Eadric, son
+of Ecgberht, as a code of laws still extant was issued under both names.
+Neither is mentioned in the account of the invasion of Aethelred in 676.
+In 685 Eadric, who seems to have quarrelled with Hlothhere, went into
+exile and led the South Saxons against him. Hlothhere was defeated and
+died of his wounds.
+
+  See Bede, _Hist. eccl._ (Plummer), iv. 5, 17, 26, v. 24; _Saxon
+  Chronicle_ (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 685; Schmid, _Gesetze_, pp. 10
+  sqq.; Thorpe, _Ancient Laws_, i. 26 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+HOACTZIN, or HOATZIN, a bird of tropical South America, thought by
+Buffon to be that indicated by Hernandez or Fernandez under these names,
+the _Opisthocomus hoazin_ or _O. cristatus_ of modern ornithologists--a
+very curious and remarkable form, which has long exercised the ingenuity
+of classifiers. Placed by Buffon among his "_Hoccos_" (Curassows), and
+then by P. L. S. Muller and J. F. Gmelin in the Linnaean genus
+_Phasianus_, some of its many peculiarities were recognized by J. K. W.
+Illiger in 1811 as sufficient to establish it as a distinct genus,
+_Opisthocomus_; but various positions were assigned to it by subsequent
+systematic authors. L'Herminier was the first to give any account of its
+anatomy (_Comptes rendus_, 1837, v. 433), and from his time our
+knowledge of it has been successively increased by Johannes Muller
+(_Ber. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin_, 1841, p. 177), Deville (_Rev. et mag.
+de zoologie_, 1852, p. 217), Gervais (Castelnau, _Exped. Amerique du
+Sud, zoologie, anatomie_, p. 66), Huxley (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1868,
+p. 304), Perrin (_Trans. Zool. Society_, ix. p. 353), and A. H. Garrod
+(_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1879, p. 109). After a minute description of the
+skeleton of _Opisthocomus_, with the especial object of determining its
+affinities, Huxley declared that it "resembles the ordinary gallinaceous
+birds and pigeons more than it does any others, and that when it
+diverges from them it is either sui generis or approaches the
+_Musophagidae_." He accordingly regarded it as the type and sole member
+of a group, named by him _Heteromorphae_, which sprang from the great
+Carinate stem later than the _Tinamomorphae_, _Turnicomorphae_, or
+_Charadriomorphae_, but before the _Peristeromorphae_, _Pteroclomorphae_
+or _Alectoromorphae_. This conclusion is substantially the same as that
+at which A. H. Garrod subsequently arrived after closely examining and
+dissecting specimens preserved in spirit; but the latter has gone
+further and endeavoured to trace more particularly the descent of this
+peculiar form and some others, remarking that the ancestor of
+_Opisthocomus_ must have left the parent stem very shortly before the
+true _Gallinae_ first appeared, and at about the same time as the
+independent pedigree of the _Cuculidae_ and _Musophagidae_
+commenced--these two groups being, he believed, very closely related,
+and _Opisthocomus_ serving to fill the gap between them.
+
+The first thing that strikes the observer of its skeleton is the
+extraordinary structure of the sternal apparatus, which is wholly unlike
+that of any other bird known. The keel is only developed on the
+posterior part of the sternum--the fore part being, as it were, cut
+away, while the short furcula at its symphysis meets the manubrium, with
+which it is firmly consolidated by means of a prolonged and straight
+hypocleidium, and anteriorly ossifies with the coracoids. This unique
+arrangement seems to be correlated with the enormously capacious crop,
+which rests upon the furcula and fore part of the sternum, and is also
+received in a cavity formed on the surface of each of the great pectoral
+muscles. Furthermore this crop is extremely muscular, so as more to
+resemble a gizzard, and consists of two portions divided by a partial
+constriction, after a fashion of which no other example is known among
+birds. The true gizzard is greatly reduced.
+
+[Illustration: Hoactzin.]
+
+The hoactzin appears to be about the size of a small pheasant, but is
+really a much smaller bird. The beak is strong, curiously denticulated
+along the margin of the maxilla near the base, and is beset by diverging
+bristles. The eyes, placed in the middle of a patch of bare skin, are
+furnished with bristly lashes, resembling those of horn-bills and some
+few other birds. The head bears a long pendant crest of loose yellowish
+feathers. The body is olive-coloured, varied with white above, and
+beneath is of a dull bay. The wings are short and rounded. The tail is
+long and tipped with yellow. The legs are rather short, the feet stout,
+the tarsi reticulated, and the toes scutellated; the claws long and
+slightly curved. According to all who have observed the habits of this
+bird, it lives in bands on the lower trees and bushes bordering the
+streams and lagoons, feeding on leaves and various wild fruits,
+especially, says H. W. Bates (_Naturalist on the River Amazons_, i. 120),
+those of a species of _Psidium_, and it is also credited with eating
+those of an arum (_Caladium arborescens_), which grows plentifully in its
+haunts. "Its voice is a harsh, grating hiss," continues the same
+traveller, and "it makes the noise when alarmed, all the individuals
+sibilating as they fly heavily away from tree to tree, when disturbed by
+passing canoes." It exhales a very strong odour--wherefore it is known in
+British Guiana as the "stink-bird"--compared by Bates to "musk combined
+with wet hides," and by Deville to that of a cow-house. The species is
+said to be polygamous; the nest is built on trees, of sticks placed above
+one another, and softer materials atop. Therein the hen lays her eggs to
+the number of three or four, of a dull-yellowish white, somewhat
+profusely marked with reddish blotches and spots, so as to resemble those
+of some of the _Rallidae_ (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1867, pl. xv. fig. 7.
+p. 164). The young are covered only with very scanty hair, like down, and
+have well-developed claws on the first and second fingers of the wing,
+which they use in clambering about the twigs in a quadrupedal manner; if
+placed in the water they swim and dive well, although the adults seem to
+be not at all aquatic.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+HOADLY, BENJAMIN (1676-1761), English divine, was born at Westerham,
+Kent, on the 14th of November 1676. In 1691 he entered Catharine Hall,
+Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. and was for two years tutor, after
+which he held from 1701 to 1711 the lectureship of St Mildred in the
+Poultry, and along with it from 1704 the rectory of St Peter-le-Poer,
+London. His first important appearance as a controversialist was against
+Edmund Calamy "the younger" in reference to conformity (1703-1707), and
+after this he came into conflict with Francis Atterbury, first on the
+interpretation of certain texts and then on the whole Anglican doctrine
+of non-resistance. His principal treatises on this subject were the
+_Measures of Submission to the Civil Magistrate_ and _The Origin and
+Institution of Civil Government discussed_; and his part in the
+discussion was so much appreciated by the Commons that in 1709 they
+presented an address to the queen praying her to "bestow some dignity in
+the church on Mr Hoadly for his eminent services both to church and
+state." The queen returned a favourable answer, but the dignity was not
+conferred. In 1710 he was presented by a private patron to the rectory
+of Streatham in Surrey. In 1715 he was appointed chaplain to the king,
+and the same year he obtained the bishopric of Bangor. He held the see
+for six years, but never visited the diocese. In 1716, in reply to
+George Hickes (q.v.), he published a _Preservative against the
+Principles and Practices of Nonjurors in Church and State_, and in the
+following year preached before the king his famous sermon on the
+_Kingdom of Christ_, which was immediately published by royal command.
+These works were attacks on the divine authority of kings and of the
+clergy, but as the sermon dealt more specifically and distinctly with
+the power of the church, its publication caused an ecclesiastical
+ferment which in certain aspects has no parallel in religious history.
+It was at once resolved to proceed against him in convocation, but this
+was prevented by the king proroguing the assembly, a step which had
+consequences of vital bearing on the history of the Church of England,
+since from that period the great Anglican council ceased to transact
+business of a more than formal nature. The restrained sentiments of the
+council in regard to Hoadly found expression in a war of pamphlets known
+as the Bangorian Controversy, which, partly from a want of clearness in
+the statements of Hoadly, partly from the disingenuousness of his
+opponents and the confusion resulting from exasperated feelings,
+developed into an intricate and bewildering maze of side discussions in
+which the main issues of the dispute were concealed almost beyond the
+possibility of discovery. But however vague and uncertain might be the
+meaning of Hoadly in regard to several of the important bearings of the
+questions around which he aroused discussion, he was explicit in denying
+the power of the Church over the conscience, and its right to determine
+the condition of men in relation to the favour of God. The most able of
+his opponents was William Law; others were Andrew Snape, provost of
+Eton, and Thomas Sherlock, dean of Chichester. So exercised was the mind
+of the religious world over the dispute that in July 1717 as many as
+seventy-four pamphlets made their appearance; and at one period the
+crisis became so serious that the business of London was for some days
+virtually at a stand-still. Hoadly, being not unskilled in the art of
+flattery, was translated in 1721 to the see of Hereford, in 1723 to
+Salisbury and in 1734 to Winchester. He died at his palace at Chelsea on
+the 17th of April 1761. His controversial writings are vigorous if
+prolix and his theological essays have little merit. He must have been a
+much hated man, for his latitudinarianism offended the high church party
+and his rationalism the other sections. He was an intimate friend of Dr
+Samuel Clarke, of whom he wrote a life.
+
+Hoadly's brother, JOHN HOADLY (1678-1746), was archbishop of Dublin from
+1730 to 1742 and archbishop of Armagh from the latter date until his
+death on the 19th of July 1746. In early life the archbishop was very
+intimate with Gilbert Burnet, then bishop of Salisbury, and in later
+life he was a prominent figure in Irish politics.
+
+  The works of Benjamin Hoadly were collected and published by his son
+  John in 3 vols. (1773). To the first volume was prefixed the article
+  "Hoadly" from the supplement to the _Biographia Britannica_. See also
+  L. Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th Century_.
+
+
+
+
+HOAR, SAMUEL (1778--1856), American lawyer, was born in Lincoln,
+Massachusetts, on the 18th of May 1778. He was the son of Samuel Hoar,
+an officer in the American army during the War of Independence, for many
+years a member of the Massachusetts General Court, and a member in
+1820-1821 of the state Constitutional Convention. The son graduated at
+Harvard in 1802, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1805 and began
+practice at Concord. His success in his profession was immediate, and
+for a half-century he was one of the leading lawyers of Massachusetts.
+He was in early life a Federalist and was later an ardent Whig in
+politics. He was a member of the state senate in 1825, 1832 and 1833,
+and of the national house of representatives in 1835-1837, during which
+time he made a notable speech in favour of the constitutional right of
+congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. In November
+1844, having retired from active legal practice some years before, he
+went to Charleston, S.C., at the request of Governor George Nixon Briggs
+(1796-1861), to test in the courts of South Carolina the
+constitutionality of the state law which provided that "it shall not be
+lawful for any free negro, or person of color, to come into this state
+on board any vessel, as a cook, steward or mariner, or in any other
+employment," and that such free negroes should be seized and locked up
+until the vessels on which they had come were ready for sea, when they
+should be returned to such vessels. His visit aroused great excitment,
+he was threatened with personal injury, the state legislature passed
+resolutions calling for his expulsion, and he was compelled to leave
+early in December. In 1848 he was prominent in the Free Soil movement in
+Massachusetts, and subsequently assisted in the organization of the
+Republican Party. In 1850 he served in the Massachusetts house of
+representatives. He married a daughter of Roger Sherman of Connecticut.
+He died at Concord, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of November 1856.
+
+  See a memoir by his son G. F. Hoar in _Memorial Biographies of the New
+  England Historic Genealogical Society_, vol. iii. (Boston, 1883); the
+  estimate by R. W. Emerson in _Lectures and Biographical Sketches_
+  (Boston, 1903); and "Samuel Hoar's Expulsion from Charleston," _Old
+  South Leaflets_, vol. vi. No. 140.
+
+His son, EBENEZER ROCKWOOD HOAR (1816-1895), was born at Concord,
+Massachusetts, on the 21st of February 1816. He graduated at Harvard in
+1835 and at the Harvard Law School in 1839, and was admitted to the
+Massachusetts bar in 1840. From 1849 to 1855 he was a judge of the
+Massachusetts court of common pleas, from 1859 to 1869 a judge of the
+state supreme court, and in 1869-1870 attorney-general of the United
+States in the cabinet of President Grant, and in that position fought
+unmerited "machine" appointments to offices in the civil service until
+at the pressure of the "machine" Grant asked for his resignation from
+the cabinet. The Senate had already shown its disapproval of Hoar's
+policy of civil service reform by its failure in 1870 to confirm the
+President's nomination of Hoar as associate-justice of the supreme
+court. In 1871 he was a member of the Joint High Commission which drew
+up the Treaty of Washington. In 1872 he was a presidential elector on
+the Republican ticket, and in 1873-1875 was a representative in
+Congress. He was a member of the Board of Overseers of Harvard
+University from 1868 to 1880 and from 1881 to 1887, and was president of
+the Board in 1878-1880 and in 1881-1887. He was also prominent in the
+affairs of the Unitarian church. He was a man of high character and
+brilliant wit. He died at Concord on the 31st of January 1895.
+
+Another son, GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR (1826-1904), was born in Concord,
+Massachusetts, on the 29th of August 1826. He graduated at Harvard in
+1846 and at the Harvard Law School in 1849. He settled in the practice
+of law in Worcester, Massachusetts, where in 1852 he became a partner of
+Emory Washburn (1800-1877). In 1852 he was elected as a Free-Soiler to
+the Massachusetts House of Representatives, and during his single term
+of service became the leader of his party in that body. He was active in
+the organization of the Republican party in Massachusetts, and in 1857
+was elected to the State senate, but declined a re-election. During
+1856-1857 he was active in behalf of the Free-State cause in Kansas. He
+was a member of the National House of Representatives from 1869 until
+1877, and in this body took high rank as a ready debater and a
+conscientious committee worker. He was prominent as a defender and
+supporter of the Freedman's Bureau, took a leading part in the later
+reconstruction legislation and in the investigation of the Credit
+Mobilier scandal, and in 1876 was one of the House managers of the
+impeachment of General W. W. Belknap, Grant's secretary of war. In 1877
+he was a member of the Electoral Commission which settled the disputed
+Hayes-Tilden election. From 1877 until his death he was a member of the
+United States senate. In the senate almost from the start he took rank
+as one of the most influential leaders of the Republican party; he was a
+member from 1882 until his death of the important Judiciary Committee,
+of which he was chairman in 1891-1893 and in 1895-1904. His most
+important piece of legislation was the Presidential Succession Act of
+1886. He was a delegate to every Republican National Convention from
+1876 to 1904, and presided over that at Chicago in 1880. He was a
+conservative by birth and training, and although he did not leave his
+party he disagreed with its policy in regard to the Philippines, and
+spoke and voted against the ratification of the Spanish Treaty. He was
+regent of the Smithsonian Institution in 1880-1881, and long served as
+an overseer of Harvard University (1896-1904) and as president of its
+alumni association. He was also president of the American Historical
+Association (1894-1895) and of the American Antiquarian Society
+(1884-1887). Like his brother, he was a leading Unitarian, and was
+president of its National Conference from 1894 to 1902. He died at
+Worcester, Massachusetts, on the 30th of September 1904. A memorial
+statue has been erected there.
+
+  See his _Recollections of Seventy Years_ (New York, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT, BART. (1758-1838), English antiquary, was the
+eldest son of Richard Hoare, who was created a baronet in 1786, and was
+born on the 9th of December 1758. He was descended from Sir Richard
+Hoare (1648-1718), lord mayor of London, the founder of the family
+banking business. An ample allowance from his grandfather, Henry Hoare,
+enabled him to pursue the archaeological studies for which he had
+already shown an inclination. In 1783 he married Hester, daughter of
+William Henry, Lord Lyttelton, and after her death in 1785 he paid a
+prolonged visit to France, Italy and Switzerland. He succeeded to the
+baronetcy in 1787, and in 1788 made a second continental tour, the
+record of his travels appearing in 1819 under the title _A Classical
+Tour through Italy and Sicily_. A journey through Wales was followed by
+a translation of the _Itinerarium Cambriae_ and of the _Descriptio
+Cambriae of_ Giraldus Cambrensis, Hoare adding notes and a life of
+Giraldus to the translation. This was first published in 1804, and has
+been revised by T. Wright (London, 1863). Sir Richard died at Stourhead,
+Wiltshire, on the 19th of May 1838, being succeeded in the baronetcy by
+his half-brother, Henry Hugh Hoare. Hoare's most important work was his
+_Ancient History of North and South Wiltshire_ (1812-1819); he also did
+some work on the large _History of Modern Wiltshire_ (1822-1844).
+
+  For notices of him and a list of his works, many of which were printed
+  privately, see the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for July 1838, and the
+  _Dict. Nat. Biog._ vol. xxvii. (1891). See also E. Hoare, _History of
+  the Hoare Family_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS (1844-1899), Vice-President of the United States
+1897-1899, was born at Long Branch, N.J., on the 3rd of June 1844. He
+graduated at Rutgers College in 1863, was admitted to the bar in 1869,
+practised law at Paterson, N.J., and rose to prominence in the State. He
+was long conspicuous in the State Republican organization, was chairman
+of the New Jersey State Republican Committee from 1880 to 1890, became a
+member in 1884 of the Republican National Committee, and was the
+delegate-at-large from New Jersey to five successive Republican national
+nominating conventions. He served in the New Jersey Assembly in
+1873-1874, and in the New Jersey Senate in 1877-1882, and was speaker of
+the Assembly in 1874 and president of the Senate in 1881 and 1882. He
+was also prominent and successful in business and accumulated a large
+fortune. He accepted the nomination as Vice-President in 1896, on the
+ticket with President McKinley, and was elected; but while still in
+office he died at Paterson, N.J., on the 21st of November 1899.
+
+  See the _Life_ (New York, 1910) by David Magie.
+
+
+
+
+HOBART, JOHN HENRY (1775-1830), American Protestant Episcopal bishop,
+was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 14th of September 1775,
+being fifth in direct descent from Edmund Hobart, a founder of Hingham,
+Massachusetts. He was educated at the Philadelphia Latin School, the
+College of Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania), and
+Princeton, where he graduated in 1793. After studying theology under
+Bishop William White at Philadelphia, he was ordained deacon in 1798,
+and priest two years later. He was elected assistant bishop of New York,
+with the right of succession, in 1811, and was acting diocesan from that
+date because of the ill-health of Bishop Benjamin Moore, whom he
+formally succeeded on the latter's death in February 1816. He was one of
+the founders of the General Theological Seminary, became its professor
+of pastoral theology in 1821, and as bishop was its governor. In his
+zeal for the historic episcopacy he published in 1807 _An Apology for
+Apostolic Order and its Advocates_, a series of letters to Rev. John M.
+Mason, who, in _The Christian's Magazine_, of which he was editor, had
+attacked the Episcopacy in general and in particular Hobart's
+_Collection of Essays on the Subject of Episcopacy_ (1806). Hobart's
+zeal for the General Seminary and the General Convention led him to
+oppose the plan of Philander Chase, bishop of Ohio, for an Episcopal
+seminary in that diocese; but the Ohio seminary was made directly
+responsible to the House of Bishops, and Hobart approved the plan. His
+strong opposition to "dissenting churches" was nowhere so clearly shown
+as in a pamphlet published in 1816 to dissuade all Episcopalians from
+joining the American Bible Society, which he thought the Protestant
+Episcopal Church had not the numerical or the financial strength to
+control. In 1818, to counterbalance the influence of the Bible Society
+and especially of Scott's _Commentaries_, he began to edit with selected
+notes the _Family Bible_ of the Society for Promoting Christian
+Knowledge. He delivered episcopal charges to the clergy of Connecticut
+and New York entitled _The Churchman_ (1819) and _The High Churchman
+Vindicated_ (1826), in which he accepted the name "high churchman," and
+stated and explained his principles "in distinction from the corruptions
+of the Church of Rome and from the Errors of Certain Protestant Sects."
+He exerted himself greatly in building up his diocese, attempting to
+make an annual visit to every parish. His failing health led him to
+visit Europe in 1823-1825. Upon his return he preached a characteristic
+sermon entitled _The United States of America compared with some
+European Countries, particularly England_ (published 1826), in which,
+although there was some praise for the English church, he so boldly
+criticized the establishment, state patronage, cabinet appointment of
+bishops, lax discipline, and the low requirements of theological
+education, as to rouse much hostility in England, where he had been
+highly praised for two volumes of _Sermons on the Principal Events and
+Truths of Redemption_ (1824). He died at Auburn, New York, on the 12th
+of September 1830. He was able, impetuous, frank, perfectly fearless in
+controversy, a speaker and preacher of much eloquence, a supporter of
+missions to the Oneida Indians in his diocese, and the compiler of the
+following devotional works: _A Companion for the Altar_ (1804),
+_Festivals and Fasts_ (1804), _A Companion to the Book of Common Prayer_
+(1805), and _A Clergyman's Companion_ (1805).
+
+  See _Memorial of Bishop Hobart_, containing a _Memoir_ (New York,
+  1831); John McVickar, _The Early Life and Professional Years of Bishop
+  Hobart_ (New York, 1834), and _The Closing Years of Bishop Hobart_
+  (New York, 1836).
+
+
+
+
+HOBART PASHA, AUGUSTUS CHARLES HOBART-HAMPDEN (1822-1886), English naval
+captain and Turkish admiral, was born in Leicestershire on the 1st of
+April 1822, being the third son of the 6th Earl of Buckinghamshire. In
+1835 he entered the Royal Navy and served as a midshipman on the coast
+of Brazil in the suppression of the slave trade, displaying much
+gallantry in the operations. In 1855 he took part, as captain of the
+"Driver," in the Baltic Expedition, and was actively engaged at
+Bomarsund and Abo. In 1862 he retired from the navy with the rank of
+post-captain; but his love of adventure led him, during the American
+Civil War, to take the command of a blockade-runner. He had the good
+fortune to run the blockade eighteen times, conveying war material to
+Charleston and returning with a cargo of cotton. In 1867 Hobart entered
+the Turkish service, and was immediately nominated to the command of
+that fleet, with the rank of "Bahrie Limassi" (rear-admiral). In this
+capacity he performed splendid service in helping to suppress the
+insurrection in Crete, and was rewarded by the Sultan with the title of
+Pasha (1869). In 1874 Hobart, whose name had, on representations made by
+Greece, been removed from the British Navy List, was reinstated; his
+restoration did not, however, last long, for on the outbreak of the
+Russo-Turkish war he again entered Turkish service. In command of the
+Turkish squadron he completely dominated the Black Sea, blockading the
+ports of South Russia and the mouths of the Danube, and paralysing the
+action of the Russian fleet. On the conclusion of peace Hobart still
+remained in the Turkish service, and in 1881 was appointed Mushir, or
+marshal, being the first Christian to hold that high office. His
+achievements as a blockade-runner, his blockade of Crete, and his
+handling of the Turkish fleet against the torpedo-lined coasts of
+Russia, showed him to be a daring, resourceful, and skilful commander,
+worthy to be ranked among the illustrious names of British naval heroes.
+He died at Milan on the 19th of June 1886.
+
+  See his _Sketches of My Life_ (1886), which must, however, be used
+  with caution, since it contains many proved inaccuracies.
+
+
+
+
+HOBART, the capital of Tasmania, in the county of Buckingham, on the
+southern coast of the island. It occupies a site of great beauty,
+standing on a series of low hills at the foot of Mount Wellington, a
+lofty peak (4166 ft.) which is snow-clad for many months in the year.
+The town fronts Sullivan's Cove, a picturesque bay opening into the
+estuary of the river Derwent, and is nearly square in form, laid out
+with wide streets intersecting at right angles, the chief of which are
+served by electric tramways. It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of
+Tasmania, and of the Roman Catholic archbishop of Hobart. The Anglican
+cathedral of St David dates from 1873, though its foundations were laid
+as early as 1817. St Mary's Roman Catholic cathedral is a beautiful
+building; but perhaps the most notable ecclesiastical building in Hobart
+is the great Baptist tabernacle in Upper Elizabeth Street. The most
+prominent public buildings are the Houses of Parliament, to which an
+excellent library is attached; the town hall, a beautiful building of
+brown and white Tasmanian freestone in Italian style; the museum and
+national art gallery, and the general post office (1904) with its lofty
+clock-tower. Government House, the residence of the governor of
+Tasmania, a handsome castellated building, stands in its domain on the
+banks of the Derwent, to the north of the town. The botanical gardens
+adjoin. Of the parks and public gardens, the most extensive is the
+Queen's Domain, covering an area of about 700 acres, while the most
+central is Franklin Square, adorned with a statue of Sir John Franklin,
+the famous Arctic explorer, who was governor of Tasmania from 1837 to
+1843. The university of Tasmania, established in 1890, and opened in
+1893, has its headquarters at Hobart. The town is celebrated for its
+invigorating climate, and its annual regatta on the Derwent attracts
+numerous visitors. The harbour is easy of access, well sheltered and
+deep, with wharf accommodation for vessels of the largest tonnage. It is
+a regular port of call for several intercolonial lines from Sydney and
+Melbourne, and for lines from London to New Zealand. The exports, of an
+average value of L850,000 annually, consist mainly of fruit, hops,
+grain, timber and wool. The industries comprise brewing, saw-milling,
+iron-founding, flour-milling, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery
+and woollen goods. Hobart is the centre of a large fruit-growing
+district, the produce of which, for the most part, is exported to London
+and Sydney. The city was founded in 1804 and takes its name from Lord
+Hobart (see BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF), then secretary of state for the
+colonies. It was created a municipality in 1853, and a city in 1857; and
+in 1881 its name was changed from Hobart Town to the present form. The
+chief suburbs are Newton, Sandy Bay, Wellington, Risdon, Glenorchy,
+Bellerive and Beltana. The population of the city proper in 1901 was
+24,652, or including suburbs, 34,182.
+
+
+
+
+HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT (c. 1638-1709), the greatest landscape painter of the
+Dutch school after Ruysdael, lived at Amsterdam in the second half of
+the 17th century. The facts of his life are somewhat obscure. Nothing is
+more disappointing than to find that in Hobbema's case chronology and
+signed pictures substantially contradict each other. According to the
+latter his practice lasted from 1650 to 1689; according to the former
+his birth occurred in 1638, his death as late as 1709. If the
+masterpiece formerly in the Bredel collection, called "A Wooded Stream,"
+honestly bears the date of 1650, or "The Cottages under Trees" of the
+Ford collection the date of 1652, the painter of these canvases cannot
+be Hobbema, whose birth took place in 1638, unless indeed we admit that
+Hobbema painted some of his finest works at the age of twelve or
+fourteen. For a considerable period it was profitable to pass Hobbemas
+as Ruysdaels, and the name of the lesser master was probably erased from
+several of his productions. When Hobbema's talent was recognized, the
+contrary process was followed, and in this way the name, and perhaps
+fictitious dates, reappeared by fraud. An experienced eye will note the
+differences which occur in Hobbema's signatures in such well-known
+examples as adorn the galleries of London and Rotterdam, or the
+Grosvenor and van der Hoop collections. Meanwhile, we must be content to
+know that, if the question of dates could be brought into accordance
+with records and chronology, the facts of Hobbema's life would be as
+follows.
+
+Meyndert Hobbema was married at the age of thirty to Eeltije Vinck of
+Gorcum, in the Oudekerk or old church at Amsterdam, on the 2nd of
+November 1668. Witnesses to the marriage were the bride's brother
+Cornelius Vinck and Jacob Ruysdael. We might suppose from this that
+Hobbema and Ruysdael, the two great masters of landscape, were united at
+this time by ties of friendship, and accept the belief that the former
+was the pupil of the latter. Yet even this is denied to us, since
+records tell us that there were two Jacob Ruysdaels, cousins and
+contemporaries, at Amsterdam in the middle of the 17th century--one a
+framemaker, the son of Solomon, the other a painter, the son of Isaac
+Ruysdael. Of Hobbema's marriage there came between 1668 and 1673 four
+children. In 1704 Eeltije died, and was buried in the pauper section of
+the Leiden cemetery at Amsterdam. Hobbema himself survived till December
+1709, receiving burial on the 14th of that month in the pauper section
+of the Westerkerk cemetery at Amsterdam. Husband and wife had lived
+during their lifetime in the Rozengracht, at no great distance from
+Rembrandt, who also dwelt there in his later and impoverished days.
+Rembrandt, Hals, Jacob Ruysdael, and Hobbema were in one respect alike.
+They all died in misery, insufficiently rewarded perhaps for their toil,
+imprudent perhaps in the use of the means derived from their labours.
+Posterity has recognized that Hobbema and Ruysdael together represent
+the final development of landscape art in Holland. Their style is so
+related that we cannot suppose the first to have been unconnected with
+the second. Still their works differ in certain ways, and their
+character is generally so marked that we shall find little difficulty in
+distinguishing them, nor indeed shall we hesitate in separating those of
+Hobbema from the feebler productions of his imitators and
+predecessors--Isaac Ruysdael, Rontbouts, de Vries, Dekker, Looten,
+Verboom, du Bois, van Kessel, van der Hagen, even Philip de Koningk. In
+the exercise of his craft Hobbema was patient beyond all conception. It
+is doubtful whether any one ever so completely mastered as he did the
+still life of woods and hedges, or mills and pools. Nor can we believe
+that he obtained this mastery otherwise than by constantly dwelling in
+the same neighbourhood, say in Guelders or on the Dutch Westphalian
+border, where day after day he might study the branching and foliage of
+trees and underwood embowering cottages and mills, under every variety
+of light, in every shade of transparency, in all changes produced by the
+seasons. Though his landscapes are severely and moderately toned,
+generally in an olive key, and often attuned to a puritanical grey or
+russet, they surprise us, not only by the variety of their leafage, but
+by the finish of their detail as well as the boldness of their touch.
+With astonishing subtlety light is shown penetrating cloud, and
+illuminating, sometimes transiently, sometimes steadily, different
+portions of the ground, shining through leaves upon other leaves, and
+multiplying in an endless way the transparency of the picture. If the
+chance be given him he mirrors all these things in the still pool near a
+cottage, the reaches of a sluggish river, or the swirl of the stream
+that feeds a busy mill. The same spot will furnish him with several
+pictures. One mill gives him repeated opportunities of charming our eye;
+and this wonderful artist, who is only second to Ruysdael because he had
+not Ruysdael's versatility and did not extend his study equally to downs
+and rocky eminences, or torrents and estuaries--this is the man who
+lived penuriously, died poor, and left no trace in the artistic annals
+of his country! It has been said that Hobbema did not paint his own
+figures, but transferred that duty to Adrian van de Velde, Lingelbach,
+Barendt Gael, and Abraham Storck. As to this much is conjecture.
+
+  The best of Hobbema's dated pictures are those of the years 1663 to
+  1667. Of the former, several in the galleries of Brussels and St
+  Petersburg, and one in the Holford collection, are celebrated. Of 1665
+  fine specimens are at Grosvenor House and the Wallace collection. Of
+  seven pieces in the National Gallery, including the "Avenue at
+  Middelharnis," which some assign to 1689, and the "Ruins of Breberode
+  Castle," two are dated 1667. A sample of the last of these years is
+  also in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge. Amongst the masterpieces
+  in private hands in England may be noticed two landscapes in
+  Buckingham Palace, two at Bridgewater House, and one belonging to Mr
+  Walter of Bearwood. On the continent are a "Wooded Landscape" in the
+  Berlin gallery, a "Forest" belonging to the duchess of Sagan in Paris,
+  and a "Glade" in the Louvre. There are other fine Hobbemas in the
+  Antwerp Museum, the Arenberg gallery at Brussels, and the Belvedere at
+  Vienna.     (J. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1679), English philosopher, second son of Thomas
+Hobbes, was born at Westport (now part of Malmesbury, Wiltshire) on the
+5th of April 1588. His father, vicar of Charlton and Westport, an
+illiterate and choleric man, quarrelled, it is said, with a brother
+clergyman at the church door, and was forced to decamp, leaving his
+three children to the care of an elder brother Francis, a flourishing
+glover at Malmesbury. Thomas Hobbes was put to school at Westport church
+at the age of four, passed to the Malmesbury school at eight, and was
+taught again in Westport later at a private school kept by a young man
+named Robert Latimer, fresh from Oxford and "a good Grecian." He had
+begun Latin and Greek early, and under Latimer made such progress as to
+be able to translate the _Medea_ of Euripides into Latin iambic verse
+before he was fourteen. About the age of fifteen he was sent to Oxford
+and entered at Magdalen Hall. During his residence, the first principal
+of Magdalen Hall, John Hussee, was succeeded by John Wilkinson, who
+ruled in the interest of the Calvinistic party in the university. Thus
+early was he brought into contact with the aggressive Puritan spirit.
+Apart from this, Hobbes owed little to his university training, which
+was based on the scholastic logic then prevalent. We have from himself a
+lively record of his student life (_Vit. carm. exp._ p. lxxxv.), which,
+though penned in extreme old age, may be taken as trustworthy. He tells
+how, when he had slowly taken in the doctrine of logical figures and
+moods, he put it aside and would prove things only in his own way; how
+he then heard about bodies as consisting of matter and form, as throwing
+off species of themselves for perception, and as moved by sympathies and
+antipathies, with much else of a like sort, all beyond his
+comprehension; and how he therefore turned to his old books again, fed
+his mind on maps and charts of earth and sky, traced the sun in his
+path, followed Drake and Cavendish girdling the main, and gazed with
+delight upon pictured haunts of men and wonders of unknown lands. Very
+characteristic is the interest in men and things, and the disposition to
+cut through questions in the schools after a trenchant fashion of his
+own. He was little attracted by the scholastic learning, though it would
+be wrong to take his words as evidence of a precocious insight into its
+weakness. The truth probably is that he took no interest in studies
+which there was no risk in neglecting, and thought as little of
+rejecting as of accepting the traditional doctrines. He adds that he
+took his degree at the proper time; but in fact, upon any computation
+and from whatever cause, he remained at Magdalen Hall five, instead of
+the required four, years, not being admitted as bachelor till the 5th of
+February 1608.
+
+
+  Translation of Thucydides.
+
+In the same year Hobbes was recommended by Wilkinson as tutor to the son
+of William Cavendish, baron of Hardwick (afterwards 2nd earl of
+Devonshire), and thus began a lifelong connexion with a great and
+powerful family. Twice it was loosened--once, for a short time, after
+twenty years, and again, for a longer period, during the Civil War--but
+it never was broken. Hobbes spoke of the first years of his tutorship as
+the happiest of his life. Young Cavendish was hardly younger than
+Hobbes, and had been married, a few months before, at the instance of
+the king, to Christiana, the only daughter of Edward, Lord Bruce of
+Kinloss, though by reason of the bride's age, which was only twelve
+years, the pair had no establishment for some time. Hobbes was his
+companion rather than tutor (before becoming secretary); and, growing
+greatly attached to each other, they were sent abroad together on the
+grand tour in 1610. During this journey, the duration of which cannot be
+precisely stated, Hobbes acquired some knowledge of French and Italian,
+and also made the important discovery that the scholastic philosophy
+which he had learned in Oxford was almost universally neglected in
+favour of the scientific and critical methods of Galileo, Kepler and
+Montaigne. Unable at first to cope with their unfamiliar ideas, he
+determined to become a scholar, and until 1628 was engaged in a careful
+study of Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was his great
+translation of Thucydides. But when he had finished his work he kept it
+lying by him for years, being no longer so sure of finding appreciative
+readers; and when he did send it forth, in 1628, he was fain to be
+content with "the few and better sort."[1] That he was finally
+determined to publication by the political troubles of the year 1628 may
+be regarded as certain, not only from his own express declaration at a
+later time (_Vit. carm. exp._), but also from unmistakable hints in the
+account of the life and work of his author prefixed to the translation
+on its appearance. This was the year of the Petition of Right, extorted
+from the king in the third parliament he had tried within three years of
+his accession; and, in view of Hobbes's later activity, it is
+significant that he came forward just then, at the mature age of forty,
+with his version of the story of the Athenian democracy as the first
+production of his pen. Nothing else is known of his doings before 1628,
+except that through his connexion with young Cavendish he had relations
+with literary men of note like Ben Jonson, and also with Bacon and Lord
+Herbert of Cherbury. If he never had any sympathy with Herbert's
+intuitionalist principles in philosophy, he was no less eager, as he
+afterwards showed, than Herbert to rationalize in matters of religious
+doctrine, so that he may be called the second of the English deists, as
+Herbert has been called the first. With Bacon he was so intimate
+(Aubrey's _Lives_, pp. 222, 602) that some writers have described him as
+a disciple. The facts that he used to walk with Bacon at Gorhambury, and
+would jot down with exceptional intelligence the eager thinker's sudden
+"notions," and that he was employed to make the Latin version of some of
+the _Essays_, prove nothing when weighed against his own disregard of
+all Bacon's principles, and the other evidence that the impulse to
+independent thinking came to him not from Bacon, and not till some time
+after Bacon's death in 1626.[2]
+
+
+  Philosophic Inquiry.
+
+So far as we have any positive evidence, it was not before the year 1629
+that Hobbes entered on philosophical inquiry. Meanwhile a great change
+had been wrought in his circumstances. His friend and master, after
+about two years' tenure of the earldom of Devonshire, died of the plague
+in June 1628, and the affairs of the family were so disordered
+financially that the widowed countess was left with the task of righting
+them in the boyhood of the third earl. Hobbes went on for a time living
+in the household; but his services were no longer in demand, and,
+remaining inconsolable under his personal bereavement, he sought
+distraction, in 1629, in another engagement which took him abroad as
+tutor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, of an old Nottinghamshire
+family. This, his second, sojourn abroad appears to have been spent
+chiefly in Paris, and the one important fact recorded of it is that he
+then first began to look into Euclid. The engagement came to an end in
+1631, when he was recalled to train the young earl of Devonshire, now
+thirteen years old, son of his previous pupil. In the course of the next
+seven years in Derbyshire and abroad, Hobbes took his pupil over
+rhetoric,[3] logic, astronomy, and the principles of law, with other
+subjects. His mind was now full of the thought of motion in nature, and
+on the continent he sought out the philosophical speculators or
+scientific workers. In Florence in 1636 he saw Galileo, for whom he ever
+retained the warmest admiration, and spent eight months in daily
+converse with the members of a scientific circle in Paris, held together
+by Marin Mersenne (q.v.). From that time (the winter of 1636-1637) he
+too, as he tells us, was numbered among philosophers.
+
+  His introduction to Euclid took place accidentally in 1629 (Aubrey's
+  _Lives_, p. 604). Euclid's manner of proof became the model for his
+  own way of thinking upon all subjects. It is less easy to determine
+  when he awoke to an interest in the physical doctrine of motion. The
+  story told by himself (_Vit._ p. xx.) is that, hearing the question
+  asked "What is sense?" he fell to thinking often on the subject, till
+  it suddenly occurred to him that if bodies and their internal parts
+  were at rest, or were always in the same state of motion, there could
+  be no distinction of anything, and consequently no sense; the cause of
+  all things must therefore be sought in diversity of movements.
+  Starting from this principle he was driven to geometry for insight
+  into the ground and modes of motion. The biographies we possess do not
+  tell us where or when this great change of interest occurred. Nothing
+  is said, however, which contradicts a statement that on his third
+  journey in Europe he began to study the doctrine of motion more
+  seriously, being interested in it before; and as he claims more than
+  once (_L.W._ v. 303; _E.W._ vii. 468) to have explained light and
+  sound by a mechanical hypothesis as far back as 1630, the inspiration
+  may be assigned to the time of the second journey. But it was not till
+  the third journey that the new interest became an overpowering
+  passion, and the "philosopher" was on his way home before he had
+  advanced so far as to conceive the scheme of a system of thought to
+  the elaboration of which his life should henceforth be devoted.
+
+  Hobbes was able to carry out his plan in some twenty years or more
+  from the time of its conception, but the execution was so broken in
+  upon by political events, and so complicated with other labours, that
+  its stages can hardly be followed without some previous understanding
+  of the relations of the parts of the scheme, as there is reason to
+  believe they were sketched out from the beginning. His scheme was
+  first to work out, in a separate treatise _De corpore_, a systematic
+  doctrine of Body, showing how physical phenomena were universally
+  explicable in terms of motion, as motion or mechanical action was then
+  (through Galileo and others) understood--the theory of motion being
+  applied in the light of mathematical science, after quantity, the
+  subject-matter of mathematics, had been duly considered in its place
+  among the fundamental conceptions of philosophy, and a clear
+  indication had been given, at first starting, of the logical ground
+  and method of all philosophical inquiry. He would then single out Man
+  from the realm of nature, and, in a treatise _De homine_, show what
+  specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the
+  peculiar phenomena of sensation and knowledge, as also of the
+  affections and passions thence resulting, whereby man came into
+  relation with man. Finally he would consider, in a crowning treatise
+  _De cive_, how men, being naturally rivals or foes, were moved to
+  enter into the better relation of Society, and demonstrate how this
+  grand product of human wit must be regulated if men were not to fall
+  back into brutishness and misery. Thus he proposed to unite in one
+  coherent whole the separate phenomena of Body, Man and the State.
+
+Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country seething with discontent. The
+reign of "Thorough" was collapsing, and the forces pent up since 1629
+were soon to rend the fabric of the state. By these events Hobbes was
+distracted from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. The Short
+Parliament, as he tells us at a later time (_E.W._ iv. 414), was not
+dissolved before he had ready "a little treatise in English," in which
+he sought to prove that the points of the royal prerogative which the
+members were determined to dispute before granting supplies "were
+inseparably annexed to the sovereignty which they did not then deny to
+be in the king." Now it can be proved that at this time he had written
+not only his _Human Nature_ but also his _De corpore politico_, the two
+treatises (though published separately ten years later) having been
+composed as parts of one work;[4] and there cannot be the least question
+that together they make "the little treatise" just mentioned. We are
+therefore to understand, first, that he wrote the earliest draft of his
+political theory some years before the outbreak of the Civil War, and,
+secondly, that this earliest draft was not written till, in accordance
+with his philosophical conception, he had established the grounds of
+polity in human nature. The first point is to be noted, because it has
+often been supposed that Hobbes's political doctrine took its peculiar
+complexion from his revulsion against the state of anarchy before his
+eyes, as he wrote during the progress of the Civil War. The second point
+must be maintained against his own implied, if not express, statement
+some years later, when publishing his _De cive_ (_L.W._ ii. 151), that
+he wrote this third part of his system before he had been able to set
+down any finished representation of the fundamental doctrines which it
+presupposed. In the beginning of 1640, therefore, he had written out his
+doctrine of Man at least, with almost as much elaboration as it ever
+received from him.
+
+
+  In Paris.
+
+In November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded to the Short, and sent
+Laud and Strafford to the Tower, and Hobbes, who had become, or thought
+he had become, a marked man by the circulation of his treatise (of
+which, "though not printed, many gentlemen had copies"), hastened to
+Paris, "the first of all that fled." He was now for the fourth and last
+time abroad, and did not return for eleven years. Apparently he remained
+the greater part of the time in or about Paris. He was welcomed back
+into the scientific coterie about Mersenne, and forthwith had the task
+assigned him of criticizing the _Meditations_ of Descartes, which had
+been sent from Holland, before publication, to Mersenne with the
+author's request for criticism from the most different points of view.
+Hobbes was soon ready with the remarks that were printed as "Third"
+among the six (later seven) sets of "Objections" appended, with
+"Replies" from Descartes, to the _Meditations_, when published shortly
+afterwards in 1641 (reprinted in _L.W._ v. 249-274). About the same time
+also Mersenne sent to Descartes, as if they came from a friend in
+England, another set of objections which Hobbes had to offer on various
+points in the scientific treatises, especially the _Dioptrics_, appended
+by Descartes to his _Discourse on Method_ in 1637; to which Descartes
+replied without suspecting the common authorship of the two sets. The
+result was to keep the two thinkers apart rather than bring them
+together. Hobbes was more eager to bring forward his own philosophical
+and physical ideas than careful to enter into the full meaning of
+another's thought; and Descartes was too jealous, and too confident in
+his conclusions to bear with this kind of criticism. He was very curt in
+his replies to Hobbes's philosophical objections, and broke off all
+correspondence on the physical questions, writing privately to Mersenne
+that he had grave doubts of the Englishman's good faith in drawing him
+into controversy (_L.W._ v. 277-307).
+
+Meanwhile Hobbes had his thoughts too full of the political theory which
+the events of the last years had ripened within him to settle, even in
+Paris, to the orderly composition of his works. Though connected in his
+own mind with his view of human nature and of nature generally, the
+political theory, as he always declared, could stand by itself. Also,
+while he may have hoped at this time to be able to add much (though he
+never did) to the sketch of his doctrine of Man contained in the
+unpublished "little treatise," he might extend, but could hardly
+otherwise modify, the sketch he had there given of his carefully
+articulated theory of Body Politic. Possibly, indeed, before that sketch
+was written early in 1640, he may, under pressure of the political
+excitement, have advanced no small way in the actual composition of the
+treatise _De Cive_, the third section of his projected system. In any
+case, it was upon this section, before the others, that he set to work
+in Paris; and before the end of 1641 the book, as we know from the date
+of the dedication (November 1), was finished. Though it was forthwith
+printed in the course of the year 1642, he was content to circulate a
+limited number of copies privately[5]; and when he found his work
+received with applause (it was praised even by Descartes), he seems to
+have taken this recognition of his philosophical achievement as an
+additional reason for deferring publication till the earlier works of
+the system were completed. Accordingly, for the next three or four
+years, he remained steadily at work, and nothing appeared from him in
+public except a short treatise on optics (_Tractatus opticus, L.W._ v.
+217-248) included in the collection of scientific tracts published by
+Mersenne under the title _Cogitata physico-mathematica_ in 1644, and a
+highly compressed statement of his psychological application of the
+doctrine of motion (_L.W._ v. 309-318), incorporated with Mersenne's
+_Ballistica_, published in the same year. Thus or otherwise he had
+become sufficiently known by 1645 to be chosen as a referee, with
+Descartes, Roberval and others, in the famous controversy between John
+Pell (q.v.) and the Dane Longomontanus (q.v.) over that problem of the
+squaring of the circle which was seen later on to have such a fatal
+charm for himself. But though about this time he had got ready all or
+most of the materials for his fundamental work on Body, not even now was
+he able to make way with its composition, and when he returned to it
+after a number of years, he returned a different man.
+
+
+  Leviathan.
+
+The Civil War had broken out in 1642, and the royalist cause began to
+decline from the time of the defeat at Marston Moor, in the middle of
+1644. Then commenced an exodus of the king's friends. Newcastle himself,
+who was a cousin of Hobbes's late patron and to whom he dedicated the
+"little treatise" of 1640, found his way to Paris, and was followed by a
+stream of fugitives, many of whom were known to Hobbes. The sight of
+these exiles made the political interest once more predominant in
+Hobbes, and before long the revived feeling issued in the formation of a
+new and important design. It first showed itself in the publication of
+the _De cive_, of which the fame, but only the fame, had extended beyond
+the inner circle of friends and critics who had copies of the original
+impression. Hobbes now entrusted it, early in 1646, to his admirer, the
+Frenchman Samuel de Sorbiere, by whom it was seen through the Elzevir
+press at Amsterdam in 1647--having previously inserted a number of notes
+in reply to objections, and also a striking preface, in the course of
+which he explained its relation to the other parts of the system not yet
+forthcoming, and the (political) occasion of its having been composed
+and being now published before them.[6] So hopeless, meanwhile, was he
+growing of being able to return home that, later on in the year, he was
+on the point of leaving Paris to take up his abode in the south with a
+French friend,[7] when he was engaged "by the month" as mathematical
+instructor to the young prince of Wales, who had come over from Jersey
+about the month of July. This engagement lasted nominally from 1646 to
+1648 when Charles went to Holland. Thus thrown more than ever into the
+company of the exiled royalists, it was then, if not earlier, that he
+conceived his new design of bringing all his powers of thought and
+expression to bear upon the production of an English book that should
+set forth his whole theory of civil government in relation to the
+political crisis resulting from the war. The _De cive_, presently to be
+published, was written in Latin for the learned, and gave the political
+theory without its foundation in human nature. The unpublished treatise
+of 1640 contained all or nearly all that he had to tell concerning human
+nature, but was written before the terrible events of the last years had
+disclosed how men might still be urged by their anti-social passions
+back into the abyss of anarchy. There was need of an exposition at once
+comprehensive, incisive and popular. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes,
+might be regarded as a great artificial man or monster (_Leviathan_),
+composed of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation
+through human reason under pressure of human needs to its dissolution
+through civil strife proceeding from human passions. This, we may
+suppose, was the presiding conception from the first, but the design may
+have been variously modified in the three or four years of its
+execution. Before the end, in 1650-1651, it is plain that he wrote in
+direct reference to the greatly changed aspect of affairs in England.
+The king being dead, and the royalist cause appearing to be hopelessly
+lost, he did not scruple, in closing the work with a general "Review and
+Conclusion," to raise the question of the subject's right to change
+allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect was irrecoverably
+gone. Also he took advantage of the rule of the Commonwealth to indulge
+much more freely than he might have otherwise dared in rationalistic
+criticism of religious doctrines; while, amid the turmoil of sects, he
+could the more forcibly urge that the preservation of social order, when
+again firmly restored, must depend on the assumption by the civil power
+of the right to wield all sanctions, supernatural as well as natural,
+against the pretensions of any clergy, Catholic, Anglican or
+Presbyterian, to the exercise of an _imperium in imperio_.
+
+We know the _Leviathan_ only as it finally emerged from Hobbes's pen.
+During the years of its composition he remained in or near Paris, at
+first in attendance on his royal pupil, with whom he became a great
+favourite. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by a serious illness which
+disabled him for six months. Mersenne begged him not to die outside the
+Roman Catholic Church, but Hobbes said that he had already considered
+the matter sufficiently and afterwards took the sacrament according to
+the rites of the Church of England. On recovering from this illness,
+which nearly proved fatal, he resumed his literary task, and carried it
+steadily forward to completion by the year 1650, having also within the
+same time translated into English, with characteristic force of
+expression, his Latin treatise. Otherwise the only thing known (from one
+or two letters) of his life in those years is that from the year 1648 he
+had begun to think of returning home; he was then sixty and might well
+be weary of exile. When 1650 came, as if to prepare the way for the
+reception of his _magnum opus_, he allowed the publication of his
+earliest treatise, divided into two separate small volumes (_Human
+Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policy, E.W._ iv. 1-76, and _De
+Corpore Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politic_, pp.
+77-228).[8] In 1651[9] he published his translation of the De Cive under
+the title of _Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society_
+(_E.W._ ii.). Meanwhile the printing of the greater work was proceeding,
+and finally it appeared about the middle of the same year, 1651, under
+the title of _Leviathan, or the Matter, Form and Power of a
+Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil_ (_E.W._ iii.), with a quaint
+frontispiece in which, from behind hills overlooking a fair landscape of
+town and country, there towered the body (above the waist) of a crowned
+giant, made up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and
+crozier in the two hands. It appeared, and soon its author was more
+lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time; but the first
+effect of its publication was to sever his connexion with the exiled
+royalist party, and to throw him for protection on the revolutionary
+Government. No sooner did copies of the book reach Paris than he found
+himself shunned by his former associates, and though he was himself so
+little conscious of disloyalty that he was forward to present a
+manuscript copy "engrossed in vellum in a marvellous fair hand"[10] to
+the young king of the Scots (who, after the defeat at Worcester, escaped
+to Paris about the end of October), he was denied the royal presence
+when he sought it shortly afterwards. Straightway, then, he saw himself
+exposed to a double peril. The exiles had among them desperadoes who
+could slay; and, besides exciting the enmity of the Anglican clergy
+about the king, who bitterly resented the secularist spirit of his book,
+he had compromised himself with the French authorities by his elaborate
+attack on the papal system. In the circumstances, no resource was left
+him but secret flight. Travelling with what speed he could in the depths
+of a severe winter and under the effects of a recent (second) illness,
+he managed to reach London, where, sending in his submission to the
+council of state, he was allowed to subside into private life.
+
+
+  Return to London.
+
+  Controversy with Bramhall.
+
+Though Hobbes came back, after his eleven years' absence, without having
+as yet publicly proved his title to rank with the natural philosophers
+of the age, he was sufficiently conscious of what he had been able to
+achieve in _Leviathan_; and it was in no humble mood that he now, at
+the age of sixty-four, turned to complete the fundamental treatise of
+his philosophical system. Neither those whom his masterpiece soon roused
+to enthusiasm, nor those whom it moved to indignation, were likely to be
+indifferent to anything he should now write, whether it lay near to or
+far from the region of practice. Taking up his abode in Fetter Lane,
+London, on his return, and continuing to reside there for the sake of
+intellectual society, even after renewing his old ties with the earl of
+Devonshire, who lived in the country till the Restoration,[11] he worked
+so steadily as to be printing the _De corpore_ in the year 1654.
+Circumstances (of which more presently), however, kept the book back
+till the following year, and meanwhile the readers of _Leviathan_ had a
+different excitement. In 1654 a small treatise, "Of Liberty and
+Necessity" (_E.W._ iv. 229-278), issued from the press, claiming to be
+an answer to a discourse on the same subject by Bishop Bramhall of
+Londonderry (afterwards archbishop of Armagh, d. 1663), addressed by
+Hobbes to the marquis of Newcastle.[12] It had grown out of an oral
+discussion between Hobbes and Bramhall in the marquis's presence at
+Paris in 1646. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had afterwards written down
+his views and sent them to Newcastle to be answered in this form by
+Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication, because he thought
+the subject a delicate one. But it happened that Hobbes had allowed a
+French acquaintance to have a private translation of his reply made by a
+young Englishman, who secretly took a copy of the original for himself;
+and now it was this unnamed purloiner who, in 1654, when Hobbes had
+become famous and feared, gave it to the world of his own motion, with
+an extravagantly laudatory epistle to the reader in its front. Upon
+Hobbes himself the publication came as a surprise, but, after his plain
+speaking in _Leviathan_, there was nothing in the piece that he need
+scruple to have made known, and he seems to have condoned the act. On
+the other hand, Bramhall, supposing Hobbes privy to the publication,
+resented the manner of it, especially as no mention was made of his
+rejoinder. Accordingly, in 1655, he printed everything that had passed
+between them (under the title of _A Defence of the True Liberty of Human
+Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity_), with loud complaint
+against the treatment he had received, and the promise added that, in
+default of others, he himself would stand forward to expose the deadly
+principles of _Leviathan_. About this time Hobbes had begun to be hard
+pressed by other foes, and, being never more sure of himself than upon
+the question of the will, he appears to have welcomed the opportunity
+thus given him of showing his strength. By 1656 he was ready with his
+_Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance_ (_E.W._ v.), in
+which he replied with astonishing force to the bishop's rejoinder point
+by point, besides explaining the occasion and circumstances of the whole
+debate, and reproducing (as Bramhall had done) all the pieces from the
+beginning. As perhaps the first clear exposition and defence of the
+_psychological_ doctrine of determinism, Hobbes's own two pieces must
+ever retain a classical importance in the history of the free-will
+controversy; while Bramhall's are still worth study as specimens of
+scholastic fence. The bishop, it should be added, returned to the charge
+in 1658 with ponderous _Castigations of Mr Hobbes's Animadversions_, and
+also made good his previous threat in a bulky appendix entitled _The
+Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale_. Hobbes never took any notice of
+the _Castigations_, but ten years later replied to the charges of
+atheism, &c., made in the non-political part of the appendix, of which
+he says he then heard for the first time (_E.W._ iv. 279-384). This
+_Answer_ was first published after Hobbes's death.[13]
+
+
+    Controversy with Wallis and Ward.
+
+  We may now follow out the more troublesome conflict, or rather series
+  of conflicts, in which Hobbes became entangled from the time of
+  publishing his _De corpore_ in 1655, and which checkered all his
+  remaining years. In _Leviathan_ he had vehemently assailed the system
+  of the universities, as originally founded for the support of the
+  papal against the civil authority, and as still working social
+  mischief by adherence to the old learning. The attack was duly noted
+  at Oxford, where under the Commonwealth a new spirit of scientific
+  activity had begun to stir. In 1654 Seth Ward (1617-1689), the
+  Savilian professor of astronomy, replying in his _Vindiciae
+  academiarum_ to some other assaults (especially against John Webster's
+  _Examen of Academies_) on the academic system, retorted upon Hobbes
+  that, so far from the universities being now what he had known them in
+  his youth, he would find his geometrical pieces, when they appeared,
+  better understood there than he should like. This was said in
+  reference to the boasts in which Hobbes seems to have been freely
+  indulging of having squared the circle and accomplished other such
+  feats; and, when a year later the _De corpore_ (_L.W._ i.) finally
+  appeared, it was seen how the thrust had gone home. In the chapter
+  (xx.) of that work where Hobbes dealt with the famous problem whose
+  solution he thought he had found, there were left expressions against
+  Vindex (Ward) at a time when the solutions still seemed to him good;
+  but the solutions themselves, as printed, were allowed to be all in
+  different ways halting, as he naively confessed he had discovered only
+  when he had been driven by the insults of malevolent men to examine
+  them more closely with the help of his friends. A strange conclusion
+  this, and reached by a path not less strange, as was now to be
+  disclosed by a relentless hand. Ward's colleague, the more famous John
+  Wallis (q.v.), Savilian professor of geometry from 1649, had been
+  privy to the challenge thrown out in 1654, and it was arranged that
+  they should critically dispose of the _De corpore_ between them. Ward
+  was to occupy himself with the philosophical and physical sections,
+  which he did in leisurely fashion, bringing out his criticism in the
+  course of next year (_In Th. Hobbii philosophiam exercitatio
+  epistolica_). Wallis was to confine himself to the mathematical
+  chapters, and set to work at once with characteristic energy.
+  Obtaining an unbound copy of the _De corpore_, he saw by the mutilated
+  appearance of the sheets that Hobbes had repeatedly altered his
+  demonstrations before he issued them at last in their actual form,
+  grotesque as it was, rather than delay the book longer. Obtaining also
+  a copy of the work as it had been printed before Hobbes had any doubt
+  of the validity of his solutions, Wallis was able to track his whole
+  course from the time of Ward's provocation--his passage from
+  exultation to doubt, from doubt to confessed impotence, yet still
+  without abandoning the old assumption of confident strength; and all
+  his turnings and windings were now laid bare in one of the most
+  trenchant pieces of controversial writing ever penned. Wallis's
+  _Elenchus geometriae Hobbianae_, published in 1655 about three months
+  after the _De corpore_, contained also an elaborate criticism of
+  Hobbes's whole attempt to relay the foundations of mathematical
+  science in its place within the general body of reasoned knowledge--a
+  criticism which, if it failed to allow for the merit of the
+  conception, exposed only too effectually the utter inadequacy of the
+  result. Taking up mathematics when not only his mind was already
+  formed but his thoughts were crystallizing into a philosophical
+  system, Hobbes had, in fact, never put himself to school and sought to
+  work up gradually to the best knowledge of the time, but had been more
+  anxious from the first to become himself an innovator with whatever
+  insufficient means. The consequence was that, when not spending
+  himself in vain attempts to solve the impossible problems that have
+  always waylaid the fancy of self-sufficient beginners, he took an
+  interest only in the elements of geometry, and never had any notion of
+  the full scope of mathematical science, undergoing as it then was (and
+  not least at the hands of Wallis) the extraordinary development which
+  made it before the end of the century the potent instrument of
+  physical discovery which it became in the hands of Newton. He was even
+  unable, in dealing with the elementary conceptions of geometry, to
+  work out with any consistency the few original thoughts he had, and
+  thus became the easy sport of Wallis. At his advanced age, however,
+  and with the sense he had of his powers, he was not likely to be
+  brought to a better mind by so insulting an opponent. He did indeed,
+  before allowing an English translation of the _De corpore_ (_E.W._
+  i.) to appear in 1656, take care to remove some of the worst mistakes
+  exposed by Wallis, and, while leaving out all the references to
+  Vindex, now profess to make, in altered form, a series of mere
+  "attempts" at quadrature; but he was far from yielding the ground to
+  the enemy. With the translation,[14] in the spring of 1656, he had
+  ready _Six Lessons to the Professors of Mathematics, one of Geometry,
+  the other of Astronomy, in the University of Oxford_ (_E.W._ vii.
+  181-356), in which, after reasserting his view of the principles of
+  geometry in opposition to Euclid's, he proceeded to repel Wallis's
+  objections with no lack of dialectical skill, and with an unreserve
+  equal to Wallis's own. He did not scruple, in the ardour of conflict,
+  even to maintain positions that he had resigned in the translation,
+  and he was not afraid to assume the offensive by a counter criticism
+  of three of Wallis's works then published. When he had thus disposed
+  of the "Paralogisms" of his more formidable antagonist in the first
+  five lessons, he ended with a lesson on "Manners" to the two
+  professors together, and set himself gravely at the close to show that
+  he too could be abusive. In this particular part of his task, it must
+  be allowed, he succeeded very well; his criticism of Wallis's works,
+  especially the great treatise _Arithmetica infinitorum_ (1655), only
+  showed how little able he was to enter into the meaning of the modern
+  analysis. Wallis, on his side, was not less ready to keep up the game
+  in English than he had been to begin it in Latin. Swift as before to
+  strike, in three months' time he had deftly turned his own word
+  against the would-be master by administering _Due Correction for Mr
+  Hobbes, or School Discipline for not saying his Lessons right_, in a
+  piece that differed from the _Elenchus_ only in being more biting and
+  unrestrained. Having an easy task in defending himself against
+  Hobbes's trivial criticism, he seized the opportunity given him by the
+  English translation of the _De corpore_ to track Hobbes again step by
+  step over the whole course, and now to confront him with his
+  incredible inconsistencies multiplied by every new utterance. But it
+  was no longer a fight over mathematical questions only. Wallis having
+  been betrayed originally by his fatal cleverness into the pettiest
+  carping at words, Hobbes had retorted in kind, and then it became a
+  high duty in the other to defend his Latin with great parade of
+  learning and give fresh provocation. One of Wallis's rough sallies in
+  this kind suggested to Hobbes the title of the next rejoinder with
+  which, in 1657, he sought to close the unseemly wrangle. Arguing in
+  the _Lessons_ that a mathematical point must have quantity, though
+  this were not reckoned, he had explained the Greek word [Greek:
+  stigme], used for a point, to mean a visible mark made with a hot
+  iron; whereupon he was charged by Wallis with gross ignorance for
+  confounding [Greek: stigme] and [Greek: stigma]. Hence the title of
+  his new piece: [Greek: Stigmai ageometrias, agroikias, antipoliteias,
+  amatheias], or _Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language, Scottish
+  Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John Wallis, Professor of Geometry
+  and Doctor of Divinity_ (_E.W._ vii. 357-400). He now attacked more in
+  detail but not more happily than before Wallis's great work, while
+  hardly attempting any further defence of his own positions; also he
+  repelled with some force and dignity the insults that had been heaped
+  upon him, and fought the verbal points, but could not leave the field
+  without making political insinuations against his adversary, quite
+  irrelevant in themselves and only noteworthy as evidence of his own
+  resignation to Cromwell's rule. The thrusts were easily and nimbly
+  parried by Wallis in a reply (_Hobbiani puncti dispunctio_, 1657)
+  occupied mainly with the verbal questions. Irritating as it was, it
+  did not avail to shake Hobbes's determination to remain silent; and
+  thus at last there was peace for a time.
+
+  Before the strife flamed up again, Hobbes had published, in 1658, the
+  outstanding section of his philosophical system, and thus completed,
+  after a fashion, the scheme he had planned more than twenty years
+  before. So far as the treatise _De homine_ (_L.W._ ii. 11-32) was
+  concerned, the completion was more in name than in fact. It consisted
+  for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision which, though very
+  creditable to Hobbes's scientific insight, was out of place, or at
+  least out of proportion, in a philosophical consideration of human
+  nature generally. The remainder of the treatise, dealing cursorily
+  with some of the topics more fully treated in the _Human Nature_ and
+  the _Leviathan_, has all the appearance of having been tagged in haste
+  to the optical chapters (composed years before)[15] as a makeshift
+  for the proper transition required in the system from questions of
+  Body Natural to questions of Body Politic. Hobbes had in fact spent
+  himself in his earlier constructive efforts, and at the age of
+  seventy, having nothing to add to his doctrine of Man as it was
+  already in one form or another before the world, was content with
+  anything that might stand for the fulfilment of his philosophical
+  purpose. But he had still in him more than twenty years of vigorous
+  vitality, and, not conscious to himself of any shortcoming, looked
+  forward, now his hands were free, to doing battle for his doctrines.
+  Rather than remain quiet, on finding no notice taken of his latest
+  production, he would himself force on a new conflict with the enemy.
+  Wallis having meanwhile published other works and especially a
+  comprehensive treatise on the general principles of calculus
+  (_Mathesis universalis_, 1657), he might take this occasion of
+  exposing afresh the new-fangled methods of mathematical analysis and
+  reasserting his own earlier positions. Accordingly, by the spring of
+  1660, he had managed to put his criticism and assertions into five
+  dialogues under the title _Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae
+  hodiernae qualis explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii_, with a sixth
+  dialogue so called, consisting almost entirely of seventy or more
+  propositions on the circle and cycloid.[16] Wallis, however, would not
+  take the bait. Hobbes then tried another tack. Next year, having
+  solved, as he thought, another ancient _crux_, the duplication of the
+  cube, he had his solution brought out anonymously at Paris in French,
+  so as to put Wallis and other critics off the scent and extort a
+  judgment that might be withheld from a work of his. The artifice was
+  successful, and no sooner had Wallis publicly refuted the solution
+  than Hobbes claimed the credit of it, and went more wonderfully than
+  ever astray in its defence. He presently republished it (in modified
+  form), with his remarks, at the end of a new Latin dialogue which he
+  had meanwhile written in defence of another part of his philosophical
+  doctrine. This was the _Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris_
+  (_L.W._ iv. 233-296), fulminated in 1661 against Boyle and other
+  friends of Wallis who, as he fancied, under the influence of that
+  malevolent spirit, were now in London, after the Restoration, forming
+  themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in 1662)
+  for experimental research, to the exclusion of himself personally, and
+  in direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry enjoined in
+  the _De corpore_.[17] All the laborious manipulation recorded in
+  Boyle's _New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air_ (1660), which
+  Hobbes chose, without the least warrant, to take as the manifesto of
+  the new "academicians," seemed to him only to confirm the conclusions
+  he had reasoned out years before from speculative principles, and he
+  warned them that if they were not content to begin where he had left
+  off their work would come to nought. To as much of this diatribe as
+  concerned himself Boyle quickly replied with force and dignity, but it
+  was from Hobbes's old enemy that retribution came, in the scathing
+  satire _Hobbius heauton-timorumenos_ (1662). Wallis, who had deftly
+  steered his course amid all the political changes of the previous
+  years, managing ever to be on the side of the ruling power, was now
+  apparently stung to fury by a wanton allusion in Hobbes's latest
+  dialogue to a passage of his former life (his deciphering for the
+  parliament the king's papers taken at Naseby), whereof he had once
+  boasted but after the Restoration could not speak or hear too little.
+  The revenge he took was crushing. Professing to be roused by the
+  attack on his friend Boyle, when he had scorned to lift a finger in
+  defence of himself against the earlier dialogues, he tore them all to
+  shreds with an art of which no general description can give an idea.
+  He got, however, upon more dangerous ground when, passing wholly by
+  the political insinuation against himself, he roundly charged Hobbes
+  with having written _Leviathan_ in support of Oliver's title, and
+  deserted his royal master in distress. Hobbes seems to have been
+  fairly bewildered by the rush and whirl of sarcasm with which Wallis
+  drove him anew from every mathematical position he had ever taken up,
+  and did not venture forth into the field of scientific controversy
+  again for some years, when he had once followed up the physical
+  dialogue of 1661 by seven shorter ones, with the inevitable appendix,
+  entitled _Problemata physica, una cum magnitudine circuli_ (_L.W._ iv.
+  297-384), in 1662.[18] But all the more eagerly did he take advantage
+  of Wallis's loose calumny to strike where he felt himself safe. His
+  answer to the personal charges took the form of a letter about himself
+  in the third person addressed to Wallis in 1662, under the title of
+  _Considerations upon the Reputation, Loyalty, Manners and Religion of
+  Thomas Hobbes_ (_E.W._ iv. 409-440). In this piece, which is of great
+  biographical value, he told his own and Wallis's "little stories
+  during the time of the late rebellion" with such effect that Wallis,
+  like a wise man, attempted no further reply. Thus ended the second
+  bout.
+
+  After a time Hobbes took heart again and began a third period of
+  controversial activity, which did not end, on his side, till his
+  ninetieth year. Little need be added to the simple catalogue of the
+  untiring old man's labours in this last stage of his life. The first
+  piece, published in 1666, _De principiis et ratiocinatione
+  geometrarum_ (_L.W._ iv. 385-484), was designed, as the sub-title
+  declared, to lower the pride of geometrical professors by showing that
+  there was no less uncertainty and error in their works than in those
+  of physical or ethical writers. Wallis replied shortly in the
+  _Philosophical Transactions_ (August 1666). Three years later he
+  brought his three great achievements together in compendious form,
+  _Quadratura circuli, Cubatio sphaerae, Duplicatio cubi_, and as soon
+  as they were once more refuted by Wallis, reprinted them with an
+  answer to the objections, in compliment to the grand-duke of Tuscany,
+  who paid him attentions on a visit to England in 1669 (_L.W._ iv.
+  485-522). Wallis, who had promised to leave him alone henceforward,
+  refuted him again before the year was out. In 1671 he worked up his
+  propositions over again in _Rosetum geometricum_ (_L.W._ v. 1-50), as
+  a fragrant offering to the geometrical reader, appending a criticism
+  (_Censura brevis_, pp. 50-88) on the first part of Wallis's treatise
+  _De motu_, published in 1669; also he sent _Three Papers_ to the Royal
+  Society on selected points treated very briefly, and when Wallis,
+  still not weary of confuting, shortly replied, published them
+  separately with triumphant _Considerations on Dr Wallis's Answer to
+  them_ (_E.W._ vii. 429-448). Next year (1672), having now, as he
+  believed, established himself with the Royal Society, he proceeded to
+  complete the discomfiture of Wallis by a public address to the Society
+  on all the points at issue between them from the beginning, _Lux
+  Mathematica excussa collisionibus Johannis Wallisii et Thomae
+  Hobbesii_ (_L.W._ v. 89-150), the light, as the author R. R. (Roseti
+  Repertor) added, being here "increased by many very brilliant rays."
+  Wallis replied in the _Transactions_, and then finally held his hand.
+  Hobbes's energy was not yet exhausted. In 1674, at the age of
+  eighty-six, he published his _Principia et problemata aliquot
+  geometrica, ante desperata nunc breviter explicata et demonstrata_
+  (_L.W._ v. 150-214), containing in the chapters dealing with questions
+  of principle not a few striking observations, which ought not to be
+  overlooked in the study of his philosophy. His last piece of all,
+  _Decameron physiologicum_ (_E.W._ vii. 69-180), in 1678, was a new set
+  of dialogues on physical questions, most of which he had treated in a
+  similar fashion before; but now, in dealing with gravitation, he was
+  able to fire a parting shot at Wallis; and one more demonstration of
+  the equality of a straight line to the arc of a circle, thrown in at
+  the end, appropriately closed the strangest warfare in which perverse
+  thinker ever engaged.[19]
+
+
+  Later Years.
+
+We must now turn back to trace the fortunes of Hobbes and his other
+doings in the last twenty years of his life. All these controversial
+writings on mathematics and physics represent but one half of his
+activity after the age of seventy; though, as regards the other half, it
+is not possible, for a reason that will be seen, to say as definitely in
+what order the works belonging to the period were produced. From the
+time of the Restoration he acquired a new prominence in the public eye.
+No year had passed since the appearance of _Leviathan_ without some
+indignant protest against the influence which its trenchant doctrine was
+calculated to produce upon minds longing above everything for civil
+repose; but after the Restoration "Hobbism" became a fashionable creed,
+which it was the duty of every lover of true morality and religion to
+denounce. Two or three days after Charles's arrival in London, Hobbes
+drew in the street the notice of his former pupil, and was at once
+received into favour. The young king, if he had ever himself resented
+the apparent disloyalty of the "Conclusion" of _Leviathan_, had not
+retained the feeling long, and could appreciate the principles of the
+great book when the application of them happened, as now, to be turned
+in his own favour. He had, besides, a relish for Hobbes's wit (as he
+used to say, "Here comes the bear to be baited"), and did not like the
+old man the less because his presence at court scandalized the bishops
+or the prim virtue of Chancellor Hyde. He even went the length of
+bestowing on Hobbes (but not always paying) a pension of L100, and had
+his portrait hung up in the royal closet. These marks of favour,
+naturally, did not lessen Hobbes's self-esteem, and perhaps they
+explain, in his later writings, a certain slavishness toward the regal
+authority, which is wholly absent from his rational demonstration of
+absolutism in the earlier works. At all events Hobbes was satisfied with
+the rule of a king who had appreciated the author of _Leviathan_, and
+protected him when, after a time, protection in a very real sense became
+necessary. His eagerness to defend himself against Wallis's imputation
+of disloyalty, and his apologetic dedication of the _Problemata physica_
+to the king, are evidence of the hostility with which he was being
+pressed as early as 1662; but it was not till 1666 that he felt himself
+seriously in danger. In that year the Great Fire of London, following on
+the Great Plague, roused the superstitious fears of the people, and the
+House of Commons embodied the general feeling in a bill against atheism
+and profaneness. On the 17th of October it was ordered that the
+committee to which the bill was referred "should be empowered to receive
+information touching such books as tend to atheism, blasphemy and
+profaneness, or against the essence and attributes of God, and in
+particular the book published in the name of one White,[20] and the book
+of Mr Hobbes called the _Leviathan_, and to report the matter with their
+opinion to the House." Hobbes, then verging upon eighty, was terrified
+at the prospect of being treated as a heretic, and proceeded to burn
+such of his papers as he thought might compromise him. At the same time
+he set himself, with a very characteristic determination, to inquire
+into the actual state of the law of heresy. The results of his
+investigation were first announced in three short Dialogues added (in
+place of the old "Review and Conclusion," for which the day had passed)
+as an Appendix to his Latin translation of _Leviathan_ (_L.W._ iii.),
+included with the general collection of his works published at Amsterdam
+in 1668. In this appendix, as also in the posthumous tract, published in
+1680, _An Historical Narration concerning Heresy and the Punishment
+thereof_ (_E.W._ iv. 385-408), he aimed at showing that, since the High
+Court of Commission had been put down, there remained no court of heresy
+at all to which he was amenable, and that even when it stood nothing was
+to be declared heresy but what was at variance with the Nicene Creed, as
+he maintained the doctrine of _Leviathan_ was not.
+
+The only consequence that came of the parliamentary scare was that
+Hobbes could never afterwards get permission to print anything on
+subjects relating to human conduct. The collected edition of his Latin
+works (in two quarto volumes) appeared at Amsterdam in 1668, because he
+could not obtain the censor's licence for its publication at London,
+Oxford or Cambridge. Other writings which he had finished, or on which
+he must have been engaged about this time, were not made public till
+after his death--the king apparently having made it the price of his
+protection that no fresh provocation should be offered to the popular
+sentiment. The most important of the works composed towards 1670, and
+thus kept back, is the extremely spirited dialogue to which he gave the
+title _Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England
+and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the
+year 1640 to the year 1660_.[21] To the same period probably belongs the
+unfinished _Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common
+Laws of England_ (_E.W._ vi. 1-160), a trenchant criticism of the
+constitutional theory of English government as upheld by Coke. Aubrey
+takes credit for having tried to induce Hobbes to write upon the subject
+in 1664 by presenting him with a copy of Bacon's _Elements of the Laws
+of England_, and though the attempt was then unsuccessful, Hobbes later
+on took to studying the statute-book, with _Coke upon Littleton_. One
+other posthumous production also (besides the tract on Heresy before
+mentioned) may be referred to this, if not, as Aubrey suggests, an
+earlier time--the two thousand and odd elegiac verses in which he gave
+his view of ecclesiastical encroachment on the civil power; the quaint
+verses, disposed in his now favourite dialogue-form, were first
+published, nine years after his death, under the title _Historia
+ecclesiastica_ (_L.W._ v. 341-408), with a preface by Thomas Rymer.
+
+For some time Hobbes was not even allowed to utter a word of protest,
+whatever might be the occasion that his enemies took to triumph over
+him. In 1669 an unworthy follower--Daniel Scargil by name, a fellow of
+Corpus Christi College, Cambridge--had to recant publicly and confess
+that his evil life had been the result of Hobbist doctrines. In 1674
+John Fell, the dean of Christ Church, who bore the charges of the Latin
+translation of Anthony Wood's _History and Antiquities of the University
+of Oxford_ (1670), struck out all the complimentary epithets in the
+account of his life, and substituted very different ones; but this time
+the king did suffer him to defend himself by publishing a dignified
+letter (_Vit. Auct._ pp. xlvii.-l.), to which Fell replied by adding to
+the translation when it appeared a note full of the grossest insults.
+And, amid all his troubles, Hobbes was not without his consolations. No
+Englishman of that day stood in the same repute abroad, and foreigners,
+noble or learned, who came to England, never forgot to pay their
+respects to the old man, whose vigour and freshness of intellect no
+progress of the years seemed able to quench. Among these was the
+grand-duke of Tuscany (Ferdinand II.), who took away some works and a
+portrait to adorn the Medicean library.
+
+His pastimes in the latest years were as singular as his labours. The
+autobiography in Latin verse, with its playful humour, occasional pathos
+and sublime self-complacency, was thrown off at the age of eighty-four.
+At eighty-five, in the year 1673, he sent forth a translation of four
+books of the _Odyssey_ (ix.-xii.) in rugged but not seldom happily
+turned English rhymes; and, when he found this _Voyage of Ulysses_
+eagerly received, he had ready by 1675 a complete translation of both
+_Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ (_E.W._ x.), prefaced by a lively dissertation
+"Concerning the Virtues of an Heroic Poem," showing his unabated
+interest in questions of literary style. After 1675, he passed his time
+at his patron's seats in Derbyshire, occupied to the last with
+intellectual work in the early morning and in the afternoon hours, which
+it had long been his habit to devote to thinking and to writing. Even as
+late as August 1679 he was promising his publisher "somewhat to print in
+English." The end came very soon afterwards. A suppression of urine in
+October, in spite of which he insisted upon being conveyed with the
+family from Chatsworth to Hardwick Hall towards the end of November, was
+followed by a paralytic stroke, under which he sank on the 4th of
+December, in his ninety-second year. He lies buried in the neighbouring
+church of Ault Hucknall.
+
+
+  Personal characteristics.
+
+He was tall and erect in figure, and lived on the whole a temperate
+life, though he used to say that he had been drunk about a hundred
+times. His favourite exercise was tennis, which he played regularly even
+after the age of seventy. Socially he was genial and courteous, though
+in argument he occasionally lost his temper. As a friend he was generous
+and loyal. Intellectually bold in the extreme, he was curiously timid in
+ordinary life, and is said to have had a horror of ghosts. He read
+little, and often boasted that he would have known as little as other
+men if he had read as much. He appears to have had an illegitimate
+daughter for whom he made generous provision. In the National Portrait
+Gallery there is a portrait of him by J. M. Wright, and two others are
+in the possession of the Royal Society.
+
+
+  Place in English thought.
+
+As already suggested, it cannot be allowed that Hobbes falls into any
+regular succession from Bacon; neither can it be said that he handed on
+the torch to Locke. He was the one English thinker of the first rank in
+the long period of two generations separating Locke from Bacon, but,
+save in the chronological sense, there is no true relation of succession
+among the three. It would be difficult even to prove any ground of
+affinity among them beyond a desposition to take sense as a prime factor
+in the account of subjective experience: their common interest in
+physical science was shared equally by rationalist thinkers of the
+Cartesian school, and was indeed begotten of the time. Backwards,
+Hobbes's relations are rather with Galileo and the other inquirers who,
+from the beginning of the 17th century, occupied themselves with the
+physical world in the manner that has come later to be distinguished by
+the name of science in opposition to philosophy. But even more than in
+external nature, Hobbes was interested in the phenomena of social life,
+presenting themselves so impressively in an age of political revolution.
+So it came to pass that, while he was unable, by reason of imperfect
+training and too tardy development, with all his pains, to make any
+contribution to physical science or to mathematics as instrumental in
+physical research, he attempted a task which no other adherent of the
+new "mechanical philosophy" conceived--nothing less than such a
+universal construction of human knowledge as would bring Society and Man
+(at once the matter and maker of Society) within the same principles of
+scientific explanation as were found applicable to the world of Nature.
+The construction was, of course, utterly premature, even supposing it
+were inherently possible; but it is Hobbes's distinction, in his
+century, to have conceived it, and he is thereby lifted from among the
+scientific workers with whom he associated to the rank of those
+philosophical thinkers who have sought to order the whole domain of
+human knowledge. The effects of his philosophical endeavour may be
+traced on a variety of lines. Upon every subject that came within the
+sweep of his system, except mathematics and physics, his thoughts have
+been productive of thought. When the first storm of opposition from
+smaller men had begun to die down, thinkers of real weight, beginning
+with Cumberland and Cudworth, were moved by their aversion to his
+analysis of the moral nature of man to probe anew the question of the
+natural springs and the rational grounds of human action; and thus it
+may be said that Hobbes gave the first impulse to the whole of that
+movement of ethical speculation that, in modern times, has been carried
+on with such remarkable continuity in England. In politics the revulsion
+from his particular conclusions did not prevent the more clear-sighted
+of his opponents from recognizing the force of his supreme demonstration
+of the practical irresponsibility of the sovereign power, wherever
+seated, in the state; and, when in a later age the foundations of a
+positive theory of legislation were laid in England, the school of
+Bentham--James Mill, Grote, Molesworth--brought again into general
+notice the writings of the great publicist of the 17th century, who,
+however he might, by the force of temperament, himself prefer the rule
+of one, based his whole political system upon a rational regard to the
+common weal. Finally, the psychology of Hobbes, though too undeveloped
+to guide the thoughts or even perhaps arrest the attention of Locke,
+when essaying the scientific analysis of knowledge, came in course of
+time (chiefly through James Mill) to be connected with the theory of
+associationism developed from within the school of Locke, in different
+ways, by Hartley and Hume; nor is it surprising that the later
+associationists, finding their principle more distinctly formulated in
+the earlier thinker, should sometimes have been betrayed into
+affiliating themselves to Hobbes rather than to Locke. For his ethical
+theories see Ethics.
+
+  Sufficient information is given in the _Vitae Hobbianae auctarium_
+  (_L.W._ i. p. lxv. ff.) concerning the frequent early editions of
+  Hobbes's separate works, and also concerning the works of those who
+  wrote against him, to the end of the 17th century. In the 18th
+  century, after Clarke's _Boyle Lectures_ of 1704-1705, the opposition
+  was less express. In 1750 _The Moral and Political Works_ were
+  collected, with life, &c., by Dr Campbell, in a folio edition,
+  including in order, _Human Nature_, _De corpore politico_,
+  _Leviathan_, _Answer to Bramhall's Catching of the Leviathan_,
+  _Narration concerning Heresy_, _Of Liberty and Necessity_, _Behemoth_,
+  _Dialogue of the Common Laws_, the Introduction to the _Thucydides_,
+  _Letter to Davenant and two others_, the Preface to the _Homer_, _De
+  mirabilibus Pecci_ (with English translation), _Considerations on the
+  Reputation, &., of T. H._ In 1812 the _Human Nature_ and the _Liberty
+  and Necessity_ (with supplementary extracts from the _Questions_ of
+  1656) were reprinted in a small edition of 250 copies, with a
+  meritorious memoir (based on Campbell) and dedication to Horne Tooke,
+  by Philip Mallet. Molesworth's edition (1839-1845), dedicated to
+  Grote, has been referred to in a former note. Of translations may be
+  mentioned _Les Elemens philosophiques du citoyen_ (1649) and _Le Corps
+  politique_ (1652), both by S. de Sorbiere, conjoined with _Le Traite
+  de la nature humaine_, by d'Holbach, in 1787, under the general title
+  _Les Oeuvres philosophiques et politiques de Thomas Hobbes_; a
+  translation of the first section, "Computatio sive logica," of the _De
+  corpore_, included by Destutt de Tracy with his _Elemens d'ideologie_
+  (1804); a translation of _Leviathan_ into Dutch in 1678, and another
+  (anonymous) into German--_Des Englanders Thomas Hobbes Leviathan oder
+  der kirchliche und burgerliche Staat_ (Halle, 1794, 2 vols.); a
+  translation of the _De cive_ by J. H. v. Kirchmann--_T. Hobbes:
+  Abhandlung uber den Burger, &c._ (Leipzig, 1873). Important later
+  editions are those of Ferdinand Tonnies, _Behemoth_ (1889), on which
+  see Croom Robertson's _Philosophical Remains_ (1894), p. 451;
+  _Elements of Law_ (1889).
