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diff --git a/39232.txt b/39232.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7cc4747 --- /dev/null +++ b/39232.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19065 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5 + "Hinduism" to "Home, Earls of" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 23, 2012 [EBook #39232] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE HINDUISM: "But, in this respect, we also meet in the epics + with the first clear evidence of what in after time became the + prominent feature of the worship of Siva and his consort all over + India ..." 'respect' amended from 'repect'. + + ARTICLE HINDUISM: "Though the Lingayats still show a certain + animosity towards the Brahmans, and in the Census lists are + accordingly classed as an independent group beside the Hindus ..." + 'classed' amended from 'classes'. + + ARTICLE HINTERLAND: "In the purely physical sense 'interior' or + 'back country' is more commonly used, but the word has gained a + distinct political significance." 'or' amended from 'on'. + + ARTICLE HIPPODROME: "... so that the width was far greater, being + about 400 ft., the course being 600 to 700 ft. long." 'course' + amended from 'cource'. + + ARTICLE HIRSAU: "C. H. Klaiber, Das Kloster Hirschau (Tubingen, + 1886); and Baer, Die Hirsauer Bauschule (Freiburg, 1897)." + 'Hirsauer' amended from 'Hirsauers'. + + ARTICLE HOBBES, THOMAS: "In politics the revulsion from his + particular conclusions did not prevent the more clear-sighted of + his opponents from recognizing the force of his supreme + demonstration of the practical irresponsibility of the sovereign + power ..." 'particular' amended from 'particuar'. + + ARTICLE HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH: "His Japanese grammar (Japanische + Sprachlehre) was published in Dutch and English in 1867, and in + English and German in 1876." 'Sprachlehre' amended from + 'Sprechlehre'. + + ARTICLE HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK: "He was editor of the Zuid Afrikaan + till its incorporation with Ons Land, and of the Zuid Afrikaansche + Tijdschrift." 'Tijdschrift' amended from 'Tidjschrift'. + + ARTICLE HOHENLOHE: "... which was to exercise an important + influence on his political activity. As the younger son of a cadet + line of his house it was necessary for Prince Chlodwig to follow a + profession." 'political' amended from 'politcal'. + + ARTICLE HOLLAND: "The height of the boezem peil ranges between + 1(1/3) ft. above to 1(5/6) ft. below the Amsterdam zero ..." + 'between' amended from 'beween'. + + ARTICLE HOLLAND: "... Nieuwe Wandelingen door Nederland, by J. + Craandijk and P. A. Schipperus (Haarlem, 1888) ..." 'Wandelingen' + amended from 'Wanderlingen'. + + ARTICLE HOLLAND: "... agreed to accept the sovereignty of the + Netherlands provinces, except Holland and Zeeland." 'Netherlands' + amended from 'Netherland'. + + ARTICLE HOLLAND: "left England on the 22nd of August for + Sainte-Mere Eglise in Normandy." 'Eglise' amended from 'Eglide'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XIII, SLICE V + + Hinduism to Home, Earls of + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + HINDUISM HODY, HUMPHREY + HINDU KUSH HOE, RICHARD MARCH + HINDUR HOE + HINGANGHAT HOEFNAGEL, JORIS + HINGE HOF + HINGHAM HOFER, ANDREAS + HINRICHS, HERMANN WILHELM HOFFDING, HARALD + HINSCHIUS, PAUL HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH + HINTERLAND HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM + HINTON, JAMES HOFFMANN, FRANCOIS BENOIT + HIOGO HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH + HIP HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH + HIP-KNOB HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON + HIPPARCHUS HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON + HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM HOFMANN, MELCHIOR + HIPPEASTRUM HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT + HIPPED ROOF HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK + HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS + HIPPIAS OF ELIS HOGARTH, WILLIAM + HIPPO HOGG, JAMES + HIPPOCRAS HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON + HIPPOCRATES HOGMANAY + HIPPOCRENE HOGSHEAD + HIPPODAMUS HOHENASPERG + HIPPODROME HOHENFRIEDBERG + HIPPOLYTUS (Greek legend hunter) HOHENHEIM + HIPPOLYTUS (Church writer) HOHENLIMBURG + HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF HOHENLOHE + HIPPONAX HOHENSTAUFEN + HIPPOPOTAMUS HOHENSTEIN + HIPPURIC ACID HOHENZOLLERN + HIPURNIAS HOKKAIDO + HIRA HOKUSAI + HIRADO HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH + HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT HOLBEACH + HIRING HOLBEIN, HANS (the elder) + HIROSAKI HOLBEIN, HANS (the younger) + HIROSHIGE HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG + HIROSHIMA HOLBORN + HIRPINI HOLCROFT, THOMAS + HIRSAU HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON + HIRSCH, MAURICE DE HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC + HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL HOLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH + HIRSCHBERG HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF + HIRSON HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL + HIRTIUS, AULUS HOLGUIN + HISHAM IBN AL-KALBI HOLIDAY + HISPELLUM HOLINSHED, RAPHAEL + HISSAR (district in Asia) HOLKAR + HISSAR (Indian town & district) HOLL, FRANK + HISTIAEUS HOLLAND, CHARLES + HISTOLOGY HOLLAND, SIR HENRY + HISTORY HOLLAND, HENRY FOX + HIT HOLLAND, HENRY RICH + HITA, GINES PEREZ DE HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX + HITCHCOCK, EDWARD HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT + HITCHCOCK, GEORGE HOLLAND, PHILEMON + HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT HOLLAND, RICHARD + HITCHIN HOLLAND (country) + HITTITES HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF + HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE HOLLAND (Michigan, U.S.A.) + HITZACKER HOLLAND (cloth) + HITZIG, FERDINAND HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS + HIUNG-NU HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES + HIVITES HOLLOWAY, THOMAS + HJORRING HOLLY + HKAMTI LONG HOLLYHOCK + HLOTHHERE HOLLY SPRINGS + HOACTZIN HOLMAN, JAMES + HOADLY, BENJAMIN HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL + HOAR, SAMUEL HOLMFIRTH + HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT HOLOCAUST + HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS HOLOCENE + HOBART, JOHN HENRY HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES + HOBART PASHA HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON + HOBART (capital of Tasmania) HOLSTEIN (duchy of Germany) + HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN + HOBBES, THOMAS HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS + HOBBY HOLSTER + HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE HOLT, SIR JOHN + HOBOKEN (town of Belgium) HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON + HOBOKEN (New Jersey, U.S.A.) HOLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH + HOBSON'S CHOICE HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM FRANZ PHILIPP VON + HOBY, SIR THOMAS HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS + HOCHE, LAZARE HOLUB, EMIL + HOCHHEIM HOLY + HOCHST HOLY ALLIANCE, THE + HOCHSTADT HOLYHEAD + HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND VON HOLY ISLAND + HOCKEY HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB + HOCK-TIDE HOLYOKE + HOCUS HOLYSTONE + HODDEN HOLY WATER + HODDESDON HOLY WEEK + HODEDA HOLYWELL + HODENING HOLYWOOD + HODGE, CHARLES HOLZMINDEN + HODGKIN, THOMAS HOLZTROMPETE + HODGKINSON, EATON HOMAGE + HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON HOMBERG, WILHELM + HODMEZO-VASARHELY HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HOHE + HODOGRAPH HOME, EARLS OF + HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES + + + + +HINDUISM, a term generally employed to comprehend the social +institutions, past and present, of the Hindus who form the great +majority of the people of India; as well as the multitudinous crop of +their religious beliefs which has grown up, in the course of many +centuries, on the foundation of the Brahmanical scriptures. The actual +proportion of the total population of India (294 millions) included +under the name of "Hindus" has been computed in the census report for +1901 at something like 70% (206 millions); the remaining 30% being made +up partly of the followers of foreign creeds, such as Mahommedans, +Parsees, Christians and Jews, partly of the votaries of indigenous forms +of belief which have at various times separated from the main stock, and +developed into independent systems, such as Buddhism, Jainism and +Sikhism; and partly of isolated hill and jungle tribes, such as the +Santals, Bhils (Bhilla) and Kols, whose crude animistic tendencies have +hitherto kept them, either wholly or for the most part, outside the pale +of the Brahmanical community. The name "Hindu" itself is of foreign +origin, being derived from the Persians, by whom the river Sindhu was +called Hindhu, a name subsequently applied to the inhabitants of that +frontier district, and gradually extended over the upper and middle +reaches of the Gangetic valley, whence this whole tract of country +between the Himalaya and the Vindhya mountains, west of Bengal, came to +be called by the foreign conquerors "Hindustan," or the abode of the +Hindus; whilst the native writers called it "Aryavarta," or the abode +of the Aryas. + +But whilst, in its more comprehensive acceptation, the term Hinduism +would thus range over the entire historical development of Brahmanical +India, it is also not infrequently used in a narrower sense, as denoting +more especially the modern phase of Indian social and religious +institutions--from the earlier centuries of the Christian era down to +our own days--as distinguished from the period dominated by the +authoritative doctrine of pantheistic belief, formulated by the +speculative theologians during the centuries immediately succeeding the +Vedic period (see BRAHMANISM). In this its more restricted sense the +term may thus practically be taken to apply to the later bewildering +variety of popular sectarian forms of belief, with its social +concomitant, the fully developed caste-system. But, though one may at +times find it convenient to speak of "Brahmanism and Hinduism," it must +be clearly understood that the distinction implied in the combination of +these terms is an extremely vague one, especially from the chronological +point of view. The following considerations will probably make this +clear. + + + Connexion with Brahmanism. + +The characteristic tenet of orthodox Brahmanism consists in the +conception of an absolute, all-embracing spirit, the Brahma (neutr.), +being the one and only reality, itself unconditioned, and the original +cause and ultimate goal of all individual souls (_jiva_, i.e. living +things). Coupled with this abstract conception are two other doctrines, +viz. first, the transmigration of souls (_samsara_), regarded by Indian +thinkers as the necessary complement of a belief in the essential +sameness of all the various spiritual units, however contaminated, to a +greater or less degree, they may be by their material embodiment; and in +their ultimate re-union with the _Paramatman_, or Supreme Self; and +second, the assumption of a triple manifestation of the ceaseless +working of that Absolute Spirit as a creative, conservative and +destructive principle, represented respectively by the divine +personalities of Brahma (masc.), Vishnu and Siva, forming the _Trimurti_ +or Triad. As regards this latter, purely exoteric, doctrine, there can +be little doubt of its owing its origin to considerations of theological +expediency, as being calculated to supply a sufficiently wide formula of +belief for general acceptance; and the very fact of this divine triad +including the two principal deities of the later sectarian worship, +Vishnu and Siva, goes far to show that these two gods at all events must +have been already in those early days favourite objects of popular +adoration to an extent sufficient to preclude their being ignored by a +diplomatic priesthood bent upon the formulation of a common creed. Thus, +so far from sectarianism being a mere modern development of Brahmanism, +it actually goes back to beyond the formulation of the Brahmanical +creed. Nay, when, on analysing the functions and attributes of those two +divine figures, each of them is found to be but a compound of several +previously recognized deities, sectarian worship may well be traced +right up to the Vedic age. That the theory of the triple manifestation +of the deity was indeed only a compromise between Brahmanical +aspirations and popular worship, probably largely influenced by the +traditional sanctity of the number three, is sufficiently clear from the +fact that, whilst Brahma, the creator, and at the same time the very +embodiment of Brahmanical class pride, has practically remained a mere +figurehead in the actual worship of the people, Siva, on the other hand, +so far from being merely the destroyer, is also the unmistakable +representative of generative and reproductive power in nature. In fact, +Brahma, having performed his legitimate part in the mundane evolution by +his original creation of the universe, has retired into the background, +being, as it were, looked upon as _functus officio_, like a venerable +figure of a former generation, whence in epic poetry he is commonly +styled _pitamaha_, "the grandsire." But despite the artificial character +of the _Trimurti_, it has retained to this day at least its theoretical +validity in orthodox Hinduism, whilst it has also undoubtedly exercised +considerable influence in shaping sectarian belief, in promoting +feelings of toleration towards the claims of rival deities; and in a +tendency towards identifying divine figures newly sprung into popular +favour with one or other of the principal deities, and thus helping to +bring into vogue that notion of avatars, or periodical descents or +incarnations of the deity, which has become so prominent a feature of +the later sectarian belief. + +Under more favourable political conditions,[1] the sacerdotal class +might perhaps, in course of time, have succeeded in imposing something +like an effective common creed on the heterogeneous medley of races and +tribes scattered over the peninsula, just as they certainly did succeed +in establishing the social prerogative of their own order over the +length and breadth of India. They were, however, fated to fall far short +of such a consummation; and at all times orthodox Brahmanism has had to +wink at, or ignore, all manner of gross superstitions and repulsive +practices, along with the popular worship of countless hosts of +godlings, demons, spirits and ghosts, and mystic objects and symbols of +every description. Indeed, according to a recent account by a close +observer of the religious practices prevalent in southern India, fully +four-fifths of the people of the Dravidian race, whilst nominally +acknowledging the spiritual guidance of the Brahmans, are to this day +practically given over to the worship of their nondescript local village +deities (_grama-devata_), usually attended by animal sacrifices +frequently involving the slaughter, under revolting circumstances, of +thousands of victims. Curiously enough these local deities are nearly +all of the female, not the male sex. In the estimation of these people +"Siva and Vishnu may be more dignified beings, but the village deity is +regarded as a more present help in trouble, and more intimately +concerned with the happiness and prosperity of the villagers. The origin +of this form of Hinduism is lost in antiquity, but it is probable that +it represents a pre-Aryan religion, more or less modified in various +parts of south India by Brahmanical influence. At the same time, many of +the deities themselves are of quite recent origin, and it is easy to +observe a deity in making even at the present day."[2] It is a +significant fact that, whilst in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, at +which no animal sacrifices are offered, the officiating priests are +almost invariably Brahmans, this is practically never the case at the +popular performance of those "gloomy and weird rites for the +propitiation of angry deities, or the driving away of evil spirits, when +the pujaris (or ministrants) are drawn from all other castes, even from +the Pariahs, the out-caste section of Indian society." + + + Caste. + +As from the point of view of religious belief, so also from that of +social organization no clear line of demarcation can be drawn between +Brahmanism and Hinduism. Though it was not till later times that the +network of class divisions and subdivisions attained anything like the +degree of intricacy which it shows in these latter days, still in its +origin the caste-system is undoubtedly coincident with the rise of +Brahmanism, and may even be said to be of the very essence of it.[3] The +cardinal principle which underlies the system of caste is the +preservation of purity of descent, and purity of religious belief and +ceremonial usage. Now, that same principle had been operative from the +very dawn of the history of Aryanized India. The social organism of the +Aryan tribe did not probably differ essentially from that of most +communities at that primitive stage of civilization; whilst the body of +the people--the _Vis_ (or aggregate of _Vaisyas_)--would be mainly +occupied with agricultural and pastoral pursuits, two professional +classes--those of the warrior and the priest--had already made good +their claim to social distinction. As yet, however, the tribal community +would still feel one in race and traditional usage. But when the +fair-coloured Aryan immigrants first came in contact with, and drove +back or subdued the dark-skinned race that occupied the northern +plains--doubtless the ancestors of the modern Dravidian people--the +preservation of their racial type and traditionary order of things would +naturally become to them a matter of serious concern. In the extreme +north-western districts--the Punjab and Rajputana, judging from the +fairly uniform physical features of the present population of these +parts--they seem to have been signally successful in their endeavour to +preserve their racial purity, probably by being able to clear a +sufficiently extensive area of the original occupants for themselves +with their wives and children to settle upon. The case was, however, +very different in the adjoining valley of the Jumna and Ganges, the +sacred _Madhyadesa_ or Middle-land of classical India. Here the Aryan +immigrants were not allowed to establish themselves without undergoing a +considerable admixture of foreign blood. It must remain uncertain +whether it was that the thickly-populated character of the land scarcely +admitted of complete occupation, but only of a conquest by an army of +fighting men, starting from the Aryanized region--who might, however, +subsequently draw women of their own kin after them--or whether, as has +been suggested, a second Aryan invasion of India took place at that time +through the mountainous tracts of the upper Indus and northern Kashmir, +where the nature of the road would render it impracticable for the +invading bands to be accompanied by women and children. Be this as it +may, the physical appearance of the population of this central region of +northern India--Hindustan and Behar--clearly points to an intermixture +of the tall, fair-coloured, fine-nosed Aryan with the short-sized, +dark-skinned, broad-nosed Dravidian; the latter type becoming more +pronounced towards the lower strata of the social order.[4] Now, it was +precisely in this part of India that mainly arose the body of literature +which records the gradual rise of the Brahmanical hierarchy and the +early development of the caste-system. + +The problem that now lay before the successful invaders was how to deal +with the indigenous people, probably vastly outnumbering them, without +losing their own racial identity. They dealt with them in the way the +white race usually deals with the coloured race--they kept them socially +apart. The land being appropriated by the conquerors, husbandry, as the +most respectable industrial occupation, became the legitimate calling of +the Aryan settler, the _Vaisya_; whilst handicrafts, gradually +multiplying with advancing civilization and menial service, were +assigned to the subject race. The generic name applied to the latter was +_Sudra_, originally probably the name of one of the subjected tribes. So +far the social development proceeded on lines hardly differing from +those with which one is familiar in the history of other nations. The +Indo-Aryans, however, went a step farther. What they did was not only to +keep the native race apart from social intercourse with themselves, but +to shut them out from all participation in their own higher aims, and +especially in their own religious convictions and ceremonial practices. +So far from attempting to raise their standard of spiritual life, or +even leaving it to ordinary intercourse to gradually bring about a +certain community of intellectual culture and religious sentiment, they +deliberately set up artificial barriers in order to prevent their own +traditional modes of worship from being contaminated with the obnoxious +practices of the servile race. The serf, the _Sudra_, was not to worship +the gods of the Aryan freemen. The result was the system of four castes +(_varna_, i.e. "colour"; or _jati_, "gens"). Though the Brahman, who by +this time had firmly secured his supremacy over the _kshatriya_, or +noble, in matters spiritual as well as in legislative and administrative +functions, would naturally be the prime mover in this regulation of the +social order, there seems no reason to believe that the other two upper +classes were not equally interested in seeing their hereditary +privileges thus perpetuated by divine sanction. Nothing, indeed, is more +remarkable in the whole development of the caste-system than the jealous +pride which every caste, from the highest to the lowest, takes in its +own peculiar occupation and sphere of life. The distinctive badge of a +member of the three upper castes was the sacred triple cord or thread +(_sutra_)--made of cotton, hemp or wool, according to the respective +caste--with which he was invested at the _upanayana_ ceremony, or +initiation into the use of the sacred _savitri_, or prayer to the sun +(also called _gayatri_), constituting his second birth. Whilst the Arya +was thus a _dvi-ja_, or twice-born, the Sudra remained unregenerate +during his lifetime, his consolation being the hope that, on the +faithful performance of his duties in this life, he might hereafter be +born again into a higher grade of life. In later times, the strict +adherence to caste duties would naturally receive considerable support +from the belief in the transmigration of souls, already prevalent before +Buddha's time, and from the very general acceptance of the doctrine of +_karma_ ("deed"), or retribution, according to which a man's present +station and manner of life are the result of the sum-total of his +actions and thoughts in his former existence; as his actions here will +again, by the same automatic process of retribution, determine his +status and condition in his next existence. Though this doctrine is +especially insisted upon in Buddhism, and its designation as a specific +term (Pali, _Kamma_) may be due to that creed, the notion itself was +doubtless already prevalent in pre-Buddhist times. It would even seem to +be necessarily and naturally implied in Brahmanical belief in +metempsychosis; whilst in the doctrine of Buddha, who admits no soul, +the theory of the net result or fruit of a man's actions serving +hereafter to form or condition the existence of some new individual who +will have no conscious identity with himself, seems of a peculiarly +artificial and mystic character. But, be this as it may, "the doctrine +of _karma_ is certainly one of the firmest beliefs of all classes of +Hindus, and the fear that a man shall reap as he has sown is an +appreciable element in the average morality ... the idea of forgiveness +is absolutely wanting; evil done may indeed be outweighed by meritorious +deeds so far as to ensure a better existence in the future, but it is +not effaced, and must be atoned for" (_Census Report_, i. 364). + +In spite, however, of the artificial restrictions placed on the +intermarrying of the castes, the mingling of the two races seems to have +proceeded at a tolerably rapid rate. Indeed, the paucity of women of the +Aryan stock would probably render these mixed unions almost a necessity +from the very outset; and the vaunted purity of blood which the caste +rules were calculated to perpetuate can scarcely have remained of more +than a relative degree even in the case of the Brahman caste. Certain it +is that mixed castes are found referred to at a comparatively early +period; and at the time of Buddha--some five or six centuries before the +Christian era--the social organization would seem to have presented an +appearance not so very unlike that of modern times. It must be +confessed, however, that our information regarding the development of +the caste-system is far from complete, especially in its earlier stages. +Thus, we are almost entirely left to conjecture on the important point +as to the original social organization of the subject race. Though +doubtless divided into different tribes scattered over an extensive +tract of land, the subjected aborigines were slumped together under the +designation of Sudras, whose duty it was to serve the upper classes in +all the various departments of manual labour, save those of a downright +sordid and degrading character which it was left to _vratyas_ or +outcasts to perform. How, then, was the distribution of crafts and +habitual occupations of all kinds brought about? Was the process one of +spontaneous growth adapting an already existing social organization to a +new order of things; or was it originated and perpetuated by regulation +from above? Or was it rather that the status and duties of existing +offices and trades came to be determined and made hereditary by some +such artificial system as that by which the Theodosian Code succeeded +for a time in organizing the Roman society in the 5th century of our +era? "It is well known" (says Professor Dill) "that the tendency of the +later Empire was to stereotype society, by compelling men to follow the +occupation of their fathers, and preventing a free circulation among +different callings and grades of life. The man who brought the grain +from Africa to the public stores at Ostia, the baker who made it into +loaves for distribution, the butchers who brought pigs from Samnium, +Lucania or Bruttium, the purveyors of wine and oil, the men who fed the +furnaces of the public baths, were bound to their callings from one +generation to another. It was the principle of rural serfdom applied to +social functions. Every avenue of escape was closed. A man was bound to +his calling not only by his father's but also by his mother's condition. +Men were not permitted to marry out of their gild. If the daughter of +one of the baker caste married a man not belonging to it, her husband +was bound to her father's calling. Not even a dispensation obtained by +some means from the imperial chancery, not even the power of the Church +could avail to break the chain of servitude." It can hardly be gainsaid +that these artificial arrangements bear a very striking analogy to those +of the Indian caste-system; and if these class restrictions were +comparatively short-lived on Italian ground, it was not perhaps so much +that so strange a plant found there an ethnic soil less congenial to its +permanent growth, but because it was not allowed sufficient time to +become firmly rooted; for already great political events were impending +which within a few decades were to lay the mighty empire in ruins. In +India, on the other hand, the institution of caste--even if artificially +contrived and imposed by the Indo-Aryan priest and ruler--had at least +ample time allowed it to become firmly established in the social habits, +and even in the affections, of the people. At the same time, one could +more easily understand how such a system could have found general +acceptance all over the Dravidian region of southern India, with its +merest sprinkling of Aryan blood, if it were possible to assume that +class arrangements of a similar kind must have already been prevalent +amongst the aboriginal tribes prior to the advent of the Aryan. Whether +a more intimate acquaintance with the manners and customs of those rude +tribes that have hitherto kept themselves comparatively free from Hindu +influences may yet throw some light on this question, remains to be +seen. But, by this as it may, the institution of caste, when once +established, certainly appears to have gone on steadily developing; and +not even the long period of Buddhist ascendancy, with its uncompromising +resistance to the Brahman's claim to being the sole arbiter in matters +of faith, seems to have had any very appreciable retardant effect upon +the progress of the movement. It was not only by the formation of ever +new endogamous castes and sub-castes that the system gained in extent +and intricacy, but even more so by the constant subdivision of the +castes into numerous exogamous groups or septs, themselves often +involving gradations of social status important enough to seriously +affect the possibility of intermarriage, already hampered by various +other restrictions. Thus a man wishing to marry his son or daughter had +to look for a suitable match outside his sept, but within his caste. But +whilst for his son he might choose a wife from a lower sept than his +own, for his daughter, on the other hand, the law of hypergamy compelled +him, if at all possible, to find a husband in a higher sept. This would +naturally lead to an excess of women over men in the higher septs, and +would render it difficult for a man to get his daughter respectably +married without paying a high price for a suitable bridegroom and +incurring other heavy marriage expenses. It can hardly be doubted that +this custom has been largely responsible for the crime of female +infanticide, formerly so prevalent in India; as it also probably is to +some extent for infant marriages, still too common in some parts of +India, especially Bengal; and even for the all but universal repugnance +to the re-marriage of widows, even when these had been married in early +childhood and had never joined their husbands. Yet violations of these +rules are jealously watched by the other members of the sept, and are +liable--in accordance with the general custom in which communal matters +are regulated in India--to be brought before a special council +(_panchayat_), originally consisting of five (_pancha_), but now no +longer limited to that number, since it is chiefly the greater or less +strictness in the observance of caste rules and the orthodox ceremonial +generally that determine the status of the sept in the social scale of +the caste. Whilst community of occupation was an important factor in the +original formation of non-tribal castes, the practical exigencies of +life have led to considerable laxity in this respect--not least so in +the case of Brahmans who have often had to take to callings which would +seem altogether incompatible with the proper spiritual functions of +their caste. Thus, "the prejudice against eating cooked food that has +been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong that, although +the Shastras do not prohibit the eating of food cooked by a Kshatriya or +Vaisya, yet the Brahmans, in most parts of the country, would not eat +such food. For these reasons, every Hindu household--whether Brahman, +Kshatriya or Sudra--that can afford to keep a paid cook generally +entertains the services of a Brahman for the performance of its +_cuisine_--the result being that in the larger towns the very name of +Brahman has suffered a strange degradation of late, so as to mean only a +cook" (Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_). In this +caste, however, as in all others, there are certain kinds of occupation +to which a member could not turn for a livelihood without incurring +serious defilement. In fact, adherence to the traditional ceremonial and +respectability of occupation go very much hand-in-hand. Thus, amongst +agricultural castes, those engaged in vegetable-growing or +market-gardening are inferior to the genuine peasant or yeoman, such as +the Jat and Rajput; whilst of these the Jat who practises widow-marriage +ranks below the Rajput who prides himself on his tradition of ceremonial +orthodoxy--though racially there seems little, if any, difference +between the two; and the Rajput, again, is looked down upon by the +Babhan of Behar because he does not, like himself, scruple to handle the +plough, instead of invariably employing low-caste men for this manual +labour. So also when members of the Baidya, or physician, caste of +Bengal, ranging next to that of the Brahman, farm land on tenure, "they +will on no account hold the plough, or engage in any form of manual +labour, and thus necessarily carry on their cultivation by means of +hired servants" (H. H. Risley, _Census Report_). + + The scale of social precedence as recognized by native public opinion + is concisely reviewed (ib.) as revealing itself "in the facts that + particular castes are supposed to be modern representatives of one or + other of the original castes of the theoretical Hindu system; that + Brahmans will take water from certain castes; that Brahmans of high + standing will serve particular castes; that certain castes, though not + served by the best Brahmans, have nevertheless got Brahmans of their + own whose rank varies according to circumstances; that certain castes + are not served by Brahmans at all but have priests of their own; that + the status of certain castes has been raised by their taking to + infant-marriage or abandoning the re-marriage of widows; that the + status of others has been modified by their pursuing some occupations + in a special or peculiar way; that some can claim the services of the + village barber, the village palanquin-bearer, the village midwife, + &c., while others cannot; that some castes may not enter the + courtyards of certain temples; that some castes are subject to special + taboos, such as that they must not use the village well, or may draw + water only with their own vessels, that they must live outside the + village or in a separate quarter, that they must leave the road on the + approach of a high-caste man and must call out to give warning of + their approach." ... "The first point to observe is the predominance + throughout India of the influence of the traditional system of four + original castes. In every scheme of grouping the Brahman heads the + list. Then come the castes whom popular opinion accepts as the modern + representatives of the Kshatriyas; and these are followed by the + mercantile groups supposed to be akin to the Vaisyas. When we leave + the higher circles of the twice-born, the difficulty of finding a + uniform basis of classification becomes apparent. The ancient + designation Sudra finds no great favour in modern times, and we can + point to no group that is generally recognized as representing it. The + term is used in Bombay, Madras and Bengal to denote a considerable + number of castes of moderate respectability, the higher of whom are + considered 'clean' Sudras, while the precise status of the lower is a + question which lends itself to endless controversy." ... In northern + and north-western India, on the other hand, "the grade next below the + twice-born rank is occupied by a number of castes from whose hands + Brahmans and members of the higher castes will take water and certain + kinds of sweetmeats. Below these again is rather an indeterminate + group from whom water is taken by some of the higher castes, not by + others. Further down, where the test of water no longer applies, the + status of the caste depends on the nature of its occupation and its + habits in respect of diet. There are castes whose touch defiles the + twice-born, but who do not commit the crowning enormity of eating + beef.... In western and southern India the idea that the social state + of a caste depends on whether Brahmans will take water and sweetmeats + from its members is unknown, for the higher castes will as a rule take + water only from persons of their own caste and sub-caste. In Madras + especially the idea of ceremonial pollution by the proximity of an + unclean caste has been developed with much elaboration. Thus the table + of social precedence attached to the Cochin report shows that while a + Nayar can pollute a man of a higher caste only by touching him, people + of the Kammalan group, including masons, blacksmiths, carpenters and + workers in leather, pollute at a distance of 24 ft., toddy-drawers at + 36 ft., Pulayan or Cheruman cultivators at 48 ft., while in the case + of the Paraiyan (Pariahs) who eat beef the range of pollution is no + less than 64 ft." + +In this bewildering maze of social grades and class distinctions, the +Brahman, as will have been seen, continues to hold the dominant +position, being respected and even worshipped by all the others. "The +more orthodox Sudras carry their veneration for the priestly class to +such a degree that they will not cross the shadow of a Brahman, and it +is not unusual for them to be under a vow not to eat any food in the +morning, before drinking _Bipracharanamrita_, i.e. water in which the +toe of a Brahman has been dipped. On the other hand, the pride of the +Brahmans is such that they do not bow to even the images of the gods +worshipped in a Sudra's house by Brahman priests" (Jog. Nath Bh.). There +are, however, not a few classes of Brahmans who, for various reasons, +have become degraded from their high station, and formed separate castes +with whom respectable Brahmans refuse to intermarry and consort. Chief +amongst these are the Brahmans who minister for "unclean" Sudras and +lower castes, including the makers and dealers in spirituous liquors; as +well as those who officiate at the great public shrines or places of +pilgrimage where they might be liable to accept forbidden gifts, and, as +a matter of fact, often amass considerable wealth; and those who +officiate as paid priests at cremations and funeral rites, when the +wearing apparel and bedding of the deceased are not unfrequently claimed +by them as their perquisites. + +As regards the other two "twice-born" castes, several modern groups do +indeed claim to be their direct descendants, and in vindication of their +title make it a point to perform the _upanayana_ ceremony and to wear +the sacred thread. But though the Brahmans, too, will often acquiesce in +the reasonableness of such claims, it is probably only as a matter of +policy that they do so, whilst in reality they regard the other two +higher castes as having long since disappeared and been merged by +miscegenation in the Sudra mass. Hence, in the later classical Sanskrit +literature, the term _dvija_, or twice-born, is used simply as a synonym +for a Brahman. As regards the numerous groups included under the term of +Sudras, the distinction between "clean" and "unclean" Sudras is of +especial importance for the upper classes, inasmuch as only the +former--of whom nine distinct castes are usually recognized--are as a +rule considered fit for employment in household service. + + + Theology. + +The picture thus presented by Hindu society--as made up of a confused +congeries of social groups of the most varied standing, each held +together and kept separate from others by a traditional body of +ceremonial rules and by the notion of social gradations being due to a +divinely instituted order of things--finds something like a counterpart +in the religious life of the people. As in the social sphere, so also in +the sphere of religious belief, we find the whole scale of types +represented from the lowest to the highest; and here as there, we meet +with the same failure of welding the confused mass into a well-ordered +whole. In their theory of a triple manifestation of an impersonal deity, +the Brahmanical theologians, as we have seen, had indeed elaborated a +doctrine which might have seemed to form a reasonable, authoritative +creed for a community already strongly imbued with pantheistic notions; +yet, at best, that creed could only appeal to the sympathies of a +comparatively limited portion of the people. Indeed, the sacerdotal +class themselves had made its universal acceptance an impossibility, +seeing that their laws, by which the relations of the classes were to be +regulated, aimed at permanently excluding the entire body of aboriginal +tribes from the religious life of their Aryan masters. They were to be +left for all time coming to their own traditional idolatrous notions and +practices. However, the two races could not, in the nature of things, be +permanently kept separate from each other. Indeed, even prior to the +definite establishment of the caste-system, the mingling of the lower +race with the upper classes, especially with the aristocratic landowners +and still more so with the yeomanry, had probably been going on to such +an extent as to have resulted in two fairly well-defined intermediate +types of colour between the priestly order and the servile race and to +have facilitated the ultimate division into four "colours" (_varna_). In +course of time the process of intermingling, as we have seen, assumed +such proportions that the priestly class, in their pride of blood, felt +naturally tempted to recognize, as of old, only two "colours," the Aryan +Brahman and the non-Aryan Sudra. Under these conditions the religious +practices of the lower race could hardly have failed in the long run to +tell seriously upon the spiritual life of the lay body of the +Brahmanical community. To what extent this may have been the case, our +limited knowledge of the early phases of the sectarian worship of the +people does not enable us to determine. But, on the other hand, the same +process of racial intermixture also tended to gradually draw the lower +race more or less under the influence of the Brahmanical forms of +worship, and thus contributed towards the shaping of the religious +system of modern Hinduism. The grossly idolatrous practices, however, +still so largely prevalent in the Dravidian South, show how superficial, +after all, that influence has been in those parts of India where the +admixture of Aryan blood has been so slight as to have practically had +no effect on the racial characteristics of the people. These present-day +practices, and the attitude of the Brahman towards them, help at all +events to explain the aversion with which the strange rites of the +subjected tribes were looked upon by the worshippers of the Vedic +pantheon. At the same time, in judging the apparently inhuman way in +which the Sudras were treated in the caste rules, one has always to bear +in mind the fact that the belief in metempsychosis was already universal +at the time, and seemed to afford the only rational explanation of the +apparent injustice involved in the unequal distribution of the good +things in this world; and that, if the Sudra was strictly excluded from +the religious rites and beliefs of the superior classes, this exclusion +in no way involved the question of his ultimate emancipation and his +union with the Infinite Spirit, which were as certain in his case as in +that of any other sentient being. What it did make impossible for him +was to attain that union immediately on the cessation of his present +life, as he would first have to pass through higher and purer stages of +mundane existence before reaching that goal; but in this respect he only +shared the lot of all but a very few of the saintliest in the higher +spheres of life, since the ordinary twice-born would be liable to sink, +after his present life, to grades yet lower than that of the Sudra. + +To what extent the changes, which the religious belief of the Aryan +classes underwent in post-Vedic times, may have been due to aboriginal +influences is a question not easily answered, though the later creeds +offer only too many features in which one might feel inclined to suspect +influences of that kind. The literary documents, both in Sanskrit and +Pali, dating from about the time of Buddha onwards--particularly the two +epic poems, the _Mahabharata_ and _Ramayana_--still show us in the main +the _personnel_ of the old pantheon; but the character of the gods has +changed; they have become anthropomorphized and almost purely +mythological figures. A number of the chief gods, sometimes four, but +generally eight of them, now appear as _lokapalas_ or world-guardians, +having definite quarters or intermediate quarters of the compass +assigned to them as their special domains. One of them, Kubera, the god +of wealth, is a new figure; whilst another, Varuna, the most spiritual +and ethical of Vedic deities--the king of the gods and the universe; the +nightly, star-spangled firmament--has become the Indian Neptune, the god +of waters. Indra, their chief, is virtually a kind of superior raja, +residing in _svarga_, and as such is on visiting terms with earthly +kings, driving about in mid-air with his charioteer Matali. As might +happen to any earth-lord, Indra is actually defeated in battle by the +son of the demon-king of Lanka (Ceylon), and kept there a prisoner till +ransomed by Brahma and the gods conferring immortality on his conqueror. +A quaint figure in the pantheon of the heroic age is Hanuman, the +deified chief of monkeys--probably meant to represent the aboriginal +tribes of southern India--whose wonderful exploits as Rama's ally on the +expedition to Lanka Indian audiences will never weary of hearing +recounted. The Gandharvas figure already in the Veda, either as a single +divinity, or as a class of genii, conceived of as the body-guard of Soma +and as connected with the moon. In the later Vedic times they are +represented as being fond of, and dangerous to, women; the Apsaras, +apparently originally water-nymphs, being closely associated with them. +In the heroic age the Gandharvas have become the heavenly minstrels +plying their art at Indra's court, with the Apsaras as their wives or +mistresses. These fair damsels play, however, yet another part, and one +far from complimentary to the dignity of the gods. In the epics +considerable merit is attached to a life of seclusion and ascetic +practices by means of which man is considered capable of acquiring +supernatural powers equal or even superior to those of the gods--a +notion perhaps not unnaturally springing from the pantheistic +conception. Now, in cases of danger being threatened to their own +ascendancy by such practices, the gods as a rule proceed to employ the +usually successful expedient of despatching some lovely nymph to lure +the saintly men back to worldly pleasures. Seeing that the epic poems, +as repeated by professional reciters, either in their original Sanskrit +text, or in their vernacular versions, as well as dramatic compositions +based on them, form to this day the chief source of intellectual +enjoyment for most Hindus, the legendary matter contained in these +heroic poems, however marvellous and incredible it may appear, still +enters largely into the religious convictions of the people. "These +popular recitals from the Ramayan are done into Gujarati in easy, +flowing narrative verse ... by Premanand, the sweetest of our bards. +They are read out by an intelligent Brahman to a mixed audience of all +classes and both sexes. It has a perceptible influence on the Hindu +character. I believe the remarkable freedom from infidelity which is to +be seen in most Hindu families, in spite of their strange gregarious +habits, can be traced to that influence; and little wonder" (B. M. +Malabari, _Gujarat and the Gujaratis_). Hence also the universal +reverence paid to serpents (_naga_) since those early days; though +whether it simply arose from the superstitious dread inspired by the +insidious reptile so fatal to man in India, or whether the verbal +coincidence with the name of the once-powerful non-Aryan tribe of Nagas +had something to do with it must remain doubtful. Indian myth represents +them as a race of demons sprung from Kadru, the wife of the sage +Kasyapa, with a jewel in their heads which gives them their sparkling +look; and inhabiting one of the seven beautiful worlds below the earth +(and above the hells), where they are ruled over by three chiefs or +kings, Sesha, Vasuki and Takshaka; their fair daughters often entering +into matrimonial alliances with men, like the mermaids of western +legend. + +In addition to such essentially mythological conceptions, we meet in the +religious life of this period with an element of more serious aspect in +the two gods, on one or other of whom the religious fervour of the large +majority of Hindus has ever since concentrated itself, viz. Vishnu and +Siva. Both these divine figures have grown out of Vedic conceptions--the +genial Vishnu mainly out of a not very prominent solar deity of the same +name; whilst the stern Siva, i.e. the kind or gracious one--doubtless a +euphemistic name--has his prototype in the old fierce storm-god Rudra, +the "Roarer," with certain additional features derived from other +deities, especially Pushan, the guardian of flocks and bestower of +prosperity, worked up therewith. The exact process of the evolution of +the two deities and their advance in popular favour are still somewhat +obscure. In the epic poems which may be assumed to have taken their +final shape in the early centuries before and after the Christian era, +their popular character, so strikingly illustrated by their inclusion in +the Brahmanical triad, appears in full force; whilst their cult is +likewise attested by the coins and inscriptions of the early centuries +of our era. The co-ordination of the two gods in the Trimurti does not +by any means exclude a certain rivalry between them; but, on the +contrary, a supreme position as the true embodiment of the Divine Spirit +is claimed for each of them by their respective votaries, without, +however, an honourable, if subordinate, place being refused to the rival +deity, wherever the latter, as is not infrequently the case, is not +actually represented as merely another form of the favoured god. Whilst +at times a truly monotheistic fervour manifests itself in the adoration +of these two gods, the polytheistic instincts of the people did not fail +to extend the pantheon by groups of new deities in connexion with them. +Two of such new gods actually pass as the sons of Siva and his consort +Parvati, viz. Skanda--also called Kumara (the youth), Karttikeya, or +Subrahmanya (in the south)--the six-headed war-lord of the gods; and +Ganese, the lord (or leader) of Siva's troupes of attendants, being at +the same time the elephant-headed, paunch-bellied god of wisdom; whilst +a third, Kama (Kamadeva) or Kandarpa, the god of love, gets his popular +epithet of Ananga, "the bodiless," from his having once, in frolicsome +play, tried the power of his arrows upon Siva, whilst engaged in austere +practices, when a single glance from the third (forehead) eye of the +angry god reduced the mischievous urchin to ashes. For his chief +attendant, the great god (Mahadeva, Mahesvara) has already with him the +"holy" Nandi--presumably, though his shape is not specified, identical +in form as in name with Siva's sacred bull of later times, the +appropriate symbol of the god's reproductive power. But, in this +respect, we also meet in the epics with the first clear evidence of what +in after time became the prominent feature of the worship of Siva and +his consort all over India, viz. the feature represented by the _linga_, +or phallic symbol. + +As regards Vishnu, the epic poems, including the supplement to the +Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, supply practically the entire framework of +legendary matter on which the later Vaishnava creeds are based. The +theory of Avataras which makes the deity--also variously called +Narayana, Purushottama, or Vasudeva--periodically assume some material +form in order to rescue the world from some great calamity, is fully +developed; the ten universally recognized "descents" being enumerated in +the larger poem. Though Siva, too, assumes various forms, the +incarnation theory is peculiarly characteristic of Vaishnavism; and the +fact that the principal hero of the Ramayana (Rama), and one of the +prominent warriors of the Mahabharata (Krishna) become in this way +identified with the supreme god, and remain to this day the chief +objects of the adoration of Vaishnava sectaries, naturally imparts to +these creeds a human interest and sympathetic aspect which is wholly +wanting in the worship of Siva. It is, however, unfortunately but too +true that in some of these creeds the devotional ardour has developed +features of a highly objectionable character. + + Even granting the reasonableness of the triple manifestation of the + Divine Spirit, how is one to reconcile all these idolatrous practices, + this worship of countless gods and godlings, demons and spirits + indwelling in every imaginable object round about us, with the + pantheistic doctrine of the _Ekam Advitiyam_, "the One without a + Second"? The Indian theosophist would doubtless have little difficulty + in answering that question. For him there is only the One Absolute + Being, the one reality that is all in all; whilst all the phenomenal + existences and occurrences that crowd upon our senses are nothing more + than an illusion of the individual soul estranged for a time from its + divine source--an illusion only to be dispelled in the end by the + soul's fuller knowledge of its own true nature and its being one with + the eternal fountain of blissful being. But to the man of ordinary + understanding, unused to the rarefied atmosphere of abstract thought, + this conception of a transcendental, impersonal Spirit and the + unreality of the phenomenal world can have no meaning: what he + requires is a deity that stands in intimate relation to things + material and to all that affects man's life. Hence the exoteric theory + of manifestations of the Supreme Spirit; and that not only the + manifestations implied in the triad of gods representing the cardinal + processes of mundane existence--creation, preservation, and + destruction or regeneration--but even such as would tend to supply a + rational explanation for superstitious imaginings of every kind. For + "the Indian philosophy does not ignore or hold aloof from the religion + of the masses: it underlies, supports and interprets their polytheism. + This may be accounted the keystone of the fabric of Brahmanism, which + accepts and even encourages the rudest forms of idolatry, explaining + everything by giving it a higher meaning. It treats all the worships + as outward, visible signs of some spiritual truth, and is ready to + show how each particular image or rite is the symbol of some aspect of + universal divinity. The Hindus, like the pagans of antiquity, adore + natural objects and forces--a mountain, a river or an animal. The + Brahman holds all nature to be the vesture or cloak of indwelling, + divine energy, which inspires everything that produces awe or passes + man's understanding" (Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Brahminism_). + + + Sectarianism. + +During the early centuries of our era, whilst Buddhism, where +countenanced by the political rulers, was still holding its own by the +side of Brahmanism, sectarian belief in the Hindu gods seems to have +made steady progress. The caste-system, always calculated to favour +unity of religious practice within its social groups, must naturally +have contributed to the advance of sectarianism. Even greater was the +support it received later on from the Puranas, a class of poetical works +of a partly legendary, partly discursive and controversial character, +mainly composed in the interest of special deities, of which eighteen +principal (_maha-purana_) and as many secondary ones (_upa-purana_) are +recognized, the oldest of which may go back to about the 4th century of +our era. It was probably also during this period that the female element +was first definitely admitted to a prominent place amongst the divine +objects of sectarian worship, in the shape of the wives of the principal +gods viewed as their _sakti_, or female energy, theoretically identified +with the _Maya_, or cosmic Illusion, of the idealistic Vedanta, and the +_Prakriti_, or plastic matter, of the materialistic Sankhya philosophy, +as the primary source of mundane things. The connubial relations of the +deities may thus be considered "to typify the mystical union of the two +eternal principles, spirit and matter, for the production and +reproduction of the universe." But whilst this privilege of divine +worship was claimed for the consorts of all the gods, it is