+
+  _Biographical and Critical Works._--There are three accounts of
+  Hobbes's life, first published together in 1681, two years after his
+  death, by R. B. (Richard Blackbourne, a friend of Hobbes's admirer,
+  John Aubrey), and reprinted, with complimentary verses by Cowley and
+  others, at the beginning of Sir W. Molesworth's collection of the
+  _Latin Works_: (1) _T. H. Malmesb. vita_ (pp. xiii.-xxi.), written by
+  Hobbes himself, or (as also reported) by T. Rymer, at his dictation;
+  (2) _Vitae Hobbianae auctarium_ (pp. xxii.-lxxx.), turned into Latin
+  from Aubrey's English; (3) _T. H. Malmesb. vita carmine expressa_ (pp.
+  lxxxi.-xcix.), written by Hobbes at the age of eighty-four (first
+  published by itself in 1680). The _Life of Mr T. H. of Malmesburie_,
+  printed among the _Lives of Eminent Men_, in 1813, from Aubrey's
+  papers in the Bodleian, &c. (vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 593-637), contains
+  some interesting particulars not found in the _Auctarium_. All that is
+  of any importance for Hobbes's life is contained in G. Croom
+  Robertson's _Hobbes_ (1886) in Blackwood's Philosophical Classics, and
+  Sir Leslie Stephen's _Hobbes_ (1904) in the "English Men of Letters"
+  series, both of which deal fully with his philosophy also. See also F.
+  Tonnies, _Hobbes Leben und Lehre_ (1896), _Hobbes-Analekten_ (1904
+  foll.); G. Zart, _Einfluss der englischen Philosophie seit Bacon auf
+  die deutsche Philosophie des 18ten Jahrh._ (Berlin, 1881); G. Brandt,
+  _Thomas Hobbes: Grundlinien seiner Philosophie_ (1895); G. Lyon, _La
+  Philos. de Hobbes_ (1893); J. M. Robertson, _Pioneer Humanists_
+  (1907); J. Rickaby, _Free Will and Four English Philosophers_ (1906),
+  pp. 1-72; J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories_ (1895); W. Graham, _English
+  Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine_ (1899); W. J. H. Campion,
+  _Outlines of Lectures on Political Science_ (1895).     (G. C. R.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The translation, under the title _Eight Books of the
+    Peloponnesian War, written by Thucydides the son of Olorus,
+    interpreted with faith and diligence immediately out of the Greek by
+    Thomas Hobbes, secretary to the late Earl of Devonshire_, appeared in
+    1628 (or 1629), after the death of the earl, to whom touching
+    reference is made in the dedication. It reappeared in 1634, with the
+    date of the dedication altered, as if then newly written. Though
+    Hobbes claims to have performed his work "with much more diligence
+    than elegance," his version is remarkable as a piece of English
+    writing, but is by no means accurate. It fills vols. viii. and ix. in
+    Molesworth's collection (11 vols., including index vol.) of Hobbes's
+    _English Works_ (London, Bohn, 1839-1845). The volumes of this
+    collection will here be cited as E. W. Molesworth's collection of the
+    Latin _Opera philosophica_ (5 vols., 1839-1845) will be cited as
+    _L.W._ The five hundred and odd Latin hexameters under the title _De
+    mirabilibus Pecci_ (_L.W._ v. 323-340), giving an account of a short
+    excursion from Chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the Derbyshire
+    Peak, were written before 1628 (in 1626 or 1627), though not
+    published till 1636. It was a New Year's present to his patron, who
+    gave him L5 in return. A later edition, in 1678, included an English
+    version by another hand.
+
+  [2] Hobbes, in minor works dealing with physical questions (L.W. iv.
+    316; _E.W._ vii. 112), makes two incidental references to Bacon's
+    writings, but never mentions Bacon as he mentions Galileo, Kepler,
+    Harvey, and others (_De corpore_, ep. ded.), among the lights of the
+    century. The word "Induction," which occurs in only three or four
+    passages throughout all his works (and these again minor ones), is
+    never used by him with the faintest reminiscence of the import
+    assigned to it by Bacon; and, as will be seen, he had nothing but
+    scorn for experimental work in physics.
+
+  [3] The free English abstract of Aristotle's _Rhetoric_, published in
+    1681, after Hobbes's death, as _The Whole Art of Rhetoric_ (_E.W._
+    vi. 423-510), corresponds with a Latin version dictated to his young
+    pupil. Among Hobbes's papers preserved at Hardwick, where he died,
+    there remains the boy's dictation-book, interspersed with headings,
+    examples, &c. in Hobbes's hand.
+
+  [4] Among the Hardwick papers there is preserved a MS. copy of the
+    work, under the title _Elementes of Law Naturall and Politique_, with
+    the dedication to the earl of Newcastle, written in Hobbes's own
+    hand, and dated May 9, 1640. This dedication was prefixed to the
+    first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves, under
+    the title _Human Nature_ in 1650.
+
+  [5] The book, of which the copies are rare (one in Dr Williams's
+    library in London and one in the Bodleian), was printed in quarto
+    size (Paris, 1642), with a pictorial title-page (not afterwards
+    reproduced) of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions,
+    "Libertas," "Imperium," "Religio." The title _Elementorum
+    philosophiae sectio tertia, De Cive_, expresses its relation to the
+    unwritten sections, which also comes out in one or two
+    back-references in the text.
+
+  [6] _L.W._ ii. 133-134. In this first public edition (12mo), the
+    title was changed to _Elementa philosophica de cive_, the references
+    in the text to the previous sections being omitted. The date of the
+    dedication to the young earl of Devonshire was altered from 1641 to
+    1646.
+
+  [7] Described as "nobilis Languedocianus" in _Vit._; doubtless the
+    same with the "Dominus Verdusius, nobilis Aquitanus," to whom was
+    dedicated the _Exam. et emend. math. hod._ (_L.W._ iv.) in 1660. Du
+    Verdus was one of Hobbes's profoundest admirers and most frequent
+    correspondents in later years; there are many of his letters among
+    Hobbes's papers at Hardwick.
+
+  [8] _The Human Nature_ corresponds with cc. i.-xiii. of the first
+    part of the original treatise. The remaining six chapters of the part
+    stand now as Part I. of the _De Corpore Politico_. Part II. of the
+    _D.C.P._ corresponds with the original second part of the whole work.
+
+  [9] At the beginning of this year he wrote and published in Paris a
+    letter on the nature and conditions of poetry, chiefly epic, in
+    answer to an appeal to his judgment made in the preface to Sir W.
+    Davenant's heroic poem, _Gondibert_ (_E.W._ iv. 441-458). The letter
+    is dated Jan. 10, 1650 (1650/1).
+
+  [10] This presentation copy, so described by Clarendon (_Survey of
+    the Leviathan_, 1676, p. 8), is doubtless the beautifully written and
+    finely bound MS. now to be found in the British Museum (Egerton MSS.
+    1910).
+
+  [11] During all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive
+    from his patron a yearly pension of L80, and they remained in steady,
+    correspondence. The earl, having sided with the king in 1642, was
+    declared unfit to sit in the House of Peers, and though, by
+    submission to Parliament, he recovered his estates when they were
+    sequestered later on, he did not sit again till 1660. Among Hobbes's
+    friends at this time are specially mentioned John Selden and William
+    Harvey, who left him a legacy of L10. According to Aubrey, Selden
+    left him an equal bequest, but this seems to be a mistake. Harvey
+    (not Bacon) is the only Englishman he mentions in the dedicatory
+    epistle prefixed to the _De corpore_, among the founders, before
+    himself, of the new natural philosophy.
+
+  [12] The treatise bore the date, "Rouen, Aug. 20, 1652," but it
+    should have been 1646, as afterwards explained by Hobbes himself
+    (_E.W._ v. 25).
+
+  [13] "The _Vit. auct._ refers to 1676, a 'Letter to William duke of
+    Newcastle on the Controversy about Liberty and Necessity, held with
+    Benjamin Laney, bishop of Ely.' In that year there did appear a
+    (confused) little tract written by Laney against Hobbes's concluding
+    statement of his own 'Opinion' in the 'Liberty and Necessity' of 1654
+    (1646), but I can find no trace of any further writing by Hobbes on
+    the subject" (G. Croom Robertson, _Hobbes_, p. 202).
+
+  [14] This translation, _Concerning Body_, though not made by Hobbes,
+    was revised by him; but it is far from accurate, and not seldom, at
+    critical places (e.g. c. vi. S 2), quite misleading. Philosophical
+    citations from the _De corpore_ should always be made in the original
+    Latin. Molesworth reprints the Latin, not from the first edition of
+    1655, but from the modified edition of 1668--modified, in the
+    mathematical chapters, in general (not exact) keeping with the
+    English edition of 1656. The Vindex episode, referred to in the _Six
+    Lessons_, becomes intelligible only by going beyond Molesworth to the
+    original Latin edition of 1655.
+
+  [15] They were composed originally, in a somewhat different and
+    rather more extended form, as the second part of an English treatise
+    on Optics, completed by the year 1646. Of this treatise, preserved in
+    Harleian MSS. 3360, Molesworth otherwise prints the dedication to the
+    marquis of Newcastle, and the concluding paragraphs (_E.W._ vii.
+    467-471).
+
+  [16] _L.W._ iv. 1-232. The propositions on the circle, forty-six in
+    number (shattered by Wallis in 1662), were omitted by Hobbes when he
+    republished the _Dialogues_ in 1668, in the collected edition of his
+    Latin works from which Molesworth reprints. In the part omitted, at
+    p. 154 of the original edition, Hobbes refers to his first
+    introduction to Euclid, in a way that confirms the story in Aubrey
+    quoted in an earlier paragraph.
+
+  [17] Remaining at Oxford, Wallis, in fact, took no active part in the
+    constitution of the new society, but he had been, from 1645, one of
+    the originators of an earlier association in London, thus continued
+    or revived. This earlier society had been continued also at Oxford
+    after the year 1649, when Wallis and others of its members received
+    appointments there.
+
+  [18] The _Problemata physica_ was at the same time put into English
+    (with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical
+    appendix), and presented to the king, to whom the work was dedicated
+    in a remarkable letter apologizing for _Leviathan_. In its English
+    form, as _Seven Philosophical Problems and Two Propositions of
+    Geometry_ (_E.W._ vii. 1-68), the work was first published in 1682,
+    after Hobbes's death.
+
+  [19] Wallis's pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his
+    works (1693-1697), and have become extremely rare.
+
+  [20] The De medio animarum statu of Thomas White, a heterodox
+    Catholic priest, who contested the natural immortality of the soul.
+    White (who died 1676) and Hobbes were friends.
+
+  [21] _E.W._ vi. 161-418. Though _Behemoth_ was kept back at the
+    king's express desire, it saw the light, without Hobbes's leave, in
+    1679, before his death.
+
+
+
+
+HOBBY, a small horse, probably from early quotations, of Irish breed,
+trained to an easy gait so that riding was not fatiguing. The common use
+of the word is for a favourite pursuit or occupation, with the idea
+either of excessive devotion or of absence of ulterior motive or of
+profit, &c., outside the occupation itself. This use is probably not
+derived from the easy ambling gait of the Irish "hobby," but from the
+"hobby-horse," the mock horse of the old morris-dances, made of a
+painted wooden horse's head and tail, with a framework casing for an
+actor's body, his legs being covered by a cloth made to represent the
+"housings" of the medieval tilting-horse. A hobby or hobby-horse is thus
+a toy, a diversion. The O. Fr. _hobin_, or _hobi_, Mod. _aubin_, and
+Ital. _ubina_ are probably adaptations of the English, according to the
+_New English Dictionary_. The O. Fr. hober, to move, which is often
+taken to be the origin of all these words, is the source of a use of
+"hobby" for a small kind of falcon, _falco subbuteo_, used in hawking.
+
+
+
+
+HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE, 1ST BARON (1819-1904), English judge, fourth
+son of Henry Hobhouse, permanent under-secretary of state in the Home
+Office, was born at Hadspen, Somerset, on the 10th of November 1819.
+Educated at Eton and Balliol, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn
+in 1845, and rapidly acquired a large practice as a conveyancer and
+equity draftsman; he became Q.C. in 1862, and practised in the Rolls
+Court, retiring in 1866. He was an active member of the charity
+commission and urged the appropriation of pious bequests to educational
+and other purposes. In 1872 he began a five years' term of service as
+legal member of the council of the governor-general of India, his
+services being acknowledged by a K.C.S.I.; and in 1881 he was appointed
+a member of the judicial committee of the privy council, on which he
+served for twenty years. He was made a peer in 1885, and consistently
+supported the Liberal party in the House of Lords. He died on the 6th of
+December 1904, leaving no heir to the barony.
+
+  His papers read before the Social Science Association on the subject
+  of property were collected in 1880 under the title of _The Dead Hand_.
+
+
+
+
+HOBOKEN, a small town of Belgium on the right bank of the Scheldt about
+4 m. above Antwerp. It is only important on account of the shipbuilding
+yard which the Cockerill firm of Seraing has established at Hoboken.
+Many wealthy Antwerp merchants have villas here, and it is the
+headquarters of several of the leading rowing clubs on the Scheldt. Pop.
+(1904) 12,816.
+
+
+
+
+HOBOKEN, a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Hudson
+river, adjoining Jersey City on the S. and W. and opposite New York
+city, with which it is connected by ferries and by two subway lines
+through tunnels under the river. Pop. (1890) 43,648; (1900) 59,364, of
+whom 21,380 were foreign-born, 10,843 being natives of Germany; (1910
+census) 70,324. Of the total population in 1900, 48,349 had either one
+or both parents foreign-born, German being the principal racial element.
+The city is served by the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lackawanna &
+Western railways, being the eastern terminus of the latter, and is
+connected by electric railway with the neighbouring cities of
+north-eastern New Jersey. In Hoboken are the piers of the North German
+Lloyd, the Hamburg American, the Netherlands American, the Scandinavian
+and the Phoenix steamship lines. Hoboken occupies a little more than 1
+sq. m. and lies near the foot of the New Jersey Palisades, which rise
+both on the W. and N. to a height of nearly 200 ft. Much of its surface
+has had to be filled in to raise it above high tide, but Castle Point,
+in the N.E., rises from the generally low level about 100 ft. On this
+Point are the residence and private estate of the founder of the city,
+John Stevens (1749-1838), Hudson Park, and facing it the Stevens
+Institute of Technology, an excellent school of mechanical engineering
+endowed by Edwin A. Stevens (1795-1868), son of John Stevens, opened in
+1871, and having in 1909-1910 34 instructors and 390 students. The
+institute owes much to its first president, Henry Morton (1836-1902), a
+distinguished scientist, whose aim was "to offer a course of instruction
+in which theory and practice were carefully balanced and thoroughly
+combined," and who gave to the institute sums aggregating $175,000 (see
+_Morton Memorial, History of Stevens Institute_, ed. by Furman, 1905).
+In connexion with the institute there is a preparatory department, the
+Stevens School (1870). The city maintains a teachers' training school.
+Among the city's prominent buildings are the Delaware, Lackawanna &
+Western station, the Hoboken Academy (1860), founded by German
+Americans, and the public library. The city has an extensive coal trade
+and numerous manufactures, among which are lead pencils, leather goods,
+silk goods, wall-paper and caskets. The value of the manufactured
+product increased from $7,151,391 in 1890 to $12,092,872 in 1900, or
+69.1%. The factory product in 1905 was valued at $14,077,305, an
+increase of 34.3% over that for 1900. The site of Hoboken (originally
+"Hobocanhackingh," the place of the tobacco pipe) was occupied about
+1640 as a Dutch farm, but in 1643 the stock and all the buildings except
+a brew-house were destroyed by the Indians. In 1711 title to the place
+was acquired by Samuel Bayard, a New York merchant, who built on Castle
+Point his summer residence. During the War of Independence his
+descendant, William Bayard, was a loyalist, and his home was burned and
+his estate confiscated. In 1784 the property was purchased by John
+Stevens, the inventor, who in 1804 laid it out as a town. For the next
+thirty-five years its "Elysian Fields" were a famous pleasure resort of
+New York City. Hoboken was incorporated as a town in 1849 and as a city
+in 1855. On the 30th of June 1900 the wharves of the North German Lloyd
+Steamship Company and three of its ocean liners were almost completely
+destroyed by a fire, which caused a loss of more than 200 lives and over
+$5,000,000.
+
+
+
+
+HOBSON'S CHOICE, i.e. "this or nothing," an expression that arose from
+the fact that the Cambridge-London carrier, Thomas Hobson (1544-1630),
+refused, when letting his horses on hire, to allow any animal to leave
+the stable out of its turn. Among other bequests made by Hobson, and
+commemorated by Milton, was a conduit for the Cambridge market-place,
+for which he provided the perpetual maintenance. See _Spectator_, No.
+509 (14th of October 1712).
+
+
+
+
+HOBY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1566), English diplomatist and translator, son of
+William Hoby of Leominster, was born in 1530. He entered St John's
+College, Cambridge, in 1545, but in 1547 he went to Strassburg, where he
+was the guest of Martin Bucer, whose _Gratulation ... unto the Church of
+Englande for the restitution of Christes Religion_ he translated into
+English. He then proceeded to Italy, visiting Padua and Venice, Florence
+and Siena, and in May 1550 he had settled at Rome, when he was summoned
+by his half-brother, Sir Philip Hoby (1505-1558), then ambassador at the
+emperor's court, to Augsburg. The brothers returned to England at the
+end of the year, and Thomas attached himself to the service of the
+marquis of Northampton, whom he accompanied to France on an embassy to
+arrange a marriage between Edward VI. and the princess Elizabeth.
+Shortly after he returned to England he started once more for Paris, and
+in 1552 he was engaged on his translation of _The Courtyer of Count
+Baldessar Castilio_. His work was probably completed in 1554, and the
+freedom of the allusions to the Roman church probably accounts for the
+fact that it was withheld from publication until 1561. The _Cortegiano_
+of Baldassare Castiglione, which Dr Johnson called "the best book that
+ever was written upon good breeding," is a book as entirely typical of
+the Italian Renaissance as Machiavelli's _Prince_ in another direction.
+It exercised an immense influence on the standards of chivalry
+throughout Europe, and was long the recognized authority for the
+education of a nobleman. The accession of Mary made it desirable for the
+Hobys to remain abroad, and they were in Italy until the end of 1555.
+Thomas Hoby married in 1558 Elizabeth, the learned daughter of Sir
+Anthony Cook, who wrote a Latin epitaph on her husband. He was knighted
+in 1566 by Elizabeth, and was sent to France as English ambassador. He
+died on the 13th of July in the same year in Paris, and was buried in
+Bisham Church.
+
+His son, SIR EDWARD HOBY (1560-1617), enjoyed Elizabeth's favour, and he
+was employed on various confidential missions. He was constable of
+Queenborough Castle, Kent, where he died on the 1st of March 1617. He
+took part in the religious controversies of the time, publishing many
+pamphlets against Theophilus Higgons and John Fludd or Floyd. He
+translated, from the French of Mathieu Coignet, _Politique Discourses on
+Trueth and Lying_ (1586).
+
+  The authority for Thomas Hoby's biography is a MS. "Booke of the
+  Travaile and lief of me Thomas Hoby, with diverse things worth the
+  noting." This was edited for the Royal Historical Society by Edgar
+  Powell in 1902. Hoby's translation of _The Courtyer_ was edited (1900)
+  by Professor Walter Raleigh for the "Tudor Translations" series.
+
+
+
+
+HOCHE, LAZARE (1768-1797), French general, was born of poor parents near
+Versailles on the 24th of June 1768. At sixteen years of age he enlisted
+as a private soldier in the _Gardes francaises_. He spent his entire
+leisure in earning extra pay by civil work, his object being to provide
+himself with books, and this love of study, which was combined with a
+strong sense of duty and personal courage, soon led to his promotion.
+When the _Gardes francaises_ were broken up in 1789 he was a corporal,
+and thereafter he served in various line regiments up to the time of his
+receiving a commission in 1792. In the defence of Thionville in that
+year Hoche earned further promotion, and he served with credit in the
+operations of 1792-1793 on the northern frontier of France. At the
+battle of Neerwinden he was aide-de-camp to General le Veneur, and when
+Dumouriez deserted to the Austrians, Hoche, along with le Veneur and
+others, fell under suspicion of treason; but after being kept under
+arrest and unemployed for some months he took part in the defence of
+Dunkirk, and in the same year (1793) he was promoted successively _chef
+de brigade_, general of brigade, and general of division. In October
+1793 he was provisionally appointed to command the Army of the Moselle,
+and within a few weeks he was in the field at the head of his army in
+Lorraine. His first battle was that of Kaiserslautern (28th-30th of
+November) against Prussians. The French were defeated, but even in the
+midst of the Terror the Committee of Public Safety continued Hoche in
+his command. Pertinacity and fiery energy in their eyes outweighed
+everything else, and Hoche soon showed that he possessed these
+qualities. On the 22nd of December he stormed the lines of Froschweiler,
+and the representatives of the Convention with his army at once added
+the Army of the Rhine to his sphere of command. On the 26th of December
+the French carried by assault the famous lines of Weissenburg, and
+Hoche pursued his success, sweeping the enemy before him to the middle
+Rhine in four days. He then put his troops into winter quarters. Before
+the following campaign opened, he married Anne Adelaide Dechaux at
+Thionville (March 11th, 1794). But ten days later he was suddenly
+arrested, charges of treason having been preferred by Pichegru, the
+displaced commander of the Army of the Rhine, and by his friends. Hoche
+escaped execution, however, though imprisoned in Paris until the fall of
+Robespierre. Shortly after his release he was appointed to command
+against the Vendeans (21st of August 1794). He completed the work of his
+predecessors in a few months by the peace of Jaunaye (15th of February
+1795), but soon afterwards the war was renewed by the Royalists. Hoche
+showed himself equal to the crisis and inflicted a crushing blow on the
+Royalist cause by defeating and capturing de Sombreuil's expedition at
+Quiberon and Penthievre (16th-21st of July 1795). Thereafter, by means
+of mobile columns (which he kept under good discipline) he succeeded
+before the summer of 1796 in pacifying the whole of the west, which had
+for more than three years been the scene of a pitiless civil war. After
+this he was appointed to organize and command the troops destined for
+the invasion of Ireland, and he started on this enterprise in December
+1796. A tempest, however, separated Hoche from the expedition, and after
+various adventures the whole fleet returned to Brest without having
+effected its purpose. Hoche was at once transferred to the Rhine
+frontier, where he defeated the Austrians at Neuwied (April), though
+operations were soon afterwards brought to an end by the Preliminaries
+of Leoben. Later in 1797 he was minister of war for a short period, but
+in this position he was surrounded by obscure political intrigues, and,
+finding himself the dupe of Barras and technically guilty of violating
+the constitution, he quickly laid down his office, returning to his
+command on the Rhine frontier. But his health grew rapidly worse, and he
+died at Wetzlar on the 19th of September 1797 of consumption. The belief
+was widely spread that he had been poisoned, but the suspicion seems to
+have been without foundation. He was buried by the side of his friend
+Marceau in a fort on the Rhine, amidst the mourning not only of his army
+but of all France.
+
+  See Privat, _Notions historiques sur la vie morale, politique et
+  militaire du general Hoche_ (Strassburg, 1798); Daunou, _Eloge du
+  general Hoche_ (1798), delivered on behalf of the Institut at Hoche's
+  funeral; Rousselin, _Vie de Lazare Hoche, general des armees de la
+  republique francaise_ (Paris, 1798; this work was printed at the
+  public expense and distributed to the schools); Dubroca, _Eloge
+  funebre du general Hoche_ (Paris, 1800); _Vie et pensees du general
+  Hoche_ (Bern); Champrobert, _Notice historique sur Lazare Hoche, le
+  pacificateur de la Vendee_ (Paris, 1840); Dourille, _Histoire de
+  Lazare Hoche_ (Paris, 1844); Desprez, _Lazare Hoche d'apres sa
+  correspondance_ (Paris, 1858; new ed., 1880); Bergounioux, _Essai sur
+  la vie de Lazare Hoche_ (1852); E. de Bonnechose, _Lazare Hoche_
+  (1867); H. Martin, _Hoche et Bonaparte_ (1875); Dutemple, _Vie
+  politique et militaire du general Hoche_ (1879); Escaude, _Hoche en
+  Irlande_ (1888); Cuneo d'Ornano, _Hoche_ (1892); A. Chuquet, _Hoche et
+  la lutte pour l'Alsace_ (a volume of this author's series on the
+  campaigns of the Revolution, 1893); E. Charavaray, _Le General Hoche_
+  (1893); A. Duruy, _Hoche et Marceau_ (1885).
+
+
+
+
+HOCHHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
+situated on an elevation not far from the right bank of the Main, 3 m.
+above its influx into the Rhine and 3 m. E. of Mainz by the railway from
+Cassel to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 3779. It has an Evangelical and
+a Roman Catholic church, and carries on an extensive trade in wine, the
+English word "Hock," the generic term for Rhine wine, being derived from
+its name. Hochheim is mentioned in the chronicles as early as the 7th
+century. It is also memorable as the scene of a victory gained here, on
+the 7th of November 1813 by the Austrians over the French.
+
+  See Schuler, _Geschichte der Stadt Hochheim am Main_ (Hochheim, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HOCHST, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau on
+the Main, 6 m. by rail W. of Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 14,121. It
+is a busy industrial town with large dye-works and manufactures of
+machinery, snuff, tobacco, waxcloth, gelatine, furniture and biscuits.
+Brewing is carried on and there is a considerable river trade. The
+Roman Catholic church of St Justinus is a fine basilica originally built
+in the 9th century; it has been restored several times, and a Gothic
+choir was added in the 15th century. The town has also an Evangelical
+church and a synagogue, and a statue of Bismarck by Alois Mayer. Hochst
+belonged formerly to the electors of Mainz who had a palace here; this
+was destroyed in 1634 with the exception of one fine tower which still
+remains. In 1622 Christian, duke of Brunswick, was defeated here by
+Count Tilly, and in 1795 the Austrians gained a victory here over the
+French.
+
+Hochst is also the name of a small town in Hesse. This has some
+manufactures, and was formerly the seat of a Benedictine monastery.
+
+
+
+
+HOCHSTADT, a town of Bavaria, Germany, in the district of Swabia, on the
+left bank of the Danube, 34 m. N.E. of Ulm by rail. Pop. (1905) 2305. It
+has three Roman Catholic churches, a castle flanked by walls and towers
+and some small industries, including malting and brewing. Hochstadt,
+which came into the possession of Bavaria in 1266, has been a place of
+battles. Here Frederick of Hohenstaufen, vicegerent of the Empire for
+Henry IV., was defeated by Henry's rival, Hermann of Luxemburg, in 1081;
+in 1703 the Imperialists were routed here by Marshal Villars in command
+of the French; in August 1704 Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the
+French and Bavarians commanded by Max Emanuel, the elector of Bavaria
+and Marshal Tallard, this battle being usually known as that of
+Blenheim; and in June 1800 an engagement took place here between the
+Austrians and the French.
+
+There is another small town in Bavaria named Hochstadt. Pop. 2000. This
+is on the river Aisch, not far from Bamberg, to which bishopric it
+belonged from 1157 to 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria.
+
+
+
+
+HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON, BARON (1829-1884), Austrian
+geologist, was born at Esslingen, Wurtemberg, on the 30th of April 1829.
+He was the son of Christian Ferdinand Hochstetter (1787-1860), a
+clergyman and professor at Brunn, who was also a botanist and
+mineralogist. Having received his early education at the evangelical
+seminary at Maulbronn, he proceeded to the university of Tubingen; there
+under F. A. Quenstedt the interest he already felt in geology became
+permanently fixed, and there he obtained his doctor's degree and a
+travelling scholarship. In 1852 he joined the staff of the Imperial
+Geological Survey of Austria and was engaged until 1856 in parts of
+Bohemia, especially in the Bohmerwald, and in the Fichtel and Karlsbad
+mountains. His excellent reports established his reputation. Thus he
+came to be chosen as geologist to the Novara expedition (1857-1859), and
+made numerous valuable observations in the voyage round the world. In
+1859 he was engaged by the government of New Zealand to make a rapid
+geological survey of the islands. On his return he was appointed in 1860
+professor of mineralogy and geology at the Imperial Polytechnic
+Institute in Vienna, and in 1876 he was made superintendent of the
+Imperial Natural History Museum. In these later years he explored
+portions of Turkey and eastern Russia, and he published papers on a
+variety of geological, palaeontological and mineralogical subjects. He
+died at Vienna on the 18th of July 1884.
+
+  PUBLICATIONS.--_Karlsbad, seine geognostischen Verhaltnisse und seine
+  Quellen_ (1858); _Neu-Seeland_ (1863); _Geological and Topographical
+  Atlas of New Zealand_ (1864); _Leitfaden der Mineralogie und Geologie_
+  (with A. Bisching) (1876, ed. 8, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+HOCKEY (possibly derived from the "hooked" stick with which it is
+played; cf. O. Fr. _hoquet_, shepherd's crook), a game played with a
+ball or some similar object by two opposing sides, using hooked or bent
+sticks, with which each side attempts to drive it into the other's goal.
+In one or more of its variations Hockey was known to most northern
+peoples in both Europe and Asia, and the Romans possessed a game of
+similar nature. It was played indiscriminately on the frozen ground or
+the ice in winter. In Scotland it was called "shinty," and in Ireland
+"hurley," and was usually played on the hard, sandy sea-shore with
+numerous players on each side. The rules were simple and the play very
+rough.
+
+Modern Hockey, properly so called, is played during the cold season on
+the hard turf, and owes its recent vogue to the formation of "The Men's
+Hockey Association" in England in 1875. The rules drawn up by the
+Wimbledon Club in 1883 still obtain in all essentials. Since 1895
+"international" matches at hockey have been played annually between
+England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales; and in 1907 a match was played
+between England and France, won by England by 14 goals to nil. In 1890
+Divisional Association matches (North, South, West, Midlands) and
+inter-university matches (Oxford and Cambridge) were inaugurated, and
+have since been played annually. County matches are also now regularly
+played in England, twenty-six counties competing in 1907. Of other
+hockey clubs playing regular matches in 1907, there were eighty-one in
+the London district, and fifty-nine in the provinces.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram of Hockey Field.
+
+  G, Goal.          RW, Right Wing.
+  RB, Right Back.   RI, Inside Right.
+  LB, Left Back.    CF, Centre Forward.
+  RH, Right Half.   LI, Inside Left.
+  CH, Centre Half.  LW, Left Wing.]
+  LH, Left Half.
+
+  The game is played by teams of eleven players on a ground 100 yds.
+  long and 50 to 60 yds. wide. The goals are in the centre of each
+  end-line, and consist of two uprights 7 ft. high surmounted by a
+  horizontal bar, enclosing a space 12 ft. wide. In front of each goal
+  is a space enclosed by a curved line, its greatest diameter from the
+  goal-line being 15 ft., called the _striking-circle_. The positions of
+  the players on each side may be seen on the accompanying diagram. Two
+  umpires, one on each side of the centre-line, officiate.
+
+  The ball is an ordinary cricket-ball painted white. The stick has a
+  hard-wood curved head, and a handle of cork or wrapped cane. It must
+  not exceed 2 in. in diameter nor 28 oz. in weight. At the start of the
+  game, which consists of two thirty or thirty-five minute periods, the
+  two centre-forwards "bully off" the ball in the middle of the field.
+  In "bullying off" each centre must strike the ground on his own side
+  of the ball three times with his stick and strike his opponent's stick
+  three times alternately; after which either may strike the ball. Each
+  side then endeavours, by means of striking, passing and dribbling, to
+  drive the ball into its opponents' goal. A player is "off side" if he
+  is nearer the enemy's goal than one of his own side who strikes the
+  ball, and he may not strike the ball himself until it has been touched
+  by one of the opposing side. The ball may be caught (but not held) or
+  stopped by any part of the body, but may not be picked up, carried,
+  kicked, thrown or knocked except with the stick. An opponent's stick
+  may be hooked, but not an opponent's person, which may not be
+  obstructed in any way. No left-handed play is allowed. Penalties for
+  infringing rules are of two classes; "free hits" and "penalty
+  bullies," to be taken where the foul occurred. For flagrant fouls
+  penalty goals may also be awarded. A "corner" occurs when the ball
+  goes behind the goal-line, but not into goal. If it is hit by the
+  attacking side, or unintentionally by the defenders, it must be
+  brought out 25 yds., in a direction at right angles to the goal-line
+  from the point where it crossed the line, and there "bullied." But if
+  the ball is driven from within the 25-yd. line unintentionally behind
+  the goal-line by the defenders, a member of the attacking side is
+  given a free hit from a point within 3 yds. of a corner flag, the
+  members of the defending side remaining behind their goal-line. If the
+  ball is hit intentionally behind the goal-line by the attacking side,
+  the free hit is taken from the point where the ball went over. No goal
+  can be scored from a free hit directly.
+
+_Ice Hockey_ (or _Bandy_, to give it its original name) is far more
+popular than ordinary Hockey in countries where there is much ice; in
+fact in America "Hockey" means Ice Hockey, while the land game is called
+Field Hockey. Ice Hockey in its simplest form of driving a ball across a
+given limit with a stick or club has been played for centuries in
+northern Europe, attaining its greatest popularity in the Low Countries,
+and there are many 16th- and 17th-century paintings extant which
+represent games of Bandy, the players using an implement formed much
+like a golf club.
+
+  In England Bandy is controlled by the "National Bandy Association." A
+  team consists of eleven players, wearing skates, and the proper space
+  for play is 200 yds. by 100 yds. in extent. The ball is of solid
+  india-rubber, between 2(1/4) and 2(3/4) in. in diameter. The bandies
+  are 2 in. in diameter and about 4 ft. long. The goals, placed in the
+  centre of each goal-line, consist of two upright posts 7 ft. high and
+  12 ft. apart, connected by a lath. A match is begun by the referee
+  throwing up the ball in the centre of the field, after which it must
+  not be touched other than with the bandy until a goal is scored or the
+  ball passes the boundaries of the course, in which case it is hit into
+  the field in any direction excepting forward from the point where it
+  went out by the player who touched it last. If the ball is hit across
+  the goal-line but not into a goal, it is hit out by one of the
+  defenders from the point where it went over, the opponents not being
+  allowed to approach nearer than 25 yds. from the goal-line while the
+  hit is made.
+
+  [Illustration: Hockey Stick.]
+
+  In America the development of the modern game is due to the Victoria
+  Hockey Club and McGill University (Montreal). About 1881 the secretary
+  of the former club made the first efforts towards drawing up a
+  recognized code of laws, and for some time afterwards playing rules
+  were agreed upon from time to time whenever an important match was
+  played, the chief teams being, besides those already mentioned, the
+  Ottawa, Quebec, Crystal and Montreal Hockey Clubs, the first general
+  tournament taking place in 1884. Three years later the "Amateur Hockey
+  Association of Canada" was formed, and a definite code of rules drawn
+  up. Soon afterwards, in consequence of exhibitions given by the best
+  Canadian teams in some of the larger cities of the United States, the
+  new game was taken up by American schools, colleges and athletic
+  clubs, and became nearly as popular in the northern states as in the
+  Dominion. The rules differ widely from those of English Bandy. The
+  rink must be at least 112 ft. long by 58 ft. wide, and seven players
+  form a side. The goals are 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. high and are provided
+  with goal-nets. Instead of the English painted cricket-ball a puck is
+  used, made of vulcanized rubber in the form of a draught-stone, 1 in.
+  thick, and 3 in. in diameter. The sticks are made of one piece of hard
+  wood, and may not be more than 3 in. wide at any part. The game is
+  played for two half-hour or twenty-minute periods with an intermission
+  of ten minutes. At the beginning of a match, and also when a goal has
+  been made, the puck is _faced_, i.e. it is placed in the middle of the
+  rink between the sticks of the two left-centres, and the referee calls
+  "play." Whichever side then secures the ball endeavours by means of
+  passing and dribbling to get the puck into a position from which a
+  goal may be _shot_. The puck may be stopped by any part of the person
+  but not carried or knocked except with the stick. No stick may be
+  raised above the shoulder except when actually striking the puck. When
+  the puck is driven off the rink or behind the goal, or a foul has been
+  made behind the goal, it is faced 5 yds. inside the rink. The
+  goal-keeper must maintain a standing position.
+
+  There are a number of Hockey organizations in America, all under the
+  jurisdiction of the "American Amateur Hockey League" in the United
+  States and the "Canadian Amateur Athletic League" in Canada.
+
+  _Ice Polo_, a winter sport similar to Ice Hockey, is almost
+  exclusively played in the New England states. A rubber-covered ball is
+  used and the stick is heavier than that used in Ice Hockey. The
+  radical difference between the two games is that, in Ice Polo, there
+  is no strict off-side rule, so that passes and shots at goal may come
+  from any and often the most unexpected direction. Five men constitute
+  a team: a goal-tend, a half-back, a centre and two rushers. The
+  rushers must be rapid skaters, adepts in dribbling and passing and
+  good goal shots. The centre supports the rushers, passing the ball to
+  them or trying for goal himself. The half-back is the first defence
+  and the goal-tend the last. The rink is 150 ft. long.
+
+  _Ring Hockey_ may be played on the floor of any gymnasium or large
+  room by teams of six, comprising a goal-keeper, a quarter, three
+  forwards and a centre. The goals consist of two uprights 3 ft. high
+  and 4 ft. apart. The ring, which takes the place of the ball or puck,
+  is made of flexible rubber, and is 5 in. in diameter with a 3-in.
+  opening through the centre. It weighs between 12 and 16 oz. The stick
+  is a wand of light but tough wood, between 36 and 40 in. long, about
+  3/4 in. in diameter, provided with a 5-in. guard 20 in. from the lower
+  end. The method of shooting is to insert the end of the stick in the
+  hole of the ring and drive it towards the goal. A goal shot from the
+  field counts one point, a goal from a foul 1/2 point. When a foul is
+  called by the referee a player of the opposing side is allowed a free
+  shot for goal from any point on the quarter line.
+
+  _Roller Polo_, played extensively during the winter months in the
+  United States, is practically Ice Polo adapted to the floors of
+  gymnasiums and halls, the players, five on a side, wearing
+  roller-skates. The first professional league was organized in 1883.
+
+
+
+
+HOCK-TIDE, an ancient general holiday in England, celebrated on the
+second Monday and Tuesday after Easter Sunday. Hock-Tuesday was an
+important term day, rents being then payable, for with Michaelmas it
+divided the rural year into its winter and summer halves. The derivation
+of the word is disputed: any analogy with Ger. _hoch_, "high," being
+generally denied. No trace of the word is found in Old English, and
+"hock-day," its earliest use in composition, appears first in the 12th
+century. The characteristic pastime of hock-tide was called binding. On
+Monday the women, on Tuesday the men, stopped all passers of the
+opposite sex and bound them with ropes till they bought their release
+with a small payment, or a rope was stretched across the highroads, and
+the passers were obliged to pay toll. The money thus collected seems to
+have gone towards parish expenses. Many entries are found in parish
+registers under "Hocktyde money." The hock-tide celebration became
+obsolete in the beginning of the 18th century. At Coventry there was a
+play called "The Old Coventry Play of Hock Tuesday." This, suppressed at
+the Reformation owing to the incidental disorder, and revived as part of
+the festivities on Queen Elizabeth's visit to Kenilworth in July 1575,
+depicted the struggle between Saxons and Danes, and has given colour to
+the suggestion that hock-tide was originally a commemoration of the
+massacre of the Danes on St Brice's Day, the 13th of November A.D. 1002,
+or of the rejoicings at the death of Hardicanute on the 8th of June 1042
+and the expulsion of the Danes. But the dates of these anniversaries do
+not bear this out.
+
+
+
+
+HOCUS, a shortened form of "hocus pocus," used in the 17th century in
+the sense of "to play a trick on any one," to "hoax," which is generally
+taken to be a derivative. "Hocus pocus" appears to have been a mock
+Latin expression first used as the name of a juggler or conjurer. Thus
+in Ady's _Candle in the Dark_ (1655), quoted in the _New English
+Dictionary_, "I will speak of one man ... that went about in King James
+his time ... who called himself, The Kings Majesties most excellent
+Hocus Pocus, and so was called, because that at the playing of every
+Trick, he used to say, _Hocus pocus, tontus talontus, vade celeriter
+jubeo_, a dark composure of words, to blinde the eyes of the beholders,
+to make his Trick pass the more currantly without discovery."
+Tillotson's guess (_Sermons_, xxvi.) that the phrase was a corruption of
+_hoc est corpus_ and alluded to the words of the Eucharist, "in
+ridiculous imitation of the priests of the Church of Rome in their trick
+of Transubstantiation," has frequently been accepted as a serious
+derivation, but has no foundation. A connexion with a supposed demon of
+Scandinavian mythology, called "Ochus Bochus," is equally unwarranted.
+"Hocus" is used as a verb, meaning to drug, stupefy with opium, &c., for
+a criminal purpose. This use dates from the beginning of the 19th
+century.
+
+
+
+
+HODDEN (a word of unknown origin), a coarse kind of cloth made of undyed
+wool, formerly much worn by the peasantry of Scotland. It was usually
+made on small hand-looms by the peasants themselves. Grey hodden was
+made by mixing black and white fleeces together in the proportion of one
+to twelve when weaving.
+
+
+
+
+HODDESDON, an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary division of
+Hertfordshire, England, near the river Lea, 17 m. N. from London by the
+Great Eastern railway (Broxbourne and Hoddesdon station on the Cambridge
+line). Pop. (1901), 4711. This is the northernmost of a series of
+populous townships extending from the suburbs of London along the Lea
+valley as far as its junction with the Stort, which is close to
+Hoddesdon. They are in the main residential. Hoddesdon was a famous
+coaching station on the Old North Road; and the Bull posting-house is
+mentioned in Matthew Prior's "Down Hall." The Lea has been a favourite
+resort of anglers (mainly for coarse fish in this part) from the time of
+Izaak Walton, in whose book Hoddesdon is specifically named. The church
+of St Augustine, Broxbourne, is a fine example of Perpendicular work,
+and contains interesting monuments, including an altar tomb with
+enamelled brasses of 1473. Hoddesdon probably covers the site of a
+Romano-British village.
+
+
+
+
+HODEDA (_Hodeida_, _Hadeda_), a town in Arabia situated on the Red Sea
+coast 14 deg. 48' N. and 42 deg. 57' E. It lies on a beach of muddy sand
+exposed to the southerly and westerly winds. Steamers anchor more than a
+mile from shore, and merchandize has to be transhipped by means of
+_sambuks_ or native boats. But Hodeda has become the chief centre of the
+maritime trade of Turkish Yemen, and has superseded Mokha as the great
+port of export of South Arabian coffee. The town is composed of
+stone-built houses of several storeys, and is surrounded, except on the
+sea face, by a fortified enceinte. The population is estimated at
+33,000, and contains, besides the Arab inhabitants and the Turkish
+officials and garrison, a considerable foreign element, Greeks, Indians
+and African traders from the opposite coast. There are consulates of
+Great Britain, United States, France, Germany, Italy and Greece. The
+steam tonnage entering and clearing the port in 1904 amounted to 78,700
+tons, the highest hitherto recorded. Regular services are maintained
+with Aden, and with Suez, Massowa and the other Red Sea ports. Large
+dhows bring dates from the Persian Gulf, and occasional steamers from
+Bombay call on their way to Jidda with cargoes of grain. The imports for
+1904 amounted in value to L467,000, the chief items being piece goods,
+food grains and sugar; the exports amounted to L451,000, including
+coffee valued at L229,000.
+
+
+
+
+HODENING, an ancient Christmas custom still surviving in Wales, Kent,
+Lancashire and elsewhere. A horse's skull or a wooden imitation on a
+pole is carried round by a party of youths, one of whom conceals himself
+under a white cloth to simulate the horse's body, holding a lighted
+candle in the skull. They make a house-to-house visitation, begging
+gratuities. The "Penitential" of Archbishop Theodore (d. 690) speaks of
+"any who, on the kalands of January, clothe themselves with the skins of
+cattle and carry heads of animals." This, coupled with the fact that
+among the primitive Scandinavians the horse was often the sacrifice made
+at the winter solstice to Odin for success in battle, has been thought
+to justify the theory that hodening is a corruption of Odining.
+
+
+
+
+HODGE, CHARLES (1797-1878), American theologian, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of December 1797. He graduated
+at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) in 1815, and in 1819 at the
+Princeton Theological seminary, where he became an instructor in 1820,
+and the first professor of Oriental and Biblical literature in 1822.
+Meanwhile, in 1821, he had been ordained as a Presbyterian minister.
+From 1826 to 1828 he studied under de Sacy in Paris, under Gesenius and
+Tholuck in Halle, and under Hengstenberg, Neander and Humboldt in
+Berlin. In 1840 he was transferred to the chair of exegetical and
+didactic theology, to which subjects that of polemic theology was added
+in 1854, and this office he held until his death. In 1825 he established
+the quarterly _Biblical Repertory_, the title of which was changed to
+_Biblical Repertory and Theological Review_ in 1830 and to _Biblical
+Repertory and Princeton Review_ in 1837. With it, in 1840, was merged
+the _Literary and Theological Review_ of New York, and in 1872 the
+American Presbyterian Review of New York, the title becoming
+_Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review_ in 1872 and _Princeton
+Review_ in 1877. He secured for it the position of theological organ of
+the Old School division of the Presbyterian church, and continued its
+principal editor and contributor until 1868, when the Rev. Lyman H.
+Atwater became his colleague. His more important essays were republished
+under the titles _Essays and Reviews_ (1857), _Princeton Theological
+Essays, and Discussions in Church Polity_ (1878). He was moderator of
+the General Assembly (O.S.) in 1846, a member of the committee to revise
+the _Book of Discipline_ of the Presbyterian church in 1858, and
+president of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1868-1870.
+The 24th of April 1872, the fiftieth anniversary of his election to his
+professorship, was observed in Princeton as his jubilee by between 400
+and 500 representatives of his 2700 pupils, and $50,000 was raised for
+the endowment of his chair. He died at Princeton on the 19th of June
+1878. Hodge was one of the greatest of American theologians.
+
+  Besides his articles in the _Princeton Review_, he published a
+  _Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_ (1835, abridged 1836,
+  rewritten and enlarged 1864, new ed. 1886), _Constitutional History of
+  the Presbyterian Church in the United States_ (2 vols., 1839-1840);
+  _The Way of Life_ (1841); _Commentaries on Ephesians_ (1856); 1
+  _Corinthians_ (1857); 2 _Corinthians_ (1859); _Systematic Theology_ (3
+  vols., 2200 pp., 1871-1873), probably the best of all modern
+  expositions of Calvinistic dogmatic; and _What is Darwinism?_ (1874),
+  in which he opposed "Atheistic Evolutionism." After his death a volume
+  of _Conference Papers_ (1879) was published. His life, by his son, was
+  published in 1880.
+
+His son, ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER HODGE (1823-1886), also famous as a
+Presbyterian theologian, was born at Princeton on the 18th of July 1823.
+He graduated at the College of New Jersey in 1841, and at the Princeton
+Theological seminary in 1846, and was ordained in 1847. From 1847 to
+1850 he was a missionary at Allahabad, India, and was then pastor of
+churches successively at Lower West Nottingham, Maryland (1851-1855); at
+Fredericksburg, Virginia (1855-1861), and at Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania
+(1861-1864). From 1864 to 1877 he was professor of didactic and
+polemical theology in the Allegheny Theological seminary at Allegheny,
+Pennsylvania, where he was also from 1866 to 1877 pastor of the North
+Church (Presbyterian). In 1878 he succeeded his father as professor of
+didactic theology at the Princeton seminary. He died on the 11th of
+November 1886. Besides writing the biography of his father, he was the
+author of _Outlines of Theology_ (1860, new ed. 1875; enlarged, 1879);
+_The Atonement_ (1867); _Exposition of the Confession of Faith_ (1869);
+and _Popular Lectures on Theological Themes_ (1887).
+
+  See C. A. Salmond's _Charles and A. A. Hodge_ (New York, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HODGKIN, THOMAS (1831-   ), British historian, son of John Hodgkin
+(1800-1875), barrister, was born in London on the 29th of July 1831.
+Having been educated as a member of the Society of Friends and taken the
+degree of B.A. at London University, he became a partner in the banking
+house of Hodgkin, Barnett & Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne, a firm afterwards
+amalgamated with Lloyds' Bank. While continuing in business as a banker,
+Hodgkin devoted a good deal of time to historical study, and soon became
+a leading authority on the history of the early middle ages, his books
+being indispensable to all students of this period. His chief works are,
+_Italy and her Invaders_ (8 vols., Oxford, 1880-1899); _The Dynasty of
+Theodosius_ (Oxford, 1889); _Theodoric the Goth_ (London, 1891); and an
+introduction to the _Letters_ of Cassiodorus (London, 1886). He also
+wrote a _Life of Charles the Great_ (London, 1897); _Life of George Fox_
+(Boston, 1896); and the opening volume of Longman's _Political History
+of England_ (London, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HODGKINSON, EATON (1789-1861), English engineer, the son of a farmer,
+was born at Anderton near Northwich, Cheshire, on the 26th of February
+1789. After attending school at Northwich, he began to help his widowed
+mother on the farm, but to escape from that uncongenial occupation he
+persuaded her in 1811 to remove to Manchester and start a pawnbroking
+business. There he made the acquaintance of John Dalton, and began those
+inquiries into the strength of materials which formed the work of his
+life. He was associated with Sir William Fairbairn in an important
+series of experiments on cast iron, and his help was sought by Robert
+Stephenson in regard to the forms and dimensions of the tubes for the
+Britannia bridge. A paper which he communicated to the Royal Society on
+"Experimental Researches on the Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron and
+other Materials," in 1840 gained him a Royal medal in 1841, and he was
+also elected a fellow. In 1847 he was appointed professor of the
+mechanical principles of engineering in University College, London, and
+at the same time he was employed as a member of the Royal Commission
+appointed to inquire into the application of iron to railway structures.
+In 1848 he was chosen president of the Manchester Philosophical Society,
+of which he had been a member since 1826, and to which, both previously
+and subsequently, he contributed many of the more important results of
+his discoveries. For several years he took an active part in the
+discussions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, of which he was
+elected an honorary member in 1851. He died at Eaglesfield House, near
+Manchester, on the 18th of June 1861.
+
+
+
+
+HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894), English administrator, ethnologist
+and naturalist, was born at Lower Beech, Prestbury, Cheshire, on the 1st
+of February 1800. His father, Brian Hodgson, came of a family of country
+gentlemen, and his mother was a daughter of William Houghton of
+Manchester. In 1816 he obtained an East Indian writership. After passing
+through the usual course at Haileybury, he went out to India in 1818,
+and after a brief service at Kumaon as assistant-commissioner was in
+1820 appointed assistant to the Resident at Katmandu, the capital of
+Nepal. In 1823 he obtained an under-secretaryship in the foreign
+department at Calcutta, but his health failed, and in 1824 he returned
+to Nepal, to which the whole of his life, whether in or out of India,
+may be said to have been thenceforth given. He devoted himself
+particularly to the collection of Sanskrit MSS. relating to Buddhism,
+and hardly less so to the natural history and antiquities of the
+country, and by 1839 had contributed eighty-nine papers to the
+_Transactions_ of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. His investigations of
+the ethnology of the aboriginal tribes were especially important. In
+1833 he became Resident in Nepal, and passed many stormy years in
+conflict with the cruel and faithless court to which he was accredited.
+He succeeded, nevertheless, in concluding a satisfactory treaty in 1839;
+but in 1842 his policy, which involved an imperious attitude towards the
+native government, was upset by the interference of Lord Ellenborough,
+but just arrived in India and not unnaturally anxious to avoid trouble
+in Nepal during the conflict in Afghanistan. Hodgson took upon himself
+to disobey his instructions, a breach of discipline justified to his own
+mind by his superior knowledge of the situation, but which the
+governor-general could hardly be expected to overlook. He was,
+nevertheless, continued in office for a time, but was recalled in 1843,
+and resigned the service. In 1845 he returned to India and settled at
+Darjeeling, where he devoted himself entirely to his favourite pursuits,
+becoming the greatest authority on the Buddhist religion and on the
+flora of the Himalayas. It was he who early suggested the recruiting of
+Gurkhas for the Indian army, and who influenced Sir Jung Bahadur to lend
+his assistance to the British during the mutiny in 1857. In 1858 he
+returned to England, and lived successively in Cheshire and
+Gloucestershire, occupied with his studies to the last. He died at his
+seat at Alderley Grange in the Cotswold Hills on the 23rd of May 1894.
+No man has done so much to throw light on Buddhism as it exists in
+Nepal, and his collections of Sanskrit manuscripts, presented to the
+East India Office, and of natural history, presented to the British
+Museum, are unique as gatherings from a single country. He wrote
+altogether 184 philological and ethnological and 127 scientific papers,
+as well as some valuable pamphlets on native education, in which he took
+great interest. His principal work, _Illustrations of the Literature and
+Religion of Buddhists_ (1841), was republished with the most important
+of his other writings in 1872-1880.
+
+  His life was written by Sir W. W. Hunter in 1896.
+
+
+
+
+HODMEZO-VASARHELY, a town of Hungary, in the county of Csongrad, 135 m.
+S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 60,824 of which about two-thirds
+are Protestants. The town, situated on Lake Hod, not far from the right
+bank of the Tisza, has a modern aspect. The soil of the surrounding
+country, of which 383 sq. m. belong to the municipality, is exceedingly
+fertile, the chief products being wheat, mangcorn, barley, oats, millet,
+maize and various descriptions of fruit, especially melons. Extensive
+vineyards, yielding large quantities of both white and red grapes,
+skirt the town, and the horned cattle and horses of Hodmezo-Vasarhely
+have a good reputation; sheep and pigs are also extensively reared. The
+commune is protected from inundations of the Tisza by an enormous dike,
+but the town, nevertheless, sometimes suffers considerable damage during
+the spring floods.
+
+
+
+
+HODOGRAPH (Gr. [Greek: hodos], a way, and [Greek: graphein], to write),
+a curve of which the radius vector is proportional to the velocity of a
+moving particle. It appears to have been used by James Bradley, but for
+its practical development we are mainly indebted to Sir William Rowan
+Hamilton, who published an account of it in the _Proceedings of the
+Royal Irish Academy_, 1846. If a point be in motion in any orbit and
+with any velocity, and if, at each instant, a line be drawn from a fixed
+point parallel and equal to the velocity of the moving point at that
+instant, the extremities of these lines will lie on a curve called the
+hodograph. Let PP1P2 be the path of the moving point, and let OT, OT1,
+OT2, be drawn from the fixed point O parallel and equal to the
+velocities at P, P1, P2 respectively, then the locus of T is the
+hodograph of the orbits described by P (see figure). From this
+definition we have the following important fundamental property which
+belongs to all hodographs, viz. that at any point the tangent to the
+hodograph is parallel to the direction, and the velocity in the
+hodograph equal to the magnitude of the resultant acceleration at the
+corresponding point of the orbit. This will be evident if we consider
+that, since radii vectores of the hodograph represent velocities in the
+orbit, the elementary arc between two consecutive radii vectores of the
+hodograph represents the velocity which must be compounded with the
+velocity of the moving point at the beginning of any short interval of
+time to get the velocity at the end of that interval, that is to say,
+represents the change of velocity for that interval. Hence the
+elementary arc divided by the element of time is the rate of change of
+velocity of the moving-point, or in other words, the velocity in the
+hodograph is the acceleration in the orbit.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  Analytically thus (Thomson and Tait, _Nat. Phil._):--Let x, y, z be
+  the coordinates of P in the orbit, [xi], [eta], [zeta] those of the
+  corresponding point T in the hodograph, then
+
+    [xi] = dx/dt, [eta] = dy/dt, [zeta] = dz/dt;
+
+  therefore
+
+       d[xi]        d[eta]        d[zeta]
+    ---------- = ----------- =  -----------     (1).
+   (d^2x/dt^2)   (d^2y/dt^2)    (d^2z/dt^2)
+
+  Also, if s be the arc of the hodograph,
+
+    ds         / /d[xi]\^2   /d[eta]\^2   /d[zeta]\^2
+    -- = v =  / ( ----- ) + ( ------ ) + ( ------- )
+    dt      \/   \ dt  /     \  dt  /     \   dt  /
+
+               / /d^2x\^2   /d^2y\^2   /d^2z\^2
+           =  / ( ---  ) + ( ---  ) + ( ---  )   (2).
+            \/   \dt^2/     \dt^2/     \dt^2/
+
+  Equation (1) shows that the tangent to the hodograph is parallel to
+  the line of resultant acceleration, and (2) that the velocity in the
+  hodograph is equal to the acceleration.
+
+  Every orbit must clearly have a hodograph, and, conversely, every
+  hodograph a corresponding orbit; and, theoretically speaking, it is
+  possible to deduce the one from the other, having given the other
+  circumstances of the motion.
+
+  For applications of the hodograph to the solution of kinematical
+  problems see MECHANICS.
+
+
+
+
+HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES (1821-1858), known as "Hodson of Hodson's
+Horse," British leader of light cavalry during the Indian Mutiny, third
+son of the Rev. George Hodson, afterwards archdeacon of Stafford and
+canon of Lichfield, was born on the 19th of March 1821 at Maisemore
+Court, near Gloucester. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and
+accepted a cadetship in the Indian army at the advanced age for those
+days of twenty-three. Joining the 2nd Bengal Grenadiers he went through
+the first Sikh War, and was present at the battles of Moodkee,
+Ferozeshah and Sobraon. In one of his letters home at this period he
+calls the campaign a "tissue of mismanagement, blunders, errors,
+ignorance and arrogance", and outspoken criticism such as this brought
+him many bitter enemies throughout his career, who made the most of
+undeniable faults of character. In 1847, through the influence of Sir
+Henry Lawrence, he was appointed adjutant of the corps of Guides, and in
+1852 was promoted to the command of the Guides with the civil charge of
+Yusafzai. But his brusque and haughty demeanour to his equals made him
+many enemies. In 1855 two separate charges were brought against him. The
+first was that he had arbitrarily imprisoned a Pathan chief named Khadar
+Khan, on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of Colonel Mackeson.
+The man was acquitted, and Lord Dalhousie removed Hodson from his civil
+functions and remanded him to his regiment on account of his lack of
+judgment. The second charge was more serious, amounting to an accusation
+of malversation in the funds of his regiment. He was tried by a court of
+inquiry, who found that his conduct to natives had been "unjustifiable
+and oppressive," that he had used abusive language to his native
+officers and personal violence to his men, and that his system of
+accounts was "calculated to screen peculation and fraud." Subsequently
+another inquiry was carried out by Major Reynell Taylor, which dealt
+simply with Hodson's accounts and found them to be "an honest and
+correct record ... irregularly kept." At this time the Guides were split
+up into numerous detachments, and there was a system of advances which
+made the accounts very complicated. The verdicts of the two inquiries
+may be set against each other, and this particular charge declared "not
+proven." It is possible that Hodson was careless and extravagant in
+money matters rather than actually dishonest; but there were several
+similar charges against him. During a tour through Kashmir with Sir
+Henry Lawrence he kept the purse and Sir Henry could never obtain an
+account from him; subsequently Sir George Lawrence accused him of
+embezzling the funds of the Lawrence Asylum at Kasauli; while Sir
+Neville Chamberlain in a published letter says of the third brother,
+Lord Lawrence, "I am bound to say that Lord Lawrence had no opinion of
+Hodson's integrity in money matters. He has often discussed Hodson's
+character in talking to me, and it was to him a regret that a man
+possessing so many fine gifts should have been wanting in a moral
+quality which made him untrustworthy." Finally, on one occasion Hodson
+spent L500 of the pay due to Lieutenant Godby, and under threat of
+exposure was obliged to borrow the money from a native banker through
+one of his officers named Bisharat Ali.
+
+It was just at the time when Hodson's career seemed ruined that the
+Indian Mutiny broke out, and he obtained the opportunity of
+rehabilitating himself. At the very outset of the campaign he made his
+name by riding with despatches from General Anson at Karnal to Meerut
+and back again, a distance of 152 m. in all, in seventy-two hours,
+through a country swarming with the rebel cavalry. This feat so pleased
+the commander-in-chief that he empowered him to raise a regiment of 2000
+irregular horse, which became known to fame as Hodson's Horse, and
+placed him at the head of the Intelligence Department. In his double
+role of cavalry leader and intelligence officer, Hodson played a large
+part in the reduction of Delhi and consequently in saving India for the
+British empire. He was the finest swordsman in the army, and possessed
+that daring recklessness which is the most useful quality of leadership
+against Asiatics. In explanation of the fact that he never received the
+Victoria Cross it was said of him that it was because he earned it every
+day of his life. But he also had the defects of his qualities, and could
+display on occasion a certain cruelty and callousness of disposition.
+Reference has already been made to Bisharat Ali, who had lent Hodson
+money. During the siege of Delhi another native, said to be an enemy of
+Bisharat Ali's, informed Hodson that he had turned rebel and had just
+reached Khurkhouda, a village near Delhi. Hodson thereupon took out a
+body of his sowars, attacked the village, and shot Bisharat Ali and
+several of his relatives. General Crawford Chamberlain states that this
+was Hodson's way of wiping out the debt. Again, after the fall of Delhi,
+Hodson obtained from General Wilson permission to ride out with fifty
+horsemen to Humayun's tomb, 6 m. out of Delhi, and bring in Bahadur
+Shah, the last of the Moguls. This he did with safety in the face of a
+large and threatening crowd, and thus dealt the mutineers a heavy blow.
+On the following day with 100 horsemen he went out to the same tomb and
+obtained the unconditional surrender of the three princes, who had been
+left behind on the previous occasion. A crowd of 6000 persons gathered,
+and Hodson with marvellous coolness ordered them to disarm, which they
+proceeded to do. He sent the princes on with an escort of ten men, while
+with the remaining ninety he collected the arms of the crowd. On
+galloping after the princes he found the crowd once more pressing on the
+escort and threatening an attack; and fearing that he would be unable to
+bring his prisoners into Delhi he shot them with his own hand. This is
+the most bitterly criticized action in his career, but no one but the
+man on the spot can judge how it is necessary to handle a crowd; and in
+addition one of the princes, Abu Bukt, heir-apparent to the throne, had
+made himself notorious for cutting off the arms and legs of English
+children and pouring the blood into their mothers' mouths. Considering
+the circumstances of the moment, Hodson's act at the worst was one of
+irregular justice. A more unpleasant side to the question is that he
+gave the king a safe conduct, which was afterwards seen by Sir Donald
+Stewart, before he left the palace, and presumably for a bribe; and he
+took an armlet and rings from the bodies of the princes. He was freely
+accused of looting at the time, and though this charge, like that of
+peculation, is matter for controversy, it is very strongly supported.
+General Pelham Burn said that he saw loot in Hodson's boxes when he
+accompanied him from Fatehgarh to take part in the siege of Lucknow, and
+Sir Henry Daly said that he found "loads of loot" in Hodson's boxes
+after his death, and also a file of documents relating to the Guides
+case, which had been stolen from him and of which Hodson denied all
+knowledge. On the other hand the Rev. G. Hodson states in his book that
+he obtained the inventory of his brother's possessions made by the
+Committee of Adjustment and it contained no articles of loot, and Sir
+Charles Gough, president of the committee, confirmed this evidence. This
+statement is totally incompatible with Sir Henry Daly's and is only one
+of many contradictions in the case. Sir Henry Norman stated that to his
+personal knowledge Hodson remitted several thousand pounds to Calcutta
+which could only have been obtained by looting. On the other hand,
+again, Hodson died a poor man, his effects were sold for L170, his widow
+was dependent on charity for her passage home, was given apartments by
+the queen at Hampton Court, and left only L400 at her death.
+
+Hodson was killed on the 11th of March 1858 in the attack on the Begum
+Kotee at Lucknow. He had just arrived on the spot and met a man going to
+fetch powder to blow in a door; instead Hodson, with his usual
+recklessness, rushed into the doorway and was shot. On the whole, it can
+hardly be doubted that he was somewhat unscrupulous in his private
+character, but he was a splendid soldier, and rendered inestimable
+services to the empire.
+
+  The controversy relating to Hodson's moral character is very
+  complicated and unpleasant. Upon Hodson's side see Rev. G. Hodson,
+  _Hodson of Hodson's Horse_ (1883), and L. J. Trotter, _A Leader of
+  Light Horse_ (1901); against him, R. Bosworth Smith, _Life of Lord
+  Lawrence_, appendix to the 6th edition of 1885; T. R. E. Holmes,
+  _History of the Indian Mutiny_, appendix N to the 5th edition of 1898,
+  and _Four Famous Soldiers_ by the same author, 1889; and General Sir
+  Crawford Chamberlain, _Remarks on Captain Trotter's Biography of Major
+  W. S. R. Hodson_ (1901).
+
+
+
+
+HODY, HUMPHREY (1659-1707), English divine, was born at Odcombe in
+Somersetshire in 1659. In 1676 he entered Wadham College, Oxford, of
+which he became fellow in 1685. In 1684 he published _Contra historiam
+Aristeae de LXX. interpretibus dissertatio_, in which he showed that the
+so-called letter of Aristeas, containing an account of the production of
+the Septuagint, was the late forgery of a Hellenist Jew originally
+circulated to lend authority to that version. The dissertation was
+generally regarded as conclusive, although Isaac Vossius published an
+angry and scurrilous reply to it in the appendix to his edition of
+Pomponius Mela. In 1689 Hody wrote the _Prolegomena_ to the Greek
+chronicle of John Malalas, published at Oxford in 1691. The following
+year he became chaplain to Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester,
+and for his support of the ruling party in a controversy with Henry
+Dodwell regarding the non-juring bishops he was appointed chaplain to
+Archbishop Tillotson, an office which he continued to hold under
+Tenison. In 1698 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford,
+and in 1704 was made archdeacon of Oxford. In 1701 he published _A
+History of English Councils and Convocations_, and in 1703 in four
+volumes _De Bibliorum textis originalibus_, in which he included a
+revision of his work on the Septuagint, and published a reply to
+Vossius. He died on the 20th of January 1707.
+
+  A work, _De Graecis Illustribus_, which he left in manuscript, was
+  published in 1742 by Samuel Jebb, who prefixed to it a Latin life of
+  the author.
+
+
+
+
+HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886), American inventor, was born in New York
+City on the 12th of September 1812. He was the son of Robert Hoe
+(1784-1833), an English-born American mechanic, who with his
+brothers-in-law, Peter and Matthew Smith, established in New York City a
+manufactory of printing presses, and used steam to run his machinery.
+Richard entered his father's manufactory at the age of fifteen and
+became head of the firm (Robert Hoe & Company) on his father's death. He
+had considerable inventive genius and set himself to secure greater
+speed for printing presses. He discarded the old flat-bed model and
+placed the type on a revolving cylinder, a model later developed into
+the well-known Hoe rotary or "lightning" press, patented in 1846, and
+further improved under the name of the Hoe web perfecting press (see
+PRINTING). He died in Florence, Italy, on the 7th of June 1886.
+
+  See _A Short History of the Printing Press_ (New York, 1902) by his
+  nephew Robert Hoe (1839-1909), who was responsible for further
+  improvements in printing, and was an indefatigable worker in support
+  of the New York Metropolitan Museum.
+
+
+
+
+HOE (through Fr. _houe_ from O.H.G. _houwa_, mod. Ger. _Haue_; the root
+is seen in "hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from
+"hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe,
+Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c.; this is the same as Northern
+English "heugh" and is connected with "hang"), an agricultural and
+gardening implement used for extirpating weeds, for stirring the
+surface-soil in order to break the capillary channels and so prevent the
+evaporation of moisture, for singling out turnips and other root-crops
+and similar purposes. Among common forms of hoe are the ordinary
+garden-hoe (numbered _1_ in fig. 1), which consists of a flat blade set
+transversely in a long wooden handle; the Dutch or thrust-hoe (_2_),
+which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion of a spade;
+and the swan-neck hoe (_3_), the best manual hoe for agricultural
+purposes, which has a long curved neck to attach the blade to the
+handle; the soil falls back over this, blocking is thus avoided and a
+longer stroke obtained. Several types of horse-drawn hoe capable of
+working one or more rows at a time are used among root and grain crops.
+The illustrations show two forms of the implement, the blades of which
+differ in shape from those of the garden-hoe. Fig. 2 is in ordinary use
+for hoeing between two lines of beans or turnips or other "roots." Fig.
+3 is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also convertible
+into a root-hoe. In the lever-hoe, which is largely used in grain crops,
+the blades may be raised and lowered by means of a lever. The
+horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles in the rear, but its
+successful working depends on accurate drilling of the seed, because
+unless the rows are parallel the roots of the plants are liable to be
+cut and the foliage injured. Thus Jethro Tull (17th century), with whose
+name the beginning of the practice of horse-hoeing is principally
+connected, used the drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in
+the so-called "Horse-hoeing Husbandry" (see AGRICULTURE).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Three Forms of Manual Hoe.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Martin's One-Row Horse Hoe.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Martin's General Purpose Steerage Horse Hoe.]
+
+
+
+
+HOEFNAGEL, JORIS (1545-1601), Dutch painter and engraver, the son of a
+diamond merchant, was born at Antwerp. He travelled abroad, making
+drawings from archaeological subjects, and was a pupil of Jan Bol at
+Mechlin. He was afterwards patronized by the elector of Bavaria at
+Munich, where he stayed eight years, and by the Emperor Rudolph at
+Prague. He died at Vienna in 1601. He is famous for his miniature work,
+especially on a missal in the imperial library at Vienna; he painted
+animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history; and his
+engravings (especially for Braun's _Civitates orbis terrarum_, 1572, and
+Ortelius's _Theatrum orbis terrarum_, 1570) give him an interesting
+place among early topographical draughtsmen.
+
+
+
+
+HOF, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper Franconia,
+beautifully situated on the Saale, on the north-eastern spurs of the
+Fichtelgebirge, 103 m. S.W. of Leipzig on the main line of railway to
+Regensburg and Munich. Pop. (1885) 22,257; (1905) 36,348. It has one
+Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches (among the latter that of
+St Michael, which was restored in 1884), a town hall of 1563, a
+gymnasium with an extensive library, a commercial school and a hospital
+founded in 1262. It is the seat of various flourishing industries,
+notably woollen, cotton and jute spinning, jute weaving, and the
+manufacture of cotton and half-woollen fabrics. It has also dye-works,
+flour-mills, saw-mills, breweries, iron-works, and manufactures of
+machinery, iron and tin wares, chemicals and sugar. In the neighbourhood
+there are large marble quarries and extensive iron mines. Hof,
+originally called Regnitzhof, was built about 1080. It was held for some
+time by the dukes of Meran, and was sold in 1373 to the burgraves of
+Nuremberg. The cloth manufacture introduced into it in the 15th century,
+and the manufacture of veils begun in the 16th century, greatly promoted
+its prosperity, but it suffered severely in the Albertine and Hussite
+wars as well as in the Thirty Years' War. In 1792 it came into the
+possession of Prussia; in 1806 it fell to France; and in 1810 it was
+incorporated with Bavaria. In 1823 the greater part of the town was
+destroyed by fire.
+
+  See Ernst, _Geschichte und Beschreibung des Bezirks und der Stadt Hof_
+  (1866); Tillmann, _Die Stadt Hof und ihre Umgebung_ (Hof, 1899), and
+  C. Meyer, _Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hof_ (1894-1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOFER, ANDREAS (1767-1810), Tirolese patriot, was born on the 22nd of
+November 1767 at St Leonhard, in the Passeier valley. There his father
+kept an inn known as "am Sand," which Hofer inherited, and on that
+account he was popularly known as the "Sandwirth." In addition to this
+he carried on a trade in wine and horses with the north of Italy,
+acquiring a high reputation for intelligence and honesty. In the wars
+against the French from 1796 to 1805 he took part, first as a
+sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia. By the treaty of
+Pressburg (1805) Tirol was transferred from Austria to Bavaria, and
+Hofer, who was almost fanatically devoted to the Austrian house, became
+conspicuous as a leader of the agitation against Bavarian rule. In 1808
+he formed one of a deputation who went to Vienna, at the invitation of
+the archduke John, to concert a rising; and when in April 1809 the
+Tirolese rose in arms, Hofer was chosen commander of the contingent from
+his native valley, and inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the Bavarians
+at Sterzing (April 11). This victory, which resulted in the temporary
+reoccupation of Innsbruck by the Austrians, made Hofer the most
+conspicuous of the insurgent leaders. The rapid advance of Napoleon,
+indeed, and the defeat of the main Austrian army under the archduke
+Charles, once more exposed Tirol to the French and Bavarians, who
+reoccupied Innsbruck. The withdrawal of the bulk of the troops, however,
+gave the Tirolese their chance again; after two battles fought on the
+Iselberg (May 25 and 29) the Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the
+country, and Hofer entered Innsbruck in triumph. An autograph letter of
+the emperor Francis (May 29) assured him that no peace would be
+concluded by which Tirol would again be separated from the Austrian
+monarchy, and Hofer, believing his work accomplished, returned to his
+home. Then came the news of the armistice of Znaim (July 12), by which
+Tirol and Vorarlberg were surrendered by Austria unconditionally and
+given up to the vengeance of the French. The country was now again
+invaded by 40,000 French and Bavarian troops, and Innsbruck fell; but
+the Tirolese once more organized resistance to the French "atheists and
+freemasons," and, after a temporary hesitation, Hofer--on whose head a
+price had been placed--threw himself into the movement. On the 13th of
+August, in another battle on the Iselberg, the French under Marshal
+Lefebvre were routed by the Tirolese peasants, and Hofer once more
+entered Innsbruck, which he had some difficulty in saving from sack.
+Hofer was now elected _Oberkommandant_ of Tirol, took up his quarters in
+the Hofburg at Innsbruck, and for two months ruled the country in the
+emperor's name. He preserved the habits of a simple peasant, and his
+administration was characterized in part by the peasant's shrewd common
+sense, but yet more by a pious solicitude for the minutest details of
+faith and morals. On the 29th of September Hofer received from the
+emperor a chain and medal of honour, which encouraged him in the belief
+that Austria did not intend again to desert him; the news of the
+conclusion of the treaty of Schonbrunn (October 14), by which Tirol was
+again ceded to Bavaria, came upon him as an overwhelming surprise. The
+French in overpowering force at once pushed into the country, and, an
+amnesty having been stipulated in the treaty, Hofer and his companions,
+after some hesitation, gave in their submission. On the 12th of
+November, however, urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant
+leaders and deceived by false reports of Austrian victories, Hofer again
+issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms. The summons met
+with little response; the enemy advanced in irresistible force, and
+Hofer, a price once more set on his head, had to take refuge in the
+mountains. His hiding-place was betrayed by one of his neighbours, named
+Josef Raffl, and on the 27th of January 1810 he was captured by Italian
+troops and sent in chains to Mantua. There he was tried by
+court-martial, and on the 20th of February was shot, twenty-four hours
+after his condemnation. This crime, which was believed to be due to
+Napoleon's direct orders, caused an immense sensation throughout Germany
+and did much to inflame popular sentiment against the French. At the
+court of Austria, too, which was accused of having cynically sacrificed
+the hero, it produced a painful impression, and Metternich, when he
+visited Paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess Marie
+Louise to Napoleon, was charged to remonstrate with the emperor.
+Napoleon expressed his regret, stating that the execution had been
+carried out against his wishes, having been hurried on by the zeal of
+his generals. In 1823 Hofer's remains were removed from Mantua to
+Innsbruck, where they were interred in the Franciscan church, and in
+1834 a marble statue was erected over his tomb. In 1893 a bronze statue
+of him was also set up on the Iselberg. At Meran his patriotic deeds of
+heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually in the
+open air. In 1818 the patent of nobility bestowed upon him by the
+Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his family.
+
+  See _Leben und Thaten des ehemaligen Tyroler Insurgenten-Chefs Andr.
+  Hofer_ (Berlin, 1810); _Andr. Hofer und die Tyroler Insurrection im
+  Jahre 1809_ (Munich, 1811); Hormayr, _Geschichte Andr. Hofer's
+  Sandwirths auf Passeyr_ (Leipzig, 1845); B. Weber, _Das Thal Passeyr
+  und seine Bewohner mit besonderer Rucksicht auf Andreas Hofer und das
+  Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck, 1851); Rapp, _Tirol im Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck,
+  1852); Weidinger, _Andreas Hofer und seine Kampfgenossen_ (3rd ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1861); Heigel, _Andreas Hofer_ (Munich, 1874); Stampfer,
+  _Sandwirt Andreas Hofer_ (Freiburg, 1874); Schmolze, _Andreas Hofer
+  und seine Kampfgenossen_ (Innsbruck, 1900). His history has supplied
+  the materials for tragedies to B. Auerbach and Immermann, and for
+  numerous ballads, of which some remain very popular in Germany (see
+  Franke, _Andreas Hofer im Liede_, Innsbruck, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+HOFFDING, HARALD (1843-   ), Danish philosopher, was born and educated in
+Copenhagen. He became a schoolmaster, and ultimately in 1883 professor
+in the university of Copenhagen. He was much influenced by Soren
+Kierkegaard in the early development of his thought, but later became a
+positivist, retaining, however, and combining with it the spirit and
+method of practical psychology and the critical school. His best-known
+work is perhaps his _Den nyere Filosofis Historie_ (1894), translated
+into English from the German edition (1895) by B. E. Meyer as _History
+of Modern Philosophy_ (2 vols., 1900), a work intended by him to
+supplement and correct that of Hans Brochner, to whom it is dedicated.
+His _Psychology, the Problems of Philosophy_ (1905) and _Philosophy of
+Religion_ (1906) also have appeared in English.
+
+  Among Hoffding's other writings, practically all of which have been
+  translated into German, are: _Den engelske Filosofi i vor Tid_ (1874);
+  _Etik_ (1876; ed. 1879); _Psychologi i Omrids paa Grundlag of
+  Erfaring_ (ed. 1892); _Psykologiske Undersogelser_ (1889); _Charles
+  Darwin_ (1889); _Kontinuiteten i Kants filosofiske Udviklingsgang_
+  (1893); _Det psykologiske Grundlag for logiske Domme_ (1899);
+  _Rousseau und seine Philosophie_ (1901); _Mindre Arbejder_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1798-1874), known as HOFFMANN VON
+FALLERSLEBEN, German poet, philologist and historian of literature, was
+born at Fallersleben in the duchy of Luneburg, Hanover, on the 2nd of
+April 1798, the son of the mayor of the town. He was educated at the
+classical schools of Helmstedt and Brunswick, and afterwards at the
+universities of Gottingen and Bonn. His original intention was to study
+theology, but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature. In 1823 he
+was appointed custodian of the university library at Breslau, a post
+which he held till 1838. He was also made extraordinary professor of the
+German language and literature at that university in 1830, and ordinary
+professor in 1835; but he was deprived of his chair in 1842 in
+consequence of his _Unpolitische Lieder_ (1840-1841), which gave much
+offence to the authorities in Prussia. He then travelled in Germany,
+Switzerland and Italy, and lived for two or three years in Mecklenburg,
+of which he became a naturalized citizen. After the revolution of 1848
+he was enabled to return to Prussia, where he was restored to his
+rights, and received the _Wartegeld_--the salary attached to a promised
+office not yet vacant. He married in 1849, and during the next ten years
+lived first in Bingerbruck, afterwards in Neuwied, and then in Weimar,
+where together with Oskar Schade (1826-1906) he edited the _Weimarische
+Jahrbuch_ (1854-1857). In 1860 he was appointed librarian to the Duke of
+Ratibor at the monasterial castle of Corvey near Hoxter on the Weser,
+where he died on the 19th of January 1874. Fallersleben was one of the
+best popular poets of modern Germany. In politics he ardently
+sympathized with the progressive tendencies of his time, and he was
+among the earliest and most effective of the political poets who
+prepared the way for the outbreak of 1848. As a poet, however, he
+acquired distinction chiefly by the ease, simplicity and grace with
+which he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life.
+Although he had not been scientifically trained in music, he composed
+melodies for many of his songs, and a considerable number of them are
+sung by all classes in every part of Germany. Among the best known is
+the patriotic _Deutschland, Deutschland uber Alles_, composed in 1841 on
+the island of Heligoland, where a monument was erected in 1891 to his
+memory (subsequently destroyed).
+
+  The best of his poetical writings is his _Gedichte_ (1827; 9th ed.,
+  Berlin, 1887); but there is great merit also in his _Alemannische
+  Lieder_ (1826; 5th ed., 1843), _Soldatenlieder_ (1851),
+  _Soldatenleben_ (1852), _Rheinleben_ (1865), and in his _Funfzig
+  Kinderlieder_, _Funfzig neue Kinderlieder_, and _Alte und neue
+  Kinderlieder_. His _Unpolitische Lieder_, _Deutsche Lieder aus der
+  Schweiz_ and _Streiflichter_ are not without poetical value, but they
+  are mainly interesting in relation to the movements of the age in
+  which they were written. As a student of ancient Teutonic literature
+  Hoffmann von Fallersleben ranks among the most persevering and
+  cultivated of German scholars, some of the chief results of his
+  labours being embodied in his _Horae Belgicae_, _Fundgruben fur
+  Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur_, _Altdeutsche Blatter_,
+  _Spenden zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte_ and _Findlinge_. Among his
+  editions of particular works may be named _Reineke Vos_, _Monumenta
+  Elnonensia_ and _Theophilus_. _Die deutsche Philologie im Grundriss_
+  (1836) was at the time of its publication a valuable contribution to
+  philological research, and historians of German literature still
+  attach importance to his _Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes bis
+  auf Luther_ (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), _Unsere volkstumlichen Lieder_ (3rd
+  ed., 1869) and _Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder des 16. und 17.
+  Jahrh._ (2nd ed., 1860). In 1868-1870 Hoffmann published in 6 vols. an
+  autobiography, _Mein Leben: Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen_ (an
+  abbreviated ed. in 2 vols., 1894). His _Gesammelte Werke_ were edited
+  by H. Gerstenberg in 8 vols. (1891-1894); his _Ausgewahlte Werke_ by
+  H. Benzmann (1905, 4 vols.). See also _Briefe von Hoffmann von
+  Fallersleben und Moritz Haupt an Ferdinand Wolf_ (1874); J. M. Wagner,
+  _Hoffmann von Fallersleben, 1818-1868_ (1869-1870), and R. von
+  Gottschall, _Portrats und Studien_ (vol. v., 1876).
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM (1776-1822), German romance-writer, was
+born at Konigsberg on the 24th of January 1776. For the name Wilhelm he
+himself substituted Amadeus in homage to Mozart. His parents lived
+unhappily together, and when the child was only three they separated.
+His bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understanding nor
+sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament. Hoffmann showed more
+talent for music and drawing than for books. In 1792, when little over
+sixteen years old, he entered the university of Konigsberg, with a view
+to preparing himself for a legal career. The chief features of interest
+in his student years were an intimate friendship for Theodor Gottlieb
+von Hippel (1775-1843), a nephew of the novelist Hippel, and an unhappy
+passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons; the latter found its
+outlet, not merely in music, but also in two novels, neither of which he
+was able to have published. In the summer of 1795 he began his practical
+career as a jurist in Konigsberg, but his mother's death and the
+complications in which his love-affair threatened to involve him made
+him decide to leave his native town and continue his legal
+apprenticeship in Glogau. In the autumn of 1798 he was transferred to
+Berlin, where the beginnings of the new Romantic movement were in the
+air. Music, however, had still the first place in his heart, and the
+Berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests.
+
+In 1800 further promotion brought him to Posen, where he gave himself up
+entirely to the pleasures of the hour. Unfortunately, however, his
+brilliant powers of caricature brought him into ill odour, and instead
+of receiving the hoped-for preferment in Posen itself, he found himself
+virtually banished to the little town of Plozk on the Vistula. Before
+leaving Posen he married, and his domestic happiness alleviated to some
+extent the monotony of the two years' exile. His leisure was spent in
+literary studies and musical composition. In 1804 he was transferred to
+Warsaw, where, through J. E. Hitzig (1780-1849), he was introduced to
+Zacharias Werner, and began to take an interest in the later Romantic
+literature; now, for the first time, he discovered how writers like
+Novalis, Tieck, and especially Wackenroder, had spoken out of his own
+heart. But in spite of this literary stimulus, his leisure in Warsaw was
+mainly occupied by composition; he wrote music to Brentano's _Lustige
+Musikanten_ and Werner's _Kreuz an der Ostsee_, and also an opera _Liebe
+und Eifersucht_, based on Calderon's drama _La Banda y la Flor_.
+
+The arrival of the French in Warsaw and the consequent political changes
+put an end to Hoffmann's congenial life there, and a time of tribulation
+followed. A position which he obtained in 1808 as musical director of a
+new theatre in Bamberg availed him little, as within a very short time
+the theatre was bankrupt and Hoffmann again reduced to destitution. But
+these misfortunes induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out
+the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving music
+lessons. The editor of the _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ expressed
+his willingness to accept contributions from Hoffmann, and here appeared
+for the first time some of the musical sketches which ultimately passed
+over into the _Phantasiestucke in Callots Manier_. This work appeared in
+four volumes in 1814 and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer.
+Meanwhile, Hoffmann had again been for some time attached, in the
+capacity of musical director, to a theatrical company, whose
+headquarters were at Dresden. In 1814 he gladly embraced the opportunity
+that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in Berlin, and two
+years later he was appointed councillor of the Court of Appeal
+(_Kammergericht_). Hoffmann had the reputation of being an excellent
+jurist and a conscientious official; he had leisure for literary
+pursuits and was on the best of terms with the circle of Romantic poets
+and novelists who gathered round Fouque, Chamisso and his old friend
+Hitzig. Unfortunately, however, the habits of intemperance which, in
+earlier years, had thrown a shadow over his life, grew upon him, and his
+health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the wine-house,
+in company unworthy of him. He was struck down by locomotor ataxy, and
+died on the 24th of July 1822.
+
+The _Phantasiestucke_, which had been published with a commendatory
+preface by Jean Paul, were followed in 1816 by the gruesome novel--to
+some extent inspired by Lewis's _Monk--Die Elixiere des Teufels_, and
+the even more gruesome and grotesque stories which make up the
+_Nachtstucke_ (1817, 2 vols.). The full range of Hoffmann's powers is
+first clearly displayed in the collection of stories (4 vols.,
+1819-1821) _Die Serapionsbruder_, this being the name of a small club of
+Hoffmann's more intimate literary friends. _Die Serapionsbruder_
+includes not merely stories in which Hoffmann's love for the mysterious
+and the supernatural is to be seen, but novels in which he draws on his
+own early reminiscences (_Rat Krespel_, _Fermate_), finely outlined
+pictures of old German life (_Der Artushof_, _Meister Martin der Kufner
+und seine Gesellen_), and vivid and picturesque incidents from Italian
+and French history (_Doge und Dogaressa_, the story of Marino Faliero,
+and _Das Fraulein von Scuderi_). The last-mentioned story is usually
+regarded as Hoffmann's masterpiece. Two longer works also belong to
+Hoffmann's later years and display to advantage his powers as a
+humorist; these are _Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober_ (1819), and
+_Lebensansichten des Katers Murr, nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des
+Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler_ (1821-1822).
+
+Hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the Romantic movement in
+Germany. He combined with a humour that reminds us of Jean Paul the warm
+sympathy for the artist's standpoint towards life, which was enunciated
+by early Romantic leaders like Tieck and Wackenroder; but he was
+superior to all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination. His
+works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes--in this respect they mark
+a descent from the high ideals of the Romantic school; but the gruesome
+was only one outlet for Hoffmann's genius, and even here the secret of
+his power lay not in his choice of subjects, but in the wonderfully
+vivid and realistic presentation of them. Every line he wrote leaves the
+impression behind it that it expresses something felt or experienced;
+every scene, vision or character he described seems to have been real
+and living to him. It is this realism, in the best sense of the word,
+that made him the great artist he was, and gave him so extraordinary a
+power over his contemporaries.
+
+  The first collected edition of Hoffmann's works appeared in ten
+  volumes (_Ausgewahlte Schriften_, 1827-1828); to these his widow added
+  five volumes in 1839 (including the 3rd edition of J. E. Hitzig's _Aus
+  Hoffmanns Leben und Nachlass_, 1823). Other editions of his works
+  appeared in 1844-1845, 1871-1873, 1879-1883, and, most complete of
+  all, _Samtliche Werke_, edited by E. Grisebach, in 15 vols. (1900).
+  There are many editions of selections, as well as cheap reprints of
+  the more popular stories. All Hoffmann's important works--except
+  _Klein Zaches_ and _Kater Murr_--have been translated into English:
+  _The Devil's Elixir_ (1824), _The Golden Pot_ by Carlyle (in _German
+  Romance_, 1827), _The Serapion Brethren_ by A. Ewing (1886-1892), &c.
+  In France Hoffmann was even more popular than in England. Cp. G.
+  Thurau, _Hoffmanns Erzahlungen in Frankreich_ (1896). An edition of
+  his _Oeuvres completes_ appeared in 12 vols. in Paris in 1830. The
+  best monograph on Hoffmann is by G. Ellinger, _E. T. A. Hoffmann_
+  (1894); see also O. Klinke, _Hoffmanns Leben und Werke vom Standpunkte
+  eines Irrenarztes_ (1903); and the exhaustive bibliography in
+  Goedeke's _Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_, 2nd ed.,
+  vol. viii. pp. 468 ff. (1905).     (J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, FRANCOIS BENOIT (1760-1828), French dramatist and critic, was
+born at Nancy on the 11th of July 1760. He studied law at the university
+of Strassburg, but a slight hesitation in his speech precluded success
+at the bar, and he entered a regiment on service in Corsica. He served,
+however, for a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, he wrote some
+poems which brought him into notice at the little court of Luneville
+over which the marquise de Boufflers then presided. In 1784 he went to
+Paris, and two years later produced the opera _Phedre_. His opera
+_Adrien_ (1792) was objected to by the government on political grounds,
+and Hoffmann, who refused to make the changes proposed to him, ran
+considerable risk under the revolutionary government. His later operas,
+which were numerous, were produced at the Opera Comique. In 1807 he was
+invited by Etienne to contribute to the _Journal de l'Empire_
+(afterwards the _Journal des debats_). Hoffmann's wide reading qualified
+him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned, apparently with no
+difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine to violent attacks on the
+Jesuits. His severe criticism of Chateaubriand's _Martyrs_ led the
+author to make some changes in a later edition. He had the reputation of
+being an absolutely conscientious and incorruptible critic and thus
+exercised wide influence. Hoffmann died in Paris on the 25th of April
+1828. Among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent one-act
+comedy, _Le Roman d'une heure_ (1803), and an amusing one-act opera _Les
+Rendez-vous bourgeois_.
+
+  See Sainte-Beuve, "M. de Feletz et la critique litteraire sous
+  l'Empire" in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH (1660-1742), German physician, a member of a family
+that had been connected with medicine for 200 years before him, was born
+at Halle on the 19th of February 1660. At the gymnasium of his native
+town he acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he
+attributed much of his after success. At the age of eighteen he went to
+study medicine at Jena, whence in 1680 he passed to Erfurt, in order to
+attend Kasper Cramer's lectures on chemistry. Next year, returning to
+Jena, he received his doctor's diploma, and, after publishing a thesis,
+was permitted to teach. Constant study then began to tell on his
+health, and in 1682, leaving his already numerous pupils, he proceeded
+to Minden in Westphalia to recruit himself, at the request of a relative
+who held a high position in that town. After practising at Minden for
+two years, Hoffmann made a journey to Holland and England, where he
+formed the acquaintance of many illustrious chemists and physicians.
+Towards the end of 1684 he returned to Minden, and during the next three
+years he received many flattering appointments. In 1688 he removed to
+the more promising sphere of Halberstadt, with the title of physician to
+the principality of Halberstadt; and on the founding of Halle university
+in 1693, his reputation, which had been steadily increasing, procured
+for him the primarius chair of medicine, while at the same time he was
+charged with the responsible duty of framing the statutes for the new
+medical faculty. He filled also the chair of natural philosophy. With
+the exception of four years (1708-1712), which he passed at Berlin in
+the capacity of royal physician, Hoffmann spent the rest of his life at
+Halle in instruction, practice and study, interrupted now and again by
+visits to different courts of Germany, where his services procured him
+honours and rewards. His fame became European. He was enrolled a member
+of many learned societies in different foreign countries, while in his
+own he became privy councillor. He died at Halle on the 12th of November
+1742.
+
+  Of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in Haller's
+  _Bibliotheca medicinae practicae_. The chief is _Medicina rationalis
+  systematica_, undertaken at the age of sixty, and published in 1730.
+  It was translated into French in 1739, under the title of _Medecine
+  raisonnee d'Hoffmann_. A complete edition of Hoffmann's works, with a
+  life of the author, was published at Geneva in 1740, to which
+  supplements were added in 1753 and 1760. Editions appeared also at
+  Venice in 1745 and at Naples in 1753 and 1793. (See also MEDICINE.)
+
+
+
+
+HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH (1805-1878), German scholar, was born at
+Wurzburg on the 16th of February 1805. After studying at Wurzburg he
+went on the stage in 1825; but owing to an accidental meeting with the
+German traveller, Dr Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796-1866), in July
+1830, his interest was diverted to Oriental philology. From Siebold he
+acquired the rudiments of Japanese, and in order to take advantage of
+the instructions of Ko-ching-chang, a Chinese teacher whom Siebold had
+brought home with him, he made himself acquainted with Malay, the only
+language except Chinese which the Chinaman could understand. In a few
+years he was able to supply the translations for Siebold's _Nippon_; and
+the high character of his work soon attracted the attention of older
+scholars. Stanislas Julien invited him to Paris; and he would probably
+have accepted the invitation, as a disagreement had broken out between
+him and Siebold, had not M. Baud, the Dutch colonial minister, appointed
+him Japanese translator with a salary of 1800 florins (L150). The Dutch
+authorities were slow in giving him further recognition; and he was too
+modest a man successfully to urge his claims. It was not till after he
+had received the offer of the professorship of Chinese in King's
+College, London, that the authorities made him professor at Leiden and
+the king allowed him a yearly pension. In 1875 he was decorated with the
+order of the Netherlands Lion, and in 1877 he was elected corresponding
+member of the Berlin Academy. He died at the Hague on the 23rd of
+January 1878.
+
+  Hoffmann's chief work was his unfinished Japanese Dictionary, begun in
+  1839 and afterwards continued by L. Serrurier. Unable at first to
+  procure the necessary type, he set himself to the cutting of punches,
+  and even when the proper founts were obtained he had to act as his own
+  compositor as far as Chinese and Japanese were concerned. His Japanese
+  grammar (_Japanische Sprachlehre_) was published in Dutch and English
+  in 1867, and in English and German in 1876. Of his miscellaneous
+  productions it is enough to mention "Japans Bezuge mit der koraischen
+  Halbinsel und mit Schina" in _Nippon_, vii.; _Yo-San-fi-Rok_, _L'Art
+  d'elever les vers a soie au Japon, par Ouckaki Mourikouni_ (Paris,
+  1848); "Die Heilkunde in Japan" in _Mittheil. d. deutsch. Gesellsch.
+  fur Natur- und Volkerk. Ost-Asiens_ (1873-1874); and _Japanische
+  Studien_ (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1818-1892), German chemist, was born at
+Giessen on the 8th of April 1818. Not intending originally to devote
+himself to physical science, he first took up the study of law and
+philology at Gottingen, and the general culture he thus gained stood him
+in good stead when he turned to chemistry, the study of which he began
+under Liebig. When, in 1845, a school of practical chemistry was started
+in London, under the style of the Royal College of Chemistry, Hofmann,
+largely through the influence of the Prince Consort, was appointed its
+first director. It was with some natural hesitation that he, then a
+_Privatdozent_ at Bonn, accepted the position, which may well have
+seemed rather a precarious one; but the difficulty was removed by his
+appointment as extraordinary professor at Bonn, with leave of absence
+for two years, so that he could resume his career in Germany if his
+English one proved unsatisfactory. Fortunately the college was more or
+less successful, owing largely to his enthusiasm and energy, and many of
+the men who were trained there subsequently made their mark in chemical
+history. But in 1864 he returned to Bonn, and in the succeeding year he
+was selected to succeed E. Mitscherlich as professor of chemistry and
+director of the laboratory in Berlin University. In leaving England, of
+which he used to speak as his adopted country, Hofmann was probably
+influenced by a combination of causes. The public support extended to
+the college of chemistry had been dwindling for some years, and before
+he left it had ceased to have an independent existence and had been
+absorbed into the School of Mines. This event he must have looked upon
+as a curtailment of its possibilities of usefulness. But, in addition,
+there is only too much reason to suppose that he was disappointed at the
+general apathy with which his science was regarded in England. No man
+ever realized more fully than he how entirely dependent on the advance
+of scientific knowledge is the continuation of a country's material
+prosperity, and no single chemist ever exercised a greater or more
+direct influence upon industrial development. In England, however,
+people cared for none of these things, and were blind to the commercial
+potentialities of scientific research. The college to which Hofmann
+devoted nearly twenty of the best years of his life was starved; the
+coal-tar industry, which was really brought into existence by his work
+and that of his pupils under his direction at that college, and which
+with a little intelligent forethought might have been retained in
+England, was allowed to slip into the hands of Germany, where it is now
+worth millions of pounds annually; and Hofmann himself was compelled to
+return to his native land to find due appreciation as one of the
+foremost chemists of his time. The rest of his life was spent in Berlin,
+and there he died on the 5th of May 1892. That city possesses a
+permanent memorial to his name in Hofmann House, the home of the German
+Chemical Society (of which he was the founder), which was formally
+opened in 1900, appropriately enough with an account of that great
+triumph of German chemical enterprise, the industrial manufacture of
+synthetical indigo.
+
+Hofmann's work covered a wide range of organic chemistry, though with
+inorganic bodies he did but little. His first research, carried out in
+Liebig's laboratory at Giessen, was on coal-tar, and his investigation
+of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha established the nature of
+aniline. This substance he used to refer to as his first love, and it
+was a love to which he remained faithful throughout his life. His
+perception of the analogy between it and ammonia led to his famous work
+on the amines and ammonium bases and the allied organic phosphorus
+compounds, while his researches on rosaniline, which he first prepared
+in 1858, formed the first of a series of investigations on colouring
+matters which only ended with quinoline red in 1887. But in addition to
+these and numberless other investigations for which he was responsible
+the influence he exercised through his pupils must also be taken into
+account. As a teacher, besides the power of accurately gauging the
+character and capabilities of those who studied under him, he had the
+faculty of infecting them with his own enthusiasm, and thus of
+stimulating them to put forward their best efforts. In the lecture-room
+he laid great stress on the importance of experimental demonstrations,
+paying particular attention to their selection and arrangement, though,
+since he himself was a somewhat clumsy manipulator, their actual
+exhibition was generally entrusted to his assistants. He was the
+possessor of a clear and graceful, if somewhat florid, style, which
+showed to special advantage in his numerous obituary notices or
+encomiums (collected and published in three volumes _Zur Erinnerung an
+vorangegangene Freunde_, 1888). He also excelled as a speaker,
+particularly at gatherings of an international character, for in
+addition to his native German he could speak English, French and Italian
+with fluency.
+
+  See _Memorial Lectures delivered before the Chemical Society,
+  1893-1900_ (London, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON (1810-1877), Lutheran theologian
+and historian, was born on the 21st of December 1810 at Nuremberg, and
+studied theology and history at the university of Erlangen. In 1829 he
+went to Berlin, where Schleiermacher, Hengstenberg, Neander, Ranke and
+Raumer were among his teachers. In 1833 he received an appointment to
+teach Hebrew and history in the gymnasium of Erlangen. In 1835 he became
+_Repetent_, in 1838 _Privatdozent_ and in 1841 _professor
+extraordinarius_ in the theological faculty at Erlangen. In 1842 he
+became _professor ordinarius_ at Rostock, but in 1845 returned once more
+to Erlangen as the successor of Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless
+(1806-1879), founder of the _Zeitschrift fur Protestantismus und
+Kirche_, of which Hofmann became one of the editors in 1846, J. F.
+Hofling (1802-1853) and Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) being his
+collaborators. He was a conservative in theology, but an enthusiastic
+adherent of the progressive party in politics, and sat as member for
+Erlangen and Furth in the Bavarian second chamber from 1863 to 1868. He
+died on the 20th of December 1877.
+
+He wrote _Die siebzig Jahre des Jeremias u. die siebzig Jahrwochen des
+Daniel_ (1836); _Geschichte des Aufruhrs in den Cevennen_ (1837);
+_Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte fur Gymnasien_ (1839), which became a
+text-book in the Protestant gymnasia of Bavaria; _Weissagung u.
+Erfullung im alten u. neuen Testamente_ (1841-1844; 2nd ed., 1857-1860);
+_Der Schriftbeweis_ (1852-1856; 2nd ed., 1857-1860); _Die heilige
+Schrift des neuen Testaments zusammenhangend untersucht_ (1862-1875);
+_Schutzschriften_ (1856-1859), in which he defends himself against the
+charge of denying the Atonement; and _Theologische Ethik_ (1878). His
+most important works are the five last named. In theology, as in
+ecclesiastical polity, Hofmann was a Lutheran of an extreme type,
+although the strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid
+him open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy. He was the head of what
+has been called the Erlangen School, and "in his day he was
+unquestionably the chief glory of the University of Erlangen"
+(Lichtenberger).
+
+  See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ and the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and cf. F. Lichtenberger, _History
+  of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889) pp. 446-458.
+
+
+
+
+HOFMANN, MELCHIOR (c. 1498-1543-4), anabaptist, was born at Hall, in
+Swabia, before 1500 (Zur Linden suggests 1498). His biographers usually
+give his surname as above; in his printed works it is Hoffman, in his
+manuscripts Hoffmann. He was without scholarly training, and first
+appears as a furrier at Livland. Attracted by Luther's doctrine, he came
+forward as a lay preacher, combining business travels with a religious
+mission. Accompanied by Melchior Rinck, also a skinner or furrier, and a
+religious enthusiast, he made his way to Sweden. Joined by Bernard
+Knipperdolling, the party reached Stockholm in the autumn of 1524. Their
+fervid attacks on image worship led to their expulsion. By way of
+Livonia, Hofmann arrived at Dorpat in November 1524, but was driven
+thence in the following January. Making his way to Riga, and thence to
+Wittenberg, he found favour with Luther; his letter of the 22nd of June
+1525 appears in a tract by Luther of that year. He was again at Dorpat
+in May 1526; later at Magdeburg. Returning to Wittenberg, he was coldly
+received; he wrote there his exposition of Daniel xii. (1527). Repairing
+to Holstein, he got into the good graces of Frederick I. of Denmark, and
+was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the Gospel at Kiel. He was
+extravagant in denunciation, and developed a Zwinglian view of the
+Eucharist. Luther was alarmed. At a colloquy of preachers in Flensburg
+(8th April 1529) Hofmann, John Campanus and others were put on their
+defence. Hofmann maintained (against the "magic" of the Lutherans) that
+the function of the Eucharist, like that of preaching, is an appeal for
+spiritual union with Christ. Refusing to retract, he was banished. At
+Strassburg to which he now turned, he was well received (1529) till his
+anabaptist development became apparent. He was in relations with
+Schwenkfeld and with Carlstadt, but assumed a prophetic role of his own.
+Journeying to East Friesland, (1530) he founded a community at Emden
+(1532), securing a large following of artisans. Despite the warning of
+John Trypmaker, who prophesied for him "six months" in prison, he
+returned in the spring of 1533 to Strassburg, where we hear of his wife
+and child. He gathered from the Apocalypse a vision of "resurrections"
+of apostolic Christianity, first under John Hus, and now under himself.
+The year 1533 was to inaugurate the new era; Strassburg was to be the
+seat of the New Jerusalem. In May 1533 he and others were arrested.
+Under examination, he denied that he had made common cause with the
+anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet, a mere witness of the Most
+High, but refused the articles of faith proposed to him by the
+provincial synod. Hofmann and Claus Frey, an anabaptist, were detained
+in prison, a measure due to the terror excited by the Munster episode of
+1533-1534. The synod, in 1539, made further effort to reclaim him. The
+last notice of his imprisonment is on the 19th of November 1543; he
+probably died soon after.
+
+Two of his publications, with similar titles, in 1530, are noteworthy as
+having influenced Menno Simons and David Joris (_Weissagung vsz heiliger
+gotlicher geschrifft_, and _Prophecey oder Weissagung vsz warer heiliger
+gotlicher schrifft_). Bock treats him as an antitrinitarian, on grounds
+which Wallace rightly deems inconclusive. With better reason Trechsel
+includes him among pioneers of some of the positions of Servetus. His
+Christology was Valentinian. While all are elected to salvation, only
+the regenerate may receive baptism, and those who sin after regeneration
+sin against the Holy Ghost, and cannot be saved. His followers were
+known as Hofmannites or Melchiorites.
+
+  See G. Herrmann, _Essai sur la vie et les ecrits de M. Hofmann_
+  (1852); F. O. zur Linden, _M. Hofmann, ein Prophet der Wiedertaufer_
+  (1885); H. Holtzmann, in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1880);
+  Hegler in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1900); Bock, _Hist. Antitrin._
+  (1776), ii.; Wallace, _Antitrin. Biography_ (1850) iii., app. iii.;
+  Trechsel, _Prot. Antitrin. vor F. Socin_ (1839) i.; Barclay, _Inner
+  Life of Rel. Societies_ (1876). An alleged portrait, from an engraving
+  of 1608, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross, _Pansebeia_ (1655).
+       (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT (1824-1877), German botanist, was
+born at Leipzig on the 18th of May 1824. He came of a family engaged in
+trade, and after being educated at the _Realschule_ of Leipzig he
+entered business as a music-dealer. Much of his botanical work was done
+while he was so employed, till in 1863 he was nominated, without
+intermediate academic steps, to the chair in Heidelberg; thence he was
+transferred in 1872 to Tubingen, in succession to H. von Mohl. His first
+work was on the distribution of the Coniferae in the Himalaya, but his
+attention was very soon devoted to studying the sexuality and origin of
+the embryo of Phanerogams. His contributions on this subject extended
+from 1847 till 1860, and they finally settled the question of the origin
+of the embryo from an ovum, as against the prevalent pollen-tube theory
+of M. J. Schleiden, for he showed that the pollen-tube does not itself
+produce the embryo, but only stimulates the ovum already present in the
+ovule. He soon turned his attention to the embryology of Bryophytes and
+Pteridophytes, and gave continuous accounts of the germination of the
+spores and fertilization in _Pilularia_, _Salvinia_, _Selaginella_. Some
+of the main facts of the life of ferns and mosses were already known;
+these, together with his own wider observations, were worked into that
+great general pronouncement published in 1851 under the title,
+_Vergleichende Untersuchungen der Keimung, Entfaltung und Fruchtbildung
+koherer Kryptogamen und der Samenbildung der Coniferen_. This work will
+always stand in the first rank of botanical books. It antedated the
+_Origin of Species_ by eight years, but contained facts and comparisons
+which could only become intelligible on some theory of descent. The plan
+of life-story common to them all, involving two alternating generations,
+was demonstrated for Liverworts, Mosses, Ferns, Equiseta, Rhizocarps,
+Lycopodiaceae, and even Gymnosperms, with a completeness and certainty
+which must still surprise those who know the botanical literature of the
+author's time. The conclusions of Hofmeister remain in their broad
+outlines unshaken, but rather strengthened by later-acquired details. In
+the light of the theory of descent the common plan of life-history in
+plants apparently so diverse as those named acquires a special
+significance; but it is one of the remarkable features of this great
+work that the writer himself does not theorize--with an unerring insight
+he points out his comparisons and states his homologies, but does not
+indulge in explanatory surmises. It is the typical work of an heroic age
+of plant-morphology. From 1857 till 1862 Hofmeister wrote occasionally
+on physiological subjects, such as the ascent of sap, and curvatures of
+growing parts, but it was in morphology that he found his natural
+sphere. In 1861, in conjunction with other botanists, a plan was drawn
+up of a handbook of physiological botany, of which Hofmeister was to be
+editor. Though the original scheme was never completed, the editor
+himself contributed two notable parts, _Die Lehre von der Pflanzenzelle_
+(1867) and _Allgemeine Morphologie der Gewachse_ (1868). The former
+gives an excellent summary of the structure and relations of the
+vegetable cell as then known, but it did not greatly modify current
+views. The latter was notable for its refutation of the spiral theory of
+leaf arrangement in plants, founded by C. F. Schimper and A. Braun.
+Hofmeister transferred the discussion from the mere study of mature form
+to the observation of the development of the parts, and substituted for
+the "spiral tendency" a mechanical theory based upon the observed fact
+that new branchings appear over the widest gaps which exist between next
+older branchings of like nature. With this important work Hofmeister's
+period of active production closed; he fell into ill-health, and retired
+from his academic duties some time before his death at Lindenau, near
+Leipzig, on the 12th of January 1877.     (F. O. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK (1845-1909), South African politician, was born at
+Cape Town on the 4th of July 1845. He was educated at the South African
+College, and at an early age turned his attention to politics, first as
+a journalist. He was editor of the _Zuid Afrikaan_ till its
+incorporation with _Ons Land_, and of the _Zuid Afrikaansche
+Tijdschrift_. By birth, education and sympathies a typical Dutch
+Afrikander, he set himself to organize the political power of his
+fellow-countrymen. This he did very effectively, and when in 1879 he
+entered the Cape parliament as member for Stellenbosch, he became the
+real leader of the Dutch party. Yet he only held office for six
+months--as minister without portfolio in the Scanlen ministry from May
+to November 1881. He held no subsequent official post in the colony,
+though he shared with Sir Thomas Upington and Sir Charles Mills the
+honour of representing the Cape at the intercolonial conference of 1887.
+Here he supported the proposal for entrusting the defence of Simon's
+Town to Cape Colony, leaving only the armament to be provided by the
+imperial government, opposed trans-oceanic penny postage, and moved a
+resolution in favour of an imperial customs union. At the colonial
+conference of 1894 at Ottawa he was again one of the Cape
+representatives. In 1888 and in 1889 he was a member of the South
+African customs conference.
+
+His chief importance as a public man was, however, derived from his
+power over the Dutch in Cape Colony, and his control of the Afrikander
+Bond. In 1878 he had himself founded the "Farmers' Association," and as
+the Cape farmers were almost entirely Dutch the Association became a
+centre of Dutch influence. When the Bond was formed in 1882, with purely
+political aims, Hofmeyr made haste to obtain control of it, and in 1883
+amalgamated the Farmers' Association with it. Under his direction the
+constitution of the Bond was modified by the elimination of the
+provisions inconsistent with loyalty to the British crown. But it
+remained an organization for obtaining the political supremacy of the
+Cape Dutch. (See CAPE COLONY: _History_.) His control over the Bond
+enabled him for many years, while free from the responsibilities of
+office, to make and unmake ministers at his will, and earned for him the
+name of "Cabinet-maker of South Africa." Although officially the term
+"Afrikander" was explained by Hofmeyr to include white men of whatever
+race, yet in practice the influence of the Bond was always exerted in
+favour of the Dutch, and its power was drawn from the Dutch districts of
+Cape Colony. The sympathies of the Bond were thus always strongly with
+the Transvaal, as the chief centre of Dutch influence in South Africa;
+and Hofmeyr's position might in many respects be compared with that of
+Parnell at the head of the Irish Nationalist party in Great Britain. In
+the Bechuanaland difficulty of 1884 Hofmeyr threw all the influence of
+the Bond into the scale in favour of the Transvaal. But in the course of
+the next few years he began to drift away from President Kruger. He
+resented the reckless disregard of Cape interests involved in Kruger's
+fiscal policy; he feared that the Transvaal, after its sudden leap into
+prosperity upon the gold discoveries of 1886, might overshadow all other
+Dutch influences in South Africa; above all he was convinced, as he
+showed by his action at the London conference, that the protection of
+the British navy was indispensable to South Africa, and he set his face
+against Kruger's intrigues with Germany, and his avowed intention of
+acquiring an outlet to the sea in order to get into touch with foreign
+powers.
+
+In 1890 Hofmeyr joined forces with Cecil Rhodes, who became premier of
+Cape Colony with the support of the Bond. Hofmeyr's influence was a
+powerful factor in the conclusion of the Swaziland convention of 1890,
+as well as in stopping the "trek" to Banyailand (Rhodesia) in 1891--a
+notable reversal of the policy he had pursued seven years before. But
+the reactionary elements in the Bond grew alarmed at Rhodes's
+imperialism, and in 1895 Hofmeyr resigned his seat in parliament and the
+presidency of the Bond. Then came the Jameson Raid, and in its wake
+there rolled over South Africa a wave of Dutch and anti-British feeling
+such as had not been known since the days of Majuba. (The proclamation
+issued by Sir Hercules Robinson disavowing Jameson was suggested by
+Hofmeyr, who helped to draw up its terms.) Once more Hofmeyr became
+president of the Bond. By an alteration of the provincial constitution,
+all power in the Cape branch of the Bond was vested in the hands of a
+vigilance committee of three, of whom Hofmeyr and his brother were two.
+As the recognized leader of the Cape Dutch, he protested against such
+abuses as the dynamite monopoly in the Transvaal, and urged Kruger even
+at the eleventh hour to grant reasonable concessions rather than plunge
+into a war that might involve Cape Afrikanderdom and the Transvaal in a
+common ruin. In July 1899 he journeyed to Pretoria, and vainly supported
+the proposal of a satisfactory franchise law, combined with a limited
+representation of the Uitlanders in the Volksraad, and in September
+urged the Transvaal to accede to the proposed joint inquiry. During the
+negotiations of 1899, and after the outbreak of war, the official organ
+of the Bond, _Ons Land_, was conspicuous for its anti-British attitude,
+and its violence forced Lord Roberts to suppress it in the Cape Colony
+district under martial law. Hofmeyr never associated himself publicly
+with the opinions expressed by _Ons Land_, but neither did he repudiate
+them. The tide of race sympathy among his Dutch supporters made his
+position one of great difficulty, and shortly after the outbreak of war
+he withdrew to Europe, and refused to act as a member of the
+"Conciliation Committee" which came to England in 1901 in the interests
+of the Boer republics.
+
+Towards the close of the war Hofmeyr returned to South Africa and
+organized the Bond forces for the general election held in Cape Colony
+at the beginning of 1904, which resulted in the defeat of the Bond
+party. Hofmeyr retained his ascendancy over the Cape Dutch, but now
+began to find himself somewhat out of sympathy with the larger outlook
+on South African affairs taken by the younger leaders of the Boers in
+the Transvaal. During 1906 he gave offence to the extreme section of the
+Bond by some criticisms of the _taal_ and his use of English in public
+speeches. At the general election in 1908 the Bond, still largely under
+his direction, gained a victory at the polls, but Hofmeyr himself was
+not a candidate. In the renewed movement for the closer union of the
+South African colonies he advocated federation as opposed to
+unification. When, however, the unification proposals were ratified by
+the Cape parliament, Hofmeyr procured his nomination as one of the Cape
+delegates to England in the summer of 1909 to submit the draft act of
+union to the imperial government. He attended the conferences with the
+officials of the Colonial Office for the preparation of the draft act,
+and after the bill had become law went to Germany for a "cure." He
+returned to London in October 1909, where he died on the 16th of that
+month. His body was taken to Cape Town for burial.
+
+
+
+
+HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS (1802-1886), Dutch theologian, was born at
+Leer in East Friesland, Prussia, on the 8th of October 1802, and was
+educated at the Gymnasium and university of Groningen. For three years
+(1826-1829) he was pastor of the Reformed Church at Ulrum, and then
+entered upon his lifelong duties as professor of theology at Groningen.
+With his colleagues L. G. Pareau, J. F. van Vordt, and W. Muurling he
+edited from 1837 to 1872 the _Waarheid in Liefde_. In this review and in
+his numerous books he vigorously upheld the orthodox faith against the
+Dutch "modern theology" movement. Many of his works were written in
+Latin, including _Disputatio, qua ep. ad Hebraeos cum Paulin. epistolis
+comparatur_ (1826), _Institutiones historiae ecclesiae_ (1835),
+_Institutio theologiae naturalis_ (1842), _Encyclopaedia theologi
+christiani_ (1844). Others, in Dutch, were: _The Divine Education of
+Humanity up to the Coming of Jesus Christ_ (3 vols., 1846), _The Nature
+of the Gospel Ministry_ (1858), _The "Modern Theology" of the
+Netherlands_ (1869), _The Old Catholic Movement_ (1877). He became
+professor emeritus in 1872, and died at Groningen on the 5th of December
+1886.
+
+
+
+
+HOGARTH, WILLIAM (1697-1764), the great English painter and pictorial
+satirist, was born at Bartholomew Close in London on the 10th of
+November 1697, and baptized on the 28th in the church of St Bartholomew
+the Great. He had two younger sisters, Mary, born in 1699, and Ann, born
+in 1701. His father, Richard Hogarth, who died in 1718, was a
+schoolmaster and literary hack, who had come to the metropolis to seek
+that fortune which had been denied to him in his native Westmorland. The
+son seems to have been early distinguished by a talent for drawing and
+an active perceptive faculty rather than by any close attention to the
+learning which he was soon shrewd enough to see had not made his parent
+prosper. "Shows of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when an infant,"
+he says, "and mimicry, common to all children, was remarkable in me....
+My exercises when at school were more remarkable for the ornaments which
+adorned them than for the exercise itself." This being the case, it is
+no wonder that, by his own desire, he was apprenticed to a silver-plate
+engraver, Mr Ellis Gamble, at the sign of the "Golden Angel" in
+Cranbourne Street or Alley, Leicester Fields. For this master he
+engraved a shop-card which is still extant. When his apprenticeship
+began is not recorded; but it must have been concluded before the
+beginning of 1720, for in April of that year he appears to have set up
+as engraver on his own account. His desires, however, were not limited
+to silver-plate engraving. "Engraving on copper was, at twenty years of
+age, my utmost ambition." For this he lacked the needful skill as a
+draughtsman; and his account of the means which he took to supply this
+want, without too much interfering with his pleasure, is thoroughly
+characteristic, though it can scarcely be recommended as an example.
+"Laying it down," he says, "first as an axiom, that he who could by any
+means acquire and retain in his memory, perfect ideas of the subjects he
+meant to draw, would have as clear a knowledge of the figure as a man
+who can write freely hath of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet and
+their infinite combinations (each of these being composed of lines),
+and would consequently be an accurate designer, ... I therefore
+endeavoured to habituate myself to the exercise of a sort of technical
+memory, and by repeating in my own mind, the parts of which objects were
+composed, I could by degrees combine and put them down with my pencil."
+This account, it is possible, has something of the complacency of the
+old age in which it was written; but there is little doubt that his
+marvellous power of seizing expression owed less to patient academical
+study than to his unexampled eye-memory and tenacity of minor detail.
+But he was not entirely without technical training, since, by his own
+showing, he occasionally "took the life" to correct his memories, and is
+known to have studied at Sir James Thornhill's then recently opened art
+school.
+
+"His first employment" (i.e. after he set up for himself) "seems," says
+John Nichols, in his _Anecdotes_, "to have been the engraving of arms
+and shop bills." After this he was employed in designing "plates for
+booksellers." Of these early and mostly insignificant works we may pass
+over "The Lottery, an Emblematic Print on the South Sea Scheme," and
+some book illustrations, to pause at "Masquerades and Operas" (1724),
+the first plate he published on his own account. This is a clever little
+satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades of the Swiss
+adventurer Heidegger, the popular Italian opera-singers, Rich's
+pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and last, but by no means least, the
+exaggerated popularity of Lord Burlington's protege, the architect
+painter William Kent, who is here represented on the summit of
+Burlington Gate, with Raphael and Michelangelo for supporters. This
+worthy, Hogarth had doubtless not learned to despise less in the school
+of his rival Sir James Thornhill. Indeed almost the next of Hogarth's
+important prints was aimed at Kent alone, being that memorable burlesque
+of the unfortunate altarpiece designed by the latter for St Clement
+Danes, which, in deference to the ridicule of the parishioners, Bishop
+Gibson took down in 1725. Hogarth's squib, which appeared subsequently,
+exhibits it as a very masterpiece of confusion and bad drawing. In 1726
+he prepared twelve large engravings for Butler's _Hudibras_. These he
+himself valued highly, and they are the best of his book illustrations.
+But he was far too individual to be the patient interpreter of other
+men's thoughts, and it is not in this direction that his successes are
+to be sought.
+
+To 1727-1728 belongs one of those rare occurrences which have survived
+as contributions to his biography. He was engaged by Joshua Morris, a
+tapestry worker, to prepare a design for the "Element of Earth." Morris,
+however, having heard that he was "an engraver, and no painter,"
+declined the work when completed, and Hogarth accordingly sued him for
+the money in the Westminster Court, where, on the 28th of May 1728, the
+case was decided in his (Hogarth's) favour. It may have been the
+aspersion thus early cast on his skill as a painter (coupled perhaps
+with the unsatisfactory state of print-selling, owing to the
+uncontrolled circulation of piratical copies) that induced him about
+this time to turn his attention to the production of "small conversation
+pieces" (i.e. groups in oil of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in.
+high), many of which are still preserved in different collections.
+"This," he says, "having novelty, succeeded for a few years." Among his
+other efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were "The Wanstead
+Conversation," "The House of Commons examining Bambridge," an infamous
+warden of the Fleet, and several pictures of the chief actors in Gay's
+popular _Beggar's Opera_.
+
+On the 23rd of March 1729 he was married at old Paddington church to
+Jane Thornhill, the only daughter of Kent's rival above mentioned. The
+match was a clandestine one, although Lady Thornhill appears to have
+favoured it. We next hear of him in "lodgings at South Lambeth," where
+he rendered some assistance to the then well-known Jonathan Tyers, who
+opened Vauxhall in 1732 with an entertainment styled a _ridotto al
+fresco_. For these gardens Hogarth painted a poor picture of Henry VIII.
+and Anne Boleyn, and he also permitted Hayman to make copies of the
+later series of the "Four Times of the Day." In return, the grateful
+Tyers presented him with a gold pass ticket "_In perpetuam Beneficii
+Memoriam_." It was long thought that Hogarth designed this himself. Mr
+Warwick Wroth (_Numismatic Chronicle_, vol. xviii.) doubts this,
+although he thinks it probable that Hogarth designed some of the silver
+Vauxhall passes which are figured in Wilkinson's _Londina illustrata_.
+The only engravings between 1726 and 1732 which need be referred to are
+the "Large Masquerade Ticket" (1727), another satire on masquerades, and
+the print of "Burlington Gate" (1731), evoked by Pope's _Epistle to Lord
+Burlington_, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This
+print gave great offence, and was, it is said, suppressed.
+
+By 1731 Hogarth must have completed the earliest of the series of moral
+works which first gave him his position as a great and original genius.
+This was "A Harlot's Progress," the paintings for which, if we may trust
+the date in the last of the pictures, were finished in that year. Almost
+immediately afterwards he must have begun to engrave them--a task he had
+at first intended to leave to others. From an advertisement in the
+_Country Journal; or, the Craftsman_, 29th of January 1732, the pictures
+were then being engraved, and from later announcements it seems clear
+that they were delivered to the subscribers early in the following
+April, on the 21st of which month an unauthorized prose description of
+them was published. We have no record of the particular train of thought
+which prompted these story-pictures; but it may perhaps be fairly
+assumed that the necessity for creating some link of interest between
+the personages of the little "conversation pieces" above referred to,
+led to the further idea of connecting several groups or scenes so as to
+form a sequent narrative. "I wished," says Hogarth, "to compose pictures
+on canvas, similar to representations on the stage." "I have
+endeavoured," he says again, "to treat my subject as a dramatic writer;
+my picture is my stage, and men and women my players, who by means of
+certain actions and gestures are to exhibit _a dumb show_." There was
+never a more eloquent dumb show than this of the "Harlot's Progress." In
+six scenes the miserable career of a woman of the town is traced out
+remorselessly from its first facile beginning to its shameful and
+degraded end. Nothing of the detail is softened or abated; the whole is
+acted out _coram populo_, with the hard, uncompassionate morality of the
+age the painter lived in, while the introduction here and there of one
+or two well-known characters such as Colonel Charteris and Justice
+Gonson give a vivid reality to the satire. It had an immediate success.
+To say nothing of the fact that the talent of the paintings completely
+reconciled Sir James Thornhill to the son-in-law he had hitherto refused
+to acknowledge, more than twelve hundred names of subscribers to the
+engravings were entered in the artist's book. On the appearance of plate
+iii. the lords of the treasury trooped to the print shop for Sir John
+Gonson's portrait which it contained. The story was made into a
+pantomime by Theophilus Cibber, and by some one else into a ballad
+opera; and it gave rise to numerous pamphlets and poems. It was painted
+on fan-mounts and transferred to cups and saucers. Lastly, it was freely
+pirated. There could be no surer testimony to its popularity.
+
+From the MSS. of George Vertue in the British Museum (Add. MSS.
+23069-98) it seems that during the progress of the plates, Hogarth was
+domiciled with his father-in-law, Sir James Thornhill, in the Middle
+Piazza, Covent Garden (the "second house eastward from James Street"),
+and it must have been thence that set out the historical expedition from
+London to Sheerness of which the original record still exists at the
+British Museum. This is an oblong MS. volume entitled _An Account of
+what seem'd most Remarkable in the Five Days' Peregrination of the Five
+Following Persons, vizt., Messieurs Tothall, Scott, Hogarth, Thornhill
+and Forrest. Begun on Saturday May 27th 1732 and Finish'd On the 31st of
+the Same Month. Abi tu et fac similiter. Inscription on Dulwich College
+Porch_. The journal, which is written by Ebenezer, the father of
+Garrick's friend Theodosius Forrest, gives a good idea of what a
+"frisk"--as Johnson called it--was in those days, while the
+illustrations were by Hogarth and Samuel Scott the landscape painter.
+John Thornhill, Sir James's son, made the map. This version (in prose)
+was subsequently run into rhyme by one of Hogarth's friends, the Rev.
+Wm. Gostling of Canterbury, and after the artist's death both versions
+were published. In the absence of other biographical detail, they are of
+considerable interest to the student of Hogarth. In 1733 Hogarth moved
+into the "Golden Head" in Leicester Fields, which, with occasional
+absences at Chiswick, he continued to occupy until his death. By
+December of this year he was already engaged upon the engravings of a
+second Progress, that of a Rake. It was not as successful as its
+predecessor. It was in eight plates in lieu of six. The story is
+unequal; but there is nothing finer than the figure of the desperate
+hero in the Covent Garden gaming-house, or the admirable scenes in the
+Fleet prison and Bedlam, where at last his headlong career comes to its
+tragic termination. The plates abound with allusive suggestion and
+covert humour; but it is impossible to attempt any detailed description
+of them here.
+
+"A Rake's Progress" was dated June 25, 1735, and the engravings bear the
+words "according to Act of Parliament." This was an act (8 Geo. II. cap.
+13) which Hogarth had been instrumental in obtaining from the
+legislature, being stirred thereto by the shameless piracies of rival
+printsellers. Although loosely drawn, it served its purpose; and the
+painter commemorated his success by a long inscription on the plate
+entitled "Crowns, Mitres, &c.," afterwards used as a subscription ticket
+to the Election series. These subscription tickets to his engravings,
+let us add, are among the brightest and most vivacious of the artist's
+productions. That to the "Harlot's Progress" was entitled "Boys peeping
+at Nature," while the Rake's Progress was heralded by the delightful
+etching known as "A Pleased Audience at a Play, or The Laughing
+Audience."
+
+We must pass more briefly over the prints which followed the two
+Progresses, noting first "A Modern Midnight Conversation," an admirable
+drinking scene which comes between them in 1733, and the bright little
+plate of "Southwark Fair," which, although dated 1733, was published
+with "A Rake's Progress" in 1735. Between these and "Marriage _a la
+mode_," upon the pictures of which the painter must have been not long
+after at work, come the small prints of the "Consultation of Physicians"
+and "Sleeping Congregation" (1736), the "Scholars at a Lecture" (1737);
+the "Four Times of the Day" (1738), a series of pictures of 18th century
+life, the earlier designs for which have been already referred to; the
+"Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn" (1738), which Walpole held to
+be, "for wit and imagination, without any other end, the best of all the
+painter's works"; and finally the admirable plates of the Distrest Poet
+painfully composing a poem on "Riches" in a garret, and the Enraged
+Musician fulminating from his parlour window upon a discordant orchestra
+of knife-grinders, milk-girls, ballad-singers and the rest upon the
+pavement outside. These are dated respectively 1736 and 1741. To this
+period also (i.e. the period preceding the production of the plates of
+"Marriage _a la mode_") belong two of those history pictures to which,
+in emulation of the Haymans and Thornhills, the artist was continually
+attracted. "The Pool of Bethesda" and the "Good Samaritan," "with
+figures seven feet high," were painted _circa_ 1736, and presented by
+the artist to St Bartholomew's Hospital, where they remain. They were
+not masterpieces; and it is pleasanter to think of his connexion with
+Captain Coram's recently established Foundling Hospital (1739), which he
+aided with his money, his graver and his brush, and for which he painted
+that admirable portrait of the good old philanthropist which is still,
+and deservedly, one of its chief ornaments.
+
+In "A Harlot's Progress" Hogarth had not strayed much beyond the lower
+walks of society, and although, in "A Rake's Progress," his hero was
+taken from the middle classes, he can scarcely be said to have quitted
+those fields of observation which are common to every spectator. It is
+therefore more remarkable, looking to his education and antecedents,
+that his masterpiece, "Marriage _a la mode_," should successfully
+depict, as the advertisement has it, "a variety of modern occurrences in
+high life." Yet, as an accurate delineation of upper class 18th century
+society, his "Marriage _a la mode_" has never, we believe, been
+seriously assailed. The countess's bedroom, the earl's apartment with
+its lavish coronets and old masters, the grand saloon with its marble
+pillars and grotesque ornaments, are fully as true to nature as the
+frowsy chamber in the "Turk's Head Bagnio," the quack-doctor's museum in
+St Martin's Lane, or the mean opulence of the merchant's house in the
+city. And what story could be more vividly, more perspicuously, more
+powerfully told than this godless alliance of _sacs et parchemins_--this
+miserable tragedy of an ill-assorted marriage? There is no defect of
+invention, no superfluity of detail, no purposeless stroke. It has the
+merit of a work by a great master of fiction, with the additional
+advantages which result from the pictorial fashion of the narrative; and
+it is matter for congratulation that it is still to be seen by all the
+world in the National Gallery in London, where it can tell its own tale
+better than pages of commentary. The engravings of "Marriage _a la
+mode_" were dated April 1745. Although by this time the painter found a
+ready market for his engravings, he does not appear to have been equally
+successful in selling his pictures. The people bought his prints; but
+the richer and not numerous connoisseurs who purchased pictures were
+wholly in the hands of the importers and manufacturers of "old masters."
+In February 1745 the original oil paintings of the two Progresses, the
+"Four Times of the Day" and the "Strolling Actresses" were still unsold.
+On the last day of that month Hogarth disposed of them by an ill-devised
+kind of auction, the details of which may be read in Nichols's
+_Anecdotes_, for the paltry sum of L427, 7s. No better fate attended
+"Marriage _a la mode_," which six years later became the property of Mr
+Lane of Hillingdon for 120 guineas, being then in Carlo Maratti frames
+which had cost the artist four guineas a piece. Something of this was no
+doubt due to Hogarth's impracticable arrangements, but the fact shows
+conclusively how completely blind his contemporaries were to his merits
+as a painter, and how hopelessly in bondage to the all-powerful
+picture-dealers. Of these latter the painter himself gave a graphic
+picture in a letter addressed by him under the pseudonym of "Britophil"
+to the _St James's Evening Post_, in June 1737.
+
+But if Hogarth was not successful with his dramas on canvas, he
+occasionally shared with his contemporaries in the popularity of
+portrait painting. For a picture, executed in 1746, of Garrick as
+Richard III. he was paid L200, "which was more," says he, "than any
+English artist ever received for a single portrait." In the same year a
+sketch of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill,
+had an exceptional success.
+
+We must content ourselves with a brief enumeration of the most important
+of his remaining works. These are "The Stage Coach or Country Inn Yard"
+(1747); the series of twelve plates entitled "Industry and Idleness"
+(1747), depicting the career of two London apprentices; the "Gate of
+Calais" (1749), which had its origin in a rather unfortunate visit paid
+to France by the painter after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the "March
+to Finchley" (1750); "Beer Street," "Gin Lane" and the "Four Stages of
+Cruelty" (1751); the admirable representations of election humours in
+the days of Sir Robert Walpole, entitled "Four Prints of an Election"
+(1755-1758); and the plate of "Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism, a
+Medley" (1762), adapted from an earlier unpublished design called
+"Enthusiasm Delineated." Besides these must be chronicled three more
+essays in the "great style of history painting," viz. "Paul before
+Felix," "Moses brought to Pharaoh's Daughter" and the Altarpiece for St
+Mary Redcliffe at Bristol. The first two were engraved in 1751-1752, the
+last in 1794. A subscription ticket to the earlier pictures, entitled
+"Paul before Felix Burlesqued," had a popularity far greater than that
+of the prints themselves.
+
+In 1745 Hogarth painted that admirable portrait of himself with his dog
+Trump, which is now in the National Gallery. In a corner of this he had
+drawn on a palette a serpentine curve with the words "The Line of
+Beauty." Much inquiry ensued as to the meaning of this hieroglyphic; and
+in an unpropitious hour the painter resolved to explain himself in
+writing. The result was the well-known _Analysis of Beauty_ (1753), a
+treatise to fix "the fluctuating ideas of Taste," otherwise a desultory
+essay having for pretext the precept attributed to Michelangelo that a
+figure should be always "Pyramidall, Serpent like and multiplied by one
+two and three." The fate of the book was what might have been expected.
+By the painter's adherents it was praised as a final deliverance upon
+aesthetics; by his enemies and professional rivals, its obscurities, and
+the minor errors which, notwithstanding the benevolent efforts of
+literary friends, the work had not escaped, were made the subject of
+endless ridicule and caricature. It added little to its author's fame,
+and it is perhaps to be regretted that he ever undertook it. Moreover,
+there were further humiliations in store for him. In 1759 the success of
+a little picture called "The Lady's Last Stake," painted for Lord
+Charlemont, procured him a commission from Sir Richard Grosvenor to
+paint another picture "upon the same terms." Unhappily on this occasion
+he deserted his own field of genre and social satire, to select the
+story from Boccaccio (or rather Dryden) of Sigismunda weeping over the
+heart of her murdered lover Guiscardo, being the subject of a picture in
+Sir Luke Schaub's collection by Furini which had recently been sold for
+L400. The picture, over which he spent much time and patience, was not
+regarded as a success; and Sir Richard rather meanly shuffled out of his
+bargain upon the plea that "the constantly having it before one's eyes,
+would be too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one's mind."
+Sigismunda, therefore, much to the artist's mortification, and the
+delight of the malicious, remained upon his hands. As, by her husband's
+desire, his widow valued it at L500, it found no purchaser until after
+her death, when the Boydells bought it for 56 guineas. It was exhibited,
+with others of Hogarth's pictures, at the Spring Gardens exhibition of
+1761, for the catalogue of which Hogarth engraved a Head-piece and a
+Tail-piece which are still the delight of collectors; and finally, by
+the bequest of Mr J. H. Anderdon, it passed in 1879 to the National
+Gallery, where, in spite of theatrical treatment and a repulsive theme,
+it still commands admiration for its colour, drawing and expression.
+
+In 1761 Hogarth was sixty-five years of age, and he had but three years
+more to live. These three years were embittered by an unhappy quarrel
+with his quondam friends, John Wilkes and Churchill the poet, over which
+most of his biographers are contented to pass rapidly. Having succeeded
+John Thornhill in 1757 as serjeant painter (to which post he was
+reappointed at the accession of George III.), an evil genius prompted
+him in 1762 to do some "timed" thing in the ministerial interest, and he
+accordingly published the indifferent satire of "The Times, plate i."
+This at once brought him into collision with Wilkes and Churchill, and
+the immediate result was a violent attack upon him, both as a man and an
+artist, in the opposition _North Briton_, No. 17. The alleged decay of
+his powers, the miscarriage of Sigismunda, the cobbled composition of
+the _Analysis_, were all discussed with scurrilous malignity by those
+who had known his domestic life and learned his weaknesses. The old
+artist was deeply wounded, and his health was failing. Early in the next
+year, however, he replied by that portrait of Wilkes which will for ever
+carry his squinting features to posterity. Churchill retaliated in July
+by a savage _Epistle to William Hogarth_, to which the artist rejoined
+by a print of Churchill as a bear, in torn bands and ruffles, not the
+most successful of his works. "The pleasure, and pecuniary advantage,"
+writes Hogarth manfully, "which I derived from these two engravings" (of
+Wilkes and Churchill), "together with occasionally riding on horseback,
+restored me to as much health as can be expected at my time of life." He
+produced but one more print, that of "Finis, or The Bathos," March 1764,
+a strange jumble of "fag ends," intended as a tail-piece to his
+collected prints; and on the 26th October of the same year he died of an
+aneurism at his house in Leicester Square. His wife, to whom he left his
+plates as a chief source of income, survived him until 1789. He was
+buried in Chiswick churchyard, where a tomb was erected to him by his
+friends in 1771, with an epitaph by Garrick. Not far off, on the road
+to Chiswick Gardens, still stands the little red-brick Georgian villa
+in which from September 1749 until his death he spent the summer
+seasons. After many vicissitudes and changes of ownership it was
+purchased in 1902 by Lieut.-Colonel Shipway of Chiswick, who turned it
+into a Hogarth museum and preserved it to the nation.
+
+From such records of him as survive, Hogarth appears to have been much
+what from his portrait one might suppose him to have been--a blue-eyed,
+honest, combative little man, thoroughly insular in his prejudices and
+antipathies, fond of flattery, sensitive like most satirists, a good
+friend, an intractable enemy, ambitious, as he somewhere says, in all
+things to be singular, and not always accurately estimating the extent
+of his powers. With the art connoisseurship of his day he was wholly at
+war, because, as he believed, it favoured foreign mediocrity at the
+expense of native talent; and in the heat of argument he would probably,
+as he admits, often come "to utter blasphemous expressions against the
+divinity even of Raphael Urbino, Correggio and Michelangelo." But it was
+rather against the third-rate copies of third-rate artists--the
+"ship-loads of dead Christs, Holy Families and Madonnas"--that his
+indignation was directed; and in speaking of his attitude with regard to
+the great masters of art, it is well to remember his words to Mrs
+Piozzi:--"The connoisseurs and I are at war, you know; and because I
+hate _them_, they think I hate _Titian_--and let them!"
+
+But no doubt it was in a measure owing to this hostile attitude of his
+towards the all-powerful picture-brokers that his contemporaries failed
+to recognize adequately his merits as a painter, and persisted in
+regarding him as an ingenious humorist alone. Time has reversed that
+unjust sentence. He is now held to have been a splendid painter, pure
+and harmonious in his colouring, wonderfully dexterous and direct in his
+handling, and in his composition leaving little or nothing to be
+desired. As an engraver his work is more conspicuous for its vigour,
+spirit and intelligibility than for finish and beauty of line. He
+desired that it should tell its own tale plainly, and bear the distinct
+impress of his individuality, and in this he thoroughly succeeded. As a
+draughtsman his skill has sometimes been debated, and his work at times
+undoubtedly bears marks of haste, and even carelessness. If, however, he
+is judged by his best instead of his worst, he will not be found wanting
+in this respect. But it is not after all as a draughtsman, an engraver
+or a painter that he claims his unique position among English
+artists--it is as a humorist and a satirist upon canvas. Regarded in
+this light he has never been equalled, whether for his vigour of realism
+and dramatic power, his fancy and invention in the decoration of his
+story, or his merciless anatomy and exposure of folly and wickedness. If
+we regard him--as he loved to regard himself--as "author" rather than
+"artist," his place is with the great masters of literature--with the
+Thackerays and Fieldings, the Cervantes and Molieres.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The main body of Hogarth literature is to be found in
+  the autobiographical _Memoranda_ published by John Ireland in 1798,
+  and in the successive _Anecdotes_ of the antiquary John Nichols. Much
+  minute information has also been collected in F. G. Stephens's
+  _Catalogue of the Satirical Prints and Drawings in the British
+  Museum_. But a copious bibliography of books, pamphlets, &c., relating
+  to Hogarth, together with detailed catalogues of his paintings and
+  prints, will be found in the _Memoir_ of Hogarth by Austin Dobson.
+  First issued in 1879, this was reprinted and expanded in 1891, 1897,
+  1902 and finally in 1907. Pictures by Hogarth from private collections
+  are constantly to be found at the annual exhibitions of the Old
+  Masters at Burlington House; but most of the best-known works have
+  permanent homes in public galleries. "Marriage _a la mode_."
+  "Sigismunda," "Lavinia Fenton," the "Shrimp Girl," the "Gate of
+  Calais," the portraits of himself, his sister and his servants, are
+  all in the National Gallery; the "Rake's Progress" and the Election
+  Series, in the Soane Museum; and the "March to Finchley" and "Captain
+  Coram" in the Foundling. There are also notable pictures in the
+  Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge and the National Portrait Gallery. At
+  the Print Room in the British Museum there is also a very interesting
+  set of sixteen designs for the series called "Industry and Idleness,"
+  the majority of which formerly belonged to Horace Walpole.     (A. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HOGG, JAMES (1770-1835), Scottish poet, known as the "Ettrick Shepherd,"
+was baptized at Ettrick in Selkirkshire on the 9th of December 1770.
+His ancestors had been shepherds for centuries. He received hardly any
+school training, and seems to have had difficulty in getting books to
+read. After spending his early years herding sheep for different
+masters, he was engaged as shepherd by Mr Laidlaw, tenant of Blackhouse,
+in the parish of Yarrow, from 1790 till 1799. He was treated with great
+kindness, and had access to a large collection of books. When this was
+exhausted he subscribed to a circulating library in Peebles. While
+attending to his flock, he spent a great deal of time in reading. He
+profited by the company of his master's sons, of whom William Laidlaw is
+known as the friend of Scott and the author of _Lucy's Flittin'_. Hogg's
+first printed piece was "The Mistakes of a Night" in the _Scots
+Magazine_ for October 1794, and in 1801 he published his _Scottish
+Pastorals_. In 1802 Hogg became acquainted with Sir Walter Scott, who
+was then collecting materials for his _Border Minstrelsy_. On Scott's
+recommendation Constable published Hogg's miscellaneous poems (_The
+Mountain Bard_) in 1807. By this work, and by _The Shepherd's Guide,
+being a Practical Treatise on the Diseases of Sheep_, Hogg realized
+about L300. With this money he unfortunately embarked in farming in
+Dumfriesshire, and in three years was utterly ruined, having to abandon
+all his effects to his creditors. He returned to Ettrick, only to find
+that he could not even obtain employment as a shepherd; so he set off in
+February 1810 to push his fortune in Edinburgh as a literary adventurer.
+In the same year he published a collection of songs, _The Forest
+Minstrel_, to which he was the largest contributor. This book, being
+dedicated to the countess of Dalkeith (afterwards duchess of Buccleuch),
+and recommended to her notice by Scott, was rewarded with a present of
+100 guineas. He then began a weekly periodical, _The Spy_, which he
+continued from September 1810 till August 1811. The appearance of _The
+Queen's Wake_ in 1813 established Hogg's reputation as a poet; Byron
+recommended it to John Murray, who brought out an English edition. The
+scene of the poem is laid in 1561; the queen is Mary Stuart; and the
+"wake" provides a simple framework for seventeen poems sung by rival
+bards. It was followed by the _Pilgrims of the Sun_ (1815), and _Mador
+of the Moor_ (1816). The duchess of Buccleuch, on her death-bed (1814),
+had asked her husband to do something for the Ettrick bard; and the duke
+gave him a lease for life of the farm of Altrive in Yarrow, consisting
+of about 70 acres of moorland, on which the poet built a house and spent
+the last years of his life. In order to obtain money to stock his farm
+Hogg asked various poets to contribute to a volume of verse which should
+be a kind of poetic "benefit" for himself. Failing in his applications
+he wrote a volume of parodies, published in 1816, as _The Poetic Mirror,
+or the Living Bards of Great Britain_. He took possession of his farm in
+1817; but his literary exertions were never relaxed. Before 1820 he had
+written the prose tales of _The Brownie of Bodsbeck_ (1818) and two
+volumes of _Winter Evening Tales_ (1820), besides collecting, editing
+and writing part of two volumes of _The Jacobite Relics of Scotland_
+(1819-1821), and contributing largely to _Blackwood's Magazine_. "The
+Chaldee MS.," which appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_ (October 1817),
+and gave such offence that it was immediately withdrawn, was largely
+Hogg's work.
+
+In 1820 he married Margaret Phillips, a lady of a good Annandale family,
+and found himself possessed of about L1000, a good house and a
+well-stocked farm. Hogg's connexion with _Blackwood's Magazine_ kept him
+continually before the public; his contributions, which include the best
+of his prose works, were collected in the _Shepherd's Calendar_ (1829).
+The wit and mischief of some of his literary friends made free with his
+name as the "Shepherd" of the _Noctes Ambrosianae_, and represented him
+in ludicrous and grotesque aspects; but the effect of the whole was
+favourable to his popularity. "Whatever may be the merits of the picture
+of the Shepherd [in the _Noctes Ambrosianae_]--and no one will deny its
+power and genius," writes Professor Veitch--"it is true, all the same,
+that this Shepherd was not the Shepherd of Ettrick or the man James
+Hogg. He was neither a Socrates nor a Falstaff, neither to be credited
+with the wisdom and lofty idealizings of the one, nor with the
+characteristic humour and coarseness of the other." _The Three Perils of
+Woman_ (1820), and _The Three Perils of Man_ (1822), were followed in
+1825 by an epic poem, _Queen Hynde_, which was unfavourably received. He
+visited London in 1832, and was much lionized. On his return a public
+dinner was given to him in Peebles,--Professor Wilson in the chair,--and
+he acknowledged that he had at last "found fame." His health, however,
+was seriously impaired. With his pen in his hand to the last, Hogg in
+1834 published a volume of _Lay Sermons_, and _The Domestic Manners and
+Private Life of Sir Walter Scott_, a book which Lockhart regarded as an
+infringement on his rights. In 1835 appeared three volumes of _Tales of
+the Wars of Montrose_. Hogg died on the 21st of November 1835, and was
+buried in the churchyard of his native parish Ettrick. His fame had
+seemed to fill the whole district, and was brightest at its close; his
+presence was associated with all the border sports and festivities; and
+as a man James Hogg was ever frank, joyous and charitable. It is mainly
+as a great peasant poet that he lives in literature. Some of his lyrics
+and minor poems--his "Skylark," "When the Kye comes Hame," his verses on
+the "Comet" and "Evening Star," and his "Address to Lady Ann Scott"--are
+exquisite. _The Queen's Wake_ unites his characteristic excellences--his
+command of the old romantic ballad style, his graceful fairy mythology
+and his aerial flights of imagination. In the fairy story of Kilmeny in
+this work Hogg seems completely transformed; he is absorbed in the ideal
+and supernatural, and writes under direct and immediate inspiration.
+
+  See Hogg's "Memoir of the Author's Life, written by himself," prefixed
+  to the 3rd edition (1821) of _The Mountain Bard_, also _Memorials of
+  James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd_, edited by his daughter, Mrs M. G.
+  Garden (enlarged edition with preface by Professor Veitch, 1903), and
+  Sir G. B. S. Douglas, _James Hogg_ (1899) in the "Famous Scots"
+  series; also _The Poems of James Hogg_, selected by William Wallace
+  (1903). John Wilson ("Christopher North") had a real affection for
+  Hogg, but for some reason or other made no use of the materials placed
+  in his hands for a biography of the poet. The memoir mentioned on the
+  title-page of the _Works_ (1838-1840) never appeared, and the memoir
+  prefixed to the edition of Hogg's works published by Blackie & Co.
+  (1865) was written by the Rev. Thomas Thompson. See also Wilson's
+  _Noctes Ambrosianae_; Mrs Oliphant's _Annals of a Publishing House_,
+  vol. i. chap. vii.; Gilfillan's _First Gallery of Literary Portraits_;
+  Cunningham's _Biog. and Crit. Hist. of Lit._; and the general index to
+  _Blackwood's Magazine_. A collected edition of Hogg's Tales appeared
+  in 1837 in 6 vols., and a second in 1851; his _Poetical Works_ were
+  published in 1822, 1838-1840 and 1865-1866. For an admirable account
+  of the social entertainments Hogg used to give in Edinburgh, see
+  _Memoir of Robert Chambers_ (1874), by Dr William Chambers, pp.
+  263-270.
+
+
+
+
+HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1792-1862), English man of letters, was born at
+Norton, Durham, on the 24th of May 1792. He was educated at Durham
+grammar school and at University College, Oxford. Here he became the
+intimate friend of the poet Shelley, with whom in 1811 he was expelled
+from the university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the
+authorship of the pamphlet _The Necessity for Atheism_. He was then sent
+to study law at York, where he remained for six months. Hogg's behaviour
+to Harriet Shelley interrupted his relations with her husband for some
+time, but in 1813 the friendship was renewed in London. In 1817 Hogg was
+called to the bar, and became later a revising barrister. In 1844 he
+inherited L2000 under Shelley's will, and in 1855, in accordance with
+the wishes of the poet's family, began to write Shelley's biography. The
+first two volumes of it were published in 1858, but they proved to be
+far more an autobiography than a biography, and Shelley's
+representatives refused Hogg further access to the materials necessary
+for its completion. Hogg died on the 27th of August 1862.
+
+
+
+
+HOGMANAY, the name in Scotland and some parts of the north of England
+for New Year's Eve, as also for the cake then given to the children. On
+the morning of the 31st of December the children in small bands go from
+door to door singing:
+
+                      "Hogmanay
+                      Trollolay
+  Gie's o' your white bread and nane o' your grey";
+
+
+and begging for small gifts or alms. These usually take the form of an
+oaten cake. The derivation of the term has been much disputed. Cotgrave
+(1611) says: "It is the voice of the country folks begging small
+presents or New Year's gifts ... an ancient term of rejoicing derived
+from the Druids, who were wont the first of each January to go into the
+woods, where, having sacrificed and banquetted together, they gathered
+mistletoe, esteeming it excellent to make beasts fruitful and most
+soverayne against all poyson." And he connects the word, through such
+Norman French forms as _hoguinane_, with the old French _aguilanneuf_,
+which he explains as _au gui-l'an-neuf_, "to the mistletoe! the New
+Year!"--this being (on his interpretation) the Druidical salutation to
+the coming year as the revellers issued from the woods armed with boughs
+of mistletoe. But though this explanation may be accepted as containing
+the truth in referring the word to a French original, Cotgrave's
+detailed etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists, and the
+identical French _aguilanneuf_ remains, like it, in obscurity.
+
+
+
+
+HOGSHEAD, a cask for holding liquor or other commodities, such as
+tobacco, sugar, molasses, &c.; also a liquid measure of capacity,
+varying with the contents. As a measure for beer, cider, &c., it equals
+54 gallons. A statute of Richard III. (1483) fixed the hogshead of wine
+at 63 wine-gallons, i.e. 52(1/2) imperial gallons. The etymology of the
+word has been much discussed. According to Skeat, the origin is to be
+found in the name for a cask or liquid measure appearing in various
+forms in several Teutonic languages, in Dutch _oxhooft_ (modern
+_okshoofd_), Dan. _oxehoved_, O. Swed. _oxhufvod_, &c. The word should
+therefore be "oxhead," and "hogshead" is a mere corruption. It has been
+suggested that the name arose from the branding of such a measure with
+the head of an ox (see _Notes and Queries_, series iv. 2, 46, note by H.
+Tiedeman). The _New English Dictionary_ does not attempt any explanation
+of the term, and takes "hogshead" as the original form, from which the
+forms in other languages have been corrupted. The earlier Dutch forms
+_hukeshovet_ and _hoekshoot_ are nearer to the English form, and,
+further, the Dutch for "ox" is os.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENASPERG, an ancient fortress of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Wurttemberg, 10 m. N. of Stuttgart, is situated on a conical hill, 1100
+ft. high, overlooking the town of Asperg. It was formerly strongly
+fortified and was long the state prison of the kingdom of Wurttemberg.
+Among the many who have been interned here may be mentioned the
+notorious Jew financier, Joseph Suss-Oppenheimer (1692-1738) and the
+poet C. F. D. Schubart (1739-1791). It is now a reformatory. Hohenasperg
+originally belonged to the counts of Calw; it next passed to the counts
+palatine of Tubingen and from them was acquired in 1308 by Wurttemberg.
+In 1535 the fortifications were extended and strengthened, and in 1635
+the town was taken by the Imperialists, who occupied it until 1649.
+
+  See Schon, _Die Staatsgefangenen von Hohenasperg_ (Stuttgart, 1899);
+  and Biffart, _Geschichte der Wurttembergischen Feste Hohenasperg_
+  (Stuttgart, 1858).
+
+
+
+
+HOHENFRIEDBERG, or HOHENFRIEDEBERG, a village of Silesia, about 6 m.
+from the small town of Striegau. It gives its name to a battle (also
+called the battle of Striegau) in the War of the Austrian Succession,
+fought on the 3rd of June 1745 between the Prussians under Frederick the
+Great and the Austrians and Saxons commanded by Prince Charles of
+Lorraine. In May the king, whose army had occupied extended winter
+quarters in Silesia, had drawn it together into a position about Neisse
+whence he could manoeuvre against the Austrians, whether they invaded
+Silesia by Troppau or Glatz, or joined their allies (who, under the duke
+of Weissenfels, were on the upper Elbe), and made their advance on
+Schweidnitz, Breslau or Liegnitz. On the Austrians concentrating towards
+the Elbe, Frederick gradually drew his army north-westward along the
+edge of the mountain country until on the 1st of June it was near
+Schweidnitz. At that date the Austro-Saxons were advancing (very slowly
+owing to the poorness of the roads and the dilatoriness of the Saxon
+artillery train) from Waldenburg and Landshut through the mountains,
+heading for Striegau. After a few minor skirmishes at the end of May,
+Frederick had made up his mind to offer no opposition to the passage of
+the Allies, but to fall upon them as they emerged, and the Prussian army
+was therefore kept concentrated out of sight, while only selected
+officers and patrols watched the debouches of the mountains. On the
+other hand the Allies had no intention of delivering battle, but meant
+only, on emerging from the mountains, to take up a suitable camping
+position and thence to interpose between Breslau and the king, believing
+that "the king was at his wits' end, and, once the army really began its
+retreat on Breslau, there would be frightful consternation in its
+ranks." But in fact, as even the coolest observers noticed, the Prussian
+army was in excellent spirits and eager for the "decisive affair"
+promised by the king. On the 3rd of June, watched by the invisible
+patrols, the Austrians and Saxons emerged from the hills at
+Hohenfriedberg with bands playing and colours flying. Their advanced
+guard of infantry and cavalry spread out into the plain, making for a
+line of hills spreading north-west from Striegau, where the army was to
+encamp. But the main body moved slowly, and at last Prince Charles and
+Weissenfels decided to put off the occupation of the line of hills till
+the morrow. The army bivouacked therefore in two separate wings, the
+Saxons (with a few Austrian regiments) between Gunthersdorf and
+Pilgramshain, the Austrians near Hausdorf. They were about 70,000
+strong, Frederick 65,000.
+
+[Illustration: Hohenfriedberg, June 4, 1745.]
+
+The king had made his arrangements in good time, aided by the enemy's
+slowness, and in the evening he issued simple orders to move. About 9
+P.M. the Prussians marched off from Alt-Jauernigk towards Striegau, the
+guns on the road, the infantry and cavalry, in long open columns of
+companies and squadrons, over the fields on either side--a night march
+well remembered by contrast with others as having been executed in
+perfect order. Meanwhile General Dumoulin, who commanded an advanced
+detachment between Striegau and Stanowitz, broke camp silently and moved
+into position below the hill north-west of Striegau, which was found to
+be occupied by Saxon light infantry outposts. The king's orders were for
+Dumoulin and the right wing of the main army to deploy and advance
+towards Haslicht against the Saxons, and for the left wing infantry to
+prolong the line from the marsh to Gunthersdorf, covered by the
+left-wing cavalry on the plain near Thomaswaldau. On the side of the
+Austrians, the outlying hussars are said to have noticed and reported
+the king's movement, for the night was clear and starlit, but their
+report, if made, was ignored.
+
+At 4 A.M. Dumoulin advanced on Pilgramshain, neglecting the fire of the
+Saxon outpost on the Spitzberg, whereupon this promptly retired in
+order to avoid being surrounded. Dumoulin then posted artillery on the
+slope of the hill and deployed his six grenadier battalions facing the
+village. The leading cavalry of the main army came up and deployed on
+Dumoulin's left front in open rolling ground. Meantime the duke of
+Weissenfels had improvised a line of defence, posting his infantry in
+the marshy ground and about Pilgramshain, and his cavalry, partly in
+front of Pilgramshain and partly on the intervening space, opposite that
+of the Prussians. But before the marshy ground was effectively occupied
+by the duke's infantry, his cavalry had been first shaken by the fire of
+Dumoulin's guns on the Spitzberg and a heavy battery that was brought up
+on to the Grabener Fuchsberg, and then charged by the Prussian
+right-wing cavalry, and in the melee the Allies were gradually driven in
+confusion off the battlefield. The cavalry battle was ended by 6.30
+A.M., by which time Dumoulin's grenadiers, stiffened by the line
+regiment Anhalt (the "Old Dessauer's" own), were vigorously attacking
+the garden hedges and walls of Pilgramshain, and the Saxon and Austrian
+infantry in the marsh was being attacked by Prince Dietrich of Dessau
+with the right wing of the king's infantry. The line infantry of those
+days, however, did not work easily in bad ground, and the Saxons were
+steady and well drilled. After an hour's fight, well supported by the
+guns and continually reinforced as the rest of the army closed up, the
+prince expelled the enemy from the marsh, while Dumoulin drove the light
+troops out of Pilgramshain. By 7 A.M. the Saxons, forming the left wing
+of the allied army, were in full retreat.
+
+While his allies were being defeated, Prince Charles of Lorraine had
+done nothing, believing that the cannonade was merely an outpost affair
+for the possession of the Spitzberg. His generals indeed had drawn out
+their respective commands in order of battle, the infantry south of
+Gunthersdorf, the cavalry near Thomaswaldau, but they had no authority
+to advance without orders, and stood inactive, while, 1 m. away, the
+Prussian columns were defiling over the Striegau Water. This phase of
+the king's advance was the most delicate of all, and the moment that he
+heard from Prince Dietrich that the marsh was captured he stopped the
+northward flow of his battalions and swung them westward, the left wing
+cavalry having to cover their deployment. But when one-third of this
+cavalry only had crossed at Teichau the bridge broke. For a time the
+advanced squadrons were in great danger. But they charged boldly, and a
+disjointed cavalry battle began, during which (Ziethen's hussars having
+discovered a ford) the rest of the left-wing cavalry was able to cross.
+At last 25 intact squadrons under Lieut.-General von Nassau charged and
+drove the Austrians in disorder towards Hohenfriedberg. This action was
+the more creditable to the victors in that 45 squadrons in 3 separate
+fractions defeated a mass of 60 squadrons that stood already deployed to
+meet them.
+
+Meanwhile the Prussian infantry columns of the centre and left had
+crossed Striegau Water and deployed to their left, and by 8.30 they were
+advancing on Gunthersdorf and the Austrian infantry south of that place.
+Frederick's purpose was to roll up the enemy from their inner flank, and
+while Prince Dietrich, with most of the troops that had forced the
+Saxons out of the marsh, pursued Weissenfels, two regiments of his and
+one of Dumoulin's were brought over to the left wing and sent against
+the north side of Gunthersdorf. In the course of the general forward
+movement, which was made in what was for those days a very irregular
+line, a wide gap opened up between the centre and left, behind which 10
+squadrons of the Bayreuth dragoon regiment, with Lieut.-General von
+Gessler, took up their position. Thus the line advanced. The grenadiers
+on the extreme left cleared Thomaswaldau, and their fire galled the
+Austrian squadrons engaged in the cavalry battle to the south. Then
+Gunthersdorf, attacked on three sides, was also evacuated by the enemy.
+But although Frederick rode back from the front saying "the battle is
+won," the Prussian infantry, in spite of its superior fire discipline,
+failed for some time to master the defence, and suffered heavily from
+the eight close-range volleys they received, one or two regiments losing
+40 and 50% of their strength. The Austrians, however, suffered still
+more; feeling themselves isolated in the midst of the victorious enemy,
+they began to waver, and at the psychological moment Gessler and the
+Bayreuth dragoons charged into their ranks and "broke the equilibrium."
+These 1500 sabres scattered twenty battalions of the enemy and brought
+in 2500 prisoners and 66 Austrian colours, and in this astounding charge
+they themselves lost no more than 94 men. By nine o'clock the battle was
+over, and the wrecks of the Austro-Saxon army were retreating to the
+mountains. The Prussians, who had been marching all night, were too far
+spent to pursue.
+
+  The loss of the allies was in all 15,224, 7985 killed and wounded, and
+  7239 prisoners, as well as 72 guns and 83 standards and colours. The
+  Prussians lost 4666 killed and wounded, 71 missing.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENHEIM, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 7 m. S.
+of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. 300. It came in 1768 from the counts of
+Hohenheim to the dukes of Wurttemberg, and in 1785 Duke Karl Eugen built
+a country house here. This house with grounds is now the seat of the
+most important agricultural college in Germany; it was founded in 1817,
+was raised to the position of a high school in 1865, and now ranks as a
+technical high school with university status.
+
+  See Frohlich, _Das Schloss und die Akademie Hohenheim_ (Stuttgart,
+  1870).
+
+
+
+
+HOHENLIMBURG, a town of Germany, on the Lenne, in the Prussian prov. of
+Westphalia, 30 m. by rail S.E. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 12,790. It has
+two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. The
+town is the seat of various iron and metal industries, while dyeing,
+cloth-making and linen-weaving are also carried on here. It is the chief
+town of the county of Limburg, and formerly belonged to the counts of
+Limburg, a family which became extinct in 1508. Later it passed to the
+counts of Bentheim-Tecklenburg. The castle of Hohenlimburg, which
+overlooks the town, is now the residence of Prince Adolf of
+Bentheim-Tecklenburg.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENLOHE, a German princely family which took its name from the
+district of Hohenlohe in Franconia. At first a countship, its two
+branches were raised to the rank of principalities of the Empire in 1744
+and 1764 respectively; in 1806 they lost their independence and their
+lands now form part of the kingdoms of Bavaria and of Wurttemberg. At
+the time of the mediatization the area of Hohenlohe was 680 sq. m. and
+its estimated population was 108,000. The family is first mentioned in
+the 12th century as possessing the castle of Hohenloch, or Hohenlohe,
+near Uffenheim, and its influence was soon perceptible in several of the
+Franconian valleys, including those of the Kocher, the Jagst and the
+Tauber. Henry I. (d. 1183) was the first to take the title of count of
+Hohenlohe, and in 1230 his grandsons, Gottfried and Conrad, supporters
+of the emperor Frederick II., founded the lines of Hohenlohe-Hohenlohe
+and Hohenlohe-Brauneck, names taken from their respective castles. The
+latter became extinct in 1390, its lands passing later to Brandenburg,
+while the former was divided into several branches, only two of which,
+however, Hohenlohe-Weikersheim and Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld, need
+be mentioned here. Hohenlohe-Weikersheim, descended from Count Kraft I.
+(d. 1313), also underwent several divisions, that which took place after
+the deaths of Counts Albert and George in 1551 being specially
+important. At this time the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and
+Hohenlohe-Waldenburg were founded by the sons of Count George.
+Meanwhile, in 1412, the family of Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld had
+become extinct, and its lands had passed through the marriages of its
+heiresses into other families.
+
+The existing branches of the Hohenlohe family are descended from the
+lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg, established in
+1551. The former of these became Protestant, while the latter remained
+Catholic. Of the family of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, which underwent several
+partitions and inherited Gleichen in 1631, the senior line became
+extinct in 1805, while in 1701 the junior line divided itself into
+three branches, those of Langenburg, Ingelfingen and Kirchberg.
+Kirchberg died out in 1861, but members of the families of
+Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen are still alive, the
+latter being represented by the branches of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen and
+Hohenlohe-Ohringen. The Roman Catholic family of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg
+was soon divided into three branches, but two of these had died out by
+1729. The surviving branch, that of Schillingsfurst, was divided into
+the lines of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein; other
+divisions followed, and the four existing lines of this branch of the
+family are those of Waldenburg, Schillingsfurst, Jagstberg and
+Bartenstein. The family of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst possesses the
+duchies of Ratibor and of Corbie inherited in 1824.
+
+The principal members of the family are dealt with below.
+
+I. FRIEDRICH LUDWIG, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1746-1818),
+Prussian general, was the eldest son of Prince Johann Friedrich (d.
+1796) of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, and began his military career as a boy,
+serving against the Prussians in the last years of the Seven Years' War.
+Entering the Prussian army after the peace (1768), he was on account of
+his rank at once made major, and in 1775 he became lieutenant-colonel;
+in 1778 he took part in the War of the Bavarian Succession and about the
+same time was made a colonel. Shortly before the death of Frederick the
+Great he was promoted to the rank of major-general and appointed chief
+of a regiment. For some years the prince did garrison duty at Breslau,
+until in 1791 he was made governor of Berlin. In 1794 he commanded a
+corps in the Prussian army on the Rhine and distinguished himself
+greatly in many engagements, particularly in the battle of
+Kaiserslautern on the 20th of September. He was at this time the most
+popular soldier in the Prussian army. Blucher wrote of him that "he was
+a leader of whom the Prussian army might well be proud." He succeeded
+his father in the principality, and acquired additional lands by his
+marriage with a daughter of Count von Hoym. In 1806 Hohenlohe, now a
+general of infantry, was appointed to command the left-wing army of the
+Prussian forces opposing Napoleon, having under him Prince Louis
+Ferdinand of Prussia; but, feeling that his career had been that of a
+prince and not that of a scientific soldier, he allowed his
+quartermaster-general Massenbach to influence him unduly. Disputes soon
+broke out between Hohenlohe and the commander-in-chief, the duke of
+Brunswick, the armies marched hither and thither without effective
+results, and finally Hohenlohe's army was almost destroyed by Napoleon
+at Jena (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The prince displayed his usual
+personal bravery in the battle, and managed to rally a portion of his
+corps near Erfurt, whence he retired into Prussia. But the pursuers
+followed him up closely, and, still acting under Massenbach's advice, he
+surrendered the remnant of his army at Prenzlau on the 28th of October,
+a fortnight after Jena and three weeks after the beginning of
+hostilities. Hohenlohe's former popularity and influence in the army had
+now the worst possible effect, for the commandants of garrisons
+everywhere lost heart and followed his example. After two years spent as
+a prisoner of war in France Hohenlohe retired to his estates, living in
+self-imposed obscurity until his death on the 15th of February 1818. He
+had, in August 1806, just before the outbreak of the French War,
+resigned the principality to his eldest son, not being willing to become
+a "mediatized" ruler under Wurttemberg suzerainty.
+
+II. LUDWIG ALOYSIUS, prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Bartenstein
+(1765-1829), marshal and peer of France, was born on the 18th of August
+1765. In 1784 he entered the service of the Palatinate, which he quitted
+in 1792 in order to take the command of a regiment raised by his father
+for the service of the emigrant princes of France. He greatly
+distinguished himself under Conde in the campaigns of 1792-1793,
+especially at the storming of the lines of Weissenburg. Subsequently he
+entered the service of Holland, and, when almost surrounded by the army
+of General Pichegru, conducted a masterly retreat from the island of
+Bommel. From 1794 to 1799 he served as colonel in the Austrian
+campaigns; in 1799 he was named major-general by the archduke Charles;
+and after obtaining the rank of lieutenant-general he was appointed by
+the emperor governor of the two Galicias. Napoleon offered to restore to
+him his principality on condition that he adhered to the confederation
+of the Rhine, but as he refused, it was united to Wurttemberg. After
+Napoleon's fall in 1814 he entered the French service, and in 1815 he
+held the command of a regiment raised by himself, with which he took
+part in the Spanish campaign of 1823. In 1827 he was created marshal and
+peer of France. He died at Luneville on the 30th of May 1829.
+
+III. ALEXANDER LEOPOLD FRANZ EMMERICH, prince of
+Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfurst (1794-1849), priest and reputed
+miracle-worker, was born at Kupferzell, near Waldenburg, on the 17th of
+August 1794. By his mother, the daughter of an Hungarian nobleman, he
+was from infancy destined for the church; and she entrusted his early
+education to the ex-Jesuit Riel. In 1804 he entered the "Theresianum" at
+Vienna, in 1808 the academy at Bern, in 1810 the archiepiscopal seminary
+at Vienna, and afterwards he studied at Tyrnau and Ellwangen. He was
+ordained priest in 1815, and in the following year he went to Rome,
+where he entered the society of the "Fathers of the Sacred Heart."