principally +to Siva's consort, in one or other of her numerous forms, that adoration +on an extensive scale came to be offered by a special sect of votaries, +the _Saktas_. + + + Sankara. + +In the midst of these conflicting tendencies, an attempt was made, about +the latter part of the 8th century, by the distinguished Malabar +theologian and philosopher Sankara Acharya to restore the Brahmanical +creed to something like its pristine purity, and thus once more to bring +about a uniform system of orthodox Hindu belief. Though himself, like +most Brahmans, apparently by predilection a follower of Siva, his aim +was the revival of the doctrine of the Brahma as the one self-existent +Being and the sole cause of the universe; coupled with the recognition +of the practical worship of the orthodox pantheon, especially the gods +of the Trimurti, as manifestations of the supreme deity. The practical +result of his labours was the foundation of a new sect, the _Smartas_, +i.e. adherents of the _smriti_ or tradition, which has a numerous +following amongst southern Brahmans, and, whilst professing Sankara's +doctrines, is usually classed as one of the Saiva sects, its members +adopting the horizontal sectarial mark peculiar to Saivas, consisting in +their case of a triple line, the _tripundra_, prepared from the ashes of +burnt cow-dung and painted on the forehead. Sankara also founded four +Maths, or convents, for Brahmans; the chief one being that of Sringeri +in Mysore, the spiritual head (_Guru_) of which wields considerable +power, even that of excommunication, over the Saivas of southern India. +In northern India, the professed followers of Sankara are mainly limited +to certain classes of mendicants and ascetics, although the tenets of +this great Vedanta teacher may be said virtually to constitute the creed +of intelligent Brahmans generally. + + Whilst Sankara's chief title to fame rests on his philosophical works, + as the upholder of the strict monistic theory of Vedanta, he doubtless + played an important part in the partial remodelling of the Hindu + system of belief at a time when Buddhism was rapidly losing ground in + India. Not that there is any evidence of Buddhists ever having been + actually persecuted by the Brahmans, or still less of Sankara himself + ever having done so; but the traditional belief in some personal god, + as the principal representative of an invisible, all-pervading deity, + would doubtless appeal more directly to the minds and hearts of the + people than the colourless ethical system promulgated by the Sakya + saint. Nor do Buddhist places of worship appear as a rule to have been + destroyed by Hindu sectaries, but they seem rather to have been taken + over by them for their own religious uses; at any rate there are to + this day not a few Hindu shrines, especially in Bengal, dedicated to + Dharmaraj, "the prince of righteousness," as the Buddha is commonly + styled. That the tenets and practices of so characteristic a faith as + Buddhism, so long prevalent in India, cannot but have left their marks + on Hindu life and belief may readily be assumed, though it is not so + easy to lay one's finger on the precise features that might seem to + betray such an influence. If the general tenderness towards animals, + based on the principle of _ahimsa_, or inflicting no injury on + sentient beings, be due to Buddhist teaching, that influence must have + made itself felt at a comparatively early period, seeing that + sentiments of a similar nature are repeatedly urged in the Code of + Manu. Thus, in v. 46-48, "He who does not willingly cause the pain of + confinement and death to living beings, but desires the good of all, + obtains endless bliss. He who injures no creature obtains without + effort what he thinks of, what he strives for, and what he fixes his + mind on. Flesh-meat cannot be procured without injury to animals, and + the slaughter of animals is not conducive to heavenly bliss: from + flesh-meat, therefore, let man abstain." Moreover, in view of the fact + that Jainism, which originated about the same time as Buddhism, + inculcates the same principle, even to an extravagant degree, it seems + by no means improbable that the spirit of kindliness towards living + beings generally was already widely diffused among the people when + these new doctrines were promulgated. To the same tendency doubtless + is due the gradual decline and ultimate discontinuance of animal + sacrifices by all sects except the extreme branch of + Sakti-worshippers. In this respect, the veneration shown to serpents + and monkeys has, however, to be viewed in a somewhat different light, + as having a mythical background; whilst quite a special significance + attaches to the sacred character assigned to the cow by all classes of + Hindus, even those who are not prepared to admit the claim of the + Brahman to the exalted position of the earthly god usually conceded to + him. In the Veda no tendency shows itself as yet towards rendering + divine honour to the cow; and though the importance assigned her in an + agricultural community is easily understood, still the exact process + of her deification and her identification with the mother earth in the + time of Manu and the epics requires further elucidation. An idealized + type of the useful quadruped--likewise often identified with the + earth--presents itself in the mythical Cow of Plenty, or "wish-cow" + (Kamadhenu, or Kamadugha, i.e. wish-milker), already appearing in the + Atharvaveda, and in epic times assigned to Indra, or identified with + Surabhi, "the fragrant," the sacred cow of the sage Vasishtha. + Possibly the growth of the legend of Krishna--his being reared at + Gokula (cow-station); his tender relations to the _gopis_, or + cow-herdesses, of Vrindavana; his epithets _Gopala_, "the cowherd," + and _Govinda_, "cow-finder," actually explained as "recoverer of the + earth" in the great epic, and the _go-loka_, or "cow-world," assigned + to him as his heavenly abode--may have some connexion with the sacred + character ascribed to the cow from early times. + + + Worship. + +Since the time of Sankara, or for more than a thousand years, the gods +Vishnu and Siva, or _Hari_ and _Hara_ as they are also commonly +called--with their wives, especially that of the latter god--have shared +between them the practical worship of the vast majority of Hindus. But, +though the people have thus been divided between two different religious +camps, sectarian animosity has upon the whole kept within reasonable +limits. In fact, the respectable Hindu, whilst owning special allegiance +to one of the two gods as his _ishta devata_ (favourite deity), will not +withhold his tribute of adoration from the other gods of the pantheon. +The high-caste Brahman will probably keep at his home a salagram stone, +the favourite symbol of Vishnu, as well as the characteristic emblems of +Siva and his consort, to both of which he will do reverence in the +morning; and when he visits some holy place of pilgrimage, he will not +fail to pay his homage at both the Saiva and the Vaishnava shrines +there. Indeed, "sectarian bigotry and exclusiveness are to be found +chiefly among the professional leaders of the modern brotherhoods and +their low-caste followers, who are taught to believe that theirs are the +only true gods, and that the rest do not deserve any reverence whatever" +(Jog. Nath). The same spirit of toleration shows itself in the +celebration of the numerous religious festivals. Whilst some of +these--e.g. the _Sankranti_ (called _Pongal_, i.e. "boiled rice," in the +south), which marks the entrance of the sun into the sign of Capricorn +and the beginning of its northward course (_uttarayana_) on the 1st day +of the month Magha (c. Jan. 12); the _Ganesa-caturthi_, or 4th day of +the light fortnight of Bhadra (August-September), considered the +birthday of Ganesa, the god of wisdom; and the _Holi_, the Indian +Saturnalia in the month of Phalguna (February to March)--have nothing of +a sectarian tendency about them; others again, which are of a distinctly +sectarian character--such as the _Krishna-janmashtami_, the birthday of +Krishna on the 8th day of the dark half of Bhadra, or (in the south) of +Sravana (July-August), the _Durga-puja_ and the _Dipavali_, or lamp +feast, celebrating Krishna's victory over the demon Narakasura, on the +last two days of Asvina (September-October)--are likewise observed and +heartily joined in by the whole community irrespective of sect. Widely +different, however, as is the character of the two leading gods are also +the modes of worship practised by their votaries. + +_Siva_ has at all times been the favourite god of the Brahmans,[5] and +his worship is accordingly more widely extended than that of his rival, +especially in southern India. Indeed there is hardly a village in India +which cannot boast of a shrine dedicated to Siva, and containing the +emblem of his reproductive power; for almost the only form in which the +"Great God" is adored is the _Linga_, consisting usually of an upright +cylindrical block of marble or other stone, mostly resting on a circular +perforated slab. The mystic nature of these emblems seems, however, to +be but little understood by the common people; and, as H. H. Wilson +remarks, "notwithstanding the acknowledged purport of this worship, it +is but justice to state that it is unattended in Upper India by any +indecent or indelicate ceremonies, and it requires a rather lively +imagination to trace any resemblance in its symbols to the objects they +are supposed to represent." In spite, however, of its wide diffusion, +and the vast number of shrines dedicated to it, the worship of Siva has +never assumed a really popular character, especially in northern India, +being attended with scarcely any solemnity or display of emotional +spirit. The temple, which usually stands in the middle of a court, is as +a rule a building of very moderate dimensions, consisting either of a +single square chamber, surmounted by a pyramidal structure, or of a +chamber for the linga and a small vestibule. The worshipper, having +first circumambulated the shrine as often as he pleases, keeping it at +his right-hand side, steps up to the threshold of the sanctum, and +presents his offering of flowers or fruit, which the officiating priest +receives; he then prostrates himself, or merely lifts his hands--joined +so as to leave a hollow space between the palms--to his forehead, +muttering a short prayer, and takes his departure. Amongst the many +thousands of Lingas, twelve are usually regarded as of especial +sanctity, one of which, that of Somnath in Gujarat, where Siva is +worshipped as "the lord of Soma," was, however, shattered by Mahmud of +Ghazni; whilst another, representing Siva as _Visvesvara_, or "Lord of +the Universe," is the chief object of adoration at Benares, the great +centre of Siva-worship. The Saivas of southern India, on the other hand, +single out as peculiarly sacred five of their temples which are supposed +to enshrine as many characteristic aspects (linga) of the god in the +form of the five elements, the most holy of these being the shrine of +Chidambaram (i.e. "thought-ether") in S. Arcot, supposed to contain the +ether-linga. According to Pandit S. M. Natesa (_Hindu Feasts, Fasts and +Ceremonies_), "the several forms of the god Siva in these sacred shrines +are considered to be the bodies or casements of the soul whose natural +bases are the five elements--earth, water, fire, air and ether. The +apprehension of God in the last of these five as ether is, according to +the Saiva school of philosophy, the highest form of worship, for it is +not the worship of God in a tangible form, but the worship of what, to +ordinary minds, is vacuum, which nevertheless leads to the attainment of +a knowledge of the all-pervading without physical accessories in the +shape of any linga, which is, after all, an emblem. That this is the +case at Chidambaram is known to every Hindu, for if he ever asks the +priests to show him the God in the temple he is pointed to an empty +space in the holy of holies, which has been termed the Akasa, or +ether-linga." But, however congenial this refined symbolism may be to +the worshipper of a speculative turn of mind, it is difficult to see how +it could ever satisfy the religious wants of the common man little given +to abstract conceptions of this kind. + + + Mendicant orders. + +From early times, detachment from the world and the practice of +austerities have been regarded in India as peculiarly conducive to a +spirit of godliness, and ultimately to a state of ecstatic communion +with the deity. On these grounds it was actually laid down as a rule for +a man solicitous for his spiritual welfare to pass the last two of the +four stages (_asrama_) of his life in such conditions of renunciation +and self-restraint. Though there is hardly a sect which has not +contributed its share to the element of religious mendicancy and +asceticism so prevalent in India, it is in connexion with the Siva-cult +that these tendencies have been most extensively cultivated. Indeed, the +personality of the stern God himself exhibits this feature in a very +marked degree, whence the term _mahayogi_ or "great ascetic" is often +applied to him. + + Of Saiva mendicant and ascetic orders, the members of which are + considered more or less followers of Sankara Acharya, the following + may be mentioned: (1) _Dandis_, or staff-bearers, who carry a wand + with a piece of red cloth, containing the sacred cord, attached to it, + and also wear one or more pieces of cloth of the same colour. They + worship Siva in his form of Bhairava, the "terrible." A sub-section of + this order are the Dandi Dasnamis, or Dandi of ten names, so called + from their assuming one of the names of Sankara's four disciples, and + six of their pupils. (2) _Yogis_ (or popularly, Jogis), i.e. adherents + of the Yoga philosophy and the system of ascetic practices enjoined by + it with the view of mental abstraction and the supposed attainment of + superhuman powers--practices which, when not merely pretended, but + rigidly carried out, are only too apt to produce vacuity of mind and + wild fits of frenzy. In these degenerate days their supernatural + powers consist chiefly in conjuring, sooth-saying, and feats of + jugglery, by which they seldom fail in imposing upon a credulous + public. (3) _Sannyasis_, devotees who "renounce" earthly concerns, an + order not confined either to the Brahmanical caste or to the Saiva + persuasion. Those of the latter are in the habit of smearing their + bodies with ashes, and wearing a tiger-skin and a necklace or rosary + of _rudraksha_ berries (Elaeocarpus Ganitrus, lit. "Rudra's eye"), + sacred to Siva, and allowing their hair to grow till it becomes matted + and filthy. (4) _Parama-hamsas_, i.e. "supreme geese (or swans)," a + term applied to the world-soul with which they claim to be identical. + This is the highest order of asceticism, members of which are supposed + to be solely engaged in meditating on the Brahma, and to be "equally + indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible of heat or cold, and + incapable of satiety or want." Some of them go about naked, but the + majority are clad like the Dandis. (5) _Aghora Panthis_, a vile and + disreputable class of mendicants, now rarely met with. Their filthy + habits and disgusting practices of gross promiscuous feeding, even to + the extent of eating offal and dead men's flesh, look almost like a + direct repudiation of the strict Brahmanical code of ceremonial purity + and cleanliness, and of the rules regulating the matter and manner of + eating and drinking; and they certainly make them objects of loathing + and terror wherever they are seen. + + On the general effect of the manner of life led by _Sadhus_ or "holy + men," a recent observer (J. C. Oman, _Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of + India_, p. 273) remarks: "_Sadhuism_, whether perpetuating the + peculiar idea of the efficiency of austerities for the acquisition of + far-reaching powers over natural phenomena, or bearing its testimony + to the belief in the indispensableness of detachment from the world as + a preparation for the ineffable joy of ecstatic communion with the + Divine Being, has undoubtedly tended to keep before men's eyes, as the + highest ideal, a life of purity, self-restraint, and contempt of the + world and human affairs. It has also necessarily maintained amongst + the laity a sense of the righteous claims of the poor upon the charity + of the more affluent members of the community. Moreover, _sadhuism_, + by the multiplicity of the independent sects which have arisen in + India, has engendered and favoured a spirit of tolerance which cannot + escape the notice of the most superficial observer." + + + Lingayats. + +An independent Saiva sect, or, indeed, the only strictly Saiva sect, are +the _Vira Saivas_, more commonly called _Lingayats_ (popularly Lingaits) +or _Lingavats_, from their practice of wearing on their person a phallic +emblem of Siva, made of copper or silver, and usually enclosed in a case +suspended from the neck by a string. Apparently from the movable nature +of their badge, their _Gurus_ are called _Jangamas_ ("movable"). This +sect counts numerous adherents in southern India; the Census Report of +1901 recording nearly a million and a half, including some 70 or 80 +different, mostly endogamous, castes. The reputed founder, or rather +reformer, of the sect was Basava (or Basaba), a Brahman of the Belgaum +district who seems to have lived in the 11th or 12th century. According +to the Basava-purana he early in life renounced his caste and went to +reside at Kalyana, then the capital of the Chalukya kingdom, and later +on at Sangamesvara near Ratnagiri, where he was initiated into the Vira +Saiva faith which he subsequently made it his life's work to propagate. +His doctrine, which may be said to constitute a kind of reaction against +the severe sacerdotalism of Sankara, has spread over all classes of the +southern community, most of the priests of Saiva temples there being +adherents of it; whilst in northern India its votaries are only +occasionally met with, and then mostly as mendicants, leading about a +neatly caparisoned bull as representing Siva's sacred bull _Nandi_. +Though the Lingayats still show a certain animosity towards the +Brahmans, and in the Census lists are accordingly classed as an +independent group beside the Hindus, still they can hardly be excluded +from the Hindu community, and are sure sooner or later to find their way +back to the Brahmanical fold. + + + Avatars. + +Vishnu, whilst less popular with Brahmans than his rival, has from early +times proved to the lay mind a more attractive object of adoration on +account of the genial and, so to speak, romantic character of his +mythical personality. It is not, however, so much the original figure of +the god himself that enlists the sympathies of his adherents as the +additional elements it has received through the theory of periodical +"descents" (_avatara_) or incarnations applied to this deity. Whilst the +Saiva philosophers do not approve of the notion of incarnations, as +being derogatory to the dignity of the deity, the Brahmans have +nevertheless thought fit to adopt it as apparently a convenient +expedient for bringing certain tendencies of popular worship within the +pale of their system, and probably also for counteracting the Buddhist +doctrines; and for this purpose Vishnu would obviously offer himself as +the most attractive figure in the Brahmanical trinity. Whether the +incarnation theory started from the original solar nature of the god +suggestive of regular visits to the world of men, or in what other way +it may have originated, must remain doubtful. Certain, however, it is +that at least one of his Avatars is clearly based on the Vedic +conception of the sun-god, viz. that of the dwarf who claims as much +ground as he can cover by three steps, and then gains the whole universe +by his three mighty strides. Of the ten or more Avatars, assumed by +different authorities, only two have entered to any considerable extent +into the religious worship of the people, viz. those of _Rama_ (or +Ramachandra) and _Krishna_, the favourite heroes of epic romance. That +these two figures would appeal far more strongly to the hearts and +feelings of the people, especially the warlike Kshatriyas,[6] than the +austere Siva is only what might have been expected; and, indeed, since +the time of the epics their cult seems never to have lacked numerous +adherents. But, on the other hand, the essentially human nature of these +two gods would naturally tend to modify the character of the relations +between worshipper and worshipped, and to impart to the modes and forms +of adoration features of a more popular and more human kind. And +accordingly it is exactly in connexion with these two incarnations of +Vishnu, especially that of Krishna, that a new spirit was infused into +the religious life of the people by the sentiment of fervent devotion to +the deity, as it found expression in certain portions of the epic poems, +especially the _Bhagavadgita_, and in the _Bhagavata-purana_ (as against +the more orthodox Vaishnava works of this class such as the +Vishnu-purana), and was formulated into a regular doctrine of faith in +the _Sandilya-sutra_, and ultimately translated into practice by the +Vaishnava reformers. + + + Ramanujas. + +The first successful Vaishnava reaction against Sankara's reconstructed +creed was led by Ramanuja, a southern Brahman of the 12th century. His +followers, the Ramanujas, or Sri-Vaishnavas as they are usually called, +worship Vishnu (Narayana) with his consort Sri or Lakshmi (the goddess +of beauty and fortune), or their incarnations Rama with Sita and Krishna +with Rukmini. Ramanuja's doctrine, which is especially directed against +the Linga-worship, is essentially based on the tenets of an old +Vaishnava sect, the Bhagavatas or Pancharatras, who worshipped the +Supreme Being under the name of Vasudeva (subsequently identified with +Krishna, as the son of Vasudeva, who indeed is credited by some scholars +with the foundation of that monotheistic creed). The sectarial mark of +the Ramanujas resembles a capital U (or, in the case of another +division, a Y), painted with a white clay called gopi-chandana, between +the hair and the root of the nose, with a red or yellow vertical stroke +(representing the female element) between the two white lines. They also +usually wear, like all Vaishnavas, a necklace of _tulasi_, or basil +wood, and a rosary of seeds of the same shrub or of the lotus. Their +most important shrines are those of Srirangam near Trichinopoly, +Mailkote in Mysore, Dvaraka (the city of Krishna) on the Kathiawar +coast, and Jagannath in Orissa; all of them decorated with Vishnu's +emblems, the tulasi plant and salagram stone. The Ramanuja Brahmans are +most punctilious in the preparation of their food and in regard to the +privacy of their meals, before taking which they have to bathe and put +on woollen or silk garments. Whilst Sankara's mendicant followers were +prohibited to touch fire and had to subsist entirely on the charity of +Brahman householders, Ramanuja, on the contrary, not only allowed his +followers to use fire, but strictly forbade their eating any food +cooked, or even seen, by a stranger. On the speculative side, Ramanuja +also met Sankara's strictly monistic theory by another recognizing +Vishnu as identical with Brahma as the Supreme Spirit animating the +material world as well as the individual souls which have become +estranged from God through unbelief, and can only attain again conscious +union with him through devotion or love (_bhakti_). His tenets are +expounded in various works, especially in his commentaries on the +Vedanta-sutras and the Bhagavadgita. The followers of Ramanuja have +split into two sects, a northern one, recognizing the Vedas as their +chief authority, and a southern one, basing their tenets on the Nalayir, +a Tamil work of the Upanishad order. In point of doctrine, they differ +in their view of the relation between God Vishnu and the human soul; +whilst the former sect define it by the _ape_ theory, which makes the +soul cling to God as the young ape does to its mother, the latter +explain it by the cat theory, by which Vishnu himself seizes and rescues +the souls as the mother cat does her young ones. + + + Madhvas. + +_Madhva Acharya_, another distinguished Vedanta teacher and founder of a +Vaishnava sect, born in Kanara in A.D. 1199, was less intolerant of the +Linga cult than Ramanuja, but seems rather to have aimed at a +reconciliation of the Saiva and Vaishnava forms of worship. The +_Madhvas_ or _Madhvacharis_ favour Krishna and his consort as their +special objects of adoration, whilst images of Siva, Parvati, and their +son Ganesa are, however, likewise admitted and worshipped in some of +their temples, the most important of which is at Udipi in South Kanara, +with eight monasteries connected with it. This shrine contains an image +of Krishna which is said to have been rescued from the wreck of a ship +which brought it from Dvaraka, where it was supposed to have been set up +of old by no other than Krishna's friend Arjuna, one of the five Pandava +princes. Followers of the Madhva creed are but rarely met with in Upper +India. Their sectarial mark is like the U of the Sri-Vaishnavas, except +that their central line is black instead of red or yellow. Madhva--who +after his initiation assumed the name Anandatirtha--composed numerous +Sanskrit works, including commentaries on the Brahma sutras (i.e. the +Vedanta aphorisms), the Gita, the Rigveda and many Upanishads. His +philosophical theory was a dualistic one, postulating distinctness of +nature for the divine and the human soul, and hence independent +existence, instead of absorption, after the completion of mundane +existence. + + + Ramats. + +The Ramanandis or Ramavats (popularly Ramats) are a numerous northern +sect of similar tenets to those of the Ramanujas. Indeed its founder, +Ramananda, who probably flourished in the latter part of the 14th +century, according to the traditional account, was originally a +Sri-Vaishnava monk, and, having come under the suspicion of laxity in +observing the strict rules of food during his peregrinations, and been +ordered by his superior (Mahant) to take his meals apart from his +brethren, left the monastery in a huff and set up a schismatic math of +his own at Benares. The sectarial mark of his sect differs but slightly +from that of the parent stock. The distinctive features of their creed +consist in their making Rama and Sita, either singly or conjointly, the +chief objects of their adoration, instead of Vishnu and Lakshmi, and +their attaching little or no importance to the observance of privacy in +the cooking and eating of their food. Their mendicant members, usually +known as Vairagis, are, like the general body of the sect, drawn from +all castes without distinction. Thus, the founder's twelve chief +disciples include, besides Brahmans, a weaver, a currier, a Rajput, a +Jat and a barber--for, they argue, seeing that Bhagavan, the Holy One +(Vishnu), became incarnate even in animal form, a Bhakta (believer) may +be born even in the lowest of castes. Ramananda's teaching was thus of a +distinctly levelling and popular character; and, in accordance +therewith, the Bhakta-mala and other authoritative writings of the sect +are composed, not in Sanskrit, but in the popular dialects. A follower +of this creed was the distinguished poet Tulsidas, the composer of the +beautiful Hindi version of the Ramayana and other works which "exercise +more influence upon the great body of Hindu population than the whole +voluminous series of Sanskrit composition" (H. H. Wilson). + + + Kabir. + +The traditional list of Ramananda's immediate disciples includes the +name of Kabir, the weaver, a remarkable man who would accordingly have +lived in the latter part of the 15th century, and who is claimed by both +Hindus and Moslems as having been born within their fold. The story goes +that, having been deeply impressed by Ramananda's teaching, he sought to +attach himself to him; and, one day at Benares, in stepping down the +ghat at daybreak to bathe in the Ganges, and putting himself in the way +of the teacher, the latter, having inadvertently struck him with his +foot, uttered his customary exclamation "Ram Ram," which, being also the +initiatory formula of the sect, was claimed by Kabir as such, making him +Ramananda's disciple. Be this as it may, Kabir's own reformatory +activity lay in the direction of a compromise between the Hindu and the +Mahommedan creeds, the religious practices of both of which he +criticized with equal severity. His followers, the Kabir Panthis ("those +following Kabir's path"), though neither worshipping the gods of the +pantheon, nor observing the rites and ceremonial of the Hindus, are +nevertheless in close touch with the Vaishnava sects, especially the +Ramavats, and generally worship Rama as the supreme deity, when they do +not rather address their homage, in hymns and otherwise, to the founder +of their creed himself. Whilst very numerous, particularly amongst the +low-caste population, in western, central and northern India, resident +adherents of Kabir's doctrine are rare in Bengal and the south; although +"there is hardly a town in India where strolling beggars may not be +found singing songs of Kabir in the original or as translated into the +local dialects." The mendicants of this creed, however, never actually +solicit alms; and, indeed, "the quaker-like spirit of the sect, their +abhorrence of all violence, their regard for truth and the +inobtrusiveness of their opinions render them very inoffensive members +of the state" (H. H. Wilson). The doctrines of Kabir are taught, mostly +in the form of dialogues, in numerous Hindi works, composed by his +disciples and adherents, who, however, usually profess to give the +teacher's own words. + +The peculiar conciliatory tendencies of Kabir were carried on with even +greater zeal from the latter part of the 15th century by one of his +followers, Nanak Shah, the promulgator of the creed of the _Nanak +Shahis_ or _Sikhs_--i.e. (Sanskr.) _sishya_, disciples, whose guru, or +teacher, he called himself--a peaceful sect at first until, in +consequence of Mahommedan persecution, a martial spirit was infused into +it by the tenth, and last, guru, Govind Shah, changing it into a +political organization. Whilst originally more akin in its principles to +the Moslem faith, the sect seems latterly to have shown tendencies +towards drifting back to the Hindu pale. + + Of Ramananda's disciples and successors several others, besides Kabir, + have established schismatic divisions of their own, which do not, + however, offer any very marked differences of creed. The most + important of these, the Dadu Panthi sect, founded by Dadu about the + year 1600, has a numerous following in Ajmir and Marwar, one section + of whom, the Nagas, engage largely in military service, whilst the + others are either householders or mendicants. The followers of this + creed wear no distinctive sectarial mark or badge, except a skull-cap; + nor do they worship any visible image of any deity, the repetition + (_japa_) of the name of Rama being the only kind of adoration + practised by them. + + + Eroticism and Krishna worship. + +Although the Vaishnava sects hitherto noticed, in their adoration of +Vishnu and his incarnations, Krishna and Ramachandra, usually associate +with these gods their wives, as their _saktis_, or female energies, the +sexual element is, as a rule, only just allowed sufficient scope to +enhance the emotional character of the rites of worship. In some of the +later Vaishnava creeds, on the other hand, this element is far from +being kept within the bounds of moderation and decency. The favourite +object of adoration with adherents of these sects is Krishna with his +mate--but not the devoted friend and counsellor of the Pandavas and +deified hero of epic song, nor the ruler of Dvaraka and wedded lord of +Rukmini, but the juvenile Krishna, Govinda or Bala Gopala, "the cowherd +lad," the foster son of the cowherd Nanda of Gokula, taken up with his +amorous sports with the _Gopis_, or wives of the cowherds of Vrindavana +(Brindaban, near Mathura on the Yamuna), especially his favourite +mistress Radha or Radhika. This episode in the legendary life of Krishna +has every appearance of being a later accretion. After barely a few +allusions to it in the epics, it bursts forth full-blown in the +Harivansa, the Vishnu-purana, the Narada-Pancharatra and the +Bhagavata-purana, the tenth canto of which, dealing with the life of +Krishna, has become, through vernacular versions, especially the Hindi +_Prem-sagar_, or "ocean of love," a favourite romance all over India, +and has doubtless helped largely to popularize the cult of Krishna. +Strange to say, however, no mention is as yet made by any of these works +of Krishna's favourite Radha; it is only in another Purana--though +scarcely deserving that designation--that she makes her appearance, viz. +in the Brahma-vaivarta, in which Krishna's amours in Nanda's cow-station +are dwelt upon in fulsome and wearisome detail; whilst the poet +Jayadeva, in the 12th century, made her love for the gay and inconstant +boy the theme of his beautiful, if highly voluptuous, lyrical drama, +_Gita-govinda_. + + The earliest of the sects which associate Radha with Krishna in their + worship is that of the Nimavats, founded by Nimbaditya or Nimbarka + (i.e. "the sun of the Nimba tree"), a teacher of uncertain date, said + to have been a Telugu Brahman who subsequently established himself at + Mathura (Muttra) on the Yamuna, where the headquarters of his sect + have remained ever since. The Mahant of their monastery at Dhruva + Kshetra near Mathura, who claims direct descent from Nimbarka, is said + to place the foundation of that establishment as far back as the 5th + century--doubtless an exaggerated claim; but if Jayadeva, as is + alleged, and seems by no means improbable, was really a follower of + Nimbarka, this teacher must have flourished, at latest, in the early + part of the 12th century. He is indeed taken by some authorities to be + identical with the mathematician Bhaskara Acharya, who is known to + have completed his chief work in A.D. 1150. It is worthy of remark, in + this respect, that--in accordance with Ramanuja's and Nimbarka's + philosophical theories--Jayadeva's presentation of Krishna's fickle + love for Radha is usually interpreted in a mystical sense, as + allegorically depicting the human soul's striving, through love, for + reunion with God, and its ultimate attainment, after many + backslidings, of the longed-for goal. As the chief authority of their + tenets, the Nimavats recognize the Bhagavata-purana; though several + works, ascribed to Nimbarka--partly of a devotional character and + partly expository of Vedanta topics--are still extant. Adherents of + this sect are fairly numerous in northern India, their frontal mark + consisting of the usual two perpendicular white lines, with, however, + a circular black spot between them. + + Of greater importance than the sect just noticed, because of their far + larger following, are the two sects founded early in the 16th century + by Vallabha (Ballabha) Acharya and Chaitanya. In the forms of worship + favoured by votaries of these creeds the emotional and erotic elements + are allowed yet freer scope than in those that preceded them; and, as + an effective auxiliary to these tendencies, the use of the vernacular + dialects in prayers and hymns of praise takes an important part in the + religious service. The Vallabhacharis, or, as they are usually called, + from the title of their spiritual heads, the Gokulastha Gosains, i.e. + "the cow-lords (_gosvamin_) residing in Gokula," are very numerous in + western and central India. Vallabha, the son of a Telinga Brahman, + after extensive journeyings all over India, settled at Gokula near + Mathura, and set up a shrine with an image of Krishna Gopala. About + the year 1673, in consequence of the fanatical persecutions of the + Mogul emperor, this image was transferred to Nathdvara in Udaipur + (Mewar), where the shrine of Srinatha ("the lord of Sri," i.e. Vishnu) + continues to be the chief centre of worship for adherents of this + creed; whilst seven other images, transferred from Mathura at the same + time, are located at different places in Rajputana. Vallabha himself + went subsequently to reside at Benares, where he died. In the doctrine + of this Vaishnava prophet, the adualistic theory of Sankara is + resorted to as justifying a joyful and voluptuous cult of the deity. + For, if the human soul is identical with God, the practice of + austerities must be discarded as directed against God, and it is + rather by a free indulgence of the natural appetites and the pleasures + of life that man's love for God will best be shown. The followers of + his creed, amongst whom there are many wealthy merchants and bankers, + direct their worship chiefly to Gopal Lal, the boyish Krishna of + Vrindavana, whose image is sedulously attended like a revered living + person eight times a day--from its early rising from its couch up to + its retiring to repose at night. The sectarial mark of the adherents + consists of two red perpendicular lines, meeting in a semicircle at + the root of the nose, and having a round red spot painted between + them. Their principal doctrinal authority is the Bhagavata-purana, as + commented upon by Vallabha himself, who was also the author of several + other Sanskrit works highly esteemed by his followers. In this sect, + children are solemnly admitted to full membership at the early age of + four, and even two, years of age, when a rosary, or necklace, of 108 + beads of basil (tulsi) wood is passed round their necks, and they are + taught the use of the octo-syllabic formula _Sri-Krishnah saranam + mama_, "Holy Krishna is my refuge." Another special feature of this + sect is that their spiritual heads, the Gosains, also called + Maharajas, so far from submitting themselves to self-discipline and + austere practices, adorn themselves in splendid garments, and allow + themselves to be habitually regaled by their adherents with choice + kinds of food; and being regarded as the living representatives of the + "lord of the Gopis" himself, they claim and receive in their own + persons all acts of attachment and worship due to the deity, even, it + is alleged, to the extent of complete self-surrender. In the final + judgment of the famous libel case of the Bombay Maharajas, before the + Supreme Court of Bombay, in January 1862, these improprieties were + severely commented upon; and though so unsparing a critic of Indian + sects as Jogendra Nath seems not to believe in actual immoral + practices on the part of the Maharajas, still he admits that "the + corrupting influence of a religion, that can make its female votaries + address amorous songs to their spiritual guides, must be very great." + + A modern offshoot of Vallabha's creed, formed with the avowed object + of purging it of its objectionable features, was started, in the early + years of the 19th century, by Sahajananda, a Brahman of the Oudh + country, who subsequently assumed the name of Svami Narayana. Having + entered on his missionary labours at Ahmadabad, and afterwards removed + to Jetalpur, where he had a meeting with Bishop Heber, he subsequently + settled at the village of Wartal, to the north-west of Baroda, and + erected a temple to Lakshmi-Narayana, which, with another at + Ahmadabad, forms the two chief centres of the sect, each being + presided over by a Maharaja. Their worship is addressed to Narayana, + i.e. Vishnu, as the Supreme Being, together with Lakshmi, as well as + to Krishna and Radha. The sect is said to be gaining ground in + Gujarat. Chaitanya, the founder of the great Vaishnava sect of + Bengal, was the son of a high-caste Brahman of Nadiya, the famous + Bengal seat of Sanskrit learning, where he was born in 1485, two years + after the birth of Martin Luther, the German reformer. Having married + in due time, and a second time after the death of his first wife, he + lived as a "householder" (_grihastha_) till the age of 24, when he + renounced his family ties and set out as a religious mendicant + (_vairagin_), visiting during the next six years the principal places + of pilgrimage in northern India, and preaching with remarkable success + his doctrine of Bhakti, or passionate devotion to Krishna, as the + Supreme Deity. He subsequently made over to his principal disciples + the task of consolidating his community, and passed the last twelve + years of his life at Puri in Orissa, the great centre of the worship + of Vishnu as Jagannatha, or "lord of the world," which he remodelled + in accordance with his doctrine, causing the mystic songs of Jayadeva + to be recited before the images in the morning and evening as part of + the daily service; and, in fact, as in the other Vaishnava creeds, + seeking to humanize divine adoration by bringing it into accord with + the experience of human love. To this end, music, dancing, + singing-parties (_sankirtan_), theatricals--in short anything + calculated to produce the desired impression--would prove welcome to + him. His doctrine of Bhakti distinguishes five grades of devotional + feeling in the _Bhaktas_, or faithful adherents: viz. (_santi_) calm + contemplation of the deity; (_dasya_) active servitude; (_sakhya_) + friendship or personal regard; (_vatsalya_) tender affection as + between parents and children; (_madhurya_) love or passionate + attachment, like that which the Gopis felt for Krishna. Chaitanya also + seems to have done much to promote the celebration on an imposing + scale of the great Puri festival of the Ratha-yatra, or + "car-procession," in the month of Ashadha, when, amidst multitudes of + pilgrims, the image of Krishna, together with those of his brother + Balarama and his sister Subhadra, is drawn along, in a huge car, by + the devotees. Just as this festival was, and continues to be, attended + by people from all parts of India, without distinction of caste or + sex, so also were all classes, even Mahommedans, admitted by Chaitanya + as members of his sect. Whilst numerous observances are recommended as + more or less meritorious, the ordinary form of worship is a very + simple one, consisting as it does mainly of the constant repetition of + names of Krishna, or Krishna and Radha, which of itself is considered + sufficient to ensure future bliss. The partaking of flesh food and + spirituous liquor is strictly prohibited. By the followers of this + sect, also, an extravagant degree of reverence is habitually paid to + their gurus or spiritual heads. Indeed, Chaitanya himself, as well as + his immediate disciples, have come to be regarded as complete or + partial incarnations of the deity to whom adoration is due, as to + Krishna himself; and their modern successors, the Gosains, share to + the fullest extent in the devout attentions of the worshippers. + Chaitanya's movement, being chiefly directed against the vile + practices of the Saktas, then very prevalent in Bengal, was doubtless + prompted by the best and purest of intentions; but his own doctrine of + divine, though all too human, love was, like that of Vallabha, by no + means free from corruptive tendencies,--yet, how far these tendencies + have worked their way, who would say? On this point, Dr W. W. + Hunter--who is of opinion that "the death of the reformer marks the + beginning of the spiritual decline of Vishnu-worship," observes + (_Orissa_, i. 111), "The most deplorable corruption of Vishnu-worship + at the present day is that which has covered the temple walls with + indecent sculptures, and filled its innermost sanctuaries with + licentious rites" ... yet ... "it is difficult for a person not a + Hindu to pronounce upon the real extent of the evil. None but a Hindu + can enter any of the larger temples, and none but a Hindu priest + really knows the truth about their inner mysteries"; whilst the + well-known native scholar Babu Rajendralal Mitra points out + (_Antiquities of Orissa_, i. 111) that "such as they are, these + sculptures date from centuries before the birth of Chaitanya, and + cannot, therefore, be attributed to his doctrines or to his followers. + As a Hindu by birth, and a Vaishnava by family religion, I have had + the freest access to the innermost sanctuaries and to the most secret + of scriptures. I have studied the subject most extensively, and have + had opportunities of judging which no European can have, and I have no + hesitation in saying that, 'the mystic songs' of Jayadeva and the + 'ocean of love' notwithstanding, there is nothing in the rituals of + Jagannatha which can be called licentious." Whilst in Chaitanya's + creed, Krishna, in his relations to Radha, remains at least + theoretically the chief partner, an almost inevitable step was taken + by some minor sects in attaching the greater importance to the female + element, and making Krishna's love for his mistress the guiding + sentiment of their faith. Of these sects, it will suffice to mention + that of the Radha-Vallabhis, started in the latter part of the 16th + century, who worship Krishna as Radha-vallabha, "the darling of + Radha." The doctrines and practices of these sects clearly verge upon + those obtaining in the third principal division of Indian sectarians + which will now be considered. + + + Saktas + +The Saktas, as we have seen, are worshippers of the _sakti_, or the +female principle as a primary factor in the creation and reproduction of +the universe. And as each of the principal gods is supposed to have +associated with him his own particular _sakti_, as an indispensable +complement enabling him to properly perform his cosmic functions, +adherents of this persuasion might be expected to be recruited from all +sects. To a certain extent this is indeed the case; but though +Vaishnavism, and especially the Krishna creed, with its luxuriant growth +of erotic legends, might have seemed peculiarly favourable to a +development in this direction, it is practically only in connexion with +the Saiva system that an independent cult of the female principle has +been developed; whilst in other sects--and, indeed, in the ordinary +Saiva cult as well--such worship, even where it is at all prominent, is +combined with, and subordinated to, that of the male principle. What has +made this cult attach itself more especially to the Saiva creed is +doubtless the character of Siva as the type of reproductive power, in +addition to his function as destroyer which, as we shall see, is +likewise reflected in some of the forms of his Sakti. The theory of the +god and his Sakti as cosmic principles is perhaps already foreshadowed +in the Vedic couple of Heaven and Earth, whilst in the speculative +treatises of the later Vedic period, as well as in the post-Vedic +Brahmanical writings, the assumption of the self-existent being dividing +himself into a male and a female half usually forms the starting-point +of cosmic evolution.[7] In the later Saiva mythology this theory finds +its artistic representation in Siva's androgynous form of Ardha-narisa, +or "half-woman-lord," typifying the union of the male and female +energies; the male half in this form of the deity occupying the +right-hand, and the female the left-hand side. In accordance with this +type of productive energy, the Saktas divide themselves into two +distinct groups, according to whether they attach the greater importance +to the male or to the female principle; viz. the _Dakshinacharis_, or +"right-hand-observers" (also called _Dak-shina-margis_, or followers "of +the right-hand path"), and the _Vamacharis_, or "left-hand-observers" +(or _Vama-margis_, followers "of the left path"). Though some of the +Puranas, the chief repositories of sectarian doctrines, enter largely +into Sakta topics, it is only in the numerous Tantras that these are +fully and systematically developed. In these works, almost invariably +composed in the form of a colloquy, Siva, as a rule, in answer to +questions asked by his consort Parvati, unfolds the mysteries of this +occult creed. + + The principal seat of Sakta worship is the north-eastern part of + India--Bengal, Assam and Behar. The great majority of its adherents + profess to follow the right-hand practice; and apart from the implied + purport and the emblems of the cult, their mode of adoration does not + seem to offer any very objectionable features. And even amongst the + adherents of the left-hand mode of worship, many of these are said to + follow it as a matter of family tradition rather than of religious + conviction, and to practise it in a sober and temperate manner; whilst + only an extreme section--the so-called _Kaulas_ or _Kulinas_, who + appeal to a spurious Upanishad, the Kaulopanishad, as the divine + authority of their tenets--persist in carrying on the mystic and + licentious rites taught in many of the Tantras. But strict secrecy + being enjoined in the performance of these rites, it is not easy to + check any statements made on this point. The Sakta cult is, however, + known to be especially prevalent--though apparently not in a very + extreme form--amongst members of the very respectable Kayastha or + writer caste of Bengal, and as these are largely employed as clerks + and accountants in Upper India, there is reason to fear that their + vicious practices are gradually being disseminated through them. + +The divine object of the adoration of the Saktas, then, is Siva's +wife--the _Devi_ (goddess), _Mahadevi_ (great goddess), or _Jagan-mata_ +(mother of the world)--in one or other of her numerous forms, benign or +terrible. The forms in which she is worshipped in Bengal are of the +latter category, viz. _Durga_, "the unapproachable," and _Kali_, "the +black one," or, as some take it, the wife of _Kala_, "time," or death +the great dissolver, viz. Siva. In honour of the former, the +_Durga-puja_ is celebrated during ten days at the time of the autumnal +equinox, in commemoration of her victory over the buffalo-headed demon +Mahishasura; when the image of the ten-armed goddess, holding a weapon +in each hand, is worshipped for nine days, and cast into the water on +the tenth day, called the Dasahara, whence the festival itself is +commonly called Dasara in western India. _Kali_, on the other hand, the +most terrible of the goddess's forms, has a special service performed to +her, at the _Kali-puja_, during the darkest night of the succeeding +month; when she is represented as a naked black woman, four-armed, +wearing a garland of heads of giants slain by her, and a string of +skulls round her neck, dancing on the breast of her husband (Mahakala), +with gaping mouth and protruding tongue; and when she has to be +propitiated by the slaughter of goats, sheep and buffaloes. On other +occasions also Vamacharis commonly offer animal sacrifices, usually one +or more kids; the head of the victim, which has to be severed by a +single stroke, being always placed in front of the image of the goddess +as a blood-offering (_bali_), with an earthen lamp fed with ghee burning +above it, whilst the flesh is cooked and served to the guests attending +the ceremony, except that of buffaloes, which is given to the low-caste +musicians who perform during the service. Even some adherents of this +class have, however, discontinued animal sacrifices, and use certain +kinds of fruit, such as coco-nuts or pumpkins, instead. The use of wine, +which at one time was very common on these occasions, seems also to have +become much more restricted; and only members of the extreme section +would still seem to adhere to the practice of the so-called five _m's_ +prescribed by some of the Tantras, viz. _mamsa_ (flesh), _matsya_ +(fish), _madya_ (wine), _maithuna_ (sexual union), and _mudra_ (mystical +finger signs)--probably the most degrading cult ever practised under the +pretext of religious worship. + + In connexion with the principal object of this cult, Tantric theory + has devised an elaborate system of female figures representing either + special forms and personifications or attendants of the "Great + Goddess." They are generally arranged in groups, the most important of + which are the _Mahavidyas_ (great sciences), the 8 (or 9) _Mataras_ + (mothers) or _Mahamataras_ (great mothers), consisting of the wives of + the principal gods; the 8 _Nayikas_ or mistresses; and different + classes of sorceresses and ogresses, called _Yoginis_, _Dakinis_ and + _Sakinis_. A special feature of the Sakti cult is the use of obscure + Vedic _mantras_, often changed so as to be quite meaningless and on + that very account deemed the more efficacious for the acquisition of + superhuman powers; as well as of mystic letters and syllables called + _bija_ (germ), of magic circles (_chakra_) and diagrams (_yantra_), + and of amulets of various materials inscribed with formulae of fancied + mysterious import. + + + General conclusions. + +This survey of the Indian sects will have shown how little the character +of their divine objects of worship is calculated to exert that elevating +and spiritualizing influence, so characteristic of true religious +devotion. In all but a few of the minor groups religious fervour is only +too apt to degenerate into that very state of sexual excitation which +devotional exercises should surely tend to repress. If the worship of +Siva, despite the purport of his chief symbol, seems on the whole less +liable to produce these undesirable effects than that of the rival +deity, it is doubtless due partly to the real nature of that emblem +being little realized by the common people, and partly to the somewhat +repellent character of the "great god," more favourable to evoking +feelings of awe and terror than a spirit of fervid devotion. All the +more are, however, the gross stimulants, connected with the adoration of +his consort, calculated to work up the carnal instincts of the devotees +to an extreme degree of sensual frenzy. In the Vaishnava camp, on the +other hand, the cult of Krishna, and more especially that of the +youthful Krishna, can scarcely fail to exert an influence which, if of a +subtler and more insinuating, is not on that account of a less +demoralizing kind. Indeed, it would be hard to find anything less +consonant with godliness and divine perfection than the pranks of this +juvenile god; and if poets and thinkers try to explain them away by dint +of allegorical interpretation, the plain man will not for all their +refinements take these amusing adventures any the less _au pied de la +lettre_. No fault, in this respect, can assuredly be found with the +legendary Rama, a very paragon of knightly honour and virtue, even as +his consort Sita is the very model of a noble and faithful wife; and yet +this cult has perhaps retained even more of the character of mere +hero-worship than that of Krishna. Since by the universally accepted +doctrine of _karman_ (deed) or _karmavipaka_ ("the maturing of deeds") +man himself--either in his present, or some future, existence--enjoys +the fruit of, or has to atone for, his former good and bad actions, +there could hardly be room in Hindu pantheism for a belief in the +remission of sin by divine grace or vicarious substitution. And +accordingly the "descents" or incarnations of the deity have for their +object, not so much the spiritual regeneration of man as the deliverance +of the world from some material calamity threatening to overwhelm it. +The generally recognized principal Avatars do not, however, by any means +constitute the only occasions of a direct intercession of the deity in +worldly affairs, but--in the same way as to this day the eclipses of the +sun and moon are ascribed by the ordinary Hindu to these luminaries +being temporarily swallowed by the dragon _Rahu_ (or _Graha_, "the +seizer")--so any uncommon occurrence would be apt to be set down as a +special manifestation of divine power; and any man credited with +exceptional merit or achievement, or even remarkable for some strange +incident connected with his life or death, might ultimately come to be +looked upon as a veritable incarnation of the deity, capable of +influencing the destinies of man, and might become an object of local +adoration or superstitious awe and propitiatory rites to multitudes of +people. That the transmigration theory, which makes the spirit of the +departed hover about for a time in quest of a new corporeal abode, would +naturally lend itself to superstitious notions of this kind can scarcely +be doubted. Of peculiar importance in this respect is the worship of the +_Pitris_ ("fathers") or deceased ancestors, as entering largely into the +everyday life and family relations of the Hindus. At stated intervals to +offer reverential homage and oblations of food to the forefathers up to +the third degree is one of the most sacred duties the devout Hindu has +to discharge. The periodical performance of the commemorative rite of +obsequies called _Sraddha_--i.e. an oblation "made in faith" (_sraddha_, +Lat. _credo_)--is the duty and privilege of the eldest son of the +deceased, or, failing him, of the nearest relative who thereby +establishes his right as next of kin in respect of inheritance; and +those other relatives who have the right to take part in the ceremony +are called _sapinda_, i.e. sharing in the _pindas_ (or balls of cooked +rice, constituting along with libations of water the usual offering to +the Manes)--such relationship being held a bar to intermarriage. The +first _Sraddha_ takes place as soon as possible after the _antyeshti_ +("final offering") or funeral ceremony proper, usually spread over ten +days; being afterwards repeated once a month for a year, and +subsequently at every anniversary and otherwise voluntarily on special +occasions. Moreover, a simple libation of water should be offered to the +Fathers twice daily at the morning and evening devotion called _sandhya_ +("twilight"). It is doubtless a sense of filial obligation coupled with +sentiments of piety and reverence that gave rise to this practice of +offering gifts of food and drink to the deceased ancestors. Hence also +frequent allusion is made by poets to the anxious care caused to the +Fathers by the possibility of the living head of the family being +afflicted with failure of offspring; this dire prospect compelling them +to use but sparingly their little store of provisions, in case the +supply should shortly cease altogether. At the same time one also meets +with frank avowals of a superstitious fear lest any irregularity in the +performance of the obsequial rites should cause the Fathers to haunt +their old home and trouble the peace of their undutiful descendant, or +even prematurely draw him after them to the Pitri-loka or world of the +Fathers, supposed to be located in the southern region. Terminating as +it usually does with the feeding and feeing of a greater or less number +of Brahmans and the feasting of members of the performers' own caste, +the Sraddha, especially its first performance, is often a matter of very +considerable expense; and more than ordinary benefit to the deceased is +supposed to accrue from it when it takes place at a spot of recognized +sanctity, such as one of the great places of pilgrimage like Prayaga +(Allahabad, where the three sacred rivers, Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati, +meet), Mathura, and especially Gaya and Kasi (Benares). But indeed the +_tirtha-yatra_, or pilgrimage to holy bathing-places, is in itself +considered an act of piety conferring religious merit in proportion to +the time and trouble expended upon it. The number of such places is +legion and is constantly increasing. The banks of the great rivers such +as the Ganga (Ganges), the Yamuna (Jumna), the Narbada, the Krishna +(Kistna), are studded with them, and the water of these rivers is +supposed to be imbued with the essence of sanctity capable of cleansing +the pious bather of all sin and moral taint. To follow the entire course +of one of the sacred rivers from the mouth to the source on one side and +back again on the other in the sun-wise (pradakshina) direction--that +is, always keeping the stream on one's right-hand side--is held to be a +highly meritorious undertaking which it requires years to carry through. +No wonder that water from these rivers, especially the Ganges, is sent +and taken in bottles to all parts of India to be used on occasion as +healing medicine or for sacramental purposes. In Vedic times, at the +_Rajasuya_, or inauguration of a king, some water from the holy river +Sarasvati was mixed with the sprinkling water used for consecrating the +king. Hence also sick persons are frequently conveyed long distances to +a sacred river to heal them of their maladies; and for a dying man to +breathe his last at the side of the Ganges is devoutly believed to be +the surest way of securing for him salvation and eternal bliss. + + Such probably was the belief of the ordinary Hindu two thousand years + ago, and such it remains to this day. In the light of facts such as + these, who could venture to say what the future of Hinduism is likely + to be? Is the regeneration of India to be brought about by the modern + theistic movements, such as the Brahma-samaj and Arya-samaj, as so + close and sympathetic an observer of Hindu life and thought as Sir A. + Lyall seems to think? "The Hindu mind," he remarks, "is essentially + speculative and transcendental; it will never consent to be shut up in + the prison of sensual experience, for it has grasped and holds firmly + the central idea that all things are manifestations of some power + outside phenomena. And the tendency of contemporary religious + discussion in India, so far as it can be followed from a distance, is + towards an ethical reform on the old foundations, towards searching + for some method of reconciling their Vedic theology with the practices + of religion taken as a rule of conduct and a system of moral + government. One can already discern a movement in various quarters + towards a recognition of impersonal theism, and towards fixing the + teaching of the philosophical schools upon some definitely authorized + system of faith and morals, which may satisfy a rising ethical + standard, and may thus permanently embody that tendency to substitute + spiritual devotion for external forms and caste rules which is the + characteristic of the sects that have from time to time dissented from + orthodox Brahminism." + + AUTHORITIES.