+Subsequently, at Munich and Bamberg, he was blamed for Jesuit and
+obscurantist tendencies, but obtained considerable reputation as a
+preacher. His first co-called miraculous cure was effected, in
+conjunction with a peasant, Martin Michel, on a princess of
+Schwarzenberg who had been for some years paralytic. Immediately he
+acquired such fame as a performer of miraculous cures that multitudes
+from various countries flocked to partake of the beneficial influence of
+his supposed supernatural gifts. Ultimately, on account of the
+interference of the authorities with his operations, he went in 1821 to
+Vienna and then to Hungary, where he became canon at Grosswardein and in
+1844 titular bishop of Sardica. He died at Voslau near Vienna on the
+17th of November 1849. He was the author of a number of ascetic and
+controversial writings, which were collected and published in one
+edition by S. Brunner in 1851.
+
+IV. KRAFT, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1827-1892), soldier and
+military writer, son of Prince Adolf of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
+(1797-1873), was born at Koschentin in Upper Silesia. He was a nephew of
+the Prince Hohenlohe noticed above, who commanded the Prussians at Jena.
+Educated with great rigour, owing to the impoverishment of the family
+estates during the Napoleonic wars, he was sent into the Prussian army,
+and commissioned to the artillery at the least expensive arm of the
+service. He joined the Prussian Guard artillery in 1845, and it was soon
+discovered that he had unusual aptitudes as an artillery officer. For a
+time his brother officers resented the presence of a prince, until it
+was found that he made no attempt to use his social position to secure
+advancement. After serving as a military attache in Vienna and on the
+Transylvanian frontier during the Crimean War, he was made a captain on
+the general staff, and in 1856 personal aide-de-camp to the king,
+remaining, however, in close touch with the artillery. In 1864, having
+become in the meanwhile successively major and lieut.-colonel, he
+resigned the staff appointments to become commander of the new Guard
+Field Artillery regiment and in the following year he became colonel. In
+1866 he saw his first real active service. In the bold advance of the
+Guard corps on the Austrian right wing at Koniggratz (see SEVEN WEEKS'
+WAR), he led the Guard reserve artillery with the greatest dash and
+success, and after the short war ended he turned his energies, now
+fortified by experience, to the better tactical training of the Prussian
+artillery. In 1868 he was made a major-general and assigned to command
+the Guard artillery brigade. In this capacity he gained great
+distinction during the Franco-German war and especially at Gravelotte
+and Sedan; he was in control of the artillery attack on the
+fortifications of Paris. In 1873 he was placed in command of an infantry
+division, and three years later was promoted lieutenant-general. He
+retired in 1879, was made general of infantry in 1883 and general of
+artillery in 1889. His military writings were numerous, and amongst
+them several have become classics. These are _Briefe uber Artillerie_
+(Eng. trans. _Letters on Artillery_, 1887); _Briefe uber Strategie_
+(1877; Eng. trans. _Letters on Strategy_, 1898); and _Gesprache uber
+Reiterei_ (1887; Eng. trans. _Conversations on Cavalry_). The _Briefe
+uber Infanterie_ and _Briefe uber Kavallerie_ (translated into English,
+_Letters on Infantry_, _Letters on Cavalry_, 1889) are of less
+importance, though interesting as a reflection of prevailing German
+ideas. His memoirs (_Aus meinem Leben_) were prepared in retirement near
+Dresden, and the first volume (1897) created such a sensation that eight
+years were allowed to elapse before the publication was continued.
+Prince Kraft died near Dresden on the 16th of January 1892.
+     (C. F. A.)
+
+V. CHLODWIG KARL VICTOR, prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst
+(1819-1901), statesman, was born on the 31st of March 1819 at
+Schillingsfurst in Bavaria. His father, Prince Franz Joseph (1787-1841),
+was a Catholic, his mother, Princess Konstanze of Hohenlohe-Langenburg,
+a Protestant. In accordance with the compromise customary at the time,
+Prince Chlodwig and his brothers were brought up in the religion of
+their father, while his sisters followed that of their mother. In spite
+of the difference of creed the family was very united, and it was to the
+spirit that rendered this possible that the prince owed his liberal and
+tolerant point of view, which was to exercise an important influence on
+his political activity. As the younger son of a cadet line of his house
+it was necessary for Prince Chlodwig to follow a profession. For a while
+he thought of obtaining a commission in the British army through the
+influence of his aunt, Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (_nee_
+princess of Leiningen), Queen Victoria's half-sister. He decided,
+however, to enter the Prussian diplomatic service. His application to be
+excused the preliminary steps, which involved several years' work in
+subordinate positions in the Prussian civil service, was refused by
+Frederick William IV., and the prince, with great good sense, decided to
+sacrifice his pride of rank and to accept the king's conditions. As
+auscultator in the courts at Coblenz he acquired a taste for
+jurisprudence, became a _Referendar_ in September 1843, and after some
+months of travel in France, Switzerland and Italy went to Potsdam as a
+civil servant (May 13, 1844). These early years were invaluable, not
+only as giving him experience of practical affairs but as affording him
+an insight into the strength and weakness of the Prussian system. The
+immediate result was to confirm his Liberalism. The Prussian principle
+of "propagating enlightenment with a stick" did not appeal to him; he
+"recognized the confusion and want of clear ideas in the highest
+circles," the tendency to make agreement with the views of the
+government the test of loyalty to the state; and he noted in his journal
+(June 25, 1844) four years before the revolution of '48, "a slight cause
+and we shall have a rising." "The free press," he notes on another
+occasion, "is a necessity, progress the condition of the existence of a
+state." If he was an ardent advocate of German unity, and saw in Prussia
+the instrument for its attainment, he was throughout opposed to the
+"Prussification" of Germany, and ultimately it was he who made the
+unification of Germany possible by insisting at once on the principle of
+union with the North German states and at the same time on the
+preservation of the individuality of the states of the South.
+
+On the 12th of November 1834 the landgrave Viktor Amadeus of
+Hesse-Rotenburg died, leaving to his nephews, the princes Viktor and
+Chlodwig Hohenlohe, his allodial estates: the duchy of Ratibor in
+Silesia, the principality of Corvey in Westphalia, and the lordship of
+Treffurt in the Prussian governmental district of Erfurt. On the death
+of Prince Franz Joseph on the 14th of January 1841 it was decided that
+the principality of Schillingsfurst should pass to the third brother,
+Philipp Ernst, as the two elder sons, Viktor and Chlodwig, were provided
+for already under their uncle's will, the one with the duchy of Ratibor,
+the other with Corvey and Treffurt. The youngest son, Gustav (b.
+February 28, 1823), the future cardinal, was destined for the Church. On
+the death of Prince Philipp Ernst (May 3, 1845) a new arrangement was
+made: Prince Chlodwig became prince of Schillingsfurst, while Corvey was
+assigned to the duke of Ratibor; Treffurt was subsequently sold by
+Prince Chlodwig, who purchased with the price large estates in Posen.
+This involved a complete change in Prince Chlodwig's career. His new
+position as a "reigning" prince and hereditary member of the Bavarian
+Upper House was incompatible with that of a Prussian official. On the
+18th of April 1846 he took his seat as a member of the Bavarian
+_Reichsrath_, and on the 26th of June received his formal discharge from
+the Prussian service.
+
+Save for the interlude of 1848 the political life of Prince Hohenlohe
+was for the next eighteen years not eventful. During the revolutionary
+years his sympathies were with the Liberal idea of a united Germany, and
+he compromised his chances of favour from the king of Bavaria by
+accepting the task (November 1, 1848) of announcing to the courts of
+Rome, Florence and Athens the accession to office of the Archduke John
+of Austria as regent of Germany. But he was too shrewd an observer to
+hope much from a national parliament which "wasted time in idle babble,"
+or from a democratic victory which had stunned but not destroyed the
+German military powers. On the 16th of February 1847 he had married the
+Princess Marie of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, the heiress to vast
+estates in Russia.[1] This led to a prolonged visit to Werki in
+Lithuania (1851-1853) in connexion with the management of the property,
+a visit repeated in 1860. In general this period of Hohenlohe's life was
+occupied in the management of his estates, in the sessions of the
+Bavarian _Reichsrath_ and in travels. In 1856 he visited Rome, during
+which he noted the baneful influence of the Jesuits. In 1859 he was
+studying the political situation at Berlin, and in the same year he paid
+a visit to England. The marriage of his brother Konstantin in 1859 to
+another princess of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg led also to frequent
+visits to Vienna. Thus Prince Hohenlohe was brought into close touch
+with all the most notable people in Europe. At the same time, during
+this period (1850-1866) he was endeavouring to get into relations with
+the Bavarian government, with a view to taking a more active part in
+affairs. Towards the German question his attitude at this time was
+tentative. He had little hope of a practical realization of a united
+Germany, and inclined towards the tripartite divisions under Austria,
+Prussia and Bavaria--the so-called "Trias." He attended the _Furstentag_
+at Frankfort in 1863, and in the Schleswig-Holstein question was a
+supporter of the prince of Augustenburg. It was at this time that, at
+the request of Queen Victoria, he began to send her regular reports on
+the political condition of Germany.
+
+Prince Hohenlohe's importance in history, however, begins with the year
+1866. In his opinion the war was a blessing. It had demonstrated the
+insignificance of the small and middle states, "a misfortune for the
+dynasties"--with whose feelings a mediatized prince could scarcely be
+expected to be over-sympathetic--but the best possible good fortune for
+the German nation. In the Bavarian _Reichsrath_ Hohenlohe now began to
+make his voice heard in favour of a closer union with Prussia; clearly,
+if such a union were desirable, he was the man in every way best fitted
+to prepare the way for it. One of the main obstacles in the way was the
+temperament of Louis II. of Bavaria, whose ideas of kingship were very
+remote from those of the Hohenzollerns, whose pride revolted from any
+concession to Prussian superiority, and who--even during the crisis of
+1866--was more absorbed in operas than in affairs of state. Fortunately
+Richard Wagner was a politician as well as a composer, and equally
+fortunately Hohenlohe was a man of culture capable of appreciating "the
+master's" genius. It was Wagner, apparently, who persuaded the king to
+place Hohenlohe at the head of his government (_Denkwurdigkeiten_, i.
+178, 211), and on the 31st of December 1866 the prince was duly
+appointed minister of the royal house and of foreign affairs and
+president of the council of ministers.
+
+As head of the Bavarian government Hohenlohe's principal task was to
+discover some basis for an effective union of the South German states
+with the North German Confederation, and during the three critical years
+of his tenure of office he was, next to Bismarck, the most important
+statesman in Germany. He carried out the reorganization of the Bavarian
+army on the Prussian model, brought about the military union of the
+southern states, and took a leading share in the creation of the customs
+parliament (_Zollparlament_), of which on the 28th of April 1868 he was
+elected a vice-president. During the agitation that arose in connexion
+with the summoning of the Vatican council Hohenlohe took up an attitude
+of strong opposition to the ultramontane position. In common with his
+brothers, the duke of Ratibor and the cardinal, he believed that the
+policy of Pius IX.--inspired by the Jesuits (that "devil's society," as
+he once called it)--of setting the Church in opposition to the modern
+State would prove ruinous to both, and that the definition of the dogma
+of papal infallibility, by raising the pronouncements of the Syllabus of
+1864 into articles of faith, would commit the Church to this policy
+irrevocably. This view he embodied into a circular note to the Catholic
+powers (April 9, 1869), drawn up by Dollinger, inviting them to exercise
+the right of sending ambassadors to the council and to combine to
+prevent the definition of the dogma. The greater powers, however, were
+for one reason or another unwilling to intervene, and the only practical
+outcome of Hohenlohe's action was that in Bavaria the powerful
+ultramontane party combined against him with the Bavarian "patriots" who
+accused him of bartering away Bavarian independence to Prussia. The
+combination was too strong for him; a bill which he brought in for
+curbing the influence of the Church over education was defeated, the
+elections of 1869 went against him, and in spite of the continued
+support of the king he was forced to resign (March 7, 1870).
+
+Though out of office, his personal influence continued very great both
+at Munich and Berlin and had not a little to do with favourable terms of
+the treaty of the North German Confederation with Bavaria, which
+embodied his views, and with its acceptance by the Bavarian
+parliament.[2] Elected a member of the German Reichstag, he was on the
+23rd of March 1871 chosen one of its vice-presidents, and was
+instrumental in founding the new groups which took the name of the
+Liberal Imperial party (_Liberale Reichspartei_), the objects of which
+were to support the new empire, to secure its internal development on
+Liberal lines, and to oppose clerical aggression as represented by the
+Catholic Centre. Like the duke of Ratibor, Hohenlohe was from the first
+a strenuous supporter of Bismarck's anti-papal policy, the main lines of
+which (prohibition of the Society of Jesus, &c.) he himself suggested.
+Though sympathizing with the motives of the Old Catholics, however, he
+realized that they were doomed to sink into a powerless sect, and did
+not join them, believing that the only hope for a reform of the Church
+lay in those who desired it remaining in her communion.[3] In 1872
+Bismarck proposed to appoint Cardinal Hohenlohe Prussian envoy at the
+Vatican, but his views were too much in harmony with those of his
+family, and the pope refused to receive him in this capacity.[4]
+
+In 1873 Bismarck chose Prince Hohenlohe to succeed Count Harry Arnim as
+ambassador in Paris, where he remained for seven years. In 1878 he
+attended the congress of Berlin as third German representative, and in
+1880, on the death of Bernhardt Ernst von Bulow (October 20), secretary
+of state for foreign affairs, he was called to Berlin as temporary head
+of the Foreign Office and representative of Bismarck during his absence
+through illness. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed Manteuffel as governor
+of Alsace-Lorraine. In this capacity he had to carry out the coercive
+measures introduced by the chancellor in 1887-1888, though he largely
+disapproved of them;[5] his conciliatory disposition, however, did much
+to reconcile the Alsace-Lorrainers to German rule. He remained at
+Strassburg till October 1894, when, at the urgent request of the
+emperor, he consented, in spite of his advanced years, to accept the
+chancellorship in succession to Caprivi. The events of his
+chancellorship belong to the general history of Germany (q.v.); as
+regards the inner history of this time the editor of his memoirs has
+very properly suppressed the greater part of the detailed comments which
+the prince left behind him. In general, during his term of office, the
+personality of the chancellor was less conspicuous in public affairs
+than in the ease of either of his predecessors. His appearances in the
+Prussian and German parliaments were rare, and great independence was
+left to the secretaries of state. What influence the tact and experience
+of Hohenlohe exercised behind the scenes on the masterful will and
+impulsive character of the emperor cannot as yet be generally known.
+
+Prince Hohenlohe resigned the chancellorship on the 17th of October
+1900, and died at Ragaz on the 6th of July 1901. On the 16th of February
+1897 he had celebrated his golden wedding; on the 21st of December of
+the same year the princess died. There were six children of the
+marriage: Elizabeth (b. 1847); Stephanie (b. 1851); Philipp Ernst,
+reigning prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst (b. 1853), who married
+Princess Charielee Ypsilanti; Albert (1857-1866); Moritz and Alexander,
+twins (b. 1862).
+
+  All other authorities for the life of Prince Hohenlohe have been
+  superseded by the _Denkwurdigkeiten_ (2 vols., Stuttgart and Leipzig,
+  1906). With the exception noted above these are singularly full and
+  outspoken, the latter quality causing no little scandal in Germany and
+  bringing down on Prince Alexander, who was responsible for their
+  publication, the disfavour of the emperor. They form not only the
+  record of a singularly full and varied life, but are invaluable to the
+  historian for the wealth of material they contain and for
+  appreciations of men and events by an observer who had the best
+  opportunities for forming a judgment. The prince himself they reveal
+  not only as a capable man of affairs, though falling short of
+  greatness, but as a personality of singular charm, tenacious of his
+  principles, tolerant, broad-minded, and possessed of a large measure
+  of the saving grace of humour.
+
+  See generally A. F. Fischer, _Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe_
+  (1866-1871); K. Weller, _Hohenlohisches Urkundenbuch_, 1153-1350
+  (Stuttgart, 1899-1901), and _Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe_
+  (Stuttgart, 1904).     (W. A. P.; C. F. A.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Through her mother, _nee_ Princess Stephanie Radziwill (d. 1832).
+    Before Prince Wittgenstein's death (1887) a new law had forbidden
+    foreigners to hold land in Russia. Prince Hohenlohe appears, however,
+    to have sold one of his wife's estates and to have secured certain
+    privileges from the Russian court for the rest.
+
+  [2] Speech of December 30, 1870, in the _Reichsrath_.
+    _Denkwurdigkeiten_, ii. 36.
+
+  [3] "If I wished to leave the Church because of all the scandalous
+    occurrences in the Catholic Church, I should have had to secede while
+    studying Church history," _op. cit._ ii. 92.
+
+  [4] Dr Johann Friedrich (q.v.), afterwards one of the Old Catholic
+    leaders, was his secretary at the time of the Vatican council, and
+    supplied historical and theological material to the opposition
+    bishops.
+
+  [5] He protested against the passport system as likely to lead to a
+    war with France, for which he preferred not to be responsible (Letter
+    to Wilmowski, _Denkw._ ii. 433), but on the chancellor taking full
+    responsibility consented to retain office.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENSTAUFEN, the name of a village and ruined castle near Lorsch in
+Swabia, now in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, which gave its name to a
+celebrated Swabian family, members of which were emperors or German
+kings from 1138 to 1208, and again from 1214 to 1254. The earliest known
+ancestor was Frederick, count of Buren (d. 1094), whose son Frederick
+built a castle at Staufen, or Hohenstaufen, and called himself by this
+name. He was a firm supporter of the emperor Henry IV., who rewarded his
+fidelity by granting him the dukedom of Swabia in 1079, and giving him
+his daughter Agnes in marriage. In 1081 he remained in Germany as
+Henry's representative, but only secured possession of Swabia after a
+struggle lasting twenty years. In 1105 Frederick was succeeded by his
+son Frederick II., called the One-eyed, who, together with his brother
+Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III., held south-west Germany
+for their uncle the emperor Henry V. Frederick inherited the estates of
+Henry V. in 1125, but failed to secure the throne, and took up an
+attitude of hostility towards the new emperor, Lothair the Saxon, who
+claimed some of the estates of the late emperor as crown property. A war
+broke out and ended in the complete submission of Frederick at Bamberg.
+He retained, however, his dukedom and estates. In 1138 Conrad of
+Hohenstaufen was elected German king, and was succeeded in 1152, not by
+his son but by his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, son of his brother
+Frederick (d. 1147). Conrad's son Frederick inherited the duchy of
+Franconia which his father had received in 1115, and this was retained
+by the Hohenstaufen until the death of Duke Conrad II. in 1196. In 1152
+Frederick received the duchy of Swabia from his cousin the German king
+Frederick I., and on his death in 1167 it passed successively to
+Frederick's three sons Frederick, Conrad and Philip. The second
+Hohenstaufen emperor was Frederick Barbarossa's son, Henry VI., after
+whose death a struggle for the throne took place between Henry's brother
+Philip, duke of Swabia, and Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor
+Otto IV. Regained for the Hohenstaufen by Henry's son, Frederick II., in
+1214, the German kingdom passed to his son, Conrad IV., and when
+Conrad's son Conradin was beheaded in Italy in 1268, the male line of
+the Hohenstaufen became extinct. Daughters of Philip of Swabia married
+Ferdinand III., king of Castile and Leon, and Henry II., duke of
+Brabant, and a daughter of Conrad, brother of the emperor Frederick I.,
+married into the family of Guelph. The castle of Hohenstaufen was
+destroyed in the 16th century during the Peasants' War, and only a few
+fragments now remain.
+
+  See F. von Raumer, _Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit_
+  (Leipzig, 1878); B. F. W. Zimmermann, _Geschichte der Hohenstaufen_
+  (Stuttgart, 1st ed., 1838; 2nd ed., 1865); F. W. Schirrmacher, _Die
+  letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Gottingen, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+HOHENSTEIN (Hohenstein-Ernstthal), a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Saxony, on the slopes of the Erzgebirge, and on the railway
+Reichenbach-Chemnitz, 12 m. N.E. of Zwickau. Pop. (1905) 13,903.
+Hohenstein possesses two fine Evangelical churches, a town hall,
+restored in 1876, and several monuments to famous men. The principal
+industries are the spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of
+machines, stockings, gloves and woollen and silk fabrics, cotton
+printing and dyeing. Many of the inhabitants are also employed in the
+neighbouring copper and arsenic mines. Not far from Hohenstein there is
+a mineral spring, connected with which there are various kinds of baths.
+Hohenstein is the birthplace of the physicist G. H. von Schubert and of
+C. G. Schroter (1699-1782), one of the inventors of the pianoforte.
+Hohenstein consists of two towns, Hohenstein and Ernstthal, which were
+united in 1898.
+
+Another place of the same name is a town in East Prussia. Pop. (1900)
+2467. This Hohenstein, which was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1359,
+has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, a synagogue and several
+educational establishments.
+
+
+
+
+HOHENZOLLERN, the name of a castle which stood on the hill of Zollern
+about 1(1/2) m. south of Hechingen, and gave its name to the family to
+which the present German emperor belongs. A vague tradition connects the
+house with the Colonna family of Rome, or the Colalto family of
+Lombardy; but one more definite unites the Hohenzollerns with the
+Burkhardingers, who were counts in Raetia during the early part of the
+10th century, and two of whom became dukes of Swabia. Tassilo, a member
+of this family, is said to have built a castle at Zollern early in the
+9th century; but the first historical mention of the name is in the
+_Chronicon_ of a certain Berthold (d. 1088), who refers to Burkhard and
+Wezil, or Werner, of Zollern, or Zolorin. These men appear to have been
+counts of Zollern, and to have met their death in 1061. The family of
+Wezil died out in 1194, and the existing branches of the Hohenzollerns
+are descended from Burkhard and his son Frederick, whose eldest son,
+Frederick II., was in great favour with the German kings, Lothair the
+Saxon and Conrad III. Frederick II. died about 1145, and his son and
+successor, Frederick III., was a constant supporter of the Hohenstaufen.
+This count married Sophia, daughter and heiress of Conrad, burgrave of
+Nuremberg, and about 1192 he succeeded his father-in-law as burgrave,
+obtaining also some lands in Austria and Franconia. He died about 1200,
+and his sons, Conrad and Frederick, ruled their lands in common until
+1227, when an important division took place. Conrad became burgrave of
+Nuremberg, and, receiving the lands which had come into the family
+through his mother, founded the Franconian branch of the family, which
+became the more important of the two; while Frederick, receiving the
+county of Zollern and the older possessions of the family, was the
+ancestor of the Swabian branch.
+
+Early in the 12th century Burkhard, a younger son of Frederick I.,
+secured the county of Hohenberg, and this district remained in the
+possession of the Hohenzollerns until the death of Count Sigismund in
+1486. Its rulers, however, with the exception of Count Albert II. (d.
+1298), played an unimportant part in German history. Albert, who was a
+Minnesinger, was loyal to the declining fortunes of the Hohenstaufen,
+and afterwards supported his brother-in-law, Rudolph of Habsburg, in his
+efforts to obtain the German throne. He shared in the campaigns of
+Rudolph and fell in battle in 1298, during the struggle between Adolph
+of Nassau and Albert of Habsburg (afterwards King Albert I.). When this
+family became extinct in 1486 Hohenberg passed to the Habsburgs.
+
+The Franconian branch of the Hohenzollerns was represented in 1227 by
+Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, whom the emperor Frederick II. appointed
+guardian of his son Henry, and administrator of Austria. After a short
+apostasy, during which he supported Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia,
+Conrad returned to the side of the Hohenstaufen and aided Conrad IV. He
+died in 1261, when his son and successor, the burgrave Frederick III.,
+had already obtained Bayreuth through his marriage with Elizabeth,
+daughter of Otto of Meran (d. 1234). Frederick took a leading part in
+German affairs, and it is interesting to note that he had a considerable
+share in securing the election of his uncle, Rudolph of Habsburg, as
+German king in 1273. He died in 1297 and was succeeded by his son,
+Frederick IV. This burgrave fought for King Albert I. in Thuringia, and
+supported Henry VII. in his efforts to secure Bohemia for his son John;
+but in 1314, forsaking his father's policy, he favoured Louis,
+afterwards the emperor Louis IV., in his struggle with Frederick, duke
+of Austria, and by his conduct at the battle of Muhldorf in 1322 and
+elsewhere earned the designation of "saviour of the empire." Frederick,
+however, did not neglect his hereditary lands. He did something for the
+maintenance of peace and the security of traders, gave corporate
+privileges to villages, and took the Jews under his protection. His
+services to Louis were rewarded in various ways, and, using part of his
+wealth to increase the area of his possessions, he bought the town and
+district of Ansbach in 1331. Dying in 1332, Frederick was succeeded by
+his son, John II., who, after one of his brothers had died and two
+others had entered the church, ruled his lands in common with his
+brother Albert. About 1338 John bought Culmbach and Plassenburg, and on
+the strength of a privilege granted to him in 1347 he seized many
+robber-fortresses and held the surrounding lands as imperial fiefs. In
+general he continued his father's policy, and when he died in 1357 was
+succeeded by his son, Frederick V., who, after the death of his uncle
+Albert in 1361, became sole ruler of Nuremberg, Ansbach and Bayreuth.
+Frederick lived in close friendship with the emperor Charles IV., who
+formally invested him with Ansbach and Bayreuth and made him a prince of
+the empire in 1363. In spite of the troubled times in which he lived,
+Frederick was a successful ruler, and introduced a regular system of
+public finance into his lands. In 1397 he divided his territories
+between his sons John and Frederick, and died in the following year. His
+elder son, John III., who had married Margaret, a daughter of the
+emperor Charles IV., was frequently in the company of his
+brothers-in-law, the German kings Wenceslaus and Sigismund. He died
+without sons in 1420.
+
+Since 1397 the office of burgrave of Nuremberg had been held by John's
+brother, Frederick, who in 1415 received Brandenburg from King
+Sigismund, and became margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I. (q.v.). On
+his brother's death in 1420 he reunited the lands of his branch of the
+family, but in 1427 he sold his rights as burgrave to the town of
+Nuremberg. The subsequent history of this branch of the Hohenzollerns is
+identified with that of Brandenburg from 1415 to 1701, and with that of
+Prussia since the latter date, as in this year the elector Frederick
+III. became king of Prussia. In 1871 William, the seventh king, took the
+title of German emperor. While the electorate of Brandenburg passed
+according to the rule of primogeniture, the Franconian possessions of
+the Hohenzollerns, Ansbach and Bayreuth, were given as appanages to
+younger sons, an arrangement which was confirmed by the _dispositio
+Achillea_ of 1473. These principalities were ruled by the sons and
+descendants of the elector Albert Achilles from 1486 to 1603; and, after
+reverting to the elector of Brandenburg, by the descendants of the
+elector John George from 1603 to 1791. In 1791 Prince Charles Alexander
+(d. 1806), who had inherited both districts, sold his lands to Prussia.
+
+The influence of the Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns was weakened by
+several partitions of its lands; but early in the 16th century it rose
+to some eminence through Count Eitel Frederick II. (d. 1512), a friend
+and adviser of the emperor Maximilian I. Eitel received from this
+emperor the district of Haigerloch, and in 1534 his grandson Charles (d.
+1576) was granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vohringen by the
+emperor Charles V. In 1576 the sons of Charles divided their lands, and
+founded three branches of the family, one of which is still flourishing.
+Eitel Frederick IV. took Hohenzollern with the title of
+Hohenzollern-Hechingen; Charles II. Sigmaringen and Vohringen and the
+title of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; and Christopher took Haigerloch.
+Christopher's family died out in 1634, but the remaining lines are of
+some importance. Count John George of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was made a
+prince in 1623, and John of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen soon received the
+same honour. In 1695 these two branches of the family entered conjointly
+into an agreement with Brandenburg, which provided that, in case of the
+extinction of either of the Swabian branches, the remaining branch
+should inherit its lands; and if both branches became extinct the
+principalities should revert to Brandenburg. During the 17th and 18th
+centuries and during the period of the Napoleonic wars the history of
+these lands was very similar to that of the other small estates of
+Germany. In consequence of the political troubles of 1848 Princes
+Frederick William of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Charles Anton of
+Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen resigned their principalities, and accordingly
+these fell to the king of Prussia, who took possession on the 12th of
+March 1850. By a royal decree of the 20th of May following the title of
+"highness," with the prerogatives of younger sons of the royal house,
+was conferred on the two princes. The proposal to raise Prince Leopold
+of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1835-1905) to the Spanish throne in 1870
+was the immediate cause of the war between France and Germany. In 1908
+the head of this branch of the Hohenzollerns, the only one existing
+besides the imperial house, was Leopold's son William (b. 1864), who,
+owing to the extinction of the family of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1869,
+was called simply prince of Hohenzollern. In 1866 Prince Charles of
+Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Rumania, becoming king in
+1881.
+
+The modern Prussian province of Hohenzollern is a long, narrow strip of
+territory bounded on the S.W. by Baden and in other directions by
+Wurttemberg. It was divided into two principalities,
+Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen, until 1850, when
+these were united. They now form the government of Sigmaringen (q.v.).
+
+The castle of Hohenzollern was destroyed in 1423, but it has been
+restored several times. Some remains of the old building may still be
+seen adjoining the present castle, which was built by King Frederick
+William IV.
+
+  See _Monumenta Zollerana_, edited by R. von Stillfried and T. Marker
+  (Berlin, 1852-1890); _Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des
+  Hauses Hohenzollern_, edited by E. Berner (Berlin, 1901 fol.); R. von
+  Stillfried, _Altertumer und Kunstdenkmale des erlauchten Hauses von
+  Hohenzollern_ (Berlin, 1852-1867) and _Stammtafeln des Gesamthauses
+  Hohenzollern_ (Berlin, 1869); L. Schmid, _Die alteste Geschichte des
+  erlauchten Gesamthauses der koniglichen und furstlichen Hohenzollern_
+  (Tubingen, 1884-1888); E. Schwartz, _Stammtafel des preussischen
+  Konigshauses_ (Breslau 1898); _Hohenzollernsche Forschungen, Jahrbuch
+  fur die Geschichte der Hohenzollern_, edited by C. Meyer (Berlin,
+  1891-1902); _Hohenzollern Jahrbuch, Forschungen und Abbildungen zur
+  Geschichte der Hohenzollern in Brandenburg-Freussen_, edited by Seidel
+  (Leipzig, 1897-1903), and T. Carlyle, _History of Frederick the Great_
+  (London, 1872-1873).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOKKAIDO, the Japanese name for the northern division of the empire
+(_Hoku_ = north, _kai_ = sea, and _do_ = road), including Yezo, the
+Kuriles and their adjacent islets.
+
+
+
+
+HOKUSAI (1760-1849), the greatest of all the Japanese painters of the
+Popular School (_Ukiyo-ye_), was born at Yedo (Tokyo) in the 9th month
+of the 10th year of the period Horeki, i.e. October-November 1760. He
+came of an artisan family, his father having been a mirror-maker,
+Nakajima Issai. After some practice as a wood-engraver he, at the age of
+eighteen, entered the studio of Katsugawa Shunsho, a painter and
+designer of colour-prints of considerable importance. His disregard for
+the artistic principles of his master caused his expulsion in 1785; and
+thereafter--although from time to time Hokusai studied various styles,
+including especially that of Shiba Gokan, from whom he gained some
+fragmentary knowledge of European methods--he kept his personal
+independence. For a time he lived in extreme poverty, and, although he
+must have gained sums for his work which might have secured him comfort,
+he remained poor, and to the end of his life proudly described himself
+as a peasant. He illustrated large numbers of books, of which the
+world-famous _Mangwa_, a pictorial encyclopaedia of Japanese life,
+appeared in fifteen volumes from 1812 to 1875. Of his colour-prints the
+"Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji" (the whole set consisting of forty-six
+prints) were made between 1823 and 1829; "Views of Famous Bridges" (11),
+"Waterfalls" (8), and "Views of the Lu-chu Islands" (8), are the best
+known of those issued in series; but Hokusai also designed some superb
+broadsheets published separately, and his _surimono_ (small prints made
+for special occasions and ceremonies) are unequalled for delicacy and
+beauty. The "Hundred Views of Mount Fuji" (1834-1835), 3 vols., in
+monochrome, are of extraordinary originality and variety. As a painter
+and draughtsman Hokusai is not held by Japanese critics to be of the
+first rank, but this verdict has never been accepted by Europeans, who
+place him among the greatest artists of the world. He possessed great
+powers of observation and characterization, a singular technical skill,
+an unfailing gift of good humour, and untiring industry. He was an eager
+student to the end of his long life, and on his death-bed said, "If
+Heaven had lent me but five years more, I should have become a great
+painter." He died on the 10th of May 1849.
+
+  See E. de Goncourt, _Hokousai_ (1896); M. Revon, _Etude sur Hokusai_
+  (1896); E. F. Fenollosa, _Catalogue of the Exhibition of Paintings by
+  Hokusai at Tokyo_ (1901); E. F. Strange, Hokusai (1906).     (E. F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH, BARON D' (1723-1789), French
+philosopher and man of letters, of German origin, was born at
+Heidelsheim in the palatinate in 1723. Of his family little is known;
+according to J. J. Rousseau his father was a rich parvenu, who brought
+his son at an early age to Paris, where the latter spent most of his
+life. Much of Holbach's fame is due to his intimate connexion with the
+brilliant coterie of bold thinkers and polished wits whose creed, the
+new philosophy, is concentrated in the famous _Encyclopedie_. Possessed
+of easy means and being of hospitable disposition, he kept open house
+for Helvetius, D'Alembert, Diderot, Condillac, Turgot, Buffon, Grimm,
+Hume, Garrick, Wilkes, Sterne, and for a time J. J. Rousseau, guests
+who, while enjoying the intellectual pleasure of their host's
+conversation, were not insensible to his excellent cuisine and costly
+wines. For the _Encyclopedie_ he compiled and translated a large number
+of articles on chemistry and mineralogy, chiefly from German sources. He
+attracted more attention, however, in the department of philosophy. In
+1767 _Christianisme devoile_ appeared, in which he attacked Christianity
+and religion as the source of all human evils. This was followed up by
+other works, and in 1770 by a still more open attack in his most famous
+book, _Le Systeme de la nature_, in which it is probable he was
+assisted by Diderot. Denying the existence of a deity, and refusing to
+admit as evidence all a priori arguments, Holbach saw in the universe
+nothing save matter in spontaneous movement. What men call their souls
+become extinct when the body dies. Happiness is the end of mankind. "It
+would be useless and almost unjust to insist upon a man's being virtuous
+if he cannot be so without being unhappy. So long as vice renders him
+happy, he should love vice." The restraints of religion were to be
+replaced by an education developing an enlightened self-interest. The
+study of science was to bring human desires into line with their natural
+surroundings. Not less direct and trenchant are his attacks on political
+government, which, interpreted by the light of after events, sound like
+the first distant mutterings of revolution. Holbach exposed the logical
+consequences of the theories of the Encyclopaedists. Voltaire hastily
+seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the Systeme in the article
+"Dieu" in his _Dictionnaire philosophique_, while Frederick the Great
+also drew up an answer to it. Though vigorous in thought and in some
+passages clear and eloquent, the style of the Systeme is diffuse and
+declamatory, and asserts rather than proves its statements. Its
+principles are summed up in a more popular form in _Bon Sens, ou idees
+naturelles opposees aux idees surnaturelles_ (Amsterdam, 1772). In the
+Systeme social (1773), the _Politique naturelle_ (1773-1774) and the
+_Morale universelle_ (1776) Holbach attempts to rear a system of
+morality in place of the one he had so fiercely attacked, but these
+later writings had not a tithe of the popularity and influence of his
+earlier work. He published his books either anonymously or under
+borrowed names, and was forced to have them printed out of France. The
+uprightness and sincerity of his character won the friendship of many to
+whom his philosophy was repugnant. J. J. Rousseau is supposed to have
+drawn his portrait in the virtuous atheist Wolmar of the _Nouvelle
+Heloise_. He died on the 21st of January 1789.
+
+  Holbach is also the author of the following and other works: _Esprit
+  du clerge_ (1767); _De l'imposture sacerdotale_ (1767); _Pretres
+  demasques_ (1768); _Examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de St
+  Paul_ (1770); _Histoire critique de Jesus-Christ_ (1770), and
+  _Ethocratie_ (1776). For further particulars as to his life and
+  doctrines see Grimm's _Correspondance litteraire_, &c. (1813);
+  Rousseau's _Confessions_; Morellet's _Memoires_ (1821); Madame de
+  Genlis, _Les Diners du Baron Holbach_; Madame d'Epinay's _Memoires_;
+  Avezac-Lavigne, _Diderot et la societe du Baron d'Holbach_ (1875), and
+  Morley's _Diderot_ (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HOLBEACH, a market town in the Holland or Spalding parliamentary
+division of Lincolnshire, England, on the Midland and Great Northern
+joint railway, 23(1/2) m. N.E. of Peterborough. Pop. of urban district
+(1901), 4755. All Saints' Church, with a lofty spire, is a fine specimen
+of late Decorated work. The grammar school, founded in 1669, occupies a
+building erected in 1877. Other public buildings are the assembly rooms
+and a market house. Roman and Saxon remains have been found, and the
+market dates from the 13th century.
+
+
+
+
+HOLBEIN, HANS, the elder (c. 1460-1524), belonged to a celebrated family
+of painters in practice at Augsburg and Basel from the close of the 15th
+to the middle of the 16th century. Though closely connected with Venice
+by her commercial relations, and geographically nearer to Italy than to
+Flanders, Augsburg at the time of Maximilian cultivated art after the
+fashion of the Flemings, and felt the influence of the schools of Bruges
+and Brussels, which had branches at Cologne and in many cities about the
+headwaters of the Rhine. It was not till after the opening of the 16th
+century, and between that and the era of the Reformation, that Italian
+example mitigated to some extent the asperity of South German painting.
+Flemish and German art was first tempered with Italian elements at
+Augsburg by Hans Holbein the elder. Hans first appears at Augsburg as
+partner to his brother Sigismund, who survived him and died in 1540 at
+Berne. Sigismund is described as a painter, but his works have not come
+down to us. Hans had the lead of the partnership at Augsburg, and signed
+all the pictures which it produced. In common with Herlen, Schongauer,
+and other masters of South Germany, he first cultivated a style akin to
+that of Memlinc and other followers of the schools of Brussels and
+Bruges, but he probably modified the systems of those schools by
+studying the works of the masters of Cologne. As these early impressions
+waned, they were replaced by others less favourable to the expansion of
+the master's fame; and as his custom increased between 1499 and 1506, we
+find him relying less upon the teaching of the schools than upon a mere
+observation and reproduction of the quaintnesses of local passion plays.
+Most of his early works indeed are taken from the Passion, and in these
+he obviously marshalled his figures with the shallow stage effect of the
+plays, copying their artificial system of grouping, careless to some
+extent of proportion in the human shape, heedless of any but the coarser
+forms of expression, and technically satisfied with the simplest methods
+of execution. If in any branch of his art he can be said to have had a
+conscience at this period, we should say that he showed it in his
+portrait drawings. It is seldom that we find a painted likeness worthy
+of the name. The drawings of which numbers are still preserved in the
+galleries of Basel, Berlin and Copenhagen show extraordinary quickness
+and delicacy of hand, and a wonderful facility for seizing character;
+and this happily is one of the features which Holbein bequeathed to his
+more famous son, Hans the younger. It is between 1512 and 1522 that
+Holbein tempered the German quality of his style with some North Italian
+elements. A purer taste and more pleasing realism mark his work, which
+in drapery, dress and tone is as much more agreeable to the eye as in
+respect of modelling and finish it is smoother and more carefully
+rounded. Costume, architecture, ornament and colour are applied with
+some knowledge of the higher canons of art. Here, too, advantage accrued
+to Hans the younger, whose independent career about this time began.
+
+The date of the elder Holbein's birth is unknown. But his name appears
+in the books of the tax-gatherers of Augsburg in 1494, superseding that
+of Michael Holbein, who is supposed to have been his father. Previous to
+that date, and as early as 1493, he was a painter of name, and he
+executed in that year, it is said, for the abbey at Weingarten, the
+wings of an altarpiece representing Joachim's Offering, the Nativity of
+the Virgin, Mary's Presentation in the Temple, and the Presentation of
+Christ, which now hang in separate panels in the cathedral of Augsburg.
+In these pieces and others of the same period, for instance in two
+Madonnas in the Moritz chapel and castle of Nuremberg, we mark the clear
+impress of the schools of Van der Weyden and Memlinc; whilst in later
+works, such as the Basilica of St Paul (1504) in the gallery of
+Augsburg, the wane of Flemish influence is apparent. But this
+altarpiece, with its quaint illustrations of St Paul's life and
+martyrdom, is not alone of interest because its execution is
+characteristic of old Holbein. It is equally so because it contains
+portraits of the master himself, accompanied by his two sons, the
+painters Ambrose (c. 1494-c. 1519) and Hans the younger. Later pictures,
+such as the Passion series in the Furstenberg gallery at Donaueschingen,
+or the Martyrdom of St Sebastian in the Munich Pinakothek, contain
+similar portraits, the original drawings of which are found in old
+Holbein's sketch-book at Berlin, or in stray leaves like those possessed
+by the duke of Aumale in Paris. Not one of these fails to give us an
+insight into the character, or a reflex of the features, of the members
+of this celebrated family. Old Holbein seems to ape Leonardo, allowing
+his hair and beard to grow wildly, except on the upper lip. Hans the
+younger is a plain-looking boy. But his father points to him with his
+finger, and hints that though but a child he is clearly a prodigy.
+
+After 1516 Hans Holbein the elder appears as a defaulter in the
+registers of the tax-gatherers at Augsburg; but he willingly accepts
+commissions abroad. At Issenheim in Alsace, where Grunewald was employed
+in 1516, old Holbein also finds patrons, and contracts to complete an
+altarpiece. But misfortune or a bailiff pursues him, and he leaves
+Issenheim, abandoning his work and tools. According to Sandrart, he
+wanders to Basel and takes the freedom of its gild. His brother
+Sigismund and others are found suing him for debt before the courts of
+Augsburg. Where he lived when he executed the altarpiece, of which two
+wings with the date of 1522 are in the gallery of Carlsruhe, is
+uncertain; where he died two years later is unknown. He slinks from ken
+at the close of a long life, and disappears at last heeded by none but
+his own son, who claims his brushes and paints from the monks of
+Issenheim without much chance of obtaining them. His name is struck off
+the books of the Augsburg gild in 1524.
+
+  The elder Holbein was a prolific artist, who left many pictures behind
+  him. Earlier than the Basilica of St Paul, already mentioned, is the
+  Basilica of St Mary Maggiore, and a Passion in eleven pieces, in the
+  Augsburg gallery, both executed in 1499. Another Passion, with the
+  root of Jesse and a tree of the Dominicans, is that preserved in the
+  Staedel, Saalhof, and church of St Leonard at Frankfort. It was
+  executed in 1501. The Passion of Donaueschingen was finished after
+  1502, in which year was completed the Passion of Kaisheim, a
+  conglomerate of twenty-seven panels, now divided amongst the galleries
+  of Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Schleissheim. An altarpiece of the
+  same class, commissioned for the monastery of St Moritz at Augsburg in
+  1504-1508, has been dispersed and lost. 1512 is the date of a
+  Conception in the Augsburg gallery, long assigned, in consequence of a
+  forged inscription, to Hans Holbein the younger. A diptych, with a
+  Virgin and Child, and a portrait of an old man, dated 1513, came in
+  separate parts into the collections of Mr Posonyi and Count
+  Lanckoronski at Vienna. The sketch-books of Berlin, Copenhagen and
+  Augsburg give a lively picture of the forms and dress of Augsburg
+  residents at the beginning of the 16th century. They comprise
+  portraits of the emperor Maximilian, the future Charles V., Kunz von
+  der Rosen, the fool of Maximilian, the Fuggers, friars, merchants, and
+  at rare intervals ladies.
+
+  See also the biography by Stodtner (Berlin, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOLBEIN, HANS, the younger (1497-1543), German painter, favourite son of
+Hans Holbein the elder, was probably born at Augsburg about the year
+1497. Though Sandrart and Van Mander declare that they do not know who
+gave him the first lessons, he doubtless received an artist's education
+from his father. About 1515 he left Augsburg with Ambrose, his elder
+brother, to seek employment as an illustrator of books at Basel. His
+first patron is said to have been Erasmus, for whom, shortly after his
+arrival, he illustrated with pen-and-ink sketches an edition of the
+_Encomium Moriae_, now in the museum of Basel. But his chief occupation
+was that of drawing titlepage-blocks and initials for new editions of
+the Bible and classics issued from the presses of Froben and other
+publishers. His leisure hours, it is supposed, were devoted to the
+production of rough painter's work, a schoolmaster's sign in the Basel
+collection, a table with pictures of St Nobody in the library of the
+university at Zurich. In contrast with these coarse productions, the
+portraits of Jacob Meyer and his wife in the Basel museum, one of which
+purports to have been finished in 1516, are miracles of workmanship. It
+has always seemed difficult indeed to ascribe such excellent creations
+to Holbein's nineteenth year; and it is hardly credible that he should
+have been asked to do things of this kind so early, especially when it
+is remembered that neither he nor his brother Ambrose were then allowed
+to matriculate in the guild of Basel. Not till 1517 did Ambrose, whose
+life otherwise remains obscure, join that corporation; Hans, not
+overburdened with practice, wandered into Switzerland, where (1517) he
+was employed to paint in the house of Jacob Hertenstein at Lucerne. In
+1519 Holbein reappeared at Basel, where he matriculated and, there is
+every reason to think, married. Whether, previous to this time, he took
+advantage of his vicinity to the Italian border to cross the Alps is
+uncertain. Van Mander says that he never was in Italy; yet the large
+wall-paintings which he executed after 1519 at Basel, and the series of
+his sketches and pictures which is still extant, might lead to the
+belief that Van Mander was misinformed. The spirit of Holbein's
+compositions for the Basel town hall, the scenery and architecture of
+his numerous drawings, and the cast of form in some of his imaginative
+portraits, make it more likely that he should have felt the direct
+influence of North Italian painting than that he should have taken
+Italian elements from imported works or prints. The Swiss at this period
+wandered in thousands to swell the ranks of the French or imperial
+armies fighting on Italian soil, and the road they took may have been
+followed by Hans on a more peaceful mission. He shows himself at all
+events familiar with Italian examples at various periods of his career;
+and if we accept as early works the "Flagellation," and the "Last
+Supper" at Basel, coarse as they are, they show some acquaintance with
+Lombard methods of painting, whilst in other pieces, such as the series
+of the Passion in oil in the same collection, the modes of Hans Holbein
+the elder are agreeably commingled with a more modern, it may be said
+Italian, polish. Again, looking at the "Virgin" and "Man of Sorrows" in
+the Basel museum, we shall be struck by a searching metallic style akin
+to that of the Ferrarese; and the "Lais" or the "Venus and Amor" of the
+same collection reminds us of the Leonardesques of the school of Milan.
+When Holbein settled down to an extensive practice at Basel in 1519, he
+decorated the walls of the house "Zum Tanz" with simulated architectural
+features of a florid character after the fashion of the Veronese; and
+his wall paintings in the town-hall, if we can truly judge of them by
+copies, reveal an artist not unfamiliar with North Italian composition,
+distribution, action, gesture and expression. In his drawings too,
+particularly in a set representing the Passion at Basel, the
+arrangement, and also the perspective, form and decorative ornament, are
+in the spirit of the school of Mantegna. Contemporary with these,
+however, and almost inexplicably in contrast with them as regards
+handling, are portrait-drawings such as the likenesses of Jacob Meyer,
+and his wife, which are finished with German delicacy, and with a power
+and subtlety of hand seldom rivalled in any school. Curiously enough,
+the same contrast may be observed between painted compositions and
+painted portraits. The "Bonifacius Amerbach" of 1519 at Basel is
+acknowledged to be one of the most complete examples of smooth and
+transparent handling that Holbein ever executed. His versatility at this
+period is shown by a dead Christ (1521), a corpse in profile on a
+dissecting table, and a set of figures in couples; the "Madonna and St
+Pantalus," and "Kaiser Henry with the Empress Kunigunde" (1522),
+originally composed for the organ loft of the Basel cathedral, now in
+the Basel museum. Equally remarkable, but more attractive, though
+injured, is the "Virgin and Child between St Ursus and St Nicholas" (not
+St Martin) giving alms to a beggar, in the gallery of Solothurn. This
+remarkable picture is dated 1522, and seems to have been ordered for an
+altar in the minster of St Ursus of Solothurn by Nicholas Conrad, a
+captain and statesman of the 16th century, whose family allowed the
+precious heirloom to fall into decay in a chapel of the neighbouring
+village of Grenchen. Numerous drawings in the spirit of this picture,
+and probably of the same period in his career, might have led Holbein's
+contemporaries to believe that he would make his mark in the annals of
+Basel as a model for painters of altarpieces as well as a model for
+pictorial composition and portrait. The promise which he gave at this
+time was immense. He was gaining a freedom in draughtsmanship that gave
+him facility to deal with any subject. Though a realist, he was sensible
+of the dignity and severity of religious painting. His colour had almost
+all the richness and sweetness of the Venetians. But he had fallen on
+evil times, as the next few years undoubtedly showed. Amongst the
+portraits which he executed in these years are those of Froben, the
+publisher, known only by copies at Basel and Hampton Court, and Erasmus,
+who sat in 1523, as he likewise did in 1530, in various positions,
+showing his face threequarters as at Longford, Basel, Turin, Parma, the
+Hague and Vienna, and in profile as in the Louvre or at Hampton Court.
+Besides these, Holbein made designs for glass windows, and for woodcuts,
+including subjects of every sort, from the Virgin and Child with saints
+of the old time to the Dance of Death, from gospel incidents extracted
+from Luther's Bible to satirical pieces illustrating the sale of
+indulgences and other abuses denounced by Reformers. Holbein, in this
+way, was carried irresistibly with the stream of the Reformation, in
+which, it must now be admitted, the old traditions of religious painting
+were wrecked, leaving nothing behind but unpictorial elements which
+Cranach and his school vainly used for pictorial purposes.
+
+Once only, after 1526, and after he had produced the "Lais" and "Venus
+and Amor," did Holbein with impartial spirit give his services and
+pencil to the Roman Catholic cause. The burgomaster Meyer, whose
+patronage he had already enjoyed, now asked him to represent himself and
+his wives and children in prayer before the Virgin; and Holbein produced
+the celebrated altarpiece now in the palace of Prince William of Hesse
+at Darmstadt, the shape and composition of which are known to all the
+world by its copy in the Dresden museum. The drawings for this
+masterpiece are amongst the most precious relics in the museum of Basel.
+The time now came when art began to suffer from unavoidable depression
+in all countries north of the Alps. Holbein, at Basel, was reduced to
+accept the smallest commissions--even for scutcheons. Then he saw that
+his chances were dwindling to nothing, and taking a bold resolution,
+armed with letters of introduction from Erasmus to More, he crossed the
+Channel to England, where in the one-sided branch of portrait painting
+he found an endless circle of clients. Eighty-seven drawings by Holbein
+in Windsor Castle, containing an equal number of portraits, of persons
+chiefly of high quality, testify to his industry in the years which
+divide 1528 from 1543. They are all originals of pictures that are still
+extant, or sketches for pictures that were lost or never carried out.
+Sir Thomas More, with whom he seems to have had a very friendly
+connexion, sat to him for likenesses of various kinds. The drawing of
+his head is at Windsor. A pen-and-ink sketch, in which we see More
+surrounded by all the members of his family, is now in the gallery of
+Basel, and numerous copies of a picture from it prove how popular the
+lost original must once have been. At the same period were executed the
+portraits of Warham (Lambeth and Louvre), Wyatt (Louvre), Sir Henry
+Guildford and his wife (Windsor), all finished in 1527, the astronomer
+Nicholas Kratzer (Louvre), Thomas Godsalve (Dresden), and Sir Bryan Tuke
+(Munich) in 1528. In this year, 1528, Holbein returned to Basel, taking
+to Erasmus the sketch of More's family. With money which he brought from
+London he purchased a house at Basel wherein to lodge his wife and
+children, whose portraits he now painted with all the care of a husband
+and father (1528). He then witnessed the flight of Erasmus and the fury
+of the iconoclasts, who destroyed in one day almost all the religious
+pictures at Basel. The municipality, unwilling that he should suffer
+again from the depression caused by evil times, asked him to finish the
+frescoes of the town-hall, and the sketches from these lost pictures are
+still before us to show that he had not lost the spirit of his earlier
+days, and was still capable as a composer. His "Rehoboam receiving the
+Israelite Envoys," and "Saul at the Head of his Array meeting Samuel,"
+testify to Holbein's power and his will, also proved at a later period
+by the "Triumphs of Riches and Poverty," executed for the Steelyard in
+London (but now lost), to prefer the fame of a painter of history to
+that of a painter of portraits. But the reforming times still remained
+unfavourable to art. With the exception of a portrait of Melanchthon
+(Hanover) which he now completed, Holbein found little to do at Basel.
+The year 1530, therefore, saw him again on the move, and he landed in
+England for the second time with the prospect of bettering his fortunes.
+Here indeed political changes had robbed him of his earlier patrons. The
+circle of More and Warham was gone. But that of the merchants of the
+Steelyard took its place, for whom Holbein executed the long and
+important series of portraits that lie scattered throughout the
+galleries and collections of England and the Continent, and bear date
+after 1532. Then came again the chance of practice in more fashionable
+circles. In 1533 the "Ambassadors" (National Gallery), and the "Triumphs
+of Wealth and Poverty" were executed, then the portraits of Leland and
+Wyatt (Longford), and (1534) the portrait of Thomas Cromwell. Through
+Cromwell Holbein probably became attached to the court, in the pay of
+which he appears permanently after 1537. From that time onwards he was
+connected with all that was highest in the society of London. Henry
+VIII. invited him to make a family picture of himself, his father and
+family, which obtained a post of honour at Whitehall. The beautiful
+cartoon of a part of this fine piece at Hardwicke Hall enables us to
+gauge its beauty before the fire which destroyed it in the 17th century.
+Then Holbein painted Jane Seymour in state (Vienna), employing some
+English hand perhaps to make the replicas at the Hague, Sion House and
+Woburn; he finished the Southwell of the Uffizi (copy at the Louvre),
+the jeweller Morett at Dresden, and last, not least, Christine of
+Denmark, who gave sittings at Brussels in 1538. During the journey which
+this work involved Holbein took the opportunity of revisiting Basel,
+where he made his appearance in silk and satin, and _pro forma_ only
+accepted the office of town painter. He had been living long and
+continuously away from home, not indeed observing due fidelity to his
+wife, who still resided at Basel, but fairly performing the duties of
+keeping her in comfort. His return to London in autumn enabled him to do
+homage to the king in the way familiar to artists. He presented to Henry
+at Christmas a portrait of Prince Edward. Again abroad in the summer of
+1539, he painted with great fidelity the princess Anne of Cleves, at
+Duren near Cologne, whose form we still see depicted in the great
+picture of the Louvre. That he could render the features of his sitter
+without flattery is plain from this one example. Indeed, habitual
+flattery was contrary to his habits. His portraits up to this time all
+display that uncommon facility for seizing character which his father
+enjoyed before him, and which he had inherited in an expanded form. No
+amount of labour, no laboriousness of finish--and of both he was ever
+prodigal--betrayed him into loss of resemblance or expression. No
+painter was ever quicker at noting peculiarities of physiognomy, and it
+may be observed that in none of his faces, as indeed in none of the
+faces one sees in nature, are the two sides alike. Yet he was not a
+child of the 16th century, as the Venetians were, in substituting touch
+for line. We must not look in his works for modulations of surface or
+subtle contrasts of colour in juxtaposition. His method was to the very
+last delicate, finished and smooth, as became a painter of the old
+school.
+
+Amongst the more important creations of Holbein's later time we should
+note his "Duke of Norfolk" at Windsor, the hands of which are so
+perfectly preserved as to compensate for the shrivel that now disfigures
+the head. Two other portraits of 1541 (Berlin and Vienna), the Falconer
+at the Hague, and John Chambers at Vienna (1542), are noble specimens of
+portrait art; most interesting and of the same year are the likenesses
+of Holbein himself, of which several examples are extant--one
+particularly good at Fahna, the seat of the Stackelberg family near
+Riga, and another at the Uffizi in Florence. Here Holbein appears to us
+as a man of regular features, with hair just turning grey, but healthy
+in colour and shape, and evidently well to do in the world. Yet a few
+months only separated him then from his death-bed. He was busy painting
+a picture of Henry the VIII. confirming the Privileges of the Barber
+Surgeons (Lincoln's Inn Fields), when he sickened of the plague and died
+after making a will about November 1543. His loss must have been
+seriously felt in England. Had he lived his last years in Germany, he
+would not have changed the current which decided the fate of painting in
+that country; he would but have shared the fate of Durer and others who
+merely prolonged the agony of art amidst the troubles of the
+Reformation.     (J. A. C.)
+
+  The early authorities are Karel Van Mander's _Het Schilder Boek_
+  (1604), and J. von Sandrart, _Accademia Todesca_ (1675). See also R.
+  N. Wornum, _Life and Work of Holbein_ (1867); H. Knackfuss, _Holbein_
+  (1899); G. S. Davies, _Holbein_ (1903); A. F. G. A. Woltmann, _Holbein
+  und seine Zeit_ (1876).
+
+
+
+
+HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG, BARON (1684-1754), the great Scandinavian
+writer, was born at Bergen, in Norway, on the 3rd of December 1684. Both
+Holberg's parents died in his childhood, his father first, leaving a
+considerable property; and in his eleventh year he lost his mother also.
+Before the latter event, however, the family had been seriously
+impoverished by a great fire, which destroyed several valuable
+buildings, but notwithstanding this, the mother left to each of her six
+children some little fortune. In 1695 the boy Holberg was taken into the
+house of his uncle, Peder Lem, who sent him to the Latin school, and
+prepared him for the profession of a soldier; but soon after this he was
+adopted by his cousin Otto Munthe, and went to him up in the mountains.
+His great desire for instruction, however, at last induced his family
+to send him back to Bergen, to his uncle, and there he remained, eagerly
+studying, until the destruction of that city by fire in 1702, when he
+was sent to the university of Copenhagen. But he soon exhausted his
+resources, and, having nothing to live upon, was glad to hurry back to
+Norway, where he accepted the position of tutor in the house of a rural
+dean at Voss. He soon returned to Copenhagen, where in 1704 he took his
+degree, and worked hard at French, English and Italian. But he had to
+gain his living, and accordingly he accepted the post of tutor once
+more, this time in the house of Dr Smith, vice-bishop of Bergen. The
+good doctor had travelled much, and the reading of his itineraries and
+note-books awakened such a longing for travel in the young Holberg that
+at last, at the close of 1704, having scraped together 60 dollars, he
+went on board a ship bound for Holland. He proceeded as far as
+Aix-la-Chapelle, where he fell sick of a fever, and suffered so much
+from weakness and poverty, that he made his way on foot to Amsterdam,
+and came back to Norway. Ashamed to be seen so soon in Bergen, he
+stopped at Christianssand, where he lived through the winter, supporting
+himself by giving lessons in French. In the spring of 1706 he travelled,
+in company with a student named Brix, through London to Oxford, where he
+studied for two years, gaining his livelihood by giving lessons on the
+violin and the flute. He mentions, with gratitude, the valuable
+libraries of Oxford, and it is pleasant to record that it was while he
+was there that it first occurred to him, as he says, "how splendid and
+glorious a thing it would be to take a place among the authors." Through
+London and Elsinore he reached Copenhagen a third time, and began to
+lecture at the university; his lectures were attended, but he got no
+money. He was asked in 1709 to conduct a rich young gentleman to
+Dresden, and on his return journey he lectured at Leipzig, Halle and
+Hamburg. Once more in Copenhagen, he undertook to teach the children of
+Admiral Gedde. Weary with this work, he took a post at Borch College in
+1710, where he wrote, and printed in 1711, his first work, _An
+Introduction to the History of the Nations of Europe_, and was permitted
+to present to King Frederick IV. two manuscript essays on Christian IV.
+and Frederick III. The king soon after presented him with the title of
+Professor, and with the Rosenkrantz grant of 100 dollars for four years,
+the holder of which was expected to travel. Holberg accordingly started
+in 1714, and visited, chiefly on foot, a great portion of Europe. From
+Amsterdam he walked through Rotterdam to Antwerp, took a boat to
+Brussels, and on foot again reached Paris. Walking and skating, he
+proceeded in the depth of winter to Marseilles, and on by sea to Genoa.
+On the last-mentioned voyage he caught a fever, and nearly died in that
+city. On his recovery he pushed on to Civita Vecchia and Rome. When the
+spring had come, being still very poor and in feeble health, he started
+homewards on foot by Florence, across the Apennines, through Bologna,
+Parma, Piacenza, Turin, over the Alps, through Savoy and Dauphine to
+Lyons, and finally to Paris, where he arrived in excellent health. After
+spending a month in Paris, he walked on to Amsterdam, took sail to
+Hamburg, and so went back to Denmark in 1716. He spent the next two
+years in extreme poverty, and published his _Introduction to Natural and
+Popular Law_. But at last, in 1718, his talents were recognized by his
+appointment as professor of metaphysics at the university of Copenhagen;
+and in 1720 he was promoted to the lucrative chair of public eloquence,
+which gave him a seat in the consistory. His pecuniary troubles were now
+at an end. Hitherto he had written only on law, history and philology,
+although in a Latin controversy with the jurist Andreas Hojer of
+Flensborg his satirical genius had flashed out. But now, and until 1728,
+he created an entirely new class of humorous literature under the
+pseudonym of Hans Mikkelsen. The serio-comic epic of _Peder Paars_, the
+earliest of the great classics of the Danish language, appeared In 1719.
+This poem was a brilliant satire on contemporary manners, and enjoyed an
+extraordinary success. But the author had offended in it several
+powerful persons who threatened his life, and if Count Danneskjold had
+not personally interested the king in him, Holberg's career might have
+had an untimely close. During the next two years he published five
+shorter satires, all of which were well received by the public. The
+great event of 1721 was the erection of the first Danish theatre in
+Gronnegade, Copenhagen; Holberg took the direction of this house, in
+which was played, in September 1722, a Danish translation of L'Avare.
+Until this time no plays had been acted in Denmark except in French and
+German, but Holberg now determined to use his talent in the construction
+of Danish comedy. The first of his original pieces performed was _Den
+politiske Kandestober_ (The Pewterer turned Politician); he wrote other
+comedies with miraculous rapidity, and before 1722 was closed, there had
+been performed in succession, and with immense success, _Den
+Vaegelsindede_ (The Waverer), _Jean de France_, _Jeppe paa Bjerget_, and
+_Gert the Westphalian_. Of these five plays, four at least are
+masterpieces; and they were almost immediately followed by others.
+Holberg took no rest, and before the end of 1723 the comedies of
+_Barselstuen_ (The Lying-in Room), _The Eleventh of July_, _Jakob von
+Thyboe_, _Den Bundeslose_ (The Fidget), _Erasmus Montanus_, _Don
+Ranudo_, _Ulysses of Ithaca_, _Without Head or Tail_, _Witchcraft_ and
+_Melampe_ had all been written, and some of them acted. In 1724 the most
+famous comedy that Holberg produced was _Henrik and Pernille_. But in
+spite of this unprecedented blaze of dramatic genius the theatre fell
+into pecuniary difficulties, and had to be closed, Holberg composing for
+the last night's performance, in February 1727, a _Funeral of Danish
+Comedy_. All this excessive labour for the stage had undermined the
+great poet's health, and in 1725 he had determined to take the baths at
+Aix-la-Chapelle; but instead of going thither he wandered through
+Belgium to Paris, and spent the winter there. In the spring he returned
+to Copenhagen with recovered health and spirits, and worked quietly at
+his protean literary labours until the great fire of 1728. In the period
+of national poverty and depression that followed this event, a
+puritanical spirit came into vogue which was little in sympathy with
+Holberg's dramatic or satiric genius. He therefore closed his career as
+a dramatic poet by publishing in 1731 his acted comedies, with the
+addition of five which he had no opportunity of putting on the stage.
+With characteristic versatility, he adopted the serious tone of the new
+age, and busied himself for the next twenty years with historical,
+philosophical and statistical writings. During this period he published
+his poetical satire called _Metamorphosis_ (1726), his _Epistolae ad
+virum perillustrem_ (1727), his _Description of Denmark and Norway_
+(1729), _History of Denmark_, _Universal Church History_, _Biographies
+of Famous Men_, _Moral Reflections_, _Description of Bergen_ (1737), _A
+History of the Jews_, and other learned and laborious compilations. The
+only poem he published at this time was the famous _Nicolai Klimii iter
+subterraneum_ (1741), afterwards translated into Danish by Baggesen.
+When Christian VI. died in 1747, pietism lost its sway; the theatre was
+reopened and Holberg was appointed director, but he soon resigned this
+arduous post. The six comedies he wrote in his old age did not add to
+his reputation. His last published work was his _Epistles_, in 5 vols.
+the last of them posthumous (1754). In 1747 he was created by the new
+king Baron of Holberg. In August 1753 he took to his bed, and he died at
+Copenhagen on the 28th of January 1754, in the seventieth year of his
+age. He was buried at Soro, in Zealand. He had never married, and he
+bequeathed all his property, which was considerable, to Soro College.
+
+Holberg was not only the founder of Danish literature and the greatest
+of Danish authors, but he was, with the exception of Voltaire, the first
+writer in Europe during his own generation. Neither Pope nor Swift, who
+perhaps excelled him in particular branches of literary production,
+approached him in range of genius, or in encyclopaedic versatility.
+Holberg found Denmark provided with no books, and he wrote a library for
+her. When he arrived in the country, the Danish language was never heard
+in a gentleman's house. Polite Danes were wont to say that a man wrote
+Latin to his friends, talked French to the ladies, called his dogs in
+German, and only used Danish to swear at his servants. The single genius
+of Holberg revolutionized this system. He wrote poems of all kinds in a
+language hitherto employed only for ballads and hymns; he instituted a
+theatre, and composed a rich collection of comedies for it; he filled
+the shelves of the citizens with works in their own tongue on history,
+law, politics, science, philology and philosophy, all written in a true
+and manly style, and representing the extreme attainment of European
+culture at the moment. Perhaps no author who ever lived has had so vast
+an influence over his countrymen, an influence that is still at work
+after 200 years.
+
+  The editions of Holberg's works are legion. Complete editions of the
+  _Comedies_ are too numerous to be quoted; the best is that brought out
+  in 3 vols. by F. I. Lichtenberg, in 1870. Of _Peder Paars_ there exist
+  at least twenty-three editions, besides translations in Dutch, German
+  and Swedish. The _Iter subterraneum_ has been three several times
+  translated into Danish, ten times into German, thrice into Swedish,
+  thrice into Dutch, thrice into English, twice into French, twice into
+  Russian and once into Hungarian. The life of Holberg was written by
+  Welhaven in 1858 and by Georg Brandes in 1884. Among works on his
+  genius by foreigners may be mentioned an exhaustive study by Robert
+  Prutz (1857), and _Holberg considere comme imitateur de Moliere_, by
+  A. Legrelle (Paris, 1864).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLBORN, a central metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N.W.
+by St Pancras, N.E. by Finsbury, S.E. by the City of London, S. and W.
+by the City of Westminster and St Marylebone. Pop. (1901), 59,405. Area
+405.1 acres. Its main thoroughfare is that running E. and W. under the
+names of Holborn Viaduct, High Holborn and New Oxford Street.
+
+The name of Holborn was formerly derived from Old Bourne, a tributary of
+the Fleet, the valley of which is clearly seen where Holborn Viaduct
+crosses Farringdon Street. Of the existence of this tributary, however,
+there is no evidence, and the origin of the name is found in
+_Hole-bourne_, the stream in the hollow, in allusion to the Fleet
+itself. The fall and rise of the road across the valley before the
+construction of the viaduct (1869) was abrupt and inconvenient. In
+earlier times a bridge here crossed the Fleet, leading from Newgate,
+while a quarter of a mile west of the viaduct is the site of Holborn
+Bars, at the entrance to the City, where tolls were levied. The better
+residential district of Holborn, which extends northward to Euston Road
+in the borough of St Pancras, is mainly within the parish of St George,
+Bloomsbury. The name of Bloomsbury is commonly derived from William
+Blemund, a lord of the manor in the 15th century. A dyke called
+Blemund's Ditch, of unknown origin, bounded it on the south, where the
+land was marshy. During the 18th century Bloomsbury was a fashionable
+and wealthy residential quarter. The reputation of the district
+immediately to the south, embraced in the parish of St Giles in the
+Fields, was far different. From the 17th century until modern times this
+was notorious as a home of crime and poverty. Here occurred some of the
+earliest cases of the plague which spread over London in 1664-1665. The
+opening of the thoroughfares of New Oxford Street (1840) and Shaftesbury
+Avenue (1855) by no means wholly destroyed the character of the
+district. The circus of Seven Dials, east of Shaftesbury Avenue, affords
+a typical name in connexion with the lowest aspect of life in London. A
+similar notoriety attached to Saffron Hill on the eastern confines of
+the borough. By a singular contrast, the neighbouring thoroughfare of
+Hatton Garden, leading north from Holborn Circus, is a centre of the
+diamond trade.
+
+Of the ecclesiastical buildings of Holborn that of first interest is the
+chapel of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, opening from Holborn Circus. Ely
+Place takes its name from a palace of the bishops of Ely, who held land
+here as early as the 13th century. Here died John of Gaunt in 1399. The
+property was acquired by Sir Christopher Hatton, Lord Chancellor under
+Queen Elizabeth, after whom Hatton Garden is named; though the bishopric
+kept some hold upon it until the 18th century. The chapel, the only
+remnant of the palace, is a beautiful Decorated structure with a vaulted
+crypt, itself above ground-level. Both are used for worship by Roman
+Catholics, by whom the chapel was acquired in 1874 and opened five years
+later after careful restoration. The present parish church of St Giles
+in the Fields, between Shaftesbury Avenue and New Oxford Street, dates
+from 1734, but here was situated a leper's hospital founded by Matilda,
+wife of Henry I., in 1101. Its chapel became the parish church on the
+suppression of the monasteries. The church of St Andrew, the parish of
+which extends into the City, stands near Holborn Viaduct. It is by Wren,
+but there are traces of the previous Gothic edifice in the tower.
+Sacheverell was among its rectors (1713-1724), and Thomas Chatterton
+(1770) was interred in the adjacent burial ground, no longer extant, of
+Shoe Lane Workhouse; the register recording his Christian name as
+William. Close to this church Is the City Temple (Congregational).
+
+Two of the four Inns of Court, Lincoln's Inn and Gray's Inn, lie within
+the borough. Of the first the Tudor gateway opens upon Chancery Lane.
+The chapel, hall and residential buildings surrounding the squares
+within, are picturesque, but of later date. To the west lie the fine
+square, with public gardens, still called, from its original character,
+Lincoln's Inn Fields. Gray's Inn, between High Holborn and Theobald's
+Road, and west of Gray's Inn Road, is of similar arrangement. The fabric
+of the small chapel is apparently of the 14th century, and may have been
+attached to the manor house of Portpool, held at that period by the
+Lords Grey of Wilton. Of the former Inns of Chancery attached to these
+Inns of Court the most noteworthy buildings remaining are those of
+Staple Inn, of which the timbered and gabled Elizabethan front upon High
+Holborn is a unique survival of its character in a London thoroughfare;
+and of Barnard's Inn, occupied by the Mercer's School. Both these were
+attached to Gray's Inn. Of Furnival's and Thavies Inns, attached to
+Lincoln's Inn, only the names remain. The site of the first is covered
+by the fine red brick buildings of the Prudential Assurance Company,
+Holborn Viaduct. Among other institutions in Holborn, the British
+Museum, north of New Oxford Street, is pre-eminent. The varied
+collections of Sir John Soane, accumulated at his house in Lincoln's Inn
+Fields, are open to view as the Soane Museum. There may also be
+mentioned the Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn Fields, with
+museum; the Royal Colleges of Organists, and of Veterinary Surgeons, the
+College of Preceptors, the Jews' College, and the Metropolitan School of
+Shorthand. Among hospitals are the Italian, the Homoeopathic, the
+National for the paralysed and epileptic, the Alexandra for children
+with hip disease, and the Hospital for sick children. The Foundling
+Hospital, Guilford Street, was founded by Thomas Coram in 1739.
+
+
+
+
+HOLCROFT, THOMAS (1745-1809), English dramatist and miscellaneous
+writer, was born on the 10th of December 1745 (old style) in Orange
+Court, Leicester Fields, London. His father, besides having a
+shoemaker's shop, kept riding horses for hire; but having fallen into
+difficulties was reduced ultimately to the necessity of hawking pedlary.
+The son accompanied his parents in their tramps, and succeeded in
+procuring the situation of stable boy at Newmarket, where he spent his
+evenings chiefly in miscellaneous reading and the study of music.
+Gradually he obtained a knowledge of French, German and Italian. At the
+end of his term of engagement as stable boy he returned to assist his
+father, who had again resumed his trade of shoemaker in London; but
+after marrying in 1765, he became a teacher in a small school in
+Liverpool. He failed in an attempt to set up a private school, and
+became prompter in a Dublin theatre. He acted in various strolling
+companies until 1778, when he produced _The Crisis; or, Love and
+Famine_, at Drury Lane. _Duplicity_ followed in 1781. Two years later he
+went to Paris as correspondent of the _Morning Herald_. Here he attended
+the performances of Beaumarchais's _Mariage de Figaro_ until he had
+memorized the whole. The translation of it, with the title _The Follies
+of the Day_, was produced at Drury Lane in 1784. _The Road to Ruin_, his
+most successful melodrama, was produced in 1792. A revival in 1873 ran
+for 118 nights. Holcroft died on the 23rd of March 1809. He was a member
+of the Society for Constitutional Information, and on that account was,
+in 1794, indicted of high treason, but was discharged without a trial.
+Among his novels may be mentioned _Alwyn_ (1780), an account, largely
+autobiographical, of a strolling comedian, and _Hugh Trevor_
+(1794-1797). He also was the author of _Travels from Hamburg through
+Westphalia, Holland and the Netherlands to Paris_, of some volumes of
+verse and of translations from the French and German.
+
+  His _Memoirs written by Himself and continued down to the Time of his
+  Death, from his Diary, Notes and other Papers_, by William Hazlitt,
+  appeared in 1816, and was reprinted, in a slightly abridged form, in
+  1852.
+
+
+
+
+HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON (1822-1896), English classical scholar, came of an
+old Staffordshire family. He was educated at King Edward's school,
+Birmingham, and Trinity College, Cambridge (senior classic, 1845;
+fellow, 1847). He was vice-principal of Cheltenham College (1853-1858),
+and headmaster of Queen Elizabeth's school, Ipswich (1858-1883). He died
+in London on the 1st of December 1896. In addition to several school
+editions of portions of Cicero, Thucydides, Xenophon and Plutarch, he
+published an expurgated text of Aristophanes with a useful onomasticon
+(re-issued separately, 1902) and larger editions of Cicero's _De
+officiis_ (revised ed., 1898) and of the _Octavius_ of Minucius Felix
+(1853). His chief works, however, were his _Foliorum silvula_ (1852), a
+collection of English extracts for translation into Greek and Latin
+verse; _Folia silvulae_ (translations of the same); and _Foliorum
+centuriae_, a companion volume of extracts for Latin prose translation.
+In English schools these books have been widely used for the teaching of
+Latin and Greek composition.
+
+
+
+
+HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC, BART. (1807-1897), English inventor and manufacturer,
+was the son of Isaac Holden, a native of Cumberland, and was born at
+Hurlet, a village between Paisley and Glasgow, on the 7th of May 1807.
+His early life was passed in very straitened circumstances, but his
+father spared no pains to give him as much elementary education as
+possible. At the age of ten he began to work as weaver's draw-boy, and
+afterwards was employed in a cotton mill. Meanwhile his education was
+continued at the night schools, and from time to time, as funds allowed,
+he was taken from work and sent to the grammar-school, to which he at
+last went regularly for a year or two until he was fifteen, when his
+father removed to Paisley and apprenticed him to an uncle, a
+shawl-weaver there. This proving too much for his strength, in 1823 he
+became assistant teacher in a school at Paisley, and in 1828 he was
+appointed mathematical teacher in the Queen's Square Academy, Leeds. At
+the end of six months he was transferred to Lingard's grammar school,
+near Huddersfield, and shortly afterwards became classical master at
+Castle Street Academy, Reading. It was here that in 1829 he invented a
+lucifer match by adopting sulphur as the medium between the explosive
+material and the wood, but he refused to patent the invention. In 1830
+his health again failed, and he returned to Scotland, where a Glasgow
+friend set up a school for him. After six months, however, he was
+recommended for the post of bookkeeper to Messrs. Townend Brothers,
+worsted manufacturers, of Cullingworth, where his interest in machinery
+soon led to his transfer from the counting-house to the mill. There his
+experiments led him to the invention of his square motion wool-comber
+and of a process for making genappe yarns, a patent for which was taken
+out by him in conjunction with S. C. Lister (Lord Masham) in 1847. The
+firm of Lister & Holden, which established a factory near Paris in 1848,
+carried on a successful business, and in 1859, when Lister retired, was
+succeeded by Isaac Holden and Sons, which became the largest
+wool-combing business in the world, employing upwards of 4000
+workpeople. In 1865 Holden's medical advisers insisted on complete
+change of occupation, and he entered parliament as Liberal member for
+Knaresborough. From 1868 to 1882 he was without a seat, but in the
+latter year he was elected for the northern division of the West Riding,
+and in 1885 for Keighley. He was created a baronet in 1893, and died
+suddenly at Oakworth House, near Keighley, on the 13th of August 1897.
+
+His son and heir, Sir Angus Holden, was in 1908 created a peer with the
+title of Baron Holden of Alston.
+
+
+
+
+HOLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1770-1843), German poet, was born
+on the 20th of March 1770, at Lauffen on the Neckar. His mother
+removing, after a second marriage, to Nurtingen, he began his education
+at the classical school there. He was destined by his relations for the
+church, and with this view was later admitted to the seminaries at
+Denkendorf and Maulbronn. At the age of eighteen he entered as a student
+of theology the university of Tubingen, where he remained till 1793. He
+was already the writer of occasional verses, and had begun to sketch his
+novel _Hyperion_, when he was introduced in this year to Schiller, and
+obtained through him the post of tutor to the young son of Charlotte von
+Kalb. A year later he left this situation to attend Fichte's lectures,
+and to be near Schiller in Jena. The latter recognized in the young poet
+something of his own genius, and encouraged him by publishing some of
+his early writings in his periodicals _Die neue Thalia_ and _Die Horen_.
+In 1796 Holderlin obtained the post of tutor in the family of the banker
+J. F. Gontard in Frankfort-on-Main. For Gontard's beautiful and gifted
+wife, Susette, the "Diotima" of his _Hyperion_, he conceived a violent
+passion; and she became at once his inspiration and his ruin. At the end
+of two years, during which time the first volume of _Hyperion_ was
+published (1797), a crisis appears to have occurred in their relations,
+for the young poet suddenly left Frankfort. In spite of ill-health, he
+now completed _Hyperion_, the second volume of which appeared in 1799,
+and began a tragedy, _Der Tod des Empedokles_, a fragment of which is
+published among his works. His friends became alarmed at the alternate
+depression and nervous irritability from which he suffered, and he was
+induced to go to Switzerland, as tutor in a family at Hauptwill. There
+his health improved; and several of his poems, among which are _Der
+blinde Sanger_, _An die Hoffnung_ and _Dichtermut_, were written at this
+time. In 1801 he returned home to arrange for the publication of a
+volume of his poems; but, on the failure of this enterprise, he was
+obliged to accept a tutorship at Bordeaux. "Diotima" died a year later,
+in June 1802, and the news is supposed to have reached Holderlin shortly
+afterwards, for in the following month he suddenly left Bordeaux, and
+travelled homewards on foot through France, arriving at Nurtingen
+destitute and insane. Kind treatment gradually alleviated his condition,
+and in lucid intervals he occupied himself by writing verses and
+translating Greek plays. Two of these translations--the _Antigone_ and
+_Oedipus rex_ of Sophocles--appeared in 1804, and several of his short
+poems were published by Franz K. L. von Seckendorff in his
+_Musenalmanach_, 1807 and 1808. In 1804 Holderlin obtained the sinecure
+post of librarian to the landgrave Frederick V. of Hesse-Homburg, and
+went to live in Homburg under the supervision of friends; but two years
+later becoming irremediably but harmlessly insane, he was taken in the
+summer of 1807 to Tubingen, where he remained till his death on the 7th
+of June 1843.
+
+Holderlin's writings are the production of a beautiful and sensitive
+mind; but they are intensely, almost morbidly, subjective, and they lack
+real human strength. Perhaps his strongest characteristic was his
+passion for Greece, the result of which was that he almost entirely
+discarded rhyme in favour of the ancient verse measures. His poems are
+all short pieces; of his tragedy only a fragment was written. _Hyperion,
+oder der Eremit in Griechenland_ (1797-1799), is a romance in letters,
+in which the stormy fervour of the "Sturm und Drang" is combined with a
+romantic enthusiasm for Greek antiquity. The interest centres not in the
+story, for the novel has little or none--Hyperion is a young Greek who
+takes part in the rising of his people against the Turks in 1770--but in
+its lyric subjectivity and the dithyrambic beauty of its language.
+
+  Holderlin's lyrics, _Lyrische Gedichte_, were edited by L. Uhland and
+  G. Schwab in 1826. A complete edition of his works, _Samtliche Werke_,
+  with a biography by C. T. Schwab, appeared in 1846; also _Dichtungen_
+  by K. Kostlin (Tubingen, 1884), and (the best edition) _Gesammelte
+  Dichtungen_ by B. Litzmann (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1897). For biography
+  and criticism, see C. C. T. Litzmann, _F. Holderlins Leben_ (Berlin,
+  1890), A. Wilbrandt, _Holderlin_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1891), and C.
+  Muller, _Friedrich Holderlin, sein Leben und sein Dichten_ (Bremen,
+  1894).
+
+
+
+
+
+HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF, an English title borne by Sir John Ramsay and
+later by the family of Darcy. John Ramsay (c. 1580-1626), a member of
+the Scottish family of Ramsay of Dalhousie, was knighted for his share
+in rescuing James VI. from the hands of John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, in
+August 1600. In 1606 the king created him Viscount Haddington and Lord
+Ramsay of Barns, and in 1621 made him an English peer as earl of
+Holdernesse. Ramsay died without surviving issue in February 1626, when
+his titles became extinct. In 1644 Charles I. created his nephew, Prince
+Rupert, earl of Holdernesse, but when the prince died unmarried in
+November 1682 the earldom again became extinct. Conyers Darcy
+(1599-1689), who was made earl of Holdernesse in 1682 only a few days
+after the death of Rupert, was the son and heir of Conyers Darcy, Lord
+Darcy and Conyers (c. 1571-1654), and succeeded his father in these
+baronies in March 1654. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his only son
+Conyers (c. 1620-1692), who was member of parliament for Yorkshire
+during the reign of Charles II. In his turn he was succeeded by his
+grandson Robert (1681-1722). Robert's only son, Robert Darcy, 4th earl
+of Holdernesse (1718-1778), was a diplomatist and a politician. From
+1744 to 1746 he was ambassador at Venice and from 1749 to 1751 he
+represented his country at the Hague. In 1751 he became one of the
+secretaries of state, and he remained in office until March 1761, when
+he was dismissed by George III. From 1771 to 1776 he acted as governor
+to two of the king's sons, a "solemn phantom" as Horace Walpole calls
+him. He left no sons, and all his titles became extinct except the
+barony of Conyers, which had been created by writ in 1509 in favour of
+his ancestor Sir William Conyers (d. 1525). This descended to his only
+daughter Amelia (1754-1784), the wife of Francis Osborne, afterwards 5th
+duke of Leeds, and when the 7th duke of Leeds died in 1859 it passed to
+his nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling into abeyance
+on his death. Hornby castle in Yorkshire, now the principal seat of the
+dukes of Leeds, came to them through marriage of the 5th duke with the
+heiress of the families of Conyers and of Darcy.
+
+
+
+
+HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL (1806-1860), Jewish rabbi, a leader of reform in the
+German Synagogue, was born in Posen in 1806 and died in Berlin in 1860.