--_Census of India_ (1901), vol. i. part i.; _India_, by + H. H. Risley and E. A. Gait; vol. i. _Ethnographical Appendices_, by + H. H. Risley; _The Indian Empire_, vol. i. (new ed., Oxford, 1907); J. + Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_ (2nd ed., 5 vols., London, 1873); + Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in India_ (London, 1883); + _Modern India and the Indians_ (London, 1878, 3rd ed. 1879); + _Hinduism_ (London, 1877); Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Asiatic Studies_ (2 + series, London, 1899); "Hinduism" in _Religious Systems of the World_ + (London, 1904); "Brahminism" in _Great Religions of the World_ (New + York and London, 1902); W. J. Wilkins, _Modern Hinduism_ (London, + 1887); J. C. Oman, _Indian Life, Religious and Social_ (London, 1879); + _The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India_ (London, 1903); _The + Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India_ (London, 1907); S. C. Bose, + _The Hindus as they are_ (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1883); J. Robson, + _Hinduism and Christianity_ (Edinburgh and London, 3rd ed., 1905); J. + Murray Mitchell, _Hinduism Past and Present_ (2nd ed., London, 1897); + Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_ (Calcutta, 1896); + A. Barth, _The Religions of India_ (London, 1882); E. W. Hopkins, _The + Religions of India_ (London, 1896). (J. E.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "It is, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can best + represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform worked + upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organized and + executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the Holy + Roman Empire and the Church Apostolic." Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Asiatic + Studies_, i. 2. + + [2] Henry Whitehead, D. D., bishop of Madras, _The Village Deities of + Southern India_ (Madras, 1907). + + [3] "The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious + basis." Sir A. C. Lyall, _Brahmanism_. + + [4] Thus, in Berar, "there is a strong non-Aryan leaven in the dregs + of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races which + have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become fused + with the general community, while these same races are still distinct + tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle." Sir Alfred C. Lyall, + _As. St._, i. 6. + + [5] Siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the + present age as Sveta, the White, for the purpose of benefiting the + Brahmans, and he is invariably painted white; whilst Vishnu, when + pictured, is always of a dark-blue colour. + + [6] As in the case of Siva's traditional white complexion, it may not + be without significance, from a racial point of view, that Vishnu, + Rama and Krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed to + them, viz. blue, hyacinthine, and dark azure or dark brown + respectively. The names of the two heroes meaning simply "black" or + "dark," the blue tint may originally have belonged to Vishnu, who is + also called _pitavasas_, dressed in yellow garment, i.e. the colours + of sky and sun combined. + + [7] This notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic + cosmogonic hymn, Rigv. x. 129, where it is said that--"that one + (existent, neutr.) breathed breathless by (or with) its _svadha_ (? + inherent power, or nature), beyond that there was nothing whatever + ... that one live (germ) which was enclosed in the void was generated + by the power of heat (or fervour); desire then first came upon it, + which was the first seed of the mind ... fertilizing forces there + were, _svadha_ below, _prayati_ (? will) above." + + + + +HINDU KUSH, a range of mountains in Central Asia. Throughout 500 m. of +its length, from its roots in the Pamir regions till it fades into the +Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, this great range forms the water-divide +between the Kabul and the Oxus basins, and, for the first 200 m. +reckoning westwards, the southern boundary of Afghanistan. It may be +said to spring from the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, where it unites +with the great meridional system of Sarikol stretching northwards, and +the yet more impressive mountain barrier of Muztagh, the northern base +of which separates China from the semi-independent territory of Kanjut. +The Wakhjir pass, crossing the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir into the +sources of the river Hunza, almost marks the tri-junction of the three +great chains of mountains. As the Hindu Kush strikes westwards, after +first rounding the head of an Oxus tributary (the Ab-i-Panja, which +Curzon considers to be the true source of the Oxus), it closely +overlooks the trough of that glacier-fed stream under its northern +spurs, its crest at the nearest point being separated from the river by +a distance which cannot much exceed 10 m. As the river is here the +northern boundary of Afghanistan, and the crest of the Hindu Kush the +southern boundary, this distance represents the width of the Afghan +kingdom at that point. + + _Physiography._--For the first 100 m. of its length the Hindu Kush is + a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width, permitting + the formation of small lakes on the crest, and possessing no + considerable peaks. It is crossed by many passes, varying in height + from 12,500 ft. to 17,500 ft., the lowest and the easiest being the + well-known group about Baroghil, which has from time immemorial + offered a line of approach from High Asia to Chitral and Jalalabad. As + the Hindu Kush gradually recedes from the Ab-i-Panja and turns + south-westwards it gains in altitude, and we find prominent peaks on + the crest which measure more than 24,000 ft. above sea-level. Even + here, however, the main central water-divide, or axis of the chain, is + apparently not the line of highest peaks, which must be looked for to + the south, where the great square-headed giant called Tirach Mir + dominates Chitral from a southern spur. For some 40 or 50 m. of this + south-westerly bend, bearing away from the Oxus, where the Hindu Kush + overlooks the mountain wilderness of Badakshan to the west, the crest + is intersected by many passes, of which the most important is the + Dorah group (including the Minjan and the Mandal), which rise to about + 15,000 ft., and which are, under favourable conditions, practicable + links between the Oxus and Chitral basins. + + + Kafiristan section. + + From the Dorah to the Khawak pass (or group of passes, for it is + seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the Hindu + Kush), which is between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in altitude, the + water-divide overlooks Kafiristan and Badakshan. Here its exact + position is matter of conjecture. It lies amidst a wild, inaccessible + region of snowbound crests, and is certainly nowhere less than 15,000 + ft. above sea-level. There is a tradition that Timur attempted the + passage of the Hindu Kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts, + and that, having failed, he left a record of his failure engraved on a + rock in the pass. + + + Passes. + + The Khawak, at the head of the Panjshir tributary of the Kabul river, + leading straight from Badakshan to Charikar and the city of Kabul, is + now an excellent kafila route, the road having been engineered under + the amir Abdur Rahman's direction, and it is said to be available for + traffic throughout the year. From the Khawak to the head of the + Ghorband (a river of the Hindu Kush which, rising to the north-west of + Kabul, flows north-east to meet the Panjshir near Charikar, whence + they run united into the plains of Kohistan) the Hindu Kush is + intersected by passes at intervals, all of which were surveyed, and + several utilized, during the return of the Russo-Afghan boundary + commission from the Oxus to Kabul in 1886. Those utilized were the + Kaoshan (the "Hindu Kush" pass _par excellence_), 14,340 ft.; the + Chahardar (13,900 ft.), which is a link in one of the amir of + Afghanistan's high roads to Turkestan; and the Shibar (9800 ft.), + which is merely a diversion into the upper Ghorband of that group of + passes between Bamian and the Kabul plains which are represented by + the Irak, Hajigak, Unai, &c. About this point it is geographically + correct to place the southern extremity of the Hindu Kush, for here + commences the Koh-i-Baba system into which the Hindu Kush is merged. + + + General conformation. + + The general conformation of the Hindu Kush system south of the Khawak, + no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock composition as at + present exists to the north, points to its construction under the same + conditions of upheaval and subsequent denudation as are common to the + western Himalaya and the whole of the trans-Indus borderland. Its + upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the north-west of the + Indian peninsula long after the Himalaya had massed itself as a + formidable mountain chain, belongs to a comparatively recent geologic + period, and the same thrust upwards of vast masses of cretaceous + limestone has disturbed the overlying recent beds of shale and clays + with very similar results to those which have left so marked an + impress on the Baluch frontier. Successive flexures or ridges are + ranged in more or less parallel lines, and from between the bands of + hard, unyielding rock of older formation the soft beds of recent shale + have been washed out, to be carried through the enclosing ridges by + rifts which break across their axes. The Hindu Kush is, in fact, but + the face of a great upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it + northwards, just as the Himalaya forms the southern face of the great + central tableland of Tibet, and its general physiography, exhibiting + long, narrow, lateral valleys and transverse lines of "antecedent" + drainage, is similar. There are few passes across the southern + section of the Hindu Kush (and this section is, from the + politico-geographical point of view, more important to India than the + whole Himalayan system) which have not to surmount a succession of + crests or ridges as they cross from Afghan Turkestan to Afghanistan. + The exceptions are, of course, notable, and have played an important + part in the military history of Asia from time immemorial. From a + little ice-bound lake called Gaz Kul, or Karambar, which lies on the + crest of the Hindu Kush near its northern origin at the head of the + Taghdumbash Pamir, two very important river systems (those of Chitral + and Hunza) are believed to originate. The lake really lies on the + watershed between the two, and is probably a glacial relic. Its + contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on conditions + of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses towards one end. + It marks the commencement of the water-divide which primarily + separates the Gilgit basin from that of the Yashkun, or Chitral, + river, and subsequently divides the drainage of Swat and Bajour from + that of the Chitral (or Kunar). The Yashkun-Chitral-Kunar river (it is + called by all three names) is the longest affluent of the Kabul, and + it is in many respects a more important river than the Kabul. + Throughout its length it is closely flanked on its left bank by this + main water-divide, which is called Moshabar or Shandur in its northern + sections, and owns a great variety of names where it divides Bajour + from the Kunar valley. It is this range, crowned by peaks of 22,000 + ft. altitude and maintaining an average elevation of some 10,000 ft. + throughout its length of 250 m., that is the real barrier of the + north--not the Hindu Kush itself. Across it, at its head, are the + glacial passes which lead to the foot of the Baroghil. Of these + Darkot, with a glacial staircase on each side, is typical. (See + GILGIT.) Those passes (the Kilik and Mintaka) from the Pamir regions, + which lead into the rocky gorges and defiles of the upper affluents of + the Hunza to the east of the Darkot, belong rather to the Muztagh + system than to the Hindu Kush. Other passes across this important + water-divide are the Shandur (12,250 ft.), between Gilgit and Mastuj; + the Lowarai (10,450 ft.), between the Panjkora and Chitral valleys; + and farther south certain lower crossings which once formed part of + the great highway between Kabul and India. + + + Chitral. + + Deep down in the trough of the Chitral river, about midway between its + source and its junction with the Kabul at Jalalabad, is the village + and fort of Chitral (q.v.). Facing Chitral, on the right bank of the + river, and extending for some 70 m. from the Hindu Kush, is the lofty + snow-clad spur of the Hindu Kush known as Shawal, across which one or + two difficult passes lead into the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This + spur carries the boundary of Afghanistan southwards to Arnawai (some + 50 m. below Chitral), where it crosses the river to the long Shandur + watershed. South of Arnawai the Kunar valley becomes a part of + Afghanistan (see KUNAR). The value of Chitral as an outpost of British + India may be best gauged by its geographical position. It is about 100 + m. (direct map measurement) from the outpost of Russia at Langar Kisht + on the river Panja, with the Dorah pass across the Hindu Kush + intervening. The Dorah may be said to be about half-way between the + two outposts, and the mountain tracks leading to it on either side are + rough and difficult. The Dorah, however, is not the only pass which + leads into the Chitral valley from the Oxus. The Mandal pass, a few + miles south of the Dorah, is the connecting link between the Oxus and + the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan; and the Bashgol valley leads + directly to the Chitral valley at Arnawai, about 50 m. below Chitral. + Nor must we overlook the connexion between north and south of the + Hindu Kush which is afforded by the long narrow valley of the Chitral + (or Yashkun) itself, leading up to the Baroghil pass. This route was + once made use of by the Chinese for purposes of pilgrimage, if not for + invasion. Access to Chitral from the north is therefore but a matter + of practicable tracks, or passes, in two or three directions, and the + measure of practicability under any given conditions can best be + reckoned from Chitral itself. By most authorities the possibility of + an advance in force from the north, even under the most favourable + conditions, is considered to be exceedingly small; but the tracks and + passes of the Hindu Kush are only impracticable so long as they are + left as nature has made them. + +_Historical Notices._--Hindu Kush is the Caucasus of Alexander's +historians. It is also included in the Paropamisus, though the latter +term embraces more, Caucasus being apparently used only when the alpine +barrier is in question. Whether the name was given in mere vanity to the +barrier which Alexander passed (as Arrian and others repeatedly allege), +or was founded also on some verbal confusion, cannot be stated. It was +no doubt regarded (and perhaps not altogether untruly) as a part of a +great alpine zone believed to traverse Asia from west to east, whether +called Taurus, Caucasus or Imaus. Arrian himself applies Caucasus +distinctly to the Himalaya also. The application of the name Tanais to +the Syr seems to indicate a real confusion with Colchian Caucasus. +Alexander, after building an Alexandria at its foot (probably at Hupian +near Charikar), crossed into Bactria, first reaching Drapsaca, or +Adrapsa. This has been interpreted as Anderab, in which case he probably +crossed the Khawak Pass, but the identity is uncertain. The ancient Zend +name is, according to Rawlinson, Paresina, the essential part of +Paropamisus; this accounts for the great Asiastic _Parnassus_ of +Aristotle, and the _Pho-lo-sin-a_ of Hsuan Tsang. + +The name Hindu Kush is used by Ibn Batuta, who crossed (c. 1332) from +Anderab, and he gives the explanation of the name which, however +doubtful, is still popular, as (Pers.) Hindu-Killer, "because of the +number of Indian slaves who perished in passing" its snows. Baber always +calls the range Hindu Kush, and the way in which he speaks of it shows +clearly that it was a range that was meant, not a solitary pass or peak +(according to modern local use, as alleged by Elphinstone and Burnes). +Probably, however, the title was confined to the section from Khawak to +Koh-i-Baba. The name has by some later Oriental writers been modified +into Hindu _Koh_ (mountain), but this is factitious, and throws no more +light on the origin of the title. The name seems to have become known to +European geographers by the Oriental translations of the two Petis de la +Croix, and was taken up by Delisle and D'Anville. Rennell and +Elphinstone familiarized it. Burnes first crossed the range (1832). A +British force was stationed at Bamian beyond it in 1840, with an outpost +at Saighan. + +The Hindu Kush, formidable as it seems, and often as it has been the +limit between petty states, has hardly ever been the boundary of a +considerable power. Greeks, White Huns, Samanidae of Bokhara, +Ghaznevides, Mongols, Timur and Timuridae, down to Saddozais and +Barakzais, have ruled both sides of this great alpine chain. + + AUTHORITIES.--Information about the Hindu Kush and Chitral is now + comparatively exact. The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884 and + the Chitral expedition of 1895 opened up a vast area for geographical + investigation, and the information collected is to be found in the + reports and gazetteers of the Indian government. The following are the + chief recent authorities:--Report of the Russo-Afghan Boundary + Commission (1886); Report of Lockhart's Mission (1886); Report of + Asmar Boundary Commission (1895); Report of Pamir Boundary Commission + (1896); J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta, 1880); W. + M'Nair, "Visit to Kafiristan," vol. vi. _R.G.S. Proc._, 1884; F. + Younghusband, "Journeys on the Pamirs, &c.," vol. xiv. _R.G.S. Proc._, + 1892; Colonel Durand, _Making a Frontier_ (London, 1899); Sir G. + Robertson, _Chitral_ (London, 1899). (T. H. H.*) + + + + +HINDUR, or NALAGARH, one of the Simla hill states, under the government +of the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901) 52,551; area, 256 sq. m.; estimated +revenue, L8600. The country was overrun by the Gurkhas for some years +before 1815, when they were driven out by the British, and the raja was +confirmed in possession of the territory. The principal products are +grain and opium. + + + + +HINGANGHAT, a town of British India in Wardha district, Central +Provinces, 21 m. S.W. of Wardha town. Pop (1901) 12,662. It is a main +seat of the cotton trade, the cotton here produced in the rich Wardha +valley having given its name to one of the best indigenous staples of +India. The principal native traders are Marwaris, many of whom have +large transactions and export on their own account; but the greater +number act as middle-men. There are two cotton-mills and several ginning +and pressing factories. + + + + +HINGE (in Mid. Eng. _henge_ or _heeng_, from _hengen_, to hang), a +movable joint, particularly that by which a door or window "hangs" from +its side-post, or by which a lid or cover is attached to that which it +closes; also any device which allows two parts to be joined together and +move upon each other (see JOINERY). Figuratively the word is used of +that on which something depends, a cardinal or turning point, a crisis. + + + + +HINGHAM, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on +Massachusetts Bay. Pop (1890) 4564; (1900) 5059 (969 being +foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4819; (1910) 4965. Area, about 30 +sq. m. The township is traversed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford +railway, and contains the villages of Hingham, West Hingham, Hingham +Center, and South Hingham. Derby Academy, a co-educational school +founded and endowed with about L12,000 in 1784 by Sarah Derby +(1714-1790), was opened in 1791. Hingham has a public library (1868), +with 12,000 volumes in 1908. The Old Meeting House, erected in 1681, is +one of the oldest church buildings in the country used continuously. +Manufactures were relatively much more important in the 17th and 18th +centuries than since. There were settlers here as early as 1633, some of +them--notably Edmund Hobart, ancestor of Bishop John Henry +Hobart,--being natives of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whence the name; +and in 1635 common land called Barecove became the township of Hingham. + + See _History of the Town of Hingham_ (4 vols., Hingham, 1893). + + + + +HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1794-1861), German philosopher, +studied theology at Strassburg, and philosophy at Heidelberg under Hegel +(q.v.), who wrote a preface to his _Religion im innern Verhaltniss zur +Wissenschaft_ (Heidelberg, 1722). He became a _Privatdozent_ in 1819, +and held professorships at Breslau (1822) and Halle (1824). + + WORKS.--(1) Philosophical: _Grundlinien der Philosophie der Logik_ + (Halle, 1826); _Genesis des Wissens_ (Heidelberg, 1835). (2) On + aesthetics: _Vorlesungen uber Goethes Faust_ (Halle, 1825); _Schillers + Dichtungen nach ihrem historischen Zusammenhang_ (Leipzig, 1837-1839). + By these works he became a recognized exponent of orthodox + Hegelianism. (3) Historical: _Geschichte der Rechts- und + Staatsprinzipien seit der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, + 1848-1852); _Die Konige_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1853). + + + + +HINSCHIUS, PAUL (1835-1898), German jurist, was the son of Franz Sales +August Hinschius (1807-1877), and was born in Berlin on the 25th of +December 1835. His father was not only a scientific jurist, but also a +lawyer in large practice in Berlin. After working under his father, +Hinschius in 1852 began to study jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Berlin, +the teacher who had most influence upon him being Aemilius Ludwig +Richter (1808-1864), to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of +the study of ecclesiastical law in Germany. In 1855 Hinschius took the +degree of _doctor utriusque juris_, and in 1859 was admitted to the +juridical faculty of Berlin. In 1863 he went as professor +extraordinarius to Halle, returning in the same capacity to Berlin in +1865; and in 1868 became professor ordinarius at the university of Kiel, +which he represented in the Prussian Upper House (1870-1871). He also +assisted his father in editing the _Preussische Anwaltszeitung_ from +1862 to 1866 and the _Zeitschrift fur Gesetzgebung und Rechtspflege in +Preussen_ from 1867 to 1871. In 1872 he was appointed professor +ordinarius of ecclesiastical law at Berlin. In the same year he took +part in the conferences of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs, which +issued in the famous "Falk laws." In connexion with the developments of +the _Kulturkampf_ which resulted from the "Falk laws," he wrote several +treatises: e.g. on "The Attitude of the German State Governments towards +the Decrees of the Vatican Council" (1871), on "The Prussian Church Laws +of 1873" (1873), "The Prussian Church Laws of the years 1874 and 1875" +(1875), and "The Prussian Church Law of 14th July 1880" (1881). He sat +in the Reichstag as a National Liberal from 1872 to 1878, and again in +1881 and 1882, and from 1889 onwards he represented the university of +Berlin in the Prussian Upper House. He died on the 13th of December +1898. + +The two great works by which Hinschius established his fame are the +_Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (2 parts, +Leipzig, 1863) and _Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken und Protestanten in +Deutschland_, vols, i.-vi. (Berlin, 1869-1877). The first of these, for +which during 1860 and 1861 he had gathered materials in Italy, Spain, +France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland and Belgium, was the first +critical edition of the False Decretals. His most monumental work, +however, is the _Kirchenrecht_, which remains incomplete. The six +volumes actually published (_System des katholischen Kirchenrechts_) +cover only book i. of the work as planned; they are devoted to an +exhaustive historical and analytical study of the Roman Catholic +hierarchy and its government of the church. The work is planned with +special reference to Germany; but in fact its scheme embraces the whole +of the Roman Catholic organization in its principles and practice. +Unfortunately even this part of the work remains incomplete; two +chapters of book i. and the whole of book ii., which was to have dealt +with "the rights and duties of the members of the hierarchy," remain +unwritten; the most notable omission is that of the ecclesiastical law +in relation to the regular orders. Incomplete as it is, however, the +_Kirchenrecht_ remains a work of the highest scientific authority. +Epoch-making in its application of the modern historical method to the +study of ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice, it has become +the model for the younger school of canonists. + + See the articles s.v. by E. Seckel in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ + (3rd ed., 1900), and by Ulrich Steitz in the _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_, vol. 50 (Leipzig, 1905). + + + + +HINTERLAND (German for "the land behind"), the region lying behind a +coast or river line, or a country dependent for trade or commerce on any +other region. In the purely physical sense "interior" or "back country" +is more commonly used, but the word has gained a distinct political +significance. It first came into prominence during 1883-1885, when +Germany insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the +territory behind those parts of the African coast that she had occupied. +The "doctrine of the hinterland" was that the possessor of the littoral +was entitled to as much of the back country as geographically, +economically or politically was dependent upon the coast lands, a +doctrine which, in the space of ten years, led to the partition of +Africa between various European powers. + + + + +HINTON, JAMES (1822-1875), English surgeon and author, son of John +Howard Hinton (1791-1873), Baptist minister and author of the _History +and Topography of the United States_ and other works, was born at +Reading in 1822. He was educated at his grandfather's school near +Oxford, and at the Nonconformist school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on +his father's removal to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in +Whitechapel. After retaining this situation about a year he became clerk +in an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study, and +this, joined to the ardour, amounting to morbidness, of his interest in +moral problems, so affected his health that in his nineteenth year he +resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts by running away to sea. +His intention having, however, been discovered, he was sent, on the +advice of the physician who was consulted regarding his health, to St +Bartholomew's Hospital to study for the medical profession. After +receiving his diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at +Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone to take +medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage thence to Jamaica, +where he stayed some time. He returned to England in 1850, and entered +into partnership with a surgeon in London, where he soon had his +interest awakened specially in aural surgery, and gave also much of his +attention to physiology. He made his first appearance as an author in +1856 by contributing papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the +_Christian Spectator_; and in 1859 he published _Man and his +Dwelling-place_. A series of papers entitled "Physiological Riddles," in +the _Cornhill Magazine_, afterwards published as _Life in Nature_ +(1862), as well as another series entitled _Thoughts on Health_ (1871), +proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition. After being +appointed aural surgeon to Guy's Hospital in 1863, he speedily acquired +a reputation as the most skilful aural surgeon of his day, which was +fully borne out by his works, _An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana +tympani_ (1874), and _Questions of Aural Surgery_ (1874). But his health +broke down, and in 1874 he gave up practice; and he died at the Azores +of acute inflammation of the brain on the 16th of December 1875. In +addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author of _The +Mystery of Pain_ (1866) and _The Place of the Physician_ (1874). On +account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of many of the important +moral and social problems of the time, his writings had a wide +circulation on both sides of the Atlantic. + + His _Life and Letters_, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction + by Sir W. W. Gull, appeared in 1878. + + + + +HIOGO [HYOGO], a town of Japan in the province of Settsu, Nippon, on the +western shore of the bay of Osaka, adjoining the foreign settlement of +Kobe, 21 m. W. of Osaka by rail. The growth of its prosperity has been +very remarkable. Its population, including that of Kobe, was 135,639 in +1891, and 285,002 in 1903. From 1884 to the close of the century its +trade increased nearly eightfold, and the increase was not confined to a +few staples of commerce, but was spread over almost the whole trade, in +which silk and cotton fabrics, floor-mats, straw-plaits, matches, and +cotton yarns are specially important. Kobe owes much of its prosperity +to the fact of serving largely as the shipping port of Osaka, the chief +manufacturing town in Japan. The foreign community, exclusive of +Chinese, exceeds 1000 persons. Kobe is considered the brightest and +healthiest of all the places assigned as foreign settlements in Japan, +its pure, dry air and granite subsoil constituting special advantages. +It is in railway communication with all parts of the country, and +wharves admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo +without the aid of lighters. The area originally appropriated for a +foreign settlement soon proved too restricted, and foreigners received +permission to lease lands and houses direct from Japanese owners beyond +the treaty limits, a privilege which, together with that of building +villas on the hills behind the town, ultimately involved some diplomatic +complications. Kobe has a shipbuilding yard, and docks in its immediate +neighbourhood. + +Hiogo has several temples of interest, one of which has near it a huge +bronze statue of Buddha, while by the Minatogawa, which flows into the +sea between Hiogo and Kobe, a temple commemorates the spot where +Kusunoki Masashige, the mirror of Japanese loyalty, met his death in +battle in 1336. The temple of Ikuta was erected on the site of the +ancient fane built by Jingo on her return from Korea in the 3rd century. + +Hiogo's original name was Bako. Its position near the entrance of the +Inland Sea gave it some maritime importance from a very early period, +but it did not become really prominent until the 12th century, when +Kiyomori, chief of the Taira clan, transferred the capital from Kioto to +Fukuhara, in Hiogo's immediate neighbourhood, and undertook various +public works for improving the place. The change of capital was very +brief, but Hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction. + + + + +HIP. (1) (From O. Eng. _hype_, a word common in various forms to many +Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch _heup_, and Ger. _Hufte_), the projecting +part of the body formed by the top of the thighbone and the side of the +pelvis, in quadrupeds generally known as the haunch (see JOINTS). (2)(O. +Eng. _heope_, from same root as M.H. Ger. _hiefe_, a thorn-bush), the +fruit of the dog-rose (_Rosa canina_); "hips" are usually joined with +"haws," the fruit of the hawthorn. + + + + +HIP-KNOB, in architecture, the finial on the hip of a roof, between the +barge-boards of a gable. + + + + +HIPPARCHUS (fl. 146-126 B.C.), Greek astronomer, was born at Nicaea in +Bithynia early in the 2nd century B.C. He observed in the island of +Rhodes probably from 161, certainly from 146 until about 126 B.C., and +made the capital discovery of the precession of the equinoxes in 130 +(see ASTRONOMY: _History_). The outburst of a new star in 134 B.C. is +stated by Pliny (_Hist. nat._ ii. 26) to have prompted the preparation +of his catalogue of 1080 stars, substantially embodied in Ptolemy's +_Almagest_. Hipparchus founded trigonometry, and compiled the first +table of chords. Scientific geography originated with his invention of +the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude and +longitude. There can be little doubt that the fundamental part of his +astronomical knowledge was derived from Chaldaea. None of his many works +has survived except a Commentary on the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus and +Eudoxus, published by P. Victorius at Florence in 1567, and included by +D. Petavius in his _Uranologium_ (Paris, 1630). A new edition was +published by Carolus Manitius (Leipzig, 1894). + + See J. B. J. Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie ancienne_, i. 173; P. + Tannery, _Recherches sur l'histoire de l'astr. ancienne_, p. 130; A. + Berry, _Hist. of Astronomy_, pp. 40-61; M. Marie, _Hist. des + sciences_, i. 207; G. Cornewall Lewis, _Astronomy of the Ancients_, p. + 207; R. Grant, _Hist. of Phys. Astronomy_, pp. 318, 437; F. Boll, + _Sphaera_, p. 61 (Leipzig, 1903); R. Wolf, _Geschichte der + Astronomie_, p. 45; J. F. Montucla, _Hist. des mathematiques_, t. i. + p. 257; J. A. Schmidt, _Variorum philosophicorum decas_, cap. i. + (Jenae, 1691). (A. M. C.) + + + + + +HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM, Pythagorean philosopher, was one of the earliest +of the disciples of Pythagoras. He is mentioned both by Diogenes +Laertius and by Iamblichus, but nothing is known of his life. Diogenes +says that he left no writings, but other authorities make him the author +of a [Greek: mystikos logos] directed against the Pythagoreans. +According to Aristotle (_Metaphysica_, i. 3), he was an adherent of the +Heraclitean fire-doctrine, whereas the Pythagoreans maintained the +theory that number is the principle of everything. He seems to have +regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter, and so approximates the +orthodox Pythagorean doctrine of the central fire, or Hestia, to the +more detailed theories of Heraclitus. In spite of this divergence, +Hippasus is always regarded as a Pythagorean. + + See Diogenes viii. 84; Brandis, _History of Greek and Roman + Philosophy_; also PYTHAGORAS. + + + + +HIPPEASTRUM, in botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, +containing about 50 species of bulbous plants, natives of tropical and +sub-tropical South America. In cultivation they are generally known as +_Amaryllis_. The handsome funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster +of two to many, at the end of a short hollow scape. The species and the +numerous hybrids which have been obtained artificially, show a great +variety in size and colour of the flower, including the richest deep +crimson and blood-red, white, or with striped, mottled or blended +colours. They are of easy culture, and free-blooming habit. Like other +bulbs they are increased by offsets, which should be carefully removed +when the plants are at rest, and should be allowed to attain a fair size +before removal. These young bulbs should be potted singly in February or +March, in mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand, about +two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil, which +should be made quite solid. They should be removed to a temperature of +60 deg. by night and 70 deg. by day, very carefully watered until the +roots have begun to grow freely, after which the soil should be kept +moderately moist. As they advance the temperature should be raised to 70 +deg. at night, and to 80 deg. or higher with sun heat by day. They do +not need shading, but should have plenty of air, and be syringed daily +in the afternoon. When growing they require a good supply of water. +After the decay of the flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist +temperature of from 70 deg. to 80 deg. by day during summer to perfect +their leaves, and then be ripened off in autumn. Through the winter they +should have less water, but must not be kept entirely dry. The minimum +temperature should now be about 55 deg., to be increased 10 deg. or 15 +deg. in spring. As the bulbs get large they will occasionally need +shifting into larger pots. Propagation is also readily effected by seeds +for raising new varieties. Seeds are sown when ripe in well drained pans +of sandy loam at a temperature of about 65 deg. The seedlings when large +enough to handle are placed either singly in very small pots or several +in a pot or shallow pan, and put in a bottom heat, in a moist atmosphere +with a temperature from 60 deg. to 70 deg. _H. Ackermanni_, with large, +handsome, crimson flowers--itself a hybrid--is the parent of many of the +large-flowered forms; _H. equestre_ (Barbados lily), with +yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet, has also given rise to +several handsome forms; _H. aulicum_ (flowers crimson and green), _H. +pardinum_ (flowers creamy-white spotted with crimson), and _H. vittatum_ +(flowers white with red stripes, a beautiful species and the parent of +many varieties), are stove or warm greenhouse plants. These kinds, +however, are now only regarded as botanical curiosities, and are rarely +grown in private or commercial establishments. They have been ousted by +the more gorgeous looking hybrids, which have been evolved during the +past 100 years. _H. Johnsoni_ is named after a Lancashire watchmaker who +raised it in 1799 by crossing _H. Reginae_ with _H. vittatum_. Since +that time other species have been used for hybridizing, notably _H. +reticulatum_, _H. aulicum_, _H. solandriflorum_, and sometimes _H. +equestre_ and _H. psittacinum_. The finest forms since 1880 have been +evolved from _H. Leopoldi_ and _H. pardinum_. (J. Ws.) + + + + +HIPPED ROOF, the name given in architecture to a roof which slopes down +on all four sides instead of terminating on two sides against a +vertical gable. Sometimes a compromise is made between the two, half the +roof being hipped and half resting on the vertical wall; this gives much +more room inside the roof, and externally a most picturesque effect, +which is one of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the +south of England, and is rarely found in other countries. + + + + +HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON (1741-1796), German satirical and humorous +writer, was born on the 31st of January 1741, at Gerdauen in East +Prussia, where his father was rector of a school. He enjoyed an +excellent education at home, and in his sixteenth year he entered +Konigsberg university as a student of theology. Interrupting his +studies, he went, on the invitation of a friend, to St Petersburg, where +he was introduced at the brilliant court of the empress Catherine II. +Returning to Konigsberg he became a tutor in a private family; but, +falling in love with a young lady of high position, his ambition was +aroused, and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with enthusiasm +to legal studies. He was successful in his profession, and in 1780 was +appointed chief burgomaster in Konigsberg, and in 1786 privy councillor +of war and president of the town. As he rose in the world, however, his +inclination for matrimony vanished, and the lady who had stimulated his +ambition was forgotten. He died at Konigsberg on the 23rd of April 1796, +leaving a considerable fortune. Hippel had extraordinary talents, rich +in wit and fancy; but his was a character full of contrasts and +contradictions. Cautiousness and ardent passion, dry pedantry and piety, +morality and sensuality; simplicity and ostentation composed his nature; +and, hence, his literary productions never attained artistic finish. In +his _Lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ (1778-1781) he intended to +describe the lives of his father and grandfather, but he eventually +confined himself to his own. It is an autobiography, in which persons +well known to him are introduced, together with a mass of heterogeneous +reflections on life and philosophy. _Kreuz- und Querzuge des Ritters A +bis Z_ (1793-1794) is a satire levelled against the follies of the +age--ancestral pride and the thirst for orders, decoration and the like. +Among others of his better known works are _Uber die Ehe_ (1774) and +_Uber die burgerliche Verbesserung der Weiber_ (1792). Hippel has been +called the fore-runner of Jean Paul Richter, and has some resemblance to +this author, in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of +scientific matter in his narrative. Like Richter he was strongly +influenced by Laurence Sterne. + + In 1827-1838 a collected edition of Hippel's works in 14 vols., was + issued at Berlin. _Uber die Ehe_ has been edited by E. Brenning + (Leipzig, 1872), and the _Lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ has in + a modernized edition by A. von Ottingen (1878), gone through several + editions. See J. Czerny, _Sterne, Hippel und Jean Paul_ (Berlin, + 1904). + + + + +HIPPIAS OF ELIS, Greek sophist, was born about the middle of the 5th +century B.C. and was thus a younger contemporary of Protagoras and +Socrates. He was a man of great versatility and won the respect of his +fellow-citizens to such an extent that he was sent to various towns on +important embassies. At Athens he made the acquaintance of Socrates and +other leading thinkers. With an assurance characteristic of the later +sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and +lectured, at all events with financial success, on poetry, grammar, +history, politics, archaeology, mathematics and astronomy. He boasted +that he was more popular than Protagoras, and was prepared at any moment +to deliver an extempore address on any subject to the assembly at +Olympia. Of his ability there is no question, but it is equally certain +that he was superficial. His aim was not to give knowledge, but to +provide his pupils with the weapons of argument, to make them fertile in +discussion on all subjects alike. It is said that he boasted of wearing +nothing which he had not made with his own hands. Plato's two dialogues, +the _Hippias major_ and _minor_, contain an expose of his methods, +exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument but written with full +knowledge of the man and the class which he represented. Ast denies +their authenticity, but they must have been written by a contemporary +writer (as they are mentioned in the literature of the 4th century), and +undoubtedly represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing +influence of the professional Sophists. There is, however, no question +that Hippias did a real service to Greek literature by insisting on the +meaning of words, the value of rhythm and literary style. He is credited +with an excellent work on Homer, collections of Greek and foreign +literature, and archaeological treatises, but nothing remains except the +barest notes. He forms the connecting link between the first great +sophists, Protagoras and Prodicus, and the innumerable eristics who +brought their name into disrepute. + + For the general atmosphere in which Hippias moved see SOPHISTS; also + histories of Philosophy (e.g. Windelband, Eng. trans. by Tufts, pt. 1, + c. 2, SS 7 and 8). + + + + +HIPPO, a Greek philosopher and natural scientist, classed with the +Ionian or physical school. He was probably a contemporary of Archelaus +and lived chiefly in Athens. Aristotle declared that he was unworthy of +the name of philosopher, and, while comparing him with Thales in his +main doctrine, adds that his intellect was too shallow for serious +consideration. He held that the principle of all things is moisture +([Greek: to hygron]); that fire develops from water, and from fire the +material universe. Further he denied all existence save that of material +things as known through the senses, and was, therefore, classed among +the "Atheists." The gods are merely great men canonized by popular +tradition. It is said that he composed his own epitaph, wherein he +claims for himself a place in this company. + + + + +HIPPOCRAS, an old medicinal drink or cordial, made of wine mixed with +spices--such as cinnamon, ginger and sugar--and strained through woollen +cloths. The early spelling usual in English was _ipocras_, or _ypocras_. +The word is an adaptation of the Med. Lat. _Vinum Hippocraticum_, or +wine of Hippocrates, so called, not because it was supposed to be a +receipt of the physician, but from an apothecary's name for a strainer +or sieve, "Hippocrates' sleeve" (see W. W. Skeat, _Chaucer_, note to the +_Merchant's Tale_). + + + + +HIPPOCRATES, Greek philosopher and writer, termed the "Father of +Medicine," was born, according to Soranus, in Cos, in the first year of +the 80th Olympiad, i.e. in 460 B.C. He was a member of the family of the +Asclepiadae, and was believed to be either the nineteenth or seventeenth +in direct descent from Aesculapius. It is also claimed for him that he +was descended from Hercules through his mother, Phaenarete. He studied +medicine under Heraclides, his father, and Herodicus of Selymbria; in +philosophy Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus of Abdera were his +masters. His earlier studies were prosecuted in the famous Asclepion of +Cos, and probably also at Cnidos. He travelled extensively, and taught +and practised his profession at Athens, probably also in Thrace, +Thessaly, Delos and his native island. He died at Larissa in Thessaly, +his age being variously stated as 85, 90, 104 and 109. The incidents of +his life are shrouded by uncertain traditions, which naturally sprang up +in the absence of any authentic record; the earliest biography was by +one of the Sorani, probably Soranus the younger of Ephesus, in the 2nd +century; Suidas, the lexicographer, wrote of him in the 11th, and +Tzetzes in the 12th century. In all these biographies there is internal +evidence of confusion; many of the incidents related are elsewhere told +of other persons, and certain of them are quite irreconcilable with his +character, so far as it can be judged of from his writings and from the +opinions expressed of him by his contemporaries; we may safely reject, +for instance, the legends that he set fire to the library of the Temple +of Health at Cnidos, in order to destroy the evidence of plagiarism, and +that he refused to visit Persia at the request of Artaxerxes Longimanus, +during a pestilential epidemic, on the ground that he would in so doing +be assisting an enemy. He is referred to by Plato (_Protag._ p. 283; +_Phaedr._ p. 211) as an eminent medical authority, and his opinion is +also quoted by Aristotle. The veneration in which he was held by the +Athenians serves to dissipate the calumnies which have been thrown on +his character by Andreas, and the whole tone of his writings bespeaks a +man of the highest integrity and purest morality. + +Born of a family of priest-physicians, and inheriting all its traditions +and prejudices, Hippocrates was the first to cast superstition aside, +and to base the practice of medicine on the principles of inductive +philosophy. It is impossible to trace directly the influence exercised +upon him by the great men of his time, but one cannot fail to connect +his emancipation of medicine from superstition with the widespread power +exercised over Greek life and thought by the living work of Socrates, +Plato, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus and Thucydides. It was +a period of great intellectual development, and it only needed a +powerful mind such as his to bring to bear upon medicine the same +influences which were at work in other sciences. It must be remembered +that his training was not altogether bad, although superstition entered +so largely into it. He had a great master in Democritus, the originator +of the doctrine of atoms, and there is every reason to believe that the +various "asclepia" were very carefully conducted hospitals for the sick, +possessing a curious system of case-books, in the form of votive +tablets, left by the patients, on which were recorded the symptoms, +treatment and result of each case. He had these records at his command; +and he had the opportunity of observing the system of training and the +treatment of injuries in the gymnasia. One of his great merits is that +he was the first to dissociate medicine from priest-craft, and to direct +exclusive attention to the natural history of disease. How strongly his +mind revolted against the use of charms, amulets, incantations and such +devices appears from his writings; and he has expressly recorded, as +underlying all his practice, the conviction that, however diseases may +be regarded from the religious point of view, they must all be +scientifically treated as subject to natural laws (_De aere_, 29). Nor +was he anxious to maintain the connexion between philosophy and medicine +which had for long existed in a confused and confusing fashion.[1] His +knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology was necessarily +defective, the respect in which the dead body was held by the Greeks +precluding him from practising dissection; thus we find him writing of +the tissues without distinguishing between the various textures of the +body, confusing arteries, veins and nerves, and speaking vaguely of the +muscles as "flesh." But when we come to study his observations on the +natural history of disease as presented in the living subject, we +recognize at once the presence of a great clinical physician. +Hippocrates based his principles and practice on the theory of the +existence of a spiritual restoring essence or principle, [Greek: +physis], the _vis medicatrix naturae_, in the management of which the +art of the physician consisted. This art could, he held, be only +obtained by the application of experience, not only to disease at large, +but to disease in the individual. He strongly deprecated blind +empiricism; the aphorism "[Greek: he peira sphalere, he krisis chalepe]" +(whether it be his or not), tersely illustrates his position. Holding +firmly to the principle, [Greek: nouson physies ietroi], he did not +allow himself to remain inactive in the presence of disease; he was not +a merely "expectant" physician; as Sydenham puts it, his practice was +"the support of enfeebled and the coercion of outrageous nature." He +largely employed powerful medicines and blood-letting both ordinary and +by cupping. He advises, however, great caution in their application. He +placed great dependence on diet and regimen, and here, quaint as many of +his directions may now sound, not only in themselves, but in the reasons +given, there is much which is still adhered to at the present day. His +treatise [Greek: Peri aeron, hydaton, kai topon] (_Airs, Waters, and +Places_) contains the first enunciation of the principles of public +health. Although the treatises [Greek: Peri krisimon] cannot be accepted +as authentic, we find in the [Greek: Prognostikon] evidence of the +acuteness of observation in the manner in which the occurrence of +critical days in disease is enunciated. His method of reporting cases is +most interesting and instructive; in them we can read how thoroughly he +had separated himself from the priest-physician. Laennec, to whom we are +indebted for the practice of auscultation, freely admits that the idea +was suggested to him by study of Hippocrates, who, treating of the +presence of morbid fluids in the thorax, gives very particular +directions, by means of succussion, for arriving at an opinion +regarding their nature. Laennec says, "Hippocrate avait tente +l'auscultation immediate." Although the treatise [Greek: Peri nouson] is +doubtfully from the pen of Hippocrates, it contains strong evidence of +having been the work of his grandson, representing the views of the +Father of Medicine. Although not accurate in the conclusions reached at +the time, the value of the method of diagnosis is shown by the retention +in modern medicine of the name and the practice of "Hippocratic +succussion." The power of graphic description of phenomena in the +Hippocratic writings is illustrated by the retention of the term "facies +Hippocratica," applied to the appearance of a moribund person, pictured +in the _Prognostics_. In surgery his writings are important and +interesting, but they do not bear the same character of caution as the +treatises on medicine; for instance, in the essay _On Injuries of the +Head_, he advocates the operation "of trephining" more strongly and in +wider classes of cases than would be warranted by the experience of +later times. + + The _Hippocratic Collection_ consists of eighty-seven treatises, of + which a part only can be accepted as genuine. The collection has been + submitted to the closest criticism in ancient and modern times by a + large number of commentators (for full list of the early commentators, + see Adams's _Genuine Works of Hippocrates_, Sydenham Society, i. 27, + 28). The treatises have been classified according to (1) the direct + evidence of ancient writers, (2) peculiarities of style and method, + and (3) the presence of anachronisms and of opinions opposed to the + general Hippocratic teaching--greatest weight being attached to the + opinions of Erotian and Galen. The general estimate of commentators is + thus stated by Adams: "The peculiar style and method of Hippocrates + are held to be conciseness of expression, great condensation of + matter, and disposition to regard all professional subjects in a + practical point of view, to eschew subtle hypotheses and modes of + treatment based on vague abstractions." The treatises have been + grouped in the four following sections: (1) genuine; (2) those + consisting of notes taken by students and collected after the death of + Hippocrates; (3) essays by disciples; (4) those utterly spurious. + Littre accepts the following thirteen as absolutely genuine: (1) _On + Ancient Medicine_ ([Greek: Peri archaies ietrikes]); (2) _The + Prognostics_ ([Greek: Prognostikon]); (3) _The Aphorisms_ ([Greek: + Aphorismoi]); (4) _The Epidemics_, i. and iii. ([Greek: Epidemion a' + kai g']); (5) _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_ ([Greek: Peri diaites + oxeon]); (6) _On Airs, Waters, and Places_ ([Greek: Peri aeron, + hydaton, kai topon]); (7) _On the Articulations_ ([Greek: Peri + arthron]); (8) _On Fractures_ ([Greek: Peri agmon]); (9) _The + Instruments of Reduction_ ([Greek: Mochlikos]); (10) _The Physician's + Establishment, or Surgery_ ([Greek: Kat' ietreion]); (11) _On Injuries + of the Head_ ([Greek: Peri ton en kephale tromaton]); (12) _The Oath_ + ([Greek: Horkos]); (13) _The Law_ ([Greek: Nomos]). Of these Adams + accepts as certainly genuine the 2nd, 6th, 5th, 3rd (7 books), 4th, + 7th, 8th, 9th and 12th, and as "pretty confidently acknowledged as + genuine, although the evidence in their favour is not so strong," the + 1st, 10th and 13th, and, in addition, (14) _On Ulcers_ ([Greek: Peri + helkon]); (15) _On Fistulae_ ([Greek: Peri syringon]); (16) _On + Hemorrhoids_ ([Greek: Peri haimorrhoidon]); (17) _On the Sacred + Disease_ ([Greek: Peri hieres nousou]). According to the sceptical and + somewhat subjective criticism of Ermerins, the whole collection is to + be regarded as spurious except _Epidemics_, books i. and iii. (with a + few interpolations), _On Airs, Waters, and Places_, _On Injuries of + the Head_ ("insigne fragmentum libri Hippocratei"), the former portion + of the treatise _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_, and the "obviously + Hippocratic" fragments of the _Coan Prognostics_. Perhaps also the + _Oath_ may be accepted as genuine; its comparative antiquity is not + denied. The _Aphorisms_ are certainly later and inferior. In the other + non-Hippocratic writings Ermerins thinks he can distinguish the hands + of no fewer than nineteen different authors, most of them anonymous, + and some of them very late. + + The earliest Greek edition of the Hippocratic writings is that which + was published by Aldus and Asulanus at Venice in 1526 (folio); it was + speedily followed by that of Frobenius, which is much more accurate + and complete (fol., Basel, 1538). Of the numerous subsequent editions, + probably the best was that of Foesius (Frankfort, 1595, 1621, Geneva, + 1657), until the publication of the great works of Littre, _Oeuvres + completes d'Hippocrate, traduction nouvelle avec le texte grec en + regard, collationnee sur les manuscrits et toutes les editions, + accompagnee d'une introduction, de commentaires medicaux, de + variantes, et de notes philologiques_ (10 vols., Paris, 1839-1861), + and of F. Z. Ermerins, _Hippocratis et aliorum medicorum veterum + reliquiae_ (3 vols., Utrecht, 1859-1864). See also Adams (as cited + above), and Reinhold's _Hippocrates_ (2 vols., Athens, 1864-1867). + Daremberg's edition of the _Oeuvres choisies_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1855) + includes the _Oath_, the _Law_, the _Prorrhetics_, book i., the + _Prognostics, On Airs, Waters, and Places, Epidemics_, books i. and + iii., _Regimen_, and _Aphorisms_. Of the separate works attributed to + Hippocrates the editions and translations are almost innumerable; of + the _Prognostics_, for example, seventy editions are known, while of + the _Aphorisms_ there are said to exist as many as three hundred. For + some notice of the Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew translations of works + professedly by Hippocrates (Ibukrat or Bukrat), the number of which + greatly exceeds that of the extant Greek originals, reference may be + made to Flugel's contribution to the article "Hippokrates" in the + _Encyklopadie_ of Ersch and Gruber. They have been partially + catalogued by Fabricius in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_. (J. B. T.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "Hippocrates Cous, primus quidem ex omnibus memoria dignus, ab + studio sapientiae disciplinam hanc separavit, vir et arte et facundia + insignis" (Celsus, _De medicina_). + + + + +HIPPOCRENE (the "fountain of the horse," [Greek: he hippou krene]), the +spring on Mt Helicon, in Boeotia, which, like the other spring there, +Aganippe, was sacred to the Muses and Apollo, and hence taken as the +source of poetic inspiration. The spring, surrounded by an ancient wall, +is now known as _Kryopegadi_ or the cold spring. According to the +legend, it was produced by the stamping of the hoof of Bellerophon's +horse Pegasus. The same story accounts for the Hippocrene in Troezen and +the spring Peirene at Corinth. + + + + +HIPPODAMUS, of Miletus, a Greek architect of the 5th century B.C. It was +he who introduced order and regularity into the planning of cities, in +place of the previous intricacy and confusion. For Pericles he planned +the arrangement of the harbour-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the +Athenians founded Thurii in Italy he accompanied the colony as +architect, and afterwards, in 408 B.C., he superintended the building of +the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of series of broad, +straight streets, cutting one another at right angles. + + + + +HIPPODROME (Gr. [Greek: hippodromos], from [Greek: hippos], horse, and +[Greek: dromos], racecourse), the course provided by the Greeks for +horse and chariot racing; it corresponded to the Roman _circus_, except +that in the latter only four chariots ran at a time, whereas ten or more +contended in the Greek games, so that the width was far greater, being +about 400 ft., the course being 600 to 700 ft. long. The Greek +hippodrome was usually set out on the slope of a hill, and the ground +taken from one side served to form the embankment on the other side. One +end of the hippodrome was semicircular, and the other end square with an +extensive portico, in front of which, at a lower level, were the stalls +for the horses and chariots. The modern hippodrome is more for +equestrian and other displays than for horse racing. The Hippodrome in +Paris somewhat resembles the Roman amphitheatre, being open in the +centre to the sky, with seats round on rising levels. + + + + +HIPPOLYTUS, in Greek legend, son of Theseus and Hippolyte, queen of the +Amazons (or of her sister Antiope), a famous hunter and charioteer and +favourite of Artemis. His stepmother Phaedra became enamoured of him, +but, finding her advances rejected, she hanged herself, leaving a letter +in which she accused Hippolytus of an attempt upon her virtue. Theseus +thereupon drove his son from his presence with curses and called upon +his father Poseidon to destroy him. While Hippolytus was driving along +the shore at Troezen (the scene of the _Hippolytus_ of Euripides), a +sea-monster (a bull or _phoca_) sent by Poseidon emerged from the waves; +the horses were scared, Hippolytus was thrown out of the chariot, and +was dragged along, entangled in the reins, until he died. According to a +tradition of Epidaurus, Asclepius restored him to life at the request of +Artemis, who removed him to Italy (see VIRBIUS). At Troezen, where he +had a special sanctuary and priest, and was worshipped with divine +honours, the story of his death was denied. He was said to have been +rescued by the gods at the critical moment, and to have been placed +amongst the stars as the Charioteer (Auriga). It was also the custom of +the Troezenian maidens to cut off a lock of their hair and to dedicate +it to Hippolytus before marriage (see Frazer on Pausanias ii. 32. 1). +Well-known classical parallels to the main theme are Bellerophon and +Antea (or Stheneboea) and Peleus and Astydamia. The story was the +subject of two plays by Euripides (the later of which is extant), of a +tragedy by Seneca and of Racine's _Phedre_. A trace of it has survived +in the legendary death of the apocryphal martyr Hippolytus, a Roman +officer who was torn to pieces by wild horses as a convert to +Christianity (see J. J. Dollinger, _Hippolytus and Callistus_, Eng. tr. +by A. Plummer, 1876, pp. 28-39, 51-60). + +According to the older explanations, Hippolytus represented the sun, +which sets in the sea (cf. the scene of his death and the story of +Phaethon), and Phaedra the moon, which travels behind the sun, but is +unable to overtake it. It is more probable, however, that he was a local +hero famous for his chastity, perhaps originally a priest of Artemis, +worshipped as a god at Troezen, where he was closely connected and +sometimes confounded with Asclepius. It is noteworthy that, in a speech +put into the mouth of Theseus by Euripides, the father, who of course +believes his wife's story and regards Hippolytus as a hypocrite, throws +his son's pretended misogyny and asceticism (Orphism) in his teeth. This +seems to point to a struggle between a new ritual and that of Poseidon, +the chief deity of Troezen, in which the representative of the intruding +religion meets his death through the agency of the offended god, as +Orpheus (q.v.) was torn to pieces by the votaries of the jealous +Dionysus. According to S. Reinach (_Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft_, +x., 1907, p. 47), the Troezenian Hippolytus was a horse, the hypostasis +of an equestrian divinity periodically torn to pieces by the faithful, +who called themselves, and believed themselves to be, horses. Death was +followed by resuscitation, as in the similar myths of Adonis (the sacred +boar), Orpheus (the fox), Pentheus (the fawn), Phaethon (the white +sun-horse). + + See Wilamowitz-Mollendorff's Introduction to his German translation of + Euripides' _Hippolytus_ (1891); A. Kalkmann, _De Hippolytis + Euripideis_ (Bonn, 1882); and (for representations in art) "Uber + Darstellung der Hippolytussage" in _Archaologische Zeitung_ (xli. + 1883); J. E. Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_ + (1890), cl. + + + + +HIPPOLYTUS, a writer of the early Church. The mystery which enveloped +the person and writings of Hippolytus,[1] one of the most prolific +ecclesiastical writers of early times, had some light thrown upon it for +the first time about the middle of the 19th century by the discovery of +the so-called _Philosophumena_ (see below). Assuming this writing to be +the work of Hippolytus, the information given in it as to the author and +his times can be combined with other traditional dates to form a +tolerably clear picture. Hippolytus must have been born in the second +half of the 2nd century, probably in Rome. Photius describes him in his +_Bibliotheca_ (cod. 121) as a disciple of Irenaeus, and from the context +of this passage it is supposed that we may conclude that Hippolytus +himself so styled himself. But this is not certain, and even if it were, +it does not necessarily imply that Hippolytus enjoyed the personal +teaching of the celebrated Gallic bishop; it may perhaps merely refer to +that relation of his theological system to that of Irenaeus which can +easily be traced in his writings. As a presbyter of the church at Rome +under Bishop Zephyrinus (199-217), Hippolytus was distinguished for his +learning and eloquence. It was at this time that Origen, then a young +man, heard him preach (Hieron. _Vir. ill._ 61; cp. Euseb. _H.E._ vi. 14, +10). It was probably not long before questions of theology and church +discipline brought him into direct conflict with Zephyrinus, or at any +rate with his successor Calixtus I. (q.v.). He accused the bishop of +favouring the Christological heresies of the Monarchians, and, further, +of subverting the discipline of the Church by his lax action in +receiving back into the Church those guilty of gross offences. The +result was a schism, and for perhaps over ten years Hippolytus stood as +bishop at the head of a separate church. Then came the persecution under +Maximinus the Thracian. Hippolytus and Pontius, who was then bishop, +were transported in 235 to Sardinia, where it would seem that both of +them died. From the so-called chronograph of the year 354 (_Catalogus +Liberianus_) we learn that on the 13th of August, probably in 236, the +bodies of the exiles were interred in Rome and that of Hippolytus in the +cemetery on the Via Tiburtina. So we must suppose that before his death +the schismatic was received again into the bosom of the Church, and this +is confirmed by the fact that his memory was henceforth celebrated in +the Church as that of a holy martyr. Pope Damasus I. dedicated to him +one of his famous epigrams, and Prudentius (_Peristephanon_, 11) drew a +highly coloured picture of his gruesome death, the details of which are +certainly purely legendary: the myth of Hippolytus the son of Theseus +was transferred to the Christian martyr. Of the historical Hippolytus +little remained in the memory of after ages. Neither Eusebius (_H.E._ +vi. 20, 2) nor Jerome (_Vir. ill._ 61) knew that the author so much read +in the East and the Roman saint were one and the same person. The notice +in the _Chronicon Paschale_ preserves one slight reminiscence of the +historical facts, namely, that Hippolytus's episcopal see was situated +at Portus near Rome. In 1551 a marble statue of a seated man was found +in the cemetery of the Via Tiburtina: on the sides of the seat were +carved a paschal cycle, and on the back the titles of numerous writings. +It was the statue of Hippolytus, a work at any rate of the 3rd century; +at the time of Pius IX. it was placed in the Lateran Museum, a record in +stone of a lost tradition. + +Hippolytus's voluminous writings, which for variety of subject can be +compared with those of Origen, embrace the spheres of exegesis, +homiletics, apologetics and polemic, chronography and ecclesiastical +law. His works have unfortunately come down to us in such a fragmentary +condition that it is difficult to obtain from them any very exact notion +of his intellectual and literary importance. Of his exegetical works the +best preserved are the _Commentary on the Prophet Daniel_ and the +_Commentary on the Song of Songs_. In spite of many instances of a want +of taste in his typology, they are distinguished by a certain sobriety +and sense of proportion in his exegesis. We are unable to form an +opinion of Hippolytus as a preacher, for the _Homilies on the Feast of +Epiphany_ which go under his name are wrongly attributed to him. He +wrote polemical words directed against the pagans, the Jews and +heretics. The most important of these polemical treatises is the +_Refutation of all Heresies_, which has come to be known by the +inappropriate title of the _Philosophumena_. Of its ten books, the +second and third are lost; Book i. was for a long time printed (with the +title _Philosophumena_) among the works of Origen; Books iv.-x. were +found in 1842 by the Greek Minoides Mynas, without the name of the +author, in a MS. at Mount Athos. It is nowadays universally admitted +that Hippolytus was the author, and that Books i. and iv.-x. belong to +the same work. The importance of the work has, however, been much +overrated; a close examination of the sources for the exposition of the +Gnostic system which is contained in it has proved that the information +it gives is not always trustworthy. Of the dogmatic works, that on +_Christ and Antichrist_ survives in a complete state. Among other things +it includes a vivid account of the events preceding the end of the +world, and it was probably written at the time of the persecution under +Septimius Severus, i.e. about 202. The influence of Hippolytus was felt +chiefly through his works on chronographic and ecclesiastical law. His +chronicle of the world, a compilation embracing the whole period from +the creation of the world up to the year 234, formed a basis for many +chronographical works both in the East and West. In the great +compilations of ecclesiastical law which arose in the East since the 4th +century (see below: also APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS) much of the material +was taken from the writings of Hippolytus; how much of this is genuinely +his, how much of it worked over, and how much of it wrongly attributed +to him, can no longer be determined beyond dispute even by the most +learned investigation. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The edition of J. A. Fabricius, _Hippolyti opera graece + et latine_ (2 vols., Hamburg, 1716-1718, reprinted in Gallandi, + _Bibliotheca veterum patrum_ (vol. ii., 1766), and Migne, _Cursus + patrol. ser. Graeca_, vol. x.) is out of date. The preparation of a + complete critical edition has been undertaken by the Prussian Academy + of Sciences. The task is one of extraordinary difficulty, for the + textual problems of the various writings are complex and confused: the + Greek original is extant in a few cases only (the _Commentary on + Daniel_, the _Refutation, on Antichrist_, parts of the _Chronicle_, + and some fragments); for the rest we are dependent on fragments of + translations, chiefly Slavonic, all of which are not even published. + Of the Academy's edition one volume was published at Berlin in 1897, + containing the _Commentaries on Daniel_ and on the _Song of Songs_, + the treatise on _Antichrist_, and the _Lesser Exegetical_ and + _Homiletic Works_, edited by Nathanael Bonwetsch and Hans Achelis. The + _Commentary on the Song of Songs_ has also been published by Bonwetsch + (Leipzig, 1902) in a German translation based on a Russian translation + by N. Marr of the Grusian (Georgian) text, and he added to it + (Leipzig, 1904) a translation of various small exegetical pieces, + which are preserved in a Georgian version only (_The Blessing of + Jacob_, _The Blessing of Moses_, _The Narrative of David and + Goliath_). A great part of the original of the _Chronicle_ has been + published by Adolf Bauer (Leipzig, 1905) from the _Codex Matritensis + Graecus_, 221. For the _Refutation_ we are still dependent on the + editions of Miller (Oxford, 1851), Duncker and Schneidewin (Gottingen, + 1859), and Cruice (Paris, 1860). An English translation is to be found + in the _Ante-Nicene Christian Library_ (Edinburgh, 1868-1869). + + See Bunsen, _Hippolytus and his Age_ (1852, 2nd ed., 1854; Ger. ed., + 1853); Dollinger, _Hippolytus und Kallistus_ (Regensb. 1853; Eng. + transl., Edinb., 1876); Gerhard Ficker, _Studien zur Hippolytfrage_ + (Leipzig, 1893); Hans Achelis, _Hippolytstudien_ (Leipzig, 1897); Karl + Johannes Neumann, _Hippolytus von Rom in seiner Stellung zu Staat und + Welt_, part i. (Leipzig, 1902); Adhemar d'Ales, _La Theologie de Saint + Hippolyte_ (Paris, 1906). (G. K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to the legend St Hippolytus was a Roman soldier who was + converted by St Lawrence. + + + + +HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF. This book stands at the head of a series of +Church Orders, which contain instructions in regard to the choice and +ordination of Christian ministers, regulations as to widows and virgins, +conditions of reception of converts from heathenism, preparation for and +administration of baptism, rules for the celebration of the eucharist, +for fasting, daily prayers, charity suppers, memorial meals, +first-fruits, &c. We shall give (1) a description of the book as we have +it at present; (2) a brief statement of its relation to allied +documents; (3) some remarks on the evidence for its date and authorship. + +1. We possess the _Canons of Hippolytus_ only in an Arabic version, +itself made from a Coptic version of the original Greek. Attention was +called to the book by Wansleben and Ludolf towards the end of the 17th +century, but it was only in 1870 that it was edited by Haneberg, who +added a Latin translation, and so made it generally accessible. In 1891 +H. Achelis reproduced this translation in a revised form, embodying it +in a synopsis of allied documents. He suspected much interpolation and +derangement of order, and consequently rearranged its contents with a +free hand. In 1900 a German translation was made by H. Riedel, based on +fresh MSS. These showed that the book, as hitherto edited, had been +thrown into disorder by the displacement of two pages near the end; they +also removed other difficulties upon which the theory of interpolation +had been based. Further discoveries, to be spoken of presently, have +added to our materials for the study of the book. + + The book is attributed to "Hippolytus, the chief of the bishops of + Rome," and is divided into thirty-eight canons, to which short + headings are prefixed. This division is certainly not original, but it + is convenient for purposes of reference. Canon 1 is prefatory; it + contains a brief confession of faith in the Trinity, and especially in + the Word, the Son of God; and it speaks of the expulsion of heretics + from the Church. Canons 2-5 give regulations for the selection and + ordination of bishops, presbyters and deacons. The bishop is chosen by + the whole congregation: "one of the bishops and presbyters" is to lay + hands upon him and say a prayer which follows (3): he is at once to + proceed with "the offering," taking up the eucharistic service at the + point where the _sursum corda_ comes in. A presbyter (4) is to be + ordained with the same prayer as a bishop, "with the exception of the + word bishop"; but he is given no power of ordination (this appears to + be inconsistent with c. 2). The duties of a deacon are described, and + the prayer of his ordination follows (5). Canons 6-9 deal with various + classes in the Church. One who has suffered punishment for the faith + (6) is to be counted a presbyter without ordination: "his confession + is his ordination." Readers and sub-deacons (7) are given the Gospel, + but are not ordained by laying-on of hands. A claim to ordination on + the ground of gifts of healing (8) is to be admitted, if the facts are + clear and the healing is from God. Widows are not ordained (9): + "ordination is for men only." Canons 10-15 describe conditions for the + admission of converts. Certain occupations are incompatible with + Christian life: only under compulsion may a Christian be a soldier. + Canons 16-18 deal chiefly with regulations concerning women. Canon 19 + is a long one dealing with catechumens, preparation for baptism, + administration of that sacrament, and of the eucharist for the newly + baptized. The candidate is twice anointed: first, with the oil of + exorcism, after he has said, with his face westward, "I renounce thee, + O devil, and all thy following"; and, again, immediately after the + baptism. As he stands in the water, he declares his faith in response + to an interrogatory creed; and after each of the three clauses he is + immersed. After the second anointing the bishop gives thanks "for that + Thou hast made them worthy that they should be born again, and hast + poured out Thy Holy Ghost upon them, so that they may belong, each one + of them, to the body of the Church": he signs them with the cross on + their foreheads, and kisses them. The eucharist then proceeds: "the + bishop gives them of the body of Christ and says, This is the body of + Christ, and they answer Amen"; and similarly for the cup. Milk and + honey are then given to them as being "born a second time as little + children." A warning is added against eating anything before + communicating. Canons 20-22 deal with fast-days, daily services in + church, and the fast of the passover-week. Canon 23 seems as if it + closed the series, speaking, as it does, of "our brethren the bishops" + who in their cities have made regulations "according to the commands + of our fathers the apostles": "let none of our successors alter them; + because it saith that the teaching is greater than the sea, and hath + no end." We pass on, however, to regulations about the sick (24) who + are to be visited by the bishop, "because it is a great thing for the + sick that the high-priest should visit them (for the shadow of Peter + healed the sick)." Canons 25-27 deal again with prayers and + church-services. The "seven hours" are specified, with reasons for + their observance (25): attendance at sermons is urged (26), "for the + Lord is in the place where his lordship is proclaimed" (comp. + _Didache_ 4, part of the _Two Ways_). When there are no prayers in + church, reading at home is enjoined (27): "let the sun each morning + see the book upon thy knees" (comp. Ath. _Ad virg._, S 12, "Let the + sun when he ariseth see the book in thy hands"). Prayer must be + preceded by the washing of the hands. "No believer must take food + before communicating, especially on fast-days": only believers may + communicate (28). The sacred elements must be guarded, "lest anything + fall into the cup, and it be a sin unto death for the presbyters." No + crumb must be dropped, "lest an evil spirit get possession of it." + Canons 30-35 contain various rules, and specially deal with suppers + for the poor (i.e. _agapae_) and memorial feasts. Then we have a + prayer for the offering of first-fruits (36); a direction that + ministers shall wear fair garments at "the mysteries" (37); and a + command to watch during the night of the resurrection (38). The last + canon hereupon passes into a general exhortation to right living, + which forms a sixth part of the whole book. In Riedel's translation we + read this for the first time as a connected whole. It falls into two + parts, and describes, first, the true life of ordinary Christians, + warning them against an empty profession, and laying down many + precepts of morality; and then it addresses itself to the "ascete" who + "wishes to belong to the rank of the angels," and who lives a life of + solitude and poverty. He is encouraged by an exposition, on somewhat + strange lines, of the temptations of our Lord, and is specially warned + against spiritual pride and contempt of other men. The book closes + with an appeal for love and mutual service, based on the parables in + St Matthew xxv. + +2. It is impossible to estimate the position of the Canons of Hippolytus +without some reference to allied documents (see APOSTOLICAL +CONSTITUTIONS). (a) The most important of these is what is now commonly +called the _Egyptian Church Order_. This is preserved to us in Coptic +and Aethiopic versions, of which Achelis, in his synopsis, gives German +translations. The subject-matter and arrangement of these canons +correspond generally to those of Hippolytus; but many of the details are +modified to bring them into accord with a later practice. A new light +was thrown on the criticism of this work by Hauler's discovery (1900) of +a Latin version (of which, unfortunately, about half is missing) in the +Verona palimpsest, from which he has also given us large Latin fragments +of the _Didascalia_ (which underlies books i.-vi. of the Apostolic +Constitutions, and which hitherto we have only known from the Syriac). +The Latin of the Egyptian Church Order is somewhat more primitive than +the Coptic, and approaches more nearly, at some points, to the _Canons +of Hippolytus_. It has a preface which refers to a treatise _Concerning +Spiritual Gifts_, as having immediately preceded it; but neither this +nor the Coptic-Aethiopic form has either the introduction or concluding +exhortation which is found in the _Canons of Hippolytus_. (b) _The +Testament of the Lord_ is a document in Syriac, of which the opening +part had been published by Lagarde, and of which Rahmani (1899) has +given us the whole. It professes to contain instructions given by our +Lord to the apostles after the resurrection. After an introduction +containing apocalyptical matter, it passes on to give elaborate +directions for the ordering of the Church, embodying, in a much-expanded +form, the Egyptian Church Order, and showing a knowledge of the preface +to that document which appears in the Latin version. It cannot be placed +with probability earlier than the latter part of the 4th century. (c) +The _Apostolic Constitutions_ is a composite document, which probably +belongs to the end of the 4th century. Its first six books are an +expanded edition of a _Didascalia_ which we have already mentioned: its +seventh book similarly expands and modifies the _Didache_ its eighth +book begins by treating of "spiritual gifts," and then in c. 3 passes on +to expand in like manner the Egyptian Church Order. The hand which has +wrought up all these documents has been shown to be that of the +interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek recension. (d) +The _Canons of Basil_ is the title of an Arabic work, of which a German +translation has been given us by Riedel, who thinks that they have come +through Coptic from an original Greek book. They embody, in a modified +form, considerable portions of the Canons of Hippolytus. + +3. We now approach the difficult questions of date and authorship. Much +of the material has been quite recently brought to light, and criticism +has not had time to investigate and pronounce upon it. Some provisional +remarks, therefore, are all that can prudently be made. It seems plain +that we have two lines of tradition: (1) The Canons of Hippolytus, +followed by the Canons of Basil; (2) the Egyptian Church Order, itself +represented (a) by the Latin version, the Testament of the Lord, and the +Apostolic Constitutions, which are linked together by the same preface +(or portions of it); (b) by the Coptic and Aethiopic versions. Now, the +preface of the Latin version points to a time when the canons were +embodied in a _corpus_ of similar materials, or, at the least, were +preceded by a work on "Spiritual Gifts." The Canons of Hippolytus have a +wholly different preface, and also a long exhortation at the close. The +question which criticism must endeavour to answer is, whether the Canons +of Hippolytus are the original from which the Egyptian Church Order is +derived, or whether an earlier body of canons lies behind them both. At +present it is probably wise to assume that the latter is the true +explanation. For the Canons of Hippolytus appear to contain +contradictory regulations (e.g. cc. 2 and 4 of the presbyters), and also +suggest that they have received a considerable supplement (after c. 23). +There is, however, no doubt that they present us with a more primitive +stage of Church life than we find in the Egyptian Church Order. The +mention of sub-deacons (which, after Riedel's fresh manuscript evidence, +cannot now be dismissed as due to interpolation) makes it difficult to +assign a date much earlier than the middle of the 3rd century. + +The Puritan severity of the canons well accords with the temper of the +writer to whom the Arabic title attributes them; and it is to be noted +that the exhortation at the close contains a quotation from 2 Peter +actually attributed to the apostle, and Hippolytus is perhaps the +earliest author who can with certainty be said to have used this +epistle. But the general style of Hippolytus, which is simple, +straight-forward and strong, is in marked contrast with that of the +closing passage of the canons; moreover, his mind, as presented to us in +his extant writings, appears to be a much larger one than that of the +writer of these canons; it is as difficult to think of Hippolytus as it +would be to think of Origen in such a connexion. How, then, are we to +account for the attribution? There is evidence to show that Hippolytus +was highly reverenced throughout the East: his writings, which were in +Greek, were known, but his history was entirely unknown. He was supposed +to be "a pupil ([Greek: gnorimos]) of apostles" (Palladius, 4th +century), and the Arabic title calls him "chief of the bishops of Rome," +i.e. archbishop of Rome. It is hard to trust this attribution more than +the attribution of a Coptic discourse on the _Dormitio Mariae_ to +"Evodius, archbishop of the great city Rome, who was the second after +Peter the apostle" (_Texts and Studies_, iv. 2-44)--Evodius being by +tradition first bishop of Antioch. A whole group of books on Church +Order bears the name of Clement of Rome; and the attribution of our +canons to Hippolytus may be only an example of the same tendency. The +fact that Hippolytus wrote a treatise _Concerning Spiritual Gifts_, and +that some such treatise is not only referred to in the Latin preface to +the Egyptian Church Order, but is actually found at the beginning of +book viii. of the Apostolic Constitutions, introduces an interesting +complication; but we cannot here pursue the matter further. Dom Morin's +ingenious attribution of the canons to Dionysius of Alexandria (on the +ground of Eusebius, _H.E._ vi. 46., 5) cannot be accepted in view of the +broader church policy which that writer represents. If the Hippolytean +authorship be given up, it is probable that Egypt will make the +strongest claim to be the locality in which the canons were compiled in +their present form. + + The authorities of chief practical importance are H. Achelis, _Texte + u. Unters._ vi. 4 (1891); Rahmani, _Testamentum Domini_ (1899); + Hauler, _Didascaliae Apostolorum_ (1900); Riedel, + _Kirchenrechtsquellen des Patriarchats Alexandrien_ (1900). + (J. A. R.) + + + + +HIPPONAX, of Ephesus, Greek iambic poet. Expelled from Ephesus in 540 +B.C. by the tyrant Athenagoras, he took refuge in Clazomenae, where he +spent the rest of his life in poverty. His deformed figure and malicious +disposition exposed him to the caricature of the Chian sculptors Bupalus +and Athenis, upon whom he revenged himself by issuing against them a +series of satires. They are said to have hanged themselves like Lycambes +and his daughters when assailed by Archilochus, the model and +predecessor of Hipponax. His coarseness of thought and feeling, his rude +vocabulary, his want of grace and taste, and his numerous allusions to +matters of merely local interest prevented his becoming a favourite in +Attica. He was considered the inventor of parody and of a peculiar +metre, the _scazon_ or _choliambus_, which substitutes a spondee for the +final iambus of an iambic senarius, and is an appropriate form for the +burlesque character of his poems. + + Fragments in Bergk, _Poetae lyrici Graeci_; see also B. J. Peltzer, + _De parodica Graecorum poesi_ (1855), containing an account of + Hipponax and the fragments. + + + + +HIPPOPOTAMUS ("river-horse," Gr. [Greek: hippos], horse and [Greek: +potamos], river), the name of the largest representative of the +non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mammals, and its living and extinct +relatives. The common hippopotamus (_Hippopotamus amphibius_), which +formerly inhabited all the great rivers of Africa but whose range has +now been much restricted, is most likely the _behemoth_ of Scripture, +and may very probably in Biblical times have been found in the Jordan +valley, since at a still earlier (Pleistocene) epoch it ranged over a +large part of Europe. It typifies not only a genus, but likewise a +family, _Hippopotamidae_, distinguished from its relatives the pigs and +peccaries, or _Suidae_, by the following assemblage of characters: +Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, with four subequal +toes, bearing short rounded hoofs, and all reaching the ground in +walking. Incisors not rooted but continuously growing; those of the +upper jaw curved and directed downwards; those of the lower straight and +procumbent. Canines very large, curved, continuously growing; upper ones +directed downwards. Premolars 4/4; molars 3/3. Stomach complex. No +caecum. + +[Illustration: The Hippopotamus (_Hippopotamus amphibius_).] + +In form the hippopotamus is a huge, unwieldy creature, measuring in the +largest specimens fully 14 ft. from the extremity of the upper lip to +the tip of the tail, while it ordinarily attains a length of 12 ft., +with a height of 5 ft. at the shoulders, and a girth round the thickest +part of the body almost equal to its length. The small ears are +exceedingly flexible, and kept in constant motion when the animal is +seeking to catch a distant sound; the eyes are placed high up on the +head, but little below the level of the ears; while the gape is wide, +and the upper lip thick and bulging so as to cover over even its large +tusks when the mouth is closed. The molars, which show trefoil-shaped +grinding-surfaces are well adapted for masticating vegetable substances, +while the formidable array of long spear-like incisors and curved +chisel-edged canines or tusks root up rank grass like an agricultural +implement. The legs are short, so that the body is but little elevated +above the ground; and the feet, which are small in proportion to the +size of the animal, terminate in four short toes each bearing a small +hoof. With the exception of a few tufts of hair on the lips, on the +sides of the head and neck, and at the extremity of the short robust +tail, the skin of the hippopotamus, some portions of which are 2 in. in +thickness, is destitute of covering. Hippopotamuses are gregarious +animals, living in herds of from 20 to 40 individuals on the banks and +in the beds of rivers, in the neighbourhood of which they most readily +find appropriate food. This consists chiefly of grass and of aquatic +plants, of which these animals consume enormous quantities, the stomach +being capable of containing from 5 to 6 bushels. They feed principally +by night, remaining in the water during the day, although in districts +where they are little disturbed they are less exclusively aquatic. In +such remote quarters, they put their heads boldly out of the water to +blow, but when rendered suspicious they become exceedingly cautious in +this respect, only exposing their nostrils above the water, and even +this they prefer doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of +their enormous size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and +divers, and can remain easily under the water from five to eight +minutes. They walk on the bottoms of rivers, beneath at least 1 ft. of +water. At nightfall they come on land to feed; and when, as often +happens on the banks of the Nile, they reach cultivated ground, they do +immense damage to growing crops, destroying by their ponderous tread +even more than they devour. To scare away these unwelcome visitors the +natives in such districts are in the habit of kindling fires at night. +Although hippopotamuses do not willingly go far from the water on which +their existence depends, they occasionally travel long distances by +night in search of food, and in spite of their clumsy appearance are +able to climb steep banks and precipitous ravines with ease. Of a +wounded hippopotamus which Sir S. Baker saw leaving the water and +galloping inland, he writes: "I never could have imagined that so +unwieldy an animal could have exhibited such speed. No man could have +had a chance of escape." The hippopotamus does not confine itself to +rivers and lakes, but has been known to prefer the waters of the ocean +as its home during the day. Of a mild and inoffensive disposition, it +seeks to avoid collision with man; when wounded, however, or in defence +of its young, it exhibits great ferocity, and native canoes are capsized +and occasionally demolished by its infuriated attacks; the bellowing +grunt then becoming loud enough to be heard a mile away. As among +elephants, so also among hippopotamuses there are "rogues"--old bulls +which have become soured in solitude, and are at all times dangerous. +Assuming the offensive on every occasion, they attack all and sundry +without shadow of provocation; and the natives avoid their haunts, which +are usually well known. + +The only other living species is the pygmy hippopotamus, _H. +(Choeropsis) liberiensis_, of West Africa, an animal not larger than a +clumsily made pig of full dimensions, and characterized by having +generally one (in place of two) pair of incisors. It is much less +aquatic than its giant relative, having, in fact, the habits of a pig. + +A small extinct species (_H. lemerlei_) inhabited Madagascar at a +comparatively recent date; while other dwarf kinds were natives of Crete +(_H. minutus_) and Malta and Sicily (_H. pentlandi_) during the +Pleistocene. A large form of the ordinary species (_H. amphibius major_) +was distributed over Europe as far north as Yorkshire at the same epoch; +while an allied species (_H. palaeindicus_) inhabited Pleistocene India. +Contemporary with the latter was, however, a species (_H. namadicus_) +with three pairs of incisors; and "hexaprotodont" hippopotamuses are +also characteristic of the Pliocene of India and Burma (_H. sivalensis_ +and _H. iravadicus_), and of Algeria, Egypt and southern Europe (_H. +hipponensis_). + + For the ancestral genera of the hippopotamus line, see ARTIODACTYLA. + (R. L.*) + + + + +HIPPURIC ACID (Gr. [Greek: hippos], horse, [Greek: ouron], urine), +benzoyl glycocoll or benzoyl amidoacetic acid, C9H9NO3 or +C6H5CO.NH.CH2.CO2H, an organic acid found in the urine of horses and +other herbivorae. It is excreted when many aromatic compounds, such as +benzoic acid and toluene, are taken internally. J. v. Liebig in 1829 +showed that it differed from benzoic acid, and in 1839 determined its +constitution, while in 1853 V. Dessaignes (_Ann._ 87, p. 325) +synthesized it by acting with benzoyl chloride on zinc glycocollide. It +is also formed by heating benzoic anhydride with glycocoll (Th. Curtius, +_Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 1662), and by heating benzamide with +monochloracetic acid. It crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are +readily soluble in hot water, melt at 187 deg. C. and decompose at about +240 deg. C. It is readily hydrolysed by hot caustic alkalis to benzoic +acid and glycocoll. Nitrous acid converts it into benzoyl glycollic +acid, C6H5CO.O.CH2.CO2H. Its ethyl ester reacts with hydrazine to form +hippuryl hydrazine, C6H5CO.NH.CH2.CO.NH.NH2, which was used by Curtius +for the preparation of azoimide (q.v.). + + + + +HIPURNIAS, a tribe of South American Indians, 2000 or 3000 in number, +living on the river Purus, western Brazil. Their houses are long, low +and narrow: the side walls and roof are one, poles being fixed in the +ground and then bent together so as to meet and form a pointed arch for +the cross-sections. They use small bark canoes. Their chief weapons are +poisoned arrows. They have a native god called Guintiniri. + + + + +HIRA, the capital of an Arabian kingdom, founded in the 2nd century +A.D., on the western edge of Irak, was situated at 32 deg. N., 44 deg. +20' E., about 4 m. S.E. of modern Nejef, by the Sa'ade canal, on the +shore of the Bahr Nejef or Assyrium Stagnum. Its kings governed the +western shore of the lower Euphrates and of the Persian Gulf, their +kingdom extending inland to the confines of the Nejd. This Lakhmid +kingdom was more or less dependent, during the four centuries of its +existence, on the Sassanian empire, to which it formed a sort of buffer +state towards Arabia. After the battle of Kadesiya and the founding of +Kufa by the Arabs, Hira lost its importance and fell into decay. The +ruin mounds covering the ancient site, while extensive, are +insignificant in appearance and give no indications of the existence of +important buildings. + + + + +HIRADO, an island belonging to Japan, 19(1/2) m. long and 6 m. wide, +lying off the west coast of the province of Hizen, Kiushiu, in 33 deg. +15' N. and 129 deg. 25' E. It is celebrated as the site of the original +Dutch factory--often erroneously written Firando--and as the place where +one of the finest blue-and-white porcelains of Japan (_Hiradoyaki_) was +produced in the 17th and 18th centuries. The kilns are still active. + + + + +HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT, in the law of contract, a form of bailment of +goods, on credit, which has extended very considerably of late years. +Originally applied to the sale of the more expensive kinds of goods, +such as pianos and articles of furniture, the hire-purchase agreement +has now been extended to almost every description. The agreement is +usually in writing, with a stipulation that the payments to purchase +shall be by weekly, monthly or other instalments. The agreement is +virtually one to purchase, but in order that the vendor may be able to +recover the goods at any time on non-payment of an instalment, it is +treated as an agreement to let and hire, with a provision that when the +last instalment has been paid the goods shall become the property of the +hirer. A clause provides that in case of default of any instalment, or +breach of any part of the agreement, all previous payments shall be +forfeited to the lender, who can forcibly recover the goods. Such +agreements, therefore, do not pass the property in the goods, which +remains in the lender until all the instalments have been paid. But the +terms of the agreement may sometimes purposely obscure the nature of the +transaction between the parties, where, for example, the hire-purchase +is merely to create a security for money. In such a case a judge will +look to the true nature of the transaction. If it is not a real letting +and hiring, the agreement will require registration under the Bills of +Sale Acts. If the agreement contains words to the effect that a person +has "bought or agreed to buy" goods, the transaction comes under the +Factors Act 1889, and the person in possession of the goods may dispose +of them and give a good title. The doctrine of reputed ownership, by +which a bankrupt is deemed the reputed owner of goods in his apparent +possession, has been somewhat modified by trade customs, in accordance +with which property is frequently let out on the hire-purchase system +(see BANKRUPTCY). + + + + +HIRING (from O. Eng. _hyrian_, a word common to many Teutonic languages +cf. Ger. _heuern_, Dutch _huren_, &c.), in law, a contract by which one +man grants the use of a thing to another in return for a certain price. +It corresponds to the _locatio-conductio_ of Roman law. That contract +was either a letting of a thing (_locatio-conductio rei_) or of labour +(_locatio operarum_). The distinguishing feature of the contract was +the price. Thus the contracts of _mutuum_, _commodatum_, _depositum_ +and _mandatum_, which are all gratuitous contracts, become, if a price +is fixed, cases of _locatio-conductio_. In modern English law the term +can scarcely be said to be used in a strictly technical sense. The +contracts which the Roman law grouped together under the head of +_locatio-conductio_--such as those of landlord and tenant, master and +servant, &c.