+In 1836 he was appointed rabbi at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in 1840 he was
+transferred to the rabbinate of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He then became
+prominent as an advocate on the one hand of religious freedom (much
+trammelled at the time by Prussian state laws) and on the other of
+reform within the Jewish community. Various rabbinical conferences were
+held, at Brunswick (1844), Frankfort-on-the-Main (1845) and Breslau
+(1846). At all of these Holdheim was a strong supporter of the policy of
+modifying ritual (especially with regard to Sabbath observance, marriage
+laws and liturgical customs). In 1846 he was chosen Rabbi of the new
+Berlin congregation and there exercised considerable influence on the
+course of Jewish reform.
+
+  See I. H. Ritter in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_, i. 202. The same
+  authority has written the life of Holdheim in vol. iii. of his
+  _Geschichte der judischen Reformation_ (Berlin, 1865). Graetz in his
+  _History_ passes an unfavourable judgment on Holdheim, and there were
+  admittedly grounds for opposition to Holdheim's attitude. A moderate
+  criticism is contained in Dr D. Philipson's _History of the Reform
+  Movement_ in Judaism (London, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HOLGUIN, a town of the high plateau country in the interior of Oriente
+province, Cuba, about 65 m. N.W. of Santiago de Cuba. Pop. (1907) 7592.
+The town is near the Maranon and Jigue rivers, on a plain from which
+hills rise on all sides except the E., on which side it is open to the
+winds of the plateau. Holguin was long the principal acclimatization
+station for Spanish troops. The oldest public buildings are two churches
+built in 1800 and 1809 respectively. Holguin has trade in cabinet woods,
+tobacco, Indian corn and cattle products, which it exports through its
+port Gibara, about 25 m. N.N.E., with which it is connected by railway.
+Holguin was settled about 1720 and became a _ciudad_ (city) in 1751. In
+the Ten Years' War of 1868-78 and in the revolution of 1895-98 Holguin
+was an insurgent centre.
+
+
+
+
+HOLIDAY, originally the "holy day," a festival set apart for religious
+observances as a memorial of some sacred event or sacred person; hence a
+day on which the ordinary work or business ceases. For the religious
+sense see FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, and SUNDAY. Apart from the use of the
+term for a single day of rest or enjoyment, it is commonly used in the
+plural for a recognized and regular period (as at schools, &c.) of
+absence from work. It is unnecessary here to deal with what may be
+regarded as private holidays, which are matters of agreement between
+employer and employed or between the authorities of this or that
+institution and those who attend it. In recent years there has been a
+notable tendency in most occupations to shorten the hours of labour, and
+make holidays more regular. It will suffice to deal here with public
+holidays, the observance of which is prescribed by the state. In one
+respect these have been diminished, in so far as saints' days are no
+longer regarded as entailing non-attendance at the government offices in
+England, as was the case at the beginning of the 19th century. But while
+the influence of religion in determining such holidays has waned, the
+importance of making some compulsory provision for social recreation has
+made itself felt. In England four days, known as Bank Holidays (q.v.),
+are set apart by statute to be observed as general holidays, while the
+sovereign may by proclamation appoint any day to be similarly observed.
+Endeavours have been made from time to time to get additional days
+recognized as general holidays, such as Empire Day (May 24th), Arbor
+Day, &c. In the British colonies there is no uniform practice. In Canada
+eight days are generally observed as public holidays: New Year's Day,
+Good Friday, Easter Monday, Christmas Day, the birthday of the
+sovereign, Victoria Day, Dominion Day and Labour Day. Some of the
+provinces have followed the American example by adding an Arbor Day.
+Alberta and Saskatchewan observe Ash Wednesday. In Quebec, where the
+majority of the population is Roman Catholic, the holy days are also
+holidays, namely, the Festival of the Epiphany, Ash Wednesday, Good
+Friday, Easter Monday, the Ascension, All Saint's Day, Conception Day,
+Christmas Day. In 1897 Labour Day was added. In New South Wales, the 1st
+of January, Good Friday, Easter Eve, Easter Monday, the birthday of the
+sovereign, the 1st of August, the birthday of the prince of Wales,
+Christmas Day and the 26th of December, are observed as holidays. In
+Victoria there are thirteen public holidays during the year, and in
+Queensland fourteen. In New Zealand the public holidays are confined to
+four, Christmas Day, New Year's Day, Good Friday and Labour Day. In most
+of the other British colonies the usual number of public holidays is
+from six to eight.
+
+In the United States there is no legal holiday in the sense of the
+English bank holidays. A legal holiday is dependent upon state and
+territorial legislation. It is usual for the president to proclaim the
+last Thursday in November as a day of thanksgiving; this makes it only a
+legal holiday in the District of Columbia, and in the territories, but
+most states make it a general holiday. Independence Day (July 4th) and
+Labour Day (first Monday in September) are legal holidays in most
+states. There are other days which, in connexion with particular events
+or in remembrance of particular persons, have been made legal holidays
+by particular states. For example, Lincoln's birthday, Washington's
+birthday, Memorial Day (May 30th), Patriots' Day (April 19th, Maine and
+Mass.), R. E. Lee's birthday (Jan. 19th, Ala., Fla., Ga., Va.),
+Pioneers' Day (July 24th, Utah), Colorado Day (Aug. 1st), Battle of New
+Orleans (Jan. 8th, La.), Bennington Battle Day (Aug. 16th, Vt.),
+Defender's Day (Sept, 12th, Md.), Arbor Day (April 22nd, Nebraska;
+second Friday in May R.I., &c.), Admission Day (September 9th, Cal.;
+Oct. 31st, Nev.), Confederate Memorial Day (April 26th, Ala., Fla., Ga.,
+Miss., May 10th, N. & S. Car., June 3rd, La., Miss., Texas), &c.
+
+  See M'Curdy, _Bibliography of Articles relating to Holidays_ (Boston,
+  1905).     (T. A. I.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLINSHED (or HOLLINGSHEAD), RAPHAEL (d. c. 1580), English chronicler,
+belonged probably to a Cheshire family, and according to Anthony Wood
+was educated at one of the English universities, afterwards becoming a
+"minister of God's Word." The authenticity of these facts is doubtful,
+although it is possible that Raphael was the Holinshed who matriculated
+from Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1544. About 1560 he came to London
+and was employed as a translator by Reginald or Reyner Wolfe, to whom he
+says he was "singularly beholden." Wolfe was already engaged in the
+preparation of a universal history, and Holinshed worked for some years
+on this undertaking; but after Wolfe's death in 1573 the scope of the
+work was abridged, and it appeared in 1578 as the _Chronicles of
+England, Scotland, and Ireland_. The work was in two volumes, which were
+illustrated, and although Holinshed did a great deal of the work he
+received valuable assistance from William Harrison (1534-1593) and
+others, while the part dealing with the history of Scotland is mainly a
+translation of Hector Boece's _Scotorum historiae_. Afterwards, as is
+shown by his will, Holinshed served as steward to Thomas Burdet of
+Bramcott, Warwickshire, and died about 1580.
+
+  A second edition of the _Chronicles_, enlarged and improved but
+  without illustrations, which appeared in 1587, contained statements
+  which were offensive to Queen Elizabeth and her advisers, and
+  immediately after publication some of the pages were excised by order
+  of the privy council. These excisions were published separately in
+  1723. An edition of the _Chronicles_, in accordance with the original
+  text, was published in six volumes in 1808. The work contains a large
+  amount of information, and shows that its compilers were men of great
+  industry; but its chief interest lies in the fact that it was largely
+  used by Shakespeare and other Elizabethan dramatists; Shakespeare, who
+  probably used the edition of 1587, obtaining from the _Chronicles_
+  material for most of his historical plays, and also for _Macbeth_,
+  _King Lear_ and part of _Cymbeline_. A single manuscript by Holinshed
+  is known to be extant. This is a translation of Florence of Worcester,
+  and is in the British Museum. See W. G. Boswell-Stone, _Shakspere's
+  Holinshed_. _The Chronicle and the historical plays compared_ (London,
+  1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOLKAR, the family name of the Mahratta ruler of Indore (q.v.), which
+has been adopted as a dynastic title. The termination -_kar_ implies
+that the founder of the family came from the village of Hol near Poona.
+
+
+
+
+HOLL, FRANK (1845-1888), English painter, was born in London on the 4th
+of July 1845, and was educated chiefly at University College School. He
+was a grandson of William Holl, an engraver of note, and the son of
+Francis Holl, A.R.A., another engraver, whose profession he originally
+intended to follow. Entering the Royal Academy schools as a probationer
+in painting in 1860, he rapidly progressed, winning silver and gold
+medals, and making his debut as an exhibitor in 1864 with "A Portrait,"
+and "Turned out of Church," a subject picture. "A Fern Gatherer" (1865);
+"The Ordeal" (1866); "Convalescent" (the somewhat grim pathos of which
+attracted much attention), and "Faces in the Fire" (1867), succeeded.
+Holl gained the travelling studentship in 1868; the successful work was
+characteristic of the young painter's mood, being "The Lord gave, and
+the Lord hath taken away." His insatiable zeal for work of all kinds
+began early to undermine the artist's health, but his position was
+assured by the studentship picture, which created a sort of _furore_,
+although, as with most of his works, the blackness of its coloration,
+probably due to his training as an engraver, was even more decidedly
+against it than the sadness of its theme. Otherwise, this painting
+exhibited nearly all the best technical qualities to which he ever
+attained, except high finish and clearness, and a very sincere vein of
+pathos. Holl was much below Millais In portraiture, and far inferior In
+all the higher ways of design; in technical resources, relatively
+speaking, he was but scantily provided. The range of his studies and the
+manner of his painting were narrower than those of Josef Israels, with
+whom, except as a portrait-painter, he may better be compared than with
+Millais. In 1870 he painted "Better is a Dinner of Herbs where Love is,
+than a Stalled Ox and Hatred therewith"; "No Tidings from the Sea," a
+scene in a fisherman's cottage, in 1871--a story told with
+breath-catching pathos and power; "I am the Resurrection and the Life"
+(1872); "Leaving Home" (1873), "Deserted" (1874), both of which had
+great success; "Her First-born," girls carrying a baby to the grave
+(1876); and "Going Home" (1877). In 1877 he painted the two pictures
+"Hush" and "Hushed." "Newgate, Committed for Trial," a very sad and
+telling piece, first attested the breaking down of the painter's health
+in 1878. In this year he was elected A.R.A., and exhibited "The Gifts of
+the Fairies," "The Daughter of the House," "Absconded," and a very fine
+portrait of Samuel Cousins, the mezzotint engraver. This last canvas is
+a masterpiece, and deserved the success which attended the print
+engraved from it. Holl was overwhelmed with commissions, which he would
+not decline. The consequences of this strain upon a constitution which
+was never strong were more or less, though unequally, manifest in
+"Ordered to the Front," a soldier's departure (1880); "Home Again," its
+sequel, in 1883 (after which he was made R.A.). In 1886 he produced a
+portrait of Millais as his diploma work, but his health rapidly declined
+and he died at Hampstead, on the 31st of July 1888. Holl's better
+portraits, being of men of rare importance, attest the commanding
+position he occupied in the branch of art he so unflinchingly followed.
+They include likenesses of Lord Roberts, painted for queen Victoria
+(1882); the prince of Wales, Lord Dufferin, the duke of Cleveland
+(1885); Lord Overstone, Mr Bright, Mr Gladstone, Mr Chamberlain, Sir J.
+Tenniel, Earl Spencer, Viscount Cranbrook, and a score of other
+important subjects.     (F. G. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733-1769), English actor, was born in Chiswick, the
+son of a baker. He made his first appearance on the stage in the title
+role of _Oroonoko_ at Drury Lane in 1755, John Palmer, Richard Yates and
+Mrs Cibber being in the cast. He played under Garrick, and was the
+original Florizel in the latter's adaptation of Shakespeare's _Winter's
+Tale_. Garrick thought highly of him, and wrote a eulogistic epitaph for
+his monument in Chiswick church.
+
+His nephew, Charles Holland (1768-1849) was also an actor, who played
+with Mrs Siddons and Kean.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART. (1788-1873), English physician and author, was
+born at Knutsford, Cheshire, on the 27th of October 1788. His maternal
+grandmother was the sister of Josiah Wedgwood, whose grandson was
+Charles Darwin; and his paternal aunt was the mother of Mrs Gaskell.
+After spending some years at a private school at Knutsford, he was sent
+to a school at Newcastle-on-Tyne, whence after four years he was
+transferred to Dr J. P. Estlin's school near Bristol. There he at once
+took the position of head boy, in succession to John Cam Hobhouse,
+afterwards Lord Broughton, an honour which required to be maintained by
+physical prowess. On leaving school he became articled clerk to a
+mercantile firm in Liverpool, but, as the privilege was reserved to him
+of passing two sessions at Glasgow university, he at the close of his
+second session sought relief from his articles, and in 1806 began the
+study of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, where he graduated in
+1811. After several years spent in foreign travel, he began practice in
+1816 as a physician in London--according to his own statement, "with a
+fair augury of success speedily and completely fulfilled." This
+"success," he adds, "was materially aided by visits for four successive
+years to Spa, at the close of that which is called the London season."
+It must also, however, be in a great degree attributed to his happy
+temperament and his gifts as a conversationalist--qualities the
+influence of which, in the majority of cases belonging to his class of
+practice, is often of more importance than direct medical treatment. In
+1816 he was elected F.R.S., and in 1828 F.R.C.S. He became physician in
+ordinary to Prince Albert in 1840, and was appointed in 1852 physician
+in ordinary to the queen. In April 1853 he was created a baronet. He was
+also a D.C.L. of Oxford and a member of the principal learned societies
+of Europe. He was twice married, his second wife being a daughter of
+Sydney Smith, a lady of considerable literary talent, who published a
+biography of her father. Sir Henry Holland at an early period of his
+practice resolved to devote to his professional duties no more of his
+time than was necessary to secure an income of L5000 a year, and also to
+spend two months of every year solely in foreign travel. By the former
+resolution he secured leisure for a wide acquaintance with general
+literature, and for a more than superficial cultivation of several
+branches of science; and the latter enabled him, besides visiting, "and
+most of them repeatedly, every country of Europe," to make extensive
+tours in the other three continents, journeying often to places little
+frequented by European travellers. As, moreover, he procured an
+introduction to nearly all the eminent personages in his line of travel,
+and knew many of them in his capacity of physician, his acquaintance
+with "men and cities" was of a species without a parallel. The _London
+Medical Record_, in noticing his death, which took place on his
+eighty-fifth birthday, October 27, 1873, remarked that it "had occurred
+under circumstances highly characteristic of his remarkable career." On
+his return from a journey in Russia he was present, on Friday, October
+24th, at the trial of Marshal Bazaine in Paris, dining with some of the
+judges in the evening. He reached London on the Saturday, took ill the
+following day, and died quietly on the Monday afternoon.
+
+  Sir Henry Holland was the author of _General View of the Agriculture
+  of Cheshire_ (1807); _Travels in the Ionian Isles, Albania, Thessaly
+  and Greece_ (1812-1813, 2nd ed., 1819); _Medical Notes and
+  Reflections_ (1839); _Chapters on Mental Physiology_ (1852); _Essays
+  on Scientific and other Subjects contributed to the Edinburgh and
+  Quarterly Reviews_ (1862); and _Recollections of Past Life_ (1872).
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705-1774), English statesman, second son
+of Sir Stephen Fox, was born on the 28th of September 1705. Inheriting a
+large share of the riches which his father had accumulated, he
+squandered it soon after attaining his majority, and went to the
+Continent to escape from his creditors. There he made the acquaintance
+of a countrywoman of fortune, who became his patroness and was so lavish
+with her purse that, after several years' absence, he was in a position
+to return home and, in 1735, to enter parliament as member for Hindon in
+Wiltshire. He became the favourite pupil and devoted supporter of Sir
+Robert Walpole, achieving unequalled and unenviable proficiency in the
+worst political arts of his master and model. As a speaker he was fluent
+and self-possessed, imperturbable under attack, audacious in exposition
+or retort, and able to hold his own against Pitt himself. Thus he made
+himself a power in the House of Commons and an indispensable member of
+several administrations. He was surveyor-general of works from 1737 to
+1742, was member for Windsor from 1741 to 1761; lord of the treasury in
+1743, secretary at war and member of the privy council in 1746, and in
+1755 became leader of the House of Commons, secretary of state and a
+member of the cabinet under the duke of Newcastle. In 1757, in the
+rearrangements of the government, Fox was ultimately excluded from the
+cabinet, and given the post of paymaster of the forces. During the war,
+which Pitt conducted with extraordinary vigour, and in which the nation
+was intoxicated with glory, Fox devoted himself mainly to accumulating a
+vast fortune. In 1762 he again accepted the leadership of the House,
+with a seat in the cabinet, under the earl of Bute, and exercised his
+skill in cajolery and corruption to induce the House of Commons to
+approve of the treaty of Paris of 1763; as a recompense, he was raised
+to the House of Lords with the title of Baron Holland of Foxley,
+Wiltshire, on the 16th of April 1763. In 1765 he was forced to resign
+the paymaster generalship, and four years later a petition of the livery
+of the city of London against the ministers referred to him as "the
+public defaulter of unaccounted millions." The proceedings brought
+against him in the court of exchequer were stayed by a royal warrant;
+and in a statement published by him he proved that in the delays in
+making up the accounts of his office he had transgressed neither the law
+nor the custom of the time. From the interest on the outstanding
+balances he had, none the less, amassed a princely fortune. He strove,
+but in vain, to obtain promotion to the dignity of an earl, a dignity
+upon which he had set his heart, and he died at Holland House,
+Kensington, on the 1st of July 1774, a sorely disappointed man, with a
+reputation for cunning and unscrupulousness which cannot easily be
+matched, and with an unpopularity which justifies the conclusion that he
+was the most thoroughly hated statesman of his day. Lord Holland married
+in 1744 Lady Georgina Caroline Lennox, daughter of the duke of
+Richmond, who was created Baroness Holland, of Holland, Lincolnshire, in
+1762. There were four sons of the marriage: Stephen, 2nd Lord Holland
+(d. 1774); Henry (d. an infant); Charles James (the celebrated
+statesman); and Henry Edward (1755-1811), soldier and diplomatist.
+
+  See Walpole's and other memoirs of the time, also the article FOX,
+  CHARLES JAMES.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1590-1649), 2nd son of Robert, 1st
+earl of Warwick, and of Penelope, Sir Philip Sidney's "Stella," daughter
+of Walter Devereux, 1st earl of Essex, was baptized on the 19th of
+August 1590, educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, knighted on the
+3rd of June 1610, and returned to parliament for Leicester in 1610 and
+1614. In 1610 he was present at the siege of Juliers. Favours were
+showered upon him by James I. He was made gentleman of the bedchamber to
+Charles, prince of Wales, and captain of the yeomen of the guard; and on
+the 8th of March 1623 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Kensington.
+In 1624 he was sent to Paris to negotiate the marriage treaty between
+Charles and Henrietta Maria. On the 15th of September he was created
+earl of Holland, and in 1625 was sent on two further missions, first to
+Paris to arrange a treaty between Louis XIII. and the Huguenots, and
+later to the Netherlands in company with Buckingham. In October 1627 he
+was given command of the troops sent to reinforce Buckingham at Rhe, but
+through delay in starting only met the defeated troops on their return.
+He succeeded Buckingham as chancellor of Cambridge University; was
+master of the horse in 1628, and was appointed constable of Windsor and
+high steward to the queen in 1629. He interested himself, like his elder
+brother, Lord Warwick, in the plantations; and was the first governor of
+the Providence company in 1630, and one of the proprietors of
+Newfoundland in 1637. In 1631 he was made chief-justice-in-eyre south of
+the Trent, and in this capacity was responsible for the unpopular
+revival of the obsolete forest laws. He intrigued at court against
+Portland and against Strafford, who expressed for him the greatest
+contempt. In 1636 he was disappointed at not obtaining the great office
+of lord high admiral, but was made instead groom of the stole. In 1639
+he was appointed general of the horse, and drew ridicule upon himself by
+the fiasco at Kelso. In the second war against the Scots he was
+superseded in favour of Conway. He opposed the dissolution of the Short
+Parliament, joined the peers who supported the parliamentary cause, and
+gave evidence against Strafford. He was, however, won back to the king's
+side by the queen, and on the 16th of April 1641 made captain general
+north of the Trent. Dissatisfied, however, with Charles's refusal to
+grant him the nomination of a new baron, he again abandoned him, refused
+the summons to York, and was deprived of his office as groom of the
+stole at the instance of the queen, who greatly resented his
+ingratitude. He was chosen by the parliament in March and July 1642 to
+communicate its votes to Charles, who received him, much to his
+indignation, with studied coldness. He was appointed one of the
+committee of safety in July; made zealous speeches on behalf of the
+parliamentary cause to the London citizens; and joined Essex's army at
+Twickenham, where, it is said, he persuaded him to avoid a battle. In
+1643 he appeared as a peacemaker, and after failing to bring over Essex,
+he returned to the king. His reception, however, was not a cordial one,
+and he was not reinstated in his office of groom of the stole. After,
+therefore, accompanying the king to Gloucester and taking part in the
+first battle of Newbury, he once more returned to the parliament,
+declaring that the court was too much bent on continuing hostilities,
+and the influence of the "papists" too strong for his patriotism. He was
+restored to his estates, but the Commons obliged the Lords to exclude
+him from the upper house, and his petition in 1645 for compensation for
+his losses and for a pension was refused. His hopes being in this
+quarter also disappointed, he once again renewed his allegiance to the
+king's cause; and after endeavouring to promote the negotiations for
+peace in 1645 and 1647 he took up arms in the second Civil War, received
+a commission as general, and put himself at the head of 600 men at
+Kingston. He was defeated on the 7th of July 1647, captured at St Neots
+shortly afterwards, and imprisoned at Warwick Castle. He was tried
+before a "high court of justice" on the 3rd of February 1649, and in
+spite of his plea that he had received quarter was sentenced to death.
+He was executed together with Hamilton and Capel on the 9th of March.
+Clarendon styles him "a very well-bred man and a fine gentleman in good
+times."[1] He was evidently a man of shallow character, devoid of
+ability, raised far above his merits and hopelessly unfit for the great
+times in which he lived. Lord Holland married Elizabeth, daughter and
+heiress of Sir Walter Cope of Kensington, and, besides several
+daughters, had four sons, of whom the eldest, Robert, succeeded him as
+2nd earl of Holland, and inherited the earldom of Warwick in 1673.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, xi. 263.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD BARON (1773-1840), was the son
+of Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland, his mother, Lady Mary Fitzpatrick,
+being the daughter of the earl of Upper Ossory. He was born at
+Winterslow House in Wiltshire, on the 21st of November 1773, and his
+father died in the following year. He was educated at Eton and at Christ
+Church, Oxford, where he became the friend of Canning, of Hookham Frere,
+and of other wits of the time. Lord Holland did not take the same
+political side as his friends in the conflicts of the revolutionary
+epoch. He was from his boyhood deeply attached to his uncle, C. J. Fox,
+and remained steadily loyal to the Whig party. In 1791 he visited Paris
+and became acquainted with Lafayette and Talleyrand, and in 1793 he
+again went abroad to travel in France and Italy. At Florence he met with
+Lady Webster, wife of Sir Godfrey Webster, Bart., who left her husband
+for him. She was by birth Elizabeth Vassall (1770-1845), daughter of
+Richard Vassall, a planter in Jamaica. A son was born of their irregular
+union, a Charles Richard Fox (1796-1873), who after some service in the
+navy entered the Grenadiers, and was known in later life as a collector
+of Greek coins. His collection was bought for the royal museum of Berlin
+when he died in 1873. He married Lady Mary Fitzclarence, a daughter of
+William IV. by Mrs Jordan. Sir Godfrey Webster having obtained a
+divorce, Lord Holland was enabled to marry on the 6th of July 1797. He
+had taken his seat in the House of Lords on the 5th of October 1796.
+During several years he may be said almost to have constituted the Whig
+party in the Upper House. His protests against the measures of the Tory
+ministers were collected and published, as the _Opinions of Lord
+Holland_ (1841), by Dr Moylan of Lincoln's Inn. In 1800 he was
+authorized to take the name of Vassall, and after 1807 he signed himself
+Vassall Holland, though the name was no part of his title. In 1800 Lord
+and Lady Holland went abroad and remained in France and Spain till 1805,
+visiting Paris during the Peace of Amiens, and being well received by
+Napoleon. Lady Holland always professed a profound admiration of
+Napoleon, of which she made a theatrical display after his fall, and he
+left her a gold snuff-box by his will. In public life Lord Holland took
+a share proportionate to his birth and opportunities. He was appointed
+to negotiate with the American envoys, Monroe and W. Pinkney, was
+admitted to the privy council on the 27th of August 1806, and on the
+15th of October entered the cabinet "of all the talents" as lord privy
+seal, retiring with the rest of his colleagues in March 1807. He led the
+opposition to the Regency bill in 1811, and he attacked the "orders in
+council" and other strong measures of the government taken to counteract
+Napoleon's Berlin decrees. He was in fact in politics a consistent Whig,
+and in that character he denounced the treaty of 1813 with Sweden which
+bound England to consent to the forcible union of Norway, and he
+resisted the bill of 1816 for confining Napoleon in St Helena. His
+loyalty as a Whig secured recognition when his party triumphed in the
+struggle for parliamentary reform, by his appointment as chancellor of
+the duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne,
+and he was still in office when he died on the 22nd of October 1840.
+Lord Holland is notable, not for his somewhat insignificant political
+career, but as a patron of literature, as a writer on his own account,
+and because his house was the centre and the headquarters of the Whig
+political and literary world of the time; and Lady Holland (who died on
+the 16th of November 1845) succeeded in taking the sort of place in
+London which had been filled in Paris during the 18th century by the
+society ladies who kept "salons." Lord Holland's _Foreign Reminiscences_
+(1850) contain much amusing gossip from the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
+era. His _Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (1852) is an important contemporary
+authority. His small work on _Lope de Vega_ (1806) is still of some
+value. Holland had two legitimate sons, Stephen, who died in 1800, and
+Henry Edward, who became 4th Lord Holland. When this peer died in
+December 1859 the title became extinct.
+
+  See _The Journal of Elizabeth, Lady Holland_, edited by the earl of
+  Ilchester (1908); and Lloyd Sanders, _The Holland House Circle_
+  (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881), American author and editor, was
+born in Belchertown, Massachusetts, on the 24th of July 1819. He
+graduated in 1843 at the Berkshire Medical College (no longer in
+existence) at Pittsfield, Mass., and after practising medicine in
+1844-1847, and making an unsuccessful attempt, with Charles Robinson
+(1818-1894), later first governor of the state of Kansas, to establish a
+hospital for women, he taught for a brief period in Richmond, Virginia,
+and in 1848 was superintendent of schools in Vicksburg, Mississippi. In
+1849 he became assistant editor under Samuel Bowles, and three years
+later one of the owners, of the Springfield (Massachusetts)
+_Republican_, with which he retained his connexion until 1867. He then
+travelled for some time in Europe, and in 1870 removed to New York,
+where he helped to establish and became editor and one-third owner of
+_Scribner's Monthly_ (the title of which was changed in 1881 to _The
+Century_), which absorbed the periodicals _Hours at Home_, _Putnam's
+Magazine_ and the _Riverside Magazine_. He remained editor of this
+magazine until his death. Dr Holland's books long enjoyed a wide
+popularity. The earlier ones were published over the pseudonym "Timothy
+Titcomb." His writings fall into four classes: history and biography,
+represented by a _History of Western Massachusetts_ (1855), and a _Life
+of Abraham Lincoln_ (1865); fiction, of which _Miss Gilbert's Career_
+(1860) and _The Story of Sevenoaks_ (1875) remain faithful pictures of
+village life in eastern United States; poetry, of which _Bitter-Sweet_
+(1858) and _Kathrina, Her Life and Mine_ (1867) were widely read; and a
+series of homely essays on the art of living, of which the most
+characteristic were _Letters to Young People, Single and Married_
+(1858), _Gold Foil, hammered from Popular Proverbs_ (1859), _Letters to
+the Jonses_ (1863), and _Every-Day Topics_ (2 series, 1876 and 1882).
+While a resident of New York, where he died on the 12th of October 1881,
+he identified himself with measures for good government and school
+reform, and in 1872 became a member and for a short time in 1873 was
+president of the Board of Education.
+
+  See Mrs H. M. Plunkett's _Josiah Gilbert Holland_ (New York, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637), English scholar, "the translator-general
+in his age," was born at Chelmsford in Essex. He was the son of a
+clergyman, John Holland, who had been obliged to take refuge in Germany
+and Denmark with Miles Coverdale during the Marian persecution. Having
+become a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and taken the degree of
+M.A., he was incorporated at Oxford (July 11th, 1585). Having
+subsequently studied medicine, about 1595 he settled as a doctor in
+Coventry, but chiefly occupied himself with translations. In 1628 he was
+appointed headmaster of the free school, but, owing probably to
+advancing age, he held office for only eleven months. His latter days
+were oppressed by poverty, partly relieved by the generosity of the
+common council of Coventry, which in 1632 assigned him L3, 6s. 8d. for
+three years, "if he should live so long." He died on the 9th of
+February, 1636-1637. His fame is due solely to his translations, which
+included Livy, Pliny's _Natural History_, Plutarch's _Morals_,
+Suetonius, Ammianus Marcellinus and Xenophon's _Cyropaedia_. He
+published also an English version, with additions, of Camden's
+_Britannia_. His Latin translation of Brice Bauderon's _Pharmacopaea_
+and his _Regimen sanitatis Salerni_ were published after his death by
+his son, HENRY HOLLAND (1583-?1650), who became a London bookseller, and
+is known to bibliographers for his _Bazili[omega]logia; a Booke of
+Kings, beeing the true and liuely Effigies of all our English Kings from
+the Conquest_ (1618), and his _Her[omega]ologia Anglica_ (1620).
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450), Scottish writer,
+author of the _Buke of the Howlat_, was secretary or chaplain to the
+earl of Moray (1450) and rector of Halkirk, near Thurso. He was
+afterwards rector of Abbreochy, Loch Ness, and later held a chantry in
+the cathedral of Norway. He was an ardent partisan of the Douglases, and
+on their overthrow retired to Orkney and later to Shetland. He was
+employed by Edward IV. in his attempt to rouse the Western Isles through
+Douglas agency, and in 1482 was excluded from the general pardon granted
+by James III. to those who would renounce their fealty to the Douglases.
+
+The poem, entitled the _Buke of the Howlat_, written about 1450, shows
+his devotion to the house of Douglas:--
+
+  "On ilk beugh till embrace
+   Writtin in a bill was
+   O Dowglass, O Dowglass
+   Tender and trewe!"
+
+   (ii. 400-403).
+
+and is dedicated to the wife of a Douglas--
+
+  "Thus for ane Dow of Dunbar drew I this Dyte,
+   Dowit with ane Dowglass, and boith war thei dowis."
+
+but all theories of its being a political allegory in favour of that
+house may be discarded. Sir Walter Scott's judgment that the _Buke_ is
+"a poetical apologue ... without any view whatever to local or natural
+politics" is certainly the most reasonable. The poem, which extends to
+1001 lines written in the irregular alliterative rhymed stanza, is a
+bird-allegory, of the type familiar in the _Parlement of Foules_. It has
+the incidental interest of showing (especially in stanzas 62 and 63) the
+antipathy of the "Inglis-speaking Scot" to the "Scots-speaking Gael" of
+the west, as is also shown in Dunbar's _Flyting with Kennedy_.
+
+  The text of the poem is preserved in the Asloan and Bannatyne MSS.
+  Fragments of an early 16th century black-letter edition, discovered by
+  D. Laing, are reproduced in the _Adversaria_ of the Bannatyne Club.
+  The poem has been frequently reprinted, by Pinkerton, in his _Scottish
+  Poems_ (1792); by D. Laing (Bannatyne Club 1823; reprinted in "New
+  Club" series, Paisley, 1882); by the Hunterian Club in their edition
+  of the Bannatyne MS., and by A. Diebler (Chemnitz, 1893). The latest
+  edition is that by F. J. Amours in _Scottish Alliterative Poems_
+  (Scottish Text Society, 1897), pp. 47-81. (See also Introduction pp.
+  xx.-xxxiv.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, officially the kingdom of the Netherlands (_Koningrijk der
+Nederlanden_), a maritime country in the north-west of Europe. The name
+Holland is that of the former countship, which forms part of the
+political, as well as the geographical centre of the kingdom (see the
+next article).
+
+_Topography._--Holland is bounded on the E. by Germany, on the S. by
+Belgium, on the W. and N. by the North Sea, and at the N.E. corner by
+the Dollart. From Stevensweert southward to the extreme corner of
+Limburg the boundary line is formed by the river Maas or Meuse.[1] On
+the east a natural geographical boundary was formed by the long line of
+marshy fens extending along the borders of Overysel, Drente and
+Groningen. The kingdom extends from 53 deg. 32' 21" (Groningen Cape on
+Rottum Island) to 50 deg. 45' 49" N. (Mesch in the province of
+Limburg), and from 3 deg. 23' 27" (Sluis in the province of Zeeland) to
+7 deg. 12' 20" E. (Langakkerschans in the province of Groningen). The
+greatest length from north to south, viz. that from Rottum Island to
+Eisden near Maastricht is 164 m., and the greatest breadth from
+south-west to north-east, or from Zwin near Sluis to Losser in Overysel,
+144 m. The area is subject to perpetual variation owing, on the one
+hand, to the erosion of the coasts, and, on the other, to reclamation of
+land by means of endiking and drainage operations. In 1889 the total
+area was calculated at 12,558 sq. m., and, including the Zuider Zee and
+the Wadden (2050 sq. m.) and the Dutch portion of the Dollart (23 sq.
+m.), 14,613 sq. m. In no country in Europe has the character of the
+territory exercised so great an influence on the inhabitants as in the
+Netherlands; and, on the other hand, no people has so extensively
+modified the condition of its territory as the Dutch. The greatest
+importance attaches therefore to the physical conformation of the
+country.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  The coast-line extends in a double curve from south-west to
+  north-east, and is formed by a row of sand dunes, 171 m. in length,
+  fringed by a broad sandy beach descending very gradually into the sea.
+  In the north and south, however, this line is broken by the inlets of
+  the sea which form the Frisian and the South Holland and Zeeland
+  islands respectively; but the dunes themselves are found continued
+  along the seaward side of these islands, thus indicating the original
+  continuity of the coast-line. The breadth of the dunes naturally
+  varies greatly, the maximum width of about 4375 yds. being found at
+  Schoorl, north-west of Alkmaar. The average height of the individual
+  dune-tops is not above 33 ft., but attains a maximum of 197 ft. at the
+  High Blinkert, near Haarlem. The steepness of the dunes on the side
+  towards the sea is caused by the continual erosion, probably
+  traceable, in part at least, to the channel current (which at mean
+  tide has a velocity of 14 or 15 in. per second), and to the strong
+  west or north-west winds which carry off large quantities of material.
+  This alteration of coast-line appears at Loosduinen, where the moor or
+  fenland formerly developed behind the dunes now crops out on the shore
+  amid the sand, being pressed to the compactness of lignite by the
+  weight of the sand drifted over it. Again, the remains of the Roman
+  camp Brittenburg or Huis te Britten, which originally lay within the
+  dunes and, after being covered by them, emerged again in 1520, were,
+  in 1694, 1600 paces out to sea, opposite Katwijk; while, besides
+  Katwijk itself, several other villages of the west coast, as Domburg,
+  Scheveningen, Egmond, have been removed further inland. The tendency
+  of the dunes to drift off on the landward side is prevented by the
+  planting of bent-grass (_Arundo arenaria_), whose long roots serve to
+  bind the sand together. It must be further remarked that both the
+  "dune-pans," or depressions, which are naturally marshy through their
+  defective drainage, and the _geest_ grounds--that is, the grounds
+  along the foot of the downs--have been in various places either
+  planted with wood or turned into arable and pasture land; while the
+  numerous springs at the base of the dunes are of the utmost value to
+  the great cities situated on the marshy soil inland, the example set
+  by Amsterdam in 1853 in supplying itself with this water having been
+  readily followed by Leiden, the Hague, Flushing, &c.
+
+  As already remarked, the coast-line of Holland breaks up into a series
+  of islands at its northern and southern extremities. The principal
+  sea-inlets in the north are the Texel Gat or Marsdiep and the Vlie,
+  which lead past the chain of the Frisian Islands into the large inland
+  sea or gulf called the Zuider Zee, and the Wadden or "shallows," which
+  extend along the shores of Friesland and Groningen as far as the
+  Dollart and the mouth of the Ems. The inland sea-board thus formed
+  consists of low coasts of sea-clay protected by dikes, and of some
+  high diluvial strata which rise far enough above the level of the sea
+  to make dikes unnecessary, as in the case of the Gooi hills between
+  Naarden and the Eem, the Veluwe hills between Nykerk and Elburg, and
+  the steep cliffs of the Gaasterland between Oude Mirdum and Stavoren.
+  The Dollart was formed in 1277 by the inundation of the Ems basin,
+  more than thirty villages being destroyed at once. The Zuider Zee and
+  the bay in the Frisian coast known as the Lauwers Zee also gradually
+  came into existence in the 13th century. The extensive sea-arms
+  forming the South Holland and Zeeland archipelago are the Hont or West
+  Scheldt, the East Scheldt, the Grevelingen (communicating with Krammer
+  and the Volkerak) and the Haringvliet, which after being joined by the
+  Volkerak is known as the Hollandsch Diep. These inlets were formerly
+  of much greater extent than now, but are gradually closing up owing to
+  the accumulation of mud deposits, and no longer have the same freedom
+  of communication with one another. At the head of the Hollandsch Diep
+  is the celebrated railway bridge of the Moerdyk (1868-1871) 1607 yds.
+  in length; and above this bridge lies the Biesbosch ("reed forest"), a
+  group of marshy islands formed by a disastrous inundation in 1421,
+  when seventy-two villages and upwards of 100,000 lives were destroyed.
+
+
+    Relief and levels.
+
+  Besides the dunes the only hilly regions of Holland are the southern
+  half of the province of Limburg, the neighbourhood of Nijmwegen, the
+  hills of Utrecht, including the Gooi hills, the Veluwe region in
+  Gelderland, the isolated hills in the middle and east of Overysel and
+  the Hondsrug range in Drente. The remainder of the country is flat,
+  and shows a regular downward slope from south-east to north-west, in
+  which direction the rivers mainly flow. The elevation of the surface
+  of the country ranges between the extreme height of 1057 ft. near
+  Vaals in the farthest corner of Limburg, and 16-20 ft. below the
+  Amsterdam zero[2] in some of the drained lands in the western half of
+  the country. In fact, one quarter of the whole kingdom, consisting of
+  the provinces of North and South Holland, the western portion of
+  Utrecht as far as the Vaart Rhine, Zeeland, except the southern part
+  of Zeeland-Flanders, and the north-west part of North Brabant, lies
+  below the Amsterdam zero; and altogether 38% of the country, or all
+  that part lying west of a line drawn through Groningen, Utrecht and
+  Antwerp, lies within one metre above the Amsterdam zero and would be
+  submerged if the sea broke down the barrier of dunes and dikes. This
+  difference between the eastern and western divisions of Holland has
+  its counterpart in the landscape and the nature of the soil. The
+  western division consists of low fen or clay soil and presents a
+  monotonous expanse of rich meadow-land, carefully drained in regular
+  lines of canals bordered by stunted willows, and dotted over with
+  windmills, the sails of canal craft and the clumps of elm and poplar
+  which surround each isolated farm-house. The landscape of the eastern
+  division is considered less typical. Here the soil consists mainly of
+  sand and gravel, and the prevailing scenery is formed of waste heaths
+  and patches of wood, while here and there fertile meadows extend along
+  the banks of the streams, and the land is laid out in the highly
+  regular manner characteristic of fen reclamation (see DRENTE).
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  The entire drainage of Holland is into the North Sea. The three
+  principal rivers are the Rhine, the Maas (Meuse) and the Scheldt
+  (Schelde), and all three have their origin outside the country, whilst
+  the Scheldt has its mouth only in Holland, giving its name to the two
+  broad inlets of the sea which bound the Zeeland islands. The Rhine in
+  its course through Holland is merely the parent stream of several
+  important branches, splitting up into Rhine and Waal, Rhine and Ysel,
+  Crooked Rhine and Lek (which takes two-thirds of the waters), and at
+  Utrecht into Old Rhine and Vecht, finally reaching the sea through the
+  sluices at Katwijk as little more than a drainage canal. The Ysel and
+  the Vecht flow to the Zuider Zee; the other branches to the North Sea.
+  The Maas, whose course is almost parallel to that of the Rhine,
+  follows in a wide curve the general slope of the country, receiving
+  the Roer, the Mark and the Aa. Towards its mouth its waters find their
+  way into all the channels intersecting the South Holland archipelago.
+  The main stream joining the Waal at Gorinchem flows on to Dordrecht as
+  the Merwede, and is continued thence to the sea by the Old Maas, the
+  North, and the New Maas, the New Maas being formed by the junction of
+  the Lek and the North. From Gorinchem the New Merwede (constructed in
+  the second half of the 19th century) extends between dykes through the
+  marshes of the Biesbosch to the Hollandsch Diep. These great rivers
+  render very important service as waterways. The mean velocity of their
+  flow seldom exceeds 4.9 ft., but rises to 6.4 ft. when the river is
+  high. In the lower reaches of the streams the velocity and slope are
+  of course affected by the tides. In the Waal ordinary high water is
+  perceptible as far up as Zalt Bommel in Gelderland, in the Lek the
+  maximum limits or ordinary and spring tides are at Vianen and
+  Kuilenburg respectively, in the Ysel above the Katerveer at the
+  junction of the Willemsvaart and past Wyhe midway between Zwolle and
+  Deventer; and in the Maas near Heusden and at Well in Limburg. Into
+  the Zuider Zee there also flow the Kuinder, the Zwarte Water, with its
+  tributary the Vecht, and the Eem. The total length of navigable
+  channels is about 1150 m., but sand banks and shallows not
+  infrequently impede the shipping traffic at low water during the
+  summer. The smaller streams are often of great importance. Except
+  where they rise in the fens they call into life a strip of fertile
+  grassland in the midst of the barren sand, and are responsible for the
+  existence of many villages along their banks. Following the example of
+  the great Kampen irrigation canal in Belgium, artificial irrigation is
+  also practised by means of some of the smaller streams, especially in
+  North Brabant, Drente and Overysel, and in the absence of streams,
+  canals and sluices are sometimes specially constructed to perform the
+  same service. The low-lying spaces at the confluences of the rivers,
+  being readily laid under water, have been not infrequently chosen as
+  sites for fortresses. As a matter of course, the streams are also
+  turned to account in connexion with the canal system--the Dommel,
+  Berkel, Vecht, Regge, Holland Ysel, Gouwe, Rotte, Schie, Spaarne,
+  Zaan, Amstel, Dieze, Amer, Mark, Zwarte Water, Kuinder and the
+  numerous Aas in Drente and Groningen being the most important in this
+  respect.
+
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  It is unnecessary to mention the names of the numerous marshy lakes
+  which exist, especially in Friesland and Groningen, and are connected
+  with rivers or streamlets. Those of Friesland are of note for the
+  abundance of their fish and their beauty of situation, on which last
+  account the Uddelermeer in Gelderland is also celebrated. The Rockanje
+  Lake near Brielle is remarkable for the strong salty solution which
+  covers even the growing reeds with a hard crust. Many of the lakes
+  are nothing more than deep pits or marshes from which the peat has
+  been extracted.
+
+[Illustration: Holland Map.]
+
+_Dikes._--The circumstance that so much of Holland is below the
+sea-level necessarily exercises a very important influence on the
+drainage, the climate and the sanitary conditions of the country, as
+well as on its defence by means of inundation. The endiking of low lands
+against the sea which had been quietly proceeding during the first
+eleven centuries of the Christian era, received a fresh impetus in the
+12th and 13th centuries from the fact that the level of the sea then
+became higher in relation to that of the land. This fact is illustrated
+by the broadening of river mouths and estuaries at this time, and the
+beginning of the formation of the Zuider Zee. A new feature in diking
+was the construction of dams or sluices across the mouths of rivers,
+sometimes with important consequences for the villages situated on the
+spot. Thus the dam on the Amstel (1257) was the origin of Amsterdam, and
+the dam on the Ye gave rise to Edam. But Holland's chief protection
+against inundation is its long line of sand dunes, in which only two
+real breaches have been effected during the centuries of erosion. These
+are represented by the famous sea dikes called the Westkapelle dike and
+the Hondsbossche Zeewering, or sea-defence, which were begun
+respectively in the first and second halves of the 15th century. The
+first extends for a distance of over 4000 yds. between the villages of
+Westkapelle and Domburg in the island of Walcheren; the second is about
+4900 yds. long, and extends from Kamperduin to near Petten, whence it is
+continued for another 1100 yds. by the Pettemer dike. These two sea
+dikes were reconstructed by the state at great expense between the year
+1860 and 1884, having consisted before that time of little more than a
+protected sand dike. The earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and
+by piles, and at the more dangerous points also by _zinkstukken_
+(sinking pieces), artificial structures of brushwood laden with stones,
+and measuring some 400 yds. in circuit, by means of which the current is
+to some extent turned aside. The Westkapelle dike, 12,468 ft. long, has
+a seaward slope of 300 ft., and is protected by rows of piles and basalt
+blocks. On its ridge, 39 ft. broad, there is not only a roadway but a
+service railway. The cost of its upkeep is more than L6000 a year, and
+of the Hondsbossche Zeewering L2000 a year. When it is remembered that
+the woodwork is infested by the pile worm (_Teredo navalis_), the
+ravages of which were discovered in 1731, the labour and expense
+incurred in the construction and maintenance of the sea dikes now
+existing may be imagined. In other parts of the coast the dunes, though
+not pierced through, have become so wasted by erosion as to require
+artificial strengthening. This is afforded, either by means of a
+so-called sleeping dike (_slaperdyk_) behind the weak spot, as, for
+instance, between Kadzand and Breskens in Zeeland-Flanders, and again
+between 's Gravenzande and Loosduinen; or by means of piers or
+breakwaters (_hoofden_, heads) projecting at intervals into the sea and
+composed of piles, or brushwood and stones. The first of such
+breakwaters was that constructed in 1857 at the north end of the island
+of Goeree, and extends over 100 yds. into the sea at low water. Similar
+constructions are to be found on the seaward side of the islands of
+Walcheren, Schouwen and Voorne, and between 's Gravenzande and
+Scheveningen, and Katwijk and Noordwijk. Owing to the obstruction which
+they offer to drifting sands, artificial dunes are in course of time
+formed about them, and in this way they become at once more effective
+and less costly to maintain. The firm and regular dunes which now run
+from Petten to Kallantsoog (formerly an island), and thence northwards
+to Huisduinen, were thus formed about the Zyper (1617) and Koegras
+(1610) dikes respectively. From Huisduinen to Nieuwediep the dunes are
+replaced by the famous Helder sea-wall. The shores of the Zuider Zee and
+the Wadden, and the Frisian and Zuider Zee islands, are also partially
+protected by dikes. In more than one quarter the dikes have been
+repeatedly extended so as to enclose land conquered from the sea, the
+work of reclamation being aided by a natural process. Layer upon layer
+of clay is deposited by the sea in front of the dikes, until a new
+fringe has been added to the coast-line on which sea-grasses grasses
+begin to grow. Upon these clay-lands (_kwelders_) horses, cattle and
+sheep are at last able to pasture at low tide, and in course of time
+they are in turn endiked.
+
+River dikes are as necessary as sea dikes, elevated banks being found
+only in a few places, as on the Lower Rhine. Owing to the unsuitability
+of the foundations, Dutch dikes are usually marked by a great width,
+which at the crown varies between 13 and 26 ft. The height of the dike
+ranges to 40 in. above high water-level. Between the dikes and the
+stream lie "forelands" (_interwaarden_), which are usually submerged in
+winter, and frequently lie 1 or 2 yds, higher than the country within
+the dikes. These forelands also offer in course of time an opportunity
+for endiking and reclamation. In this way the towns of Rotterdam,
+Schiedam, Vlaardingen and Maasluis have all gradually extended over the
+Maas dike in order to keep in touch with the river, and the small town
+of Delftshaven is built altogether on the outer side of the same dike.
+
+  _Impoldering._--The first step in the reclamation of land is to
+  "impolder" it, or convert it into a "polder" (i.e. a section of
+  artificially drained land), by surrounding it with dikes or quays for
+  the two-fold purpose of protecting it from all further inundation from
+  outside and of controlling the amount of water inside. Impoldering for
+  its own sake or on a large scale was impossible as long as the means
+  of drainage were restricted. But in the beginning of the 15th century
+  new possibilities were revealed by the adaptation of the windmill to
+  the purpose of pumping water. It was gradually recognized that the
+  masses of water which collected wherever peat-digging had been carried
+  on were an unnecessary menace to the neighbouring lands, and also that
+  a more enduring source of profit lay in the bed of the fertile
+  sea-clay under the peat. It became usual, therefore, to make the
+  subsequent drainage of the land a condition of the extraction of peat
+  from it, this condition being established by proclamation in 1595.
+
+  _Drainage._--It has been shown that the western provinces of Holland
+  may be broadly defined as lying below sea-level. In fact the surface
+  of the sea-clay in these provinces is from 11(1/2) to 16(1/2) ft.
+  below the Amsterdam zero. The ground-water is, therefore, relatively
+  very high and the capacity of the soil for further absorption
+  proportionately low. To increase the reservoir capacity of the polder,
+  as well as to conduct the water to the windmills or engines, it is
+  intersected by a network of ditches cut at right angles to each other,
+  the amount of ditching required being usually one-twelfth of the area
+  to be drained. In modern times pumping engines have replaced
+  windmills, and the typical old Dutch landscape with its countless
+  hooded heads and swinging arms has been greatly transformed by the
+  advent of the chimney stacks of the pumping-stations. The power of the
+  pumping-engines is taken on the basis of 12 h.p. per 1000 hectares for
+  every metre that the water has to be raised, or stated in another
+  form, the engines must be capable of raising nearly 9 lb. of water
+  through 1 yd. per acre per minute. The main ditches, or canals,
+  afterwards also serve as a means of navigation. The level at which it
+  is desired to keep the water in these ditches constitutes the unit of
+  water measurement for the polder, and is called the polder's _zomer
+  peil_ (Z.P.) or summer water-level. In pasture-polders (_koepolders_)
+  Z.P. is 1 to 1(1/2) ft. below the level of the polder, and in
+  agricultural polders 2(1/2) to 3(1/2) ft. below. Owing to the
+  shrinkage of the soil in reclaimed lands, however, that is, lands
+  which have been drained after fen or other reclamation, the sides of
+  the polder are often higher than the middle, and it is necessary by
+  means of small dams or sluices to make separate water-tight
+  compartments (_afpolderingen_), each having its own unit of
+  measurement. Some polders also have a winter peil as a precaution
+  against the increased fall of water in that season. The summer
+  water-level of the pasture polders south of the former Y is about 4 to
+  8 ft. below the Amsterdam zero, but in the Noorderkwartier to the
+  north, it reaches 10(1/2) ft. below A. P. in the Beschotel polder, and
+  in reclaimed lands (_droogmakerijen_) may be still lower, thus in the
+  Reeuwyk polder north of Gouda it is 21(1/4) ft. below.
+
+  The drainage of the country is effected by natural or artificial
+  means, according to the slope of the ground. Nearly all the polders of
+  Zeeland and South Holland are able to discharge naturally into the sea
+  at average low water, self-regulating sluices being used. But in North
+  Holland and Utrecht on the contrary the polder water has generally to
+  be raised. In some deep polders and drained lands where the water
+  cannot be brought to the required height at once, windmills are found
+  at two or even three different levels. The final removal of polder
+  water, however, is only truly effected upon its discharge into the
+  "outer waters" of the country, that is, the sea itself or the large
+  rivers freely communicating with it; and this happens with but a small
+  proportion of Dutch polders, such as those of Zeeland, the Holland
+  Ysel and the Noorderkwartier.
+
+  As the system of impoldering extended, the small sluggish rivers were
+  gradually cut off by dikes from the marshy lands through which they
+  flowed, and by sluices from the waters with which they communicated.
+  Their level ranges from about 1(1/2) to 4 ft. above that of the pasture
+  polders. In addition, various kinds of canals and endiked or embanked
+  lakes had come into existence, forming altogether a vast network of
+  more or less stagnant waters. These waters are utilized as the
+  temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder water, each system of
+  reservoirs being termed a _boezem_ (bosom or basin), and all lands
+  watering into the same boezem being considered as belonging to it. The
+  largest boezem is that of Friesland, which embraces nearly the whole
+  province. It sometimes happens that a polder is not in direct contact
+  with the boezem to which it belongs, but first drains into an adjacent
+  polder, from which the water is afterwards removed. In the same way,
+  some boezems discharge first into others, which then discharge into
+  the sea or rivers. This is usually the case where there is a great
+  difference in height between the surface of the boezem and the outer
+  waters, and may be illustrated by the Alblasserwaard and the Rotte
+  boezems in the provinces of South and North Holland respectively. In
+  time of drought the water in the canals and boezems is allowed to run
+  back into the polders, and so serve a double purpose as
+  water-reservoirs. Boezems, like polders, have a standard water-level
+  which may hot be exceeded, and as in the polder this level may vary in
+  the different parts of an extended boezem. The height of the _boezem
+  peil_ ranges between 1(1/3) ft. above to 1(5/6) ft. below the
+  Amsterdam zero, though the average is about 1 to 1(2/3) ft. below.
+  Some boezems, again, which are less easily controlled, have a "danger
+  water-level" at which they refuse to receive any more water from the
+  surrounding polders. The Schie or Delflands boezem of South Holland is
+  of this kind, and such a boezem is termed _besloten_ or "sequestered,"
+  in contradistinction to a "free" boezem. A third kind of boezem is the
+  reserve or _berg-boezem_, which in summer may be made dry and used for
+  agriculture, while in winter it serves as a special reserve. The
+  centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this
+  complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclamation are
+  better imagined than described, and even at the present day the
+  evidences of the struggle are far less apparent than real.
+
+  _Geology._--Except in Limburg, where, in the neighbourhood of
+  Maastricht, the upper layers of the chalk are exposed and followed by
+  Oligocene and Miocene beds, the whole of Holland is covered by recent
+  deposits of considerable thickness, beneath which deep borings have
+  revealed the existence of Pliocene beds similar to the "Crags" of East
+  Anglia. They are divided into the _Diestien_, corresponding in part
+  with the English Coralline Crag, the _Scaldisien_ and _Poederlien_
+  corresponding with the Walton Crag, and the _Amstelien_ corresponding
+  with the Red Crag of Suffolk. In the south of Holland the total
+  thickness of the Pliocene series is only about 200 ft., and they are
+  covered by about 100 ft. of Quaternary deposits; but towards the north
+  the beds sink down and at the same time increase considerably in
+  thickness, so that at Utrecht a deep boring reached the top of the
+  Pliocene at a depth of 513 ft. and at 1198 ft. it had not touched the
+  bottom. At Amsterdam the top of the Pliocene lay 625 ft. below the
+  surface, but the boring, 1098 ft. deep, did not reach the base of the
+  uppermost division of the Pliocene, viz. the _Amstelien_. Eastward and
+  westward of Amsterdam, as well as southward, the Pliocene beds rise
+  slowly to the surface, and gradually decrease in thickness. They were
+  laid down in a broad bay which covered the east of England and nearly
+  the whole of the Netherlands, and was open to the North Sea. There is
+  evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the
+  deposition of these beds, until at length the Rhine flowed over to
+  England and entered the sea north of Cromer. The appearance of
+  northern shells in the upper divisions of the Pliocene series
+  indicates the approach of the Glacial period, and glacial drift
+  containing Scandinavian boulders now covers much of the country east
+  of the Zuider Zee. The more modern deposits of Holland consist of
+  alluvium, wind-blown sands and peat.[3]
+
+  _Climate._--Situated in the temperate zone between 50 deg. and 53 deg.
+  N. the climate of Holland shows a difference in the lengths of day and
+  night extending in the north to nine hours, and there is a
+  correspondingly wide range of temperature; it also belongs to the
+  region of variable winds. On an average of fifty years the mean annual
+  temperature was 49.8 deg. Fahr.; the maximum, 93.9 deg. Fahr.; the
+  minimum, -5.8 deg. Fahr. The mean annual barometric height is 29.93
+  in.; the mean annual moisture, 81%; the mean annual rainfall, 27.99
+  in. The mean annual number of days with rain is 204, with snow 19, and
+  with thunder-storms 18. The increased rainfall from July to December
+  (the summer and autumn rains), and the increased evaporation in spring
+  and summer (5.2 in. more than the rainfall), are of importance as
+  regards "poldering" and draining operations. The prevalence of
+  south-west winds during nine months of the year and of north-west
+  during three (April-June) has a strong influence on the temperature
+  and rainfall, tides, river mouths and outlets, and also, geologically,
+  on dunes and sand drifts, and on fens and the accumulation of clay on
+  the coast. The west winds of course increase the moisture, and
+  moderate both the winter cold and the summer heat, while the east
+  winds blowing over the continent have an opposite influence. It
+  cannot be said that the climate is particularly good, owing to the
+  changeableness of the weather, which may alter completely within a
+  single day. The heavy atmosphere likewise, and the necessity of living
+  within doors or in confined localities, cannot but exercise an
+  influence on the character and temperament of the inhabitants. Only of
+  certain districts, however, can it be said that they are positively
+  unhealthy; to this category belong some parts of the Holland
+  provinces, Zeeland, and Friesland, where the inhabitants are exposed
+  to the exhalations from the marshy ground, and the atmosphere is often
+  burdened with sea-fogs.
+
+  _Fauna._--In the densely populated Netherlands, with no extensive
+  forests, the fauna does not present any unusual varieties. The otter,
+  martin and badger may be mentioned among the rarer wild animals, and
+  the weasel, ermine and pole-cat among the more common. In the 18th
+  century wolves still roamed the country in such large numbers that
+  hunting parties were organized against them; now they are unknown.
+  Roebuck and deer are found in a wild state in Gelderland and Overysel,
+  foxes are plentiful in the dry wooded regions on the borders of the
+  country, and hares and rabbits in the dunes and other sandy stretches.
+  Among birds may be reckoned about two hundred and forty different
+  kinds which are regular inhabitants, although nearly two hundred of
+  these are migratory. The woodcock, partridge, hawk, water-ousel,
+  magpie, jay, raven, various kinds of owls, wood-pigeon, golden-crested
+  wren, tufted lark and titmouse are among the birds which breed here.
+  Birds of passage include the buzzard, kite, quail, wild fowl of
+  various kinds, golden thrush, wagtail, linnet, finch and nightingale.
+  Storks are plentiful in summer and might almost be considered the most
+  characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape.
+
+  _Flora._--The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four
+  physiographical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely, the
+  heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts. Heath (_Erica tetralix_)
+  and ling (_Calluna vulgaris_) cover all the waste sandy regions in the
+  eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the meadow-lands is
+  monotonous. In the more damp and marshy places the bottom is covered
+  with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth equisetum, and rush. In the ditches
+  and pools common yellow and white water-lilies are seen, as well as
+  water-soldier (_Stratiotes aloides_), great and lesser reed-mace,
+  sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant forms of the dunes are stunted and
+  meagre as compared with the same forms elsewhere. The most common
+  plant here is the stiff sand-reed (_Arundo arenaria_), called
+  sand-oats in Drente and Overysel, where it is much used for making
+  mats. Like the sand-reed, the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the
+  buckthorn (_Hippophae rhamnoides_) perform a useful service in helping
+  to bind the sand together. Furze and the common juniper are regular
+  dune plants, and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel
+  and Gelderland. Thyme and the small white dune-rose (_Rosa
+  pimpinellifolia_) also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (_Sedum
+  acre_), field fever-wort, reindeer moss, common asparagus, sheep's
+  fescue grass, the pretty Solomon-seal (_Polygonatum officinale_), and
+  the broad-leaved or marsh orchis (_Orchis latifolia_). The sea-plants
+  which flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly
+  assist the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated
+  in places. Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and
+  Groningen, the Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer
+  the shore to sandspurry (_Spergularia_), or sea-poa or floating meadow
+  grass (_Glyceria maritima_), which grows up to the dikes, and affords
+  pasture for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the
+  Biesbosch lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable
+  quantities for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (_Zostera
+  marina_) is found in large patches in the northern half of the Zuider
+  Zee, where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of
+  June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along the
+  rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the sand
+  and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common.
+
+_Population._--The following table shows the area and population in the
+eleven provinces of the Netherlands:--
+
+  +--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
+  |              |Area in|Population| Population |Density per|
+  |   Province   | sq. m.|   1890.  |   1900.    | sq. m. in |
+  |              |       |          |            |   1900.   |
+  +--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
+  | North Brabant| 1,980 |  509,628 |   553,842  |    280    |
+  | Gelderland   | 1,965 |  512,202 |   566,549  |    288    |
+  | South Holland| 1,166 |  949,641 | 1,144,448  |    981    |
+  | North Holland| 1,070 |  829,489 |   968,131  |    905    |
+  | Zeeland      |   690 |  199,234 |   216,295  |    313    |
+  | Utrecht      |   534 |  221,007 |   251,034  |    470    |
+  | Friesland    | 1,282 |  335,558 |   340,262  |    265    |
+  | Overysel     | 1,291 |  295,445 |   333,338  |    258    |
+  | Groningen    |   790 |  272,786 |   299,602  |    379    |
+  | Drente       | 1,030 |  130,704 |   148,544  |    144    |
+  | Limburg      |   850 |  255,721 |   281,934  |    332    |
+  |              +-------+----------+------------+-----------+
+  |   Total      |12,648 |4,511,415 | 5,104,137* |    404    |
+  +--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
+    * This total includes 158 persons assigned to no province.
+
+The extremes of density of population are found in the provinces of
+North Holland and South Holland on the one hand, and Drente on the
+other. This divergence is partly explained by the difference of
+soil--which in Drente comprises the maximum of waste lands, and in South
+Holland the minimum--and partly also by the greater facilities which the
+seaward provinces enjoy of earning a subsistence, and the greater
+variety of their industries. The largest towns are Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
+the Hague, Utrecht, Groningen, Haarlem, Arnhem, Leiden, Nijmwegen,
+Tilburg. Other considerable towns are Dordrecht, Maastricht, Leeuwarden,
+Zwolle, Delft, 's Hertogenbosch, Schiedam, Deventer, Breda, Apeldoorn,
+Helder, Enschede, Gouda, Zaandam, Kampen, Hilversum, Flushing,
+Amersfoort, Middelburg, Zutphen and Alkmaar. Many of the smaller towns,
+such as Assen, Enschede, Helmond, Hengelo, Tiel, Venlo, Vlaardingen,
+Zaandam, Yerseke, show a great development, and it is a noteworthy fact
+that the rural districts, taken as a whole, have borne an equal share in
+the general increase of population. This, taken in conjunction with the
+advance in trade and shipping, the diminution in emigration, and the
+prosperity of the savings banks, points to a favourable state in the
+condition of the people.
+
+
+    Roads.
+
+  _Communications._--The roads are divided into national or royal roads,
+  placed directly under the control of the _water-staat_ and supported
+  by the state; provincial roads, under the direct control of the states
+  of the provinces, and almost all supported by the provincial
+  treasuries; communal and polder roads, maintained by the communal
+  authorities and the polder boards; and finally, private roads. The
+  system of national roads, mainly constructed between 1821 and 1827,
+  but still in process of extension, brings into connexion nearly all
+  the towns.
+
+
+    Canals.
+
+  The canal system of Holland is peculiarly complete and extends into
+  every part of the country, giving to many inland towns almost a
+  maritime appearance. The united length of the canals exceeds 1500 m.
+  As a matter of course the smaller streams have been largely utilized
+  in their formation, while the necessity for a comprehensive drainage
+  system has also contributed in no small degree. During the years
+  1815-1830 a large part of the extensive scheme of construction
+  inaugurated by King William I. was carried out, the following canals,
+  among others, coming into existence in that period: the North Holland
+  ship canal (depth, 16(1/2) ft.) from Amsterdam to den Helder, the
+  Grift canal between Apeldoorn and Hattem, the Willemsvaart connecting
+  Zwolle with the Ysel, the Zuid Willemsvaart, or South William's canal
+  (6(1/2) ft.), from 's Hertogenbosch to Maastricht, and the
+  Ternuzen-Ghent ship canal. After 1849 the canal programme was again
+  taken up by the state, which alone or in conjunction with the
+  provincial authorities constructed the Apeldoorn-Dieren canal
+  (1859-1869), the drainage canals of the "Peel" marsh in North Brabant,
+  and of the eastern provinces, namely, the Deurne canal (1876-1892)
+  from the Maas to Helenaveen, the Almelo (1851-1858) and Overysel
+  (1884-1888) canals from Zwolle, Deventer and Almelo to Koevorden, and
+  the Stieltjes (1880-1884), and Orange (1853-1858 and 1881-1889) canals
+  in Drente, the North Williams canal (1856-1862) between Assen and
+  Groningen, the Ems (1866-1876) ship canal from Groningen to Delfzyl,
+  and the New Merwede, and enlarged the canal from Harlingen by way of
+  Leeuwarden to the Lauwars Zee. The large ship canals to Rotterdam and
+  Amsterdam, called the New Waterway and the North Sea canal
+  respectively, were constructed in 1866-1872 and 1865-1876 at a cost of
+  2(1/2) and 3 million pounds sterling, the former by widening the
+  channel of the Scheur north of Rozenburg, and cutting across the Hook
+  of Holland, the latter by utilizing the bed of the Y and cutting
+  through the dunes at Ymuiden. In 1876 an agreement was arrived at with
+  Germany for connecting the important drainage canals in Overysel,
+  Drente and Groningen with the Ems canal system, as a result of which
+  the Almelo-Noordhorn (1884-1888) and other canals came into existence.
+
+  The canals differ in character in the different provinces. In Zeeland
+  they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the river
+  mouths; for example, the one from Middelburg to Veere and Flushing
+  (1866-1878), from Goes to the East Scheldt, and from Zierikzee also to
+  the East Scheldt. The South Beveland (1862-1866) canal connects the
+  East and West Scheldt; similarly in South Holland the Voorne canal
+  unites the Haringvliet with the New Maas, which does not allow the
+  passage of large vessels above Brielle; whilst owing lo the banks and
+  shallows in front of Hellevoetsluis the New Waterway was cut to
+  Rotterdam. Of another character is the Zederik canal, which unites the
+  principal river of central Holland, the Lek, at Vianen by means of the
+  Linge with the Merwede at Gorkum. Amsterdam is connected with the Lek
+  and the Zederik canal via Utrecht by the Vecht and the Vaart Rhine
+  (1881-1893; depth 10.2 ft.). Again, a totally different character
+  belongs to the canals in North Brabant, and the east and north-east of
+  Holland where, in the absence of great rivers, they form the only
+  waterways which render possible the drainage of the fens and the
+  export of peat; and unite the lesser streams with each other. Thus in
+  Overysel, in addition to the canals already mentioned, the Dedemsvaart
+  connects the Vecht with the Zwarte Water near Hasselt; in Drente the
+  Smildervaart and Drentsche Hoofdvaart unites Assen with Meppel, and
+  receives on the eastern side the drainage canals of the Drente fens,
+  namely, the Orange canal and the Hoogeveen Vaart (1850-1860;
+  1880-1893). Groningen communicates with the Lauwers Zee by the
+  Reitdiep (1873-1876), while the canal to Winschoten and the
+  Stadskanaal, or State canal (1877-1880), bring it into connexion with
+  the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the province and in
+  Drente. In Friesland, finally, besides the ship canal from Harlingen
+  to the Lauwers Zee there are canals from Leeuwarden to the Lemmer,
+  whence there is a busy traffic with Amsterdam; and the Caspar Robles
+  or Kolonels Diep, and the Hoendiep connect it with Groningen.
+
+
+    Railways.
+
+  The construction of railways was long deferred and slowly
+  accomplished. The first line was that between Amsterdam and Haarlem,
+  opened in 1839 by the Holland railway company (_Hollandsch Yzeren
+  Spoorweg Maatschappij_). In 1845 the state undertook to develop the
+  railway system, and a company of private individuals was formed to
+  administer it under the title of the _Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van
+  Staatspoorwegen_. In 1860, however, the total length of railways was
+  only 208 m., and in that year a parliamentary bill embodying a
+  comprehensive scheme of construction was adopted. By 1872 this
+  programme was nearly completed, and 542 m. of new railway had been
+  added. In 1873 and 1875 a second and a third bill provided for the
+  extension of the railway system at the cost of the state, and, in
+  1876, 1882 and 1890 laws were introduced readjusting the control of
+  the various lines, some of which were transferred to the Holland
+  railway. The state railway system was completed in 1892, and since
+  that time the utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new
+  undertakings. These include various local lines such as the line
+  Alkmaar-Hoorn (1898), Ede-Barneveld-Nykerk, Enschede-Ahaus in Germany
+  (1902), Leeuwarden to Franeker, Harlingen and Dokkum, and the line
+  Zwolle-Almelo (junction at Marienberg)
+  Koevorden-Stadskanal-Veendam-Delfzyl, connecting all the fen countries
+  on the eastern borders. The electric railway Amsterdam-Zandvoort was
+  opened in 1904. The frame upon which the whole network of the Dutch
+  railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from north
+  and south and four transverse lines from west to east. The two
+  longitudinal lines are the railway den Helder via Haarlem
+  (1862-1867),[4] Rotterdam (1839-1847), and Zwaluwe (1869-1877) to
+  Antwerp (1852-1855), belonging to the Holland railway company, and the
+  State railway from Leeuwarden and Groningen (1870) (junction at
+  Meppel, 1867) Zwolle (1866)--Arnhem (1865)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Venlo
+  (1883)--Maastricht (1865). The four transverse lines belong to the
+  State and Holland railways alternately and are, beginning with the
+  State railway: (1) the line Flushing (1872)--Rozendaal (1860)--Tilburg
+  (1863)--Bokstel (whence there is a branch line belonging to the North
+  Brabant and Germany railway company via Vechel to Goch in Germany,
+  opened in 1873)--Eindhoven--Venlo and across Prussian border (1866);
+  (2) the line Hook of Holland--Rotterdam (1893)--Dordrecht
+  (1872-1877)--Elst (1882-1885)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Cleves, Germany
+  (1865); (3) the line Rotterdam--Utrecht (1866-1869) and
+  Amsterdam--Utrecht--Arnhem (1843-1845) to Emmerich in Germany (1856):
+  this line formerly belonged to the Netherlands-Rhine railway company,
+  but was bought by the state in 1890; and finally (4) the line
+  Amsterdam--Hilversum--Amersfoort--Apeldoorn (1875), whence it is
+  continued (a) via Deventer, Almelo and Hengelo to Salzbergen, Germany
+  (1865); (b) via Zutphen, Hengelo (1865), Enschede (1866) to Gronau,
+  Germany; (c) via Zutphen (1876) and Ruurlo to Winterswyk (1878). Of
+  these (1) and (2) form the main transcontinental routes in connexion
+  with the steamboat service to England (ports of Queenborough and
+  Harwich respectively). Two other lines of railway, both belonging to
+  the state, also traverse the country west to east, namely, the line
+  Rozendaal--'s Hertogenbosch (1890)--Nijmwegen, and in the extreme
+  north, the line from Harlingen through Leeuwarden (1863) and Groningen
+  (1866) to the border at Nieuwe Schans (1869), whence it was connected
+  with the German railways in 1876. The northern and southern provinces
+  are further connected by the lines Amsterdam--Zaandam
+  (1878)--Enkhuizen (1885), whence there is a steam ferry across the
+  Zuider Zee to Stavoren, from where the railway is continued to
+  Leeuwarden (1883-1885); the Netherlands Central railway,
+  Utrecht--Amersfoort--Zwoole--Kampen (1863); and the line Utrecht--'s
+  Hertogenbosch (1868-1869) which is continued southward into Belgium by
+  the lines bought in 1898 from the Grand Central Beige railway, namely,
+  via Tilburg to Turnhout (1867), and via Eindhoven (1866) to Hasselt.
+  In 1892 Greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in the
+  post-offices, making a difference of twenty minutes with mean
+  Amsterdam time.
+
+
+    Tramways.
+
+  Since 1877 railway communication has been largely supplemented by
+  steam-tramways, which either run along the main roads or across the
+  country on special embankments, while one of them is carried across
+  the river Ysel at Doesburg on a pontoon bridge. The state first began
+  to encourage the construction of these local light railways by means
+  of subsidies in 1893, since when some of the most prominent lines have
+  come into existence, such as Purmerend--Alkmaar (1898),
+  Zutphen--Emmerich (1902), along the Dedemsvaart in Overysel (1902),
+  from 's Hertogenbosch via Utrecht and Eindhoven to Turnhout in Belgium
+  (1898), and especially those connecting the South Holland and Zeeland
+  islands with the railway, namely, between Rotterdam and Numansdorp on
+  the Hollandsch Diep (1898), and from Breda or Bergen-op-Zoom, via
+  Steenbergen to St Philipsland, Zierikzee and Brouwershaven (1900). An
+  electric tramway connects Haarlem and Zandvoort. The number of
+  passengers carried by the steam-tramways is relatively higher than
+  that of the railways. The value of the goods traffic is not so high,
+  owing, principally, to the want of intercommunication between the
+  various lines on account of differences in the width of the gauge.
+
+_Agriculture._--Waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren stretches
+of heaths found in Drente, Overysel, Gelderland and North Brabant. They
+formerly served to support large flocks of sheep and some cattle, but
+are gradually transformed by the planting of woods, as well as by
+strenuous efforts at cultivation. Zeeland and Groningen are the two
+principal agricultural provinces, and after them follow Limburg, North
+Brabant, Gelderland and South Holland. The chief products of cultivation
+on the heavy clay soil are oats, barley and wheat, and on the
+sand-grounds rye, buckwheat and potatoes. Flax and beetroot are also
+cultivated on the clay lands. Tobacco, hemp, hops, colza and chicory
+form special cultures. With the possible exception of oats, the cereals
+do not suffice for home consumption, and maize is imported in large
+quantities for cattle-feeding, and barley for the distilleries and
+breweries. Horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order, and
+flourish especially on the low fen soil and _geest_ grounds along the
+foot of the dunes in the provinces of North and South Holland. The
+principal market products are cauliflower, cabbage, onions, asparagus,
+gherkins, cucumbers, beans, peas, &c. The principal flowers are
+hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus and other bulbous plants, the
+total export of which is estimated at over L200,000. Fruit is everywhere
+grown, and there is a special cultivation of grapes and figs in the
+Westland of South Holland. The woods, or rather the plantations,
+covering 6%, consist of (1) the so-called forest timber (_opgaandhout_;
+Fr. _arbres de haute futaie_), including the beech, oak, elm, poplar,
+birch, ash, willow and coniferous trees; and (2) the copse wood
+(_akkermaal_ or _hakhout_), embracing the elder, willow, beech, oak, &c.
+This forms no unimportant branch of the national wealth.
+
+
+    Livestock.
+
+  With nearly 35% of the total surface of the country under permanent
+  pasture, cattle-breeding forms one of the most characteristic
+  industries of the country. The provinces of Friesland, North and South
+  Holland, and Utrecht take the lead as regards both quality and
+  numbers. A smaller, hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep
+  are kept upon the heath-lands in the eastern provinces, which also
+  favour the rearing of pigs and bee-culture. Horse-breeding is most
+  important in Friesland, which produces the well-known black breed of
+  horse commonly used in funeral processions. Goats are most numerous in
+  Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry, especially fowls, are generally
+  kept. Stock-breeding, like agriculture, has considerably improved
+  under the care of the government (state and provincial), which grants
+  subsidies for breeding, irrigation of pasture-lands, the importation
+  of finer breeds of cattle and horses, the erection of factories for
+  dairy produce, schools, &c.
+
+  _Fisheries._--The fishing industry of the Netherlands may be said to
+  have been in existence already in the 13th century, and in the
+  following century received a considerable impetus from the discovery
+  how to cure herring by William Beukelszoon, a Zeeland fisherman. It
+  steadily declined during the 17th and 18th centuries, however, but
+  again began to revive in the last half of the 19th century. The
+  fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas,
+  namely, the "deep-sea" fishery of the North Sea, and the "inner"
+  (_binnengaatsch_) fisheries of the Wadden, the Zuider Zee, and the
+  South Holland and Zeeland waters. The deep-sea fishery may be farther
+  divided into the so-called "great" or "salt-herring" fishery, mainly
+  carried on from Vlaardingen and Maasluis during the summer and autumn,
+  and the "fresh-herring" fishery, chiefly pursued at Scheveningen,
+  Katwijk and Noordwijk. The value of the herring fisheries is enhanced
+  by the careful methods of smoking and salting, the export of salted
+  fish being considerable. In the winter the largest boats are laid up
+  and the remainder take to line-fishing. Middelharnis, Pernis and
+  Zwartewaal are the centres of this branch of fishery, which yields
+  halibut, cod, ling and haddock. The trawl fisheries of the coast yield
+  sole, plaice, turbot, brill, skate, &c., of which a large part is
+  brought alive to the market. In the Zuider Zee small herring, flat
+  fish, anchovies and shrimps are caught, the chief fishing centres
+  being the islands of Texel, Urk and Wieringen, and the coast towns of
+  Helder, Bunschoten, Huizen, Enkhuizen, Vollendam, Kampen, Harderwyk,
+  Vollenhove. The anchovy fishing which takes place in May, June and
+  July sometimes yields very productive results. Oysters and mussels are
+  obtained on the East Scheldt, and anchovies at Bergen-op-Zoom; while
+  salmon, perch and pike are caught in the Maas, the Lek and the New
+  Merwede. The oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in the hands
+  of the state, which lets them to the highest bidder. Large quantities
+  of eels are caught in the Frisian lakes. The fisheries not only supply
+  the great local demand, but allow of large exports.
+
+_Manufacturing Industries._--The mineral resources of Holland give no
+encouragement to industrial activity, with the exception of the
+coal-mining in Limburg, the smelting of iron ore in a few furnaces in
+Overysel and Gelderland, the use of stone and gravel in the making of
+dikes and roads, and of clay in brickworks and potteries, the quarrying
+of stone at St Pietersberg, &c. Nevertheless the industry of the country
+has developed in a remarkable manner since the separation from Belgium.
+The greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry, which flourishes
+especially in the Twente district of Overysel, where jute is also worked
+into sacks. In the manufacture of woollen and linen goods Tilburg ranks
+first, followed by Leiden, Utrecht and Eindhoven; that of half-woollens
+is best developed at Roermond and Helmond. Other branches of industry
+include carpet-weaving at Deventer, the distillation of brandy, gin and
+liqueurs at Schiedam, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and beer-brewing in most
+of the principal towns; shoe-making and leather-tanning in the
+Langstraat district of North Brabant; paper-making at Apeldoorn, on the
+Zaan, and in Limburg; the manufacture of earthenware and faience at
+Maastricht, the Hague and Delft, as well as at Utrecht, Purmerend and
+Makkum; clay pipes and stearine candles at Gouda; margarine at Osch;
+chocolate at Weesp and on the Zaan; mat-plaiting and broom-making at
+Genemuiden and Blokzyl; diamond-cutting and the manufacture of quinine
+at Amsterdam; and the making of cigars and snuff at Eindhoven,
+Amsterdam, Utrecht, Kampen, &c. Shipbuilding is of no small importance
+in Holland, not only in the greater, but also in the smaller towns along
+the rivers and canals. The principal shipbuilding yards are at
+Amsterdam, Kinderdijk, Rotterdam and at Flushing, where there is a
+government dockyard for building warships.
+
+  _Trade and Shipping._--To obtain a correct idea of the trade of
+  Holland, greater attention than would be requisite in the case of
+  other countries must be paid to the inland traffic. It is impossible
+  to state the value of this in definite figures, but an estimate may be
+  formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in the
+  rivers and canals, and from the quantity of produce brought to the
+  public market. In connexion with this traffic there is a large fleet
+  of tug boats; but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are becoming
+  more common. Some of the lighters used in the Rhine transport trade
+  have a capacity of 3000 tons. A great part of the commercial business
+  at Rotterdam belongs to the commission and transit trade. The other
+  principal ports are Flushing, Terneuzen (for Belgium), Harlingen,
+  Delfzyl, Dordrecht, Zaandam, Schiedam, Groningen, den Helder,
+  Middelburg, Vlaardingen. Among the national mail steamship services
+  are the lines to the East and West Indies, Africa and the United
+  States. An examination of its lists of exports and imports will show
+  that Holland receives from its colonies its spiceries, coffee, sugar,
+  tobacco, indigo, cinnamon; from England and Belgium its manufactured
+  goods and coals; petroleum, raw cotton and cereals from the United
+  States; grain from the Baltic provinces, Archangel, and the ports of
+  the Black Sea; timber from Norway and the basin of the Rhine, yarn
+  from England, wine from France, hops from Bavaria and Alsace; iron-ore
+  from Spain; while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to Germany,
+  its agricultural produce to the London market, its fish to Belgium and
+  Germany, and its cheese to France, Belgium and Hamburg, as well as
+  England. The bulk of trade is carried on with Germany and England;
+  then follow Java, Belgium, Russia, the United States, &c. In the last
+  half of the 19th century the total value of the foreign commerce was
+  more than trebled.
+
+_Constitution and Government._--The government of the Netherlands is
+regulated by the constitution of 1815, revised in 1848 and 1887, under
+which the sovereign's person is inviolable and the ministers are
+responsible. The age of majority of the sovereign is eighteen. The crown
+is hereditary in both the male and the female line according to
+primogeniture; but it is only in default of male heirs that females can
+come to the throne. The crown prince or heir apparent is the first
+subject of the sovereign, and bears the title of the prince of Orange.
+The sovereign alone has executive authority. To him belong the ultimate
+direction of foreign affairs, the power to declare war and peace, to
+make treaties and alliances, and to dissolve one or both chambers of
+parliament, the supreme command of the army and navy, the supreme
+administration of the state finances and of the colonies and other
+possessions of the kingdom, and the prerogative of mercy. By the
+provisions of the same constitution he establishes the ministerial
+departments, and shares the legislative power with the first and second
+chambers of parliament, which constitute the states-general and sit at
+the Hague. The heads of the departments to whom the especial executive
+functions are entrusted are eight in number--ministers respectively of
+the interior, of "water-staat," trade and industry (that is, of public
+works, including railways, post-office, &c.), of justice, of finance, of
+war, of marine, of the colonies and of foreign affairs. There is a
+department of agriculture, but without a minister at its head. The heads
+of departments are appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the
+sovereign, usually determined, however, as in all constitutional states,
+by the will of the nation as indicated by its representatives.
+
+The number of members in the first chamber is 50, South Holland sending
+10, North Holland 9, North Brabant and Gelderland each 6, Friesland 4,
+Overysel, Limburg and Groningen each 3, Zeeland, Utrecht and Drente each
+2. According to the fundamental law (_Grondwet_) of 1887, they are
+chosen by the provincial states, not only from amongst those who bear
+the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province, but also from
+amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank. Those deputies who
+are not resident in the Hague are entitled to receive 16s. 8d. a day
+during the session. The duration of parliament is nine years, a third of
+the members retiring every three years. The retiring members are
+eligible for re-election. The members of the second chamber are chosen
+in the electoral districts by all capable male citizens not under 23
+years of age, who pay one or more direct taxes, ranging from a minimum
+of one guilder (1s. 8d.) towards the income tax. The number of members
+is 100, Amsterdam returning 9, Rotterdam 5, the Hague 3, Groningen and
+Utrecht 2 members each. Members must be at least thirty years old, and
+receive an annual allowance of L166, besides travelling expenses. They
+only, and the government, have the right of initiating business, and of
+proposing amendments. Their term is four years, but they are
+re-eligible. All communications from the sovereign to the states-general
+and from the states to the sovereign, as well as all measures relating
+to internal administration or to foreign possessions, are first
+submitted to the consideration of the council of state, which consists
+of 14 members appointed by the sovereign, who is the president. The
+state council also has the right of making suggestions to the sovereign
+in regard to subjects of legislation and administration.
+
+  The provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial states,
+  which are returned by direct election by the same electors as vote for
+  the second chamber. The term is for six years, but one-half of the
+  members retire every three years subject to re-election or renewal.
+  The president of the assembly is the royal commissioner for the
+  province. As the provincial states only meet a few times in the year,
+  they name a committee of deputy-states which manages current general
+  business, and at the same time exercises the right of control over the
+  affairs of the communes. At the head of every commune stands a
+  communal council, whose members must be not under 23 years of age.
+  They are elected for six years (one-third of the council retiring
+  every two years) by the same voters as for the provincial states.