--are not in English law treated as cases of hiring but as +independent varieties of contract. Neither in law books nor in ordinary +discourse could a tenant farmer be said to hire his land. Hiring would +generally be applied to contracts in which the services of a man or the +use of a thing are engaged for a short time. + +_Hiring Fairs_, or _Statute Fairs_, still held in Wales and some parts +of England, were formerly an annual fixture in every important country +town. These fairs served to bring together masters and servants. The men +and maids seeking work stood in rows, the males together and the females +together, while masters and mistresses walked down the lines and +selected those who suited them. Originally these hiring-fairs were +always held on Martinmas Day (11th of November). Now they are held on +different dates in different towns, usually in October or November. In +Cumberland the men seeking work stood with straws in their mouths. In +Lincolnshire the bargain between employer and employed was closed by the +giving of the "fasten-penny," the earnest money, usually a shilling, +which "fastened" the contract for a twelvemonth. Some few days after the +Statute Fair it was customary to hold a second called a Mop Fair or +Runaway Mop. "Mop" (from Lat. _mappa_, napkin, or small cloth) meant in +Old English a tuft or tassel, and the fair was so called, it is +suggested, in allusion to tufts or badges worn by those seeking +employment. Thus the carter wore whipcord on his hat, the cowherd a tuft +of cow's hair, and so on. Another possible explanation would be to take +the word "mop" in its old provincial slang sense of "a fool," mop fair +being the fools' fair, a sort of last chance offered to those who were +too dull or slovenly-looking to be hired at the statute fair. Perhaps +"runaway" suggests the idea of those absent through drunkenness, or +those who simply feared to face the ordeal of the larger hiring and so +ran away. + + + + +HIROSAKI, a town of Japan in the province of Michmoku or Rikuchiu, north +Nippon, 22 m. S.W. of Aomori by rail. Pop. about 37,000. The fine +isolated cone of Iwakisan, a mountain of pilgrimage, rises to the west. +Hirosaki is a very old place, formerly residence of a great daimio (or +daimyo) and capital of a vast principality, and still the seat of a high +court with jurisdiction over the surrounding districts of Aomori and +Akita. Like most places in north Nippon, it is built with continuous +verandas extending from house to house, and affording a promenade +completely sheltered from the snows of winter. Apples of fine flavour +grow in the district, which also enjoys some reputation for its peculiar +green lacquer-ware. + + + + +HIROSHIGE (1797-1858), Japanese artist, was one of the principal members +of that branch of the _Ukiyo-ye_ or Popular School of Painting in Japan, +a school which chiefly made colour-prints. His family name was Ando +Tokitaro; that under which he is known having been, in accordance with +Japanese practice, adopted by him in recognition of the fact that he was +a pupil of Toyohiro. The earliest reference to him is in the account +given by an inhabitant of the Lu-chu islands of a visit to Japan; where +a sketch of a procession drawn with great skill by Hiroshige at the age +of ten years only is mentioned as one of the remarkable sights seen. At +the age of fifteen he applied unsuccessfully to be admitted to the +studio of the elder Toyokuni; but was eventually received by Toyohiro. +On the death of the latter in 1828, he began to practise on his own +account, but finding small encouragement at Yedo (Tokyo) he removed to +Kioto, where he published a set of landscapes. He soon returned to Yedo, +where his work soon became popular, and was imitated by other artists. +He died in that city on the 6th day of the 9th month of the year, Ansei +5th, at the age of sixty-two, and was buried at Asakusa. One of his +pupils, Hironobu, received from him the name of Hiroshige II. and +another, Ando Tokubei, that of Hiroshige III. All three were closely +associated with the work signed with the name of the master. Hiroshige +II. some time after the year 1863 fell into disgrace and was compelled +to leave Yedo for Nagasaki, where he died; Hiroshige III. then called +himself Hiroshige II. He died in 1896. The earlier prints by these +artists, whose work can hardly be separated, are of extraordinary merit. +They applied the process of colour block printing to the purposes of +depicting landscape, with a breadth, skill and suitability of convention +that has been equalled only by Hokusai in Japan, and by no European. +Most of their subjects were derived from the neighbourhood of Yedo, or +were scenes on the old high road--the Tokaido--that ran from that city +to Kioto. The two elder of the name were competent painters, and +pictures and drawings by them are occasionally to be met with. + + See E. F. Strange, "Japanese Colour-prints" (_Victoria and Albert + Museum Handbook_, 1904). (E. F. S.) + + + + +HIROSHIMA, a city and seaport of Japan, capital of the government of its +name in central Nippon. Pop. (1903) 113,545. It is very beautifully +situated on a small plain surrounded by hills, the bay being studded +with islands. In its general aspect it resembles Osaka, from which it is +190 m. W. by rail, and next to that place and Hiogo it is the most +important commercial centre on the Inland Sea. The government has an +area of about 3000 sq. m., with a population of about 1,500,000. +Hiroshima is famous all over Japan owing to its association with the +neighbouring islet of Itaku-Shima, "Island of Light," which is dedicated +to the goddess Bentin and regarded as one of the three wonders of Japan. +The chief temple dates from the year 587, and the island, which is +inhabited largely by priests and their attendants, is annually visited +by thousands of pilgrims. But the hallowed soil is never tilled, so that +all provisions have to be brought from the surrounding districts. + + + + +HIRPINI (from an Oscan or Sabine stem _hirpo-_, "wolf"), an inland +Samnite tribe in the south of Italy, whose territory was bounded by that +of the Lucani on the S., the Campani on the S.W., the Appuli (Apuli) and +Frentani on the E. and N.E. On the N. we find them, politically +speaking, identified with the Pentri and Caraceni, and with them +constituting the Samnite alliance in the wars of the 4th century B.C. +(see SAMNITES). The Roman policy of separation cut them off from these +allies by the foundation of Beneventum in 268 B.C., and henceforward +they are a separate unit; they joined Hannibal in 216 B.C., and retained +their independence until, after joining in the Social war, which in +their part of Italy can hardly be said to have ceased till the final +defeat of the Samnites by Sulla in 83 B.C., they received the Roman +franchise. Of their Oscan speech, besides the evidence of their +place-names, only a few fragments survive (R. S. Conway, _The Italic +Dialects_, pp. 170 ff.; and for _hirpo-_, ib. p. 200). In the ethnology +of Italy the Hirpini appear from one point of view as the purest type of +Safine stock, namely, that in which the proportion of ethnica formed +with the suffix _-no-_ is highest, thirty-three out of thirty-six tribal +or municipal epithets being formed thereby (e.g. _Caudini_, _Compsani_) +and only one with the suffix -_ti_- (_Abellinates_), where it is +clearly secondary. On the significance of this see SABINI. (R. S. C.) + + + + +HIRSAU (formerly _Hirschau_), a village of Germany, in the kingdom of +Wurttemberg, on the Nagold and the Pforzheim-Horb railway, 2 m. N. of +Calw. Pop. 800. Hirsau has some small manufactures, but it owes its +origin and historical interest to its former Benedictine monastery, +_Monasterium Hirsaugiense_, at one period one of the most famous in +Europe. Its picturesque ruins, of which only the chapel with the library +hall are still in good preservation, testify to the pristine grandeur of +the establishment. It was founded about 830 by Count Erlafried of Calw, +at the instigation of his son, Bishop Notting of Vercelli, who enriched +it with, among other treasures, the body of St Aurelius. Its first +occupants (838) were a colony of fifteen monks from Fulda, disciples of +Hrabanus Maurus and Walafrid Strabo, headed by the abbot Liudebert. +During about a century and a half, under the fostering care of the +counts of Calw, it enjoyed great prosperity, and became an important +seat of learning; but towards the end of the 10th century the ravages of +the pestilence combined with the rapacity of its patrons, and the +selfishness and immorality of its inmates, to bring it to the lowest +ebb. After it had been desolate and in ruins for upwards of sixty years +it was rebuilt in 1059, and under Abbot William--Wilhelm von +Hirsau--abbot from 1069 to 1091, it more than regained its former +splendour. By his _Constitutiones Hirsaugienses_, a new religious order, +the Ordo Hirsaugiensis, was formed, the rule of which was afterwards +adopted by many monastic establishments throughout Germany, such as +those of Blaubeuren, Erfurt and Schaffhausen. The friend and +correspondent of Pope Gregory VII., and of Anselm of Canterbury, Abbot +William took active part in the politico-ecclesiastical controversies of +his time; while a treatise from his pen, _De musica et tonis_, as well +as the _Philosophicarum et astronomicarum institutionum libri iii._, +bears witness to his interest in science and philosophy. About the end +of the 12th century the material and moral welfare of Hirsau was again +very perceptibly on the decline; and it never afterwards again rose into +importance. In consequence of the Reformation it was secularized in +1558; in 1692 it was laid in ruins by the French. The _Chronicon +Hirsaugiense_, or, as in the later edition it is called, _Annales +Hirsaugienses_ of Abbot Trithemius (Basel, 1559; St Gall, 1690), is, +although containing much that is merely legendary, an important source +of information, not only on the affairs of this monastery, but also on +the early history of Germany. The _Codex Hirsaugiensis_ was edited by A. +F. Gfrorer and printed at Stuttgart in 1843. + + See Steck, _Das Kloster Hirschau_ (1844); Helmsdorfer, _Forschungen + zur Geschichte des Abts Wilhelm von Hirschau_ (Gottingen, 1874); + Weizsacker, _Fuhrer durch die Geschichte des Klosters Hirschau_ + (Stuttgart, 1898); Sussmann, _Forschungen zur Geschichte des Klosters + Hirschau_ (Halle, 1903); Giseke, _Die Hirschauer wahrend des + Investiturstreits_ (Gotha, 1883); C. H. Klaiber, _Das Kloster + Hirschau_ (Tubingen, 1886); and Baer, _Die Hirsauer Bauschule_ + (Freiburg, 1897). + + + + +HIRSCH, MAURICE DE, BARON HIRSCH AUF GEREUTH, in the baronage of Bavaria +(1831-1896), capitalist and philanthropist (German by birth, +Austro-Hungarian by domicile), was born at Munich, 9th December 1831. +His grandfather, the first Jewish landowner in Bavaria, was ennobled +with the _pradikat_ "auf Gereuth" in 1818; his father, who was banker to +the Bavarian king, was created a baron in 1869. The family for +generations has occupied a prominent position in the German Jewish +community. At the age of thirteen young Hirsch was sent to Brussels to +school, but when seventeen years old he went into business. In 1855 he +became associated with the banking house of Bischoffsheim & Goldschmidt, +of Brussels, London and Paris. He amassed a large fortune, which he +increased by purchasing and working railway concessions in Austria, +Turkey and the Balkans, and by speculations in sugar and copper. While +living in great splendour in Paris and London and on his estates in +Hungary, he devoted much of his time to schemes for the relief of his +Hebrew co-religionists in lands where they were persecuted and +oppressed. He took a deep interest in the educational work of the +Alliance Israelite Universelle, and on two occasions presented the +society with gifts of a million francs. For some years he regularly +paid the deficits in the accounts of the Alliance, amounting to several +thousand pounds a year. In 1889 he capitalized his donations and +presented the society with securities producing an annual income of +L16,000. On the occasion of the fortieth anniversary of the emperor +Francis Joseph's accession to the Austrian throne he gave L500,000 for +the establishment of primary and technical schools in Galicia and the +Bukowina. The greatest charitable enterprise on which he embarked was in +connexion with the persecution of the Jews in Russia (see +ANTI-SEMITISM). He gave L10,000 to the funds raised for the repatriation +of the refugees in 1882, but, feeling that this was a very lame +conclusion to the efforts made in western Europe for the relief of the +Russian Jews, he offered the Russian Government L2,000,000 for the +endowment of a system of secular education to be established in the +Jewish pale of settlement. The Russian Government was willing to accept +the money, but declined to allow any foreigner to be concerned in its +control or administration. Thereupon Baron de Hirsch resolved to devote +the money to an emigration and colonization scheme which should afford +the persecuted Jews opportunities of establishing themselves in +agricultural colonies outside Russia. He founded the Jewish Colonization +Association as an English society, with a capital of L2,000,000, and in +1892 he presented to it a further sum of L7,000,000. On the death of his +wife in 1899 the capital was increased to L11,000,000, of which +L1,250,000 went to the Treasury, after some litigation, in death duties. +This enormous fund, which is probably the greatest charitable trust in +the world, is now managed by delegates of certain Jewish societies, +chiefly the Anglo-Jewish Association of London and the Alliance +Israelite Universelle of Paris, among whom the shares in the association +have been divided. The association, which is prohibited from working for +profit, possesses large colonies in South America, Canada and Asia +Minor. In addition to its vast agricultural work it has a gigantic and +complex machinery for dealing with the whole problem of Jewish +persecution, including emigration and distributing agencies, technical +schools, co-operative factories, savings and loan banks and model +dwellings in the congested Russian jewries. It also subventions and +assists a large number of societies all over the world whose work is +connected with the relief and rehabilitation of Jewish refugees. Besides +this great organization, Baron de Hirsch founded in 1891 a benevolent +trust in the United States for the benefit of Jewish immigrants, which +he endowed with L493,000. His minor charities were on a princely scale, +and during his residence in London he distributed over L100,000 among +the local hospitals. It was in this manner that he disposed of the whole +gross proceeds derived from his successes on the English turf, of which +he was a lavish patron. He raced, as he said himself, "for the London +hospitals," and in 1892, when his filly, La Fleche, won the Oaks, St +Leger and One Thousand Guineas, his donations from this source amounted +to about L40,000. Baron de Hirsch married on 28th June 1855 Clara, +daughter of Senator Bischoffsheim of Brussels (b. 1833), by whom he had +a son and daughter, both of whom predeceased him. He died at Ogyalla, +near Komorn, in Hungary, 21st April 1896. The baroness, who seconded her +husband's charitable work with great munificence--their total +benefactions have been estimated at L18,000,000,--died at Paris on the +1st of April 1899. + + For details of Baron de Hirsch's chief charities see the annual + reports of the Alliance Israelite Universelle and of the + "Administration Centrale" of the Jewish Colonization Association. + (L. W.) + + + + +HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL (1808-1888), Jewish theologian, was born in +Hamburg in 1808 and died at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1888. He opposed +the reform tendency of Geiger (q.v.), and presented Jewish orthodoxy in +a new and attractive light. His philosophical conception of tradition, +associated as it was with conservatism in ritual practice, created what +is often known as the Frankfort "Neo-Orthodoxy." Hirsch exercised a +profound influence on the Synagogue and undoubtedly stemmed the tide of +liberalism. His famous _Nineteen Letters_ (1836), with which the +Neo-Orthodoxy began, were translated into English by Drachmann (New +York, 1899). Other works by Hirsch were _Horeb_, and commentaries on +the Pentateuch and Psalms. These are marked by much originality, but +their exegesis is fanciful. Three volumes of his essays have been +published (1902-1908); these were collected as _Gesammelte Schriften_ +from his periodical _Jeschurun_. + + For Hirsch's religious philosophy see S. A. Hirsch, _A Book of Essays_ + (London, 1905). (I. A.) + + + + +HIRSCHBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, +beautifully situated at the confluence of the Bober and Zacken, 1120 ft. +above the sea-level, 48 m. S.E. of Gorlitz, on the railway to Glatz, +with branches to Grunthal and Schmiedeberg. Pop. (1905) 19,317. It is +surrounded by pleasant promenades occupying the site of its former +fortifications. It possesses an Evangelical church, the church of the +Holy Cross, one of the six _Gnaden Kirchen_ for the Silesian Protestants +stipulated for in the agreement at Altranstadt between Charles XII. of +Sweden and the emperor Joseph I. in 1707, four Roman Catholic churches, +one of which dates from the 14th century, a synagogue, several schools, +an orphanage and an asylum. The town is the principal emporium of +commerce in the Silesian mountains, and its industries include the +carding and spinning of wool, and the manufacture of linen and cotton +fabrics, yarn, artificial flowers, paper, cement, porcelain, +sealing-wax, blacking, chemicals and cider. There is also a lively trade +in corn, wine and agricultural produce. The town is celebrated for its +romantic surroundings, including the Cavalierberg, from which there is a +splendid view, the Hausberg, the Helicon, crowned by a small Doric +temple, the Kreuzberg, with walks commanding beautiful views, and the +Sattler ravine, over which there is a railway viaduct. Hirschberg was in +existence in the 11th century, and obtained town rights in 1108 from +Duke Boleslaus of Poland. It withstood a siege by the Hussites in 1427, +and an attack of the imperial troops in 1640. The foundation of its +prosperity was laid in the 16th century by the introduction of the +manufacture of linen and veils. + +Hirschberg is also the name of a town of Thuringia on the Saale with +manufactures of leather and knives. Pop. 2000. + + + + +HIRSON, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne, 35 m. by +rail N.E. of Laon, on the Oise. Pop. (1906) 8335. It occupies an +important strategic position close to the point of intersection of +several railway lines, and not far from the Belgian frontier. For its +defence there are a permanent fort and two batteries, near the railway +junction. The town carries on the manufacture of glass bottles, tiles, +iron and tin goods, wool-spinning and brewing. + + + + +HIRTIUS, AULUS (c. 90-43 B.C.), Roman historian and statesman. He was +with Julius Caesar as legate in Gaul, but after the civil war broke out +in 49 he seems to have remained in Rome to protect Caesar's interests. +He was also a personal friend of Cicero. He was nominated with C. Vibius +Pansa by Caesar for the consulship of 43; and after the dictator's +assassination in March 44, he and his colleague supported the senatorial +party against M. Antonius, with whom Hirtius had at first sided. The +consuls set out for Mutina, where Antonius was besieging Decimus Brutus. +On the 15th of April, Pansa was attacked by Antonius at Forum Gallorum, +about 8 m. from Mutina, and lost his life in the engagement. Hirtius, +however, compelled Antonius to retire on Mutina, where another battle +took place on the 25th (or 27th) of April, in which Hirtius was slain. +Of the continuations of Caesar's _Commentaries_--the eighth book of the +Gallic war, the history of the Alexandrian, African and Spanish +wars--the first is generally allowed to be by Hirtius; the Alexandrian +war is perhaps by him (or Oppius); the last two are supposed to have +been written at his request, by persons who had taken part in the events +described, with a view to subsequent revision and incorporation in his +proposed work on military commanders. The language of Hirtius is good, +but his style is monotonous and lacks vigour. + + Hirtius and the other continuators of Caesar are discussed in M. + Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Literatur_, i.; also R. Schneider, + _Bellum Africanum_ (1905). For the history of the period see under + ANTONIUS; Cicero's _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier, + _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng. trans., 1897). + + + + +HISHAM IBN AL-KALBI [Abu-l Mundhir Hisham ibn Mahommed ibn us-Sa'b +ul-Kalb] (d. c. 819), Arabic historian, was born in Kufa, but spent +much of his life in Bagdad. Like his father, on whose authority he +relied largely, he collected information about the genealogies and +history of the ancient Arabs. According to the _Fihrist_ (see NADIM) he +wrote 140 works. As independent works they have almost entirely ceased +to exist, but his account of the genealogies of the Arabs is continually +quoted in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_. + + Large extracts from another of his works, the _Kitab ul-Asnam_, are + contained in the _Khizanat ul-Adab_ (iii. 242-246) and in the + geography of Yaqut (q.v.). These latter have been translated with + comments by J. Wellhausen in his _Reste des arabischen Heidentums_ + (2nd ed., Berlin, 1897). (G. W. T.) + + + + +HISPELLUM (mod. Spello, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, 3 m. N. +of Fulginiae, on the road between it and Perusia, 1030 ft. above +sea-level. It does not appear to be mentioned before the time of +Augustus, who founded a colony there (_Colonia Iulia Hispellum_) and +extended its territory to the springs of the Clitumnus, which had +originally belonged to the territory of Mevania. It received the name of +Flavia Constans by a rescript of the emperor Constantine, a copy of +which on a marble tablet is still preserved at Spello. The gate by which +the town is entered is ancient and has three portrait statues above it; +two other gates and a part of the city wall, built of rectangular blocks +of local limestone, may still be seen, as also the ruins of what is +possibly a triumphal arch (attributed to Augustus) and an amphitheatre, +and perhaps of a theatre, close to the modern high-road, outside the +town. (T. As.) + + + + +HISSAR, a district in Central Asia, lying between 66 deg. 30' and 70 +deg. E. and 39 deg. 15' and 37 deg. N. and dependent on the amir of +Bokhara. It forms that part of the basin of the Amu-darya or Oxus which +lies on the north side of the river, opposite the Afghan province of +Balkh. The western prolongation of the Tian-shan, which divides the +basin of the Zarafshan from that of the upper Amu, after rising to a +height of 12,300 ft., bifurcates in 67 deg. 45' E. The main chain, the +southern arm of this bifurcation, designated the Hissar range, but +sometimes called also Koh-i-tau, forms the N. and N.W. boundaries of +Hissar. On the W. it is wholly bounded by the desert; the Amu limits it +on the S. and S.E.; and Karateghin and Darvaz complete the boundary on +the E. Until 1875 it was one of the least known tracts of Central Asia. +Hissar is traversed from north to south by four tributaries of the Amu, +viz. the Surkhab or Vakhsh, Kafirnihan, Surkhan and Shirabad-darya, +which descend from the snowy mountains to the north and form a series of +fertile valleys, disposed in a fan-shape, within which lie the principal +towns. In the N.W. boundary range between Khuzar and Derbent is situated +the defile formerly called the Iron Gate (Caspian Gates, Bab-al-Hadid, +Dar Ahanin and in Chinese T'ie-men-kuan) but now styled Buzghol-khana or +the Goat-house. It was also called Kohluga, said to be a Mongol word +meaning barrier. This pass is described as a deep but narrow chasm in a +transverse range, whose rocks overhang and threaten to choke the +tortuous and gloomy corridor (in places but five paces wide) which +affords the only exit from the valley. In ancient times it was a vantage +point of much importance and commanded one of the chief routes between +Turkestan and India. Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese traveller, who passed +through it in the 7th century, states that there were then two folding +doors or gates, cased with iron and hung with bells, placed across the +pass. Clavijo, the Spanish ambassador to the court of Timur, heard of +this when he passed through the defile nearly 800 years later, but the +gates had then disappeared. + +The Surkhan valley is highly cultivated, especially in its upper +portion. It supplies Bokhara with corn and sheep, but its chief products +are rice and flax. The town of Hissar (pop. 15,000) commands the +entrance into the fertile valleys of the Surkhan and Kafirnihan, just as +Kabadian at the southern end of the latter defends them from the south. +Hissar was long famous for its damascened swords and its silk goods. +Kulab produces wheat in abundance, and gold is brought thither from the +surrounding districts. Kabadian is a large, silk-producing town, and is +surrounded with rice-fields. + +The population consists principally of Uzbegs and Tajiks, the former +predominating and gradually pushing the Tajiks into the hills. On the +banks of the Amu there are Turkomans who work the ferries, drive sheep +and accompany caravans. Lyuli (gipsies), Jews, Hindus and Afghans are +other elements of the population. The climate of the valleys of Hissar +and Kulab is pleasant, as they are protected by mountains to the north +and open towards the south. They produce all the cereals and garden +plants indigenous to Central Asia. Cotton is grown in the district of +Shirabad; and cotton, wheat, flax, sheep and rock-salt are all exported. + +_History._--This country was anciently part of the Persian empire of the +Achaemenidae, and probably afterwards of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom, +and then subject to the invading Asiatic tribes who broke up that +kingdom, e.g. the Yue-chi. It was afterwards conquered by the +Ephthalites or White Huns, who were subdued by the Turks in the early +part of the 7th century. It then became subject successively to the +Mahommedan invaders from Persia, and after to the Mongol dynasty of +Jenghiz Khan, and to Timur and his successors. It subsequently became a +cluster of Uzbeg states and was annexed by the amir of Bokhara (q.v.) in +1869-1870, soon after the Russian occupation of Samarkand. + (J. T. Be.; C. El.) + + + + +HISSAR, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of +the Punjab. The town is situated on the Rajputana railway and the +Western Jumna canal, 102 m. W.N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901) 17,647. It was +founded in 1356 by the emperor Feroz Shah, who constructed the canal to +supply it with water; but this fell into decay during the 18th century, +owing to the constant inroads of marauders. Hissar was almost completely +depopulated during the famine of 1783, but was afterwards occupied by +the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who built a fort and +collected inhabitants. It is now chiefly known for its cattle and horse +fairs, and has a cotton factory. + +The DISTRICT comprises an area of 5217 sq. m. It forms the western +border district of the great Bikanir desert, and consists for the most +part of sandy plains dotted with shrub and brushwood, and broken by +undulations towards the south, which rise into hills of rock like +islands out of a sea of sand. The Ghaggar is its only river, whose +supply is uncertain, depending much on the fall of rain in the lower +Himalayas; its overflow in times of heavy rain is caught by _jhils_, +which dry up in the hot season. The Western Jumna canal crosses the +district from east to west, irrigating many villages. The soil is in +places hard and clayey, and difficult to till; but when sufficiently +irrigated it is highly productive. Old mosques and other buildings exist +in parts of the district. Hissar produces a breed of large milk-white +oxen, which are in great request for the carriages of natives. The +district has always been subject to famine. The first calamity of this +kind of which there is authentic record was in 1783; and Hissar has +suffered severely in more recent famines. Its population in 1901 was +781,717, showing practically no increase in the decade, whereas in the +previous decade there had been an increase of 15%. The climate is very +dry, hot westerly winds blowing from the middle of March till July. +Cotton weaving, ginning and pressing are carried on. The district is +served by the Rajputana-Malwa, the Southern Punjab and the +Jodhpur-Bikanir railways. The chief trading centres are Bhiwani, Hansi, +Hissar and Sirsa. + +Before the Mahommedan conquest, the semi-desert tract of which Hissar +district now forms part was the retreat of Chauhan Rajputs. Towards the +end of the 18th century the Bhattis of Bhattiana gained ascendancy after +bloody struggles. To complete the ruin brought on by these conflicts, +nature lent her aid in the great famine of 1783. Hissar passed nominally +to the British in 1803, but they could not enforce order till 1810. +Early in the mutiny of 1857 Hissar was wholly lost for a time to British +rule, and all Europeans were either murdered or compelled to fly. The +Bhattis rose under their hereditary chiefs, and the majority of the +Mahommedan population followed their example. Before Delhi had been +recovered, the rebels were utterly routed. + + + + +HISTIAEUS (d. 494 B.C.), tyrant of Miletus under the Persian king Darius +Hystaspis. According to Herodotus he rendered great service to Darius +while he was campaigning in Scythia by persuading his fellow-despots not +to destroy the bridge over the Danube by which the Persians must return. +Choosing his own reward for this service, he became possessor of +territory near Myrcinus (afterwards Amphipolis), rich in timber and +minerals. The success of his enterprise led to his being invited to +Susa, where in the midst of every kind of honour he was virtually a +prisoner of Darius, who had reason to dread his growing power in Ionia. +During this period the Greek cities were left under native despots +supported by Persia, Aristagoras, son-in-law of Histiaeus, being ruler +of Miletus in his stead. This prince, having failed against Naxos in a +joint expedition with the satrap Artaphernes, began to stir up the +Ionians to revolt, and this result was brought to pass, according to +Herodotus, by a secret message from Histiaeus. The revolt assumed a +formidable character and Histiaeus persuaded Darius that he alone could +quell it. He was allowed to leave Susa, but on his arrival at the coast +found himself suspected by the satrap, and was ultimately driven to +establish himself (Herodotus says as a pirate; more probably in charge +of the Bosporus route) at Byzantium. After the total failure of the +revolt at the battle of Lade, he made various attempts to re-establish +himself, but was captured by the Persian Harpagus and crucified by +Artaphernes at Sardis. His head was embalmed and sent to Darius, who +gave it honourable burial. The theory of Herodotus that the Ionian +revolt was caused by the single message of Histiaeus is incredible; +there is evidence to show that the Ionians had been meditating since +about 512 a patriotic revolt against the Persian domination and the +"tyrants" on whom it rested (see Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, ed. 1907, +especially p. 122 note; art. IONIA, and authorities; also S. Heinlein in +_Klio_, 1909, pp. 341-351). + + + + +HISTOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: histos], web, tissue, properly the web-beam of +the loom, from [Greek: histanai], to make to stand), the science which +deals with the structure of the tissues of plants and animals (see +CYTOLOGY). + + + + +HISTORY. The word "history" is used in two senses. It may mean either +the record of events, or events themselves. Originally (see below) +limited to inquiry and statement, it was only in comparatively modern +times that the meaning of the word was extended to include the phenomena +which form or might form their subject. It was perhaps by a somewhat +careless transference of ideas that this extension was brought about. +Now indeed it is the commoner meaning. We speak of the "history of +England" without reference to any literary narrative. We term kings and +statesmen the "makers of history," and sometimes say that the historian +only records the history which they make. History in this connexion is +obviously not the record, but the thing to be recorded. It is +unfortunate that such a double meaning of the word should have grown up, +for it is productive of not a little confusion of thought. + +History in the wider sense is all that has happened, not merely all the +phenomena of human life, but those of the natural world as well. It +includes everything that undergoes change; and as modern science has +shown that there is nothing absolutely static, therefore the whole +universe, and every part of it, has its history. The discovery of ether +brought with it a reconstruction of our ideas of the physical universe, +transferring the emphasis from the mathematical expression of static +relationships to a dynamic conception of a universe in constant +transformation; matter in equipoise became energy in gradual +readjustment. Solids are solids no longer. The universe is in motion in +every particle of every part; rock and metal merely a transition stage +between crystallization and dissolution. This idea of universal activity +has in a sense made physics itself a branch of history. It is the same +with the other sciences--especially the biological division, where the +doctrine of evolution has induced an attitude of mind which is +distinctly historical. + +But the tendency to look at things historically is not merely the +attitude of men of science. Our outlook upon life differs in just this +particular from that of preceding ages. We recognize the unstable +nature of our whole social fabric, and are therefore more and more +capable of transforming it. Our institutions are no longer held to be +inevitable and immutable creations. We do not attempt to fit them to +absolute formulae, but continually adapt them to a changing environment. +Even modern architecture, notably in America, reflects the consciousness +of change. The permanent character of ancient or medieval buildings was +fitted only to a society dominated by static ideals. Now the architect +builds, not for all time, but for a set of conditions which will +inevitably cease in the not distant future. Thus our whole society not +only bears the marks of its evolution, but shows its growing +consciousness of the fact in the most evident of its arts. In +literature, philosophy and political science, there is the same +historical trend. Criticism no longer judges by absolute standards; it +applies the standards of the author's own environment. We no longer +condemn Shakespeare for having violated the ancient dramatic laws, nor +Voltaire for having objected to the violations. Each age has its own +expression, and in judging each we enter the field of history. In +ethics, again, the revolt against absolute standards limits us to the +relative, and morals are investigated on the basis of history, as +largely conditioned by economic environment and the growth of +intellectual freedom. Revelation no longer appeals to scientific minds +as a source of knowledge. Experience on the other hand is history. As +for political science, we do not regard the national state as that +ultimate and final product which men once saw in the Roman Empire. It +has hardly come into being before forces are evident which aim at its +destruction. Internationalism has gained ground in Europe in recent +years; and Socialism itself, which is based upon a distinct +interpretation of history, is regarded by its followers as merely a +stage in human progress, like those which have gone before it. It is +evident that Freeman's definition of history as "past politics" is +miserably inadequate. Political events are mere externals. History +enters into every phase of activity, and the economic forces which urge +society along are as much its subject as the political result. + +In short the historical spirit of the age has invaded every field. The +world-picture presented in this encyclopaedia is that of a dynamic +universe, of phenomena in process of ceaseless change. Owing to this +insistent change all things which happen, or seem to happen, are history +in the broader sense of the word. The encyclopaedia itself is a history +of them in the stricter sense,--the description and record of this +universal process. This narrower meaning is the subject of the rest of +this article. + +The word "history" comes from the Gr. [Greek: historia], which was used +by the Ionians in the 6th century B.C. for the search for knowledge in +the widest sense. It meant inquiry, investigation, not narrative. It was +not until two centuries later that the historikos, the reciter of +stories, superseded the _historeon_ ([Greek: historeon]), the seeker +after knowledge. Thus history began as a branch of scientific +research,--much the same as what the Athenians later termed philosophy. +Herodotus himself was as much a scientific explorer as a reciter of +narrative, and his life-long investigation was _historie_ in his Ionian +speech. Yet it was Herodotus himself who first hinted at the new use of +the word, applied merely to the details accumulated during a long search +for knowledge. It is not until Aristotle, however, that we have it +definitely applied to the literary product instead of the inquiry which +precedes it. From Aristotle to modern times, history (Lat. _historia_) +has been a form of literature. It is only in the scientific environment +of to-day that we recognize once more, with those earliest of the +forerunners of Herodotus, that history involves two distinct operations, +one of which, investigation, is in the field of science, while the +other, the literary presentation, is in the field of art. + +The history of history itself is therefore two-fold. History as art +flourishes with the arts. It calls upon the imagination and the literary +gifts of expression. Its history does not run parallel with the +scientific side, but rather varies in inverse ratio with scientific +activity. Those periods which have been dominated by the great masters +of style have been less interested in the criticism of the historian's +methods of investigation than in the beauty of his rhetoric. The +scientific historian, deeply interested in the search for truth, is +generally but a poor artist, and his uncoloured picture of the past will +never rank in literature beside the splendid distortions which glow in +the pages of a Michelet or Macaulay. History the art, in so far as it is +conditioned upon genius, has no single traceable line of development. +Here the product of the age of Pericles remains unsurpassed still; the +works of Herodotus and Thucydides standing along with those of Pheidias +as models for all time. On the other hand, history the science has +developed so that it has not only gained recognition among historians as +a distinct subject, but it has raised with it a group of auxiliary +sciences which serve either as tools for investigation or as a basis for +testing the results. The advance in this branch of history in the 19th +century was one of its greatest achievements. The vast gulf which lies +between the history of Egypt by Herodotus and that by Flinders Petrie is +the measure of its achievement. By the mechanism now at his disposal the +scientific explorer can read more history from the dust-heaps of Abydos +than the greatest traveller of antiquity could gather from the priests +of Sais. In tracing the history of history we must therefore keep in +mind the double aspect. + +History itself, this double subject, the science and the art combined, +begins with the dawn of memory and the invention of speech. It is wrong +to term those ages _pre-historic_ whose history has not come down to us, +including in one category the pre-literary age and the literary whose +traces have been lost. Even the pre-literary had its history, first in +myth and then in saga. The saga, or epos, was a great advance upon the +myth, for in it the deeds of men replace or tend to replace the deeds of +the gods. But we are still largely in the realm of imagination. Poetry, +as Thucydides complained, is a most imperfect medium for fact. The bard +will exaggerate or distort his story. True history, as a record of what +really has happened, first reached maturity in prose. Therefore, +although much of the past has been handed down to us in epic, in ballad +and in the legends of folk-lore, we must turn from them to what became +history in the narrower sense. + +The earliest prose origins of history are the inscriptions. Their +inadequacy is evident from two standpoints. Their permanence depends not +upon their importance, but upon the durability of the substance on which +they are inscribed. A note for a wedding ring baked into the clay of +Babylon has been preserved, while the history of the greatest events has +perished. In the second place they are sealed to all but those who know +how to read them, and so they lie forgotten for centuries while oral +tradition flourishes,--being within the reach of every man. It is only +recently that archaeology, turning from the field of art, has undertaken +to interpret for us this first written history. The process by which the +modern fits together all the obtainable remains of an antiquity, and +reconstructs even that past which left no written record, lies outside +the field of this article. But such enlargement of the field of history +is a modern scientific product, and is to be distinguished from the +imperfect beginnings of history-writing which the archaeologist is able +to decipher. + +Next to the inscriptions,--sometimes identical with them,--are the early +chronicles. These are of various kinds. Family chronicles preserved the +memory of heroic ancestors whose deeds in the earliest age would have +passed into the keeping of the bards. Such family archives were perhaps +the main source for Roman historians. But they are not confined to Rome +or Greece. Genealogies also pass from the bald verse, which was the +vehicle for oral transmission, to such elaborate tables as those in +which Manetho has preserved the dynasties of Egyptian Pharaohs. + +In this field the priest succeeds the poet. The temple itself became the +chief repository of records. There were simple religious annals, votive +tablets recording miracles accomplished at a shrine, lists of priests +and priestesses, accounts of benefactions, of prodigies and portents. In +some cases, as in Rome, the pontiffs kept a kind of register, not merely +of religious history, but of important political events as well. Down to +the time of the Gracchi (131 B.C.) the Pontifex Maximus inscribed the +year's events upon annual tablets of wood which were preserved in the +Regia, the official residence of the pontiff in the Forum. These +pontifical "annals" thus came to be a sort of civic history. Chronicles +of the Greek cities were commonly ascribed to mythical authors, as for +instance that of Miletus, the oldest, to Cadmus the inventor of letters. +But they were continued and edited by men in whom the critical spirit +was awakening, as when the chroniclers of Ionian towns began the +criticism of Homer. + +The first historians were the logographi of these Ionian cities; men who +carried their inquiry (_historie_) beyond both written record and oral +tradition to a study of the world around them. Their "saying" (_logos_) +was gathered mostly from contemporaries; and upon the basis of a widened +experience they became critics of their traditions. The opening lines of +Hecataeus of Miletus begin the history of the true historic spirit in +words which read like a sentence from Voltaire. "Hecataeus of Miletus +thus speaks: I write as I deem true, for the traditions of the Greeks +seem to me manifold and laughable." Those words mark an epoch in the +history of thought. They are the introduction to historical criticism +and scientific investigation. Whatever the actual achievement of +Hecataeus may have been, from his time onward the scientific movement +was set going. Herodotus of Heraclea struggled to rationalize mythology, +and established chronology on a solid basis. And finally Herodotus, a +professional story-teller, rose to the height of genuine scientific +investigation. Herodotus' inquiry was not simply that of an idle +tourist. He was a critical observer, who tested his evidence. It is easy +for the student now to show the inadequacy of his sources, and his +failure here or there to discriminate between fact and fable. But given +the imperfect medium for investigation and the absence of an +archaeological basis for criticism, the work of Herodotus remains a +scientific achievement, as remarkable for its approximation to truth as +for the vastness of its scope. Yet it was Herodotus' chief glory to have +joined to this scientific spirit an artistic sense which enabled him to +cast the material into the truest literary form. He gathered all his +knowledge of the ancient world, not simply for itself, but to mass it +around the story of the war between the east and west, the Greeks and +the Persians. He is first and foremost a story-teller; his theme is like +that of the bards, a heroic event. His story is a vast prose epos, in +which science is to this extent subordinated to art. "This is the +showing forth of the Inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, to the end +that neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse of time, nor the +works, great and marvellous, which have been produced, some by Hellenes, +some by Barbarians, may lose their renown, and especially that the +causes may be remembered for which these waged war with one another" +(i.e. the Persian war). + +In Thucydides a higher art than that of Herodotus was combined with a +higher science. He scorned the story-teller "who seeks to please the ear +rather than to speak the truth," and yet his rhetoric is the culmination +of Greek historical prose. He withdrew from vulgar applause, conscious +that his narrative would be considered "disappointing to the ear," yet +he recast the materials out of which he constructed it in order to lift +that narrative into the realm of pure literature. Speeches, letters and +documents are reworded to be in tone with the rest of the story. It was +his art, in fact, which really created the Peloponnesian war out of its +separate parts. And yet this art was merely the language of a scientist. +The "laborious task" of which he speaks is that of consulting all +possible evidence, and weighing conflicting accounts. It is this which +makes his rhetoric worth while, "an everlasting possession, not a prize +competition which is heard and forgotten." + +From the sublimity of Thucydides, and Xenophon's straight-forward story, +history passed with Theopompus and Ephorus into the field of rhetoric. A +revival of the scientific instinct of investigation is discernable in +Timaeus the Sicilian, at the end of the 4th century, but his attack upon +his predecessors was the text of a more crushing attack upon himself by +Polybius, who declares him lacking in critical insight and biased by +passion. Polybius' comments upon Timaeus reach the dignity of a treatise +upon history. He protests against its use for controversial pamphlets +which distort the truth. "Directly a man assumes the moral attitude of +an historian he ought to forget all considerations, such as love of +one's friends, hatred of one's enemies.... He must sometimes praise +enemies and blame friends. For as a living creature is rendered useless +if deprived of its eyes, so if you take truth from History, what is left +but an improfitable tale" (bk. xii. 14). These are the words of a Ranke. +Unfortunately Polybius, like most modern scientific historians, was no +artist. His style is the very opposite of that of Isocrates and the +rhetoricians. It is often only clear in the light of inscriptions, so +closely does it keep to the sources. The style found no imitator; +history passed from Greece to Rome in the guise of rhetoric. In +Dionysius of Halicarnassus the rhetoric was combined with an extensive +study of the sources; but the influence of the Greek rhetoricians upon +Roman prose was deplorable from the standpoint of science. Cicero, +although he said that the duty of the historian is to conceal nothing +true, to say nothing false, would in practice have written the kind of +history that Polybius denounced. He finds fault with those who are _non +exornatores rerum sed tantum narratores_. History for him is the mine +from which to draw argument in oratory and example in education. It is +not the subject of a scientific curiosity. + +It should be noted before we pass to Rome that with the expansion of +Hellenism the subject of historians expanded as well. Universal history +was begun by Ephorus, the rhetorician, and formed the theme of Polybius +and Deodorus. Exiled Greeks were the first to write histories of Rome +worthy of the name. The Alexandrian Eratosthenes placed chronology upon +the scientific basis of astronomy, and Apollodorus drew up the most +important _chronica_ of antiquity. + +History-writing in Rome,--except for the Greek writers resident +there,--was until the first half of the 1st century B.C. in the form of +annals. Then came rhetorical ornamentation,--and the Ciceronian era. The +first Roman historian who rose to the conception of a science and art +combined was Sallust, the student of Thucydides. The Augustan age +produced in Livy a great popular historian and natural artist and a +trained rhetorician (in the speeches),--but as uncritical and inaccurate +as he was brilliant. From Livy to Tacitus the gulf is greater than from +Herodotus to Thucydides. Tacitus is at least a consummate artist. His +style ranges from the brilliancy of his youth to the sternness and +sombre gravity of age, passing almost to poetic expression in its +epigrammatic terseness. Yet in spite of his searching study of +authorities, his keen judgment of men, and his perception of underlying +principles of moral law, his view was warped by the heat of faction, +which glows beneath his external objectivity. After him Roman +history-writing speedily degenerated. Suetonius' _Lives of the Caesars_ +is but a superior kind of journalism. But his gossip of the court became +the model for historians, whose works, now lost, furnish the main source +for the _Historia Augusta_. The importance to us of this uncritical +collection of biographies is sufficient comment on the decline of +history-writing in the latter empire. Finally, from the 4th century the +epitomes of Eutropius and Festus served to satisfy the lessening +curiosity in the past and became the handbooks for the middle ages. The +single figure of Ammianus Marcellinus stands out of this age like a +belated disciple of Tacitus. But the world was changing from antique to +Christian ideals just as he was writing, and with him we leave this +outline of ancient history. + +The 4th and 5th centuries saw a great revolution in the history of +history. The story of the pagan past slipped out of mind, and in its +place was set, by the genius of Eusebius, the story of the world force +which had superseded it, Christianity, and of that small fraction of +antiquity from which it sprang,--the Jews. Christianity from the first +had forced thinking men to reconstruct their philosophy of history, but +it was only after the Church's triumph that its point of view became +dominant in historiography. Three centuries more passed before the pagan +models were quite lost to sight. But from the 7th century to the +17th--from Isidore of Seville and the English Bede for a thousand +years,--mankind was to look back along the line of Jewish priests and +kings to the Creation. Egypt was of interest only as it came into +Israelite history, Babylon and Nineveh were to illustrate the judgments +of Yahweh, Tyre and Sidon to reflect the glory of Solomon. The process +by which the "gentiles" have been robbed of their legitimate history was +the inevitable result of a religion whose sacred books make them lay +figures for the history of the Jews. Rejected by the Yahweh who became +the Christian God, they have remained to the present day, in Sunday +schools and in common opinion, not nations of living men, with the +culture of arts and sciences, but outcasts who do not enter into the +divine scheme of the world's history. When a line was drawn between +pagan and Christian back to the creation of the world, it left outside +the pale of inquiry nearly all antiquity. But it must be remembered that +that antiquity was one in which the German nations had no personal +interest. Scipio and the Gracchi were essentially unreal to them. The +one living organization with which they came into touch was the Church. +So Cicero and Pompey paled before Joshua and Paul. Diocletian, the +organizing genius, became a bloodthirsty monster, and Constantine, the +murderer, a saint. + +Christian history begins with the triumph of the Church. With Eusebius +of Caesarea the apologetic pamphlets of the age of persecutions gave way +to a calm review of three centuries of Christian progress. Eusebius' +biography of Constantine shows what distortion of fact the father of +Church history permitted himself, but the Ecclesiastical History was +fortunately written for those who wanted to know what really happened, +and remains to-day an invaluable repository of Christian antiquities. +With the continuations of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and the Latin +manual which Cassiodorus had woven from them (the _Historia +tripartita_), it formed the body of Church history during all the middle +ages. An even greater influence, however, was exercised by Eusebius' +_Chronica_. Through Jerome's translation and additions, this scheme of +this world's chronology became the basis for all medieval world +chronicles. It settled until our own day the succession of years from +the Creation to the birth of Christ,--fitting the Old Testament story +into that of ancient history. Henceforth the Jewish past,--that one path +back to the beginning of the world,--was marked out by the absolute laws +of mathematics and revelation. Jerome had marked it out; Sulpicius +Severus, the biographer of St Martin, in his _Historia sacra_, adorned +it with the attractions of romance. Sulpicius was admirably fitted to +interpret the miraculous Bible story to the middle ages. But there were +few who could write like him, and Jerome's _Chronicle_ itself, or rather +portions of it, became, in the age which followed, a sort of universal +preface for the monastic chronicler. For a time there were even attempts +to continue "imperial chronicles," but they were insignificant compared +with the influence of Eusebius and Jerome. + +From the first, Christianity had a philosophy of history. Its earliest +apologists sought to show how the world had followed a divine plan in +its long preparation for the life of Christ. From this central fact of +all history, mankind should continue through war and suffering until the +divine plan was completed at the judgment day. The fate of nations is in +God's hands; history is the revelation of His wisdom and power. Whether +He intervenes directly by miracle, or merely sets His laws in operation, +He is master of men's fate. This idea, which has underlain all Christian +philosophy of history, from the first apologists who prophesied the fall +of the Empire and the coming of the millennium, down to our own day, +received its classic statement in St Augustine's _City of God_. The +terrestrial city, whose eternity had been the theme of pagan history, +had just fallen before Alaric's Goths. Augustine's explanation of its +fall passes in review not only the calamities of Roman history--combined +with a pathetic perception of its greatness,--but carries the survey +back to the origin of evil at the creation. Then over against this +_civitas terrena_ he sets the divine city which is to be realized in +Christendom. The Roman Empire,--the last general form of the earthly +city,--gives way slowly to the heavenly. This is the main thread of +Augustine's philosophy of history. The mathematical demonstration of its +truth was left by Augustine for his disciple, Paulus Orosius. + +Orosius' _Seven Books of Histories against the Pagans_, written as a +supplement to the _City of God_, is the first attempt at a Christian +"World History." This manual for the middle ages arranged the rise and +fall of empires with convincing exactness. The history of antiquity, +according to it, begins with Ninus. His realm was overthrown by the +Medes in the same year in which the history of Rome began. From the +first year of Ninus' reign until the rebuilding of Babylon by Semiramis +there were sixty-four years; the same between the first of Procas and +the building of Rome. Eleven hundred and sixty-four years after each +city was built, it was taken,--Babylon by Cyrus, Rome by Alaric, and +Cyrus' conquest took place just when Rome began the Republic. But before +Rome becomes a world empire, Macedon and Carthage intervene, guardians +of Rome's youth (_tutor curatorque_). This scheme of the four +world-monarchies, which was to prevail through all the middle ages, was +developed through seven books filled with the story of war and +suffering. As it was Orosius' aim to show that the world had improved +since the coming of Christ, he used Trogus Pompeius' war history, +written to exalt Roman triumphs, to show the reverse of +victory,--disaster and ruin. Livy, Caesar, Tacitus and Suetonius were +plundered for the story of horrors; until finally even the Goths in +Spain shine by contrast with the pagan heroes; and through the confusion +of the German invasions one may look forward to Christendom,--and its +peace. + +The commonest form of medieval historical writing was the chronicle, +which reaches all the way from monastic annals, mere notes on Easter +tables, to the dignity of national monuments. Utterly lacking in +perspective, and dominated by the idea of the miraculous, they are for +the most part a record of the trivial or the marvellous. Individual +historians sometimes recount the story of their own times with sober +judgment, but seldom know how to test their sources when dealing with +the past. Contradictions are often copied down without the writer +noticing them; and since the middle ages forged and falsified so many +documents,--monasteries, towns and corporations gaining privileges or +titles of possession by the bold use of them,--the narrative of medieval +writers cannot be relied upon unless we can verify it by collateral +evidence. Some historians, like Otto of Freising, Guibert of Nogent or +Bernard Gui, would have been scientific if they had had our appliances +for comparison. But even men like Roger Bacon, who deplored the +inaccuracy of texts, had worked out no general method to apply in their +restoration. Toward the close of the middle ages the vernacular +literatures were adorned with Villani's and Froissart's chronicles. But +the merit of both lies in their journalistic qualities of contemporary +narrative. Neither was a history in the truest sense. + +The Renaissance marked the first great gain in the historic sense, in +the efforts of the humanists to realize the spirit of the antique world. +They did not altogether succeed; antiquity to them meant largely Plato +and Cicero. Their interests were literary, and the un-Ciceronian +centuries were generally ignored. Those in which the foundations of +modern Europe were laid, which produced parliaments, cathedrals, cities, +Dante and Chaucer, were grouped alike on one dismal level and christened +the middle ages. The perspective of the humanists was only one degree +better than that of the middle ages. History became the servant to +literature, an adjunct to the classics. Thus it passed into the schools, +where text-books still in use devote 200 pages to the Peloponnesian war +and two to the Athens of Pericles. + +But if the literary side of humanism has been a barrier to the progress +of scientific history, the discovery and elucidation of texts first made +that progress possible. Historical criticism soon awoke. Laurentius +Valla's brilliant attack on the "Donation of Constantine" (1440), and +Ulrich von Hutten's rehabilitation of Henry IV. from monkish tales mark +the rise of the new science. One sees at a glance what an engine of +controversy it was to be; yet for a while it remained but a phase of +humanism. It was north of the Alps that it parted company with the +grammarians. Classical antiquity was an Italian past, the German +scholars turned back to the sources of their national history. Aeneas +Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had discovered Otto of Freising and +Jordanes. Maximilian I. encouraged the search for manuscripts, and +Vienna became a great humanistic centre. Conrad Celtes left his +_Germania illustrata_ unfinished, but he had found the works of +Hroswitha. Conrad Peutinger gathered all sorts of Chronicles in his room +in Vienna, and published several,--among them Gregory of Tours. This +national movement of the 15th century was not paralleled in France or +England, where the classical humanities reigned. The Reformation +meanwhile gave another turn to the work of German scholars. + +The Reformation, with its heated controversies, seems a strange +starting-point for science, yet it, even more than the Renaissance, +brought out scientific methods of historical investigation. It not only +sobered the humanist tendency to sacrifice truth for aesthetic effect, +it called for the documents of the Church and subjected them to the most +hostile criticism. Luther himself challenged them. Then in the +_Magdeburg Centuries_ (1559-1574) Protestantism tried to make good its +attack on the medieval Church by a great collection of sources +accompanied with much destructive criticism. This gigantic work is the +first monument of modern historical research. The reply of Cardinal +Baronius (_Annales ecclesiastici_, 1588-1697) was a still greater +collection, drawn from archives which till then had not been used for +scientific history. Baronius' criticism and texts are faulty, though far +surpassing anything before his day, and his collection is the basis for +most subsequent ones,--in spite of J. J. Scaliger's refutation, which +was to contain an equal number of volumes of the errors in Baronius. + +The movement back to the sources in Germany until the Thirty Years' War +was a notable one. Collections were made by Simon Schard (1535-1573), +Johannes Pistorius (1576-1608), Marquard Freher (1565-1614), Melchior +Goldast (1576-1635) and others. After the war Leibnitz began a new +epoch, both by his philosophy with its law of continuity in phenomena, +and by his systematic attempt to collect sources through an association +(1670). His plan to have documents printed as they were, instead of +"correcting" them, was a notable advance. But from Leibnitz until the +19th century German national historiography made little +progress,--although church historians like Mosheim and Neander stand out +among the greatest historians of all time. + +France had not paralleled the activity of Maximilian's Renaissance +historians. The father of modern French history, or at least of +historical research, was Andre Duchesne (1584-1640), whose splendid +collections of sources are still in use. Jean Bodin wrote the first +treatise on scientific history (_Methodus ad facilem historiarum +cognitionem_, 1566), but he did not apply his own principles of +criticism; and it was left for the Benedictine monks of the Congregation +of St Maur to establish definitely the new science. The place of this +school in the history of history is absolutely without a parallel. Few +of those in the audiences of Moliere, returning home under the grey +walls of St Germain-des-Pres, knew that within that monastery the men +whose midnight they disturbed were laying the basis for all scientific +history; and few of the later historians of that age have been any +wiser. But when Luc d'Achery turned from exegetics to patristics and the +lives of the saints, as a sort of Christian humanist, he led the way to +that vast work of collection and comparison of texts which developed +through Mabillon, Montfaucon, Ruinart, Martene, Bouquet and their +associates, into the indispensable implements of modern historians. +Here, as in the Reformation, controversy called out the richest product. +Jean Mabillon's treatise, _De re diplomatica_ (1681), was due to the +criticisms of that group of Belgian Jesuits whose _Acta Sanctorum +quotquot toto orbe coluntur_ (1643, &c., see BOLLANDISTS) was destined +to grow into the greatest repository of legend and biography the world +has seen. In reply to D. Papebroch's criticisms of the chronicle of St +Denis, Mabillon prepared this manual for the testing of medieval +documents. Its canons are the basis, indeed, almost the whole, of the +science of diplomatic (q.v.), the touchstone of truth for medieval +research. Henceforth even the mediocre scholar had a body of technical +rules by which to sort out the vast mass of apocrypha in medieval +documentary sources. Scientific history depends upon implements. +Without manuals, dictionaries, and easy access to texts, we should go as +far astray as any medieval chronicler. The France of the Maurists +supplied the most essential of these instruments. The great "glossary" +of Ducange is still in enlarged editions the indispensable encyclopaedia +of the middle ages. Chronology and palaeography were placed on a new +footing by Dom Bernard de Montfaucon's _Palaeographia graeca_ (1708), +the monumental _Art de verifier les dates_ (3rd ed., 1818-1831, in 38 +vols.), and the _Nouveau Traite de diplomatique_ (1750-1765) of Dom +Tassin and Dom Toustain. The collections of texts which the Maurists +published are too many and too vast to be enumerated here (see C. +Langlois, _Manuel de bibliographie historique_, pp. 293 ff.). Dom +Bouquet's _Historiens de la Gaule et de la France_--the national +repertory for French historians--is but one of a dozen tasks of similar +magnitude. During the 18th century this deep under-work of scientific +history continued to advance, though for the most part unseen by the +brilliant writers whose untrustworthy generalities passed for history in +the salons of the old regime. Interrupted by the Revolution, it revived +in the 19th century, and the roll of honour of the French Ecole des +Chartes has almost rivalled that of St Germain-des-Pres. + +The father of critical history in Italy was L. A. Muratori (1672-1750), +the Italian counterpart of Leibnitz. His vast collection of sources +(_Rerum Italicarum scriptores_), prepared amid every discouragement, +remains to-day the national monument of Italian history; and it is but +one of his collections. His output is perhaps the greatest of any +isolated worker in the whole history of historiography. The same haste, +but much less care, marked the work of J. D. Mansi (d. 1769), the +compiler of the fullest collection of the Councils. Spain, stifled by +the Inquisition, produced no national collection of sources during the +17th and 18th centuries, although Nicolas Antonio (d. 1684) produced a +national literary history of the first rank. + +England in the 16th century kept pace with Continental historiography. +Henry VIII.'s chaplain, John Leland, is the father of English +antiquaries. Three of the most precious collections of medieval +manuscripts still in existence were then begun by Thomas Bodley (the +Bodleian at Oxford), Archbishop Matthew Parker (Corpus Christi at +Cambridge), and Robert Cotton (the Cottonian collection of the British +Museum). In Elizabeth's reign a serious effort was made to arrange the +national records, but until the end of the 18th century they were +scattered in not less than fifteen repositories. In the 17th and 18th +centuries English scholarship was enriched by such monuments of research +as William Dugdale's _Monasticon_, Thomas Madox's _History of the +Exchequer_, Wilkins's _Concilia_, and Thomas Rymer's _Foedera_. But +these works, important as they were, gave but little idea of the wealth +of historical sources which the 19th century was to reveal in England. + +In the 19th century the science of history underwent a sort of +industrial revolution. The machinery of research, invented by the genius +of men like Mabillon, was perfected and set going in all the archives of +Europe. Isolated workers or groups of workers grew into national or +international associations, producing from archives vast collections of +material to be worked up into the artistic form of history. The result +of this movement has been to revolutionize the whole subject. These men +of the factory--devoting their lives to the cataloguing of archives and +libraries, to the publication of material, and then to the gigantic task +of indexing what they have produced--have made it possible for the +student in an American or Australian college to master in a few hours in +his library sources of history which baffled the long years of research +of a Martene or Rymer. The texts themselves have mostly become as +correct as they can ever be, and manuals and bibliographies guide one to +and through them, so that no one need go astray who takes the trouble to +make use of the mechanism which is at his hand. For example, since the +papal archives were opened, so many _regesta_ have appeared that soon it +will be possible to follow the letter-writing of the medieval popes day +by day for century after century. + +The apparatus for this research is too vast to be described here. +Archives have been reformed, their contents catalogued or calendared; +government commissions have rescued numberless documents from oblivion +or destruction, and learned societies have supplemented and criticized +this work and co-ordinated the results. Every state in Europe now has +published the main sources for its history. The "Rolls" series, the +_Monumenta Germaniae historica_, and the _Documents inedits_ are but the +more notable of such national products. A series of periodicals keeps +watch over this enormous output. The files and indices of the _English +Historical Review_, _Historische Zeitschrift_, _Revue historique_, or +_American Historical Review_ will alone reveal the strength and +character of historical research in the later 19th century. + +Every science which deals with human phenomena is in a way an implement +in this great factory system, in which the past is welded together +again. Psychology has been drawn upon to interpret the movements of +revolutions or religions, anthropology and ethnology furnish a clue to +problems to which the key of documents has been lost. Genealogy, +heraldry and chronology run parallel with the wider subject. But the +real auxiliary sciences to history are those which deal with those +traces of the past that still exist, the science of language +(philology), of writing (palaeography), of documents (diplomatic), of +seals (sphragistics), of coins (numismatics), of weights and measures, +and archaeology in the widest sense of the word. These sciences underlie +the whole development of scientific history. Dictionaries and manuals +are the instruments of this industrial revolution. Without them the +literary remains of the race would still be as useless as Egyptian +inscriptions to the fellaheen. Archaeology itself remained but a minor +branch of art until the machinery was perfected which enabled it to +classify and interpret the remains of the "pre-historic" age. + +This is the most remarkable chapter in the whole history of history--the +recovery of that past which had already been lost when our literary +history began. The perspective stretches out as far the other side of +Homer as we are this. The old "providential" scheme of history +disintegrates before a new interest in the "gentile" nations to whose +high culture Hebrew sources bore unwilling testimony. Biblical criticism +is a part of the historic process. The Jewish texts, once the infallible +basis of history, are now tested by the libraries of Babylon, from which +they were partly drawn, and Hebrew history sinks into its proper place +in the wide horizon of antiquity. The finding of the Rosetta stone left +us no longer dependent upon Greek, Latin or Hebrew sources, and now +fifty centuries of Egyptian history lie before us. The scientific +historian of antiquity works on the hills of Crete, rather than in the +quiet of a library with the classics spread out before him. There he can +reconstruct the splendour of that Minoan age to which Homeric poems look +back, as the Germanic epics looked back to Rome or Verona. His +discoveries, co-ordinated and arranged in vast _corpora inscriptionum_, +stand now alongside Herodotus or Livy, furnishing a basis for their +criticism. Medieval archaeology has, since Quicherat, revealed how men +were living while the monks wrote chronicles, and now cathedrals and +castles are studied as genuine historic documents. + +The immense increase in available sources, archaeological and literary, +has remade historical criticism. Ranke's application of the principles +of "higher criticism" to works written since the invention of printing +(_Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber_) was an epoch-making challenge of +narrative sources. Now they are everywhere checked by contemporary +evidence, and a clearer sense of what constitutes a primary source has +discredited much of what had been currently accepted as true. This is +true not only of ancient history, where last year's book may be a +thousand years out of date, but of the whole field. Hardly an "old +master" remains an authoritative book of reference. Gibbon, Grote, +Giesebrecht, Guizot stand to-day by reason of other virtues than their +truth. Old landmarks drop out of sight--e.g. the fall of the Western +Empire in 476, the coming of the Greeks to Italy in 1450, dates which +once enclosed the middle ages. The perspective changes--the Renaissance +grows less and the middle ages more; the Protestant Revolution becomes +a complex of economics and politics and religion; the French Revolution +a vast social reform in which the Terror was an incident, &c., &c. The +result has been a complete transformation of history since the middle of +the 19th century. + +In the 17th century the Augustinian scheme of world history received its +last classic statement in Bossuet's _Histoire universelle_. Voltaire's +reply to it in the 18th (_Essai sur les moeurs_) attacked its +limitations on the basis of deism, and its miraculous procedure on that +of science. But while there are foreshadowings of the evolutionary +theory in this work, neither the _philosophe_ historians nor Hume nor +Gibbon arrived at a constructive principle in history which could take +the place of the Providence they rejected. Religion, though false, might +be a real historic force. History became the tragic spectacle of a game +of dupes--the real movers being priests, kings or warriors. The pawns +slowly acquired reason, and then would be able to regulate the moves +themselves. But all this failed to give a satisfactory explanation of +the laws which determine the direction of this evolution. Giovanni +Battista Vico (1668-1744) was the first to ask why there is no science +of human history. But his lonely life and unrecognized labours leave him +apart from the main movement, until his works were discovered again in +the 19th century. It was A. L. H. Heeren who, at the opening of the 19th +century, first laid that emphasis upon the economic factors in history +which is to-day slowly replacing the Augustinian explanation of its +evolution. Heeren's own influence, however, was slight. The first half +of the century (apart from the scientific activity of Pertz, Guizot, +&c.) was largely dominated by the romanticists, with their exaggeration +of the individual. Carlyle's "great man theory of history" is logically +connected with the age of Scott. It was a philosophy of history which +lent itself to magnificent dramatic creations; but it explained nothing. +It substituted the work of the genius for the miraculous intervention of +Providence, but, apart from certain abstract formulae such as Truth and +Right, knew nothing of why or how. It is but dealing in words to say +that the meaning of it all is God's revelation of Himself. Granting +that, what is the process? Why does it so slowly reveal the Right of the +middle ages (as in slavery for instance) to be the Wrong to-day? Carlyle +stands to Bossuet as the sage to the myth. Hegel got no closer to +realities. His idealistic scheme of history, which makes religion the +keynote of progress, and describes the function of each--Judaism to +typify duty, Confucianism order, Mahommedanism justice, Buddhism +patience, and Christianity love--does not account for the facts of the +history enacted by the devotees. It characterizes, not the real process +of evolution, but an ideal which history has not realized. Besides, it +does not face the question how far religion itself is a product or a +cause, or both combined. + +In the middle of the century two men sought to incorporate in their +philosophy the physical basis which Hegel had ignored in his +spiritism--recognizing that life is conditioned by an environment and +not an abstraction for metaphysics. H. T. Buckle, in his _History of +Civilization in England_ (1857), was the first to work out the +influences of the material world upon history, developing through a +wealth of illustration the importance of food, soil and the general +aspect of nature upon the formation of society. Buckle did not, as is +generally believed, make these three factors dominate all history. He +distinctly stated that "the advance of European civilization is +characterized by a diminishing influence of physical laws and an +increasing influence of mental laws," and "the measure of civilization +is the triumph of mind over external agents." Yet his challenge, not +only to the theologian, but also to those "historians whose indolence of +thought" or "natural incapacity" prevented them from attempting more +than the annalistic record of events, called out a storm of protest from +almost every side. Now that the controversy has cleared away, we see +that in spite of Buckle's too confident formulation of his laws, his +pioneer work in a great field marks him out as the Augustine of the +scientific age. Among historians, however, Buckle's theory received but +little favour for another generation. Meanwhile the economists had +themselves taken up the problem, and it was from them that the +historians of to-day have learned it. Ten years before Buckle published +his history, Karl Marx had already formulated the "economic theory of +history." Accepting with reservation Feuerbach's attack on the Hegelian +"absolute idea," based on materialistic grounds (_Der Mensch ist, was er +isst_), Marx was led to the conclusion that the causes of that process +of growth which constitutes the history of society are to be found in +the economic conditions of existence. From this he went on to socialism, +which bases its militant philosophy upon this interpretation of history. +But the truth or falseness of socialism does not affect the theory of +history. In 1845 Marx wrote of the Young-Hegelians that to separate +history from natural science and industry was like separating the soul +from the body, and "finding the birthplace of history, not in the gross +material production on earth, but in the misty cloud formation of +heaven" (_Die heilige Familie_, p. 238). In his _Misere de la +philosophie_ (1847) he lays down the principle that social relationships +largely depend upon modes of production, and therefore the principles, +ideas and categories which are thus evolved are no more eternal than the +relations they express, but are historical and transitory products. In +the famous _Manifesto of the Communist Party_ (1848) the theory was +applied to show how the industrial revolution had replaced feudal with +modern conditions. But it had little vogue, except among Socialists, +until the third volume of _Das Kapital_ was published in 1894, when its +importance was borne in upon continental scholars. Since then the +controversy has been almost as heated as in the days of the Reformation. +It is an exaggeration of the theory which makes it an explanation of all +human life, but the whole science of dynamic sociology rests upon the +postulate of Marx. + +The content of history always reflects the interests of the age in which +it is written. It was so in Herodotus and in medieval chronicles. Modern +historians began with politics. But as the complex nature of society +became more evident in the age of democracy, the economic or +sociological history gained ground. Histories of commerce and cities now +rank beside those on war and kings, although there are readers still who +prefer to follow the pennants of robber barons rather than to watch the +slow evolution of modern conditions. The drum-and-trumpet history has +its place like that of art, jurisprudence, science or philosophy. Only +now we know that no one of these is more than a single glimpse at a vast +complex of phenomena, most of which lie for ever beyond our ken. + +This expansion of interest has intensified specialization. Historians no +longer attempt to write world histories; they form associations of +specialists for the purpose. Each historian chooses his own epoch or +century and his own subject, and spends his life mastering such traces +of it as he can find. His work there enables him to judge of the methods +of his fellows, but his own remains restricted by the very wealth of +material which has been accumulated on the single subject before him. +Thus the great enterprises of to-day are co-operative--the _Cambridge +Modern History_, Lavisse and Rambaud's _Histoire generale_, or Lavisse's +_Histoire de France_, like Hunt and Poole's _Political History of +England_, and Oncken's _Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen_. +But even these vast sets cover but the merest fraction of their +subjects. The Cambridge history passes for the most part along the +political crust of society, and seldom glances at the social forces +within. This limitation of the professed historian is made up for by the +growingly historical treatment of all the sciences and arts--a tendency +noted before, to which this edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ is +itself a notable witness. Indeed, for a definition of that limitless +subject which includes all the phenomena that stand the warp and stress +of change, one might adapt a famous epitaph--_si historiam requiris, +circumspice_. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Ch. V. Langlois, _Manuel de bibliographie + historique_ (2 vols., 1904). This forms the logical bibliography of + this article. It is a general survey of the whole apparatus of + historical research, and is the indispensable guide to the subject. + Similar bibliographies covering sections of history are noted with the + articles where they properly belong, e.g. in English medieval history + the manual of Chas. Gross, _Sources and Literature of English + History_; in German history the _Quellenkunde_ of Dahlmann-Waitz (7th + ed.); for France the _Bibliographie de l'histoire de France_ of G. + Monod (antiquated, 1888), or the _Sources de l'histoire de France_ so + ably begun by A. Molinier's volumes on the medieval period. Perhaps + the sanest survey of the present scientific movement in history is the + clear summary of Ch. V. Langlois and Ch. Seignobos, _Introduction to + the Study of History_ (trans. with preface by F. York Powell, London, + 1898). Much more ambitious is E. Bernheim's _Lehrbuch der historischen + Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie mit Nachweis der wichtigsten + Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Studium der Geschichte_ (3rd and 4th ed., + Leipzig, 1903). (J. T. S.*) + + + + +HIT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Bagdad, on the west +bank of the Euphrates, 70 m. W.N.W. of Bagdad, in 33 deg. 38' 8" N., 42 +deg. 52' 15" E. It is picturesquely situated on a line of hills, partly +natural, but in large part certainly artificial, the accumulation of +centuries of former habitation, from 30 to 100 ft. in height, bordering +the river. The houses are built of field stones and mud. A striking +feature of the town is a lofty and well-proportioned minaret, which +leans quite perceptibly. Behind and around Hit is an extensive but +utterly barren plain, through which flow several streams of bitter +water, coming from mineral springs. Directly behind the town are two +bitumen springs, one cold and one hot, within 30 ft. of one another. The +gypsum cliffs on the edge of the plain, and the rocks which crop out +here and there in the plain, are full of seams of bitumen, and the whole +place is redolent of sulphuretted hydrogen. Across the river there are +naphtha springs. Indeed, the entire region is one possessing great +potential wealth in mineral oils and the like. Hit, with its fringe of +palms, is like an oasis in the desert occasioned by the outcrop of these +deposits. From time immemorial it has been the chief source of supply of +bitumen for Babylonia, the prosperity of the town depending always upon +its bitumen fountains, which are still the property of the government, +but are rented out to any one who wishes to use them. There is also a +shipyard at Hit, where the characteristic Babylonian boats are still +made, smeared within and without with bitumen. Hit is the head of +navigation on the Euphrates. It is also the point from which the +camel-post starts across the desert to Damascus. About 8 m. inland from +Hit, on a bitter stream, lies the small town of Kubeitha. Hit is +mentioned, under the name of Ist, in the Karnak inscription as paying +tribute to Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. In the Bible (Ezra viii. 15) it is +called Ahava; the original Babylonian name seems to have been _Ihi_, +which becomes in the Talmud _Ihidakira_, in Ptolemy [Greek: Idikara], +and in Zosimus and Ammianus [Greek: Dakira] and Diacira. + + See Geo. Rawlinson's _Herodotus_, i. 179, and note by H. C. Rawlinson; + J. P. Peters, _Nippur_ (1897); H. V. Geere, _By Nile and Euphrates_ + (1904). (J. P. Pe.) + + + + +HITA, GINES PEREZ DE (1544?-1605?), Spanish novelist and poet, was born +at Mula (Murcia) about the middle of the 16th century. He served in the +campaign of 1569-1571 against the Moriscos, and in 1572 wrote a rhymed +history of the city of Lorca which remained unpublished till 1889. He +owes his wide celebrity to the _Historia de los bandos de Zegries y +Abencerrajes_ (1595-1604), better known as the _Guerras civiles de +Granada_, which purports to be a chronicle based on an Arabic original +ascribed to a certain Aben-Hamin. Aben-Hamin is a fictitious personage, +and the _Guerras de Granada_ is in reality a historical novel, perhaps +the earliest example of its kind, and certainly the first historical +novel that attained popularity. In the first part the events which led +to the downfall of Granada are related with uncommon brilliancy, and +Hita's sympathetic transcription of life at the Emir's court has clearly +suggested the conventional presentation of the picturesque, chivalrous +Moor in the pages of Mlle de Scudery, Mme de Lafayette, Chateaubriand +and Washington Irving. The second part is concerned with the author's +personal experiences, and the treatment is effective; yet, though +Calderon's play, _Amar despues de la muerte_, is derived from it, the +second part has never enjoyed the vogue or influence of the first. The +exact date of Hita's death is unknown. His blank verse rendering of the +_Cronica Troyana_, written in 1596, exists in manuscript. + + + + +HITCHCOCK, EDWARD (1793-1864), American geologist, was born of poor +parents at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the 24th of May 1793. He owed +his education chiefly to his own exertions, and was preparing himself +to enter Harvard College when he was compelled to interrupt his studies +from a weakness in his eyesight. In 1815 he became principal of the +academy of his native town; but he resigned this office in 1818 in order +to study for the ministry. Having been ordained in 1821 pastor of the +Congregational church of Conway, Mass., he employed his leisure in +making a scientific survey of the western counties of the state. From +1825 to 1845 he was professor of chemistry and natural history, from +1845 to 1864 was professor of natural theology and geology at Amherst +College, and from 1845 to 1854 was president; the college owed its early +success largely to his energetic efforts, especially during the period +of his presidency. In 1830 he was appointed state geologist of +Massachusetts, and in 1836 was made geologist of the first district of +the state of New York. In 1840 he received the degree of LL.D. from +Harvard, and in 1846 that of D.D. from Middlebury College, Vermont. +Besides his constant labours in geology, zoology and botany, Hitchcock +took an active interest in agriculture, and in 1850 he was sent by the +Massachusetts legislature to examine into the methods of the +agricultural schools of Europe. In geology he made a detailed +examination and exposition of the fossil footprints from the Triassic +sandstones of the Connecticut valley. His collection is preserved in the +Hitchcock Ichnological Museum of Amherst College, and a description of +it was published in 1858 in his report to the Massachusetts legislature +on the ichnology of New England. The footprints were regarded as those +of reptiles, amphibia and birds (?). In 1857 he undertook, with the aid +of his two sons, the geological survey of Vermont, which was completed +in 1861. As a writer on geological science, Hitchcock was largely +concerned in determining the connexion between it and religion, and +employing its results to explain and support what he regarded as the +truths of revelation. He died at Amherst, on the 27th of February 1864. + +His son, CHARLES HENRY HITCHCOCK (1836- ), did good service in geology, +in Vermont, New Hampshire (1868-1878), and other parts of America, and +became professor of geology at Dartmouth in 1868. + + The following are Edward Hitchcock's principal works: _Geology of the + Connecticut Valley_ (1823); _Catalogue of Plants growing without + cultivation in the vicinity of Amherst_ (1829); _Reports on the + Geology of Massachusetts_ (1833-1841); _Elementary Geology_ (1840; ed. + 2, 1841; and later ed. with C. H. Hitchcock, 1862); _Fossil Footmarks + in the United States_ (1848); _Outline of the Geology of the Globe and + of the United States in particular_ (1853); _Illustrations of Surface + Geology_ (1856); _Ichnology of New England_ (1858); _The Religion of + Geology and its Connected Sciences_ (1851; new ed., 1869); + _Reminiscences of Amherst College_ (1863); and various papers in the + _American Journal of Science_, and other periodicals. + + + + +HITCHCOCK, GEORGE (1850- ), American artist, was born at Providence, +Rhode Island, in 1850. He graduated from Brown University in 1872 and +from the law school of Harvard University in 1874; then turned his +attention to art and became a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. +He attracted notice in the Salon of 1885 with his "Tulip Growing," a +Dutch garden which he painted in Holland. He had for years a studio at +Egmond, in the Netherlands. He became a Chevalier of the Legion of +Honour, France; a member of the Vienna Academy of Arts, the Munich +Secession Society, and other art bodies; and is represented in the +Dresden gallery; the imperial collection, Vienna; the Chicago Art +Institute, and the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts. + + + + +HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT (1817-1887), American divine, was born at East +Machias, Maine, on the 15th of August 1817, graduated at Amherst College +in 1836, and later studied at Andover Theological Seminary, Mass. After +a visit to Germany he was a tutor at Amherst in 1839-1842, and was +minister of the First (Congregational) Church, Exeter, New Hampshire, in +1845-1852. He became professor of natural and revealed religion in +Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1852, and in 1855 professor of +church history in the Union Theological Seminary in New York, of which +he was president in 1880-1887. He died at Somerset, Mass., on the 16th +of June 1887. + + Among his works are: _Life of Edward Robinson_ (1863); _Socialism_ + (1879); _Carmina Sanctorum_ (with Z. Eddy and L. W. Mudge, 1885); and + _Eternal Atonement_ (1888). + + + + +HITCHIN, a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary division of +Hertfordshire, England, on the small river Hiz, 32 m. N. from London by +the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 10,072. It is +the junction of the main line with the Cambridge branch, and with a +branch of the Midland railway to Bedford. The church of St Mary is +Perpendicular, with a fine porch, a painting of the Adoration of the +Magi, attributed to Rubens, a small crypt said to have been used by +Cromwell as a prison for the Royalists, and many interesting monuments. +Hitchin Priory is a mansion on the site of a Carmelite foundation of the +early 14th century. A Gilbertine nunnery, founded later in the same +century, stood adjacent to the church, and portions of the buildings +appear in an existing block of almshouses. The grammar school (1632) was +reconstituted in 1889 for boys and girls. Straw-plaiting, malting, +brewing, and the cultivation and distillation of lavender and peppermint +are carried on. + + + + +HITTITES, an ancient people, alluded to frequently in the earlier +records of Israel, and also, under slightly variant names, in Egyptian +records of the XVIIIth, XIXth and XXth Dynasties, and in Assyrian from +about 1100 to 700 B.C. They appear also in the Vannic cuneiform texts, +and are believed to be the authors of a class of monuments bearing +inscriptions in a peculiar pictographic character, and widely +distributed over Asia Minor and N. Syria, around which much controversy +has raged during the past thirty years. + +1. _The Bible._--In the Old Testament the name of the race is written +_Heth_ (with initial aspirate), members of it being _Hitti_, _Hittim_, +which the Septuagint renders [Greek: chet], [Greek: chettaios], [Greek: +chettein] or [Greek: chetteim], keeping, it will be noted, [epsilon] in +the stem throughout. The race appears in two connexions, (a) In +pre-Israelite Palestine, it is resident about Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 3), +and in the central uplands (Num. xiii. 29). To Joshua (i. 4) is promised +"from the wilderness and this Lebanon even unto the great river, the +river Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites." The term "wilderness" +here is of geographical ambiguity; but the promise is usually taken to +mean that Palestine itself was part of the Hittite land before the +coming of Israel; and an apostrophe of Ezekiel (xvi. 3) to Jerusalem, +"thy mother (was) an Hittite," is quoted in confirmation. Under the +monarchy we hear frequently of Hittites within the borders of Israel, +but either as a small subject people, coupled with other petty tribes, +or as individuals in the Jewish service (e.g. Uriah, in the time of +David). It appears, therefore, that there survived in Palestine to late +times a detached Hittite population, with which Hebrews sometimes +intermarried (Judges iii. 5-6; Gen. xxvi. 34) and lived in relations now +amicable, now tyrannical (e.g. Hittites were made tributary bondsmen by +Solomon, 1 Kings ix. 20, 21; 2 Chron. viii. 7, 8). (b) An independent +and powerful Hittite people was domiciled N. of Palestine proper, +organized rather as a confederacy of tribes than a single monarchy (1 +Kings x. 28; 2 Kings vii. 6). Presumably it was a daughter of these +Hittites that Solomon took to wife. If the emendation of 2 Sam. xxiv. +64, "Tahtim-hodshi," based on the Septuagint version [Greek: gen +chetteim kades] be accepted, we hear of them at Kadesh on Orontes; and +some minor Hittite cities are mentioned, e.g. Luz; but no one capital +city of the race is clearly indicated. Carchemish, on the Euphrates, +though mentioned three times (2 Chron. xxxv. 20; Isa. x. 9; Jer. xlvi. +2), is not connected explicitly with Hittites, a fact which is not +surprising, since that city was no longer under a Hatti dynasty at the +epoch of the Old Testament references. So far as the Old Testament goes, +therefore, we gather that the Hittites were a considerable people, +widely spread in Syria, in part subdued and to some extent assimilated +by Israel, but in part out of reach. The latter portion was not much +known to the Hebrews, but was vaguely feared as a power in the early +days of the monarchy, though not in the later pre-Captivity period. The +identification of the northern and southern Hittites, however, presents +certain difficulties not yet fully explained; and it seems that we must +assume Heth to have been the name both of a country in the north and of +a tribal population not confined to that country. + +2. _Egyptian Records._--The decipherment of the inscriptions of the +XVIIIth Theban Dynasty led, before the middle of the 19th century, to +the discovery of the important part played in the Syrian campaigns of +Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. by the H-t8 (vulgarly transliterated _Kheta_, +though the vocalization is uncertain). The coincidence of this name, +beginning with an aspirate, led H. K. Brugsch to identify the Kheta with +Heth. That identification stands, and no earlier Egyptian mention of the +race has been found. Tethmosis III. found the Kheta ("Great" and +"Little") in N. Syria, not apparently at Kadesh, but at Carchemish, +though they had not been in possession of the latter place long (not in +the epoch of Tethmosis I.'s Syrian campaign). They were a power strong +enough to give the Pharaoh cause to vaunt his success (see also EGYPT: +_Ancient History_, S "The New Empire"). Though he says he levied tribute +upon them, his successors in the dynasty nearly all record fresh wars +with the Kheta who appear as the northernmost of Pharaoh's enemies, and +Amenophis or Amenhotep III. saw fit to take to wife Gilukhipa, a Syrian +princess, who may or may not have been a Hittite. This queen is by some +supposed to have introduced into Egypt certain exotic ideas which +blossomed in the reign of Amenophis IV. The first Pharaoh of the +succeeding dynasty, Rameses I., came to terms with a Kheta king called +Saplel or Saparura; but Seti I. again attacked the Kheta (1366 B.C.), +who had apparently pushed southwards. Forced back by Seti, the Kheta +returned and were found holding Kadesh by Rameses II., who, in his fifth +year, there fought against them and a large body of allies, drawn +probably in part from beyond Taurus, the battle which occasioned the +monumental poem of Pentaur. After long struggles, a treaty was concluded +in Rameses's twenty-first year, between Pharaoh and "Khetasar" (i.e. +Kheta-king), of which we possess an Egyptian copy. The discovery of a +cuneiform tablet containing a copy of this same treaty, in the +Babylonian language, was reported from Boghaz Keui in Cappadocia by H. +Winckler in 1907. It argues the Kheta a people of considerable +civilization. The Kheta king subsequently visited Pharaoh and gave him +his daughter to wife. Rameses' successor, Mineptah, remained on terms +with the Kheta folk; but in the reign of Rameses III. (Dyn. XX.) the +latter seem to have joined in the great raid of northern tribes on Egypt +which was checked by the battle of Pelusium. From this point (c. 1150 +B.C.)--the point at which (roughly) the monarchic history of Israel in +Palestine opens--Egyptian records cease to mention Kheta; and as we know +from other sources that the latter continued powerful in Carchemish for +some centuries to come, we must presume that the rise of the Israelite +state interposed an effective political barrier. + +3. _Assyrian Records._--In an inscription of Tiglath Pileser I. (about +1100 B.C.), first deciphered in 1857, a people called _Khatti_ is +mentioned as powerful in Girgamish on Euphrates (i.e. Carchemish); and +in other records of the same monarch, subsequently read, much mention is +made of this and of other N. Syrian names. These Khatti appear again in +the inscriptions of Assur-nazir-pal (early 9th century B.C.), in whose +time Carchemish was very wealthy, and the Khatti power extended far over +N. Syria and even into Mesopotamia. Shalmaneser II. (d. 825 B.C.) raided +the Khatti and their allies year after year; and at last Sargon III., in +717 B.C., relates that he captured Carchemish and its king, Pisiris, and +put an end to its independence. We hear no more of it thenceforward. +These _Khatti_, there is no reasonable doubt, are identical with +_Kheta_. (For the chronology see further under BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.) + +4. _Other Cuneiform Records._--The name of the race appears in certain +of the Tel-el-Amarna letters, tablets written in Babylonian script to +Amenophis (Amenhotep) IV. and found in 1892 on the site of his capital. +Some of his governors in Syrian districts (e.g. one Aziru of Phoenicia) +report movements of the Hittites, who were then pursuing an aggressive +policy (about 1400 B.C.). There are also other letters from rulers of +principalities in N. Syria (Mitanni) and E. Asia Minor (Arzawa), who +write in non-Semitic tongues and are supposed to have been Hittites. + +Certain _Khate_ or _Khati_ are mentioned in the Vannic inscriptions +(deciphered partially by A. H. Sayce and others) as attacked by kings +of Bianas (Van), and apparently domiciled on the middle Euphrates N. of +Taurus in the 9th century B.C. This name again may safely be identified +with _Khatti-Kheta_. + +The Khatti also appear on a "prophecy-tablet," referring ostensibly to +the time of Sargon of Agade (middle of 4th millennium B.C.); but the +document is probably of very much later date. Lastly, a fragmentary +chronicle of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty mentions an invasion of Akkad by +them about 1800 B.C. + +From all these various sources we should gather that the Hittites were +among the more important racial elements in N. Syria and S.E. Asia Minor +for at least a thousand years. The limits at each end, however, are very +ill defined, the superior falling not later than 2000 B.C. and the +inferior not earlier than 600 B.C. This people was militant, aggressive +and unsettled in the earlier part of that time; commercial, wealthy and +enervated in the latter. A memorial of its trading long remained in Asia +in the shape of the weight-measure called in cuneiform records the +_maneh_ "of Carchemish." These Hittites had close relations with other +Asia Minor peoples, and at times headed a confederacy. During the later +part of their history they were in continual contact with Assyria, and, +as a Syrian power, and perhaps also as a Cappadocian one, they finally +succumbed to Assyrian pressure. + +_The "Hittite" Monuments._--It remains to consider in the light of the +foregoing evidence a class of monuments to which attention began to be +called about 1870. In that year two Americans, Consul J. A. Johnson and +the Rev. S. Jessup, rediscovered, at Hamah (Hamath) on Orontes, five +basaltic blocks bearing pictographic inscriptions in relief, one of +which had been reported by J. L. Burckhardt in 1812. In spite of their +efforts and subsequent attempts made by Tyrwhitt Drake and Richard +Burton, when consul at Damascus, proper copies could not be obtained; +and it was not till the end of 1872 that, thanks to W. Wright of Beirut, +casts were taken and the stones themselves sent to Constantinople by +Subhi Pasha of Damascus. As usually happens when a new class of +antiquities is announced, it was soon found that the "Hamathite" +inscriptions did not stand alone. A monument in the same script had been +seen in Aleppo by Tyrwhitt Drake and George Smith in 1872. It still +exists, built into a mosque on the western wall of the city. Certain +clay sealings, eight of which bore pictographic signs, found by A. H. +Layard in the palace of Assur-bani-pal at Kuyunjik (Nineveh), as long +ago as 1851 and noticed then as in a "doubtful character," were compared +by Hayes Ward and found to be of the Hamathite class. A new copy of the +long known rock-sculpture at Ivriz[1] in S.W. Cappadocia was published +by E. J. Davis in 1876, and clearly showed Hamathite characters +accompanying the figures. Davis also reported, but did not see, a +similar inscription at Bulgar Maden, not far away. Sculptures seen by W. +Skene and George Smith at Jerablus, on the middle Euphrates, led to +excavations being undertaken there, in 1878, by the British Museum, and +to the discovery of certain Hamathite inscriptions accompanying +sculptures, a few of which were brought to London. The conduct of these +excavations, owing to the death of George Smith, devolved on Consul +Henderson of Aleppo, and was not satisfactorily carried out. Meanwhile +Wright, Ward and Sayce had all suggested "Hittite" as a substitute for +"Hamathite," because no other N. Syrian people loomed so large in +ancient records as did the Hittites, and the suggestion began to find +acceptance. Jerablus was confidently identified with Carchemish (but +without positive proof to this day), and the occurrence of Hamathite +monuments there was held to confirm the Hittite theory. + +In 1876 Sayce pointed out the resemblance between certain Hittite signs +and characters in the lately deciphered Cypriote syllabary, and +suggested that the comparison might lead to a beginning of decipherment; +but the hope has proved vain. To this scholar, however, is owed the +next great step ahead. In 1879 it first occurred to him to compare the +rock-monuments at Boghaz Keui (see PTERIA) and Euyuk in N. Cappadocia, +discovered by Texier and Hamilton in 1835 and subsequently explored by +G. Perrot and E. Guillaume. These, he now saw, bore Hittite pictographs. +Other rock-sculptures at Giaur Kalessi, in Galatia, and in the Karabel +pass near Smyrna, he suspected of belonging to the same class[2]; and +visiting the last-named locality in the autumn, he found Hittite +pictographs accompanying one of the two figures.[3] He announced his +discoveries in 1880, and proclaimed the fact that a great Hittite +empire, extending from Kadesh to Smyrna, had risen from the dead. A +month later he had the good fortune to recover copies of a silver boss, +or hilt-top, offered to various museums about 1860, but rejected by them +as a meaningless forgery and for a long time lost again to sight. Round +the rim was a cuneiform legend, and in the field a Hittite figure with +six Hittite symbols engraved twice over on either hand of it. Reading +the cuneiform as _Tarqu-dimme sar mat Erme_ (i.e. "T. king of the +country E."), Sayce distributed phonetic values, corresponding to the +syllables of the two proper names, among four of the Hittite characters, +reserving two as "ideograms" of "king" and "country," and launched into +the field of decipherment. But he subsequently recognized that this was +a false start, and began afresh from another basis. Since then a number +of other monuments have been found, some on new sites, others on sites +already known to be Hittite, the distribution of which can be seen by +reference to the accompanying map. It will be observed that, so far as +at present known, they cluster most closely in Commagene, Cappadocia and +S. Phrygia. + + The following notes supplement the map:-- + + A. WEST ASIA MINOR.--"_Niobe_" (_Suratlu Tash_) and _Karabel_ (two); + rock-cut figures with much defaced hieroglyphs in relief. Remains of + buildings, not yet explored, lie near the "Niobe" figure. Nothing + purely Hittite has been found at Sardis or in any W. Asian excavation; + but small Hittite objects have been sold in Smyrna and Aidin. + + B. PHRYGIA.--_Giaur-Kalessi_; rock-cut figures and remains of a + stronghold, but no inscriptions. _Doghanludere_ and _Beikeui_ in the + Phrygian rock-monument country; at the first is a sculptured + rock-panel with a few pictographs in relief; at the latter a fragment + of an inscription in relief was disinterred from a mound. _Kolitolu + Yaila_, near Ilghin; block inscribed in relief, disinterred from + mounds apparently marking a camp or palace-enclosure. _Eflatun Bunar_ + (= Plato's Spring), W. of Konia; megalithic building with rude and + greatly defaced reliefs, not certainly Hittite: no inscription. + Fassiler, W. of Konia; gigantic _stela_, or composite statue (figure + on animals), not certainly Hittite; no inscription. _Konia_; relief of + warrior, drawn by Texier in 1835 and since lost; of very doubtful + Hittite character. A gold inscribed Hittite ring, now at Oxford, was + bought there in 1903. _Emirghazi_ (anc. _Ardistama_?); three + inscriptions in relief (two on altars) and large mounds. Evidently an + important Hittite site. _Kara-Dagh_; hill-sanctuary with incised + carving of seated figure and inscriptions, found by Miss G. L. Bell + and Sir W. M. Ramsay in 1907 (see their _Thousand and One Churches_, + 1909). + + C. NORTH CAPPADOCIA.--_Boghaz Keui_ (see PTERIA); large city with + remains of palace, citadel, walls, &c. Long rock-cut inscription of + ten lines in relief, two short relief inscriptions cut on blocks, and + also cuneiform tablets in Babylonian and also in a native language, + first found in situ in 1893, and showing the site to be the capital of + Arzawa, whence came two of the Tell el-Amarna letters. Near the site + are the rock reliefs of _Yasili Kaya_ in two hypaethral galleries, + showing, in the one, two processions composed of over sixty figures + meeting at the head of the gallery; in the other, isolated groups of + figures, fifteen in number (see for detailed description _Murray's + Guide to Asia Minor_, 1895, pp. 23 ff.). Pictographs accompany many of + the figures. The whole makes the most extensive group of Hittite + remains yet known. Boghaz Keui was never thoroughly explored until + 1907, the survey of Perrot and Guillaume having been superficial only + and the excavations of E. Chantre (1894) very slight. In 1906 a German + expedition under Professor H. Winckler undertook the work, and great + numbers of cuneiform tablets were found. These refer to the reigns of + at least four kings from Subbiluliuma (= Saplel, see above) to + Hattusil II. or Khartusil (= Khetasar, see above). The latter was an + ally of Katashmanturgu of Babylon, and powerful enough to write to + the Babylonian court as a sovereign of equal standing. His letter + shows that he considered the rise of Assyria a menace to himself. + Winckler claims to read _Hatti_ as the name of the possessors of + Boghaz Keui, and to find in this name the proof of the Hittite + character of Syro-Cappadocian power and of the imperial predominance + of the city. But it remains to be proved whether these tablets were + written there, and not rather, being in a foreign script, abroad, like + most of the Tell el-Amarna archives. O. Puchstein has cleared and + studied important architectural remains. _Euyuk_; large mound with + remains of palace entered between sphinxes. Sculptured wall-dados, but + no Hittite inscriptions. Cuneiform tablets; some Babylonian, others in + a native language. Also inscriptions in early Phrygian character and + language, found in 1894. The most famous of Hittite reliefs is here--a + double-headed eagle "displayed" on the flank of one of the gateway + sphinxes. This is supposed to have suggested to the Seljuks of Konia + their heraldic device adopted in the 13th century, which, brought to + Europe by the Crusaders, became the emblem of Teutonic empire in 1345. + This derivation must be taken, however, _cum grano_, proof of its + successive steps being wanting. Kara-Euyuk; a mound near Dedik, + partially excavated by E. Chantre in 1894. Cuneiform tablets and small + objects possibly, but not certainly, Hittite. A colossal eagle was + found on a deserted site near _Yamuli_ on the middle Halys, in 1907 by + W. Attmore Robinson. + + [Illustration: Map of Hittite remains.] + + D. SOUTH CAPPADOCIA.--_Karaburna_; long, incised rock-inscription. + _Bogja_, eight hours west of Kaisariye; four-sided _stela_ with + incised inscription. _Assarjik_, on the side of Mt. Argaeus; incised + rock-inscription. _Ekrek_; a fragmentary inscription in relief and an + incised inscription on a _stela_ of very late appearance. _Fraktin_ or + _Farakdin_ (probably anc. _Das-tarkon_); sculptured rock-panel showing + two groups of figures in act of cult, with hieroglyphs in relief. + _Arslan Tash_, near Comana (Cappadocia), on the Soghan Dagh; two + colossal lions, one with incised inscription. _Tashji_ in the Zamanti + valley; rock-relief with rudely incised inscription. _Andaval_ and + _Bor_; inscriptions incised on sculptured _stelae_ of kings (?), + probably from Tyana (_Ekuzli Hissar_). All are now in Constantinople. + A silver seal with hieroglyphs, now at Oxford, came also from Bor. + _Nigdeh_; basalt drum or altar with incised inscription. _Ivriz_; + rock-sculpture of king adoring god, with three inscriptions in relief. + A second sculpture, similar in subject but smaller and much defaced, + was found hard by in 1906. _Bulgar Maden_; long incised rock + inscription, near silver-mines. _Gorun_ (Gurun); two rock-inscriptions + in relief, much damaged. _Arslan-Tepe_, near Ordasu (two hours from + Malatia); large mound whence two sculptured _stelae_ or wall-blocks + with inscriptions in relief have been unearthed (now in Constantinople + and the Louvre). Four other reliefs, reported found near Malatia and + published by J. Garstang in _Annals Arch. and Anthrop._, 1908, + probably came also from Arslan Tepe. _Palanga_; lower aniconic half of + draped statue with incised inscription, now in Constantinople. Also a + small basalt lion. _Arslan Tash_, near Palanga; two rude gateway + lions, uninscribed. _Yapalak_; defaced inscription, reported by J. S. + Sterrett but never copied. _Izgin_; obelisk with long inscription in + relief on all four faces, now in Constantinople. These last four + places seem to lie on a main road leading from Cappadocia to Marash + and the Syrian sites. The expedition sent out by Cornell University in + 1907 found several Hittite inscriptions on rocks near _Darende_ in the + valley of the Tokhma Su. + + E. NORTH SYRIA.--_Marash_; several monuments (_stelae_, wall-blocks + and two lions) with inscriptions, both in relief and incised (part are + now at Constantinople, part in Berlin and America); evidently one of + the most important of Hittite sites. _Karaburshlu_, _Arbistan_, + _Gerchin_, _Sinjerli_; mounds about the head-waters of the Kara Su. + The last-named mound, brought to O. Puchstein's notice in 1882 by the + chance discovery of sculptured wall-dados, now in Constantinople, was + the scene of extensive German excavations in 1893-1894, directed by F. + v. Luschan and K. Koldewey, and was found to cover a walled town with + central fortified palace. Hittite, cuneiform and old Aramaean + monuments were found with many small objects, most of which have been + taken to Berlin; but no Hittite inscriptions came to light. + _Sakchegeuzu_ (Sakchegozu), a site with several mounds between + Sinjerli and Aintab; series of reliefs, once wall-dados, now in Berlin + and Constantinople. This site is in process of excavation by Professor + J. Garstang of the University of Liverpool. A sculptured portico has + come to light in the smallest of the five mounds, and much pottery, + with incised and painted decoration, has been recovered. _Aintab_; + fragment of relief inscription. _Samsat_ (Samosata); sculptured stela + with incised inscription much defaced. _Jerablus_; see above. Several + Hittite objects sent from Birejik and Aintab to Europe probably came + from Jerablus, others from _Tell Bashar_ on the Sajur. _Kellekli_, + near Jerablus; two _stelae_, one with relief inscription. _Iskanderun_ + (Alexandretta); source of a long inscription cut on both sides of a + spheroidal object of unknown origin. _Kirchoglu_, a site on the Afrin, + whence a fragmentary draped statue with incised inscription was sent + to Berlin. _Aleppo_; inscription in relief (see above). _Tell Ahmar_ + (on left bank of Euphrates); large _stela_ with sculpture and long + relief inscription, found in 1908 with several sculptured slabs and + two gateway lions, inscribed in cuneiform. Two hours south, a lion and + a fragment of a relief inscription were found in 1909 by Miss G. L. + Bell. _Tell Halaf_ in Mid-Mesopotamia, near Ras el-Ain; sculptures on + portico of a temple or palace; cuneiform inscriptions and large + mounds, explored in 1902 by Oppenheim. _Hamah_; five blocks inscribed + in relief (see above). + + F. OUTLYING SITES.