+  Communal franchise is further restricted, however, to those electors
+  who pay a certain sum to the communal rates. The number of councillors
+  varies according to the population between 7 and 45. One of the
+  special duties of the council is the supervision of education. The
+  president of the communal council is the burgomaster, who is named by
+  the sovereign in every instance for six years, and receives a salary
+  varying from L40 to over L600. Provision is made for paying the
+  councillors a certain fee--called "presence-money"--when required.
+  The burgomaster has the power to suspend any of the council's decrees
+  for 30 days. The executive power is vested in a college formed by the
+  burgomaster and two, three or four magistrates (_wethouders_) to be
+  chosen by and from the members of the council. The provinces are
+  eleven in number.
+
+  _National Defence._--The home defence system of Holland is a militia
+  with strong cadres based on universal service. Service in the
+  "militia" or 1st line force is for 8 years, in the 2nd line for 7.
+  Every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called up
+  for long or short periods of training, and the maximum peace strength
+  under arms in the summer is about 35,000, of whom half are permanent
+  cadres and half militiamen. In 1908 12,300 of the year's contingent
+  were trained for eight months and more, and 5200 for four months. The
+  war strength of the militia is 105,000, that of the second line or
+  reserve 70,000. The defence of the country is based on the historic
+  principle of concentrating the people and their resources in the heart
+  of the country, covered by a wide belt of inundations. The chosen line
+  of defence is marked by a series of forts which control the sluices,
+  extending from Amsterdam, through Muiden, thence along the Vecht and
+  through Utrecht to Gorinchem (Gorkum) on the Waal. The line continues
+  thence by the Hollandsche Diep and Volkerak to the sea, and the coast
+  also is fortified. The army in the colonies numbers in all about
+  26,000, all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily
+  enlisted European regulars. The military expenditure in 1908 was
+  L2,331,255. The Dutch navy at home and in Indian waters consists
+  (1909) of 9 small battleships, 6 small cruisers and 80 other vessels,
+  manned by 8600 officers and men of the navy and about 2250 marines.
+  Recruiting is by voluntary enlistment, with contingent powers of
+  conscription amongst the maritime population.
+
+  _Justice._--The administration of justice is entrusted (1) to the high
+  council (_hooge raad_) at the Hague, the supreme court of the whole
+  kingdom, and the tribunal for all high government officials and for
+  the members of the states-general; (2) to the five courts of justice
+  established at Amsterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, Leeuwarden and 's
+  Hertogenbosch; (3) to tribunals established in each arrondissement;
+  (4) to cantonal judges appointed over a group of communes, whose
+  jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount (under 200
+  guilders), and to breaches of police regulations, and who at the same
+  time look after the interest of minors. The high council is composed
+  of 12 to 14 councillors, a procureur-general and three
+  advocates-general. Criminal and correctional procedure were formerly
+  divided between the courts of justice and the arrondissement
+  tribunals; but this distinction was suppressed by the penal code of
+  1886, thereby increasing the importance of the arrondissement courts,
+  which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal courts.
+
+  Besides the prisons, which include one built on the cellular principle
+  at Breda, the state supports three penal workhouses for drunkards and
+  beggars. There are also the penal colonies at Veenhuizen in Drente,
+  which were brought from the Society of Charity (_Maatschappij van
+  Weldadigkeid_) in 1859. The inmates practise agriculture, as well as
+  various industries for supplying all the requirements of the colony.
+  The objection raised against these establishments is that the
+  prisoners do not represent the real vagabondage of the country, but a
+  class of more or less voluntary inmates. Children under 16 years of
+  age are placed in the three state reformatories, and there is an
+  institution for vagabond women at Rotterdam.
+
+  _Charitable and other Institutions._--Private charities have always
+  occupied a distinguished position in the Netherlands, and the
+  principle of the law of 1854 concerning the relief of the poor is,
+  that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails. All
+  private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they
+  can collect public funds. In some cases these institutions are
+  organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities. At
+  the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural
+  colonies belonging to the Society of Charity (see DRENTE). Of the
+  numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and the
+  fine arts, the following are strictly national--the Royal Academy of
+  Sciences (1855), the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
+  (1854), the National Academy of the Plastic Arts, the Royal School of
+  Music, the National Archives, besides various other national
+  collections and museums. Provincial scientific societies exist at
+  Middelburg, Utrecht, 's Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, and there are
+  private and municipal associations, institutions and collections in a
+  large number of the smaller towns. Among societies of general utility
+  are the Society for Public Welfare (_Maatschappij tot nut van't
+  algemeen_, 1785), whose efforts have been mainly in the direction of
+  educational reform; the Geographical Society at Amsterdam (1873);
+  Teyler's Stichting or foundation at Haarlem (1778), and the societies
+  for the promotion of industry (1777), and of sciences (1752) in the
+  same town; the Institute of Languages, Geography and Ethnology of the
+  Dutch Indies (1851), and the Indian Society at the Hague, the Royal
+  Institute of Engineers at Delft (1848), the Association for the
+  Encouragement of Music at Amsterdam, &c.
+
+  _Religion._--Religious conviction is one of the most characteristic
+  traits of the Dutch people, and finds expression in a large number of
+  independent religious congregations. The bond between church and
+  state which had been established by the synod of Dort (1618) and the
+  organization of the Low-Dutch Reformed Church (_Nederlandsche
+  Hervormde Kerk_) as the national Protestant church, practically came
+  to an end in the revolution of 1795, and in the revision of the
+  Constitution in 1848 the complete religious liberty and equality of
+  all persons and congregations was guaranteed. The present organization
+  of the Reformed Church dates from 1852. It is governed by a general
+  assembly or "synod" of deputies from the principal judicatures,
+  sitting once a year. The provinces are subdivided into "classes," and
+  the classes again into "circles" (_ringen_), each circle comprising
+  from 5 to 25 congregations, and each congregation being governed by a
+  "church council" or session. The provincial synods are composed of
+  ministers and elders deputed by the classes; and these are composed of
+  the ministers belonging to the particular class and an equal number of
+  elders appointed by the local sessions. The meetings of the circles
+  have no administrative character, but are mere brotherly conferences.
+  The financial management in each congregation is entrusted to a
+  special court (_kerk-voogdij_) composed of "notables" and church
+  wardens. In every province there is besides, in the case of the
+  Reformed Church, a provincial committee of supervision for the
+  ecclesiastical administration. For the whole kingdom this supervision
+  is entrusted to a common "collegium" or committee of supervision,
+  which meets at the Hague, and consists of 11 members named by the
+  provincial committee and 3 named by the synod. Some congregations have
+  withdrawn from provincial supervision, and have thus free control of
+  their own financial affairs. The oldest secession from the Orthodox
+  Church is that of the Remonstrants, who still represent the most
+  liberal thought in the country, and have their own training college at
+  Leiden. Towards 1840 a new congregation calling itself the Christian
+  Reformed Church (_Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk_) arose as a protest
+  against the government and the modern tendencies of the Reformed
+  Church; and for the same reason those who had founded the Free
+  University of Amsterdam (1880) formed themselves in 1886 into an
+  independent body called the _Nederlandsche Gereformeerde Kerk_. In
+  1892 these two churches united under the name of the Reformed Churches
+  (_Gereformeerde Kerken_) with the doctrine and discipline of Dort.
+  They have a theological seminary at Kampen. Other Protestant bodies
+  are the Walloons, who, though possessing an independent church
+  government, are attached to the Low-Dutch Reformed Church; the
+  Lutherans, divided into the main body of Evangelical Lutherans and a
+  smaller division calling themselves the Re-established or Old
+  Lutherans (_Herstelde Lutherschen_) who separated in 1791 in order to
+  keep more strictly to the Augsburg confession; the Mennonites founded
+  by Menno Simons of Friesland, about the beginning of the 16th century;
+  the Baptists, whose only central authority is the General Baptist
+  Society founded at Amsterdam in 1811; the Evangelical Brotherhood of
+  Hernhutters or Moravians, who have churches and schools at Zeist and
+  Haarlem; and a Catholic Apostolic Church (1867) at the Hague. There
+  are congregations of English Episcopalians at the Hague, Amsterdam and
+  Rotterdam, and German Evangelicals at the Hague (1857) and Rotterdam
+  (1861). In 1853 the Roman Catholic Church, which before had been a
+  mission in the hands of papal legates and vicars, was raised into an
+  independent ecclesiastical province with five dioceses, namely, the
+  archbishopric of Utrecht, and the suffragan bishoprics of Haarlem,
+  Breda, 's Hertogenbosch and Roermond, each with its own seminary. Side
+  by side with the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the
+  Old Catholics or Old Episcopalian Church (_Oud Bisschoppelijke
+  Clerezie_), and the Jansenists (see JANSENISM). The Old Catholics,
+  with whom the Jansenists are frequently confused, date from the 17th
+  century. Besides an archbishop at Utrecht, the Old Catholics have
+  bishops at Deventer and Haarlem, and a training college at Amersfoort.
+  They numbered in 1905 about 9000 (see UTRECHT). The large Jewish
+  population in Holland had its origin in the wholesale influx of
+  Portuguese Jews at the end of the 16th, and of German Jews in the
+  beginning of the 17th century. In 1870 they were reorganized under the
+  central authority of the Netherlands Israelite Church, and divided
+  into head and "ring" synagogues and associated churches. The Roman
+  Catholic element preponderates in the southern provinces of Limburg,
+  and North Brabant, but in Friesland, Groningen and Drente the Baptists
+  and Christian Reformed are most numerous.
+
+  _Education._--Every grade of education in the Netherlands is under the
+  control and supervision of the state, being administered by a special
+  department under the ministry for the interior. In 1889 the state
+  recognized private denominational schools, and in 1900 passed a law of
+  compulsory attendance. Infant schools, which are generally in the
+  hands of private societies or the municipal authorities, are not
+  interfered with by the state. According to the law of 1889 primary
+  education is carried on in the ordinary and in continuation schools
+  for boys and girls (co-education having been long in vogue). These
+  schools are established in every commune, the state contributing aid
+  at the rate of 25% of the total expenditure. The age of admission is
+  six; and the course is for six years, 7-13 being the legal age limits;
+  the fee, from which poverty exempts, is almost nominal. Nature-study,
+  continued in the secondary schools, is an essential part in the
+  curriculum of these schools, and elementary general history, English,
+  French and German are among the optional subjects. While the boys are
+  instructed in woodwork, needlework is taught to the girls, its
+  introduction in 1889 having been the first recognition of practical
+  instruction in any form. Continuation schools (_herhalingsscholen_)
+  must be organized wherever required, and are generally open for six
+  months in winter, pupils of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending.
+  Secondary schools were established by the law of 1863 and must be
+  provided by every commune of 10,000 inhabitants; they comprise the
+  Burgher-Day-and-Evening schools and the Higher-Burgher schools. The
+  first named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in
+  industrial or agricultural pursuits, the day classes gradually fell
+  into disuse. The length of the course as prescribed by law is two
+  years, but it is usually extended to three or four years, and the
+  instruction, though mainly theoretical, has regard to the special
+  local industries; the fees, if any, may not exceed one pound sterling
+  per annum. Special mention must be made in this connexion of the
+  school of engineering in Amsterdam (1878) and the Academy of Plastic
+  Arts at Rotterdam. The higher-burgher schools have either a three or a
+  five years' course, and the fees vary from L2, 10s. to L5 a year. The
+  instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific. In both
+  schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course, that of the
+  higher-burgher schools admitting to the natural science and medical
+  branches of university education, a supplementary examination in Greek
+  and Latin being required for other branches. The gymnasia, or
+  classical schools, fall legally speaking under the head of higher
+  education. By the law of 1876, every town of 20,000 inhabitants,
+  unless specially exempted, must provide a gymnasium. A large
+  proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to the extent
+  of half their net cost. The curriculum is classical and philological,
+  but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in favour of
+  scientific subjects for those who wish. The fees vary from L5 to L8 a
+  year, but, owing to the absence of scholarships and bursaries, are
+  sometimes remitted, as in the case of the higher-burgher schools.
+  Among the schools which give specialized instruction, mention must be
+  made of the admirable trade schools (_ambachtsscholen_) established in
+  1861, and the corresponding industrial schools for girls; the fishery
+  schools and schools of navigation; the many private schools of
+  domestic science, and of commerce and industry, among which the
+  municipal school at Enschede (1886) deserves special mention; and the
+  school of social work, "Das Huis," at Amsterdam (1900). For the
+  education of medical practitioners, civil and military, the more
+  important institutions are the National Obstetrical College at
+  Amsterdam, the National Veterinary School at Utrecht, the National
+  College for Military Physicians at Amsterdam and the establishment at
+  Utrecht for the training of military apothecaries for the East and
+  West Indies. The organization of agricultural education under the
+  state is very complete, and includes a state professor of agriculture
+  for every province (as well as professors of horticulture in several
+  cases), "winter schools" of agriculture and horticulture, and a state
+  agricultural college at Wageningen (1876) with courses in home and
+  colonial agriculture. The total fees at this college, including board
+  and lodging, are about L50 a year. According to the law of 1898, the
+  state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or testing-stations.
+  Other schools of the same class are the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten
+  schools of agriculture, gardening and forestry in Drente, the school
+  of instruction in butter and cheese making (_zuivelbereiding_) at
+  Bolsward and the state veterinary college at Utrecht.
+
+  There are three state universities in Holland, namely, Leiden (1575),
+  Groningen (1585) and Utrecht (1634). The ancient athenaeums of
+  Franeker (1585) and Harderwyk (1603) were closed in 1811, but that of
+  Amsterdam was converted into a municipal university in 1877. In each
+  of these universities there are five faculties, namely, law, theology,
+  medicine, science and mathematics, and literature and philosophy, the
+  courses for which are respectively four, five, eight, and six or seven
+  years for the two last named. The fees amount to 200 florins (L16,
+  13s. 4d.) per annum and are payable for four years. Two kinds of
+  degrees are conferred, namely, the ordinary (_candidaats_) and the
+  "doctor's" degrees. Pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only
+  eligible for the first. There is also a free (Calvinistic) university
+  at Amsterdam founded in 1880 and enjoying, since 1905, the right of
+  conferring degrees. It has, however, no faculties of law or science.
+  The state polytechnic school at Delft (1864) for the study of
+  engineering in all its branches, architecture and naval construction,
+  has a nominal course of four years, and confers the degree of
+  "engineer." The fees are the same as those of the universities, and as
+  at the universities there are bursaries. A national institution at
+  Leiden for the study of languages, geography and ethnology of the
+  Dutch Indies has given place to communal institutions of the same
+  nature at Delft and at Leiden, founded in 1864 and 1877. The centre of
+  Dutch university life, which is non-residential, is the students'
+  corps, at the head of which is a "senate," elected annually from among
+  the students of four years' standing. Membership of the corps is
+  gained after a somewhat trying novitiate, but is the only passport to
+  the various social and sports societies.
+
+  All teachers in the Netherlands must qualify for their profession by
+  examination. Under the act of 1898 they are trained either in the
+  state training-colleges, or in state-aided municipal, and private
+  denominational colleges; or else by means of state or private
+  state-aided courses of instruction. The age of admission to this class
+  of training is from 14 to 18, and the course is for four years. In the
+  last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary "practice"
+  school attached to each college, and students are also taught to make
+  models explanatory of the various subjects of instruction after the
+  manner of the Swedish Sloyd (Slojd) system. Assistant-teachers wishing
+  to qualify as head-teachers must have had two years' practical
+  experience. Pupil-teachers can only give instruction under the
+  supervision of a certificated teacher. The minimum salary of teachers
+  is determined by law. The teaching, which follows the so-called
+  "Heuristic" method, and the equipment of schools of every description,
+  are admirable.
+
+  _Finance._--The following statement shows the revenue and expenditure
+  of the kingdom for the years 1889, 1900-1901 and 1905:--
+
+    _Revenue._
+
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |         Source.         |   1889.   |   1901.   |   1905.   |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                         |     L     |     L     |     L     |
+    | Excise                  | 3,678,075 | 4,042,500 | 4,514,998 |
+    | Direct taxation         | 2,300,865 | 2,900,175 | 3,135,665 |
+    | Indirect taxation       | 2,004,745 | 1,805,583 | 1,946,666 |
+    | Post Office             |   539,405 |   865,750 | 1,103,333 |
+    | Government telegraphs   |   106,970 |   187,375 |   211,333 |
+    | Export and Import duties|   440,247 |   801,500 |   930,912 |
+    | State domains           |   213,186 |   147,000 |   139,000 |
+    | Pilot dues              |   106,079 |   191,667 |   200,000 |
+    | State lotteries         |    54,609 |    54,250 |    52,666 |
+    | Game and Fisheries      |    11,660 |    11,000 |    11,750 |
+    | Railways                |    ..     |   361,512 |   349,011 |
+    | Part paid by East Indies|           |           |           |
+    |  on account of interest |           |           |           |
+    |  and redemption of      |           |           |           |
+    |  public debt            |    ..     |    ..     |   321,916 |
+    | Netherland Bank         |           |           |           |
+    |  contribution           |    ..     |    ..     |   160,500 |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |     Total*              | 9,475,337 |11,394,220 |14,017,079 |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+      * Including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail.
+
+    _Expenditure._
+
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |         Object.         |   1889.   |   1901.   |   1905.   |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                         |     L     |     L     |     L     |
+    | National Debt           | 2,727,591 | 2,906,214 | 2,899,770 |
+    | Department of War       | 1,708,698 | 1,893,036 | 2,474,011 |
+    |     "         Waterstaat| 1,790,291 | 2,448,339 | 2,869,951 |
+    |     "         Finance   | 1,537,404 | 2,092,343 | 2,297,180 |
+    |     "         Marine    | 1,038,536 | 1,388,141 | 1,396,137 |
+    |     "         Interior  |   815,188 | 1,330,563 | 1,613,134 |
+    |     "         Justice   |   426,343 |   529,159 |   592,073 |
+    |     "         Colonies  |    93,829 |   109,768 |   251,150 |
+    | Dept. of Foreign Affairs|    57,312 |    71,101 |    82,403 |
+    | Royal Household         |    54,166 |    66,667 |    66,666 |
+    | Superior Authorities of |           |           |           |
+    |  the State              |    52,476 |    56,792 |    58,251 |
+    | Unforeseen Expenditure  |     1,745 |     4,166 |     4,166 |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |    Total*               |10,393,579 |12,896,289 |14,907,781 |
+    +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+      * Including, besides the ordinary budget, the outlays in payment
+        of annuities, in funding and discharging debt, in railway
+        extension, &c.
+
+  The total debt in 1905 amounted to L96,764,266, the annual interest
+  amounted to L3,396,590. During the years 1850-1905, L27,416,651 has
+  been devoted to the redemption of the public debt. The total wealth of
+  the kingdom is estimated at 900 millions sterling. The various
+  provinces and communes have separate budgets. The following table
+  gives a statement of the provincial and communal  finances:--
+
+    _Revenue._
+
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                     |   1889.   |   1900.   |   1905.   |
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                     |    L      |    L      |    L      |
+    | Provincial          |   722,583 |   445,333 |   718,199 |
+    | Communal            | 6,132,000 | 9,311,666 |12,750,083 |
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+    _Expenditure._
+
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                     |   1889.   |   1900.   |   1905.   |
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                     |     L     |     L     |     L     |
+    | Provincial          |   740,333 |   445,333 |   702,718 |
+    | Communal            | 5,683,800 | 8,503,250 |12,085,250 |
+    +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+_Colonies._--The Dutch colonies in the Malay Archipelago have an area of
+600,000 sq. m., with a population of 23,000,000, among which are 35,000
+Europeans, 319,000 Chinese, 15,000 Arabs, and 10,000 other immigrant
+Asiatics. The West Indian possessions of Holland include Dutch Guiana or
+the government of Surinam, and the Dutch Antilles or the government of
+Curacoa and its dependencies (St Eustatius, Saba, the southern half of
+St Martin, Curacoa, Bonaire and Aruba), a total area of 60,000 sq. m.,
+with 90,000 inhabitants, of whom a small portion are Europeans, and the
+rest negroes and other people of colour, and Chinese.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief place is due to the following geographical
+  publications:--Dr H. Blink, _Nederland en zijne Bewoners_ (Amsterdam,
+  1888-1892), containing a copious bibliography; _Tegenwoordige Staat
+  van Nederland_ (Amsterdam, 1897); R. Schuiling, _Aardrijkskunde van
+  Nederland_ (Zwolle, 1884); A. A. Beekman, _De Strijd om het Bestaan_
+  (Zutphen, 1887), a manual on the characteristic hydrography of the
+  Netherlands; and E. Reclus' _Nouvelle geographie universelle_ (1879;
+  vol. iv.). The _Gedenboek uitgeven ter gelegenheid van het
+  fijftig-jarig bestaan van het Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs_,
+  1847-1897 ('s Gravenhage, 1898), is an excellent aid in studying
+  technically the remarkable works on Dutch rivers, canals, sluices,
+  railways and harbours, and drainage and irrigation works. The
+  _Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van Nederland_, by P. H. Witkamp (Arnhem,
+  1895), is a complete gazetteer with historical notes, and _Nomina
+  Geographica Neerlandica_, published by the Netherlands Geographical
+  Society (Amsterdam, 1885, &c.), contains a history of geographical
+  names. _Geschiedenis van den Boereastand en den landbouw in
+  Nederland_, H. Blink (Groningen, 1902), and the report on agriculture,
+  published at the Hague by the Royal Commission appointed in 1896,
+  furnish special information in connexion with this subject. Of more
+  general interest are: _Eene halve Eeuw, 1848-1898_, edited by Dr P. H.
+  Ritter (Amsterdam, 1898), containing a series of articles on all
+  subjects connected with the kingdom during the second half of the 19th
+  century, written by specialists; and _Les Pays Bas_ (Leiden, 1899),
+  and _La Hollande geographique, ethnologique, politique, &c._ (Paris,
+  1900), both works of the same class as the preceding.
+
+  Books of travel include some of considerable topographical as well as
+  literary interest, from Lodovico Guicciardini (1567) down to Edmondo
+  de Amicis (_Holland_, translated from the Italian, London, 1883); H.
+  Havard, _Dead Cities of the Zuider Zee, &c._ (translated from the
+  French, London 1876), and D. S. Meldrum, _Holland and the Hollanders_
+  (London, 1899) in the 19th century. Mention may also be made of _Old
+  Dutch Towns and Villages of the Zuider Zee_, by W. J. Tuyn (translated
+  from the Dutch, London, 1901), _Nieuwe Wandelingen door Nederland_, by
+  J. Craandijk and P. A. Schipperus (Haarlem, 1888); _Friesland Meres
+  and through the Netherlands_, by H. M. Doughty (London, 1887); _On
+  Dutch Waterways_, by G. C. Davis (London, 1887); _Hollande et
+  hollandais_, by H. Durand (Paris, 1893); and _Holland and Belgium_ by
+  Professor N. G. van Kampen (translated from the Dutch, London, 1860),
+  the last three being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations.
+  Works of historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are
+  _Merkwaardige Kasteelen in Nederland_, by J. van Lennep and W. J.
+  Hofdyk (Leiden, 1881-1884); _Noord-Hollandsche Oudheden_, by G. van
+  Arkel and A. W. Weisman, published by the Royal Antiquarian Society
+  (Amsterdam, 1891); and _Oud Holland_, edited by A. D. de Vries and N.
+  de Roever (Amsterdam, 1883-1886), containing miscellaneous
+  contributions to the history of ancient Dutch art, crafts and letters.
+  Natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the
+  Royal Zoological Society "Natura Artis Magistra" at Amsterdam, and the
+  _Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland_ (Haarlem, 1856-1863) written by
+  specialists, and including ethnology and flora. Military and naval
+  defence may be studied in _De vesting Holland_, by A. L. W. Seijffardt
+  (Utrecht, 1887), and the _Handbook of the Dutch Army_, by Major W. L.
+  White, R.A. (London, 1896); ecclesiastical history in _The Church in
+  the Netherlands_, by P. H. Ditchfield (London, 1893); and education in
+  vol. viii. of the _Special Reports on Educational Subjects_ issued by
+  the Board of Education, London. Statistics are furnished by the annual
+  publication of the Society for Statistics in the Netherlands,
+  Amsterdam.
+
+
+HISTORY FROM 1579 TO MODERN TIMES[5]
+
+
+  Consequences of the Union of Utrecht.
+
+  Sovereignty offered to the Duke of Anjou.
+
+  The Ban against William of Orange.
+
+  The Act of Abjuration.
+
+  The Apology.
+
+The political compact known as the Union of Utrecht differed from its
+immediate predecessors, the Pacification of Ghent, the Union of Brussels
+and the Perpetual Edict, in its permanence. The confederacy of the
+northern provinces of the Netherlands which was effected (29th of
+January 1579) by the exertions of John of Nassau, was destined to be the
+beginning of a new national life. The foundation was laid on which the
+Republic of the United Netherlands was to be raised. Its immediate
+results were far from promising. The falling away of the Walloon
+provinces and the Catholic nobles from the patriot cause threatened it
+with ruin. Nothing but the strong personal influence and indefatigable
+labours of the prince of Orange stood in the way of a more general
+defection. Everywhere, save in staunch and steadfast Holland and
+Zeeland, a feeling of wavering and hesitation was spreading through the
+land. In Holland and Zeeland William was supreme, but elsewhere his aims
+and his principles were misrepresented and misunderstood. He saw that
+unaided the patriotic party could not hope to resist the power of Philip
+II., and he had therefore resolved to gain the support of France by the
+offer of the sovereignty of the Netherlands to the duke of Anjou. But
+Anjou was a Catholic, and this fact aroused among the Protestants a
+feeling that they were being betrayed. But the prince persisted in the
+policy he felt to be a necessity, and (23rd of Jan. 1581) a treaty was
+concluded with the duke, by which he, under certain conditions, agreed
+to accept the sovereignty of the Netherlands provinces, except Holland
+and Zeeland. These two provinces were unwilling to have any sovereign
+but William himself, and after considerable hesitation he agreed to
+become their Count (24th of July 1581). He felt that he was justified in
+taking this step because of the Ban which Philip had published on the
+15th of March 1581, in which Orange had been proclaimed a traitor and
+miscreant, and a reward offered to any one who would take his life. His
+practical answer to the king was the act of Abjuration, by which at his
+persuasion the representatives of the provinces of Brabant, Flanders,
+Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland and Utrecht, assembled at the Hague,
+declared that Philip had forfeited his sovereignty over them, and that
+they held themselves henceforth absolved from their allegiance to him.
+In a written defence, the famous _Apology_, published later in the year,
+William replied at great length to the charges that had been brought
+against him, and carrying the war into the enemy's camp, endeavoured to
+prove that the course he had pursued was justified by the crimes and
+tyranny of the king.
+
+
+  Attempt on the Life of Orange by Jean Jaureguy.
+
+  The French Fury.
+
+  Assassination of William the Silent.
+
+The duke of Anjou was solemnly inaugurated as duke of Brabant (February
+1582), and shortly afterwards as duke of Gelderland, count of Flanders
+and lord of Friesland. William had taken up his residence at Antwerp in
+order to give the French prince his strongest personal support, and
+while there a serious attempt was made upon his life (March 18th) by a
+youth named Jean Jaureguy. He fired a pistol at the prince close to his
+head, and the ball passed under the right ear and out at the left jaw.
+It was a terrible wound, but fortunately not fatal. Meanwhile Anjou soon
+grew tired of his dependent position and of the limitations placed upon
+his sovereignty. He resolved by a secret and sudden attack (17th of
+January 1583) to make himself master of Antwerp and of the person of
+Orange. The assault was made, but it proved an utter failure. The
+citizens resisted stoutly behind barricades, and the French were routed
+with heavy loss. The "French Fury" as it was called, rendered the
+position of Anjou in the Netherlands impossible, and made William
+himself unpopular in Brabant. He accordingly withdrew to Delft. In the
+midst of his faithful Hollanders he felt that he could still organize
+resistance, and stem the progress made by Spanish arms and Spanish
+influence under the able leadership of Alexander of Parma. Antwerp, with
+St Aldegonde as its burgomaster, was still in the hands of the patriots
+and barred the way to the sea, and covered Zeeland from invasion. Never
+for one moment did William lose heart or relax his efforts and
+vigilance; he felt that with the two maritime provinces secure the
+national cause need not be despaired of. But his own days had now drawn
+to their end. The failure of Jaureguy did not deter a young Catholic
+zealot, by name Balthazar Gerard, from attempting to assassinate the man
+whom he looked upon as the arch-enemy of God and the king. Under the
+pretext of seeking a passport, Gerard penetrated into the Prinsenhof at
+Delft, and firing point blank at William as he left the dining hall,
+mortally wounded him (10th of July 1584). Amidst general lamentations
+"the Father of his Country," as he was called, was buried with great
+state in the Nieuwe Kerk at Delft at the public charge.
+
+
+  Maurice of Nassau.
+
+  The Sovereignty offered to Henry III. and declined.
+
+  Leicester Governor-general.
+
+But though the great leader was dead, he had not striven or worked in
+vain. The situation was critical, but there was no panic. Throughout the
+revolted provinces there was a general determination to continue the
+struggle to the bitter end. To make head, however, against the
+victorious advance of Parma, before whose arms all the chief towns of
+Brabant and Flanders, Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and lastly--after a
+valiant defence--Antwerp itself had fallen, it was necessary to look for
+the protection of a foreign ruler. The government, now that the
+commanding personal influence of William was no more, was without any
+central authority which could claim obedience. The States-General were
+but the delegates of a number of sovereign provinces, and amongst these
+Holland by its size and wealth (after the occupation by the Spaniards of
+Brabant and Flanders) was predominant. Maurice of Nassau, William's
+second son, had indeed on his father's death been appointed captain and
+admiral-general of the Union, president of the Council of State, and
+stadholder of Holland and Zeeland, but he was as yet too young, only
+seventeen, to take a leading part in affairs. Count Hohenloo took the
+command of the troops with the title of lieutenant-general. Two devoted
+adherents of William of Orange, Paul Buys, advocate of Holland, and
+Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, pensionary of Rotterdam, were the statesmen
+who at this difficult juncture took the foremost part in directing the
+policy of the confederacy. They turned first to France. The sovereignty
+of the provinces was offered to Henry III., but the king, harassed by
+civil discords in his own country, declined the dangerous honour (1585).
+Repelled in this direction, the States-General next turned themselves to
+England. Elizabeth was alarmed by the successes of the Spanish arms, and
+especially by the fall of Antwerp; and, though refusing the sovereignty,
+she agreed to send a force of 5000 foot and 1000 horse to the aid of the
+Provinces under the command of the earl of Leicester, her expenses being
+guaranteed by the handing over to her the towns of Flushing, Brill and
+Rammekens as pledges (10th of August 1585). Leicester, on landing in
+Holland, was in the presence of the States-General and of Maurice of
+Nassau invested with the title of governor-general and practically
+sovereign powers (February 1586).
+
+
+  Failure and withdrawal of Leicester.
+
+The new governor had great difficulties to contend with. He knew nothing
+of the language or the character of the people he was called upon to
+govern; his own abilities both as general and statesman were mediocre;
+and he was hampered constantly in his efforts by the niggardliness and
+changing whims of his royal mistress. In trying to consolidate the
+forces of the Provinces for united action and to centralize its
+government, he undoubtedly did his best, according to his lights, for
+the national cause. But he was too hasty and overbearing. His edict
+prohibiting all commercial intercourse with the enemy at once aroused
+against him the bitter hostility of the merchants of Holland and
+Zeeland, who thrived by such traffic. His attempts to pack the council
+of State, on which already two Englishmen had seats, with personal
+adherents and to override the opposition of the provincial states of
+Holland to his arbitrary acts, at last made his position impossible. The
+traitorous surrender of Deventer and Zutphen by their English governors,
+Stanley and York, both Catholics, rendered all Englishmen suspect. The
+States of Holland under the leadership of Johan van Oldenbarneveldt,
+took up an attitude of resolute hostility to him, and the States of
+Holland dominated the States-General. In the midst of these divided
+councils the important seaport of Sluis was taken by Parma. Utterly
+discredited, Leicester (6th of August 1587) abandoned the task, in
+which he had met with nothing but failure, and returned to England.
+
+
+  Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.
+
+  Maurice of Nassau.
+
+Nothing could have been worse than the position of the States at the
+beginning of 1588. Had Parma had a free hand, in all probability he
+would have crushed out the revolt and reconquered the northern
+Netherlands. But the attention of the Spanish king was at this time
+concentrated upon the success of the Invincible Armada. The army of
+Parma was held in readiness for the invasion of England, and the United
+Provinces had a respite. They were fortunately able to avail themselves
+of it. The commanding abilities of Oldenbarneveldt, now advocate of
+Holland, gradually gathered into his hands the entire administration of
+the Republic. He became indispensable and, as his influence grew, more
+and more did the policy of the provinces acquire unity and consistency
+of purpose. At the same time Maurice of Nassau, now grown to man's
+estate, began to display those military talents which were to gain for
+him the fame of being the first general of his time. But Maurice was no
+politician. He had implicit trust in the advocate, his father's faithful
+friend and counsellor, and for many years to come the statesman and the
+soldier worked in harmony together for the best interests of their
+country (see OLDENBARNEVELDT, and MAURICE, prince of Orange). At the
+side of Maurice, as a wise adviser, stood his cousin William Louis,
+stadholder of Friesland, a trained soldier and good commander in the
+field.
+
+
+  Campaign of 1591.
+
+  Death of Parma.
+
+  New province of Stadt en Landen.
+
+After the destruction of the Armada, Parma had been occupied with
+campaigns on the southern frontier against the French, and the
+Netherlanders had been content to stand on guard against attack. The
+surprise of Breda by a stratagem (8th of March 1590) was the only
+military event of importance up to 1591. But the two stadholders had not
+wasted the time. The States' forces had been reorganized and brought to
+a high state of military discipline and training. In 1591 the
+States-General, after considerable hesitation, were persuaded by Maurice
+to sanction an offensive campaign. It was attended by marvellous
+success. Zutphen was captured on the 20th of May, Deventer on the 20th
+of June. Parma, who was besieging the fort of Knodsenburg, was forced to
+retire with loss. Hulst fell after a three days' investment, and finally
+Nymegen was taken on the 21st of October. The fame of Maurice, a
+consummate general at the early age of twenty-four, was on all men's
+lips. The following campaign was signalized by the capture of Steenwyk
+and Koevorden. On the 8th of December 1592 Parma died, and the States
+were delivered from their most redoubtable adversary. In 1593 the
+leaguer of Geertruidenburg put the seal on Maurice's reputation as an
+invincible besieger. The town fell after an investment of three months.
+Groningen was the chief fruit of the campaign of 1594. With its
+dependent district it was formed into a new province under the name of
+Stadt en Landen. William Louis became the stadholder (see GRONINGEN).
+The soil of the northern Netherlands was at last practically free from
+the presence of Spanish garrisons.
+
+
+  Triple Alliance of France, England and the United Provinces.
+
+The growing importance of the new state was signalized by the
+conclusion, in 1596, of a triple alliance between England, France and
+the United Provinces. It was of short duration and purchased by hard
+conditions, but it implied the recognition by Henry IV. and Elizabeth of
+the States-General, as a sovereign power, with whom treaties could be
+concluded. Such a recognition was justified by the brilliant successes
+of the campaign of 1597. It began with the complete rout of a Spanish
+force of 4500 men at Turnhout in January, with scarcely any loss to the
+victors. Then in a succession of sieges Rheinberg, Meurs, Groenlo,
+Bredevoort, Enschede, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal and Lingen fell into the
+hands of Maurice.
+
+
+  Albert and Isabel, Sovereigns of the Netherlands.
+
+The relations of the Netherlands to Spain were in 1598 completely
+changed. Philip II. feeling death approaching, resolved to marry his
+elder daughter, the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia, to her cousin, the
+Cardinal Archduke Albert of Austria, who had been governor-general of
+the Netherlands since 1596, and to erect the Provinces into an
+independent sovereignty under their joint rule. The instrument was
+executed in May; Philip died in September; the marriage took place in
+November. In case the marriage should have no issue, the sovereignty of
+the Netherlands was to revert to the king of Spain. The archdukes (such
+was their official title) did not make their _joyeuse entree_ into
+Brussels until the close of 1599. The step was taken too late to effect
+a reconciliation with the rebel provinces. Peace overtures were made,
+but the conditions were unacceptable. The States-General never seriously
+considered the question of giving in their submission to the new
+sovereigns. The traders of Holland and Zeeland had thriven mightily by
+the war. Their ships had penetrated to the East and West Indies, and
+were to be found in every sea. The year 1600 saw the foundation of the
+Chartered East India Company (see DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY). The
+question of freedom of trade with the Indies had become no less vital to
+the Dutch people than freedom of religious worship. To both these
+concessions Spanish policy was irreconcilably opposed.
+
+
+  The Battle of Nieuport.
+
+  Siege of Ostend.
+
+Dunkirk, as a nest of freebooters who preyed upon Dutch commerce, was
+made the objective of a daring offensive campaign in 1600 by the orders
+of the States-General under the influence of Oldenbarneveldt in the
+teeth of the opposition of the stadholders Maurice and William Louis. By
+a bold march across Flanders, Maurice reached Nieuport on the 1st of
+July, and proceeded to invest it. The archduke Albert, however, followed
+hard on his steps with an army of seasoned troops, and Maurice, with his
+communications cut, was forced to fight for his existence. A desperate
+combat took place on the dunes between forces of equal strength and
+valour. Only by calling up his last reserves did victory declare for
+Maurice. The archduke had to fly for his life. Five thousand Spaniards
+were killed; seven hundred taken, and one hundred and five standards. To
+have thus worsted the dreaded Spanish infantry in open fight was a great
+triumph for the States troops and their general, but it was barren of
+results. Maurice refused to run further risks and led back his army to
+Holland. For the following three years all the energies alike of the
+archdukes and the States-General were concentrated on the siege of
+Ostend (15th of July 1601-20th of Sept. 1604), the solitary possession
+of the Dutch in Flanders. The heroic obstinacy of the defence was
+equalled by the perseverance of the attack, and there was a vast
+expenditure, especially on the side of the Spaniards, of blood and
+treasure. At last when reduced to a heap of ruins, Ostend fell before
+the resolution of Ambrosio de Spinola, a Genoese banker, to whom the
+command of the besiegers had been entrusted (see SPINOLA). A month
+before the surrender, however, another and more commodious seaport,
+Sluis, had fallen into the possession of the States army under Maurice,
+and thus the loss of Ostend was discounted.
+
+
+  Negotiations for Peace.
+
+  The Twelve Years' Truce.
+
+Spinola proved himself to be a general of a high order, and the
+campaigns of 1606 and 1607 resolved themselves into a duel of skill
+between him and Maurice without much advantage accruing to either side.
+But the archdukes' treasury was now empty, and their credit exhausted;
+both sides were weary of fighting, and serious negotiations for peace
+were set on foot. The disposition of the Spaniards to make concessions
+was further quickened by the destruction of their fleet at Gibraltar by
+the Dutch admiral Heemskerk, (April 1607). But there were many
+difficulties in the way. The peace party in the United Provinces headed
+by Oldenbarneveldt was opposed by the stadholders Maurice and William
+Louis, the great majority of the military and naval officers, the
+Calvinist preachers and many leading merchants. The Spaniards on their
+side were obdurate on the subjects of freedom of trade in the Indies and
+of freedom of religious worship. At last, after the negotiations had
+been repeatedly on the point of breaking off, a compromise was effected
+by the mediation of the envoys of France and England. On the 9th of
+April 1609 a truce for twelve years was agreed upon. On all points the
+Dutch demands were granted. The treaty was concluded with the Provinces,
+"in the quality of free States over whom the archdukes made no
+pretentions." The _uti possidetis_ as regards territorial possession was
+recognized. Neither the granting of freedom of worship to Roman
+Catholics nor the word "Indies" was mentioned, but in a secret treaty
+King Philip undertook to place no hindrance in the way of Dutch trade,
+wherever carried on.
+
+
+  Theological strife in Holland.
+
+  Arminius and Gomarus.
+
+  Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.
+
+  Waard-gelders.
+
+  Oldenbarneveldt executed.
+
+One of the immediate results of this triumph of his policy was the
+increase of Oldenbarneveldt's influence and authority in the government
+of the Republic. But though Maurice and his other opponents had
+reluctantly yielded to the advocate's skilful diplomacy and persuasive
+arguments, a soreness remained between the statesman and the stadholder
+which was destined never to be healed. The country was no sooner
+relieved from the pressure of external war than it was torn by internal
+discords. After a brief interference in the affairs of Germany, where
+the intricate question of the Cleves-Julich succession was already
+preparing the way for the Thirty Years' War, the United Provinces became
+immersed in a hot and absorbing theological struggle with which were
+mixed up important political issues. The province of Holland was the
+arena in which it was fought out. Two professors of theology at Leiden,
+Jacobus Arminius (see ARMINIUS) and Franciscus Gomarus, became the
+leaders of two parties, who differed from one another upon certain
+tenets of the abstruse doctrine of predestination. Gomarus supported the
+orthodox Calvinist view; Arminius assailed it. The Arminians appealed to
+the States of Holland (1610) in a Remonstrance in which their
+theological position was defined. They were henceforth known as
+"Remonstrants"; their opponents were styled "Contra-Remonstrants." The
+advocate and the States of Holland took sides with the Remonstrants,
+Maurice and the majority of the States-General (four provinces out of
+seven) supported the Contra-Remonstrants. It became a question of the
+extent of the rights of sovereign princes under the Union. The
+States-General wished to summon a national synod, the States of Holland
+refused their assent, and made levies of local militia (_waard-gelders_)
+for the maintenance of order. The States-General (9th of July 1618) took
+up the challenge, and the prince of Orange, as captain-general, was
+placed at the head of a commission to go in the first place to Utrecht,
+which supported Oldenbarneveldt, and then to the various cities of
+Holland to insist on the disbanding of the _waard-gelders_. On the side
+of Maurice, whom the army obeyed, was the power of the sword. The
+opposition collapsed; the recalcitrant provincial states were purged;
+and the leaders of the party of state rights--the advocate himself, Hugo
+de Groot (see GROTIUS), pensionary of Rotterdam, and Hoogerbeets,
+pensionary of Leiden, were arrested and thrown into prison. The whole
+proceedings were illegal, and the illegality was consummated by the
+prisoners being brought before a special tribunal of 24 judges, nearly
+all of whom were personal enemies of the accused. The trial was merely a
+preliminary to condemnation. The advocate was sentenced to death, and
+executed (13th of May 1619) in the Binnenhof at the Hague. The sentences
+of Grotius and Hoogerbeets were commuted to perpetual imprisonment.
+
+
+  Synod of Dort.
+
+Meanwhile the National Synod had been summoned and had met at Dort on
+the 13th of November 1618. One hundred members, many of them foreign
+divines, composed this great assembly, who after 154 sittings gave their
+seal to the doctrines of the Netherlands Confession and the Heidelberg
+Catechism. The Arminians were condemned, their preachers deprived, and
+the Remonstrant party placed under a ban (6th of May 1619).
+
+
+  Renewal of the war.
+
+  Death of Maurice.
+
+  The period of Frederick Henry.
+
+  The East and West India Companies.
+
+In 1621 the Twelve Years' Truce came to an end, and war broke out once
+more with Spain. Maurice, after the death of Oldenbarneveldt, was
+supreme in the land, but he missed sorely the wise counsels of the old
+statesman whose tragic end he had been so largely instrumental in
+bringing about. He and Spinola found themselves once more at the head of
+the armies in the field, but the health of the stadholder was
+undermined, and his military genius was under a cloud. Deeply mortified
+by his failure to relieve Breda, which was blockaded by Spinola, Maurice
+fell seriously ill, and died on the 23rd of April 1625. He was succeeded
+in his dignities by his younger brother Frederick Henry (see FREDERICK
+HENRY, prince of Orange), who was appointed stadholder of Holland,
+Zeeland, Utrecht, Overyssel and Gelderland, captain and adjutant-general
+of the Union and head of the Council of State. Frederick Henry was as a
+general scarcely inferior to Maurice, and a far more able statesman. The
+moderation of his views and his conciliatory temper did much to heal the
+wounds left by civil and religious strife, and during his time the power
+and influence of the stadholderate attained their highest point. Such
+was his popularity and the confidence he inspired that in 1631 his great
+offices of state were declared hereditary, in favour of his
+five-year-old son, by the _Acte de Survivance_. He did much to justify
+the trust placed in him, for the period of Frederick Henry is the most
+brilliant in the history of the Dutch Republic. During his time the East
+India Company, which had founded the town of Batavia in Java as their
+administrative capital, under a succession of able governor-generals
+almost monopolized the trade of the entire Orient, made many conquests
+and established a network of factories and trade posts stretching from
+the Cape of Good Hope to Japan (see DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY). The West
+India Company, erected in 1621, though framed on the same model, aimed
+rather at waging war on the enemies' commerce than in developing their
+own. Their fleets for some years brought vast booty into the company's
+coffers. The Mexican treasure ships fell into the hands of Piet Heyn,
+the boldest of their admirals, in 1628; and they were able to send
+armies across the ocean, conquer a large part of Brazil, and set up a
+flourishing Dutch dominion in South America (see Dutch West India
+Company). The operations of these two great chartered companies occupy a
+place among memorable events of Frederick Henry's stadholderate; they
+are therefore mentioned here, but for further details the special
+articles must be consulted.
+
+
+  Policy of Frederick Henry.
+
+When Frederick Henry stepped into his brother's place, he found the
+United Provinces in a position of great danger and of critical
+importance. The Protestants of Germany were on the point of being
+crushed by the forces of the Austrian Habsburgs and the Catholic League.
+It lay with the Netherlands to create a diversion in the favour of their
+co-religionists by keeping the forces of the Spanish Habsburgs fully
+occupied. But to do so with their flank exposed to imperialist attack
+from the east, was a task involving grave risks and possible disaster.
+In these circumstances, Frederick Henry saw the necessity of securing
+French aid. It was secured by the skilful diplomacy of Francis van
+Aarssens (q.v.) but on hard conditions. Richelieu required the
+assistance of the Dutch fleet to enable him to overcome the resistance
+of the Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle. The far-sighted stadholder,
+despite popular opposition, by his powerful personal influence induced
+the States-General to grant the naval aid, and thus obtain the French
+alliance on which the safety of the republic depended.
+
+
+  Sieges of Hertogenbosch and Maestricht.
+
+  Death of the Infanta Isabel.
+
+The first great military success of Frederick Henry was in 1629. His
+capture of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-duc), hitherto supposed to be
+impregnable, after a siege of five months was a triumph of engineering
+skill. Wesel also was taken by surprise this same year. In 1631 a large
+Spanish fleet carrying a picked force of 6000 soldiers, for the invasion
+of Zeeland, was completely destroyed by the Dutch in the Slaak and the
+troops made prisoners. The campaign of the following year was made
+memorable by the siege of Maestricht. This important frontier town lying
+on both sides of the river Meuse was taken by the prince of Orange in
+the teeth of two relieving armies, Spanish and Imperialist, whose
+united forces were far larger than his own. This brilliant feat of arms
+was the prelude to peace negotiations, which led to a lengthy exchange
+of diplomatic notes. No agreement, however, was reached. The death of
+the Infanta Isabel in November 1633, and the reversion of the
+Netherlands to the sovereignty of the king of Spain, rendered all
+efforts to end the war, for the time being, fruitless.
+
+
+  Alliance with France.
+
+  Capture of Breda.
+
+  Battle of the Downs.
+
+At this juncture a strengthening of the French alliance seemed to the
+prince not merely expedient, but necessary. He had to contend against a
+strong peace party in Holland headed by the pensionary Pauw, but with
+the aid of the diplomatic skill of Aarssens all opposition was overcome.
+Pauw was replaced as pensionary by Jacob Cats, and the objections of
+Richelieu were met and satisfied. A defensive and offensive alliance
+with France was concluded early in 1635 against the king of Spain, and
+each party bound itself not to make a peace or truce without the assent
+of the other. A large French force was sent into the Netherlands and
+placed under the command of the prince of Orange. The military results
+of the alliance were during the first two campaigns inconsiderable. The
+Cardinal Infant Ferdinand had been appointed governor of the
+Netherlands, and he proved himself an excellent general, and there were
+dissensions in the councils of the allies. In 1637 the stadholder was
+able to add to his fame as an invincible besieger of cities. His failure
+to relieve Breda had hastened the death of Maurice. It fell in 1625 into
+the hands of Spinola after a blockade of eleven months; it was now
+retaken by Frederick Henry after a siege of eleven weeks, in the face of
+immense difficulties. The reluctance of the States of Holland, and of
+Amsterdam in particular, to grant adequate supplies caused the campaigns
+of 1638 and 1639 to be in the main defensive and dilatory. An attempted
+attack on Antwerp was foiled by the vigilance of the Cardinal Infant. A
+body of 6000 men under Count William of Nassau were surprised and
+utterly cut to pieces. The year 1639, which had begun with abortive
+negotiations, and in which the activity of the stadholder had been much
+hampered by ill-health, was not to end, however, without a signal
+triumph of the Dutch arms, but it was to be on sea and not on land. A
+magnificent Spanish armada consisting of 77 vessels, manned by 24,000
+soldiers and sailors under the command of Admiral Oquendo, were sent to
+the Channel in September with orders to drive the Dutch from the narrow
+seas and land a large body of troops at Dunkirk. Attacked by a small
+Dutch fleet under Admiral Marten Tromp, the Spaniards sheltered
+themselves under the English Downs by the side of an English squadron.
+Tromp kept watch over them until he had received large reinforcements,
+and then (21st of October) boldly attacked them as they lay in English
+waters. Oquendo himself with seven vessels escaped under cover of a fog;
+all the rest of the fleet was destroyed. This crushing victory assured
+to the Dutch the command of the sea during the rest of the war. The
+naval power of Spain never in fact recovered from the blow.
+
+
+  English and Dutch Commercial Rivalry.
+
+  Marriage of William and Mary.
+
+The triumph of Tromp had, however, a bad effect on public feeling in
+England. The circumstances under which the battle of the Downs was won
+were galling to the pride of the English people, and intensified the
+growing unfriendliness between two nations, one of whom possessed and
+the other claimed supremacy upon the seas. The prosperity of the
+world-wide Dutch commerce was looked upon with eyes of jealousy across
+the Channel. Disputes had been constantly recurring between Dutch and
+English traders in the East Indies and elsewhere, and the seeds were
+already sown of that stern rivalry which was to issue in a series of
+fiercely contested wars. But in 1639-1640 civil discords in England
+stood in the way of a strong foreign policy, and the adroit Aarssens was
+able so "to sweeten the bitterness of the pill" as to bring King Charles
+not merely to "overlook the scandal of the Downs," but to consent to the
+marriage of the princess royal with William, the only son of the
+stadholder. The wedding of the youthful couple (aged respectively 14 and
+10 years) took place on the 12th of May 1641 (see WILLIAM II., PRINCE OF
+ORANGE). This royal alliance gave added influence and position to the
+house of Orange-Nassau.
+
+
+  Changed relations of the United Provinces with France and Spain.
+
+About this time various causes brought about a change in the feelings
+which had hitherto prevented any possibility of peace between Spain and
+the United Netherlands. The revolt of Portugal (December 1640) weakened
+the Spanish power, and involved the loss to Spain of the Portuguese
+colonies. But it was in the Portuguese colonies that the conquests of
+the Dutch East and West India Companies had been made, and the question
+of the Indies as between Netherlander and Spaniard assumed henceforth
+quite a different complexion. Aarssens, the strongest advocate of the
+French alliance, passed away in 1641, and his death was quickly followed
+by those of Richelieu and Louis XIII. The victory of Conde at Rocroy
+opened the eyes of Frederick Henry to the danger of a French conquest of
+the Belgian provinces; and, feeling his health growing enfeebled, the
+prince became anxious before his death to obtain peace and security for
+his country by means of an accommodation with Spain. In 1643
+negotiations were opened which, after many delays and in the face of
+countless difficulties, were at length, four years later, to terminate
+successfully.
+
+
+  Death of Frederick Henry--his last campaigns.
+
+The course of the _pourparlers_ would doubtless have run more smoothly
+but for the infirm health and finally the death of the prince of Orange
+himself. Frederick Henry expired on the 14th of March 1647, and was
+buried by the side of his father and brother in Delft. In his last
+campaigns he had completed with signal success the task which, as a
+military commander, he had set himself,--of giving to the United
+Provinces a thoroughly defensible frontier of barrier fortresses. In
+1644 he captured Sas de Ghent; in 1645 Hulst. That portion of Flanders
+which skirts the south bank of the Scheldt thus passed into the
+possession of the States, and with it the complete control of all the
+waterways to the sea.
+
+
+  The Peace of Munster.
+
+  Complete triumph of the Dutch.
+
+The death of the great stadholder did not, however, long delay the
+carrying out of the policy on which he had set his heart, of concluding
+a separate peace with Spain behind the back of France, notwithstanding
+the compact of 1635 with that power. A provisional draft of a treaty had
+already been drawn up before the demise of Frederick Henry, and
+afterwards, despite the strenuous opposition of the new prince of Orange
+(who, under the _Acte de Survivance_, had inherited all his father's
+offices and dignities) and of two of the provinces, Zeeland and Utrecht,
+the negotiations were by the powerful support of the States of Holland
+and of the majority of the States-General, quickly brought to a
+successful issue. The treaty was signed at Munster on the 30th of
+January 1648. It was a peace practically dictated by the Dutch, and
+involved a complete surrender of everything for which Spain had so long
+fought. The United Provinces were recognized as free and independent,
+and Spain dropped all her claims; the _uti possidetis_ basis was adopted
+in respect to all conquests; the Scheldt was declared entirely closed--a
+clause which meant the ruin of Antwerp for the profit of Amsterdam; the
+right to trade in the East and West Indies was granted, and all the
+conquests made by the Dutch from the Portuguese were ceded to them; the
+two contracting parties agreed to respect and keep clear of each other's
+trading grounds; each was to pay in the ports of the other only such
+tolls as natives paid. Thus, triumphantly for the revolted provinces,
+the eighty years' war came to an end. At this moment the republic of the
+United Netherlands touched, perhaps, the topmost point of its prosperity
+and greatness.
+
+
+  The form of Government in the United Provinces.
+
+  The position of Holland and Amsterdam.
+
+No sooner was peace concluded than bitter disputes arose between the
+provincial States of Holland and the prince of Orange, supported by the
+other six provinces, upon the question of the disbanding of the military
+forces. William was a young man (he was twenty-one at the time of his
+father's death) of the highest abilities and of soaring ambition. He
+was totally opposed to the peace with Spain, and wished to bring about a
+speedy resumption of the war. With this view he entered into secret
+negotiations for a French alliance which, as far as can be gathered from
+extant records, had for its objects the conquest and partition by the
+allies of the Belgic provinces, and joint action in England on behalf of
+Charles II. As a preliminary step William aimed at a centralization of
+the powers of government in the United Provinces in his own person. He
+saw clearly the inherent defects of the existing federation, and he
+wished to remedy a system which was so complicated as to be at times
+almost unworkable. The States-General were but the delegates, the
+stadholders the servants, of a number of sovereign provinces, each of
+which had different historical traditions and a different form of
+government, and one of which--Holland--in wealth and importance
+outweighed the other six taken together. Between the States of Holland
+and the States-General there was constant jealousy and friction. And yet
+strangely enough the States of Holland themselves were not really
+representative of the people of that province, but only of the limited,
+self-coopting burgher aristocracies of certain towns, each of which with
+its rights and liberties had a quasi-independence of its own. Foremost
+among these was the great commercial capital, Amsterdam, whose rich
+burgher patriciate did not scruple on occasion to defy the authority of
+the States-General, the stadholder and even of the States of Holland
+themselves.
+
+
+  The position in 1650.
+
+  The question of disbanding the forces.
+
+  The Prisoners of Loevenstein.
+
+  Sudden Death of William II.
+
+The States of Holland had, in the years that followed the truce of 1609,
+measured their strength with that of the States-General, but the issue
+had been decided conclusively in favour of the federal authority by the
+sword of Maurice. The party and the principles of Oldenbarneveldt,
+however, though crushed, were not extinguished, and though Frederick
+Henry by his personal influence and prudent statesmanship had been able
+to surmount the difficulties placed in his way, he had had to encounter
+at times strong opposition, and had been much hampered in the conduct
+both of his campaigns and of his policy. With the conclusion of the
+peace of Munster and the death of the veteran stadholder the struggle
+for predominance in the Union between the Orange-federalist and the
+Hollander States-rights parties was certain to be renewed. The moment
+seemed to be favourable for the assertion of provincial sovereignty
+because of the youth and inexperience of the new prince of Orange. But
+William II., though little more than a boy, was endowed with singular
+capacity and great strength of will, and he was intent upon ambitious
+projects, the scope of which has been already indicated. The collision
+came, which was perhaps inevitable. The States-General in the disbanding
+of the forces wished to retain the _cadres_ of the regiments complete in
+case of a renewal of the war. The States of Holland objected, and,
+although the army was a federal force, gave orders for the general
+disbanding of the troops in the pay of the province. The officers
+refused to obey any orders but those of the council of State of the
+Union. The provincial states, on their part, threatened them with loss
+of pay. At this juncture the States-General, as in 1618, appointed a
+commission headed by the prince of Orange to visit the towns of Holland,
+and provide for the maintenance of order and the upholding of the Union.
+Both parties put themselves in the wrong, the province by refusing its
+quota to the federal war-sheet, the generality by dealing with
+individual towns instead of with the states of the province. The
+visitation was a failure. The town councils, though most of them willing
+to receive William in his capacity as stadholder, declined to give a
+hearing to the commission. Amsterdam refused absolutely to admit either
+stadholder or commission. In these circumstances William resolved upon
+strong measures. Six leading members of the States of Holland were
+seized (30th of July 1650) and imprisoned in Loevenstein Castle, and
+troops under the command of William Frederick, stadholder of Friesland,
+were sent to surprise Amsterdam. But the town council had been warned,
+and the gates were shut and guarded. The _coup d'etat_ nevertheless was
+completely successful. The anti-Orange party, remembering the fate of
+Oldenbarneveldt, were stricken with panic at the imprisonment of their
+leaders. The States of Holland and the town council of Amsterdam gave in
+their submission. The prisoners were released, and public thanks were
+rendered to the prince by the various provincial states for "his great
+trouble, care and prudence." William appeared to be master of the
+situation but his plans for future action were never to be carried into
+effect. Busily engaged in secret negotiations with France, he had
+retired to his hunting seat at Dieren, when he fell ill with smallpox on
+the 27th of October. A few days later he expired at the Hague (6th of
+November), aged but twenty-four years. A week after his death, his
+widow, the princess Mary of England, gave birth to a son who, as William
+III., was to give added lustre to the house of Orange.
+
+
+  The Grand Assembly.
+
+The anti-Orange particularist party, which had just suffered decisive
+defeat, now lifted up its head again. At the instance of Holland a Grand
+Assembly was summoned, consisting of delegates from all the provinces,
+to consider the state of the Union, the army and religion. It met at the
+Hague on the 18th of January 1651. The conclusions arrived at were that
+all sovereign powers resided in the provinces, and that to them
+severally, each within its own borders, belonged the control of the
+military forces and of religion. There was to be no captain-general of
+the Union. All the provinces, except Friesland and Groningen, which
+remained true to William Frederick of Nassau-Dietz, agreed to leave the
+office of stadholder vacant. The practical result was the establishment
+of the hegemony of Holland in the Union, and the handing over of the
+control of its policy to the patrician oligarchies who formed the town
+councils of that province.
+
+
+  The office of Grand Pensionary.
+
+  John de Witt.
+
+Such a system would have been unworkable but for the fact that with the
+revival of the political principles of Oldenbarneveldt, there was found
+a statesman of commanding ability to fill the office in which the famous
+advocate of Holland had for so many years been "minister of all affairs"
+in the forming state. The title of advocate had indeed been replaced by
+that of grand pensionary (_Raad Pensionaris_), but the duties assigned
+to the office remained the same, the only change of importance being
+that the advocate was appointed for life, the grand pensionary for a
+term of five years. The grand pensionary was nominally the paid servant
+of the States of Holland, but his functions were such as to permit a man
+of talent and industry in the stadholderless republic to exercise
+control in all departments of policy and of government. All
+correspondence passed through his hands, he wrote all despatches,
+conducted the debates over which he presided, kept the minutes, drafted
+the resolutions, and was _ex officio_ the leader and spokesman of the
+delegates who represented the Province of Holland in the States-General.
+Such was the position to which John de Witt, a young man of twenty-eight
+years of age, belonging to one of the most influential patrician
+families of Dordrecht (his father, Jacob de Witt, was one of the
+prisoners of Loevenstein) was appointed in 1653. From that date until
+1672 it was his brain and his will that guided the affairs of the United
+Netherlands. He was supreme in the States of Holland, and Holland was
+dominant in the States-General (see JOHN DE WITT).
+
+
+  Disputes between English and Dutch Traders.
+
+  Naval struggle with England.
+
+  Peace of Westminster.
+
+  Act of Seclusion.
+
+The death of William II. had left the Dutch republic at the very highest
+point of commercial prosperity, based upon an almost universal carrying
+trade, and the strictest system of monopoly. Friction and disputes had
+frequently arisen between the Dutch and the English traders in different
+parts of the world, and especially in the East Indies, culminating in
+the so-called "Massacre of Amboyna"; and the strained relations between
+the two nations would, but for the civil discords in England, have
+probably led to active hostilities during the reign of Charles I. With
+the accession of Cromwell to power the breach was widened. A strong
+party in the Provinces were unfriendly to the Commonwealth, and insults
+were offered in the Hague to the English envoys. The parliament replied
+by passing the memorable Navigation Act (Oct. 1651), which struck a
+deadly blow at the Dutch carrying trade. It was the beginning of that
+struggle for supremacy upon the seas which was to end, after three great
+wars, in the defeat of the weaker country. The first English war lasted
+from May 1652 to April 1654, and within fifteen months twelve sea-fights
+took place, which were desperately contested and with varying success.
+The leaders on both sides--the Netherlanders Tromp (killed in action on
+the 10th of August 1653) and de Ruyter, the Englishmen Blake and
+Monk--covered themselves with equal glory. But the losses to Dutch trade
+were so serious that negotiations for peace were set on foot by the
+burgher party of Holland, and Cromwell being not unwilling, an agreement
+was reached in the Treaty of Westminster, signed on the 5th of April
+1654. The Dutch conceded the striking of the flag and compensation for
+English claims against the Dutch in the East Indies and elsewhere. The
+act of Seclusion, which barred the young prince of Orange from holding
+the office of stadholder and of captain-general, had been one of the
+conditions on which Cromwell had insisted. The consent of the
+States-General was refused, but by a secret treaty Holland, under the
+influence of de Witt, accepted it in their own name as a sovereign
+province. The popular feeling throughout the United Provinces was
+strongly antagonistic to the act of Seclusion, by which at the dictation
+of a foreign power a ban of exclusion was pronounced against the house
+of Orange-Nassau, to which the republic owed its independence.
+
+
+  War with Sweden.
+
+In 1658, the States-General interfered to save the Danes from Charles
+Gustavus of Sweden. In 1659 a treaty of peace was concluded between
+France, England and the United Provinces with a view to the settlement
+of the Dano-Swedish question, which ended in securing a northern peace
+in 1660, and in keeping the Baltic open for Dutch trade. The foreign
+affairs of the republic were throughout these years ably conducted by de
+Witt, and the position of Dutch colonial expansion in the Eastern seas
+made secure and firm. An advantageous peace with Portugal was made in
+1662.
+
+
+  Second English war.
+
+  Peace of Breda.
+
+  The Triple Alliance.
+
+Meanwhile the Commonwealth in England had been followed in 1660 by the
+restoration of the monarchy. To conciliate the new king the act of
+Seclusion was repealed, and the education of the young prince of Orange
+was undertaken by the States of Holland under the superintendence of de
+Witt. But Charles owed a grudge against Holland, and he was determined
+to gratify it. The Navigation Act was re-enacted, old grievances
+revived, and finally the Dutch colony of New Netherland was seized in
+time of peace (1664) and its capital, New Amsterdam, renamed New York.
+War broke out in 1665, and was marked by a series of terrific battles.
+On the 13th of June 1665 the Dutch admiral Obdam was completely defeated
+by the English under the duke of York. The four days' fight (11th-14th
+of June 1666) ended in a hard-won victory by de Ruyter over Monk, but
+later in this year (August 3rd) de Ruyter was beaten by Ayscue and
+forced to take refuge in the Dutch harbours. He had his revenge, for on
+the 22nd of June 1667 the Dutch fleet under de Ruyter and Cornelius de
+Witt made their way up the Medway as far as Chatham and burnt the
+English fleet as it lay at anchor. Negotiations between the two
+countries were already in progress and this event hastened a settlement.
+The peace of Breda was signed (31st of July 1667) on terms on the whole
+favourable to the Dutch. New Netherland was retained by England in
+exchange for Suriname. In the following year by the efforts of Sir
+William Temple the much vaunted Triple Alliance was concluded between
+Great Britain, the United Provinces and Sweden to check the ambitious
+designs of Louis XIV. The instability of Charles II., who sold himself
+to Louis by the treaty of Dover (1670), speedily rendered it of no
+effect, and left the United Provinces to face unaided the vengeance of
+the French king.
+
+
+  The French invasion.
+
+  William III. Stadholder and Captain-general.
+
+  The third English war.
+
+  Murder of the Brothers de Witt.
+
+From 1668 to 1672 Louis made ready to destroy the Dutch, and so well had
+his diplomacy served him that they were left without a friend in Europe.
+In 1672 the storm broke: the English without a declaration of war tried,
+unsuccessfully, to intercept the Dutch Mediterranean fleet; and the
+French at the same time set forth in apparently irresistible strength to
+overcome the despised traders of Holland. The States were ill-prepared
+on land though their fleet was strong and ready; party spirit had become
+intensely bitter as the prince of Orange (see WILLIAM III.) grew to
+man's estate, and the ruling burgher party, knowing how great was the
+popularity of William, especially in the army, had purposely neglected
+their land forces. Town after town fell before the French armies, and to
+de Witt and his supporters there seemed to be nothing left but to make
+submission and accept the best terms that Louis XIV. would grant. The
+young prince alone rose to the height of the occasion, and set his face
+against such cowardly counsels, and he had the enthusiastic support of
+the great majority of the people. Amidst general acclamation William was
+elected stadholder, first of Zeeland, then of Holland, and was appointed
+captain-general of the Union (June 1672). Meanwhile the fleet under de
+Ruyter had encountered a combined English and French force in Solebay
+(7th of June), and after a desperate fight, in which the French had but
+slackly supported their allies, had more then held its own. William, in
+his turn, with an army wholly insufficient to meet the French in the
+open field, was able to persuade his countrymen to open the dikes and by
+flooding the land to prevent its occupation by the enemy. The courage
+and resourcefulness of their youthful leader inspired the people to make
+heroic sacrifices for their independence, but unfortunately such was the
+revulsion of feeling against the grand pensionary, that he himself and
+his brother Cornelius were torn in pieces by an infuriated mob at the
+Hague (20th of August).
+
+
+  Peace of Westminster.
+
+  The war with France.
+
+  Death of de Ruyter.
+
+  Peace of Nymwegen.
+
+William, now supreme in the States, while on land struggling with
+chequered success against the superior forces of the French, strove by
+his diplomacy, and not in vain, to gain allies for the republic. The
+growing power of France caused alarm to her neighbours, and Sweden,
+Denmark, Spain and the emperor lent a willing ear to the persuasions of
+the stadholder and were ready to aid his efforts to curb the ambition of
+Louis. On sea in 1673 de Ruyter, in a series of fiercely contested
+battles, successfully maintained his strenuous and dogged conflict
+against the united English and French fleets. In England the war was
+exceedingly unpopular, and public opinion forced Charles II. to conclude
+peace. The treaty of Westminster, which provided that all conquests
+should be restored, was signed on the 14th of February 1674. The French
+now found themselves threatened on many sides, and were reduced to the
+defensive. The prince, however, suffered a defeat at Seneff, and was in
+1674 prevented from invading France. The war, nevertheless, during the
+following years was on the whole advantageous to the Dutch. In 1676 a
+Dutch squadron fought two hard but indecisive battles with a superior
+French force, off Stromboli (8th of January) and off Messina (22nd of
+April). In the last-named fight Admiral de Ruyter was badly wounded and
+died (29th of April). In 1677 negotiations for peace went on, and were
+forwarded by the marriage, at the close of the year, of William of
+Orange with his cousin the princess Mary, daughter of the duke of York.
+At last (August 1678) a peace was concluded at Nymwegen by which the
+Dutch secured the integrity and independence of their country. All the
+conquests made by the French were given up.
+
+
+  League of Augsburg.
+
+  Revolution of 1688.
+
+  The Grand Alliance.
+
+  William and Heinsius.
+
+The aggressive policy of Louis XIV. in the years that followed the peace
+of Nymwegen enabled William to lay the foundations of the famous
+confederacy which changed the whole aspect of European politics. The
+league of Augsburg (1686), which followed the revocation of the edict of
+Nantes, placed Orange at the head of the resistance to French
+domination. The league was formed by the emperor, Spain, Sweden, the
+United Provinces and by several German states. In England William and
+Mary were looked upon as the natural successors to the throne on the
+death of James II., and William kept up close relations with the
+malcontents in Church and State, who disliked the arbitrary and
+papistical policy of his father-in-law. But with the birth of a prince
+of Wales the situation was changed, and William determined to intervene
+actively in English affairs. His opportunity came when Louis XIV.,
+having declared war against the Empire, had invaded the Palatinate. The
+opposition of Amsterdam to an English expedition, in the absence of
+danger from the side of France, was overcome. The Revolution of 1688
+ensued, and England became, under William's strong rule, the chief
+member of the Great Coalition against French aggression. In the Grand
+Alliance of 1689-1690 he was accused of sacrificing Dutch to English
+interests, but there can be no doubt that William loved his native
+country better than his adopted one, and was a true patriot. If the
+United Provinces suffered in prosperity through their close relations
+with and subordination to Great Britain during a long series of years,
+it was due not to the policy of William, but to the fact that the
+territory of the republic was small, open to attack by great military
+powers, and devoid of natural resources. The stadholder's authority and
+popularity continued unimpaired, despite of his frequent absences in
+England. He had to contend, like his predecessors, with the perennial
+hostility of the burgher aristocracy of Amsterdam, and at times with
+other refractory town councils, but his power in the States during his
+life was almost autocratic. His task was rendered lighter by the
+influence and ability of Heinsius, the grand pensionary of Holland, a
+wise and prudent statesman, whose tact and moderation in dealing with
+the details and difficulties of internal administration were
+conspicuous. The stadholder gave to Heinsius his fullest confidence, and
+the pensionary on his part loyally supported William's policy and placed
+his services ungrudgingly at his disposal (see HEINSIUS).
+
+
+  War with France.
+
+  Peace of Ryswick.
+
+  Death of William III.
+
+The conduct of the war by the allies was far from successful. In 1690
+(July 1st) Waldeck was defeated by Luxemburg at Fleurus; and the
+Anglo-Dutch fleet was so severely handled by Tourville (10th July) off
+Beachy Head that for two years the command of the sea remained in the
+possession of the French. A striking victory off Cape la Hogue (29th of
+May 1692) restored, however, supremacy to the allies. On land the
+combined armies fared ill. In 1691 the French took Mons, and in 1692
+Namur, in which year after a hard-fought battle William was defeated at
+Steenkirk and in 1693 at Neerwinden. But William's military genius never
+shone so brightly as in the hour of defeat; he never knew what it was to
+be beaten, and in 1695 his recapture of Namur was a real triumph of
+skill and resolution. At last, after long negotiations, exhaustion
+compelled the French king to sign the peace of Ryswick in 1697, in which
+William was recognized by France as king of England, the Dutch obtaining
+a favourable commercial treaty, and the right to garrison the Netherland
+barrier towns. This peace, however, did no more than afford a breathing
+space during which Louis XIV. prepared for a renewal of the struggle.
+The great question of the Spanish succession was looming in all men's
+eyes, and though partition treaties between the interested powers were
+concluded in 1698 and 1700, it is practically certain that the French
+king held himself little bound by them. In 1701 he elbowed the Dutch
+troops out of the barrier towns; he defied England by recognizing James
+III. on the death of his father; and it was clear that another war was
+imminent when William III. died in 1702.
+
+
+  Stadholderless Government.
+
+In 1672 the stadholdership in five provinces had been made hereditary in
+the family of the prince of Orange, but William died childless, and the
+republican burgher party was strong enough to prevent the posts being
+filled up. William had wished that his cousin, Count John William Friso
+of Nassau, stadholder of Friesland and Groningen, should succeed him,
+but his extreme youth and the jealousy of Holland against a "Frisian"
+stood in the way of his election. The result was a want of unity in
+counsel and action among the provinces, Friesland and Groningen standing
+aloof from the other five, while Holland and Zeeland had to pay for
+their predominance in the Union by being left to bear the bulk of the
+charges. Fortunately there was no break of continuity in the policy of
+the States, the chief conduct of affairs remaining, until his death in
+1720, in the capable and tried hands of the grand pensionary Heinsius,
+who had at his side a number of exceptionally experienced and wise
+counsellors--among these Simon van Slingeland, for forty-five years
+(1680-1725) secretary of the council of state, and afterwards grand
+pensionary of Holland (1727-1736), and Francis Fagel, who succeeded his
+father in 1699 as recorder (_Griffier_) of the States-General, and held
+that important office for fifty years. The tradition of William III. was
+thus preserved, but with the loss of the firm hand and strong
+personality of that great ruler the United Provinces were relegated to a
+subordinate place in the councils of the nations, and with the gradual
+decadence of its navy the Dutch republic ceased to rank as a power to be
+reckoned with.
+
+
+  War of the Spanish Succession.
+
+  Treaty of Utrecht.
+
+In the War of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 1702, Dutch
+troops took part in the campaigns of Marlborough and Eugene, and had
+their share in winning the great victories of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies
+(1706), Oudenarde (1708) and Malplaquet (1709). At the peace of Utrecht,
+concluded in 1713, the interests of the Netherlands were but
+half-heartedly supported by the English plenipotentiaries, and the
+French were able to obtain far more favourable terms than they had the
+power to exact. But they were compelled to abandon all claim to the
+Spanish Netherlands, which were formally handed over to the United
+Provinces, as trustees, to be by them, after the conclusion of a
+satisfactory barrier treaty, given up to the emperor, and be known
+henceforth as the Austrian Netherlands. The peace of Utrecht taught the
+Dutch that the great powers around them, while ready to use their
+resources for war, would not scruple to abandon them when they wanted
+peace; they, therefore, determined henceforth to stand clear of all
+foreign complications. With 1713 the influence of the United Netherlands
+upon European politics comes almost to an end.
+
+
+  Peace policy.
+
+  Ostend East India Company.
+
+  War of the Austrian Succession.
+
+  Revolution of 1747.
+
+  William IV.
+
+The ruling party in the States took an active part in securing George I.
+on the throne of England; and they succeeded in coming to an agreement
+both with France and with Austria over the difficulties connected with
+the barrier towns, and were thus able in tranquillity to concentrate
+their energies upon furthering the interests of their trade. Under the
+close oligarchical rule of the patrician families, who filled all
+offices in the town councils, the States of Holland, in which the
+influence of Amsterdam was dominant, and which in their turn exercised
+predominance in the States-General, became more and more an assembly of
+"shopkeepers" whose policy was to maintain peace for the sake of the
+commerce on which they thrived. For thirty years after the peace of
+Utrecht the Provinces kept themselves free from entanglement in the
+quarrels of their neighbours. The foundation of the Ostend East India
+Company (see OSTEND COMPANY), however, by the emperor Joseph II. in
+1723, at once aroused the strong opposition of the Amsterdam merchants
+who looked upon this invasion of their monopoly with alarm, and declared
+that the Ostend Company had been set up in contravention to the terms of
+Article V. of the treaty of Munster. In maintaining this position the
+States had the support of England, but it was not until 1731 that they
+succeeded in obtaining the suppression of the company by consenting to
+guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. This step led in 1743 to
+their being involved in the War of the Austrian Succession, and thus
+being drawn into hostilities with France, which invaded the barrier
+country. In 1744 they formed with Great Britain, Austria and Saxony, a
+Quadruple Alliance, and put a contingent of troops in the field. The
+Dutch took an active part in the campaign of 1745 and suffered heavily
+at Fontenoy, after which battle Marshal Saxe overran the Austrian
+Netherlands. The French captured all the barrier towns, and in 1747
+entered Dutch Flanders and made an easy conquest. The United Provinces,
+as in 1672, seemed to lie at the mercy of their enemies, and as in that
+eventful year, popular feeling broke down the opposition of the burgher
+oligarchies, and turned to William IV., prince of Orange, as the saviour
+of the state. John William Friso had died young in 1711, leaving a
+posthumous son, William Charles Henry Friso, who was duly elected
+stadholder by the two provinces, Friesland and Groningen, which were
+always faithful to his family, and in 1722 he became also, though with
+very limited powers, stadholder of Gelderland. The other provinces,
+however, under pressure from Holland, bound themselves not to elect
+stadholders, and they refused to revive the office of captain-general of
+the Union. By the conquest of Dutch Flanders Zeeland was threatened, and
+the states of that province, in which there were always many Orange
+partisans, elected (April 1747) William stadholder, captain-general and
+admiral of Zeeland. The example once given was infectious, and was
+followed in rapid succession by Holland, Utrecht and Overysel. Finally
+the States-General (May 4) appointed the prince, who was the first
+member of his family to be stadholder of all the seven provinces,
+captain and admiral-general of the Union, and a little later these
+offices were declared hereditary in both the male and female lines.
+
+
+  Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.
+
+  Death of William IV.
+
+  Anne of England Regent.
+
+William IV., though not a man of great ability, was sincerely anxious to
+do his utmost for securing the maintenance of peace, and the development
+of the resources and commercial prosperity of the country, and his
+powerful dynastic connexions (he had married Anne, eldest daughter of
+George II.) gave him weight in the councils of Europe. The peace of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, in which the influence of Great Britain was
+exerted on behalf of the States, though it nominally restored the old
+condition of things, left the Provinces crippled by debt, and fallen low
+from their old position among the nations. At first the stadholder's
+efforts to promote the trade and welfare of the country were hampered by
+the distrust and opposition of Amsterdam, and other strongholds of
+anti-Orange feeling, and just as his good intentions were becoming more
+generally recognized, William unfortunately died, on the 22nd of October
+1751, aged forty years, leaving his three-year-old son, William V., heir
+to his dignities. The princess Anne of England became regent, but she
+had a difficult part to play, and on the outbreak of the Seven Years'
+War in which the Provinces were determined to maintain neutrality, her
+English leanings brought much unpopularity upon her. She died in 1759,
+and for the next seven years the regency passed into the hands of the
+States, and the government was practically stadholderless.
+
+
+  William V.
+
+  The Armed Neutrality.
+
+  War with England.
+
+  Peace of Paris.
+
+In 1766 William V. was declared to be of age; and his accession to power
+was generally welcomed. He was, however, a weak man, without energy or
+resolution, and he allowed himself to be entirely led by his old
+guardian the duke of Brunswick, and by his wife Frederica Wilhelmina of
+Prussia, a woman of marked ability, to whom he entirely deferred. In the
+American War of Independence William's sympathies were strongly on the
+English side, while those of the majority of the Dutch people were with
+the revolted colonies. It is, however, certain that nothing would have
+driven the Provinces to take part in the war but for the overbearing
+attitude of the British government with regard to the right of neutral
+shipping upon the seas, and the heavy losses sustained by Dutch commerce
+at the hands of British privateers. The famous agreement, known as the
+"Armed Neutrality," with which in 1780 the States of the continent at
+the instigation of Catherine II. of Russia replied to the maritime
+claims put forward by Great Britain drew the Provinces once more into
+the arena of European politics. Every effort was made by the English to
+prevent the Dutch from joining the league, and in this they were
+assisted by the stadholder, but at last the States-General, though only
+by the bare majority of four provinces against three, determined to
+throw in their lot with the opponents of England. Nothing could have
+been more unfortunate, for the country was not ready for war, and party
+spirit was too strong for united action to be taken or vigorous
+preparations to be made. When war broke out Dutch commerce was
+destroyed, and the Dutch colonies were at the mercy of the English fleet
+without the possibility of a blow being struck in their defence. An
+indecisive, but bravely fought action with Admiral Parker at the Dogger
+Bank showed, however, that the Dutch seamen had lost none of their old
+dogged courage, and did much to soothe the national sense of
+humiliation. In the negotiations of the Treaty of Paris (1783) the Dutch
+found themselves abandoned by their allies, and compelled to accept the
+disadvantageous but not ungenerous terms accorded to them by Great
+Britain. They had to sacrifice some of their East Indian possessions and
+to concede to the English freedom of trade in the Eastern seas.
+
+
+  The "Patriot" Party.
+
+  Intervention of the King of Prussia.
+
+  Difficulty with the Emperor.
+
+  Prussian Invasion.
+
+  Restoration to power of William V.
+
+One result of this humiliating and disastrous war was the strengthening
+of the hands of the anti-Orange burgher-regents, who had now arrogated
+to themselves the name of "patriots." It was they, and not the
+stadholder, who had been mainly responsible for the Provinces joining
+"the Armed Neutrality," but the consequences of the war, in which this
+act had involved them, was largely visited upon the prince of Orange.
+The "patriot" party did their utmost to curtail his prerogatives, and
+harass him with petty insults, and at last the Prussian king was obliged
+to interfere to save his niece, who was even more unpopular than her
+weak husband, from being driven from the country. In 1784 the emperor
+Joseph II. took advantage of the dissensions in the Provinces to raise
+the question of the opening of the Scheldt. He himself was, however, no
+more prepared for attack than the Republic for defence, but the Dutch
+had already sunk so low, that they agreed to pay a heavy indemnity to
+induce the Austrians to drop a demand they were unable to enforce. To
+hold the mouth of the Scheldt and prevent at all costs a revival of
+Antwerp as a commercial port had been for two centuries a cardinal point
+of Dutch policy. This difficulty removed, the agitation of the
+"patriots" against the stadholderate form of government increased in
+violence, and William speedily found his position untenable. An insult
+offered to the prince of Orange in 1787 led to an invasion of the
+country by a Prussian army. Amsterdam capitulated, the country was
+occupied, and the patriot leaders declared incapable of holding any
+office. The Orange party was completely triumphant, and William V.,
+under the protection of Prussia and England, with which states the
+United Provinces were compelled to ally themselves, was restored to
+power. It was, however, impossible to make the complicated and creaking
+machinery of the constitution of the worn-out republic of the United
+Netherlands work smoothly, and in all probability it would have been
+within a very short time replaced by an hereditary monarchy, had not the
+cataclysm of the French Revolution swept it away from its path, never to
+be revived.
+
+
+  The French invade the Netherlands.
+
+  Overthrow of the Stadholderate.
+
+  Flight of William V.
+
+  The Batavian Republic.
+
+  Changes of Government.
+
+When war broke out between the French revolutionary government and the
+coalition of kings, the Provinces remained neutral as long as they
+could. It was not till Dumouriez had overrun all the Austrian
+Netherlands in 1792, and had thrown open the passage of the Scheldt,
+that they were drawn into the war. The patriot party sided with the
+French, but for various reasons the conquest of the country was delayed
+until 1795. In the closing months of 1794 Pichegru, at the head of a
+large and victorious army, invaded the Provinces. The very severe frost
+of that winter gave his troops an easy passage over all the rivers and
+low-lying lands; town after town fell before him; he occupied Amsterdam,
+and crossing the ice with his cavalry took the Dutch fleet, as it lay
+frost-bound at the Texel. The stadholder and his family fled to England,
+and the disorganized remnants of the allied forces under the duke of
+York retreated into Germany. The "patriots," as the anti-Orange
+republicans still styled themselves, received the French with open arms
+and public rejoicings, and the government was reorganized so as to bring
+it into close harmony with that of Paris. The stadholderate, the offices
+of captain and admiral-general, and all the ancient organization of the
+United Netherlands were abolished, and were transformed into the
+Batavian Republic, in close alliance with France. But the Dutch had soon
+cause to regret their revolutionary ardour. French alliance meant French
+domination, and participation in the wars of the Revolution. Its
+consequences were the total ruin of Dutch commerce, and the seizure of
+all the Dutch colonies by the English. Internally one change of
+government succeeded another; after the States-General came a national
+convention; then in 1798 a constituent assembly with an executive
+directory; then chambers of representatives; then a return to the
+earlier systems under the names of the eight provincial and one central
+Commissions (1801). These changes were the outcome of a gradual reaction
+in a conservative direction.
+
+
+  Constitution of 1805.