--_Erzerum_; source of an incised inscription, + perhaps not originally found there. _Kedabeg_; metal boss or hilt-top + with pictographs, found in a tomb and stated by F. Hommel to be + Hittite, but doubtful. _Toprak Kaleh_; bronze fragments with two + pictographs; doubtful if Hittite. _Nineveh_; sealings, see above. + Babylon; a bowl and a stela of storm-god, both with incised + inscriptions; doubtless spoil of war or tribute brought from Syria. + The bowl is inscribed round the outside, the _stela_ on the back. + + (For a detailed description of the subjects of the reliefs, &c., with + the necessary illustrations, see the works indicated in the + bibliography.) + +_Structures._--The structural remains found as yet on Hittite sites are +few, scanty and far between. They consist of: (a) Ground plans of a +palatial building and three temples and fortifications with sculptured +gate at Boghaz Keui. The palace was built round a central court, flanked +by passages and entered by a doorway of three _battants_ hung on two +columns. The whole plan bears more than a superficial resemblance to +those of Cretan palaces in the later Minoan period. Only the rough core +of the walls is standing to a height of about 3 ft. The fortifications +of the citadel have an elaborate double gate with flanking towers, (b) +Fortifications, palace, &c., at Sinjerli. The gates here are more +elaborate than at Boghaz Keui, but planned with the same idea--that of +entrapping in an enclosed space, barred by a second door, an enemy who +may have forced the first door, while flanking towers would add to his +discomfiture. The palace plan is again rectangular, with a central +pillared hall, and very similar in plan to that of Boghaz Keui. The +massive walls are also of similar construction. Dados of +relief-sculpture run round the inner walls; this feature seems to have +been common to Hittite buildings of a sumptuous kind, and accounts for +most of the sculptured blocks that have been found, e.g. at Jerablus, +Sakhchegeuzu, Euyuk, Arslan Tepe, &c. Columns, probably of wood, rested +on bases carved as winged lions, (c) Gate with sculptured approach at +Euyuk. The ground plan of the gate is practically the same in idea as +that at Sinjerli. Structures were found at Jerablus, but never properly +uncovered or planned, (d) Sculptured porticoes of temples or palaces +uncovered at Sakchegeuzu and Tell Halaf (see above). On other sites, +e.g. Arslan Tepe (Ordasu), Arbistan, Marash (above the modern town and +near the springs), Beikeui, mounds, doubtless covering structures, may +be seen, and sculptured slabs have been recovered. The mounds, probably +Hittite, in N. Syria alone are to be counted by hundreds. No tombs +certainly Hittite have been found,[4] though it is possible that some of +the reliefs (e.g. at Fraktin) are of funerary character. + +_Sculptures and other Objects of Art._--The sculptures hitherto found +consist of reliefs on rocks and on _stelae_, either honorific or +funerary; reliefs on blocks forming parts of wall-dados; and a few +figures more or less in the round, though most of these (e.g. the +sphinxes of Euyuk and the lions of Arslan Tash and Marash) are not +completely disengaged from the block. The most considerable sculptured +rock-panels are at Boghaz Keui (see Pteria); the others (Ivriz, Fraktin, +Karabel, Giaur Kalessi, Doghanludere), it should be observed, all lie N. +of Taurus--a fact of some bearing on the problem of the origin and local +domicile of the art, since rock-reliefs, at any rate, cannot be +otherwise than _in situ_. Sculptured _stelae_, honorific or funerary, +all with pyramidal or slightly rounded upper ends, and showing a single +regal or divine figure or two figures, have come to light at Bor, +Marash, Sinjerli, Jerablus, Babylon, &c. These, like most of the +rock-panels, are all marked as Hittite by accompanying pictographic +inscriptions. The wall-blocks are seldom inscribed, the exceptions (e.g. +the Arslan Tepe lion-hunt and certain blocks from Marash and Jerablus) +being not more certainly wall-dados than _stelae_. The only fairly +complete anthropoid statue known is the much-defaced "Niobe" at Suratlu +Tash, engaged in the rock behind. The aniconic lower part of an +inscribed statue wholly in the round was found at Palanga, and parts of +others at Kirchoglu and Marash. Despite considerable differences in +execution and details, all these sculptures show one general type of +art, a type which recalls now Babylonian, now Assyrian, now Egyptian, +now archaic Ionian, style, but is always individual and easily +distinguishable from the actual products of those peoples. The figures, +whether of men or beasts, are of a squat, heavy order, with internal +features (e.g. bones, muscles, &c.) shown as if external, as in some +Mesopotamian sculptures. The human type is always very brachycephalic, +with brow receding sharply and long nose making almost one line with the +sloping forehead. In the sculptures of the Commagene and the Tyana +districts, the nose has a long curving tip, of very Jewish appearance, +but not unlike the outline given to Kheta warriors in Egyptian scenes. +The lips are full and the chin short and shaven. The whole physiognomy +is fleshy and markedly distinct from that of other Syrians. At Boghaz +Keui, Euyuk and Jerablus, the facial type is very markedly non-Semitic. +But not much stress can be laid on these differences owing to (1) great +variety of execution in different sculptures, which argues artists of +very unequal capacity; (2) doubt whether individual portraits are +intended in some cases and not in others. The hair of males is +sometimes, but not always, worn in pigtail. The fashions of +head-covering and clothes are very various, but several of them--e.g. +the horned cap of the Ivriz god; the conical hat at Boghaz Keui, +Fraktin, &c; the "jockey-cap" on the Tarkudimme boss; the broad-bordered +over-robe, and the upturned shoes--are not found on other Asiatic +monuments, except where Hittites are portrayed. Animals in profile are +represented more naturalistically than human beings, e.g. at Yasili +Kaya, and especially in some pictographic symbols in relief (e.g. at +Hamah). This, however, is a feature common to Mesopotamian and Egyptian, +and perhaps to all primitive art. + +The subjects depicted are processions of figures, human and divine +(Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Giaur Kalessi); scenes of sacrifice or adoration, +or other cult-practice (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Fraktin, Ivriz, and perhaps +the figures seated beside tables at Marash Sakchegeuzu, Sinjerli, &c.); +of the chase (Arslan Tepe, Sakchegeuzu); but not, as known at present, +of battle. Both at Euyuk and Yasili Kaya reliefs in one and the same +series are widely separated in artistic conception and execution, some +showing the utmost _naivete_, others expressing both outline and motion +with fair success. The fact warns us against drawing hasty inductions as +to relative dates from style and execution. + +Besides sculptures, well assured, Hittite art-products include a few +small objects in metal (e.g. heavy, inscribed gold ring bought by Sir W. +M. Ramsay at Konia; base silver seal, supported on three lions' claws, +bought by D. G. Hogarth at Bor; inscribed silver boss of "Tarkudimme," +mentioned above, &c. &c.); many intaglios in various stones (chiefly in +steatite), mostly either spheroidal or gable-shaped, but a few +scarabaeoid, conical or cylindrical, bearing sometimes pictographic +symbols, sometimes divine, human or animal figures. The best collection +is at Oxford. The majority are of very rude workmanship, bodies and +limbs being represented by mere skeleton lines or unfilled outlines; a +few vessels (e.g. inscribed basalt bowl found at Babylon) and fragments +of ware painted with dark ornament on light body-clay, or in polychrome +on a cream-white slip, or black burnished, found on N. Cappadocian +sites, &c. The bronzes hitherto claimed as Hittite have been bought on +the Syrian coast or come from not certainly Hittite sites in Cappadocia +(see E. Chantre, _Mission en Cappadocie_). A great many small objects +were found in the excavations at Sinjerli, including carved ivories, +seals, toilet-instruments, implements, &c., but these have not been +published. Nor, except provisionally, has the pottery, found at +Sakchegeuzu. + +_Inscriptions._--These, now almost sixty in number (excluding seals), +are all in a pictographic character which employed symbols somewhat +elaborately depicted in relief, but reduced to conventional and +"shorthand" representations in the incised texts. So far, the majority +of our Hittite inscriptions, like those first found at Hamah, are in +relief (cameo); but the incised characters, first observed in the Tyana +district, have since been shown, by discoveries at Marash, Babylon, &c., +to have had a wider range. It has usually been assumed that the incised +inscriptions, being the more conventionalized, are all of later date +than those in relief; but comparison of Egyptian inscriptions, wherein +both incised and cameo characters coexisted back to very early times, +suggests that this assumption is not necessarily correct. The Hittite +symbols at present known show about two hundred varieties; but new +inscriptions continually add to the list, and great uncertainty remains +as to the distinction of many symbols (i.e. whether mere variants or +not), and as to many others which are defaced or broken in our texts. +The objects represented by these symbols have been certainly identified +in only a few instances. A certain number are heads (human and animal) +detached from bodies, in a manner not known in the Egyptian hieroglyphic +system, with which some of the other symbols show obvious analogies. +Articles of dress, weapons, tools, &c., also appear. The longer +inscriptions are disposed in horizontal zones or panels, divided by +lines, and, it seems, they were to be read _boustrophedon_, not only as +regards the lines (which begin right to left) but also the words, which +are written in columnar fashion, syllable _below_ syllable, and read +downwards and upwards alternately. The direction of reading is towards +any faces which may be shown among the pictographs. The words are +perhaps distinguished in some texts by punctuation marks. + +Long and patient efforts have been made to decipher this script, ever +since it was first restored to our knowledge; and among the would-be +decipherers honourable mention must be made, for persistence and +courage, of Professor A. H. Sayce and of Professor P. Jensen. Other +interpretations have been put forward by F. E. Peiser (based on +conjectures as to the names on the Nineveh sealings), C. R. Conder +(based largely on Cypriote comparisons and phonetic values transferred +from these) and C. J. Ball (based on Hittite names recorded on Egyptian +and Assyrian monuments, and applied to word-groups on the Hittite +monuments). These, however, as having arbitrary and inadequate +foundations, and for other reasons, have not been accepted. F. Hommel, +J. Halevy and J. Menant have done useful work in distinguishing +word-groups, and have essayed partial interpretations. No other +decipherers call for mention. A. H. Sayce and P. Jensen alone have +enlisted any large body of adherents; and the former, who has worked +upon his system for thirty years and published in the _Proceedings of +the Society for Biblical Archaeology_ for 1907 a summary of his method +and results, has proceeded on the more scientific plan. His system, +however, like all others, is built in the main upon hypotheses incapable +at present of quite satisfactory verification, such, for example, as the +conjectural reading "Gargamish" for a group of symbols which recurs in +inscriptions from Jerablus and elsewhere. In this case, to add to the +other obvious elements of uncertainty, it must be borne in mind that the +location of Carchemish at Jerablus is not proved, though it is very +probable. Other conjectural identifications of groups of symbols with +the place-names Hamath, Marash, Tyana are bases of Sayce's system. +Jensen's system may be said to have been effectually demolished by L. +Messerschmidt in his _Bemerkungen_ (1898); but Sayce's system, which has +been approved by Hommel and others, is probably in its main lines +correct. Its frequent explanation, however, of incompatible symbols by +the doctrines of phonetic variation and interchange, or by alternative +values of the same symbol used as ideograph, determinative or phonetic +complement, and the occasional use of circular argument in the process +of "verification," do not inspire confidence in other than its broader +results. Sayce's phonetic values and interpretations of determinatives +are his best assured achievements. But the words thus arrived at +represent a language on which other known tongues throw little or no +light, and their meaning is usually to be guessed only. In some +significant cases, however, the Boghaz Keui tablets appear to give +striking confirmation of Sayce's conjectures. + +Writing in 1903 L. Messerschmidt, editor of the best collection of +Hittite texts up to date, made a _tabula rasa_ of all systems of +decipherment, asserting that only one sign out of two hundred--the +bisected oval, determinative of divinity--had been interpreted with any +certainty; and in view of this opinion, coupled with the steady refusal +of historians to apply the results of any Hittite decipherment, and the +obvious lack of satisfactory verification, without which the piling of +hypothesis on hypothesis may only lead further from probability, there +is no choice but to suspend judgment for some time longer as to the +inscriptions and all deductions drawn from them. + +_Are the Monuments Hittite?_--It is time to ask this question, although +a perfectly satisfactory answer can only be expected when the +inscriptions themselves have been deciphered. Almost all "Hittitologues" +assume a connexion between the monuments and the Kheta-Khatti-Hittites, +but in various degrees; e.g. while Sayce has said roundly that common +sense demands the acceptance of all as the work of the Hittites, who +were the dominant caste throughout a loosely-knit empire extending at +one time from the Orontes to the Aegean, Messerschmidt has stated with +equal dogmatism that the Hittites proper were only one people out of +many[5] in N. Syria and Asia Minor who shared a common civilization, and +that therefore they were authors of a part of the monuments +only--presumably the N. Syrian, Commagenian and Cataonian groups. O. +Puchstein[6] has denied to the Hittites some of the N. Syrian monuments, +holding these of too late a date (judged by their Assyrian analogies) +for the flourishing period of the Kheta-Khatti, as known from Egyptian +and Assyrian records. He would ascribe them to the Kummukh +(Commagenians), who seem to have succeeded the Khatti as the strongest +opponents of Assyria in these parts. He was possibly right as regards +the Sinjerli and Sakchegeuzu sculptures, which are of provincial +appearance. The following considerations, however, may be stated in +favour of the ascription of the monuments to the Hittites:-- + +(1) The monuments in question are found frequently whereever, from other +records, we know the Hittites to have been domiciled at some period, +i.e. throughout N. Syria and in Cataonia. (2) It was under the Khatti +that Carchemish was a flourishing commercial city; and if Jerablus be +really Carchemish, it is significant that apparently the most numerous +and most artistic of the monuments occur there. (3) Among all the early +peoples of N. Syria and Asia Minor known to us from Egyptian and +Assyrian records, the Kheta-Khatti alone appear frequently as leading to +war peoples from far beyond Taurus. (4) The Kheta certainly had a system +of writing and a glyptic art in the time of Rameses II., or else the +Egyptian account of their copy of the treaty would be baseless. (5) The +physiognomy given to Kheta warriors by Egyptian artists is fairly +representative of the prevailing type shown in the Hittite sculptures. + +Furthermore, the Boghaz Keui tablets, though only partially deciphered +as yet, go far to settle the question. They show that whether Boghaz +Keui was actually the capital of the Hatti or not, it was a great city +of the Hatti, and that the latter were an important element in +Cappadocia from very early times. Before the middle of the 16th century +B.C. the Cappadocian Hatti were already in relations, generally more or +less hostile, with a rival power in Syria, that of Mitanni; and +Subbiluliuma (= Saplel or Saparura), king of these Hatti, a contemporary +of Amenophis IV. and Rameses I., seems to have obtained lasting dominion +in Syria by subduing Dushratta of Mitanni. Carchemish thenceforward +became a Hatti city and the southern capital of Cappadocian power. Since +all the Syrian monuments of the Hittite class, so far known, seem +comparatively late (most show such strong Assyrian, influence that they +must fall after 1100 B.C. and probably even considerably later), while +the North Cappadocian monuments (as Sayce, Ramsay, Perrot and others saw +long ago) are the earlier in style, we are bound to ascribe the origin +of the civilization which they represent to the Cappadocian Hatti. + +Whether the Mitanni had shared in that civilization while independent, +and whether they were racially kin to the Hatti, cannot be determined at +present. Winckler has adduced evidence from names of local gods to show +that there was an Indo-European racial element in Mitanni; but none for +a similar element in the Hatti, whose chief god was Teshub. The majority +of scholars has always regarded the Hittites proper as, at any rate, +non-Semitic, and some leading authorities have called them +proto-Armenian, and believed that they have modern descendants in the +Caucasus. This racial question can hardly be determined till those Hatti +records, whether in cuneiform or pictographic script, which are couched +in a native tongue, not in Babylonian, are read. In the meantime we have +proper names to argue from; and these give us at least the significant +indication that the Hittite nominative ended in _s_ and the accusative +in _m_. In any case the connexion of the Hatti with the peculiar class +of monuments which we have been describing, can hardly be further +questioned; and it has become more than probable that the Hatti of +Cappadocia were responsible in the beginning for the art and script of +those monuments and for the civilization of which they are memorials. +Other peoples of north Syria and Asia Minor (e.g. the Kummukh or +Commagenians and the Muski or Phrygians) came no doubt under the +influence of this civilization and imitated its monuments, while subject +to or federated with the Hatti. Through Phrygia and Lydia (q.v.) +influences of this same Cappadocian civilization passed towards the +west; and indeed, before the Greek colonization of Asia Minor, a loosely +knit Hatti empire may have stretched even to the Aegean. The Nymphi +(Kara Bel) and Niobe sculptures near Smyrna are probably memorials of +that extension. Certainly some inland Anatolian power seems to have kept +Aegean settlers and culture away from the Ionian coast during the Bronze +Age, and that power was in all likelihood the Hatti kingdom of +Cappadocia. Owing perhaps to Assyrian aggression, this power seems to +have begun to suffer decay about 1000 B.C. and thereafter to have shrunk +inwards, leaving the coasts open. The powers of Phrygia and Lydia rose +successively out of its ruins, and continued to offer westward passage +to influences of Mesopotamian culture till well into historic times. The +Greeks came too late to Asia to have had any contact with Hatti power +obscured from their view by the intermediate and secondary state of +Phrygia. Their earliest writers regarded the latter as the seat of the +oldest and most godlike of mankind. Only one Greek author, Herodotus, +alludes to the pre-historic Cappadocian power and only at the latest +moment of its long decline. At the same time, some of the Greek legends +seem to show that peoples, with whom the Greeks came into early contact, +had vivid memories of the Hatti. Such are the Amazon stories, whose +local range was very extensive, and the myths of Memnon and Pelops. The +real reference of these stories, however, was forgotten, and it has been +reserved to our own generation to rediscover the records of a power and +a civilization which once dominated Asia Minor and north Syria and +occupied all the continental roads of communication between the East and +the West of the ancient world. The credit of having been the first to +divine this importance of the Hittites should always be ascribed to +Sayce. + +The history of the Hatti and their civilization, then, would appear to +have been, very briefly, this. They belonged to an ethnic scattered +widely over Eastern Asia Minor and Syria at an early period (Khatti +invaded Akkad about 1800 B.C. in the reign of Samsuditana); but they +first formed a strong state in Cappadocia late in the 16th century B.C. +Subbiluliuma became their first great king, though he had at least one +dynastic predecessor of the name of Hattusil. The Hatti now pushed +southwards in force, overcame the kingdom of Mitanni and proceeded +partly to occupy and partly to make tributary both north Syria and +western Mesopotamia where some of their congeners were already settled. +They came early into collision with Egypt, and at the height of their +power under Hattusil II. fought the battle of Kadesh with Rameses II., +on at least equal terms. Both now and previously the diplomatic +correspondence of the Hatti monarchs shows that they treated on terms +of practical equality with both the Babylonian and the Egyptian courts; +and that they waged constant wars in Syria, mainly with the Amorite +tribes. At this time the Hatti empire or confederacy probably included, +on the west, both Phrygia and Lydia. The Boghaz Keui correspondence +ceases to be important with the generation following Hattusil II., and +in the Assyrian records, which begin about a couple of centuries later, +we find Carchemish the chief Hatti city and N. Syria called the +Hatti-land. It is possible therefore that a change of imperial centre +took place after the Hatti had ceased to fear Egypt in north Syria. If +so, the continuation of Hittite history will have to be sought among the +remains at Jerablus and other middle Euphratean sites, rather than in +those at Boghaz Keui. The establishment of the Hatti at Carchemish not +only made them a commercial people and probably sapped their highland +vigour, but also brought them into closer proximity to the rising North +Semitic power of Assyria, whose advent had been regarded with +apprehension by Hattusil II. (see above). One of his successors, +Arnaunta (late 13th century?), was already feeling the effect of +Assyrian pressure, and with the accession of Tiglath Pileser I., about a +century later, a long but often interrupted series of Assyrian efforts +to break up the Hatti power began. A succession of Ninevite armies +raided north Syria and even south-east Asia Minor, and gradually reduced +the Hatti. But the resistance of the latter was sturdy and prolonged. +They remained the strongest power in Syria and eastern Asia Minor till +well into the first millennium B.C., and their Syrian seat was not lost +finally till after the great extension of Assyrian power which took +place in the latter part of the 9th century. What had been happening to +their Cappadocian province meanwhile we do not yet know; but the +presence of Phrygian inscriptions at Euyuk and Tyana, ancient seats of +their power, suggests that the client monarchy in the Sangarius valley +shook itself free during the early part of the Hittite struggle with +Assyria, and in the day of Hatti weakness extended its dominion over the +home territory of its former suzerain. "White Syrians," however, were +still in Cappadocia even after the Cimmerians had destroyed the Phrygian +monarchy, allowing Lydia to become independent under the Mermnad +dynasty. Croesus found them centred at Pteria in the 6th century and +dealt them a final blow. But much of their secular or religious custom +lived on to be recorded by Greek writers, and regarded by modern +scholars as typically "Anatolian." + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--General summaries: L. Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_ + ("Ancient East" series, vi., 1903); A. H. Sayce, _The Hittites_ + ("Bypaths of Biblical Knowledge" series, xii., 2nd ed. 1892); G. + Perrot and C. Chipiez, _History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea, Syria and + Asia Minor_ (Eng. trans., vol. ii., 1890); L. Lantsheere, _De la race + et de la langue des Heteens_ (1891); P. Jensen, _Hittiter und + Armenier_ (1898); M. Jastrow, final chapter in H. V. Hilprecht, + _Exploration in Bible Lands_ (1903); W. Wright, _Empire of the + Hittites_ (1884); F. Hommel, _Hettiter und Skythen_ (1898); D. G. + Hogarth, _Ionia and the East_ (1909); W. Max Muller, _Asien und + Europa_, chap. xxv. (1893). See also authorities for Egyptian and + Assyrian history. + + Inscriptions: L. Messerschmidt, "Corpus inscr. Hettiticarum," + _Zeitsch. d. d. morgenland. Gesellschaft_ (1900, 1902, 1906, &c.), and + "Bemerkungen zu d. Heth. Inschriften," _Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. + Gesellschaft_ (1898); P. Jensen, "Grundlagen fur eine Entzifferung der + (Hat. oder) Cilicischen Inschriften," _Zeitschr. d. d. morgenland. + Gesellschaft_ (1894); F. E. Peiser, _Die Hettitischen Inschriften_ + (1892); A. H. Sayce, "Decipherment of the Hittite Inscriptions," + _Proc. Soc. of Bibl. Archaeology_ (1903), and "Hittite Inscriptions, + translated and annotated," ibid. (1905, 1907); J. Menant, "Etudes + Heteennes," _Recueil de travaux rel. a la philologie, &c._, and _Mem. + de l'Acad. Inscr._, vol. xxxiv. (1890); J. Halevy in _Revue + semitique_, vol. i. Also divers articles by A. H. Sayce, F. Hommel and + others in _Proc._ and _Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch._ since 1876, and in + _Recueil de travaux, &c._, since its beginning. + + Exploration: G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, _Exploration arch. de la + Galatie_, &c. (1862-1872); E. Chantre, _Mission en Cappadocie_ (1898); + Sir W. M. Ramsay, "Syro-Cappadocian Monuments," in _Athen. + Mitteilungen_ (1889), with D. G. Hogarth, "Pre-Hellenic Monuments of + Cappadocia," in _Recueil de travaux_, &c. (1892-1895); and with Miss + Gertrude Bell, _The Thousand and One Churches_ (1909); C. Humann and + O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Nord-Syrien_, &c. (1890). J. Garstang in + _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, i. (1908) and following + numbers. Reports on excavations at Sinjerli in _Berl. Philol. + Wochenschrift_ (1891), pp. 803, 951; and F. von Luschan, and others, + "Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli" in _Mitteil. Orient-Sammlungen_ (Berlin + Museum, 1893 ff.); and on excavations at Boghaz-Keui, H. Winckler in + _Orient. Literaturzeitung_ (Berlin, 1907); _Mitteil. + Orient-Gesellschaft_ (Dec. 1907). See also s.v. PTERIA. (D. G. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] First described by the Turk, Hajji Khalifa, in the 17th century; + first seen by the Swedish traveller Otter in 1736, and first + published in 1840 in Ritter's _Erdkunde_, iii., after a drawing by + Major Fischer, made in 1837. + + [2] The "Niobe" statue near Manisa was not definitely known for + "Hittite" till 1882, when G. Dennis detected pictographs near it. + + [3] The "pseudo-Sesostres" of Herodotus, already demonstrated + non-Egyptian by Rosellini. The second figure was unknown, till found + by Dr Beddoe in 1856. + + [4] Five intramural graves were explored at Sinjerli, but whether of + the Hittite or of the Assyrian occupation is doubtful. + + [5] The Assyrian records, as well as the Egyptian, distinguish many + peoples in both areas from the Kheta-Khatti; and the most we can + infer from these records is that there was an occasional league + formed under the Hittites, not any imperial subjection or even a + continuous federation. + + [6] _Pseudo-Hethitische Kunst_ (Berlin, 1890). + + + + +HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE (1792-1867), French architect, was born at +Cologne on the 20th of August 1792. After serving an apprenticeship to a +mason in his native town, he went in 1810 to Paris, and studied for some +years at the Academy of Fine Arts, where he was a favourite pupil of +Belanger, the government architect, who in 1814 appointed him his +principal inspector. Succeeding Belanger as government architect in +1818, he designed many important public and private buildings in Paris +and also in the south of France. From 1819 to 1830 in collaboration with +le Cointe he directed the royal fetes and ceremonials. After making +architectural tours in Germany, England, Italy and Sicily, he published +the result of his observations in the latter country in the work +_Architecture antique de la Sicile_ (3 vols., 1826-1830; new edition, +1866-1867), and also in _Architecture moderne de la Sicile_ (1826-1835). +One of his important discoveries was that colour had been made use of in +ancient Greek architecture, a subject which he especially discussed in +_Architecture polychrome chez les Grecs_ (1830) and in _Restitution du +temple d'Empedocle a Selinunte_ (1851); and in accordance with the +doctrines enunciated in these works he was in the habit of making colour +an important feature in most of his architectural designs. His principal +building is the church of St Vincent de Paul in the basilica style, +which was constructed between 1830 and 1844. He also designed the two +fountains in the Place de la Concorde, the Circus of the Empress, the +Rotunda of the panoramas, many cafes and restaurants of the Champs +Elysees, the houses forming the circle round the Arc de Triomphe de +l'Etoile, besides many embellishments of the Bois de Boulogne and other +places. In 1833 he was elected a member of the Academy of Fine Arts. He +died in Paris on the 25th of March 1867. + + + + +HITZACKER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover at the +influx of the Jeetze into the Elbe, 33 m. N.E. of Luneburg by the +railway to Wittenberge. Pop. (1905) 1106. It has an Evangelical church +and an old castle and numerous medieval remains. There are chalybeate +springs and a hydropathic establishment in the town. The famous library +now in Wolfenbuttel was originally founded here by Augustus, duke of +Brunswick (d. 1666) and was removed to its present habitation in 1643. + + + + +HITZIG, FERDINAND (1807-1875), German biblical critic, was born at +Hauingen, Baden, where his father was a pastor, on the 23rd of June +1807. He studied theology at Heidelberg under H. E. G. Paulus, at Halle +under Wilhelm Gesenius and at Gottingen under Ewald. Returning to +Heidelberg he became _Privatdozent_ in theology in 1829, and in 1831 +published his _Begriff der Kritik am Alten Testamente praktisch +erortert_, a study of Old Testament criticism in which he explained the +critical principles of the grammatico-historical school, and his _Des +Propheten Jonas Orakel uber Moab_, an exposition of the 15th and 16th +chapters of the book of Isaiah attributed by him to the prophet Jonah +mentioned in 2 Kings xiv. 25. In 1833 he was called to the university of +Zurich as professor ordinarius of theology. His next work was a +commentary on Isaiah with a translation (_Ubersetzung u. Auslegung des +Propheten Jesajas_), which he dedicated to Heinrich Ewald, and which +Hermann Hupfeld (1796-1866), well known as a commentator on the Psalms +(1855-1861), pronounced to be his best exegetical work. At Zurich he +laboured for a period of twenty-eight years, during which, besides +commentaries on _The Psalms_ (1835-1836; 2nd ed., 1863-1865), _The Minor +Prophets_ (1838; 3rd ed., 1863), _Jeremiah_ (1841; 2nd ed., 1866), +_Ezekiel_ (1847), _Daniel_ (1850), _Ecclesiastes_ (1847), _Canticles_ +(1855), and _Proverbs_ (1858), he published a monograph, _Uber Johannes +Markus u. seine Schriften_ (1843), in which he maintained the +chronological priority of the second gospel, and sought to prove that +the Apocalypse was written by the same author. He also published various +treatises of archaeological interest, of which the most important are +_Die Erfindung des Alphabets_ (1840), _Urgeschichte u. Mythologie der +Philistaer_ (1845), and _Die Grabschrift des Eschmunezar_(1855). After +the death of Friedrich Umbreit (1795-1860), one of the founders of the +well-known _Studien und Kritiken_, he was called in 1861 to succeed him +as professor of theology at Heidelberg. Here he wrote his _Geschichte +des Volkes Israel_ (1869-1870), in two parts, extending respectively to +the end of the Persian domination and to the fall of Masada, A.D. 72, as +well as a work on the Pauline epistles, _Zur Kritik Paulinischer Briefe_ +(1870), on the Moabite Stone, _Die Inschrift des Mescha_ (1870), and on +Assyrian, _Sprache u. Sprachen Assyriens_ (1871), besides revising the +commentary on Job by Ludwig Hirzel (1801-1841), which was first +published in 1839. He was also a contributor to the _Monatsschrift des +wissenschaftlichen Vereins in Zurich_, the _Zeitschrift der deutschen +morgenlandischen Gesellschaft_, the _Theologische Studien u. Kritiken_, +Eduard Zeller's _Theologische Jahrbucher_, and Adolf Hilgenfeld's +_Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie_. Hitzig died at Heidelberg +on the 22nd of January 1875. As a Hebrew philologist he holds high rank; +and as a constructive critic he is remarkable for acuteness and +sagacity. As a historian, however, some of his speculations have been +considered fanciful. "He places the cradle of the Israelites in the +south of Arabia, and, like many other critics, makes the historical +times begin only with Moses" (F. Lichtenberger, _History of German +Theology_, p. 569). + + His lectures on biblical theology (_Vorlesungen uber biblische + Theologie u. messianische Weissagungen_) were published in 1880 after + his death, along with a portrait and biographical sketch by his pupil, + J. J. Kneucker (b. 1840), professor of theology at Heidelberg. See + Heinrich Steiner, _Ferdinand Hitzig_ (1882); and Adolf Kamphausen's + article in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_. + + + + +HIUNG-NU, HIONG-NU, HEUNG-NU, a people who about the end of the 3rd +century B.C. formed, according to Chinese records, a powerful empire +from the Great Wall of China to the Caspian. Their ethnical affinities +have been much discussed; but it is most probable that they were of the +Turki stock, as were the Huns, their later western representatives. They +are the first Turkish people mentioned by the Chinese. A theory which +seems plausible is that which assumes them to have been a heterogenous +collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki and perhaps even Finnish hordes +under a Mongol military caste, though the Mongolo-Tungus element +probably predominated. Towards the close of the 1st century of the +Christian era the Hiung-nu empire broke up. Their subsequent history is +obscure. Some of them seem to have gone westward and settled on the Ural +river. These, de Guiques suggests, were the ancestors of the Huns, and +many ethnologists hold that the Hiung-nu were the ancestors of the +modern Turks. + + See _Journal Anthropological Institute_ for 1874; Sir H. H. Howorth, + _History of the Mongols_ (1876-1880); 6th Congress of Orientalists, + Leiden, 1883 (_Actes_, part iv. pp. 177-195); de Guiques, _Histoire + generale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongoles, et des autres Tartares + occidentaux_ (1756-1758). + + + + +HIVITES, an ancient tribe of Palestine driven out by the invading +Israelites. In Josh. ix. 7, xi. 19 they are connected with Gibeon. The +meaning of the name is uncertain; Wellhausen derives it from [Hebrew: +Hava] "Eve," or "serpent," in which case the Hivites were originally the +snake clan; others explain it from the Arabic _hayy_, "family," as +meaning "dwellers in (Bedouin) encampments." (See PALESTINE; JEWS.) + + + + +HJORRING, an ancient town of Denmark, capital of the _amt_ (county) of +its name, in the northern insular part of the peninsula of Jutland. Pop. +(1901) 7901. It lies 7 m. inland from the shore of Jammer Bay, a stretch +of coast notoriously dangerous to shipping. On the coast is Lonstrup, a +favoured seaside resort. In this neighbourhood as well as to the +south-east of Hjorring, slight elevations are seen, deserving the name +of hills in this low-lying district. Hjorring is on the northern railway +of Jutland, which here turns eastward to the Cattegat part of +Frederikshavn (23 m.), a harbour of refuge. + + + + +HKAMTI LONG (called Kantigyi by the Burmese, and Bor Hkampti by the +peoples on the Assam side), a collection of seven Shan states +subordinate to Burma, but at present beyond the administrative border. +Estimated area, 900 sq. m.; estimated pop. 11,000. It lies between 27 +deg. and 28 deg. N. and 97 deg. and 98 deg. E., and is bordered by the +Mishmi country on the N., by the Patkai range on the W., by the Hukawng +valley on the S. and E., and indeed all round by various Chingpaw or +Kachin communities. The country is little known. It was visited by T. T. +Cooper, the Chinese traveller and political agent at Bhamo, where he was +murdered; by General Woodthorpe and Colonel Macgregor in 1884, by Mr +Errol Grey in the following year, and by Prince Henry of Orleans in +1895. All of these, however, limited their explorations to the valley of +the Mali-hka, the western branch of the Irrawaddy river. Hkamti has +shrunk very much from its old size. It was no doubt the northernmost +province of the Shan kingdom, founded at Mogaung by Sam Long-hpa, the +brother of the ruler of Kambawsa, when that empire had reached its +greatest extension. The irruption of Kachins or Chingpaw from the north +has now completely hemmed the state in. Prince Henry of Orleans +described it as "a splendid territory, fertile in soil and abundant in +water, where tropical and temperate culture flourish side by side, and +the inhabitants are protected on three fronts by mountains." According +to him the Kiutze, the people of the hills between the Irrawaddy and the +Salween, call it the kingdom of Moam. + + + + +HLOTHHERE, king of Kent, succeeded his brother Ecgberht in 673, and +appears for a time to have reigned jointly with his nephew Eadric, son +of Ecgberht, as a code of laws still extant was issued under both names. +Neither is mentioned in the account of the invasion of Aethelred in 676. +In 685 Eadric, who seems to have quarrelled with Hlothhere, went into +exile and led the South Saxons against him. Hlothhere was defeated and +died of his wounds. + + See Bede, _Hist. eccl._ (Plummer), iv. 5, 17, 26, v. 24; _Saxon + Chronicle_ (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 685; Schmid, _Gesetze_, pp. 10 + sqq.; Thorpe, _Ancient Laws_, i. 26 sqq. + + + + +HOACTZIN, or HOATZIN, a bird of tropical South America, thought by +Buffon to be that indicated by Hernandez or Fernandez under these names, +the _Opisthocomus hoazin_ or _O. cristatus_ of modern ornithologists--a +very curious and remarkable form, which has long exercised the ingenuity +of classifiers. Placed by Buffon among his "_Hoccos_" (Curassows), and +then by P. L. S. Muller and J. F. Gmelin in the Linnaean genus +_Phasianus_, some of its many peculiarities were recognized by J. K. W. +Illiger in 1811 as sufficient to establish it as a distinct genus, +_Opisthocomus_; but various positions were assigned to it by subsequent +systematic authors. L'Herminier was the first to give any account of its +anatomy (_Comptes rendus_, 1837, v. 433), and from his time our +knowledge of it has been successively increased by Johannes Muller +(_Ber. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin_, 1841, p. 177), Deville (_Rev. et mag. +de zoologie_, 1852, p. 217), Gervais (Castelnau, _Exped. Amerique du +Sud, zoologie, anatomie_, p. 66), Huxley (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1868, +p. 304), Perrin (_Trans. Zool. Society_, ix. p. 353), and A. H. Garrod +(_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1879, p. 109). After a minute description of the +skeleton of _Opisthocomus_, with the especial object of determining its +affinities, Huxley declared that it "resembles the ordinary gallinaceous +birds and pigeons more than it does any others, and that when it +diverges from them it is either sui generis or approaches the +_Musophagidae_." He accordingly regarded it as the type and sole member +of a group, named by him _Heteromorphae_, which sprang from the great +Carinate stem later than the _Tinamomorphae_, _Turnicomorphae_, or +_Charadriomorphae_, but before the _Peristeromorphae_, _Pteroclomorphae_ +or _Alectoromorphae_. This conclusion is substantially the same as that +at which A. H. Garrod subsequently arrived after closely examining and +dissecting specimens preserved in spirit; but the latter has gone +further and endeavoured to trace more particularly the descent of this +peculiar form and some others, remarking that the ancestor of +_Opisthocomus_ must have left the parent stem very shortly before the +true _Gallinae_ first appeared, and at about the same time as the +independent pedigree of the _Cuculidae_ and _Musophagidae_ +commenced--these two groups being, he believed, very closely related, +and _Opisthocomus_ serving to fill the gap between them. + +The first thing that strikes the observer of its skeleton is the +extraordinary structure of the sternal apparatus, which is wholly unlike +that of any other bird known. The keel is only developed on the +posterior part of the sternum--the fore part being, as it were, cut +away, while the short furcula at its symphysis meets the manubrium, with +which it is firmly consolidated by means of a prolonged and straight +hypocleidium, and anteriorly ossifies with the coracoids. This unique +arrangement seems to be correlated with the enormously capacious crop, +which rests upon the furcula and fore part of the sternum, and is also +received in a cavity formed on the surface of each of the great pectoral +muscles. Furthermore this crop is extremely muscular, so as more to +resemble a gizzard, and consists of two portions divided by a partial +constriction, after a fashion of which no other example is known among +birds. The true gizzard is greatly reduced. + +[Illustration: Hoactzin.] + +The hoactzin appears to be about the size of a small pheasant, but is +really a much smaller bird. The beak is strong, curiously denticulated +along the margin of the maxilla near the base, and is beset by diverging +bristles. The eyes, placed in the middle of a patch of bare skin, are +furnished with bristly lashes, resembling those of horn-bills and some +few other birds. The head bears a long pendant crest of loose yellowish +feathers. The body is olive-coloured, varied with white above, and +beneath is of a dull bay. The wings are short and rounded. The tail is +long and tipped with yellow. The legs are rather short, the feet stout, +the tarsi reticulated, and the toes scutellated; the claws long and +slightly curved. According to all who have observed the habits of this +bird, it lives in bands on the lower trees and bushes bordering the +streams and lagoons, feeding on leaves and various wild fruits, +especially, says H. W. Bates (_Naturalist on the River Amazons_, i. 120), +those of a species of _Psidium_, and it is also credited with eating +those of an arum (_Caladium arborescens_), which grows plentifully in its +haunts. "Its voice is a harsh, grating hiss," continues the same +traveller, and "it makes the noise when alarmed, all the individuals +sibilating as they fly heavily away from tree to tree, when disturbed by +passing canoes." It exhales a very strong odour--wherefore it is known in +British Guiana as the "stink-bird"--compared by Bates to "musk combined +with wet hides," and by Deville to that of a cow-house. The species is +said to be polygamous; the nest is built on trees, of sticks placed above +one another, and softer materials atop. Therein the hen lays her eggs to +the number of three or four, of a dull-yellowish white, somewhat +profusely marked with reddish blotches and spots, so as to resemble those +of some of the _Rallidae_ (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1867, pl. xv. fig. 7. +p. 164). The young are covered only with very scanty hair, like down, and +have well-developed claws on the first and second fingers of the wing, +which they use in clambering about the twigs in a quadrupedal manner; if +placed in the water they swim and dive well, although the adults seem to +be not at all aquatic. (A. N.) + + + + +HOADLY, BENJAMIN (1676-1761), English divine, was born at Westerham, +Kent, on the 14th of November 1676. In 1691 he entered Catharine Hall, +Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. and was for two years tutor, after +which he held from 1701 to 1711 the lectureship of St Mildred in the +Poultry, and along with it from 1704 the rectory of St Peter-le-Poer, +London. His first important appearance as a controversialist was against +Edmund Calamy "the younger" in reference to conformity (1703-1707), and +after this he came into conflict with Francis Atterbury, first on the +interpretation of certain texts and then on the whole Anglican doctrine +of non-resistance. His principal treatises on this subject were the +_Measures of Submission to the Civil Magistrate_ and _The Origin and +Institution of Civil Government discussed_; and his part in the +discussion was so much appreciated by the Commons that in 1709 they +presented an address to the queen praying her to "bestow some dignity in +the church on Mr Hoadly for his eminent services both to church and +state." The queen returned a favourable answer, but the dignity was not +conferred. In 1710 he was presented by a private patron to the rectory +of Streatham in Surrey. In 1715 he was appointed chaplain to the king, +and the same year he obtained the bishopric of Bangor. He held the see +for six years, but never visited the diocese. In 1716, in reply to +George Hickes (q.v.), he published a _Preservative against the +Principles and Practices of Nonjurors in Church and State_, and in the +following year preached before the king his famous sermon on the +_Kingdom of Christ_, which was immediately published by royal command. +These works were attacks on the divine authority of kings and of the +clergy, but as the sermon dealt more specifically and distinctly with +the power of the church, its publication caused an ecclesiastical +ferment which in certain aspects has no parallel in religious history. +It was at once resolved to proceed against him in convocation, but this +was prevented by the king proroguing the assembly, a step which had +consequences of vital bearing on the history of the Church of England, +since from that period the great Anglican council ceased to transact +business of a more than formal nature. The restrained sentiments of the +council in regard to Hoadly found expression in a war of pamphlets known +as the Bangorian Controversy, which, partly from a want of clearness in +the statements of Hoadly, partly from the disingenuousness of his +opponents and the confusion resulting from exasperated feelings, +developed into an intricate and bewildering maze of side discussions in +which the main issues of the dispute were concealed almost beyond the +possibility of discovery. But however vague and uncertain might be the +meaning of Hoadly in regard to several of the important bearings of the +questions around which he aroused discussion, he was explicit in denying +the power of the Church over the conscience, and its right to determine +the condition of men in relation to the favour of God. The most able of +his opponents was William Law; others were Andrew Snape, provost of +Eton, and Thomas Sherlock, dean of Chichester. So exercised was the mind +of the religious world over the dispute that in July 1717 as many as +seventy-four pamphlets made their appearance; and at one period the +crisis became so serious that the business of London was for some days +virtually at a stand-still. Hoadly, being not unskilled in the art of +flattery, was translated in 1721 to the see of Hereford, in 1723 to +Salisbury and in 1734 to Winchester. He died at his palace at Chelsea on +the 17th of April 1761. His controversial writings are vigorous if +prolix and his theological essays have little merit. He must have been a +much hated man, for his latitudinarianism offended the high church party +and his rationalism the other sections. He was an intimate friend of Dr +Samuel Clarke, of whom he wrote a life. + +Hoadly's brother, JOHN HOADLY (1678-1746), was archbishop of Dublin from +1730 to 1742 and archbishop of Armagh from the latter date until his +death on the 19th of July 1746. In early life the archbishop was very +intimate with Gilbert Burnet, then bishop of Salisbury, and in later +life he was a prominent figure in Irish politics. + + The works of Benjamin Hoadly were collected and published by his son + John in 3 vols. (1773). To the first volume was prefixed the article + "Hoadly" from the supplement to the _Biographia Britannica_. See also + L. Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th Century_. + + + + +HOAR, SAMUEL (1778--1856), American lawyer, was born in Lincoln, +Massachusetts, on the 18th of May 1778. He was the son of Samuel Hoar, +an officer in the American army during the War of Independence, for many +years a member of the Massachusetts General Court, and a member in +1820-1821 of the state Constitutional Convention. The son graduated at +Harvard in 1802, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1805 and began +practice at Concord. His success in his profession was immediate, and +for a half-century he was one of the leading lawyers of Massachusetts. +He was in early life a Federalist and was later an ardent Whig in +politics. He was a member of the state senate in 1825, 1832 and 1833, +and of the national house of representatives in 1835-1837, during which +time he made a notable speech in favour of the constitutional right of +congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. In November +1844, having retired from active legal practice some years before, he +went to Charleston, S.C., at the request of Governor George Nixon Briggs +(1796-1861), to test in the courts of South Carolina the +constitutionality of the state law which provided that "it shall not be +lawful for any free negro, or person of color, to come into this state +on board any vessel, as a cook, steward or mariner, or in any other +employment," and that such free negroes should be seized and locked up +until the vessels on which they had come were ready for sea, when they +should be returned to such vessels. His visit aroused great excitment, +he was threatened with personal injury, the state legislature passed +resolutions calling for his expulsion, and he was compelled to leave +early in December. In 1848 he was prominent in the Free Soil movement in +Massachusetts, and subsequently assisted in the organization of the +Republican Party. In 1850 he served in the Massachusetts house of +representatives. He married a daughter of Roger Sherman of Connecticut. +He died at Concord, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of November 1856. + + See a memoir by his son G. F. Hoar in _Memorial Biographies of the New + England Historic Genealogical Society_, vol. iii. (Boston, 1883); the + estimate by R. W. Emerson in _Lectures and Biographical Sketches_ + (Boston, 1903); and "Samuel Hoar's Expulsion from Charleston," _Old + South Leaflets_, vol. vi. No. 140. + +His son, EBENEZER ROCKWOOD HOAR (1816-1895), was born at Concord, +Massachusetts, on the 21st of February 1816. He graduated at Harvard in +1835 and at the Harvard Law School in 1839, and was admitted to the +Massachusetts bar in 1840. From 1849 to 1855 he was a judge of the +Massachusetts court of common pleas, from 1859 to 1869 a judge of the +state supreme court, and in 1869-1870 attorney-general of the United +States in the cabinet of President Grant, and in that position fought +unmerited "machine" appointments to offices in the civil service until +at the pressure of the "machine" Grant asked for his resignation from +the cabinet. The Senate had already shown its disapproval of Hoar's +policy of civil service reform by its failure in 1870 to confirm the +President's nomination of Hoar as associate-justice of the supreme +court. In 1871 he was a member of the Joint High Commission which drew +up the Treaty of Washington. In 1872 he was a presidential elector on +the Republican ticket, and in 1873-1875 was a representative in +Congress. He was a member of the Board of Overseers of Harvard +University from 1868 to 1880 and from 1881 to 1887, and was president of +the Board in 1878-1880 and in 1881-1887. He was also prominent in the +affairs of the Unitarian church. He was a man of high character and +brilliant wit. He died at Concord on the 31st of January 1895. + +Another son, GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR (1826-1904), was born in Concord, +Massachusetts, on the 29th of August 1826. He graduated at Harvard in +1846 and at the Harvard Law School in 1849. He settled in the practice +of law in Worcester, Massachusetts, where in 1852 he became a partner of +Emory Washburn (1800-1877). In 1852 he was elected as a Free-Soiler to +the Massachusetts House of Representatives, and during his single term +of service became the leader of his party in that body. He was active in +the organization of the Republican party in Massachusetts, and in 1857 +was elected to the State senate, but declined a re-election. During +1856-1857 he was active in behalf of the Free-State cause in Kansas. He +was a member of the National House of Representatives from 1869 until +1877, and in this body took high rank as a ready debater and a +conscientious committee worker. He was prominent as a defender and +supporter of the Freedman's Bureau, took a leading part in the later +reconstruction legislation and in the investigation of the Credit +Mobilier scandal, and in 1876 was one of the House managers of the +impeachment of General W. W. Belknap, Grant's secretary of war. In 1877 +he was a member of the Electoral Commission which settled the disputed +Hayes-Tilden election. From 1877 until his death he was a member of the +United States senate. In the senate almost from the start he took rank +as one of the most influential leaders of the Republican party; he was a +member from 1882 until his death of the important Judiciary Committee, +of which he was chairman in 1891-1893 and in 1895-1904. His most +important piece of legislation was the Presidential Succession Act of +1886. He was a delegate to every Republican National Convention from +1876 to 1904, and presided over that at Chicago in 1880. He was a +conservative by birth and training, and although he did not leave his +party he disagreed with its policy in regard to the Philippines, and +spoke and voted against the ratification of the Spanish Treaty. He was +regent of the Smithsonian Institution in 1880-1881, and long served as +an overseer of Harvard University (1896-1904) and as president of its +alumni association. He was also president of the American Historical +Association (1894-1895) and of the American Antiquarian Society +(1884-1887). Like his brother, he was a leading Unitarian, and was +president of its National Conference from 1894 to 1902. He died at +Worcester, Massachusetts, on the 30th of September 1904. A memorial +statue has been erected there. + + See his _Recollections of Seventy Years_ (New York, 1903). + + + + +HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT, BART. (1758-1838), English antiquary, was the +eldest son of Richard Hoare, who was created a baronet in 1786, and was +born on the 9th of December 1758. He was descended from Sir Richard +Hoare (1648-1718), lord mayor of London, the founder of the family +banking business. An ample allowance from his grandfather, Henry Hoare, +enabled him to pursue the archaeological studies for which he had +already shown an inclination. In 1783 he married Hester, daughter of +William Henry, Lord Lyttelton, and after her death in 1785 he paid a +prolonged visit to France, Italy and Switzerland. He succeeded to the +baronetcy in 1787, and in 1788 made a second continental tour, the +record of his travels appearing in 1819 under the title _A Classical +Tour through Italy and Sicily_. A journey through Wales was followed by +a translation of the _Itinerarium Cambriae_ and of the _Descriptio +Cambriae of_ Giraldus Cambrensis, Hoare adding notes and a life of +Giraldus to the translation. This was first published in 1804, and has +been revised by T. Wright (London, 1863). Sir Richard died at Stourhead, +Wiltshire, on the 19th of May 1838, being succeeded in the baronetcy by +his half-brother, Henry Hugh Hoare. Hoare's most important work was his +_Ancient History of North and South Wiltshire_ (1812-1819); he also did +some work on the large _History of Modern Wiltshire_ (1822-1844). + + For notices of him and a list of his works, many of which were printed + privately, see the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for July 1838, and the + _Dict. Nat. Biog._ vol. xxvii. (1891). See also E. Hoare, _History of + the Hoare Family_ (1883). + + + + +HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS (1844-1899), Vice-President of the United States +1897-1899, was born at Long Branch, N.J., on the 3rd of June 1844. He +graduated at Rutgers College in 1863, was admitted to the bar in 1869, +practised law at Paterson, N.J., and rose to prominence in the State. He +was long conspicuous in the State Republican organization, was chairman +of the New Jersey State Republican Committee from 1880 to 1890, became a +member in 1884 of the Republican National Committee, and was the +delegate-at-large from New Jersey to five successive Republican national +nominating conventions. He served in the New Jersey Assembly in +1873-1874, and in the New Jersey Senate in 1877-1882, and was speaker of +the Assembly in 1874 and president of the Senate in 1881 and 1882. He +was also prominent and successful in business and accumulated a large +fortune. He accepted the nomination as Vice-President in 1896, on the +ticket with President McKinley, and was elected; but while still in +office he died at Paterson, N.J., on the 21st of November 1899. + + See the _Life_ (New York, 1910) by David Magie. + + + + +HOBART, JOHN HENRY (1775-1830), American Protestant Episcopal bishop, +was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 14th of September 1775, +being fifth in direct descent from Edmund Hobart, a founder of Hingham, +Massachusetts. He was educated at the Philadelphia Latin School, the +College of Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania), and +Princeton, where he graduated in 1793. After studying theology under +Bishop William White at Philadelphia, he was ordained deacon in 1798, +and priest two years later. He was elected assistant bishop of New York, +with the right of succession, in 1811, and was acting diocesan from that +date because of the ill-health of Bishop Benjamin Moore, whom he +formally succeeded on the latter's death in February 1816. He was one of +the founders of the General Theological Seminary, became its professor +of pastoral theology in 1821, and as bishop was its governor. In his +zeal for the historic episcopacy he published in 1807 _An Apology for +Apostolic Order and its Advocates_, a series of letters to Rev. John M. +Mason, who, in _The Christian's Magazine_, of which he was editor, had +attacked the Episcopacy in general and in particular Hobart's +_Collection of Essays on the Subject of Episcopacy_ (1806). Hobart's +zeal for the General Seminary and the General Convention led him to +oppose the plan of Philander Chase, bishop of Ohio, for an Episcopal +seminary in that diocese; but the Ohio seminary was made directly +responsible to the House of Bishops, and Hobart approved the plan. His +strong opposition to "dissenting churches" was nowhere so clearly shown +as in a pamphlet published in 1816 to dissuade all Episcopalians from +joining the American Bible Society, which he thought the Protestant +Episcopal Church had not the numerical or the financial strength to +control. In 1818, to counterbalance the influence of the Bible Society +and especially of Scott's _Commentaries_, he began to edit with selected +notes the _Family Bible_ of the Society for Promoting Christian +Knowledge. He delivered episcopal charges to the clergy of Connecticut +and New York entitled _The Churchman_ (1819) and _The High Churchman +Vindicated_ (1826), in which he accepted the name "high churchman," and +stated and explained his principles "in distinction from the corruptions +of the Church of Rome and from the Errors of Certain Protestant Sects." +He exerted himself greatly in building up his diocese, attempting to +make an annual visit to every parish. His failing health led him to +visit Europe in 1823-1825. Upon his return he preached a characteristic +sermon entitled _The United States of America compared with some +European Countries, particularly England_ (published 1826), in which, +although there was some praise for the English church, he so boldly +criticized the establishment, state patronage, cabinet appointment of +bishops, lax discipline, and the low requirements of theological +education, as to rouse much hostility in England, where he had been +highly praised for two volumes of _Sermons on the Principal Events and +Truths of Redemption_ (1824). He died at Auburn, New York, on the 12th +of September 1830. He was able, impetuous, frank, perfectly fearless in +controversy, a speaker and preacher of much eloquence, a supporter of +missions to the Oneida Indians in his diocese, and the compiler of the +following devotional works: _A Companion for the Altar_ (1804), +_Festivals and Fasts_ (1804), _A Companion to the Book of Common Prayer_ +(1805), and _A Clergyman's Companion_ (1805). + + See _Memorial of Bishop Hobart_, containing a _Memoir_ (New York, + 1831); John McVickar, _The Early Life and Professional Years of Bishop + Hobart_ (New York, 1834), and _The Closing Years of Bishop Hobart_ + (New York, 1836). + + + + +HOBART PASHA, AUGUSTUS CHARLES HOBART-HAMPDEN (1822-1886), English naval +captain and Turkish admiral, was born in Leicestershire on the 1st of +April 1822, being the third son of the 6th Earl of Buckinghamshire. In +1835 he entered the Royal Navy and served as a midshipman on the coast +of Brazil in the suppression of the slave trade, displaying much +gallantry in the operations. In 1855 he took part, as captain of the +"Driver," in the Baltic Expedition, and was actively engaged at +Bomarsund and Abo. In 1862 he retired from the navy with the rank of +post-captain; but his love of adventure led him, during the American +Civil War, to take the command of a blockade-runner. He had the good +fortune to run the blockade eighteen times, conveying war material to +Charleston