+
+  Louis Bonaparte King of Holland.
+
+  The Sovereign Prince.
+
+  Creation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
+
+  The Hundred Days.
+
+  William I. crowned at Brussels.
+
+  Constitution of the Netherlands.
+
+The peace of Amiens gave the country a little rest, and the Dutch got
+back the Cape of Good Hope and their West Indian colonies; it was,
+however, but the brief and deceptive interlude between two storms; when
+war began again England once more took possession of all she had
+restored. In 1805 the autocratic will of Napoleon Bonaparte imposed upon
+them a new constitution, and Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck (1765-1825) was
+made, under the ancient title of grand pensionary, head of the
+government. In the next year the French emperor added Holland, as the
+United Provinces were now named, to the ring of dependent sovereignties,
+by means of which he sought to build up a universal empire, and he
+forced his brother Louis to be the unwilling king of an unwilling
+people. The new king was a man of excellent intentions and did his best
+to promote the interest of his subjects, but finding himself unable to
+protect them from the despotic overlordship of his brother, after a four
+years' reign, Louis abdicated. In 1810 the Northern Netherlands by
+decree of Napoleon were incorporated in the French empire, and had to
+bear the burdens of conscription and of a crushing weight of taxation.
+The defeat of Leipzig in 1813 was the signal for a general revolt in the
+Netherlands; the prince of Orange (son of William V.) was recalled, and
+amidst general rejoicing accepted at Amsterdam the offer of the
+sovereignty under a free constitution (Dec. 1, 1813), with the title of
+sovereign prince. On the downfall of Napoleon the great powers
+determined to create in the Low Countries a powerful state, and by the
+treaty of London (June 14, 1814) the Belgians were united with the Dutch
+provinces to form the kingdom of the Netherlands, which was also to
+include the bishopric of Liege and the duchy of Bouillon, and the prince
+of Orange was placed upon the throne on the 15th of March 1815 as
+William I., king of the Netherlands (see WILLIAM I., king of the
+Netherlands). The ancestral possessions of the House of Nassau were
+exchanged for Luxemburg, of which territory King William in his personal
+capacity became grand duke. The carrying out of the treaty was delayed
+by the Hundred Days' campaign, which for a short time threatened its
+very existence. The daring invasion of Napoleon, however, afforded the
+Dutch and Belgian contingents of the allied army the opportunity to
+fight side by side under the command of William, prince of Orange,
+eldest son of the new king, who highly distinguished himself by his
+gallantry at Quatre Bras, and afterwards at Waterloo where he was
+wounded (see WILLIAM II., king of the Netherlands). The Congress of
+Vienna confirmed the arrangements made by the treaty of London, and
+William I. was crowned king of the Netherlands at Brussels on the 27th
+of September 1815. Under the constitution the king, as hereditary
+sovereign, possessed full executive powers, and the initiative in
+proposing laws. He had the power of appointing his own council of state.
+The legislative body bore the time-honoured title of States-General, and
+was divided into an Upper Chamber nominated by the king, and a Lower
+Chamber elected by the people. Freedom of worship, freedom of the press,
+and political equality were principles of the constitution, guaranteed
+to all.
+
+
+  Difference between the Dutch and Belgic provinces.
+
+  The Belgian Revolution.
+
+  Reign of William II.
+
+  Accession of William III.
+
+  The Constitution of 1848.
+
+  Political parties in the Netherlands.
+
+The union of the Dutch and Belgian provinces, like so many of the
+territorial arrangements of the Congress of Vienna, was an attempt to
+create a strong state out of diverse and jarring elements. It was an
+artificial union, which nothing but consummate tact and statesmanship
+could have rendered permanent and solid. North and south were divided
+from one another by religious belief, by laws and usages, by material
+interests, and by two centuries and a half of widely severed national
+life. The Belgians were strict Catholics, the Dutch Calvinistic
+Protestants. The Dutch were chiefly a commercial and seafaring people,
+with interests in distant lands and colonial possessions; the Belgians
+were agriculturists, except where their abundance of minerals made them
+manufacturers. The national traits of the Dutch were a blend of German
+and English, the national leaning of the Belgians was towards France and
+French ideals. Nevertheless the materials were there out of which a
+really broad-minded and conciliatory handling of religion and racial
+difficulties might have gradually built up a Netherland nation able to
+hold from its population and resources a considerable place among
+European powers. For it must not be forgotten that some two-thirds of
+the Belgian people are by origin and language of the same race as the
+Dutch. But when difficulties and differences arose between North and
+South, as they were sure to arise, they were not dealt with wisely. The
+king had good intentions, but his mind was warped by Dutch prejudices,
+and he was ill-advised and acted unadvisedly. The consequences were the
+Belgian Revolution of 1830, which ended in the intervention of the great
+powers, and the setting up, in 1831, of Belgium as an independent
+kingdom. The final settlement of outstanding questions between the two
+countries was not reached till 1839 (for an account of the Belgian
+Revolution, see BELGIUM). King William I. in the following year, having
+become unpopular through his resistance to reform, resigned his crown to
+his son William II., who reigned in peace till his death in 1849, when
+he was succeeded by his eldest son William III. (see WILLIAM III., king
+of the Netherlands). His accession marked the beginning of
+constitutional government in the Netherlands. William I. had been to a
+large extent a personal ruler, but William II., though for a time
+following in his father's steps, had been moved by the revolutionary
+outbreaks of 1848 to concede a revision of the constitution. The
+fundamental law of 1848 enacted that the first chamber of the
+States-General should be elected by the Provincial Estates instead of
+being appointed by the king, and that the second chamber should be
+elected directly by all persons paying a certain amount in taxation.
+Ministers were declared responsible to the States-General, and a liberal
+measure of self-government was also granted. During the long reign of
+William III. (1849-1890) the chief struggles of parties in the
+Netherlands centred round religious education. On the one side are the
+liberals, divided into moderates and progressives, the representatives
+to a large extent of the commercial towns. Opposed to them is the
+coalition of the orthodox Protestant conservatives, styled
+anti-revolutionaries, supported by the Calvinistic peasantry, and the
+Catholics, who represent about one-third of the population and have
+their headquarters in Dutch Brabant, Dutch Flanders and Limburg. There
+is also in the Netherlands a small, but very strenuous socialist party,
+which was founded by the active propaganda of an ex-pastor
+Domela-Nieuwenhuis. It draws its chief strength from Amsterdam and
+certain country districts of Friesland.
+
+
+  Religious education.
+
+The liberals were in power from 1871 to 1888 continuously, but a
+Catholic-anti-revolutionary ministry under Baron Mackay held office from
+1888 to 1891, and again a coalition ministry was formed in 1901 with Dr
+Kuyper at its head. From 1894 to 1897 a ministry of moderate liberals
+supported by a large part of the Catholic and anti-revolutionary parties
+were in power. The constitution of 1848 made it the duty of the state to
+provide free primary secular education, but it allowed to members of all
+creeds the liberty of establishing private schools, and this was carried
+into effect by a law passed in 1857 by the joint efforts of the liberals
+and Catholics against the opposition of the orthodox Calvinists. But the
+long liberal ascendancy closed the ranks of the Catholic-Calvinist
+coalition, and united them against the neutral schools, and in 1889 they
+were able to pass a law enabling not only the unsectarian public
+schools, but all private schools organized by societies and bodies
+recognized by the law to receive subventions from the state. In 1890
+there were 3000 public schools with 450,000 scholars and 1300 private
+schools with 195,000 scholars.
+
+
+  Extension of the suffrage.
+
+  Military service.
+
+The subject of the extension of the franchise has also been the cause of
+violent party strife and controversy. It was taken in hand as early as
+1872, but as a revision of the constitution was necessary, no change was
+actually carried out till 1887. The law of that year lowered the
+qualification of the payer of a direct tax to 10 fl. Votes were given to
+all householders paying a certain _minimum_ house duty, and to all
+lodgers who had for a given time paid a _minimum_ of rent, also to all
+who possessed certain educational and social qualifications, whose
+definition was left to be specified by a later law. The passing of such
+a law was deferred by the coalition (Catholic-Orthodox) ministry of
+1888-1891. The liberal ministry of 1891 attempted to deal with the
+question, and a proposal was made by the minister Tak van Poortvliet,
+which almost amounted to universal suffrage. The educational
+qualification was to be able to write, the social that of not receiving
+charitable relief. This proposal caused a cleavage right through all
+parties. It was supported by the radical left, by a large portion of the
+Orthodox-Calvinists under Dr Kuyper, and by some Catholics; it had
+against it the moderate liberals, the aristocratic section of the
+Orthodox-Calvinists, the bulk of the Catholics, and a few radicals under
+an influential leader van Houten. After a fierce electoral fight the
+Takkians were victors at the first polls, but were beaten at the second
+ballots. Of the 46 Takkians, 35 were liberals; of the 54 anti-Takkians,
+24 were Catholics. A moderate liberal ministry was formed (1894) and in
+1896 carried into law what was known as the van Houten project. It gave
+the right of voting to all Dutchmen over twenty-five years of age, who
+paid 1 fl. in direct taxation; were householders or lodgers as defined
+in 1887, or tenants of a vessel of, at least, 24 tons; were the
+recipients of certain salaries or had certain deposits in the public
+funds or savings banks. By this reform the number of electors, which had
+been raised in 1887 from 140,000 to 300,000, was augmented to 700,000.
+The question of universal military service has also divided parties. The
+principle of personal service has been strongly opposed by the Catholics
+and conservatives, but became the law of the land in 1898, though
+exemptions were conceded in favour of ecclesiastics and certain classes
+of students.
+
+
+  The Achin war.
+
+The long-continued and costly wars with the sultan of Achin have during
+a series of years been a source of trouble to Dutch ministries. In
+1871-1872 Great Britain, in exchange for certain possessions of Holland
+on the coast of Guinea, agreed to recognize the right of the Dutch to
+occupy the north of Sumatra. The sultan of Achin opposed by force of
+arms the efforts of the Dutch to make their occupation effective, and
+has succeeded in maintaining a vigorous resistance, the Dutch colonial
+troops suffering severely from the effects of the insalubrious climate.
+Until 1871 the surplus derived from the colonial budget had been turned
+into a deficit, and the necessity of imposing fresh taxes to meet the
+war expenses has led to the downfall both of individual ministries and
+of cabinets.
+
+
+  Queen Wilhelmina.
+
+William III. dying in 1890 was succeeded by his only surviving child,
+Wilhelmina. The new queen being a minor, her mother, the queen-dowager
+Emma, became regent. One effect of the accession of Queen Wilhelmina was
+the severance of the bond between the Netherlands and Luxemburg. The
+grand duchy, being hereditary only in the male line, passed to the
+nearest agnate, the duke of Nassau. In 1898 the queen, having reached
+the age of eighteen, assumed the government. She married in 1901 Prince
+Henry of Mecklenburg. The outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 led to a
+strong outburst of sympathy among the Dutch on behalf of their kinsmen
+in South Africa, and there were times during the war, especially after
+President Kruger had fled from the Transvaal in a Dutch war vessel and
+had settled in Holland, when it was a task of some difficulty for the
+Dutch government to prevent the relations between Great Britain and the
+Netherlands from becoming strained. The ministry, however, under Dr
+Kuyper were able to keep the popular feeling in favour of the Boers in
+restraint, and to maintain towards Great Britain a correct attitude of
+strict neutrality. In 1903 the government took strong measures to
+prevent a threatened general strike of railway employees, the military
+were called out, and occupied the stations. A bill was passed by the
+States-General declaring railway strikes illegal. The elections of 1905
+for the Second Chamber gave the liberals a narrow majority of four. Dr
+Kuyper accordingly resigned, and a moderate liberal cabinet was formed
+by Th. H. de Meester. The fact that up to 1908 the queen had not become
+a mother gradually caused some public concern as to the succession; but
+in 1909 Queen Wilhelmina, amid national rejoicings, gave birth to a
+princess.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See (for the general history) J. Wagenaar,
+  _Vaderlandsche historie_, to 1751 (21 vols., 1749-1759); continuation
+  by Az. P. Loosjes, from 1751-1810 (48 vols., 1786-1811); W.
+  Bilderdijk, _Geschiedenis der Vaderlands_ (13 vols., 1832-1853); Groen
+  G. van Prinsterer, _Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland_ (6th
+  ed., 1895); (for particular periods): L. ab Aitzema, _Saken van spaet
+  en oorlogh in ende om trent de Vereenigde Nederlanden (1621-1668)_ (15
+  vols., 1657-1671); continuation by Lambert van den Bos (Lambertus
+  Sylvius) (4 vols., 1685-1699). The work of Aitzema contains a large
+  number of important diplomatic and other documents; A. de Wicquefort,
+  _Histoire des provinces des Pays-Bas depuis la paix de Munster_
+  (1648-1658) (2 vols., 1719-1743); in these volumes will be also found
+  a rich collection of original documents; R. Fruin, _Tien jaren uit den
+  tactig jarigen oorlog (1588-1598)_, (6th ed., 1905), a standard work;
+  J. L. Motley, _History of the United Netherlands (1584-1609)_, (4
+  vols., 1860-1868); P. J. Blok, _History of the People of the
+  Netherlands_, vol. iii. (1568-1621) (trans. by Ruth Putnam, 1900);
+  _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iii. ch. xix. and vol. iv. ch. xxv.
+  (see the bibliographies); Ant. L. Pontales, _Vingt annees de
+  republique parlementaire au 17me siecle. Jean de Witt, grand
+  pensionnaire de Hollande_ (1884); E. C. de Gerlache, _Histoire du
+  royaume des Pays-Bas 1814-1830_ (3 vols., 1859); Bosch J. de Kemper,
+  _Geschiedenis van Nederland na 1830_ (5 vols., 1873-1882); also the
+  following important works: Groen G. van Prinsterer, _Archives ou
+  correspondance inedite de la maison d'Orange-Nassau_, 2^e serie
+  (1584-1688) (5 vols., 1857-1860); J. de Witt, _Brieven (1652-1669)_ (6
+  vols., 1723-1725); A. Kluit, _Historie der Hollandsche Staatsregering
+  tot 1795_ (5 vols., 1802-1805); G. W. Vreede, _Inleiding tot eene
+  geschiedenis der Nederlandsche diplomatic_ (6 vols., 1850-1865); J. C.
+  de Jonge, _Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewesen_, (6 vols.,
+  1833-1848); E. Luzac, _Holland's Rijkdom_ (4 vols., 1781); R. Fruin,
+  _Geschiedenis der Staatsinstellingen in Nederland tot den val der
+  Republick_, edn. Colenbrander (1901); N. G. van Kampen, _Geschiedenis
+  der Nederlanders buiten Europa_ (4 vols., 1833); W. J. A. Jonckbloet,
+  _Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde_ (2 vols. 1881); C. Busken
+  Huet, _Het Land van Rembrandt-studien over de Nordnederlandsche
+  beschaving in de 17^e eeuw_ (2 vols., 1886); L. D. Petit, _Repertorium
+  der verhandelingen en bijdragen betreffende de geschiedenis des
+  Vaterlands in tijdschriften en mengel werken tot op 1900 verschenen_,
+  2 parts (1905); other parts of this valuable _repertorium_ are in
+  course of publication.     (G. E.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] At Maastricht, however, a portion lies on the left bank of the
+    river, measured, according to the treaty with Belgium, 19th of April
+    1839, art. 4, by an average radius of 1200 Dutch fathoms (7874 ft.)
+    from the outer glacis of the fortress.
+
+  [2] The datum plane, or basis of the measurement of heights, is
+    throughout Holland, and also in some of the border districts of
+    Germany, the _Amsterdamsch Peil_ (A.P.), or Amsterdam water-level,
+    and represents the average high water-level of the Y at Amsterdam at
+    the time when it was still open to the Zuider Zee. Local and
+    provincial "peils" are, however, also in use on some waterways.
+
+  [3] See J. Lorie, _Contributions a la geologie des Pays-bas_
+    (1885-1895), _Archives du Mus. Teyler_ (Haarlem), ser. 2, vol. ii.
+    pp. 109-240, vol. iii. pp. 1-160, 375-461, vol. iv. pp. 165-309 and
+    _Bull. soc. belge geol._ vol. iii. (1889); _Mem._ pp. 409-449; F. W.
+    Harmer, "On the Pliocene Deposits of Holland," &c., _Quart. Journ.
+    Geol. Soc., London_, vol. lii. (1896) pp. 748-781, pls. xxxiv., xxxv.
+
+  [4] The dates indicate the period of construction of the different
+    sections.
+
+  [5] For the history of the Netherlands previous to the confederacy of
+    the northern provinces in 1579 see NETHERLANDS.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF.--The first mention of Holland in any
+document is found in an imperial _gift brief_ dated May 2nd, 1064. In
+this the phrase "_omnis comitatus in Hollandt_" occurs, but without any
+further description of the locality indicated. A comparison with other
+documentary evidence, however, leads to the identification of Holland
+with the _forestum Merweda_, or the bush-grown fenland lying between the
+Waal, the old Meuse and the Merwe. It is the district surrounding the
+town of Dordrecht. A portion of the original Holland was submerged by a
+great inundation in 1421, and its modern appellation of Biesbosch
+(reed-forest) is descriptive of what must have been the condition of the
+entire district in early times. The word Holland is indeed by many
+authorities thought to be a corruption of Holt-land (it was sometimes so
+spelt by 13th-century writers) and to signify wood-land. The earliest
+spelling is, however, Holland, and it is more probable that it means
+lowlying-land (hol = hollow), a derivation which is equally applicable
+to the district in Lincolnshire which bears the same name.
+
+
+  The first Count of Holland.
+
+The title count of Holland appears to have been first borne by the
+Frisian count Dirk III., who founded Dordrecht (about 1015) and made it
+his residence (see below). It was not, however, till late in the 11th
+century that his successors adopted the style "_Hollandensis comes_" as
+their territorial designation (it is found for the first time on a seal
+of Dirk V. 1083), and that the name Holland became gradually extended
+northwards to connote all the land subject to the rule of the counts
+between Texel and the Maas.
+
+
+  Dirk I.
+
+  Dirk II.
+
+  Extent of his dominions.
+
+  Arnulf.
+
+  Dirk III.
+
+  Foundation of Dordrecht.
+
+  Defeat of Godfrey of Lorraine.
+
+  Beginning of the County of Holland.
+
+The beginnings of the history of this feudal state (the later Holland)
+centre round the abbey of Egmont in whose archives its records have been
+preserved. In 922 Charles the Simple gave in full possession to a count
+in Frisia, Dirk by name (a shortened form of Diederic, Latin
+Theodoricus), "the church of Egmont with all that belonged to it from
+Swithardeshage to Kinhem." This man, usually known as Dirk I., died
+about 939 and was succeeded by his son of the same name. Among the
+records of the abbey of Egmont is a document by which the emperor Arnulf
+gave to a certain count Gerolf the same land "between Swithardeshage and
+Kinhem," afterwards held by Dirk I. It is generally assumed that this
+Gerolf was his father, otherwise their deed of gift would not have been
+preserved among the family papers. Dirk II. was the founder of the abbey
+of Egmont. His younger son Egbert became archbishop of Treves. His elder
+son Arnulf married Liutgardis, daughter of Siegfried of Luxemburg and
+sister-in-law of the emperor Henry II. He obtained from the emperor Otto
+III., with whom he was in great favour in 983, a considerable extension
+of territory, that now covered by the Zuider Zee and southward down to
+Nijmwegen. In the deed of gift he is spoken of as holding the three
+countships of Maasland, Kinhem or Kennemerland and Texla or Texel; in
+other words his rule extended over the whole country from the right bank
+of the Maas or Meuse to the Vlie. He appears also to have exercised
+authority at Ghent. He died in 988. Arnulf was count till 993, when he
+was slain in battle against the west Frisians, and was succeeded by his
+twelve-year-old son Dirk III. During the guardianship of his mother,
+Liutgardis, the boy was despoiled of almost all his possessions, except
+Kennemerland and Maasland. But no sooner was he arrived at man's estate
+than Dirk turned upon his enemies with courage and vigour. He waged war,
+successfully with Adelbold, the powerful bishop of Utrecht, and made
+himself master not only of his ancestral possessions, but of the
+district on the Meuse known as the Bushland of Merweda (_forestum
+Merweda_), hitherto subject to the see of Utrecht. In the midst of this
+marshy tract, at a point commanding the courses of the Meuse and the
+Waal, he built a castle (about 1015) and began to levy tolls. Around
+this castle sprang up the town of Thuredrecht or Dordrecht. The
+possession of this stronghold was so injurious to the commerce of Tiel,
+Cologne and the Rhenish towns with England that complaints were made by
+the bishop of Utrecht and the archbishop of Cologne to the emperor.
+Henry II. took the part of the complainants and commissioned Duke
+Godfrey of Lorraine to chastise the young Frisian count. Duke Godfrey
+invaded Dirk's lands with a large army, but they were impeded by the
+swampy nature of the country and totally defeated with heavy loss (July
+29, 1018). The duke was himself taken prisoner. The result was that Dirk
+was not merely confirmed in his possession of Dordrecht and the Merweda
+Bushland (the later Holland) but also of the territory of a vassal of
+the Utrecht see, Dirk Bavo by name, which he conquered. This victory of
+1018 is often regarded as the true starting-point of the history of the
+county of Holland. Having thus established his rule in the south, Dirk
+next proceeded to bring into subjection the Frisians in the north. He
+appointed his brother Siegfrid or Sikka as governor over them. In his
+later years Dirk went upon a pilgrimage to the Holy Land from which he
+returned in 1034; and ruled in peace until his death in 1039.
+
+
+  Dirk IV.
+
+  Quarrel with Flanders about Zeeland.
+
+His son, Dirk IV., was one of the most enterprising of his warlike and
+strenuous race. He began the long strife with the counts of Flanders, as
+to the lordship over Walcheren and other islands of Zeeland; the quarrel
+was important, as dealing with the borderland between French and German
+overlordship. This strife, which lasted 400 years, did not at first
+break out into actual warfare, because both Dirk and Baldwin V. of
+Flanders had a common danger in the emperor Henry III., who in 1046
+occupied the lands in dispute. Dirk allied himself with Godfrey the
+Bearded of Lorraine, who was at war with the emperor, and his territory
+was invaded by a powerful imperial fleet and army (1047). But Dirk
+entrenched himself in his stronghold at Vlaardingen, and when winter
+came on he surrounded and cut off with his light boats a number of the
+enemy's ships, and destroyed a large part of their army as they made
+their way amidst the marches, which impeded their retreat. He was able
+to recover what he had lost and to make peace on his own terms. Two
+years later he was again assailed by a coalition headed by the
+archbishop of Cologne and the bishop of Utrecht. They availed themselves
+of a very hard winter to penetrate into the land over the frozen water.
+Dirk offered a stout resistance, but, according to the most trustworthy
+account, was enticed into an ambuscade and was killed in the fight
+(1049). He died unmarried and was succeeded by his brother Floris I.
+
+
+  Floris I.
+
+  Dirk V.
+
+  Robert the Frisian guardian to his stepson
+
+  Godfrey the Hunchback of Lorraine conquers Holland.
+
+  The Bishop of Utrecht surrenders it to Dirk V.
+
+  Floris II.
+
+  Dirk VI.
+
+Floris, like his predecessors, was hard-fighting and tenacious. He
+gradually recovered possession of his ancestral lands. He found a
+formidable adversary in the able and warlike William, who, becoming
+bishop of Utrecht in 1054, was determined to recover the lost
+possessions of his see; and in 1058, in alliance with Hanno, archbishop
+of Cologne, Egbert, margrave of Brandenburg, the bishop of Liege and
+others, invaded the Frisian territory. At first success attended the
+invaders and many places fell into their hands, but finally they were
+surprised and defeated near Dordrecht. The counts of Guelders and
+Louvain were among the prisoners that fell into the hands of Floris. The
+attack was renewed in 1061. In a battle at Nederhemert Floris met with
+his death in the hour of victory. He is said to have been killed as,
+wearied with pursuing, he lay asleep under a tree. He was succeeded by
+his son, Dirk V., a child, under the guardianship of his mother,
+Gertrude of Saxony. Bishop William seems now to have seized his
+opportunity and occupied all the territory that he claimed. In this he
+was confirmed by two charters of the emperor Henry IV. (April 30 and May
+2, 1064). Among the possessions thus assigned to him is found _comitatus
+omnis in Hollandt cum omnibus ad bannum regalem pertinentibus_. An
+examination of these documents shows the possessions of Dirk as _in
+Westflinge et circa oras Rheni_, i.e. west of the Vlie and around the
+mouths of the Rhine. Gertrude and her son appear to have withdrawn to
+the islands of Frisia (Zeeland), leaving William in undisturbed
+occupation of the disputed lands. In 1063 Gertrude contracted a marriage
+with Robert, the second son of Baldwin V. of Flanders, a man famous for
+his adventurous career (see FLANDERS). On his marriage his father
+invested him with Imperial Flanders, as an apanage including the islands
+of Frisia (Zeeland) west of the Scheldt. He now became guardian to his
+stepson, in whose inheritance lay the islands east of the Scheldt.
+Robert thus, in his own right and that of Dirk, was ruler of all Frisia
+(Zeeland), and thus became known among his Flemish countrymen as Robert
+the Frisian. The death of his brother Baldwin VI. in 1070 led to civil
+war in Flanders, the claim of Robert to the guardianship of his nephew
+Arnulf being disputed by Richilde, the widow of Baldwin. The issue was
+decided by the decisive victory of Robert at Cassel (February 1071) when
+Arnulf was killed and Richilde taken prisoner (see Flanders). While
+Robert was thus engaged in Flanders, an effort was made to recover "the
+County of Holland" and other lands now held by William of Utrecht. The
+people rose in revolt, but by command of the emperor Henry IV. were
+speedily brought back under episcopal rule by an army under the command
+of Godfrey the Hunchback, duke of Lower Lorraine. Again in 1076, at the
+request of the bishop, Duke Godfrey visited his domains in the Frisian
+borderland. At Delft, of which town tradition makes Godfrey the founder,
+the duke was treacherously murdered (February 26, 1076). William of
+Utrecht died on the 17th of the following April. Dirk V., now grown to
+man's estate, was not slow to take advantage of the favourable juncture.
+With the help of Robert (his stepfather) he raised an army, besieged
+Conrad, the successor of William, in the castle of Ysselmonde and took
+him prisoner. The bishop purchased his liberty by surrendering all claim
+to the disputed lands. Henceforth the Frisian counts became definitively
+known as counts of Holland. Dirk V. died in 1091 and was succeeded by
+his son Floris II. the Fat. This count had a peaceful and prosperous
+reign of thirty-one years. After his death (1122) his widow, Petronilla
+of Saxony, governed in the name of Dirk VI., who was a minor. The
+accession of her half-brother, Lothaire of Saxony, to the imperial
+throne on the death of Henry V. greatly strengthened her position. The
+East Frisian districts, Oostergoo and Westergoo, were by Lothaire
+transferred from the rule of the bishops of Utrecht to that of the
+counts of Holland (1125). These Frisians proved very troublesome
+subjects to Dirk VI. In 1132 they rose in insurrection under the
+leadership of Dirk's own brother, Floris the Black. The emperor Conrad
+III. (1138), who was of the rival house of Hohenstaufen, gave back these
+Frisian districts to the bishop; it was in truth somewhat of an empty
+gift. The Frisian peasants and fisher folk loved their independence, and
+were equally refractory to the rule of any distant overlord, whether
+count or bishop. Dirk VI. was succeeded in 1157 by Floris III.
+
+
+  Floris III.
+
+  Dirk VII.
+
+  William I.
+
+  Floris IV.
+
+Floris III. reversed the traditional policy of his house by allying
+himself with the Hohenstaufens. He became a devoted adherent and friend
+of Frederick Barbarossa. He had troubles with West Friesland and
+Groningen, and a war with the count of Flanders concerning their
+respective rights in West Zeeland, in which he was beaten. In 1170 a
+great flood caused immense devastation in the north and helped to form
+the Zuider Zee. In 1189 Floris accompanied Frederick Barbarossa upon the
+third Crusade, of which he was a distinguished leader. He died in 1190
+at Antioch of pestilence. His son, Dirk VII., had a stormy, but on the
+whole successful reign. Contests with the Flemings in West Zeeland and
+with the West Frisians, stirred up to revolt by his brother William,
+ended in his favour. The brothers were reconciled and William was made
+count of East Friesland. In 1202, however, Dirk was defeated and taken
+prisoner by the duke of Brabant, and had to purchase peace on
+humiliating terms. He only survived his defeat a short time and died
+early in 1204, leaving as his only issue a daughter, Ada, 17 years of
+age. The question of female succession thus raised was not likely to be
+accepted without a challenge by William. It had been the intention of
+Dirk VII. to secure the recognition of his daughter's rights by
+appointing his brother her guardian. His widow Alida, however, an
+ambitious woman of strong character, as soon as her husband was dead,
+hurried on a marriage between Ada and Count Louis of Loon; and attempted
+with the nobles of Holland, who now for the first time make their
+appearance as a power in the country, to oppose the claim which William
+had made to the countship as heir in the male line. A struggle ensued.
+William was supported by the Zeelanders and Ada was forced to fly to
+England. William, by a treaty concluded with Louis of Loon in 1206,
+became undisputed count. He took an active part in the events of his
+time. He fought by the side of the emperor Otto IV. in the great battle
+of Bouvines in 1214 (see PHILIP AUGUSTUS), and was taken prisoner. Two
+years later he accompanied Louis, the eldest son of Philip Augustus, in
+his expedition against King John of England. William is perhaps best
+known in history by his taking part in the fourth Crusade. He
+distinguished himself greatly at the capture of Damietta (1219). He did
+not long survive his return home, dying in 1222. The earliest charters
+conveying civic privileges in the county of Holland date from his
+reign--those of Geertruidenberg (1213) and of Dordrecht (1220). His son
+Floris IV., being a minor, succeeded him under the guardianship of his
+maternal uncle, Gerard III. of Gelderland. He maintained in later life
+close relations of friendship with Gerard, and supported him in his
+quarrel with the bishop of Utrecht (1224-1226). Floris was murdered in
+1235 at a tournament at Corbie in Picardy by the count of Clermont.
+Another long minority followed his death, during which his brother Otto,
+bishop of Utrecht, acted as guardian to his nephew William II.
+
+
+  William II.
+
+  Elected King of the Romans.
+
+  Floris V.
+
+  Alliance with Edward I. of England.
+
+  First Charter to Amsterdam.
+
+  Murder of Floris V.
+
+William II. became a man of mark. Pope Innocent IV., having deposed the
+emperor Frederick II., after several princes had refused to allow
+themselves to be nominated in the place of the Hohenstaufen, caused the
+young count of Holland to be elected king of the Romans (1247) by an
+assembly composed chiefly of German ecclesiastics. William took Aachen
+in 1248 and was there crowned king; and after Frederick's death in 1250,
+he had a considerable party in Germany. He brought a war with Margaret
+of Flanders (Black Margaret) to a successful conclusion (1253). He was
+on the point of proceeding to Rome to be crowned emperor, when in an
+expedition against the West Frisians he perished, going down, horse and
+armour, through the ice (1256). Like so many of his predecessors he left
+his inheritance to a child. Floris V. was but two years old on his
+father's death; and he was destined during a reign of forty years to
+leave a deeper impress upon the history of Holland than any other of its
+counts. Floris was a man of chivalrous character and high capacity, and
+throughout his reign he proved himself an able and beneficent ruler.
+Alike in his troubles with his turbulent subjects and in the perennial
+disputes with his neighbours he pursued a strong, far-sighted and
+successful policy. But his active interest in affairs was not limited to
+the Netherlands. He allied himself closely with Edward I. of England in
+his strife with France, and secured from the English king great trading
+advantages for his people; the staple of wool was placed at Dort
+(Dordrecht) and the Hollanders and Zeelanders got fishing rights on the
+English coast. So intimate did their relations become that Floris sent
+his son John to be educated at the court of Edward with a view to his
+marriage with an English princess. To balance the power of the nobles he
+granted charters to many of the towns. Floris made himself master of
+Amstelland and Gooiland; and Amsterdam, destined to become the chief
+commercial town of Holland, counts him the founder of its greatness. Its
+earliest extant charter dates from 1275. In 1296 Floris forsook the
+alliance of Edward I. for that of Philip IV. of France, probably because
+Edward had given support to Guy, count of Flanders, in his dynastic
+dispute with John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut, Floris's nephew (see
+FLANDERS). The real motives of his policy will, however, never be known,
+for shortly afterwards a conspiracy of disaffected nobles, headed by
+Gijsbrecht van Amstel, Gerard van Velzen and Wolfert van Borselen, was
+formed against him. He was by them basely murdered in the castle of
+Muiden (June 27, 1296). The tragic event has been immortalized in dramas
+from the pens of Holland's most famous writers (see VONDEL, HOOFT). The
+burghers and people, who knew him to be their best friend, took such
+vengeance on his slayers as permanently to reduce the power of the
+nobles.
+
+
+  John I.
+
+  Extinction of the first line of Counts. Their high character.
+
+John I., his son, was in England when his father was murdered; he was
+but 15 years of age, feeble in body and mind. He was married to Eleanor,
+daughter of Edward I. His reign was a struggle between John of Avesnes,
+the young count's guardian and next heir, and Wolfert van Borselen, who
+had a strong following in Zeeland. In 1299 van Borselen was killed, and
+a few months later John I. died. John of Avesnes was at once recognized
+as his successor by the Hollanders. Thus with John I. ended the first
+line of counts, after a rule of nearly 400 years. Europe has perhaps
+never seen an abler series of princes than these fourteen lineal
+descendants of Dirk I. Excepting the last there is not a weak man among
+them. Physically handsome and strong, model knights of the days of
+chivalry, hard fighters, wise statesmen, they were born leaders of men;
+always ready to advance the commerce of the country, they were the
+supporters of the growing towns, and likewise the pioneers in the task
+of converting a land of marshes and swamps into a fertile agricultural
+territory rich in flocks and herds. As individuals they had their
+failings, but one and all were worthy members of a high-souled race.
+
+
+  John II. of the House of Avesnes.
+
+  William III.
+
+  William IV.
+
+  The Empress Margaret.
+
+  William V. of the House of Bavaria.
+
+  Albert of Bavaria.
+
+  William VI.
+
+  Jacqueline of Bavaria.
+
+  Accession of the Burgundian Dynasty.
+
+  Philip the Good.
+
+  Flourishing state of Holland.
+
+  Charles the Bold.
+
+  Mary of Burgundy.
+
+John of Avesnes, who took the title of John II., was the son of John of
+Avesnes, count of Hainaut, and Alida, sister of William II. of Holland.
+On his succession to the countship the Hollanders were willing to
+receive him, but the Zeelanders were hostile; and a long struggle ensued
+before his authority was generally recognized. In 1301 Bishop William of
+Utrecht invaded Amstelland, but was killed in battle. John made use of
+his victory to secure the election of his brother Guy as bishop in his
+place. A war with the Flemings followed, in which the Flemings were at
+first victorious, but after a struggle of many vicissitudes they were at
+length driven out of Holland and Zeeland In 1304. John II. died in that
+year and was succeeded by his son William III., surnamed the Good
+(1304-1337). In his reign the long-standing quarrel with Flanders, which
+had during a century and a half caused so many wars, was finally settled
+by the treaty of 1323, by which the full possession of West Zeeland was
+granted to William, who on his part renounced all claim in Imperial
+Flanders. The Amstelland with its capital, Amsterdam, which had hitherto
+been held as a fief of Utrecht, was by William, on the death of his
+uncle Bishop Guy, finally annexed to Holland. This count did much to
+encourage civic life and to develop the resources of the country. He had
+close relations through marriage with the three principal European
+dynasties of his time. His wife was Jeanne of Valois, niece of the
+French king; in 1323 the emperor Louis the Bavarian wedded his daughter
+Margaret; and in 1328 his third daughter, Philippa of Hainaut, was
+married to Edward III. of England. By their alliance William III.
+occupied a position of much dignity and influence, which he used to
+further the interests and increase the welfare of his hereditary lands.
+He was in all respects a great prince and a wise and prudent statesman.
+He was succeeded by his son, William IV., who was the ally of his
+brother-in-law, Edward III., in his French wars. He was fond of
+adventure, and in 1343 made a journey to the Holy Land in disguise, and
+on his way took part in an expedition of the knights of the Teutonic
+Order against the infidel Wends and Lithuanians. He was killed in battle
+against the Frisians in 1345. He left no children, and the question as
+to the succession now brought on Holland a period of violent civil
+commotions. His inheritance was claimed by his eldest sister, the
+empress Margaret, as well as by Philippa of Hainaut, or in other words,
+by Edward III. of England. Margaret came in person and was duly
+recognized as countess in Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut; but returned to
+her husband after appointing her second son (the eldest, Louis,
+renounced his rights) Duke William of Bavaria, as stadholder in her
+place. William was but sixteen, and disorder and confusion soon reigned
+in the land. The sudden death of the emperor in 1347 added to the
+difficulties of his position. In 1349 Margaret was induced to resign her
+sovereignty, and the stadholder became count under the title of William
+V. This was the time of the formation of the famous parties in Holland,
+known as Kabbeljauws (Cods) and Hoeks (Hooks); the former, the burgher
+party, were the supporters of William (possibly the name was derived
+from the light blue, scaly looking Bavarian coat of arms), the latter
+the party of the disaffected nobles, who wanted to catch and devour the
+fat burgher fish. In 1350 such was the disorder in the land that
+Margaret, at the request of the nobles, came to Holland to take into her
+own hands the reins of government. The struggle between the nobles and
+the cities broke out into civil war. Edward III. came to Margaret's aid,
+winning a sea-fight off Veere in 1351; a few weeks later the Hooks and
+their English allies were defeated by William and the Cods at
+Vlaardingen--an overthrow which ruined Margaret's cause. Edward III.
+shortly afterwards changed sides, and the empress saw herself compelled
+(1354) to come to an understanding with her son, he being recognized as
+count of Holland and Zeeland, she of Hainaut. Margaret died two years
+later, leaving William, who had married Matilda of Lancaster, in
+possession of the entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance (July 1356). His
+tenure of power was, however, very brief. Before the close of 1357 he
+showed such marked signs of insanity that his wife, with his own consent
+and the support of both parties, invited Duke Albert of Bavaria, younger
+brother of William V., to be regent, with the title of Ruward (1358).
+William lived in confinement for 31 years. Albert died in 1404, having
+ruled the land well and wisely for 46 years, first as Ruward, then as
+count. Despite outbreaks from time to time of the Hook and Cod troubles,
+he was able to make his authority respected, and to help forward in many
+ways the social progress of the country. The influence of the towns was
+steadily on the increase, and their government began to fall into the
+hands of the burgher patrician class, who formed the Cod party. Opposed
+to them were the nobility and the lower classes, forming the Hook party.
+In Albert's latter years a fresh outbreak of civil war (1392-1395) was
+caused by the count's espousing the side of the Cods, while the Hooks
+had the support of his eldest son, William. Albert was afterwards
+reconciled to his son, who succeeded him as William VI. in 1404. On his
+accession to power William upheld the Hooks, and secured their
+ascendancy. His reign was much troubled with civil discords, but he was
+a brave soldier, and was generally successful in his enterprises. He
+died in 1417, leaving an only child, a daughter, Jacqueline (or Jacoba),
+who had in her early youth been married to John, heir to the throne of
+France. At a gathering held at the Hague (August 15, 1416) the nobles
+and representatives of the cities of Holland and Zeeland had promised at
+William's request to support his daughter's claims to the succession.
+But John of France died (April 1417), and William VI. about a month
+later, leaving the widowed Jacqueline at 17 years of age face to face
+with a difficult situation. She was at first welcomed in Holland and
+Zeeland, but found her claims opposed by her uncle, John of Bavaria,
+supported by the Cod party. Every one from whom she might have expected
+help betrayed her in turn, her second husband John IV. of Brabant, her
+third husband Humphrey of Gloucester, her cousin Philip the Good of
+Burgundy, all behaved shamefully to her. Her romantic and sad life has
+rendered the courageous and accomplished Jacqueline the most picturesque
+figure in the whole history of Holland. She struggled long against her
+powerful kinsfolk, nor did she know happiness till near the end of her
+life, when she abandoned the unequal strife, and found repose with
+Francis of Borselen, Ruward of Holland, her fourth husband. Him Philip
+the Good, duke of Burgundy, craftily seized; and thereby in 1433 the
+Duchess Jacqueline was compelled to cede her rights over the counties of
+Holland and Hainaut. Consequently at her death in 1436, as she left no
+children, Philip succeeded to the full and undisputed possession of her
+lands. He had already acquired by inheritance, purchase or force almost
+all the other Netherland states; and now, with the extinction of the
+Bavarian line of counts, Holland ceased to have an independent existence
+and became an outlying province of the growing Burgundian power (see
+BURGUNDY). During the years that followed the accession to the
+sovereignty of Duke Philip, Holland plays but an insignificant part. It
+was governed by a stadholder, and but small respect was shown for its
+chartered rights and privileges. The quarrels between the Hook and Cod
+factions still continued, but the outbreaks of civil strife were quickly
+repressed by the strong hand of Philip. Holland during this time
+contented herself with growing material prosperity. Her herring fishery,
+rendered more valuable by the curing process discovered or introduced by
+Benkelszoon, brought her increasing wealth, and her fishermen were
+already laying the foundations of her future maritime greatness. It was
+in the days of Duke Philip that Lorenz Koster of Haarlem contributed his
+share to the discovery of printing. During the reign of Charles the Bold
+(1467-1477) the Hollanders, like the other subjects of that warlike
+prince, suffered much from the burden of taxation An outbreak at Hoorn
+was by Charles sternly repressed. The Hollanders were much aggrieved by
+the establishment of a high court of justice for the entire Netherlands
+at Mechlin. (1474). This was regarded as a serious breach of their
+privileges. The succession of Mary of Burgundy led to the granting to
+Holland as to the other provinces of the Netherlands, of the Great
+Privilege of March 1477, which restored the most important of their
+ancient rights and liberties (see NETHERLANDS). A high court of justice
+was established for Holland, Zeeland and Friesland, and the use of the
+native language was made official. The Hook and Cod troubles again
+disturbed the country. Hook uprisings took place at Leiden and Dordrecht
+and had to be repressed by armed force.
+
+
+  Maximilian of Austria.
+
+  Philip II. the Fair.
+
+  The Emperor Charles V. (Charles III.).
+
+  Philip III.
+
+  William of Orange Stadholder.
+
+  The revolt of the Netherlands.
+
+  Union of Utrecht.
+
+  Abjuration of Philip's Sovereignty.
+
+By the sudden death of the Duchess Mary in 1482 her possessions,
+including the county of Holland, passed to her infant son Philip, under
+the guardianship of his father the Archduke Maximilian of Austria. Thus
+the Burgundian dynasty was succeeded by that of the Habsburgs. During
+the regency of Maximilian the turbulence of the Hooks caused much strife
+and unrest in Holland. Their leaders. Francis of Brederode and John of
+Naaldwijk, seized Rotterdam and other places. Their overthrow finally
+ended the strife between Hooks and Cods. The "Bread and Cheese War," an
+uprising of the peasants in North Holland caused by famine, is a proof
+of the misery caused by civil discords and oppressive taxation. In 1494,
+Maximilian having been elected emperor, Philip was declared of age. His
+assumption of the government was greeted with joy in Holland, and in his
+reign the province enjoyed rest and its fisheries benefited from the
+commercial treaty concluded with England. The story of Holland during
+the long reign of his son and successor Charles III. (1506-1555), better
+known as the emperor Charles V., belongs to the general history of the
+Netherlands (see NETHERLANDS). On the abdication of Charles, his son
+Philip II. of Spain became Philip III., count of Holland, the ruler
+whose arbitrary rule in church and state brought about the revolt of the
+Netherlands. His appointment of William, prince of Orange, as stadholder
+of Holland and Zeeland was destined to have momentous results to the
+future of those provinces (see WILLIAM THE SILENT). The capture of Brill
+and of Flushing in 1572 by the Sea-Beggars led to the submission of the
+greater part of Holland and Zeeland to the authority of the prince of
+Orange, who, as stadholder, summoned the states of Holland to meet at
+Dordrecht. This act was the beginning of Dutch independence. From this
+time forward William made Holland his home. It became the bulwark of the
+Protestant faith in the Netherlands, the focus of the resistance to
+Spanish tyranny. The sieges of Haarlem, Alkmaar and Leiden saved Holland
+from being overwhelmed by the armies of Alva and Requesens and stemmed
+the tide of Spanish victory. The act of federation between Holland and
+Zeeland brought about by the influence of William was the germ of the
+larger union of Utrecht between the seven northern provinces in 1579.
+But within the larger union the inner and closer union between Holland
+and Zeeland continued to subsist. In 1580, when the sovereignty of the
+Netherlands was offered to the duke of Anjou, the two maritime provinces
+refused to acquiesce, and forced William to accept the title of count of
+Holland and Zeeland. In the following year William in the name of the
+two provinces solemnly abjured the sovereignty of the Spanish king (July
+24). After the assassination of William (1584) the title of count of
+Holland was never revived.
+
+
+  Government of Holland.
+
+  Johan van Oldenbarneveldt.
+
+  Contest between the Principles of National and Provincial Sovereignty.
+
+In the long struggle of the united provinces with Spain, which followed
+the death of Orange, the brunt of the conflict fell upon Holland. More
+than half the burden of the charges of the war fell upon this one
+province; and with Zeeland it furnished the fleets which formed the
+chief defence of the country. Hence the importance attached to the vote
+of Holland in the assembly of the States-General. That vote was given by
+deputies at the head of whom was the advocate (in later times called the
+grand pensionary) of Holland, and who were responsible to, and the
+spokesmen of, the provincial states. These states, which met at the
+Hague in the same building as the States-General, consisted of
+representatives of the burgher oligarchies (regents) of the principal
+towns, together with representatives of the nobles, who possessed one
+vote only. The advocate was the paid minister of the states. He presided
+over their meetings, kept their minutes and conducted all
+correspondence, and, as stated above, was their spokesman in the
+States-General. The advocate (or grand pensionary) of Holland therefore,
+if an able man, had opportunities for exercising a very considerable
+influence, becoming in fact a kind of minister of all affairs. It was
+this influence as exerted by the successive advocates of Holland, Paul
+Buys and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, which rendered abortive the
+well-meant efforts of the earl of Leicester to centralize the government
+of the United Provinces. After his departure (1587) the advocate of
+Holland, Oldenbarneveldt, became the indispensable statesman of the
+struggling republic. The multiplicity of his functions gave to the
+advocate an almost unlimited authority in the details of administration,
+and for thirty years the conduct of affairs remained in his hands (see
+OLDENBARNEVELDT). This meant the undisputed hegemony of Holland in the
+federation, in other words of the burgher oligarchies who controlled the
+town corporations of the province, and especially of Amsterdam. This
+authority of Holland was, however, more than counterbalanced by the
+extensive powers with which the stadholder princes of Orange were
+invested; and the chief crises in the internal history of the Dutch
+republic are to be found in the struggles for supremacy between two, in
+reality, different principles of government. On the one side the
+principle of provincial sovereignty which gave to the voice of Holland a
+preponderating weight that was decisive; on the other side the principle
+of national sovereignty personified in the princes of Orange, to whom
+the States-General and the provincial states delegated executive powers
+that were little less than monarchical.
+
+
+  Maurice Prince of Orange and John of Oldenbarneveldt.
+
+  Frederick Henry Prince of Orange.
+
+  William II. Prince of Orange.
+
+  John de Witt.
+
+  William III. Prince of Orange.
+
+  William IV. Prince of Orange.
+
+The conclusion of the twelve years' truce in 1609 was a triumph for
+Oldenbarneveldt and the province of Holland over the opposition of
+Maurice, prince of Orange. In 1617 the outbreak of the religious dispute
+between the Remonstrant and Contra-remonstrant parties brought on a life
+and death struggle between the sovereign province of Holland and the
+States-General of the union. The sword of Maurice decided the issue in
+favour of the States-General. The claims of Holland were overthrown and
+the head of Oldenbarneveldt fell upon the scaffold (1619). The
+stadholder, Frederick Henry of Orange, ruled with well-nigh monarchical
+authority (1625-1647), but even he at the height of his power and
+popularity had always to reckon with the opposition of the states of
+Holland and of Amsterdam, and many of his plans of campaign were
+thwarted by the refusal of the Hollanders to furnish supplies. His son
+William II. was but 21 years of age on succeeding to the stadholdership,
+and the states of Holland were sufficiently powerful to carry through
+the negotiations for the peace of Munster (1648) in spite of his
+opposition. A life and death conflict again ensued, and once more in
+1650 the prince of Orange by armed force crushed the opposition of the
+Hollanders. The sudden death of William in the hour of his triumph
+caused a complete revolution in the government of the republic. He left
+no heir but a posthumous infant, and the party of the burgher regents of
+Holland was once more in the ascendant. The office of stadholder was
+abolished, and John de Witt, the grand pensionary (_Raad-Pensionaris_)
+of Holland, for two decades held in his hands all the threads of
+administration, and occupied the same position of undisputed authority
+in the councils of the land as Oldenbarneveldt had done at the beginning
+of the century. Amsterdam during this period was the centre and head of
+the United Provinces. The principle of provincial sovereignty was
+carried to its extreme point in the separate treaty concluded with
+Cromwell in 1654, in which the province of Holland agreed to exclude for
+ever the prince of Orange from the office of stadholder of Holland or
+captain-general of the union. In 1672 another revolution took place.
+John de Witt was murdered, and William III. was called to fill the
+office of dignity and authority which had been held by his ancestors of
+the house of Orange, and the stadholdership was declared to be
+hereditary in his family. But William died without issue (see WILLIAM
+III.) and a stadholderless period, during which the province of Holland
+was supreme in the union, followed till 1737. This change was effected
+smoothly, for though William had many differences with Amsterdam, he had
+in Anthony Heinsius (van der Heim), who was grand pensionary of Holland
+from 1690 to his death in 1720, a statesman whom he thoroughly trusted,
+who worked with him in the furtherance of his policy during life and who
+continued to carry out that policy after his death. In 1737 there was
+once more a reversion to the stadholdership in the person of William
+IV., whose powers were strengthened and declared hereditary both in the
+male and female line in 1747. But until the final destruction of the
+federal republic by the French armies, the perennial struggle went on
+between the Holland or federal party (_Staatsgesinden_) centred at
+Amsterdam--out of which grew the patriot party under William V.--and the
+Orange or unionist party (_Oranjegesinden_), which was strong in the
+smaller provinces and had much popular support among the lower classes.
+The French conquest swept away the old condition of things never to
+reappear; but allegiance to the Orange dynasty survived, and in 1813
+became the rallying point of a united Dutch people. At the same time the
+leading part played by the province of Holland in the history of the
+republic has not been unrecognized, for the country ruled over by the
+sovereigns of the house of Orange is always popularly, and often
+officially, known as Holland.
+
+
+  Constitution of the States of Holland.
+
+  The Grand Pensionary.
+
+  College of Deputed Councillors.
+
+The full title of the states of Holland in the 17th and 18th centuries
+was: _de Edele Groot Mogende Heeren Staaten van Holland en
+Westfriesland_. After 1608 this assembly consisted of nineteen members,
+one representing the nobility (_ridderschap_), and eighteen, the towns.
+The member for the nobles had precedence and voted first. The interests
+of the country districts (_het platte land_) were the peculiar charges
+of the member for the nobles. The nobles also retained the right of
+appointing representatives to sit in the College of Deputed Councillors,
+in certain colleges of the admiralty, and upon the board of directors of
+the East India Company, and to various public offices. The following
+eighteen towns sent representatives: South Quarter--(1) Dordrecht, (2)
+Haarlem, (3) Delft, (4) Leiden, (5) Amsterdam, (6) Gouda, (7) Rotterdam,
+(8) Gorinchem, (9) Schiedam, (10) Schoonhoven, (11) Brill; North
+Quarter:--(12) Alkmaar, (13) Hoorn, (14) Enkhuizen, (15) Edam, (16)
+Monnikendam, (17) Medemblik, (18) Purmerend. Each town (as did also the
+nobles) sent as many representatives as they pleased, but the nineteen
+members had only one vote each. Each town's deputation was headed by its
+pensionary, who was the spokesman on behalf of the representatives.
+Certain questions such as peace and war, voting of subsidies, imposition
+of taxation, changes in the mode of government, &c., required unanimity
+of votes. The grand pensionary (_Raad-Pensionaris_) was at once the
+president and chief administrative officer of the states. He presided
+over all meetings, conducted the business, kept the minutes, and was
+charged with the maintenance of the rights of the states, with the
+execution of their resolutions and with the entire correspondence. Nor
+were his functions only provincial. He was the head and the spokesman of
+the deputation of the states to the States-General of the union; and in
+the stadholderless period the influence of such grand pensionaries of
+Holland as John de Witt and Anthony Heinsius enabled the complicated and
+intricate machinery of government in a confederacy of many sovereign and
+semi-sovereign authorities without any recognized head of the state, to
+work with comparative smoothness and a remarkable unity of policy. This
+was secured by the indisputable predominance in the union of the
+province of Holland. The policy of the states of Holland swayed the
+policy of the generality, and historical circumstances decreed that the
+policy of the states of Holland during long and critical periods should
+be controlled by a succession of remarkable men filling the office of
+grand pensionary. The states of Holland sat at the Hague in the months
+of March, July, September and November. During the periods of
+prorogation the continuous oversight of the business and interests of
+the province was, however, never neglected. This duty was confided to a
+body called the College of Deputed Councillors (_het Kollegie der
+Gekommitteerde Raden_), which was itself divided into two sections, one
+for the south quarter, another for the north quarter. The more
+important--that for the south quarter--consisted of ten members, (1) the
+senior member of the nobility, who sat for life, (2) representatives
+(for periods of three years) of the eight towns: Dordrecht, Haarlem,
+Delft, Leiden, Amsterdam, Gouda, Rotterdam and Gorinchem, with a tenth
+member (usually elected biennially) for the towns of Schiedam,
+Schoonhoven and Brill conjointly. The grand pensionary presided over the
+meetings of the college, which had the general charge of the whole
+provincial administration, especially of finance, the carrying out of
+the resolutions of the states, the maintenance of defences, and the
+upholding of the privileges and liberties of the land. With particular
+regard to this last-named duty the college deputed two of its members to
+attend all meetings of the states-general, to watch the proceedings and
+report at once any proposals which they held to be contrary to the
+interests or to infringe upon the rights of the province of Holland. The
+institution of the College of Deputed Councillors might thus be
+described as a vigilance committee of the states in perpetual session.
+The existence of the college, with its many weighty and important
+functions, must never be lost sight of by students who desire to have a
+clear understanding of the remarkable part played by the province of
+Holland in the history of the United Netherlands.     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, a city of Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Macatawa Bay
+(formerly called Black Lake), near Lake Michigan, and 25 m. W.S.W. of
+Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 3945; (1900) 7790, of whom a large portion
+were of Dutch descent; (1904) 8966; (1910) 10,490. It is served by the
+Pere Marquette Railroad, by steamboat lines to Chicago and other lake
+ports, and by electric lines connecting with Grand Rapids, Saugatuck,
+and the neighbouring summer resorts. On Macatawa Bay are Ottawa Beach,
+Macatawa Park, Jenison Park, Central Park, Castle Park and Waukezoo. In
+the city itself are Hope College (co-educational; founded in 1851 and
+incorporated as a college in 1866), an institution of the (Dutch)
+Reformed Church in America; and the Western Theological Seminary (1869;
+suspended 1877-1884) of the same denomination. Holland is a grain and
+fruit shipping centre, and among its manufactures are furniture,
+leather, grist mill products, iron, beer, pickles, shoes, beet sugar,
+gelatine, biscuit (Holland rusk), electric and steam launches, and
+pianos. In 1908 seven weekly, one daily, and two monthly papers (four
+denominational) were published at Holland, five of them in Dutch. The
+municipality owns its water-works and electric-lighting plant. Holland
+was founded in 1847 by Dutch settlers, under the leadership of the Rev.
+A. C. Van Raalte, and was chartered as a city in 1867. In 1871 much of
+it was destroyed by a forest fire.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAND, a cloth so called from the country where it was first made. It
+was originally a fine plain linen fabric of a brownish colour--unbleached
+flax. Several varieties are now made: hollands, pale hollands and fine
+hollands. They are used for aprons, blinds, shirts, blouses and dresses.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS [VACLAF HOLAR] (1607-1677), Bohemian etcher,
+was born at Prague on the 13th of July 1607, and died in London, being
+buried at St Margaret's church, Westminster, on the 28th of March 1677.
+His family was ruined by the capture of Prague in the Thirty Years' War,
+and young Hollar, who had been destined for the law, determined to become
+an artist. The earliest of his works that have come down to us are dated
+1625 and 1626; they are small plates, and one of them is a copy of a
+Virgin and Child by Durer, whose influence upon Hollar's work was always
+great. In 1627 he was at Frankfort, working under Matthew Merian, an
+etcher and engraver; thence he passed to Strassburg, and thence, in 1633,
+to Cologne. It was there that he attracted the notice of the famous
+amateur Thomas, earl of Arundel, then on an embassy to the imperial
+court; and with him Hollar travelled to Vienna and Prague, and finally
+came in 1637 to England, destined to be his home for many years. Though
+he lived in the household of Lord Arundel, he seems to have worked not
+exclusively for him, but to have begun that slavery to the publishers
+which was afterwards the normal condition of his life. In his first year
+in England he made for Stent, the printseller, the magnificent View of
+Greenwich, nearly a yard long, and received thirty shillings for the
+plate,--perhaps a twentieth part of what would now be paid for a single
+good impression. Afterwards we hear of his fixing the price of his work
+at fourpence an hour, and measuring his time by a sandglass. The Civil
+War had its effect on his fortunes, but none on his industry. Lord
+Arundel left England in 1642, and Hollar passed into the service of the
+duke of York, taking with him a wife and two children. With other
+royalist artists, notably Inigo Jones and Faithorne, he stood the long
+and eventful siege of Basing House; and as we have some hundred plates
+from his hand dated during the years 1643 and 1644 he must have turned
+his enforced leisure to good purpose. Taken prisoner, he escaped or was
+released, and joined Lord Arundel at Antwerp, and there he remained eight
+years, the prime of his working life, when he produced his finest plates
+of every kind, his noblest views, his miraculous "muffs" and "shells,"
+and the superb portrait of the duke of York. In 1652 he returned to
+London, and lived for a time with Faithorne the engraver near Temple Bar.
+During the following years were published many books which he
+illustrated:--Ogilby's _Virgil_ and _Homer_, Stapylton's _Juvenal_, and
+Dugdale's _Warwickshire_, _St Paul's_ and _Monasticon_ (part i.). The
+booksellers continued to impose on the simple-minded foreigner,
+pretending to decline his work that he might still further reduce the
+wretched price he charged them. Nor did the Restoration improve his
+position. The court did nothing for him, and in the great plague he lost
+his young son, who, we are told, might have rivalled his father as an
+artist. After the great fire he produced some of his famous "Views of
+London"; and it may have been the success of these plates which induced
+the king to send him, in 1668, to Tangier, to draw the town and forts.
+During his return to England occurred the desperate and successful
+engagement fought by his ship the "Mary Rose," under Captain Kempthorne,
+against seven Algerine men-of-war,--a brilliant affair which Hollar
+etched for Ogilby's _Africa_. He lived eight years after his return,
+still working for the booksellers, and retaining to the end his wonderful
+powers; witness the large plate of Edinburgh (dated 1670), one of the
+greatest of his works. He died in extreme poverty, his last recorded
+words being a request to the bailiffs that they would not carry away the
+bed on which he was dying.
+
+Hollar's variety was boundless; his plates number some 2740, and include
+views, portraits, ships, religious subjects, heraldic subjects,
+landscapes, and still life in a hundred different forms. No one that
+ever lived has been able to represent fur, or shells, or a butterfly's
+wing as he has done. His architectural drawings, such as those of
+Antwerp and Strassburg cathedrals, and his views of towns, are
+mathematically exact, but they are pictures as well. He could reproduce
+the decorative works of other artists quite faultlessly, as in the
+famous chalice after Mantegna's drawing. His _Theatrum mulierum_ and
+similar collections reproduce for us with literal truth the outward
+aspects of the people of his day; and his portraits, a branch of art in
+which he has been unfairly disparaged, are of extraordinary refinement
+and power.
+
+  Almost complete collections of Hollar's works exist in the British
+  Museum and in the library at Windsor Castle. Two admirable catalogues
+  of his plates have been made, one in 1745 (2nd ed. 1759) by George
+  Vertue, and one in 1853 by Parthey. The latter, published at Berlin,
+  is a model of German thoroughness and accuracy.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES, BARON (1599-1680), English statesman and writer,
+second son of John Holles, 1st earl of Clare (c. 1564-1637), by Anne,
+daughter of Sir Thomas Stanhope, was born on the 31st of October 1599.
+The favourite son of his father and endowed with great natural
+abilities, Denzil Holles grew up under advantageous circumstances.
+Destined to become later one of the most formidable antagonists of King
+Charles's arbitrary government, he was in early youth that prince's
+playmate and intimate companion. The earl of Clare was, however, no
+friend to the Stuart administration, being especially hostile to the
+duke of Buckingham; and on the accession of Charles to the throne the
+king's offers of favour were rejected. In 1624 Holles was returned to
+parliament for Mitchell in Cornwall, and in 1628 for Dorchester. He had
+from the first a keen sense of the humiliations which attended the
+foreign policy of the Stuart kings. Writing to Strafford, his
+brother-in-law, on the 29th of November 1627, he severely censures
+Buckingham's conduct of the expedition to the Isle of Rhe; "since
+England was England," the declared, "it received not so dishonourable a
+blow"; and he joined in the demand for Buckingham's impeachment in 1628.
+To these discontents were now added the abuses arising from the king's
+arbitrary administration. On the 2nd of March 1629, when Sir John Finch,
+the speaker, refused to put Sir John Eliot's Protestations and was about
+to adjourn the House by the king's command, Holles with another member
+thrust him back into the chair and swore "he should sit still till it
+pleased them to rise." Meanwhile Eliot, on the refusal of the speaker to
+read the Protestations, had himself thrown them into the fire; the usher
+of the black rod was knocking at the door for admittance, and the king
+had sent for the guard. But Holles, declaring that he could not render
+the king or his country better service, put the Protestations to the
+House from memory, all the members rising to their feet and applauding.
+In consequence a warrant was issued for his arrest with others on the
+following day. They were prosecuted first in the Star Chamber and
+subsequently in the King's Bench. When brought upon his _habeas corpus_
+before the latter court Holles offered with the rest to give bail, but
+refused sureties for good behaviour, and argued that the court had no
+jurisdiction over offences supposed to have been committed in
+parliament. On his refusal to plead he was sentenced to a fine of 1000
+marks and to imprisonment during the king's pleasure. Holles had at
+first been committed and remained for some time a close prisoner in the
+Tower of London. The "close" confinement, however, was soon changed to a
+"safe" one, the prisoner then having leave to take the air and exercise,
+but being obliged to maintain himself at his own expense. On the 29th of
+October Holles, with Eliot and Valentine, was transferred to the
+Marshalsea. His resistance to the king's tyranny did not prove so stout
+as that of some of his comrades in misfortune. Among the papers of the
+secretary Sir John Coke is a petition of Holles, couched in humble and
+submissive terms, to be restored to the king's favour;[1] having given
+the security demanded for his good behaviour, he was liberated early in
+1630, and on the 30th of October was allowed bail. Being still banished
+from London he retired to the country, paying his fine in 1637 or 1638.
+The fine was repaid by the parliament in July 1644, and the judgment was
+revised on a writ of error in 1668. In 1638 we find him, notwithstanding
+his recent experiences, one of the chief leaders in his county of the
+resistance to ship money, though it would appear that he subsequently
+made submission.
+
+Holles was a member of the Short and Long Parliaments assembled in 1640.
+According to Laud he was now "one of the great leading men in the House
+of Commons," and in Clarendon's opinion he was "a man of more
+accomplished parts than any of his party" and of most authority. He was
+not, however, in the confidence of the republican party. Though he was
+at first named one of the managers for the impeachment of Strafford,
+Holles had little share in his prosecution. According to Laud he held
+out to Strafford hopes of saving his life if he would use his influence
+with the king to abolish episcopacy, but the earl refused, and Holles
+advised Charles that Strafford should demand a short respite, of which
+he would take advantage to procure a commutation of the death sentence.
+In the debate on the attainder he spoke on behalf of Strafford's family,
+and later obtained some favours from the parliament for his eldest son.
+In all other matters in parliament Holles took a principal part. He was
+one of the chief movers of the Protestation of the 3rd of May 1641,
+which he carried up to the Lords, urging them to give it their approval.
+Although, according to Clarendon, he did not wish to change the
+government of the church, he showed himself at this time decidedly
+hostile to the bishops. He took up the impeachment of Laud to the House
+of Peers, supported the Londoners' petition for the abolition of
+episcopacy and the Root and Branch Bill, and afterwards urged that the
+bishops impeached for their conduct in the affair of the late canons
+should be accused of treason. He showed equal energy in the affairs of
+Ireland at the outbreak of the rebellion, supported strongly the
+independence and purity of the judicial bench, and opposed toleration of
+the Roman Catholics. On the 9th of July 1641 he addressed the Lords on
+behalf of the queen of Bohemia, expressing great loyalty to the king and
+royal family and urging the necessity of supporting the Protestant
+religion everywhere. Together with Pym, Holles drew up the Grand
+Remonstrance, and made a vigorous speech in its support on the 22nd of
+November 1641, in which he argued for the right of one House to make a
+declaration, and asserted: "If kings are misled by their counsellors we
+may, we must tell them of it." On the 15th of December he was a teller
+in the division in favour of printing it. On the great subject of the
+militia he also showed activity. He supported Hesilriges' Militia Bill
+of the 7th of December 1641, and on the 31st of December he took up to
+the king the Commons' demand for a guard under the command of Essex.
+"Holles's force and reputation," said Sir Ralph Verney, "are the two
+things that give the success to all actions." After the failure of the
+attempt by the court to gain over Holles and others by offering them
+posts in the administration, he was one of the "five members" impeached
+by the king.[2] Holles at once grasped the full significance of the
+king's action, and after the triumphant return to the House of the five
+members, on the 11th of January, threw himself into still more
+pronounced opposition to the arbitrary policy of the crown. He demanded
+that before anything further was done the members should be cleared of
+their impeachment; was himself leader in the impeachment of the duke of
+Richmond; and on the 31st of January, when taking up the militia
+petition to the House of Lords, he adopted a very menacing tone, at the
+same time presenting a petition of some thousands of supposed starving
+artificers of London, congregated round the House. On the 15th of June
+he carried up the impeachment of the nine Lords who had deserted the
+parliament; and he was one of the committee of safety appointed on the
+4th of July.
+
+On the outbreak of the Civil War (see GREAT REBELLION) Holles, who had
+been made lieutenant of Bristol, was sent with Bedford to the west
+against the marquess of Hertford, and took part in the unsuccessful
+siege of the latter at Sherborne Castle. He was present at Edgehill,
+where his regiment of Puritans recruited in London was one of the few
+which stood firm and saved the day for the parliament. On the 13th of
+November his men were surprised at Brentford during his absence, and
+routed after a stout resistance. In December he was proposed for the
+command of the forces in the west, an appointment which he appears to
+have refused. Notwithstanding his activity in the field for the cause of
+the parliament, the appeal to arms had been distasteful to Holles from
+the first. As early as September he surprised the House by the marked
+abatement of his former "violent and fiery spirit," and his changed
+attitude did not escape the taunts of his enemies, who attributed it
+scornfully to his disaster at Brentford or to his new wife. He probably
+foresaw that, to whichever side victory fell, the struggle could only
+terminate in the suppression of the constitution and of the moderate
+party on which all his hopes were based. His feelings and political
+opinions, too, were essentially aristocratic, and he regarded with
+horror the transference of the government of the state from the king and
+the ruling families to the parliamentary leaders. He now advocated peace
+and a settlement of the disputes by concessions on both sides; a
+proposal full of danger because impracticable, and one therefore which
+could only weaken the parliamentary resistance and prolong the struggle.
+He warmly supported the peace negotiations on the 21st of November and
+the 22nd of December, and his attitude led to a breach with Pym and the
+more determined party. In June 1643 he was accused of complicity in
+Waller's plot, but swore to his innocency; and his arrest with others of
+the peace party was even proposed in August, when Holles applied for a
+pass to leave the country. The king's successes, however, for the moment
+put a stop to all hopes of peace; and in April 1644 Holles addressed the
+citizens of London at the Guildhall, calling upon them "to join with
+their purses, their persons, and their prayers together" to support the
+army of Essex. In November Holles and Whitelocke headed the commission
+appointed to treat with the king at Oxford. He endeavoured to convince
+the royalists of the necessity of yielding in time, before the "new
+party of hot men" should gain the upper hand. Holles and Whitelocke had
+a private meeting with the king, when at Charles's request they drew up
+the answer which they advised him to return to the parliament. This
+interview was not communicated to the other commissioners or to
+parliament, and though doubtless their motives were thoroughly
+patriotic, their action was scarcely compatible with their position as
+trustees of the parliamentary cause. Holles was also appointed a
+commissioner at Uxbridge in January 1645 and endeavoured to overcome the
+crucial difficulty of the militia by postponing its discussion
+altogether. As leader of the moderate (or Presbyterian) party Holles now
+came into violent antagonism with Cromwell and the army faction. "They
+hated one another equally"; and Holles would not allow any merit in
+Cromwell, accusing him of cowardice and attributing his successes to
+chance and good fortune. With the support of Essex and the Scottish
+commissioners Holles endeavoured in December 1644 to procure Cromwell's
+impeachment as an incendiary between the two nations, and "passionately"
+opposed the self-denying ordinance. In return Holles was charged with
+having held secret communications with the king at Oxford and with a
+correspondence with Lord Digby; but after a long examination by the
+House he was pronounced innocent on the 19th of July 1645. Determined on
+Cromwell's destruction, he refused to listen to the prudent counsels of
+Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, who urged that Cromwell was too strong to be
+resisted or provoked, and on the 29th of March 1647 drew up in
+parliament a hasty proclamation declaring the promoters of the army
+petition enemies to the state; in April challenging Ireton to a duel.
+
+The army party was now thoroughly exasperated against Holles. "They were
+resolved one way or other to be rid of him," says Clarendon. On the 16th
+of June 1647 eleven members including Holles were charged by the army
+with various offences against the state, followed on the 23rd by fresh
+demands for their impeachment and for their suspension, which was
+refused. On the 26th, however, the eleven members, to avoid violence,
+asked leave to withdraw. Their reply to the charges against them was
+handed into the House on the 19th of July, and on the 20th Holles took
+leave of the House in _A grave and learned speech..._. After the riot of
+the apprentices on the 26th, for which Holles disclaimed any
+responsibility, the eleven members were again (30th of July) recalled to
+their seats, and Holles was one of the committee of safety appointed. On
+the flight of the speaker, however, and part of the parliament to the
+army, and the advance of the latter to London, Holles, whose party and
+policy were now entirely defeated, left England on the 22nd of August
+for Sainte-Mere Eglise in Normandy. On the 26th of January 1648 the
+eleven members, who had not appeared when summoned to answer the charges
+against them, were expelled. Not long afterwards, however, on the 3rd of
+June, these proceedings were annulled; and Holles, who had then returned
+and was a prisoner in the Tower with the rest of the eleven members, was
+discharged. He returned to his seat on the 14th of August.
+
+Holles was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king at
+Newport on the 18th of September 1648. Aware of the plans of the extreme
+party, Holles threw himself at the king's feet and implored him not to
+waste time in useless negotiations, and he was one of those who stayed
+behind the rest in order to urge Charles to compliance. On the 1st of
+December he received the thanks of the House. On the occasion of Pride's
+Purge on the 6th of December Holles absented himself and escaped again
+to France. From his retirement there he wrote to Charles II. in 1651,
+advising him to come to terms with the Scots as the only means of
+effecting a restoration; but after the alliance he refused Charles's
+offer of the secretaryship of state. In March 1654 Cromwell, who in
+alarm at the plots being formed against him was attempting to reconcile
+some of his opponents to his government, sent Holles a pass "with
+notable circumstances of kindness and esteem." His subsequent movements
+and the date of his return to England are uncertain, but in 1656
+Cromwell's resentment was again excited against him as the supposed
+author of a tract, really written by Clarendon. He appears to have been
+imprisoned, for his release was ordered by the council on the 2nd of
+September 1659.
+
+Holles took part in the conference with Monk at Northumberland House,
+when the Restoration was directly proposed, and with the secluded
+members took his seat again in parliament on the 21st of February 1660.
+On the 23rd of February he was chosen one of the council to carry on the
+government during the interregnum; on the 2nd of March the votes passed
+against him and the sequestration of his estates were repealed, and on
+the 7th he was made custos rotulorum for Dorsetshire. He took a leading
+part in bringing about the Restoration, was chairman of the committee of
+seven appointed to prepare an answer to the king's letter, and as one of
+the deputed Lords and Commons he delivered at the Hague the invitation
+to Charles to return. He preceded Charles to England to prepare for his
+reception, and was sworn of the privy council on the 5th of June. He was
+one of the thirty-four commissioners appointed to try the regicides in
+September and October. On the 20th of April 1661 he was created Baron
+Holles of Ifield in Sussex, and became henceforth one of the leading
+members of the Upper House.
+
+Holles, who was a good French scholar, was sent as ambassador to France
+on the 7th of July 1663. He was ostentatiously English, and a zealous
+upholder of the national honour and interests; but his position was
+rendered difficult by the absence of home support. On the 27th of
+January 1666 war was declared, but Holles was not recalled till May.
+Pepys remarks on the 14th of November: "Sir G. Cartaret tells me that
+just now my Lord Holles had been with him and wept to think in what a
+condition we are fallen." Soon afterwards he was employed on another
+disagreeable mission in which the national honour was again at stake,
+being sent to Breda to make a peace with Holland in May 1667. He
+accomplished his task successfully, the articles being signed on the
+21st of June.
+
+On the 12th of December he protested against Lord Clarendon's banishment
+and was nearly put out of the council in consequence. In 1668 he was
+manager for the Lords in the celebrated Skinner's case, in which his
+knowledge of precedents was of great service, and on which occasion he
+published the tract _The Grand Question concerning the Judicature of the
+House of Peeres_ (1669). Holles, who was honourably distinguished by
+Charles as a "stiff and sullen man," and as one who would not yield to
+solicitation, now became with Halifax and Shaftesbury a leader in the
+resistance to the domestic and foreign policy of the court. Together
+with Halifax he opposed both the arbitrary Conventicle Act of 1670 and
+the Test Oath of 1675, his objection to the latter being chiefly founded
+on the invasion of the privileges of the peers which it involved; and he
+defended with vigour the right of the Peers to record their protests. On
+the 7th of January 1676 Holles with Halifax was summarily dismissed from
+the council. On the occasion of the Commons petitioning the king in
+favour of an alliance with the Dutch, Holles addressed a Letter to Van
+Beuninghen at Amsterdam on "Love to our Country and Hatred of a Common
+Enemy," enlarging upon the necessity of uniting in a common defence
+against French aggression and in support of the Protestant religion.
+"The People are strong but the Government is weak," he declares; and he
+attributes the cause of weakness to the transference of power from the
+nobility to the people, and to a succession of three weak princes. "Save
+what (the Parliament) did, we have not taken one true step nor struck
+one true stroke since Queen Elizabeth." He endeavoured to embarrass the
+government this year in his tract on _Some Considerations upon the
+Question whether the parliament is dissolved by its prorogation for 15
+months_. It was held by the Lords to be seditious and scandalous; while
+for publishing another pamphlet written by Holles entitled _The Grand
+Question concerning the Prorogation of this Parliament_ (otherwise _The
+Long Parliament dissolved_) the corrector of the proof sheets was
+committed to the Tower and fined L1000. In order to bring about the
+downfall of Danby (afterwards duke of Leeds) and the disbanding of the
+army, which he believed to be intended for the suppression of the
+national liberties, Holles at this time (1677-1679) engaged, as did many
+others, in a dangerous intrigue with Courtin and Barillon, the French
+envoys, and Louis XIV.; he refused, however, the latter's presents on
+the ground that he was a member of the council, having been appointed to
+Sir William Temple's new modelled cabinet in 1679. Barillon described
+him as at this period in his old age "the man of all England for whom
+the different cabals have the most consideration," and as firmly opposed
+to the arbitrary designs of the court. He showed moderation in the
+Popish Plot, and on the question of the exclusion followed Halifax
+rather than Shaftesbury. His long and eventful career closed by his
+death on the 17th of February 1680.
+
+The character of Holles has been drawn by Burnet, with whom he was on
+terms of friendship. "Hollis was a man of great courage and of as great
+pride.... He was faithful and firm to his side and never changed through
+the whole course of his life.... He argued well but too vehemently; for
+he could not bear contradiction. He had the soul of an old stubborn
+Roman in him. He was a faithful but a rough friend, and a severe but
+fair enemy. He had a true sense of religion; and was a man of an
+unblameable course of life and of a sound judgment when it was not
+biased by passion."[3] Holles was essentially an aristocrat and a Whig
+in feeling, making Cromwell's supposed hatred of "Lords" a special
+charge against him; regarding the civil wars rather as a social than as
+a political revolution, and attributing all the evils of his time to the
+transference of political power from the governing families to the
+"meanest of men." He was an authority on the history and practice of
+parliament and the constitution, and besides the pamphlets already
+mentioned was the author of _The Case Stated concerning the Judicature
+of the House of Peers in the Point of Appeals_ (1675); _The Case Stated
+of the Jurisdiction of the House of Lords in the point of Impositions_
+(1676); _Letter of a Gentleman to his Friend showing that the Bishops
+are not to be judges in Parliament in Cases Capital_ (1679); _Lord
+Holles his Remains, being a 2nd letter to a Friend concerning the
+judicature of the Bishops in Parliament..._.[4] He also published _A
+True Relation of the unjust accusation of certain French gentlemen_
+(1671), an account of Holles's intercession on their behalf and of his
+dispute with Lord Chief Justice Keeling; and he left _Memoirs_, written
+in exile in 1649, and dedicated "to the unparalleled Couple, Mr Oliver
+St John ... and Mr Oliver Cromwell...." published in 1699 and reprinted
+in Baron Maseres's _Select Tracts relating to the Civil Wars_, i. 189.
+Several speeches of Holles were printed and are extant, and his Letter
+to Van Beuninghen has been already quoted.
+
+Holles married (1) in 1628 Dorothy, daughter and heiress of Sir Francis
+Ashley; (2) in 1642 Jane, daughter and co-heiress of Sir John Shirley of
+Ifield in Sussex and widow of Sir Walter Covert of Slougham, Sussex; and
+(3) in 1666 Esther, daughter and co-heiress of Gideon Le Lou of
+Columbiers in Normandy, widow of James Richer. By his first wife he left
+one son, Francis, who succeeded him as 2nd baron. He had no children by
+his other wives, and the peerage became extinct in the person of his
+grandson Denzil, 3rd Baron Holles, in 1694, the estates devolving on
+John Holles (1662-1711), 4th earl of Clare and duke of Newcastle.
+
+Holles's brother, JOHN HOLLES, 2nd earl of Clare (1595-1666), was member
+of parliament for East Retford in three parliaments before succeeding to
+the peerage in 1637. He took some part in the Civil War, but "he was
+very often of both parties, and never advantaged either." The earldom of
+Clare, which had been granted in 1624 by James I. to his father, John
+Holles, in return for the payment of L5000, became merged in the dukedom
+of Newcastle in 1694, when John Holles, the 4th earl, was created duke
+of Newcastle.
+
+  Holles's Life has been written by C. H. Firth in the _Dictionary of
+  National Biography_; by Horace Walpole in _Royal and Noble Authors_,
+  ii. 28; by Guizot in _Monk's Contemporaries_ (Eng. trans., 1851); and
+  by A. Collins in _Historical Collections of Noble Families_ (1752),
+  and in the _Biographia Britannica_. See also S. R. Gardiner, _History
+  of England_ (1883-1884), and _History of the Great Civil War_ (1893);
+  Lord Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion_, edited by W. D. Macray; G.
+  Burnet, _History of His Own Time_ (1833); and B. Whitelock,
+  _Memorials_ (1732).     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Earl Cowper_, i. 422.
+
+  [2] The speech of January 5 attributed to him and printed in
+    _Thomason Tracts_, E 199 (55), is a forgery.
+
+  [3] Burnet's _History of His Own Times_, vi. 257, 268.
+
+  [4] The rough draft, apparently in Holles's handwriting, is in
+    _Egerton MSS._ ff. 136-149.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLOWAY, THOMAS (1800-1883), English patent-medicine vendor and
+philanthropist, was born at Devonport, on the 22nd of September 1800, of
+humble parents. Until his twenty-eighth year he lived at Penzance, where
+he assisted his mother and brother in the baker's shop which his father,
+once a warrant officer in a militia regiment, had left them at his
+death. On coming to London he made the acquaintance of Felix Albinolo,
+an Italian, from whom he obtained the idea for the ointment which was to
+carry his name all over the world. The secret of his enormous success in
+business was due almost entirely to advertisement, in the efficacy of
+which he had great faith. He soon added the sale of pills to that of the
+ointment, and began to devote the larger part of his profits to
+advertising. Holloway's first newspaper announcement appeared on the
+15th of October 1837, and in 1842 his yearly expenses for publicity had
+reached the sum of L5000; this expenditure went on steadily increasing
+as his sales increased, until it had reached the figure of L50,000 per
+annum at the time of his death. It is, however, chiefly by the two
+princely foundations--the Sanatorium and the College for Women at Egham
+(q.v.), endowed by Holloway towards the close of his life--that his name
+will be perpetuated, more than a million sterling having been set apart
+by him for the erection and permanent endowment of these institutions.
+In the deed of gift of the college the founder credited his wife, who
+died in 1875, with the advice and counsel that led him to provide what
+he hoped might ultimately become the nucleus of a university for women.
+The philanthropic and somewhat eccentric donor (he had an unconcealed
+prejudice against doctors, lawyers and parsons) died of congestion of
+the lungs at Sunninghill on the 26th of December 1883.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLY (_Ilex Aquifolium_), the European representative of a large genus
+of trees and shrubs of the natural order Ilicineae, containing about 170
+species. The genus finds its chief development in Central and South
+America; is well developed in Asia, especially the Chinese-Japanese
+area, and has but few species in Europe, Africa and Australia. In
+Europe, where _I. Aquifolium_ is the sole surviving species, the genus
+was richly represented during the Miocene period by forms at first South
+American and Asiatic, and later North American in type (Schimper,
+_Paleont. veget._ iii. 204, 1874). The leaves are generally leathery and
+evergreen, and are alternate and stalked; the flowers are commonly
+dioecious, are in axillary cymes, fascicles or umbellules, and have a
+persistent four- to five-lobed calyx, a white, rotate four- or rarely
+five- or six-cleft corolla, with the four or five stamens adherent to
+its base in the male, sometimes hypogynous in the female flowers, and a
+two- to twelve-celled ovary; the fruit is a globose, very seldom ovoid,
+and usually red drupe, containing two to sixteen one-seeded stones.
+
+[Illustration: _Ilex Aquifolium._ Shoot bearing leaves and fruit about
+1/2 nat. size.
+
+  1. Flower with abortive stamens.
+  2. Flower with abortive pistil.
+  3. Floral diagram showing arrangement of parts in horizontal section.
+  4. Fruit.
+  5. Fruit cut transversely showing the four one-seeded stones.]
+
+The common holly, or Hulver (apparently the [Greek: kelastros] of
+Theophrastus;[1] Ang.-Sax. _holen_ or _holegn_; Mid. Eng. _holyn_ or
+_holin_, whence _holm_ and _holmtree_;[2] Welsh, _celyn_; Ger.
+_Stechpalme_, _Hulse_, _Hulst_; O. Fr. _houx_; and Fr. _houlx_),[3] _I.
+Aquifolium_, is an evergreen shrub or low tree, having smooth,
+ash-coloured bark, and wavy, pointed, smooth and glossy leaves, 2 to 3
+in. long, with a spinous margin, raised and cartilaginous below, or, as
+commonly on the upper branches of the older trees, entire--a peculiarity
+alluded to by Southey in his poem _The Holly Tree_. The flowers, which
+appear in May, are ordinarily dioecious, as in all the best of the
+cultivated varieties in nurseries (_Gard. Chron._, 1877, i. 149). Darwin
+(_Diff. Forms of Flow._, 1877, p. 297) says of the holly: "During
+several years I have examined many plants, but have never found one that
+was really hermaphrodite." Shirley Hibberd, however (_Gard. Chron._,
+1877, ii. 777), mentions the occurrence of "flowers bearing globose
+anthers well furnished with pollen, and also perfect ovaries." In his
+opinion, _I. Aquifolium_ changes its sex from male to female with age.
+In the female flowers the stamens are destitute of pollen, though but
+slightly or not at all shorter than in the male flowers; the latter are
+more numerous than the female, and have a smaller ovary and a larger
+corolla, to which the filaments adhere for a greater length. The corolla
+in male plants falls off entire, whereas in fruit-bearers it is broken
+into separate segments by the swelling of the young ovary. The holly
+occurs in Britain, north-east Scotland excepted, and in western and
+southern Europe, from as high as 62 deg. N. lat. in Norway to Turkey and
+the Caucasus and in western Asia. It is found generally in forest glades
+or in hedges, and does not flourish under the shade of other trees. In
+England it is usually small, probably on account of its destruction for
+timber, but it may attain to 60 or 70 ft. in height, and Loudon mentions
+one tree at Claremont, in Surrey, of 80 ft. Some of the trees on Bleak
+Hill, Shropshire, are asserted to be 14 ft. in girth at some distance
+from the ground (_N. and Q._, 5th ser., xii. 508). The holly is abundant
+in France, especially in Brittany. It will grow in almost any soil not
+absolutely wet, but flourishes best in rather dry than moist sandy loam.
+Beckmann (_Hist. of Invent._, 1846, i. 193) says that the plant which
+first induced J. di Castro to search for alum in Italy was the holly,
+which is there still considered to indicate that its habitat is
+aluminiferous. The holly is propagated by means of the seeds, which do
+not normally germinate until their second year, by whip-grafting and
+budding, and by cuttings of the matured summer shoots, which, placed in
+sandy soil and kept under cover of a hand-glass in sheltered situations,
+generally strike root in spring. Transplantation should be performed in
+damp weather in September and October, or, according to some writers, in
+spring or on mild days in winter, and care should be taken that the
+roots are not dried by exposure to the air. It is rarely injured by
+frosts in Britain, where its foliage and bright red berries in winter
+render it a valuable ornamental tree. The yield of berries has been
+noticed to be less when a warm spring, following on a wet winter season,
+has promoted excess of growth. There are numerous varieties of the
+holly. Some trees have yellow, and others white or even black fruit. In
+the fruitless variety _laurifolia_, "the most floriferous of all
+hollies" (Hibberd), the flowers are highly fragrant; the form known as
+_femina_ is, on the other hand, remarkable for the number of its
+berries. The leaves in the unarmed varieties _aureo-marginata_ and
+_albo-marginata_ are of great beauty, and in _ferox_ they are studded
+with sharp prickles. The holly is of importance as a hedge-plant, and is
+patient of clipping, which is best performed by the knife. Evelyn's
+holly hedge at Say's Court, Deptford, was 400 ft. long, 9 ft. high and 5
+ft. in breadth. To form fences, for which Evelyn recommends the
+employment of seedlings from woods, the plants should be 9 to 12 in. in
+height, with plenty of small fibrous roots, and require to be set 1 to
+1(1/2) ft. apart, in well-manured and weeded ground and thoroughly
+watered.
+
+The wood of the holly is even-grained and hard, especially when from the
+heartwood of large trees, and almost as white as ivory, except near the
+centre of old trunks, where it is brownish. It is employed in inlaying
+and turning, and, since it stains well, in the place of ebony, as for
+teapot handles. For engraving it is inferior to box. When dry it weighs
+about 47(1/2) lb. per cub. ft. From the bark of the holly bird-lime is
+manufactured. From the leaves are obtainable a colouring matter named
+_ilixanthin_, _ilicic acid_, and a bitter principle, _ilicin_, which has
+been variously described by different analytical chemists. They are
+eaten by sheep and deer, and in parts of France serve as a winter fodder
+for cattle. The berries provoke in man violent vomiting and purging, but
+are eaten with immunity by thrushes and other birds. The larvae of the
+moths _Sphinx ligustri_ and _Phoxopteryx naevana_ have been met with on
+holly. The leaves are mined by the larva of a fly, _Phytomyza ilicis_,
+and both on them and the tops of the young twigs occurs the plant-louse
+_Aphis ilicis_ (Kaltenbach, _Pflanzenfeinde_, 1874, p. 427). The custom
+of employing holly and other plants for decorative purposes at Christmas
+is one of considerable antiquity, and has been regarded as a survival of
+the usages of the Roman Saturnalia, or of an old Teutonic practice of
+hanging the interior of dwellings with evergreens as a refuge for sylvan
+spirits from the inclemency of winter. A Border proverb defines an
+habitual story-teller as one that "lees never but when the hollen is
+green." Several popular superstitions exist with respect to holly. In
+the county of Rutland it is deemed unlucky to introduce it into a house
+before Christmas Eve. In some English rural districts the prickly and
+non-prickly kinds are distinguished as "he" and "she" holly; and in
+Derbyshire the tradition obtains that according as the holly brought at
+Christmas into a house is smooth or rough, the wife or the husband will
+be master. Holly that has adorned churches at that season is in
+Worcestershire and Herefordshire much esteemed and cherished, the
+possession of a small branch with berries being supposed to bring a
+lucky year; and Lonicerus mentions a notion in his time vulgarly
+prevalent in Germany that consecrated twigs of the plant hung over a
+door are a protection against thunder.
+
+  Among the North American species of _Ilex_ are _I. opaca_, which
+  resembles the European tree, the Inkberry, _I. (Prinos) glabra_, and
+  the American Black Alder, or Winterberry, _I. (Prinos) verticillata_.
+  Hooker (_Fl. of Brit. India_, i. 598, 606) enumerates twenty-four
+  Indian species of _Ilex_. The Japanese _I. crenata_, and _I.
+  latifolia_, a remarkably hardy plant, and the North American _I.
+  Cassine_, are among the species cultivated in Britain. The leaves of
+  several species of _Ilex_ are used by dyers. The member of the genus
+  most important economically is _I. paraguariensis_, the prepared
+  leaves of which constitute Paraguay tea, or MATE (q.v.). Knee holly is
+  _Ruscus aculeatus_, or butcher's broom (see BROOM); sea holly,
+  _Eryngium maritimum_, an umbelliferous plant; and the mountain holly
+  of America, _Nemopanthes canadensis_, also a member of the order
+  Ilicineae.
+
+  Besides the works above mentioned, see Louden, _Arboretum_, ii. 506
+  (1844).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Hist. Plant._ i. 9. 3, iii. 3. 1, and 4. 6, _et passim_. On the
+    _aquifolium_ or _aquifolia_ of Latin authors, commonly regarded as
+    the holly, see A. de Grandsagne, _Hist. Nat. de Pline_, bk. xvi.,
+    "Notes," pp. 199, 206.
+
+  [2] The term "holm," as indicative of a prevalence of holly, is
+    stated to have entered into the names of several places in Britain.
+    From its superficial resemblance to the holly, the tree _Quercus
+    Ilex_, the evergreen oak, received the appellation of "holm-oak."
+
+  [3] Skeat (_Etymolog. Dict._, 1879) with reference to the word holly
+    remarks: "The form of the base KUL (= Teutonic HUL) is probably
+    connected with Lat. _culmen_, a peak, _culmus_, a stalk; perhaps
+    because the leaves are 'pointed.'" Grimm (_Deut. Worterb._ Bd. iv.)
+    suggests that the term _Hulst_, as the O.H.G. _Hulis_, applied to the
+    butcher's broom, or knee-holly, in the earliest times used for
+    hedges, may have reference to the holly as a protecting (_hullender_)
+    plant.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLYHOCK (from M.E. _holi_--doubtless because brought from the Holy
+Land, where it is indigenous (Wedg.)--and A.-S. _hoc_, a mallow),
+_Althaea rosea_, a perennial plant of the natural order _Malvaceae_, a
+native of the East, which has been cultivated in Great Britain for about
+three centuries. The ordinary hollyhock is single-blossomed, but the
+florists' varieties have all double flowers, of white, yellow, rose,
+purple, violet and other tints, some being almost black. The plant is in
+its prime about August, but by careful management examples may be
+obtained in blossom from July to as late as November. Hollyhocks are
+propagated from seed, or by division of the root, or by planting out in
+rich sandy soil, in a close frame, with a gentle bottom heat, single
+eyes from woodshoots, or cuttings from outgrowths of the old stock or of
+the lateral offsets of the spike. The seed may be sown in October under
+cover, the plants obtained being potted in November, and kept under
+glass till the following April, or, if it be late-gathered, in May or
+June, in the open ground, whence, if required, the plants are best
+removed in October or April. In many gardens, when the plants are not
+disturbed, self-sown seedlings come up in abundance about April and May.
+Seedlings may also be raised in February or March, by the aid of a
+gentle heat, in a light and rich moist soil; they should not be watered
+till they have made their second leaves, and when large enough for
+handling should be pricked off in a cold frame; they are subsequently
+transferred to the flower-bed. Hollyhocks thrive best in a well-trenched
+and manured sandy loam. The spikes as they grow must be staked; and
+water and, for the finest blossoms, liquid manure should be liberally
+supplied to the roots. Plants for exhibition require the side growths to
+be pinched out; and it is recommended, in cold, bleak or northerly
+localities, when the flowering is over, and the stalks have been cut off
+4 to 6 in. above the soil, to earth up the crowns with sand. Some of the
+finest double-flowered kinds of hollyhock do not bloom well in Scotland.
+The plant is susceptible of great modification under cultivation. The
+forms now grown are due to the careful selection and crossing of
+varieties. It is found that the most diverse varieties may be raised
+with certainty from plants growing near together.
+
+The young shoots of the hollyhock are very liable to the attacks of
+slugs, and to a disease occasioned by a fungus, _Puccinia malvacearum_,
+which is a native of Chile, attained notoriety in the Australian
+colonies, and finally, reaching Europe in 1869, threatened the
+extermination of the hollyhock, the soft parts of the leaves of which it
+destroys, leaving the venation only remaining. It has been found
+especially hurtful to the plant in dry seasons. It is also parasitic on
+the wild mallows. The disease appears on the leaves as minute hard
+pale-brown pustules, filled with spores which germinate without a
+resting-period, but when produced late in the season may last as
+resting-spores until next spring. Spraying early in the season with
+Bordeaux mixture is an effective preventive, but the best means of
+treatment is to destroy all leaves as soon as they show signs of being
+attacked, and to prevent the growth of other host-plants such as
+mallows, in the neighbourhood. In hot dry seasons, red-spider injures
+the foliage very much, but may be kept at bay by syringing the plants
+frequently with plenty of clean water.
+
+
+
+
+HOLLY SPRINGS, a city and the county-seat of Marshall county,
+Mississippi, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, 45 m. S.E. of Memphis.
+Pop. (1890) 2246; (1900) 2815 (1559 negroes); (1910) 2192. Holly Springs
+is served by the Illinois Central and the Kansas City, Memphis &
+Birmingham (Frisco System) railways. The city has broad and well-shaded
+streets, and a fine court-house and court-house square. It is the seat
+of Rust University (opened in 1867), a Methodist Episcopal institution
+for negroes; of the Mississippi Synodical College (1905; Presbyterian),
+for white girls; and of the North Mississippi Agricultural Experiment
+Station. The principal industries are the ginning, compressing and
+shipping of cotton, and the manufacture of cotton-seed oil, but the city
+also manufactures pottery and brick from clay obtained in the vicinity,
+and has an ice factory, bottling works and marble works. The
+municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting
+plant. Holly Springs was founded in 1837 and was chartered as a city in
+1896. Early in December 1862 General Grant established here a large
+depot of supplies designed for the use of the Federal army while on its
+march toward Vicksburg, but General Earl Van Dorn, with a brigade of
+cavalry, surprised the post at daylight on the 20th of this month,
+burned the supplies and took 1500 prisoners. Holly Springs was the home
+and is the burial-place of Edward Cary Walthall (1831-1898), a
+Democratic member of the United States Senate in 1885-1894 and in
+1895-1898.
+
+
+
+
+HOLMAN, JAMES (1786-1857), known as the "Blind Traveller," was born at
+Exeter on the 15th of October 1786. He entered the British navy in 1798
+as first-class volunteer, and was appointed lieutenant in April 1807. In
+1810 he was invalided by an illness which resulted in total loss of
+sight. In consideration of his helpless circumstances he was in 1812
+appointed one of the royal knights of Windsor, but the quietness of such
+a life harmonized so ill with his active habits and keen interests that
+he requested leave of absence to go abroad, and in 1819, 1820 and 1821
+journeyed through France, Italy, Switzerland, the parts of Germany
+bordering on the Rhine, Belgium and the Netherlands. On his return he
+published _The Narrative of a Journey through France_, &c. (London,
+1822). He again set out in 1822 with the design of making the circuit of
+the world, but after travelling through Russia into Siberia, he was
+suspected of being a spy, was arrested when he had managed to penetrate
+1000 m. beyond Smolensk, and after being conducted to the frontiers of
+Poland, returned home by Austria, Saxony, Prussia and Hanover. He now
+issued _Travels through Russia, Siberia_, &c. (London, 1825). Shortly
+afterwards he again set out to accomplish by a somewhat different method
+the design which had been frustrated by the Russian authorities; and an
+account of his remarkable achievement was published in four volumes in
+1834-1835, under the title of _A Voyage round the World, including
+Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, &c., from 1827 to 1832_.
+His last journeys were through Spain, Portugal, Moldavia, Montenegro,
+Syria and Turkey; and he was engaged in preparing an account of this
+tour when he died in London on the 29th of July 1857.
+
+
+
+
+HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (1809-1894), American writer and physician, was
+born on the 29th of August 1809 at Cambridge, Mass. His father, Abiel
+Holmes (1763-1837), was a Calvinist clergyman, the writer of a useful
+history, _Annals of America_, and of much very dull poetry. His mother
+(the second wife of Abiel) was Sarah Wendell, of a distinguished New
+York family. Through her Dr Holmes was descended from Governors Thomas
+Dudley and Simon Bradstreet of Massachusetts, and from her he derived
+his cheerfulness and vivacity, his sympathetic humour and wit. From
+Phillips (Andover) Academy he entered Harvard in the "famous class of
+'29," made further illustrious by the charming lyrics which he wrote for
+the anniversary dinners from 1851 to 1889, closing with the touching
+"After the Curfew." After graduation he studied law perfunctorily for a
+year and dabbled in literature, winning the public ear by a spirited
+lyric called forth by the order to destroy the old frigate
+_Constitution_. These verses were sung all over the land, and induced
+the Navy Department to revoke its order and save the old ship. Turning
+next to medicine, and convinced by a brief experience in Boston that he
+liked it, he went to Paris in March 1833. He studied industriously under
+Louis and other famous physicians and surgeons in France, and in his
+vacations visited the Low Countries, England, Scotland and Italy.
+Returning to Boston at the close of 1835, filled with a high
+professional ambition, he sought practice, but achieved only moderate
+success. Social, brilliant in conversation, and a writer of gay little
+poems, he seemed to the grave Bostonians not sufficiently serious. He
+won prizes, however, for professional papers, and lectured on anatomy at
+Dartmouth College. He wrote two papers on homoeopathy, which he attacked
+with trenchant wit; also a valuable paper on the malarial fevers of New
+England. In 1843 he published his essay on the _Contagiousness of
+Puerperal Fever_, which stirred up a fierce controversy and brought upon
+him bitter personal abuse; but he maintained his position with dignity,
+temper and judgment; and in time he was honoured as the discoverer of a
+beneficent truth. The volume of his medical essays holds some of his
+most sparkling wit, his shrewdest observation, his kindliest humanity.
+In 1840 he married Amelia Lee Jackson, daughter of the Hon. Charles
+Jackson (1775-1855), formerly associate justice of the State supreme
+judicial court, a lady of rare charm alike of mind and character. She
+died in the winter of 1887-1888. Their first-born child, Oliver Wendell
+Holmes, afterwards became chief justice of that same bench on which his
+grandfather sat. In 1847 Dr Holmes was appointed professor of anatomy
+and physiology In the Medical School of Harvard University, the duties
+involving the giving of instruction also in kindred departments, so
+that, as he said, he occupied "not a chair, but a settee in the school."
+He delivered the anatomical lectures until November 1882, and in later
+years these were his only link with the medical profession. They were
+fresh, witty and lively; and the students were sent to him at the end of
+the day, when they were fagged, because he alone could keep them awake.
+In later years he made few finished contributions to medical knowledge;
+his eager and impetuous temperament caused him to leave more patient
+investigators to push to ultimate results the suggestions thrown out by
+his fertile and imaginative mind.
+
+In 1836, being in that year the Phi Beta Kappa poet at Harvard
+University, he published his first volume of _Poems_, which afterwards
+reached a second edition. Among these earlier lyrics was "The Last
+Leaf," one of the most delicate combinations of pathos and humour in
+literature. His collected poetry fills three volumes. In 1856-1857 a
+Boston publishing house (Phillips, Sampson, and Co.) invited James
+Russell Lowell to edit a new magazine, which he agreed to do on
+condition that he could secure the assistance of Dr Holmes. By this
+urgent invitation the Doctor was equally surprised and flattered, for
+heretofore he had stood rather outside the literary coterie of Cambridge
+and Boston. He accepted with pleasure, and at once threw himself into
+the enterprise with zeal. He christened it _The Atlantic Monthly_; and,
+as Mr Howells afterwards said, he "not only named but made" it, for in
+each number of its first volume there appeared one of the papers of the
+_Autocrat of the Breakfast Table_. The opening of the _Autocrat_--"I was
+just going to say when I was interrupted"--is explained by the fact that
+in the old _New England Magazine_ (1831 to 1833) the Doctor had
+published two _Autocrat_ papers, which, by his wish, have never been
+reprinted. In the commercial panic of 1857 the new magazine would
+inevitably have failed had it not been for these fascinating essays.
+Their originality of conception, their wit and humour, their suggestions
+of what then seemed bold ideas, and their expression of New Englandism,
+all combined to make them so popular that the most harassed merchant in
+that gloomy winter purchased them as a dose of cheering medicine. Thus
+Dr Holmes made _The Atlantic Monthly_, which in return made him. A
+success so immediate and so splendid settled the rest of his career; he
+ceased to be a physician and became an author. These twelve papers were
+immediately (1858) published as a volume. No sooner was the _Autocrat_
+silent than the _Professor_ (1859) succeeded him at the breakfast table.
+The _Professor_ was preferred by more thoughtful readers, though it has
+hardly been so widely popular as the _Autocrat_. Its theology, which
+seemed in those days audacious, frightened many of the strict and
+old-fashioned religionists of New England, though to-day it seems mild
+enough. Twelve years later, in 1871, the Landlady had another boarder,
+who took the vacant chair--the _Poet_ (published 1872). But here Holmes
+fell a little short. In these three books, especially in the _Autocrat_
+and the _Professor_, the Doctor wrote as he talked at many a dinner
+table in Boston, but less well. The animation and clash of talk roused
+him. The dinners of the Saturday Club are among Boston's proudest
+traditions, as they were the chief pleasure of Dr Holmes's life. There
+he met Emerson, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Sumner, Agassiz, Motley,
+and many other charming talkers, and among them all he was admitted to
+be the best.
+
+There were characters and incidents, but hardly a story, in the
+_Autocrat_ and the _Professor_. Holmes had an ambition for more
+sustained work, and in 1861 his novel, _Elsie Venner_, at first called
+_The Professor's Story_, was published. The book was illuminated
+throughout by admirable pictures of character and society in the typical
+New England town. But the rattlesnake element was unduly extravagant,
+and in other respects the book was open to criticism as a work of art.
+It was written with the same purpose which informed the greatest part of
+the Doctor's literary work, and which had already been scented and
+nervously condemned by the religious world. By heredity the Doctor was a
+theologian; no other topic enchained him more than did the stern and
+merciless dogmas of his Calvinist forefathers. His humanity revolted
+against them, his reason condemned them, and he set himself to their
+destruction as his task in literature. The religious world of his time
+was still so largely under the control of old ideas that he was assailed
+as a freethinker and a subverter of Christianity; though before his
+death opinions had so changed that the bitterness of the attacks upon
+him seemed incredible, even to some of those who had most vehemently
+made them. None the less, undaunted and profoundly earnest, he returned,
+six years later, to the same line of thought in his second novel, _The
+Guardian Angel_ (published 1867). This, though less well known than
+_Elsie Venner_, is in many respects better. No more lifelike and
+charming picture of the society of the New England country-town of the
+middle third of the 19th century has ever been drawn, and every page
+sparkles with wit and humour. In 1884 and 1885 it was followed, still in
+the same line, by _A Mortal Antipathy_, a production inferior to its
+predecessors.
+
+Holmes generally held himself aloof from politics, and from those
+"causes" of temperance, abolition and woman's rights which enthralled
+most of his contemporaries in New England. The Civil War, however,
+aroused him for the time; finding him first a strenuous Unionist, it
+quickly converted him into an ardent advocate of emancipation. His
+interest was enhanced by the career of his elder son Oliver (see below),
+who was three times severely wounded, and finally rose to the rank of
+lieut.-colonel in the Northern army. He wrote some ringing war lyrics,
+and in 1863 delivered the Fourth of July oration in Boston, which showed
+a masterly appreciation of the stirring public questions of the day. In
+1878 Dr Holmes wrote a memoir of the historian John Lothrop Motley, an
+affectionate tribute to one who had been his dear friend. In 1884 he
+contributed the life of Emerson to the American "Men of Letters" series.
+He admired the "Sage of Concord," but was not quite in intellectual
+sympathy with him. Both were Liberals in thought, but in widely
+different ways. But in spite of this handicap the volume proved very
+popular. In 1888 he began the papers which he happily christened _Over
+the Tea Cups_. As a _tour de force_ on the part of a man of nearly
+fourscore years they are very remarkable.
+
+After his return from Paris in 1835 Dr Holmes lived in Boston, with
+summer sojournings at Pittsfield and Beverly Farms, and occasional trips
+to neighbouring cities, until 1886. He then undertook a four months'
+journey in Europe, and in England had a sort of triumphal progress. On
+his return he wrote _Our Hundred Days in Europe_ (1887), a courteous
+recognition of the hospitality and praise which had been accorded to
+him. During this visit Cambridge University made him Doctor of Letters,
+Edinburgh University made him Doctor of Laws, and Oxford University made
+him Doctor of Civil Law. Already, in 1880, Harvard University had made
+him Doctor of Laws. He died on the 7th of October 1894, and was buried
+from King's Chapel, Boston, in the cemetery of Mount Auburn.
+
+His eldest son Oliver Wendell (b. 1841), who graduated from Harvard in
+1861 and fought in the Civil War, retiring from the army as brevet
+lieut.-colonel in 1864, took up the study of law and was admitted to the
+bar in Boston in 1866. He was for some years editor of the _American Law
+Review_, and after being professor in the Harvard Law School in 1882 was
+appointed in the same year a judge of the Massachusetts supreme court,
+rising to be chief justice in 1899. In 1902 he was made a judge of the
+United States Supreme Court. His work on _The Common Law_ (1881) and his
+edition (1873) of Kent's _Commentaries_ are his principal publications;
+and he became widely recognized as one of the great jurists of his day.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Holmes's _Complete Works_, in 13 volumes, were
+  published at Boston in 1891. See J. T. Morse, _Life and Letters of
+  Oliver Wendell Holmes_ (London, 1896); G. B. Ives, _Bibliography_
+  (Boston, 1907); and the bibliography in P. K. Foley's _American
+  Authors_ (Boston, 1897). An essay by Sir Leslie Stephen is prefixed to
+  the "Golden Treasury" edition (1903) of _The Autocrat of the Breakfast
+  Table_. See also monographs by William Sloane Kennedy (Boston, 1882);
+  Emma E. Brown (Boston, 1884).     (J. T. Mo.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLMFIRTH, an urban district in the Holmfirth parliamentary division of
+the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on and Holme and the Ribble, 6 m.
+S. of Huddersfield, and on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop.
+(1901) 8977. The valley, walled by bold hills, is very picturesque. In
+1852 great destruction was wrought in the town by the bursting of a
+reservoir in the vicinity. The large industrial population is employed
+in woollen manufactories, and in the neighbouring stone quarries.
+
+
+
+
+HOLOCAUST (Gr. [Greek: holokauston], or [Greek: holokauton], wholly
+burnt), strictly a sacrifice wholly destroyed by fire, such as the
+sacrifices of the Jews, described in the Pentateuch as "whole burnt
+offerings" (see SACRIFICE). The term is now often applied to a
+catastrophe on a large scale, whether by fire or not, or to a massacre
+or slaughter.
+
+
+
+
+HOLOCENE (from Gr. [Greek: holos], whole, [Greek: kainos], recent), in
+geology, the time division which embraces the youngest of all the
+formations; it is equivalent to the "Recent" of some authors. The name
+was proposed in 1860 by P. Gervais. The oldest deposits that may be
+included are those containing neolithic implements; deposits of historic
+times should also be grouped here; presumably the youngest are those to
+be chronicled by the last man. The Holocene formations obviously include
+all the varieties of deposits which are accumulating at the present day:
+the gravels and alluvia of rivers; boulder clays, moraines and
+fluvio-glacial deposits; estuarine, coastal and abyssal deposits of the
+seas, and their equivalents in lakes; screes, taluses, wind-borne dust
+and sand and desert formations; chemical deposits from saline waters;
+peat, diatomite, marls, foraminiferal and other oozes; coral, algal and
+shell banks, and other organic deposits; mud, lava and dust deposits of
+volcanic origin and extrusions of asphalt and pitch; to all these must
+be added the works of man.
+
+
+
+
+HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES (1861-   ), British artist, was born in Leeds on the
+9th of April 1861. He received his art education under Professor Legros
+at the Slade School, University College, London, where he had a
+distinguished career. After passing six months at Newlyn, where he
+painted his first picture exhibited in the Royal Academy, "Fishermen
+Mending a Sail" (1885), he obtained a travelling scholarship and studied
+for two years in Italy, a sojourn which greatly influenced his art. At
+his return, on the invitation of Legros, he became for two years
+assistant-master at the Slade School, and there devoted himself to
+painting and etching. Among his pictures may be mentioned "The Death of
+Torrigiano" (1886), "The Satyr King" (1889), "The Supper at Emmaus,"
+and, perhaps his best picture, "Pan and Peasants" (1893). For the church
+of Aveley, Essex, he painted a triptych altarpiece, "The Adoration of
+the Shepherds," with wings representing "St Michael" and "St Gabriel,"
+and designed as well the window, "The Resurrection." His portraits, such
+as that of "G. F. Watts, R.A.," in the Legros manner, show much dignity
+and distinction. Sir Charles Holroyd has made his chief reputation as an
+etcher of exceptional ability, combining strength with delicacy, and a
+profound technical knowledge of the art. Among the best known are the
+"Monte Oliveto" series, the "Icarus" series, the "Monte Subasio" series,
+and the "Eve" series, together with the plates, "The Flight into Egypt,"
+"The Prodigal Son," "A Barn on Tadworth Common" (etched in the open
+air), and "The Storm." His etched heads of "Professor Legros," "Lord
+Courtney" and "Night," are admirable alike in knowledge and in likeness.
+His principal dry-point is "The Bather." In all his work Holroyd
+displays an impressive sincerity, with a fine sense of composition, and
+of style, allied to independent and modern feeling. He was appointed the
+first keeper of the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery), and
+on the retirement of Sir Edward Poynter in 1906 he received the
+directorship of the National Gallery. He was knighted in 1903. His
+_Michael Angelo Buonarotti_ (London, Duckworth, 1903) is a scholarly
+work of real value.
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON (1837-1909), German statesman, for more than
+thirty years head of the political department of the German Foreign
+Office. Holstein's importance began with the dismissal of Bismarck in
+1890. The new chancellor, Caprivi, was ignorant of foreign affairs; and
+Holstein, as the repository of the Bismarckian tradition, became
+indispensable. This reluctance to emerge into publicity has been
+ascribed to the part he had played under Bismarck in the Arnim affair,
+which had made him powerful enemies; it was, however, possibly due to a
+shrinking from the responsibility of office. Yet the weakness of his
+position lay just in the fact that he was not ultimately responsible. He
+protested against the despatch of the "Kruger telegram," but protested
+in vain. On the other hand, where his ideas were acceptable, he was
+generally able to realize them. Thus it was almost entirely due to him
+that Germany acquired Kiao-chau and asserted her interests in China, and
+the acquisition of Samoa was also largely his work. If the skill and
+pertinacity with which Holstein carried through his plans in these
+matters was learned in the school of Bismarck, he had not acquired
+Bismarck's faculty for foreseeing their ulterior consequences. This is
+true of his Chinese policy, and true also of his part in the Morocco
+crisis. The emperor William II.'s journey to Tangier was undertaken on
+his advice, as a protest against the supposed attempt at the isolation
+of Germany; but of the later developments of German policy in the
+Morocco question he did not approve, on the ground that the result would
+merely be to strengthen the Anglo-French _entente_; and from the 12th of
+March 1906 onwards he took no active part in the matter. To the last he
+believed that the position of Germany would remain unsafe until an
+understanding had been arrived at with Great Britain, and it was this
+belief that determined his attitude towards the question of the fleet,
+"beside which," he wrote in February 1909, "all other questions are of
+lesser account." His views on this question were summarized in a
+memorandum of December 1907, of which Herr von Rath gives a _resume_. He
+objected to the programme of the German Navy League on three main
+grounds: (1) the ill-feeling likely to be aroused in South Germany, (2)
+the inevitable dislocation of the finances through the huge additional
+charges involved, (3) the suspicion of Germany's motives in foreign
+countries, which would bind Great Britain still closer to France. As for
+the idea that Germany's power would be increased, this--he wrote in
+reply to a letter from Admiral Galster--was "a simple question of
+arithmetic"; for how would the sea-power of Germany be relatively
+increased if for every new German ship Great Britain built two? Herr von
+Holstein retired on the resignation of Prince Bulow, and died on the 8th
+of May 1909.
+
+  See Hermann von Rath, "Erinnerungen an Herrn von Holstein" in the
+  _Deutsche Revue_ for October 1909. He is also frequently mentioned
+  _passim_ in Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe's _Memoirs_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTEIN, formerly a duchy of Germany. Until about 1110 the county of
+Holstein formed part of the duchy of Saxony, and it was made a duchy in
+1472. From 1460 to 1864 it was ruled by members of the house of
+Oldenburg, some of whom were also kings of Denmark. It is now the
+southern part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. (See
+SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, and for history SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN (1825-1897), German theologian, was born
+at Gustrow, Mecklenburg, on the 31st of March 1825, and educated at
+Leipzig, Berlin and Rostock, where in 1852 he became a teacher of
+religion in the Gymnasium. In 1870 he went to Bern as professor of New
+Testament studies, passing thence in 1876 to Heidelberg, where he
+remained until his death on the 26th of January 1897. Holsten was an
+adherent of the Tubingen school, and held to Baur's views on the alleged
+antagonism between Petrinism and Paulinism.
+
+  Among his writings are _Zum Evangelium d. Paulus und d. Petrus_
+  (1867); _Das Evangelium des Paulus dargestellt_ (1880); _Die
+  synoptischen Evangelien nach der Form ihres Inhalts_ (1886).
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS, the Latinized name of Luc Holste (1596-1661), German
+humanist, geographer and theological writer, was born at Hamburg. He
+studied at Leiden university, where he became intimate with the most
+famous scholars of the age--J. Meursius, D. Heinsius and P. Cluverius,
+whom he accompanied on his travels in Italy and Sicily. Disappointed at
+his failure to obtain a post in the gymnasium of his native town, he
+left Germany for good. Having spent two years in Oxford and London, he
+went to Paris. Here he obtained the patronage of N. de Peiresc, who
+recommended him to Cardinal Francesco Barberini, papal nuncio and the
+possessor of the most important private library in Rome. On the
+cardinal's return in 1627 he took Holstenius to live with him in his
+palace and made him his librarian. Although converted to Roman
+Catholicism in 1625, Holstenius showed his liberal-mindedness by
+strenuously opposing the strict censorship exercised by the Congregation
+of the Index. He was appointed librarian of the Vatican by Innocent X.,
+and was sent to Innsbruck by Alexander VII. to receive Queen Christina's
+abjuration of Protestantism. He died in Rome on the 2nd of February
+1661. Holstenius was a man of unwearied industry and immense learning,
+but he lacked the persistency to carry out the vast literary schemes he
+had planned. He was the author of notes on Cluvier's _Italia antiqua_
+(1624); an edition of portions of Porphyrius (1630), with a dissertation
+on his life and writings, described as a model of its kind; notes on
+Eusebius _Against Hierocles_ (1628), on the Sayings of the later
+Pythagoreans (1638), and the _De diis et mundo_ of the neo-Platonist
+Sallustius (1638); _Notae et castigationes in Stephani Bysantini
+ethnica_ (first published in 1684); and _Codex regularum, Collection of
+the Early Rules of the Monastic Orders_ (1661). His correspondence
+(_Epistolae ad diversos_, ed. J. F. Boissonade, 1817) is a valuable
+source of information on the literary history of his time.
+
+  See N. Wilckens, _Leben des gelehrten Lucae Holstenii_ (Hamburg,
+  1723); Johann Moller, _Cimbria literata_, iii. (1744).
+
+
+
+
+HOLSTER, a leather case to hold a pistol, used by a horseman and
+properly fastened to the saddle-bow, but sometimes worn in the belt. The
+same word appears in Dutch, from which the English word probably
+directly derives. The root is _hel_- or _hul_- to cover, and is seen in
+the O. Eng. _heolster_, a place of shelter or concealment, and in "hull"
+a sheath or covering. The German word for the same object, _holfter_,
+is, according to the New _English Dictionary_, from a different root.
+
+
+
+
+HOLT, SIR JOHN (1642-1710), lord chief justice of England, was born at
+Thame, Oxfordshire, on the 30th of December 1642. His father, Sir Thomas
+Holt, possessed a small patrimonial estate, but in order to supplement
+his income had adopted the profession of law, in which he was not very
+successful, although he became sergeant in 1677, and afterwards for his
+political services to the "Tories" was rewarded with knighthood. After
+attending for some years the free school of the town of Abingdon, of
+which his father was recorder, young Holt in his sixteenth year entered
+Oriel College, Oxford. He is said to have spent a very dissipated youth,
+and even to have been in the habit of taking purses on the highway, but
+after entering Gray's Inn about 1660 he applied himself with exemplary
+diligence to the study of law. He was called to the bar in 1663. An
+ardent supporter of civil and religious liberty, he distinguished
+himself in the state trials which were then so common by the able and
+courageous manner in which he supported the pleas of the defendants. In
+1685-1686 he was appointed recorder of London, and about the same time
+he was made king's sergeant and received the honour of knighthood. His
+giving a decision adverse to the pretensions of the king to exercise
+martial law in time of peace led to his dismissal from the office of
+recorder, but he was continued in the office of king's sergeant in order
+to prevent him from becoming counsel for accused persons. Having been
+one of the judges who acted as assessors to the peers in the Convention
+parliament, he took a leading part in arranging the constitutional
+change by which William III. was called to the throne, and after his
+accession he was appointed lord chief justice of the King's Bench. His
+merits as a judge are the more apparent and the more remarkable when
+contrasted with the qualities displayed by his predecessors in office.
+In judicial fairness, legal knowledge and ability, clearness of
+statement and unbending integrity he has had few if any superiors on the
+English bench. Over the civil rights of his countrymen he exercised a
+jealous watchfulness, more especially when presiding at the trial of
+state prosecutions, and he was especially careful that all accused
+persons should be treated with fairness and respect. He is, however,
+best known for the firmness with which he upheld his own prerogatives in
+opposition to the authority of the Houses of Parliament. On several
+occasions his physical as well as his moral courage was tried by extreme
+tests. Having been requested to supply a number of police to help the
+soldiery in quelling a riot, he assured the messenger that if any of the
+people were shot he would have the soldiers hanged, and proceeding
+himself to the scene of riot he was successful in preventing bloodshed.
+While steadfast in his sympathies with the Whig party, Holt maintained
+on the bench entire political impartiality, and always held himself
+aloof from political intrigue. On the retirement of Somers from the
+chancellorship in 1700 he was offered the great seal, but declined it.
+His death took place in London on the 5th of March 1710. He was buried
+in the chancel of Redgrave church.
+
+  _Reports of Cases determined by Sir John Holt_ (1681-1710) appeared at
+  London in 1738; and _The Judgments delivered in the case of Ashby v.
+  White and others, and in the case of John Paty and others, printed
+  from original MSS._, at London (1837). See Burnet's _Own Times_;
+  _Tatler_, No. xiv.; a _Life_, published in 1764; Welsby, _Lives of
+  Eminent English Judges of the 17th and 18th Centuries_ (1846);
+  Campbell's _Lives of the Lord Chief Justices_; and Foss, _Lives of the
+  Judges_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON (1798-1880), German poet and actor, was born at
+Breslau on the 24th of January 1798, the son of an officer of Hussars.
+Having served in the Prussian army as a volunteer in 1815, he shortly
+afterwards entered the university of Breslau as a student of law; but,
+attracted by the stage, he soon forsook academic life and made his debut
+in the Breslau theatre as Mortimer in Schiller's _Maria Stuart_. He led
+a wandering life for the next two years, appearing less on the stage as
+an actor than as a reciter of his own poems. In 1821 he married the
+actress Luise Rogee (1800-1825), and was appointed theatre-poet to the
+Breslau stage. He next removed to Berlin, where his wife fulfilled an
+engagement at the Court theatre. During his sojourn here he produced the
+vaudevilles _Die Wiener in Berlin_ (1824), and _Die Berliner in Wien_
+(1825), pieces which enjoyed at the time great popular favour. In 1825
+his wife died; but soon after her death he accepted an engagement at the
+Konigsstadter theatre in Berlin, when he wrote a number of plays,
+notably _Lenore_ (1829) and _Der alte Feldherr_ (1829). In 1830 he
+married Julie Holzbecher (1809-1839), an actress engaged at the same
+theatre, and with her played in Darmstadt. Returning to Berlin in 1831
+he wrote for the composer Franz Glaser (1798-1861) the text of the opera
+_Des Adlers Horst_ (1835), and for Ludwig Devrient the drama, _Der dumme
+Peter_ (1837). In 1833 Holtei again went on the stage and toured with
+his wife to various important cities, Hamburg, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich
+and Vienna. In the last his declamatory powers as a reciter,
+particularly of Shakespeare's plays, made a furore, and the poet-actor
+was given the appointment of manager of the Josefstadter theatre in the
+last-named city. Though proud of his successes both as actor and
+reciter, Holtei left Vienna in 1836, and from 1837 to 1839 conducted the
+theatre in Riga. Here his second wife died, and after wandering through
+Germany reciting and accepting a short engagement at Breslau, he settled
+in 1847 at Graz, where he devoted himself to a literary life and
+produced the novels _Die Vagabunden_ (1851), _Christian Lammfell_ (1853)
+and _Der letzte Komodiant_ (1863). The last years of his life were spent
+at Breslau, where being in poor circumstances he found a home in the
+_Kloster der barmherzigen Bruder_, and here he died on the 12th of
+February 1880.
+
+As a dramatist Holtei may be said to have introduced the "vaudeville"
+into Germany; as an actor, although remaining behind the greater artists
+of his time, he contrived to fascinate his audience by the dramatic
+force of his exposition of character; as a reciter, especially of
+Shakespeare, he knew no rival. August Lewald said of Holtei that by the
+energy of his poetic conception and plastic force he brought his
+audience round to his own ideas; and he added, "an eloquence such as his
+I have never met with in any other German."
+
+Holtei was not only a stage-poet but a lyric-writer of great charm.
+Notable among such productions are _Schlesische Gedichte_ (1830; 20th
+ed., 1893), _Gedichte_ (5th ed., 1861), _Stimmen des Waldes_ (2nd ed.,
+1854). Mention ought also to be made of Holtei's interesting
+autobiography, _Vierzig Jahre_ (8 vols., 1843-1850; 3rd ed., 1862) with
+the supplementary volume _Noch ein Jahr in Schlesien_ (1864).
+
+  Holtei's _Theater_ appeared in 6 vols. (1867); his _Erzahlende
+  Schriften_, 39 vols. (1861-1866). See M. Kurnick, _Karl von Holtei,
+  ein Lebensbild_ (1880); F. Wehl, _Zeit und Menschen_ (1889); O.
+  Storch, _K. von Holtei_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HOLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH (1748-1776), German poet, was born on
+the 21st of December 1748 at the village of Mariensee in Hanover, where
+his father was pastor. In 1769 he went to study theology at Gottingen.
+Here he formed a close friendship with J. M. Miller, J. H. Voss, H.
+Boie, the brothers Stolberg and others, and became one of the founders
+of the famous society of young poets known as the _Gottinger
+Dichterbund_ or _Hain_. When in 1774 he left the university he had
+abandoned all intention of becoming a clergyman; but he was not destined
+to enter any other profession. He died of consumption on the 1st of
+September 1776 at Hanover. Holty was the most gifted lyric poet of the
+Gottingen circle. He was influenced both by Uz and Klopstock, but his
+love for the Volkslied and his delight in nature preserved him from the
+artificiality of the one poet and the unworldliness of the other. A
+strain of melancholy runs through all his lyrics. His ballads are the
+pioneers of the rich ballad literature on English models, which sprang
+up in Germany during the next few years. Among his most familiar poems
+may be mentioned _Ub' immer Treu' und Redlichkeit_, _Tanzt dem schonen
+Mai entgegen_, _Rosen auf dem Weg gestreut_, and _Wer wollte sich mit
+Grillen plagen?_
+
+  Holty's _Gedichte_ were published by his friends Count Friedrich
+  Leopold zu Stolberg and J. H. Voss (Hamburg, 1783); a new edition,
+  enlarged by Voss, with a biography (1804); a more complete but still
+  imperfect edition by F. Voigts (Hanover, 1857). The first complete
+  edition was that of Karl Halm (Leipzig, 1870), who had access to MSS.
+  not hitherto known. See H. Ruete, _Holty, sein Leben und Dichten_
+  (Guben, 1883), and A. Sauer, _Der Gottinger Dichterbund_, vol. ii.
+  (Stuttgart, 1894), where an excellent selection of Holty's poetry will
+  be found.
+
+
+
+
+HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON (1829-1889), German
+jurist, born at Vietmannsdorf, in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 14th
+of October 1829, was descended from a family of the old nobility. He was
+educated at Berlin and at Pforta, afterwards studying law at the
+universities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. The struggles of 1848
+inspired him with youthful enthusiasm, and he remained for the rest of
+his life a strong advocate of political liberty. In 1852 he graduated
+LL.D. at Berlin; in 1857 he became a Privatdocent, and in 1860 he was
+nominated a professor extraordinary. The predominant party in Prussia
+regarded his political opinions with mistrust, and he was not offered an
+ordinary professorship until February 1873, after he had decided to
+accept a chair at the university of Munich. At Munich he passed the last
+nineteen years of his life. During the thirty years that he was
+professor he successively taught several branches of jurisprudence, but
+he was chiefly distinguished as an authority on criminal and
+international law. He was especially well fitted for organizing
+collective work, and he has associated his name with a series of
+publications of the first value. While acting as editor he often
+reserved for himself, among the independent monographs of which the work
+was composed, only those on subjects distasteful to his collaborators on
+account of their obscurity or lack of importance. Among the compilations
+which he superintended may be mentioned his _Encyclopadie der
+Rechtswissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1870-1871, 2 vols.); his _Handbuch des
+deutschen Strafrechts_ (Berlin, 1871-1877, 4 vols.), and his _Handbuch
+des Volkerrechts auf Grundlage europaischer Staatspraxis_ (Berlin,
+1885-1890, 4 vols.). Among his many independent works may be mentioned:
+_Das irische Gefangnissystem_ (Leipzig, 1859), _Franzosische
+Rechtszustande_ (Leipzig, 1859), _Die Deportation als Strafmittel_
+(Leipzig, 1859), _Die Kurzungsfahigkeit der Freiheitsstrafen_ (Leipzig,
+1861), _Die Reform der Staatsanwaltschaft in Deutschland_ (Berlin,
+1864), _Die Umgestaltung der Staatsanwaltschaft_ (Berlin, 1865), _Die
+Principien der Politik_ (Berlin, 1869), _Das Verbrechen des Mordes und
+die Todesstrafe_ (Berlin, 1875), _Rumaniens Uferrechte an der Donau_
+(Leipzig, 1883; French edition, 1884). He also edited or assisted in
+editing a number of periodical publications on legal subjects. From 1866
+to the time of his death he was associated with Rudolf Ludwig Carl
+Virchow in editing _Sammlung gemeinverstandlicher wissenschaftlicher
+Vortrage_ (Berlin). Von Holtzendorff died at Munich on the 4th of
+February 1889.
+
+
+
+
+HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS (1832-   ), German Protestant theologian, son
+of Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804-1877), was born on the 17th of May 1832
+at Karlsruhe, where his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor
+to the supreme consistory. He studied at Berlin, and eventually (1874)
+was appointed professor ordinarius at Strassburg. A moderately liberal
+theologian, he became best known as a New Testament critic and exegete,
+being the author of the Commentary on the Synoptics (1889; 3rd ed.,
+1901), the Johannine books (1890; 2nd ed., 1893), and the Acts of the
+Apostles (1901), in the series _Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament_. On
+the question of the relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, Holtzmann in
+his early work, _Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und
+geschichtlicher Charakter_ (1863), presents a view which has been widely
+accepted, maintaining the priority of Mark, deriving Matthew in its
+present form from Mark and from Matthew's earlier "collection of
+Sayings," the Logia of Papias, and Luke from Matthew and Mark in the
+form in which we have them.
+
+  Other noteworthy works are the _Lehrbuch der histor.-kritischen
+  Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1885, 3rd ed., 1892), and the
+  _Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (2 vols., 1896-1897). He
+  also collaborated with R. Zopffel in the preparation of a small
+  _Lexikon fur Theologie und Kirchenwesen_ (1882; 3rd ed., 1895), and in
+  1893 became editor of the _Theol. Jahresbericht_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLUB, EMIL (1847-1902), Bohemian traveller in south-central Africa, was
+born at Holitz, eastern Bohemia, on the 7th of October 1847. He was
+educated at Prague University, where he graduated M.D. In 1872 he went
+to the Kimberley diamond-fields, and with the money earned by his
+practice as a surgeon undertook expeditions into the northern Transvaal,
+Mashonaland and through Bechuanaland to the Victoria Falls, making
+extensive natural history collections, which he brought to Europe in
+1879 and distributed among over a hundred museums and schools. In 1883
+he went back to South Africa with his wife, intending to cross the
+continent to Egypt. In June 1886 the party crossed the Zambezi west of
+the Victoria Falls, and explored the then almost unknown region between
+that river and its tributary the Kafue. When beyond the Kafue the camp
+was attacked by the Mashukulumbwe, and Holub was obliged to retrace his
+steps. He returned to Austria in 1887 with a collection of great
+scientific interest, of over 13,000 objects, now in various museums.
+Holub died at Vienna on the 21st of February 1902.
+
+  His principal works are: _Eine Culturskizze des
+  Marutse-Mambunda-reichs_ (Vienna, 1879); _Sieben Jahre in Sudafrika_,
+  &c. (2 vols., Vienna, 1880-1881), of which an English translation
+  appeared; _Die Colonisation Afrikas_ (Vienna, 1882); and _Von der
+  Kapstadt ins Land der Maschukulumbe_ (2 vols., Vienna, 1818-1890).
+
+
+
+
+HOLY, sacred, devoted or set apart for religious worship or observance;
+a term characteristic of the attributes of perfection and sinlessness of
+the Persons of the Trinity, as the objects of human worship and
+reverence, and hence transferred to those human persons who, either by
+their devotion to a spiritual ascetic life or by their approximation to
+moral perfection, are considered worthy of reverence. The word in Old
+English was _halig_, and is common to other Teutonic languages; cf. Ger.
+and Dutch _heilig_, Swed. _helig_, Dan. _hellig_. It is derived from
+_hal_, hale, whole, and cognate with "health." The _New English
+Dictionary_ suggests that the sense-development may be from "whole,"
+i.e. inviolate, from "health, well-being," or from "good-omen,"
+"augury." It is impossible to get behind the Christian uses, in which
+from the earliest times it was employed as the equivalent of the Latin
+_sacer_ and _sanctus_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLY ALLIANCE, THE. The famous treaty, or declaration, known by this
+name was signed in the first instance by Alexander I., emperor of
+Russia, Francis I., emperor of Austria, and Frederick William III., king
+of Prussia, on the 26th of September 1815, and was proclaimed by the
+emperor Alexander the same day at a great review of the allied troops
+held on the Champ des Vertus near Paris. The English version of the text
+is as follows:--
+
+  In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity.
+
+    _Holy Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia._
+
+  Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and the
+  Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events which
+  have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and
+  especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to
+  shower down upon those States which place their confidence and their
+  hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the necessity of
+  settling the steps to be observed by the Powers, in their reciprocal
+  relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion of our
+  Saviour teaches;
+
+    _Government and Political Relations._
+
+  They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object than to
+  publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution, both
+  in the administration of their respective States, and in their
+  political relations with every other Government, to take for their
+  sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts of
+  Justice, Christian Charity and Peace, which, far from being applicable
+  only to private concerns, must have an immediate influence on the
+  councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being the only
+  means of consolidating human institutions and remedying their
+  imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed on the
+  following Articles:--
+
+    _Principles of the Christian Religion._
+
+  Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures which command
+  all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three contracting
+  Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and indissoluble
+  fraternity, and, considering each other as fellow countrymen, they
+  will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid and
+  assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects and
+  armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same spirit
+  of fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion, Peace
+  and Justice.
+
+    _Fraternity and Affection._
+
+  Art. II. In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether between
+  the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be that of doing
+  each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by unalterable good
+  will the mutual affection with which they ought to be animated, to
+  consider themselves all as members of one and the same Christian
+  nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as merely
+  delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One family,
+  namely, Austria, Prussia and Russia, thus confessing that the
+  Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in
+  reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really
+  belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love,
+  science and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our Divine Saviour,
+  the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties
+  consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender
+  solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace which arises from
+  a good conscience, and which alone is durable, to strengthen
+  themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise of
+  the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.
+
+    _Accession of Foreign Powers._
+
+  Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the sacred
+  principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall acknowledge
+  how important it is for the happiness of nations, too long agitated,
+  that these truths should henceforth exercise over the destinies of
+  mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will be received with
+  equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance.
+
+The credit for inspiring this singular document was claimed by the
+Baroness von Krudener (q.v.); in any case it was the outcome of the
+tsar's mood of evangelical exaltation, and was in its inception
+perfectly sincere. Neither Frederick William nor Francis signed
+willingly, the latter remarking that "if it was a question of politics,
+he must refer it to his chancellor, if of religion, to his confessor."
+Metternich called it a "loud-sounding nothing," Castlereagh, "a piece of
+sublime mysticism and nonsense." None the less, in accordance with its
+last article, the signatures of all the European sovereigns were invited
+to the instrument, the pope and the Ottoman sultan alone being excepted.
+The prince regent courteously declined to sign, on the constitutional
+ground that all acts of the British crown required the counter-signature
+of a minister, but he sent a letter expressing his "entire concurrence
+with the principles laid down by the 'august sovereigns' and stating
+that it would always be his endeavour to regulate his conduct by their
+'sacred maxims.'" With these exceptions, all the European sovereigns
+sooner or later appended their names.
+
+In popular parlance, which has found its way into the language of
+serious historians, the "Holy Alliance" soon became synonymous with the
+combination of the great powers by whom Europe was ruled in concert
+during the period of the congresses, and associated with the policy of
+reaction which gradually dominated their counsels. For the understanding
+of the inner history of the diplomacy of this period, however, a clear
+distinction must be drawn between the Holy Alliance and the Grand, or
+Quadruple (Quintuple) Alliance. The Grand Alliance was established on
+definite treaties concluded for definite purposes, of which the chief
+was the preservation of peace on the basis of the territorial settlement
+of 1815. The Holy Alliance was a general treaty--hardly indeed a treaty
+at all--which bound its signatories to act on certain vague principles
+for no well-defined end; and in its essence it was so far from
+necessarily reactionary that the emperor Alexander at one time declared
+that it involved the grant of liberal constitutions by princes to their
+subjects. Its main significance was due to the persistent efforts of the
+tsar to make it the basis of the "universal union," or general
+confederation of Europe, which he wished to substitute for the actual
+committee of the great powers, efforts which were frustrated by the
+vigorous diplomacy of Castlereagh, acting as the mouthpiece of the
+British government (see EUROPE: _History_; ALEXANDER I. of Russia;
+LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART, 2ND MARQUIS OF).
+
+As a diplomatic instrument the Holy Alliance never, as a matter of fact,
+became effective. None the less, its principles and the fact of its
+signature powerfully affected the course of European diplomacy during
+the 19th century. It strongly influenced the emperor Nicholas I. of
+Russia, to whom the brotherhood of sovereigns by divine right was an
+article of faith, inspiring the principles of the convention of Berlin
+(between Russia, Austria and Prussia) in 1833, and the tsar's
+intervention in 1849 to crush the Hungarian insurrection on behalf of
+his brother of Austria. That it had become synonymous with a conspiracy
+against popular liberties was, however, a mere accident of the point of
+view of those who interpreted its principles. It was capable of other
+and more noble interpretations, and it was avowedly the inspiration of
+the famous rescript of the emperor Nicholas II., embodied in the
+circular of Count Muraviev to the European courts (August 4th, 1898),
+which issued in the first international peace conference at the Hague in
+1899.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLYHEAD (Caergybi, the fort of Cybi, the saint mentioned by Matthew
+Arnold as meeting St Seiriol of Penmon, Anglesey), a seaport and
+market-town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the small Holy Island, at
+the western end of the county. Pop. of urban district (1901) 10,079.
+Here the London and North-Western railway has a terminus, 263(1/2) m.
+from London by rail. Holy Island is connected with Anglesey by an
+embankment, 3/4 m. long, over which pass the railway and main road, the
+tide flowing fast under the central piers. Once a small fishing village,
+the town has since William IV.'s reign acquired importance as the Dublin
+mail steam station. Its magnificent harbour of refuge was begun in 1847
+and opened in September 1873. The east breakwater scheme, which would
+have covered the Platter's rocks--still very troublesome--and the
+Skinner's, was abandoned for buoys which mark the spots. The north
+breakwater is 7860 ft. long (instead of 5360, as originally planned).
+The roadstead (400 acres) and enclosed area (267 acres) together make a
+magnificent shelter for shipping. The rubble mound of the breakwater was
+very costly to the railway company, as time after time it was swept away
+by storms. On it is a central wall of some 38 ft. above low water, and
+on the wall a promenade sheltered by a parapet. The lighthouse is at the
+end of the breakwater, of which the whole cost was nearly 1(1/2) million
+sterling. Additional works, begun in 1873 by the company, to extend the
+old harbour and lengthen the quay by 4000 ft., were opened by King
+Edward VII. (as prince of Wales) in 1880. These cost another half
+million. George IV. passed through Holyhead in 1821 on his way to
+Ireland, and there is a commemorative tablet on the old harbour pier.
+The church is said to occupy the site of the old monastery (6th or early
+7th century) of St Cybi, of whom there is a rude figure in the porch.
+The churchyard wall, 6 ft. thick, is possibly partly Roman. On the south
+of the harbour is an obelisk in memory of Captain Skinner, of the steam
+packets, washed overboard in 1833. Pen Caergybi rises perpendicularly
+from the sea to the height of 719 ft., at some 2 m. from the town; it is
+a mass of serpentine rocks, off which lie the North and South Stacks,
+each with a lighthouse with a revolving light, visible for 20 m., and
+197 ft. above high water on the South Stack. On the hill are traces of
+British fortification, including a circular building, probably a Roman
+watch-tower. Coasting trade and fishing, with some shipbuilding and the
+Irish traffic, occupy most of the inhabitants.
+
+  See Hon. W. Stanley's _Holy Island and Holyhead_.
+
+
+
+
+HOLY ISLAND, or LINDISFARNE, an irregularly shaped island in the North
+Sea, 2 m. from the coast of Northumberland, in which county it is
+included. Pop. (1901) 405. It is joined to the mainland at low water by
+flat sands, over which a track, marked by wooden posts and practicable
+for vehicles, leads to the island. There is a station on the
+North-Eastern railway at Beak 9 m. S.E. of Berwick, opposite the island,
+but 1(1/4) m. inland. The island measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 1(1/2)
+N. to S., extreme distances. Its total area is 1051 acres. On the N. it
+is sandy and barren, but on the S. very fertile and under cultivation.
+Large numbers of rabbits have their warrens among the sands, and, with
+fish, oysters and agricultural produce, are exported. There are several
+fresh springs on the island, and in the north-east is a lake of 6 acres.
+At the south-west angle is the little fishing village (formerly much
+larger) which is now a favourite summer watering-place. Here is the
+harbour, offering good shelter to small vessels. Holy Island derives its
+name from a monastery founded on it by St Aidan, and restored in 1082 as
+a cell of the Benedictine monastery at Durham. Its ruins, still
+extensive and carefully preserved, justify Scott's description of it as
+a "solemn, huge and dark-red pile." An islet, lying off the S.W. angle,
+has traces of a chapel upon it, and is believed to have offered a
+retreat to St Cuthbert and his successors. The castle, situated east of
+the village, on a basaltic rock about 90 ft. high, dates from _c._ 1500.
+
+When St Aidan came at the request of King Oswald to preach to the
+Northumbrians he chose the island of Lindisfarne as the site of his
+church and monastery, and made it the head of the diocese which he
+founded in 635. For some years the see continued in peace, numbering
+among its bishops St Cuthbert, but in 793 the Danes landed on the island
+and burnt the settlement, killing many of the monks. The survivors,
+however, rebuilt the church and continued to live there until 883, when,
+through fear of a second invasion of the Danes, they fled inland, taking
+with them the body of St Cuthbert and other holy relics. The church and
+monastery were again destroyed and the bishop and monks, on account of
+the exposed situation of the island, determined not to return to it, and
+settled first at Chester-le-Street and finally at Durham. With the fall
+of the monastery the island appears to have become again untenanted, and
+probably continued so until the prior and convent of Durham established
+there a cell of monks from their own house. The inhabitants of Holy
+Island were governed by two bailiffs at least as early as the 14th
+century, and, according to J. Raine in his _History of North Durham_
+(1852), are called "burgesses or freemen" in a private paper dated 1728.
+In 1323 the bailiffs and community of Holy Island were commanded to
+cause all ships of the burthen of thirty tons or over to go to Ereswell
+with their ships provisioned for a month at least and under double
+manning to be ready to set out on the kings service. Towards the end of
+the 16th century the fort on Holy Island was garrisoned for fear of
+foreign invasion by Sir William Read, who found it very much in need of
+repair, the guns being so decayed that the gunners "dare not give fire
+but by trayne," and the master gunner had been "miserably slain" in
+discharging one of them. During the Civil Wars the castle was held for
+the king until 1646, when it was taken and garrisoned by the
+parliamentarians. The only other historical event connected with the
+island is the attempt made by two Jacobites in 1715 to hold it for the
+Pretender.
+
+
+
+
+HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB (1817-1906), English secularist and co-operator,
+was born at Birmingham, on the 13th of April 1817. At an early age he
+became an Owenite lecturer, and in 1841 was the last person convicted
+for blasphemy in a public lecture, though this had no theological
+character and the incriminating words were merely a reply to a question
+addressed to him from the body of the meeting. He nevertheless underwent
+six months' imprisonment, and upon his release invented the inoffensive
+term "secularism" as descriptive of his opinions, and established the
+_Reasoner_ in their support. He was also the last person indicted for
+publishing an unstamped newspaper, but the prosecution dropped upon the
+repeal of the tax. His later years were chiefly devoted to the promotion
+of the co-operative movement among the working classes. He wrote the
+history of the Rochdale Pioneers (1857), _The History of Co-operation in
+England_ (1875; revised ed., 1906), and _The Co-operative Movement of
+To-day_ (1891). He also published (1892) his autobiography, under the
+title of _Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life_, and in 1905 two volumes of
+reminiscences, _Bygones worth Remembering_. He died at Brighton on the
+22nd of January 1906.
+
+  See J. McCabe, _Life and Letters of G. J. Holyoake_ (2 vols., 1908);
+  C. W. F. Goss, _Descriptive Bibliography of the Writings of G. J.
+  Holyoake_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HOLYOKE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in a bend of
+the Connecticut river, about 8 m. N. of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 21,915;
+(1890) 35,637; (1900) 45,712; (1910 census) 57,730. Of the total
+population in 1900, 18,921 were foreign-born, including 6991
+French-Canadians, 5650 Irish, 1602 Germans and 1118 English; and 33,626
+were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 12,370
+of Irish and 11,050 of French-Canadian parentage. The city's area is
+about 17 sq. m. The city is served by the Boston & Maine, and the New
+York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and by an interurban line. Holyoke
+is characteristically an industrial and mercantile city; it has some
+handsome public buildings (the city hall and the public library, founded
+in 1870, being especially noteworthy) and attractive environs. Holyoke
+is the railway station for Mt Holyoke College, in South Hadley, about 4
+m. N. by E. of Holyoke; the city is connected with South Hadley by an
+electric line. Just above Holyoke the Connecticut leaves the rugged
+highlands through a rift between Mt Tom (1214 ft.; ascended by a
+mountain-railway from Holyoke) and Mt Holyoke (954 ft.), and begins a
+meandering valley course, falling (in the Hadley halls) in great volume
+some 60 ft. in about 1(1/2) m. The water-power was unutilized until 1849,
+when a great dam (1017 ft. long) was completed, which enabled vast power
+to be developed along a series of canals laid out from the river. This
+was, in its day, a colossal undertaking; and its success transformed
+Holyoke from a farming village into a great manufacturing centre--in
+1900 and 1905 the ninth largest of the commonwealth. In 1900 a stone dam
+(1020 ft.), said to be the second largest in New England, was completed
+at a cost of about $750,000. Cotton manufactures first, and later paper
+products were chief in importance, and Holyoke now leads all the cities
+in the United States in the manufacture of fine paper. In 1905 the total
+value of all factory products was $30,731,332, of which $10,620,255 (or
+34.6% of the total) represented paper and wood pulp; $5,019,817, cotton
+goods; $1,318,409, woollen goods; $1,756,473, book binding and blank
+books, and $2,022,759, foundry and machine-shop products. Silk and
+worsted goods are other important manufactures. Opposite Holyoke, in
+Hampshire county, is South Hadley Falls. The municipality owns and
+operates the gas and electric-lighting plants and the water works (the
+water-supply being derived from natural ponds, some of which are outside
+the city limits), and owns and leases (to the New York, New Haven &
+Hartford railroad) a railway extending (10.3 m.) to Westfield, Mass.
+Holyoke was originally a part of Springfield, and after 1774 of West
+Springfield. In 1850 it was incorporated as a township, and in 1873 was
+chartered as a city.
+
+
+
+
+HOLYSTONE, a soft kind of sandstone used by sailors for scrubbing and
+cleaning the decks of ships. The origin of the word is doubtful. Some
+authorities hold that it arose from the general practice of scrubbing
+the decks for Sunday service; while others think the name arises from
+the fact that the stone so employed is naturally porous and full of
+holes. A small flint or stone having a natural hole in it, and worn as a
+charm, is also called a holystone.
+
+
+
+
+HOLY WATER, technically the water with which Christian believers sign
+the cross on their foreheads on entering or leaving church. The edict of
+Gratian lays down that it should be exorcized and blessed by the priest
+and sprinkled with exorcized salt. This rite is found in the Gelasian,
+Gregorian and other sacramentaries. In the East the water was blessed
+once a month, in the Latin Church it is now blessed every Sunday. In the
+4th century in the East it was usual to wash the hands on entering the
+church (see ABLUTION).
+
+In the early church water was not expressly consecrated for baptisms and
+other lustrations. "Water," says Tertullian in his tract on baptism,
+"was the abode at the first of the divine Spirit, being more acceptable
+then (to God) than the other elements." He pictures the world in the
+beginning: "total darkness, formless as yet, without tending of stars,
+the melancholy abyss, the earth unprepared, the heaven undevelopt. The
+liquid alone an ever perfect material, smiling, simple, pure in its own
+right, as a worthy vehicle underlay the God." Water was similarly pure
+in itself in the old Persian religion.
+
+The _Canons of Hippolytus_, or Egyptian church order, of about A.D. 250,
+give no prayer for consecration of fonts, but enact that "at cock crow
+the baptismal party shall take their stand near waving water, pure,
+prepared, sacred, of the sea." The _Teaching of the Apostles_, _c._ 100,
+merely insists on "living," that is, clear and running water. The
+ancient feeling, especially Jewish, was that in lustrations the same
+water must not pass twice over the body. A stagnant pool was useless.
+Bubbling waters too seemed to have a spirit in them.
+
+Either because running water was not always at hand, or as part of the
+growing tendency of the church to multiply ceremonies, rituals arose
+late in the 3rd century for consecrating water. The sacramentary of
+Serapion, _c._ 350, provides a prayer asking that the divine Word may
+descend into the water and hallow it, as of old it hallowed the Jordan.
+In the Roman order of baptism the priest prays that "the font may
+receive the grace of the only begotten Son from the holy Spirit, and
+that the latter may impregnate with hidden admixture of His light this
+water prepared for the regeneration of mankind, to the end that man
+through a sanctification conceived from the immaculate womb of the
+divine font, may emerge a heavenly offspring reborn as a new creature."
+The water is then exorcized and evil spirits warned off, and lastly
+blessed. During the prayer the priest twice signs the water with the
+cross, and once blows upon it.
+
+The first mention of a special consecration of water for other ends than
+baptism is in the _Acts of Thomas_ (? A.D. 200); it is for the purgation
+of a youth already baptized who had killed his mistress because she
+would not live chastely with him. The apostle prays: "Fountain sent unto
+us from Rest, Power of Salvation from that Power proceeding which
+overcomes and subjects all to its own will, come and dwell within these
+waters, that the _Charisma_ (gift) of the holy Spirit may be fully
+perfected through them." The youth then washes his hands, which on
+touching the sacrament had withered up, and is healed.
+
+The church shared the universal belief that holiness or the holy Spirit
+is quasi-material and capable of being held in suspense in water, just
+as sin is a half material infection, absorbed and carried away by it. So
+Tertullian writes: "The water which carried the Spirit of God (probably
+regarded as a shadow or reflection-soul) borrowed holiness from that
+which was carried upon it; for every underlying matter must needs absorb
+and take up the quality of that matter which overhangs it; especially
+does a corporeal so absorb a spiritual, as this can easily penetrate and
+settle into it owing to the subtlety of its substance."
+
+"Water," he continues, "was generically hallowed by the Spirit of God
+brooding over it at creation, and therefore all special waters are holy,
+and at once obtain the sacrament of sanctification when God is invoked
+(over them.) For the Spirit from heaven instantly supervenes and is upon
+the waters, hallowing them out of itself, and being so hallowed they
+drink up a power of hallowing."
+
+What is done in material semblance, he then argues, is repeated in the
+unseen medium of the Spirit. The stains of idolatry, vice and fraud are
+not visible on the flesh, yet they resemble real dirt. "The waters are
+medicated in a manner through the intervention of the angel, and the
+Spirit is corporeally washed in the water and the flesh is spiritually
+purified in the same."
+
+Tertullian believed that an angel was sent down, when God was invoked,
+like that which stirred the pool of Bethesda. As regards rival Isiac and
+Mithraic baptisms, he asserts that their waters are destitute of divine
+power; nay, are rather tenanted by the devil who in this matter sets
+himself to rival God. "Without any religious rite at all," he urges,
+"unclean spirits brood upon waters, aspiring to repeat that primordial
+gestation of the divine Spirit." And he instances the "darkling springs
+and lonely rivers which are said to snatch, to wit by force of a harmful
+spirit." In the sequel he defines the role of the angel of baptism who
+does not infuse himself in waters, already holy from the first; but
+merely presides over the washing of the faithful, and ensures their
+being made pure for the reception of the holy Spirit in the rite of
+confirmation which immediately follows. "The devil who till now ruled
+over us, we leave behind overwhelmed in the water."
+
+From all this we conclude that what is poetry to us--akin to the
+folk-lore of water-sprites, naiads, kelpies, river-gods and
+water-worship in general--was to Tertullian and to the generations of
+believers who fashioned the baptismal rites, ablutions and beliefs of
+the church, nothing less than grim reality and unquestionable fact.
+
+  See John, marquess of Bute, and E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Blessing of
+  the Waters_ (London, 1901); E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (London,
+  1903).     (F. C. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HOLY WEEK ([Greek: hebdomas megale, hagia] or [Greek: ton hagion,
+xerophagias, apraktos], also [Greek: hemerai pathematon, hemerai
+staurosimai]: _hebdomas_ [or _septimana_] _major_, _sancta_,
+_authentica_ [i.e. _canonizata_, du Cange], _ultima_, _poenosa_,
+_luctuosa_, _nigra_, _inofficiosa_, _muta_, _crucis_, _lamentationum_,
+_indulgentiae_), in the Christian ecclesiastical year the week
+immediately preceding Easter. The earliest allusion to the custom of
+marking this week as a whole with special observances is to be found in
+the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (v. 18, 19), dating from the latter half
+of the 3rd century A.D. Abstinence from wine and flesh is there
+commanded for all the days, while for the Friday and Saturday an
+absolute fast is enjoined. Dionysius Alexandrinus also, in his canonical
+epistle (260 A.D.), refers to the six fasting days ([Greek: hex ton
+nesteion hemerai]) in a manner which implies that the observance of them
+had already become an established usage in his time. There is some doubt
+about the genuineness of an ordinance attributed to Constantine, in
+which abstinence from public business was enforced for the seven days
+immediately preceding Easter Sunday, and also for the seven which
+followed it; the _Codex Theodosianus_, however, is explicit in ordering
+that all actions at law should cease, and the doors of all courts of law
+be closed during those fifteen days (l. ii. tit. viii.). Of the
+particular days of the "great week" the earliest to emerge into special
+prominence was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum Magnum
+(Holy Saturday or Easter Eve) with its vigil, which in the early church
+was associated with an expectation that the second advent would occur on
+an Easter Sunday.
+
+  For details of the ceremonial observed in the Roman Catholic Church
+  during this week, reference must be made to the _Missal_ and
+  _Breviary_. In the Eastern Church the week is marked by similar
+  practices, but with less elaboration and differentiation of rite. See
+  also EASTER, GOOD FRIDAY, MAUNDY THURSDAY, PALM SUNDAY and PASSION
+  WEEK.
+
+
+
+
+HOLYWELL (_Tre'ffynnon_, well-town), a market town and contributory
+parliamentary borough of Flintshire, N. Wales, situated on a height near
+the left bank of the Dee estuary, 196 m. from London by the London &
+North-Western railway (the station being 2 m. distant). Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 2652. The parish church (1769) has some columns of an
+earlier building, interesting brasses and strong embattled tower. The
+remains of Basingwerk Abbey (_Maes glas_, green field), partly Saxon and
+partly Early English, are near the station. It is of uncertain origin
+but was used as a monastery before 1119. In 1131 Ranulph, 2nd earl of
+Chester, introduced the Cistercians. In 1535, when Its revenues were
+L150, 7s. 3d., it was dissolved, but revived under Mary I. and used as a
+Roman Catholic burial place in 1647. Scarcely any traces remain of
+Basingwerk castle, an old fort. Small up to the beginning of the 19th
+century, Holywell has increasingly prospered, thanks to lime quarries,
+lead, copper and zinc mines, smelting works, a shot manufactory, copper,
+brass, iron and zinc works; brewing, tanning and mineral water, flannel
+and cement works. St Winifred's holy well, one of the wonders of Wales,
+sends up water at the rate of 21 tons a minute, of an almost unvarying
+temperature, higher than that of ordinary spring water. To its curative
+powers many crutches and _ex voto_ objects, hung round the well, as in
+the Lourdes Grot, bear ample witness. The stones at the bottom are
+slightly reddish, owing to vegetable substances. The well itself is
+covered by a fine Gothic building, said to have been erected by
+Margaret, countess of Richmond and mother of Henry VII., with some
+portions of earlier date. The chapel (restored) is used for public
+service. Catholics and others visit it in great numbers. There are
+swimming baths for general use. In 1870 a hospice for poorer pilgrims
+was erected. Other public buildings are St Winifred's (Catholic) church
+and a convent, a town hall and a market-hall. The export trade is
+expedited by quays on the Dee.
+
+
+
+
+HOLYWOOD, a seaport of county Down, Ireland, on the east shore of
+Belfast Lough, 4(1/2) m. N.E. from Belfast by the Belfast & County Down
+railway. Its pleasant situation renders it a favourite residential
+locality of the wealthier classes in Belfast. There was a religious
+settlement here from the 7th century, which subsequently became a
+Franciscan monastery. The old church dating from the late 12th or early
+13th century marks its site. A Solemn League and Covenant was signed
+here in 1644 for the defence of the kingdom, and the document is
+preserved at Belfast.
+
+
+
+
+HOLZMINDEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick, on the right
+bank of the Weser, at the foot of the Sollinger Mountains, at the
+junction of the railways Scherfede-Holzminden and Soest-Borssum, 56 m.
+S.W. of Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 9938. It has an Evangelical and a Roman
+Catholic church, a gymnasium, an architectural school and a school of
+engineering. The prosperity of the town depends chiefly on agriculture
+and the manufacture of iron and steel wares, and of chemicals, but
+weaving and the making of pottery are also carried on, and there are
+baryta mills and polishing-mills for sandstone. By means of the Weser it
+carries on a lively trade. Holzminden obtained municipal rights from
+Count Otto of Eberstein in 1245, and in 1410 it came into the possession
+of Brunswick.
+
+
+
+
+HOLZTROMPETE (Wooden Trumpet), an instrument somewhat resembling the
+Alpenhorn (q.v.) in tone-quality, designed by Richard Wagner for
+representing the natural pipe of the peasant in _Tristan and Isolde_.
+This instrument is not unlike the cor anglais in rough outline, being a
+conical tube of approximately the same length, terminating in a small
+globular bell, but having neither holes nor keys; it is blown through a
+cup-shaped mouthpiece made of horn. The Holztrompete is in the key of C;
+the scale is produced by overblowing, whereby the upper partials from
+the 2nd to the 6th are produced. A single piston placed at a third of
+the distance from the mouthpiece to the bell gives the notes D and F.
+Wagner inserted a note in the score concerning the cor anglais for which
+the part was originally scored, and advised the use of oboe or clarinet
+to reinforce the latter, the effect intended being that of a powerful
+natural instrument, unless a wooden instrument with a natural scale be
+specially made for the part, which would be preferable. The Holztrompete
+was used at Munich for the first performance of _Tristan and Isolde_,
+and was still in use there in 1897. At Bayreuth it was also used for the
+Tristan performances at the festivals of 1886 and 1889, but in 1891 W.
+Heckel's clarina, an instrument partaking of the nature of both oboe and
+clarinet, was substituted for the Holztrompete and has been retained
+ever since, having been found more effective.[1]     (K. S.)
+
+[Illustration: Harmonic Series.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Communicated by Madame Wagner, December 28th, 1897.
+
+
+
+
+HOMAGE (from _homo_, through the Low Lat. _hominaticum_, which occurs in
+a document of 1035), one of the ceremonies used in the granting of a
+fief, and indicating the submission of a vassal to his lord. It could be
+received only by the suzerain in person. With head uncovered the vassal
+humbly requested to be allowed to enter into the feudal relation; he
+then laid aside his sword and spurs, ungirt his belt, and kneeling
+before his lord, and holding his hands extended and joined between the
+hands of his lord, uttered words to this effect: "I become your man from
+this day forth, of life and limb, and will hold faith to you for the
+lands I claim to hold of you." The oath of fealty, which could be
+received by proxy, followed the act of homage; then came the ceremony of
+investiture, either directly on the ground or by the delivery of a turf,
+a handful of earth, a stone, or some other symbolical object. Homage was
+done not only by the vassal to whom feudal lands were first granted but
+by every one in turn by whom they were inherited, since they were not
+granted absolutely but only on condition of military and other service.
+An infant might do homage, but he did not thus enter into full
+possession of his lands. The ceremony was of a preliminary nature,
+securing that the fief would not be alienated; but the vassal had to
+take the oath of fealty, and to be formally invested, when he reached
+his majority. The obligations involved in the act of homage were more
+general than those associated with the oath of fealty, but they provided
+a strong moral sanction for more specific engagements. They essentially
+resembled the obligations undertaken towards a Teutonic chief by the
+members of his "comitatus" or "gefolge," one of the institutions from
+which feudalism directly sprang. Besides _homagium ligeum_, there was a
+kind of homage which imposed no feudal duty; this was _homagium per
+paragium_, such as the dukes of Normandy rendered to the kings of
+France, and as the dukes of Normandy received from the dukes of
+Brittany. The act of liege homage to a particular lord did not interfere
+with the vassal's allegiance as a subject to his sovereign, or with his
+duty to any other suzerain of whom he might hold lands.
+
+The word is also used of the body of tenants attending a manorial court,
+or of the court in a court baron (consisting of the tenants that do
+homage and make inquiries and presentments, termed a _homage jury_).
+
+
+
+
+HOMBERG, WILHELM (1652-1715), Dutch natural philosopher, was the son of
+an officer of the Dutch East India Company, and was born at Batavia
+(Java) on the 8th of January 1652. Coming to Europe with his family in
+1670, he studied law at Jena and Leipzig, and in 1674 became an advocate
+at Magdeburg. In that town he made the acquaintance of Otto von
+Guericke, and under his influence determined to devote himself to
+natural science. He, therefore, travelled in various parts of Europe for
+study, and after graduating in medicine at Wittenberg, settled in Paris
+in 1682. From 1685 to 1690 he practised as a physician at Rome; then
+returning to Paris in 1691, he was elected a member of the Academy of
+Sciences and appointed director of its chemical laboratory. Subsequently
+he became teacher of physics and chemistry (1702), and private physician
+(1705) to the duke of Orleans. His death occurred at Paris on the 24th
+of September 1715. Homberg was not free from alchemistical tendencies,
+but he made many solid contributions to chemical and physical knowledge,
+recording observations on the preparation of Kunkel's phosphorus, on the
+green colour produced in flames by copper, on the crystallization of
+common salt, on the salts of plants, on the saturation of bases by
+acids, on the freezing of water and its evaporation _in vacuo_, &c. Much
+of his work was published in the _Recueil de l'Academie des Sciences_
+from 1692 to 1714. The _Sal Sedativum Hombergi_ is boracic acid, which
+he discovered in 1702, and "Homberg's phosphorus" is prepared by fusing
+sal-ammoniac with quick lime.
+
+
+
+
+HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HOHE, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the
+Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, prettily situated at the south-east
+foot of the Taunus Mountains, 12 m. N. of Frankfort-on-Main, with which
+it is connected by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,740. Homburg consists of an old
+and a new town, the latter, founded by the landgrave of Hesse-Homburg
+Frederick II. (d. 1708), being regular and well-built. Besides the
+palatial edifices erected in connexion with the mineral water-cure,
+there are churches of various denominations, Lutheran, Roman Catholic,
+Russian-Greek and Anglican, schools and benevolent institutions. On a
+neighbouring hill stands the palace of the former landgraves, built in
+1680 and subsequently enlarged and improved. The White Tower, 183 ft. in
+height, is said to date from Roman times, and certainly existed under
+the lords of Eppstein, who held the district in the 12th century. The
+palace is surrounded by extensive grounds, laid out in the manner of an
+English park. The eight mineral springs which form the attraction of the
+town to strangers belong to the class of saline acidulous chalybeates
+and contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime. Their use is
+beneficial for diseases of the stomach and intestines, and externally,
+for diseases of the skin and rheumatism. The establishments connected
+with the springs are arranged on a scale of great magnificence, and
+include the Kurhaus (built 1841-1843), with a theatre, the Kaiser
+Wilhelmsbad and the Kurhausbad. They lie grouped round a pretty park
+which also furnishes the visitors with facilities for various
+recreations, such as lawn tennis, croquet, polo and other games. The
+industries of Homburg embrace iron founding and the manufacture of
+leather and hats, but they are comparatively unimportant, the prosperity
+of the town being almost entirely due to the annual influx of visitors,
+which during the season from May to October inclusive averages 12,000.
+In the beautiful neighbourhood lies the ancient Roman castle of
+Saalburg, which can be reached by an electric tramway.
+
+Homburg first came into repute as a watering-place in 1834, and owing to
+its gaming-tables, which were set up soon after, it rapidly became one
+of the favourite and most fashionable health-resorts of Europe. In 1849
+the town was occupied by Austrian troops for the purpose of enforcing
+the imperial decree against gambling establishments, but immediately on
+their withdrawal the bank was again opened, and play continued unchecked
+until 1872, when the Prussian government refused to renew the lease for
+gambling purposes, which then expired. As the capital of the former
+landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, the town shared the vicissitudes of that
+state.
+
+Homburg is also the name of a town in Bavaria. Pop. (1900) 4785. It has
+a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, and manufactures of iron
+goods. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castles of Karlsberg
+and of Hohenburg. The family of the counts of Homburg became extinct in
+the 15th century. The town came into the possession of Zweibrucken in
+1755 and later into that of Bavaria.
+
+  See Supp, _Bad Homburg_ (7th ed., Homburg, 1903); Baumstark, _Bad
+  Homburg und seine Heilquellen_ (Wiesbaden, 1901); Schiek, _Homburg und
+  Umgebung_ (Homburg, 1896); Will, _Der Kurort Homburg, seine
+  Mineralquellen_ (Homburg, 1880); Hoeben, _Bad Homburg und sein
+  Heilapparat_ (Homburg, 1901); and N. E. Yorke-Davies, _Homburg and its
+  Waters_ (London, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+HOME, EARLS OF. Alexander Home or Hume, 1st earl of Home (c. 1566-1619),
+was the son of Alexander, 5th Lord Home (d. 1575), who fought against
+Mary, queen of Scots, at Carberry Hill and at Langside, but was
+afterwards one of her most stalwart supporters, being taken prisoner
+when defending Edinburgh castle in her interests in 1573 and probably
+dying in captivity. He belonged to an old and famous border family, an
+early member of which, Sir Alexander Home, was killed at the battle of
+Verneuil in 1424. This Sir Alexander was the father of Sir Alexander
+Home (d. 1456), warden of the marches and the founder of the family
+fortunes, whose son, another Sir Alexander (d. 1491), was created a lord
+of parliament as Lord Home in 1473, being one of the band of nobles who
+defeated the forces of King James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in
+1488. Other distinguished members of the family were: the first lord's
+grandson and successor, Alexander, 2nd Lord Home (d. 1506), chamberlain
+of Scotland; and the latter's son, Alexander, 3rd Lord Home (d. 1516), a
+person of great importance during the reign of James IV., whom he served
+as chamberlain. He fought at Flodden, but before the death of the king
+he had led his men away to plunder. During the minority of the new king,
+James V., he was engaged in quarrelling with the regent, John Stewart,
+duke of Albany, and in intriguing with England. In September 1516 he was
+seized, was charged with treachery and beheaded, his title and estates
+being restored to his brother George in 1522. George, who was killed in
+September 1547 during a skirmish just before the battle of Pinkie, was
+the father of Alexander, the 5th lord.
+
+Alexander Home became 6th Lord Home on his father's death in August
+1575, and took part in many of the turbulent incidents which marked the
+reign of James VI. He was warden of the east marches, and was often at
+variance with the Hepburns, a rival border family whose head was the
+earl of Bothwell; the feud between the Homes and the Hepburns was an old
+one, and it was probably the main reason why Home's father, the 5th
+lord, sided with the enemies of Mary during the period of her intimacy
+with Bothwell. Home accompanied James to England in 1603 and was created
+earl of Home in 1605; he died in April 1619.
+
+His son James, the 2nd earl, died childless in 1633 when his titles
+passed to a distant kinsman, Sir James Home of Coldingknows (d. 1666), a
+descendant of the 1st Lord Home. This earl was in the Scottish ranks at
+the battle of Preston and lost his estates under the Commonwealth, but
+these were restored to him in 1661. His descendant, William, the 8th
+earl (d. 1761) fought on the English side at Prestonpans, and from his
+brother Alexander, the 9th earl (d. 1786), the present earl of Home is
+descended. In 1875 Cospatrick Alexander, the 11th earl (1799-1881), was
+created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Douglas, and his son
+Charles Alexander, the 12th earl (b. 1834), took the additional name of
+Douglas. The principal strongholds of the Homes were Douglas castle in
+Haddington and Home castle in Berwickshire.
+
+  See H. Drummond, _Histories of Noble British Families_ (1846).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various
+
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