and returning with a cargo of cotton. In 1867 Hobart entered +the Turkish service, and was immediately nominated to the command of +that fleet, with the rank of "Bahrie Limassi" (rear-admiral). In this +capacity he performed splendid service in helping to suppress the +insurrection in Crete, and was rewarded by the Sultan with the title of +Pasha (1869). In 1874 Hobart, whose name had, on representations made by +Greece, been removed from the British Navy List, was reinstated; his +restoration did not, however, last long, for on the outbreak of the +Russo-Turkish war he again entered Turkish service. In command of the +Turkish squadron he completely dominated the Black Sea, blockading the +ports of South Russia and the mouths of the Danube, and paralysing the +action of the Russian fleet. On the conclusion of peace Hobart still +remained in the Turkish service, and in 1881 was appointed Mushir, or +marshal, being the first Christian to hold that high office. His +achievements as a blockade-runner, his blockade of Crete, and his +handling of the Turkish fleet against the torpedo-lined coasts of +Russia, showed him to be a daring, resourceful, and skilful commander, +worthy to be ranked among the illustrious names of British naval heroes. +He died at Milan on the 19th of June 1886. + + See his _Sketches of My Life_ (1886), which must, however, be used + with caution, since it contains many proved inaccuracies. + + + + +HOBART, the capital of Tasmania, in the county of Buckingham, on the +southern coast of the island. It occupies a site of great beauty, +standing on a series of low hills at the foot of Mount Wellington, a +lofty peak (4166 ft.) which is snow-clad for many months in the year. +The town fronts Sullivan's Cove, a picturesque bay opening into the +estuary of the river Derwent, and is nearly square in form, laid out +with wide streets intersecting at right angles, the chief of which are +served by electric tramways. It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of +Tasmania, and of the Roman Catholic archbishop of Hobart. The Anglican +cathedral of St David dates from 1873, though its foundations were laid +as early as 1817. St Mary's Roman Catholic cathedral is a beautiful +building; but perhaps the most notable ecclesiastical building in Hobart +is the great Baptist tabernacle in Upper Elizabeth Street. The most +prominent public buildings are the Houses of Parliament, to which an +excellent library is attached; the town hall, a beautiful building of +brown and white Tasmanian freestone in Italian style; the museum and +national art gallery, and the general post office (1904) with its lofty +clock-tower. Government House, the residence of the governor of +Tasmania, a handsome castellated building, stands in its domain on the +banks of the Derwent, to the north of the town. The botanical gardens +adjoin. Of the parks and public gardens, the most extensive is the +Queen's Domain, covering an area of about 700 acres, while the most +central is Franklin Square, adorned with a statue of Sir John Franklin, +the famous Arctic explorer, who was governor of Tasmania from 1837 to +1843. The university of Tasmania, established in 1890, and opened in +1893, has its headquarters at Hobart. The town is celebrated for its +invigorating climate, and its annual regatta on the Derwent attracts +numerous visitors. The harbour is easy of access, well sheltered and +deep, with wharf accommodation for vessels of the largest tonnage. It is +a regular port of call for several intercolonial lines from Sydney and +Melbourne, and for lines from London to New Zealand. The exports, of an +average value of L850,000 annually, consist mainly of fruit, hops, +grain, timber and wool. The industries comprise brewing, saw-milling, +iron-founding, flour-milling, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery +and woollen goods. Hobart is the centre of a large fruit-growing +district, the produce of which, for the most part, is exported to London +and Sydney. The city was founded in 1804 and takes its name from Lord +Hobart (see BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF), then secretary of state for the +colonies. It was created a municipality in 1853, and a city in 1857; and +in 1881 its name was changed from Hobart Town to the present form. The +chief suburbs are Newton, Sandy Bay, Wellington, Risdon, Glenorchy, +Bellerive and Beltana. The population of the city proper in 1901 was +24,652, or including suburbs, 34,182. + + + + +HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT (c. 1638-1709), the greatest landscape painter of the +Dutch school after Ruysdael, lived at Amsterdam in the second half of +the 17th century. The facts of his life are somewhat obscure. Nothing is +more disappointing than to find that in Hobbema's case chronology and +signed pictures substantially contradict each other. According to the +latter his practice lasted from 1650 to 1689; according to the former +his birth occurred in 1638, his death as late as 1709. If the +masterpiece formerly in the Bredel collection, called "A Wooded Stream," +honestly bears the date of 1650, or "The Cottages under Trees" of the +Ford collection the date of 1652, the painter of these canvases cannot +be Hobbema, whose birth took place in 1638, unless indeed we admit that +Hobbema painted some of his finest works at the age of twelve or +fourteen. For a considerable period it was profitable to pass Hobbemas +as Ruysdaels, and the name of the lesser master was probably erased from +several of his productions. When Hobbema's talent was recognized, the +contrary process was followed, and in this way the name, and perhaps +fictitious dates, reappeared by fraud. An experienced eye will note the +differences which occur in Hobbema's signatures in such well-known +examples as adorn the galleries of London and Rotterdam, or the +Grosvenor and van der Hoop collections. Meanwhile, we must be content to +know that, if the question of dates could be brought into accordance +with records and chronology, the facts of Hobbema's life would be as +follows. + +Meyndert Hobbema was married at the age of thirty to Eeltije Vinck of +Gorcum, in the Oudekerk or old church at Amsterdam, on the 2nd of +November 1668. Witnesses to the marriage were the bride's brother +Cornelius Vinck and Jacob Ruysdael. We might suppose from this that +Hobbema and Ruysdael, the two great masters of landscape, were united at +this time by ties of friendship, and accept the belief that the former +was the pupil of the latter. Yet even this is denied to us, since +records tell us that there were two Jacob Ruysdaels, cousins and +contemporaries, at Amsterdam in the middle of the 17th century--one a +framemaker, the son of Solomon, the other a painter, the son of Isaac +Ruysdael. Of Hobbema's marriage there came between 1668 and 1673 four +children. In 1704 Eeltije died, and was buried in the pauper section of +the Leiden cemetery at Amsterdam. Hobbema himself survived till December +1709, receiving burial on the 14th of that month in the pauper section +of the Westerkerk cemetery at Amsterdam. Husband and wife had lived +during their lifetime in the Rozengracht, at no great distance from +Rembrandt, who also dwelt there in his later and impoverished days. +Rembrandt, Hals, Jacob Ruysdael, and Hobbema were in one respect alike. +They all died in misery, insufficiently rewarded perhaps for their toil, +imprudent perhaps in the use of the means derived from their labours. +Posterity has recognized that Hobbema and Ruysdael together represent +the final development of landscape art in Holland. Their style is so +related that we cannot suppose the first to have been unconnected with +the second. Still their works differ in certain ways, and their +character is generally so marked that we shall find little difficulty in +distinguishing them, nor indeed shall we hesitate in separating those of +Hobbema from the feebler productions of his imitators and +predecessors--Isaac Ruysdael, Rontbouts, de Vries, Dekker, Looten, +Verboom, du Bois, van Kessel, van der Hagen, even Philip de Koningk. In +the exercise of his craft Hobbema was patient beyond all conception. It +is doubtful whether any one ever so completely mastered as he did the +still life of woods and hedges, or mills and pools. Nor can we believe +that he obtained this mastery otherwise than by constantly dwelling in +the same neighbourhood, say in Guelders or on the Dutch Westphalian +border, where day after day he might study the branching and foliage of +trees and underwood embowering cottages and mills, under every variety +of light, in every shade of transparency, in all changes produced by the +seasons. Though his landscapes are severely and moderately toned, +generally in an olive key, and often attuned to a puritanical grey or +russet, they surprise us, not only by the variety of their leafage, but +by the finish of their detail as well as the boldness of their touch. +With astonishing subtlety light is shown penetrating cloud, and +illuminating, sometimes transiently, sometimes steadily, different +portions of the ground, shining through leaves upon other leaves, and +multiplying in an endless way the transparency of the picture. If the +chance be given him he mirrors all these things in the still pool near a +cottage, the reaches of a sluggish river, or the swirl of the stream +that feeds a busy mill. The same spot will furnish him with several +pictures. One mill gives him repeated opportunities of charming our eye; +and this wonderful artist, who is only second to Ruysdael because he had +not Ruysdael's versatility and did not extend his study equally to downs +and rocky eminences, or torrents and estuaries--this is the man who +lived penuriously, died poor, and left no trace in the artistic annals +of his country! It has been said that Hobbema did not paint his own +figures, but transferred that duty to Adrian van de Velde, Lingelbach, +Barendt Gael, and Abraham Storck. As to this much is conjecture. + + The best of Hobbema's dated pictures are those of the years 1663 to + 1667. Of the former, several in the galleries of Brussels and St + Petersburg, and one in the Holford collection, are celebrated. Of 1665 + fine specimens are at Grosvenor House and the Wallace collection. Of + seven pieces in the National Gallery, including the "Avenue at + Middelharnis," which some assign to 1689, and the "Ruins of Breberode + Castle," two are dated 1667. A sample of the last of these years is + also in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge. Amongst the masterpieces + in private hands in England may be noticed two landscapes in + Buckingham Palace, two at Bridgewater House, and one belonging to Mr + Walter of Bearwood. On the continent are a "Wooded Landscape" in the + Berlin gallery, a "Forest" belonging to the duchess of Sagan in Paris, + and a "Glade" in the Louvre. There are other fine Hobbemas in the + Antwerp Museum, the Arenberg gallery at Brussels, and the Belvedere at + Vienna. (J. A. C.) + + + + +HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1679), English philosopher, second son of Thomas +Hobbes, was born at Westport (now part of Malmesbury, Wiltshire) on the +5th of April 1588. His father, vicar of Charlton and Westport, an +illiterate and choleric man, quarrelled, it is said, with a brother +clergyman at the church door, and was forced to decamp, leaving his +three children to the care of an elder brother Francis, a flourishing +glover at Malmesbury. Thomas Hobbes was put to school at Westport church +at the age of four, passed to the Malmesbury school at eight, and was +taught again in Westport later at a private school kept by a young man +named Robert Latimer, fresh from Oxford and "a good Grecian." He had +begun Latin and Greek early, and under Latimer made such progress as to +be able to translate the _Medea_ of Euripides into Latin iambic verse +before he was fourteen. About the age of fifteen he was sent to Oxford +and entered at Magdalen Hall. During his residence, the first principal +of Magdalen Hall, John Hussee, was succeeded by John Wilkinson, who +ruled in the interest of the Calvinistic party in the university. Thus +early was he brought into contact with the aggressive Puritan spirit. +Apart from this, Hobbes owed little to his university training, which +was based on the scholastic logic then prevalent. We have from himself a +lively record of his student life (_Vit. carm. exp._ p. lxxxv.), which, +though penned in extreme old age, may be taken as trustworthy. He tells +how, when he had slowly taken in the doctrine of logical figures and +moods, he put it aside and would prove things only in his own way; how +he then heard about bodies as consisting of matter and form, as throwing +off species of themselves for perception, and as moved by sympathies and +antipathies, with much else of a like sort, all beyond his +comprehension; and how he therefore turned to his old books again, fed +his mind on maps and charts of earth and sky, traced the sun in his +path, followed Drake and Cavendish girdling the main, and gazed with +delight upon pictured haunts of men and wonders of unknown lands. Very +characteristic is the interest in men and things, and the disposition to +cut through questions in the schools after a trenchant fashion of his +own. He was little attracted by the scholastic learning, though it would +be wrong to take his words as evidence of a precocious insight into its +weakness. The truth probably is that he took no interest in studies +which there was no risk in neglecting, and thought as little of +rejecting as of accepting the traditional doctrines. He adds that he +took his degree at the proper time; but in fact, upon any computation +and from whatever cause, he remained at Magdalen Hall five, instead of +the required four, years, not being admitted as bachelor till the 5th of +February 1608. + + + Translation of Thucydides. + +In the same year Hobbes was recommended by Wilkinson as tutor to the son +of William Cavendish, baron of Hardwick (afterwards 2nd earl of +Devonshire), and thus began a lifelong connexion with a great and +powerful family. Twice it was loosened--once, for a short time, after +twenty years, and again, for a longer period, during the Civil War--but +it never was broken. Hobbes spoke of the first years of his tutorship as +the happiest of his life. Young Cavendish was hardly younger than +Hobbes, and had been married, a few months before, at the instance of +the king, to Christiana, the only daughter of Edward, Lord Bruce of +Kinloss, though by reason of the bride's age, which was only twelve +years, the pair had no establishment for some time. Hobbes was his +companion rather than tutor (before becoming secretary); and, growing +greatly attached to each other, they were sent abroad together on the +grand tour in 1610. During this journey, the duration of which cannot be +precisely stated, Hobbes acquired some knowledge of French and Italian, +and also made the important discovery that the scholastic philosophy +which he had learned in Oxford was almost universally neglected in +favour of the scientific and critical methods of Galileo, Kepler and +Montaigne. Unable at first to cope with their unfamiliar ideas, he +determined to become a scholar, and until 1628 was engaged in a careful +study of Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was his great +translation of Thucydides. But when he had finished his work he kept it +lying by him for years, being no longer so sure of finding appreciative +readers; and when he did send it forth, in 1628, he was fain to be +content with "the few and better sort."[1] That he was finally +determined to publication by the political troubles of the year 1628 may +be regarded as certain, not only from his own express declaration at a +later time (_Vit. carm. exp._), but also from unmistakable hints in the +account of the life and work of his author prefixed to the translation +on its appearance. This was the year of the Petition of Right, extorted +from the king in the third parliament he had tried within three years of +his accession; and, in view of Hobbes's later activity, it is +significant that he came forward just then, at the mature age of forty, +with his version of the story of the Athenian democracy as the first +production of his pen. Nothing else is known of his doings before 1628, +except that through his connexion with young Cavendish he had relations +with literary men of note like Ben Jonson, and also with Bacon and Lord +Herbert of Cherbury. If he never had any sympathy with Herbert's +intuitionalist principles in philosophy, he was no less eager, as he +afterwards showed, than Herbert to rationalize in matters of religious +doctrine, so that he may be called the second of the English deists, as +Herbert has been called the first. With Bacon he was so intimate +(Aubrey's _Lives_, pp. 222, 602) that some writers have described him as +a disciple. The facts that he used to walk with Bacon at Gorhambury, and +would jot down with exceptional intelligence the eager thinker's sudden +"notions," and that he was employed to make the Latin version of some of +the _Essays_, prove nothing when weighed against his own disregard of +all Bacon's principles, and the other evidence that the impulse to +independent thinking came to him not from Bacon, and not till some time +after Bacon's death in 1626.[2] + + + Philosophic Inquiry. + +So far as we have any positive evidence, it was not before the year 1629 +that Hobbes entered on philosophical inquiry. Meanwhile a great change +had been wrought in his circumstances. His friend and master, after +about two years' tenure of the earldom of Devonshire, died of the plague +in June 1628, and the affairs of the family were so disordered +financially that the widowed countess was left with the task of righting +them in the boyhood of the third earl. Hobbes went on for a time living +in the household; but his services were no longer in demand, and, +remaining inconsolable under his personal bereavement, he sought +distraction, in 1629, in another engagement which took him abroad as +tutor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, of an old Nottinghamshire +family. This, his second, sojourn abroad appears to have been spent +chiefly in Paris, and the one important fact recorded of it is that he +then first began to look into Euclid. The engagement came to an end in +1631, when he was recalled to train the young earl of Devonshire, now +thirteen years old, son of his previous pupil. In the course of the next +seven years in Derbyshire and abroad, Hobbes took his pupil over +rhetoric,[3] logic, astronomy, and the principles of law, with other +subjects. His mind was now full of the thought of motion in nature, and +on the continent he sought out the philosophical speculators or +scientific workers. In Florence in 1636 he saw Galileo, for whom he ever +retained the warmest admiration, and spent eight months in daily +converse with the members of a scientific circle in Paris, held together +by Marin Mersenne (q.v.). From that time (the winter of 1636-1637) he +too, as he tells us, was numbered among philosophers. + + His introduction to Euclid took place accidentally in 1629 (Aubrey's + _Lives_, p. 604). Euclid's manner of proof became the model for his + own way of thinking upon all subjects. It is less easy to determine + when he awoke to an interest in the physical doctrine of motion. The + story told by himself (_Vit._ p. xx.) is that, hearing the question + asked "What is sense?" he fell to thinking often on the subject, till + it suddenly occurred to him that if bodies and their internal parts + were at rest, or were always in the same state of motion, there could + be no distinction of anything, and consequently no sense; the cause of + all things must therefore be sought in diversity of movements. + Starting from this principle he was driven to geometry for insight + into the ground and modes of motion. The biographies we possess do not + tell us where or when this great change of interest occurred. Nothing + is said, however, which contradicts a statement that on his third + journey in Europe he began to study the doctrine of motion more + seriously, being interested in it before; and as he claims more than + once (_L.W._ v. 303; _E.W._ vii. 468) to have explained light and + sound by a mechanical hypothesis as far back as 1630, the inspiration + may be assigned to the time of the second journey. But it was not till + the third journey that the new interest became an overpowering + passion, and the "philosopher" was on his way home before he had + advanced so far as to conceive the scheme of a system of thought to + the elaboration of which his life should henceforth be devoted. + + Hobbes was able to carry out his plan in some twenty years or more + from the time of its conception, but the execution was so broken in + upon by political events, and so complicated with other labours, that + its stages can hardly be followed without some previous understanding + of the relations of the parts of the scheme, as there is reason to + believe they were sketched out from the beginning. His scheme was + first to work out, in a separate treatise _De corpore_, a systematic + doctrine of Body, showing how physical phenomena were universally + explicable in terms of motion, as motion or mechanical action was then + (through Galileo and others) understood--the theory of motion being + applied in the light of mathematical science, after quantity, the + subject-matter of mathematics, had been duly considered in its place + among the fundamental conceptions of philosophy, and a clear + indication had been given, at first starting, of the logical ground + and method of all philosophical inquiry. He would then single out Man + from the realm of nature, and, in a treatise _De homine_, show what + specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the + peculiar phenomena of sensation and knowledge, as also of the + affections and passions thence resulting, whereby man came into + relation with man. Finally he would consider, in a crowning treatise + _De cive_, how men, being naturally rivals or foes, were moved to + enter into the better relation of Society, and demonstrate how this + grand product of human wit must be regulated if men were not to fall + back into brutishness and misery. Thus he proposed to unite in one + coherent whole the separate phenomena of Body, Man and the State. + +Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country seething with discontent. The +reign of "Thorough" was collapsing, and the forces pent up since 1629 +were soon to rend the fabric of the state. By these events Hobbes was +distracted from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. The Short +Parliament, as he tells us at a later time (_E.W._ iv. 414), was not +dissolved before he had ready "a little treatise in English," in which +he sought to prove that the points of the royal prerogative which the +members were determined to dispute before granting supplies "were +inseparably annexed to the sovereignty which they did not then deny to +be in the king." Now it can be proved that at this time he had written +not only his _Human Nature_ but also his _De corpore politico_, the two +treatises (though published separately ten years later) having been +composed as parts of one work;[4] and there cannot be the least question +that together they make "the little treatise" just mentioned. We are +therefore to understand, first, that he wrote the earliest draft of his +political theory some years before the outbreak of the Civil War, and, +secondly, that this earliest draft was not written till, in accordance +with his philosophical conception, he had established the grounds of +polity in human nature. The first point is to be noted, because it has +often been supposed that Hobbes's political doctrine took its peculiar +complexion from his revulsion against the state of anarchy before his +eyes, as he wrote during the progress of the Civil War. The second point +must be maintained against his own implied, if not express, statement +some years later, when publishing his _De cive_ (_L.W._ ii. 151), that +he wrote this third part of his system before he had been able to set +down any finished representation of the fundamental doctrines which it +presupposed. In the beginning of 1640, therefore, he had written out his +doctrine of Man at least, with almost as much elaboration as it ever +received from him. + + + In Paris. + +In November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded to the Short, and sent +Laud and Strafford to the Tower, and Hobbes, who had become, or thought +he had become, a marked man by the circulation of his treatise (of +which, "though not printed, many gentlemen had copies"), hastened to +Paris, "the first of all that fled." He was now for the fourth and last +time abroad, and did not return for eleven years. Apparently he remained +the greater part of the time in or about Paris. He was welcomed back +into the scientific coterie about Mersenne, and forthwith had the task +assigned him of criticizing the _Meditations_ of Descartes, which had +been sent from Holland, before publication, to Mersenne with the +author's request for criticism from the most different points of view. +Hobbes was soon ready with the remarks that were printed as "Third" +among the six (later seven) sets of "Objections" appended, with +"Replies" from Descartes, to the _Meditations_, when published shortly +afterwards in 1641 (reprinted in _L.W._ v. 249-274). About the same time +also Mersenne sent to Descartes, as if they came from a friend in +England, another set of objections which Hobbes had to offer on various +points in the scientific treatises, especially the _Dioptrics_, appended +by Descartes to his _Discourse on Method_ in 1637; to which Descartes +replied without suspecting the common authorship of the two sets. The +result was to keep the two thinkers apart rather than bring them +together. Hobbes was more eager to bring forward his own philosophical +and physical ideas than careful to enter into the full meaning of +another's thought; and Descartes was too jealous, and too confident in +his conclusions to bear with this kind of criticism. He was very curt in +his replies to Hobbes's philosophical objections, and broke off all +correspondence on the physical questions, writing privately to Mersenne +that he had grave doubts of the Englishman's good faith in drawing him +into controversy (_L.W._ v. 277-307). + +Meanwhile Hobbes had his thoughts too full of the political theory which +the events of the last years had ripened within him to settle, even in +Paris, to the orderly composition of his works. Though connected in his +own mind with his view of human nature and of nature generally, the +political theory, as he always declared, could stand by itself. Also, +while he may have hoped at this time to be able to add much (though he +never did) to the sketch of his doctrine of Man contained in the +unpublished "little treatise," he might extend, but could hardly +otherwise modify, the sketch he had there given of his carefully +articulated theory of Body Politic. Possibly, indeed, before that sketch +was written early in 1640, he may, under pressure of the political +excitement, have advanced no small way in the actual composition of the +treatise _De Cive_, the third section of his projected system. In any +case, it was upon this section, before the others, that he set to work +in Paris; and before the end of 1641 the book, as we know from the date +of the dedication (November 1), was finished. Though it was forthwith +printed in the course of the year 1642, he was content to circulate a +limited number of copies privately[5]; and when he found his work +received with applause (it was praised even by Descartes), he seems to +have taken this recognition of his philosophical achievement as an +additional reason for deferring publication till the earlier works of +the system were completed. Accordingly, for the next three or four +years, he remained steadily at work, and nothing appeared from him in +public except a short treatise on optics (_Tractatus opticus, L.W._ v. +217-248) included in the collection of scientific tracts published by +Mersenne under the title _Cogitata physico-mathematica_ in 1644, and a +highly compressed statement of his psychological application of the +doctrine of motion (_L.W._ v. 309-318), incorporated with Mersenne's +_Ballistica_, published in the same year. Thus or otherwise he had +become sufficiently known by 1645 to be chosen as a referee, with +Descartes, Roberval and others, in the famous controversy between John +Pell (q.v.) and the Dane Longomontanus (q.v.) over that problem of the +squaring of the circle which was seen later on to have such a fatal +charm for himself. But though about this time he had got ready all or +most of the materials for his fundamental work on Body, not even now was +he able to make way with its composition, and when he returned to it +after a number of years, he returned a different man. + + + Leviathan. + +The Civil War had broken out in 1642, and the royalist cause began to +decline from the time of the defeat at Marston Moor, in the middle of +1644. Then commenced an exodus of the king's friends. Newcastle himself, +who was a cousin of Hobbes's late patron and to whom he dedicated the +"little treatise" of 1640, found his way to Paris, and was followed by a +stream of fugitives, many of whom were known to Hobbes. The sight of +these exiles made the political interest once more predominant in +Hobbes, and before long the revived feeling issued in the formation of a +new and important design. It first showed itself in the publication of +the _De cive_, of which the fame, but only the fame, had extended beyond +the inner circle of friends and critics who had copies of the original +impression. Hobbes now entrusted it, early in 1646, to his admirer, the +Frenchman Samuel de Sorbiere, by whom it was seen through the Elzevir +press at Amsterdam in 1647--having previously inserted a number of notes +in reply to objections, and also a striking preface, in the course of +which he explained its relation to the other parts of the system not yet +forthcoming, and the (political) occasion of its having been composed +and being now published before them.[6] So hopeless, meanwhile, was he +growing of being able to return home that, later on in the year, he was +on the point of leaving Paris to take up his abode in the south with a +French friend,[7] when he was engaged "by the month" as mathematical +instructor to the young prince of Wales, who had come over from Jersey +about the month of July. This engagement lasted nominally from 1646 to +1648 when Charles went to Holland. Thus thrown more than ever into the +company of the exiled royalists, it was then, if not earlier, that he +conceived his new design of bringing all his powers of thought and +expression to bear upon the production of an English book that should +set forth his whole theory of civil government in relation to the +political crisis resulting from the war. The _De cive_, presently to be +published, was written in Latin for the learned, and gave the political +theory without its foundation in human nature. The unpublished treatise +of 1640 contained all or nearly all that he had to tell concerning human +nature, but was written before the terrible events of the last years had +disclosed how men might still be urged by their anti-social passions +back into the abyss of anarchy. There was need of an exposition at once +comprehensive, incisive and popular. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, +might be regarded as a great artificial man or monster (_Leviathan_), +composed of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation +through human reason under pressure of human needs to its dissolution +through civil strife proceeding from human passions. This, we may +suppose, was the presiding conception from the first, but the design may +have been variously modified in the three or four years of its +execution. Before the end, in 1650-1651, it is plain that he wrote in +direct reference to the greatly changed aspect of affairs in England. +The king being dead, and the royalist cause appearing to be hopelessly +lost, he did not scruple, in closing the work with a general "Review and +Conclusion," to raise the question of the subject's right to change +allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect was irrecoverably +gone. Also he took advantage of the rule of the Commonwealth to indulge +much more freely than he might have otherwise dared in rationalistic +criticism of religious doctrines; while, amid the turmoil of sects, he +could the more forcibly urge that the preservation of social order, when +again firmly restored, must depend on the assumption by the civil power +of the right to wield all sanctions, supernatural as well as natural, +against the pretensions of any clergy, Catholic, Anglican or +Presbyterian, to the exercise of an _imperium in imperio_. + +We know the _Leviathan_ only as it finally emerged from Hobbes's pen. +During the years of its composition he remained in or near Paris, at +first in attendance on his royal pupil, with whom he became a great +favourite. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by a serious illness which +disabled him for six months. Mersenne begged him not to die outside the +Roman Catholic Church, but Hobbes said that he had already considered +the matter sufficiently and afterwards took the sacrament according to +the rites of the Church of England. On recovering from this illness, +which nearly proved fatal, he resumed his literary task, and carried it +steadily forward to completion by the year 1650, having also within the +same time translated into English, with characteristic force of +expression, his Latin treatise. Otherwise the only thing known (from one +or two letters) of his life in those years is that from the year 1648 he +had begun to think of returning home; he was then sixty and might well +be weary of exile. When 1650 came, as if to prepare the way for the +reception of his _magnum opus_, he allowed the publication of his +earliest treatise, divided into two separate small volumes (_Human +Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policy, E.W._ iv. 1-76, and _De +Corpore Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politic_, pp. +77-228).[8] In 1651[9] he published his translation of the De Cive under +the title of _Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society_ +(_E.W._ ii.). Meanwhile the printing of the greater work was proceeding, +and finally it appeared about the middle of the same year, 1651, under +the title of _Leviathan, or the Matter, Form and Power of a +Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil_ (_E.W._ iii.), with a quaint +frontispiece in which, from behind hills overlooking a fair landscape of +town and country, there towered the body (above the waist) of a crowned +giant, made up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and +crozier in the two hands. It appeared, and soon its author was more +lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time; but the first +effect of its publication was to sever his connexion with the exiled +royalist party, and to throw him for protection on the revolutionary +Government. No sooner did copies of the book reach Paris than he found +himself shunned by his former associates, and though he was himself so +little conscious of disloyalty that he was forward to present a +manuscript copy "engrossed in vellum in a marvellous fair hand"[10] to +the young king of the Scots (who, after the defeat at Worcester, escaped +to Paris about the end of October), he was denied the royal presence +when he sought it shortly afterwards. Straightway, then, he saw himself +exposed to a double peril. The exiles had among them desperadoes who +could slay; and, besides exciting the enmity of the Anglican clergy +about the king, who bitterly resented the secularist spirit of his book, +he had compromised himself with the French authorities by his elaborate +attack on the papal system. In the circumstances, no resource was left +him but secret flight. Travelling with what speed he could in the depths +of a severe winter and under the effects of a recent (second) illness, +he managed to reach London, where, sending in his submission to the +council of state, he was allowed to subside into private life. + + + Return to London. + + Controversy with Bramhall. + +Though Hobbes came back, after his eleven years' absence, without having +as yet publicly proved his title to rank with the natural philosophers +of the age, he was sufficiently conscious of what he had been able to +achieve in _Leviathan_; and it was in no humble mood that he now, at +the age of sixty-four, turned to complete the fundamental treatise of +his philosophical system. Neither those whom his masterpiece soon roused +to enthusiasm, nor those whom it moved to indignation, were likely to be +indifferent to anything he should now write, whether it lay near to or +far from the region of practice. Taking up his abode in Fetter Lane, +London, on his return, and continuing to reside there for the sake of +intellectual society, even after renewing his old ties with the earl of +Devonshire, who lived in the country till the Restoration,[11] he worked +so steadily as to be printing the _De corpore_ in the year 1654. +Circumstances (of which more presently), however, kept the book back +till the following year, and meanwhile the readers of _Leviathan_ had a +different excitement. In 1654 a small treatise, "Of Liberty and +Necessity" (_E.W._ iv. 229-278), issued from the press, claiming to be +an answer to a discourse on the same subject by Bishop Bramhall of +Londonderry (afterwards archbishop of Armagh, d. 1663), addressed by +Hobbes to the marquis of Newcastle.[12] It had grown out of an oral +discussion between Hobbes and Bramhall in the marquis's presence at +Paris in 1646. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had afterwards written down +his views and sent them to Newcastle to be answered in this form by +Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication, because he thought +the subject a delicate one. But it happened that Hobbes had allowed a +French acquaintance to have a private translation of his reply made by a +young Englishman, who secretly took a copy of the original for himself; +and now it was this unnamed purloiner who, in 1654, when Hobbes had +become famous and feared, gave it to the world of his own motion, with +an extravagantly laudatory epistle to the reader in its front. Upon +Hobbes himself the publication came as a surprise, but, after his plain +speaking in _Leviathan_, there was nothing in the piece that he need +scruple to have made known, and he seems to have condoned the act. On +the other hand, Bramhall, supposing Hobbes privy to the publication, +resented the manner of it, especially as no mention was made of his +rejoinder. Accordingly, in 1655, he printed everything that had passed +between them (under the title of _A Defence of the True Liberty of Human +Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity_), with loud complaint +against the treatment he had received, and the promise added that, in +default of others, he himself would stand forward to expose the deadly +principles of _Leviathan_. About this time Hobbes had begun to be hard +pressed by other foes, and, being never more sure of himself than upon +the question of the will, he appears to have welcomed the opportunity +thus given him of showing his strength. By 1656 he was ready with his +_Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance_ (_E.W._ v.), in +which he replied with astonishing force to the bishop's rejoinder point +by point, besides explaining the occasion and circumstances of the whole +debate, and reproducing (as Bramhall had done) all the pieces from the +beginning. As perhaps the first clear exposition and defence of the +_psychological_ doctrine of determinism, Hobbes's own two pieces must +ever retain a classical importance in the history of the free-will +controversy; while Bramhall's are still worth study as specimens of +scholastic fence. The bishop, it should be added, returned to the charge +in 1658 with ponderous _Castigations of Mr Hobbes's Animadversions_, and +also made good his previous threat in a bulky appendix entitled _The +Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale_. Hobbes never took any notice of +the _Castigations_, but ten years later replied to the charges of +atheism, &c., made in the non-political part of the appendix, of which +he says he then heard for the first time (_E.W._ iv. 279-384). This +_Answer_ was first published after Hobbes's death.[13] + + + Controversy with Wallis and Ward. + + We may now follow out the more troublesome conflict, or rather series + of conflicts, in which Hobbes became entangled from the time of + publishing his _De corpore_ in 1655, and which checkered all his + remaining years. In _Leviathan_ he had vehemently assailed the system + of the universities, as originally founded for the support of the + papal against the civil authority, and as still working social + mischief by adherence to the old learning. The attack was duly noted + at Oxford, where under the Commonwealth a new spirit of scientific + activity had begun to stir. In 1654 Seth Ward (1617-1689), the + Savilian professor of astronomy, replying in his _Vindiciae + academiarum_ to some other assaults (especially against John Webster's + _Examen of Academies_) on the academic system, retorted upon Hobbes + that, so far from the universities being now what he had known them in + his youth, he would find his geometrical pieces, when they appeared, + better understood there than he should like. This was said in + reference to the boasts in which Hobbes seems to have been freely + indulging of having squared the circle and accomplished other such + feats; and, when a year later the _De corpore_ (_L.W._ i.) finally + appeared, it was seen how the thrust had gone home. In the chapter + (xx.) of that work where Hobbes dealt with the famous problem whose + solution he thought he had found, there were left expressions against + Vindex (Ward) at a time when the solutions still seemed to him good; + but the solutions themselves, as printed, were allowed to be all in + different ways halting, as he naively confessed he had discovered only + when he had been driven by the insults of malevolent men to examine + them more closely with the help of his friends. A strange conclusion + this, and reached by a path not less strange, as was now to be + disclosed by a relentless hand. Ward's colleague, the more famous John + Wallis (q.v.), Savilian professor of geometry from 1649, had been + privy to the challenge thrown out in 1654, and it was arranged that + they should critically dispose of the _De corpore_ between them. Ward + was to occupy himself with the philosophical and physical sections, + which he did in leisurely fashion, bringing out his criticism in the + course of next year (_In Th. Hobbii philosophiam exercitatio + epistolica_). Wallis was to confine himself to the mathematical + chapters, and set to work at once with characteristic energy. + Obtaining an unbound copy of the _De corpore_, he saw by the mutilated + appearance of the sheets that Hobbes had repeatedly altered his + demonstrations before he issued them at last in their actual form, + grotesque as it was, rather than delay the book longer. Obtaining also + a copy of the work as it had been printed before Hobbes had any doubt + of the validity of his solutions, Wallis was able to track his whole + course from the time of Ward's provocation--his passage from + exultation to doubt, from doubt to confessed impotence, yet still + without abandoning the old assumption of confident strength; and all + his turnings and windings were now laid bare in one of the most + trenchant pieces of controversial writing ever penned. Wallis's + _Elenchus geometriae Hobbianae_, published in 1655 about three months + after the _De corpore_, contained also an elaborate criticism of + Hobbes's whole attempt to relay the foundations of mathematical + science in its place within the general body of reasoned knowledge--a + criticism which, if it failed to allow for the merit of the + conception, exposed only too effectually the utter inadequacy of the + result. Taking up mathematics when not only his mind was already + formed but his thoughts were crystallizing into a philosophical + system, Hobbes had, in fact, never put himself to school and sought to + work up gradually to the best knowledge of the time, but had been more + anxious from the first to become himself an innovator with whatever + insufficient means. The consequence was that, when not spending + himself in vain attempts to solve the impossible problems that have + always waylaid the fancy of self-sufficient beginners, he took an + interest only in the elements of geometry, and never had any notion of + the full scope of mathematical science, undergoing as it then was (and + not least at the hands of Wallis) the extraordinary development which + made it before the end of the century the potent instrument of + physical discovery which it became in the hands of Newton. He was even + unable, in dealing with the elementary conceptions of geometry, to + work out with any consistency the few original thoughts he had, and + thus became the easy sport of Wallis. At his advanced age, however, + and with the sense he had of his powers, he was not likely to be + brought to a better mind by so insulting an opponent. He did indeed, + before allowing an English translation of the _De corpore_ (_E.W._ + i.) to appear in 1656, take care to remove some of the worst mistakes + exposed by Wallis, and, while leaving out all the references to + Vindex, now profess to make, in altered form, a series of mere + "attempts" at quadrature; but he was far from yielding the ground to + the enemy. With the translation,[14] in the spring of 1656, he had + ready _Six Lessons to the Professors of Mathematics, one of Geometry, + the other of Astronomy, in the University of Oxford_ (_E.W._ vii. + 181-356), in which, after reasserting his view of the principles of + geometry in opposition to Euclid's, he proceeded to repel Wallis's + objections with no lack of dialectical skill, and with an unreserve + equal to Wallis's own. He did not scruple, in the ardour of conflict, + even to maintain positions that he had resigned in the translation, + and he was not afraid to assume the offensive by a counter criticism + of three of Wallis's works then published. When he had thus disposed + of the "Paralogisms" of his more formidable antagonist in the first + five lessons, he ended with a lesson on "Manners" to the two + professors together, and set himself gravely at the close to show that + he too could be abusive. In this particular part of his task, it must + be allowed, he succeeded very well; his criticism of Wallis's works, + especially the great treatise _Arithmetica infinitorum_ (1655), only + showed how little able he was to enter into the meaning of the modern + analysis. Wallis, on his side, was not less ready to keep up the game + in English than he had been to begin it in Latin. Swift as before to + strike, in three months' time he had deftly turned his own word + against the would-be master by administering _Due Correction for Mr + Hobbes, or School Discipline for not saying his Lessons right_, in a + piece that differed from the _Elenchus_ only in being more biting and + unrestrained. Having an easy task in defending himself against + Hobbes's trivial criticism, he seized the opportunity given him by the + English translation of the _De corpore_ to track Hobbes again step by + step over the whole course, and now to confront him with his + incredible inconsistencies multiplied by every new utterance. But it + was no longer a fight over mathematical questions only. Wallis having + been betrayed originally by his fatal cleverness into the pettiest + carping at words, Hobbes had retorted in kind, and then it became a + high duty in the other to defend his Latin with great parade of + learning and give fresh provocation. One of Wallis's rough sallies in + this kind suggested to Hobbes the title of the next rejoinder with + which, in 1657, he sought to close the unseemly wrangle. Arguing in + the _Lessons_ that a mathematical point must have quantity, though + this were not reckoned, he had explained the Greek word [Greek: + stigme], used for a point, to mean a visible mark made with a hot + iron; whereupon he was charged by Wallis with gross ignorance for + confounding [Greek: stigme] and [Greek: stigma]. Hence the title of + his new piece: [Greek: Stigmai ageometrias, agroikias, antipoliteias, + amatheias], or _Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language, Scottish + Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John Wallis, Professor of Geometry + and Doctor of Divinity_ (_E.W._ vii. 357-400). He now attacked more in + detail but not more happily than before Wallis's great work, while + hardly attempting any further defence of his own positions; also he + repelled with some force and dignity the insults that had been heaped + upon him, and fought the verbal points, but could not leave the field + without making political insinuations against his adversary, quite + irrelevant in themselves and only noteworthy as evidence of his own + resignation to Cromwell's rule. The thrusts were easily and nimbly + parried by Wallis in a reply (_Hobbiani puncti dispunctio_, 1657) + occupied mainly with the verbal questions. Irritating as it was, it + did not avail to shake Hobbes's determination to remain silent; and + thus at last there was peace for a time. + + Before the strife flamed up again, Hobbes had published, in 1658, the + outstanding section of his philosophical system, and thus completed, + after a fashion, the scheme he had planned more than twenty years + before. So far as the treatise _De homine_ (_L.W._ ii. 11-32) was + concerned, the completion was more in name than in fact. It consisted + for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision which, though very + creditable to Hobbes's scientific insight, was out of place, or at + least out of proportion, in a philosophical consideration of human + nature generally. The remainder of the treatise, dealing cursorily + with some of the topics more fully treated in the _Human Nature_ and + the _Leviathan_, has all the appearance of having been tagged in haste + to the optical chapters (composed years before)[15] as a makeshift + for the proper transition required in the system from questions of + Body Natural to questions of Body Politic. Hobbes had in fact spent + himself in his earlier constructive efforts, and at the age of + seventy, having nothing to add to his doctrine of Man as it was + already in one form or another before the world, was content with + anything that might stand for the fulfilment of his philosophical + purpose. But he had still in him more than twenty years of vigorous + vitality, and, not conscious to himself of any shortcoming, looked + forward, now his hands were free, to doing battle for his doctrines. + Rather than remain quiet, on finding no notice taken of his latest + production, he would himself force on a new conflict with the enemy. + Wallis having meanwhile published other works and especially a + comprehensive treatise on the general principles of calculus + (_Mathesis universalis_, 1657), he might take this occasion of + exposing afresh the new-fangled methods of mathematical analysis and + reasserting his own earlier positions. Accordingly, by the spring of + 1660, he had managed to put his criticism and assertions into five + dialogues under the title _Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae + hodiernae qualis explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii_, with a sixth + dialogue so called, consisting almost entirely of seventy or more + propositions on the circle and cycloid.[16] Wallis, however, would not + take the bait. Hobbes then tried another tack. Next year, having + solved, as he thought, another ancient _crux_, the duplication of the + cube, he had his solution brought out anonymously at Paris in French, + so as to put Wallis and other critics off the scent and extort a + judgment that might be withheld from a work of his. The artifice was + successful, and no sooner had Wallis publicly refuted the solution + than Hobbes claimed the credit of it, and went more wonderfully than + ever astray in its defence. He presently republished it (in modified + form), with his remarks, at the end of a new Latin dialogue which he + had meanwhile written in defence of another part of his philosophical + doctrine. This was the _Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris_ + (_L.W._ iv. 233-296), fulminated in 1661 against Boyle and other + friends of Wallis who, as he fancied, under the influence of that + malevolent spirit, were now in London, after the Restoration, forming + themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in 1662) + for experimental research, to the exclusion of himself personally, and + in direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry enjoined in + the _De corpore_.[17] All the laborious manipulation recorded in + Boyle's _New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air_ (1660), which + Hobbes chose, without the least warrant, to take as the manifesto of + the new "academicians," seemed to him only to confirm the conclusions + he had reasoned out years before from speculative principles, and he + warned them that if they were not content to begin where he had left + off their work would come to nought. To as much of this diatribe as + concerned himself Boyle quickly replied with force and dignity, but it + was from Hobbes's old enemy that retribution came, in the scathing + satire _Hobbius heauton-timorumenos_ (1662). Wallis, who had deftly + steered his course amid all the political changes of the previous + years, managing ever to be on the side of the ruling power, was now + apparently stung to fury by a wanton allusion in Hobbes's latest + dialogue to a passage of his former life (his deciphering for the + parliament the king's papers taken at Naseby), whereof he had once + boasted but after the Restoration could not speak or hear too little. + The revenge he took was crushing. Professing to be roused by the + attack on his friend Boyle, when he had scorned to lift a finger in + defence of himself against the earlier dialogues, he tore them all to + shreds with an art of which no general description can give an idea. + He got, however, upon more dangerous ground when, passing wholly by + the political insinuation against himself, he roundly charged Hobbes + with having written _Leviathan_ in support of Oliver's title, and + deserted his royal master in distress. Hobbes seems to have been + fairly bewildered by the rush and whirl of sarcasm with which Wallis + drove him anew from every mathematical position he had ever taken up, + and did not venture forth into the field of scientific controversy + again for some years, when he had once followed up the physical + dialogue of 1661 by seven shorter ones, with the inevitable appendix, + entitled _Problemata physica, una cum magnitudine circuli_ (_L.W._ iv. + 297-384), in 1662.[18] But all the more eagerly did he take advantage + of Wallis's loose calumny to strike where he felt himself safe. His + answer to the personal charges took the form of a letter about himself + in the third person addressed to Wallis in 1662, under the title of + _Considerations upon the Reputation, Loyalty, Manners and Religion of + Thomas Hobbes_ (_E.W._ iv. 409-440). In this piece, which is of great + biographical value, he told his own and Wallis's "little stories + during the time of the late rebellion" with such effect that Wallis, + like a wise man, attempted no further reply. Thus ended the second + bout. + + After a time Hobbes took heart again and began a third period of + controversial activity, which did not end, on his side, till his + ninetieth year. Little need be added to the simple catalogue of the + untiring old man's labours in this last stage of his life. The first + piece, published in 1666, _De principiis et ratiocinatione + geometrarum_ (_L.W._ iv. 385-484), was designed, as the sub-title + declared, to lower the pride of geometrical professors by showing that + there was no less uncertainty and error in their works than in those + of physical or ethical writers. Wallis replied shortly in the + _Philosophical Transactions_ (August 1666). Three years later he + brought his three great achievements together in compendious form, + _Quadratura circuli, Cubatio sphaerae, Duplicatio cubi_, and as soon + as they were once more refuted by Wallis, reprinted them with an + answer to the objections, in compliment to the grand-duke of Tuscany, + who paid him attentions on a visit to England in 1669 (_L.W._ iv. + 485-522). Wallis, who had promised to leave him alone henceforward, + refuted him again before the year was out. In 1671 he worked up his + propositions over again in _Rosetum geometricum_ (_L.W._ v. 1-50), as + a fragrant offering to the geometrical reader, appending a criticism + (_Censura brevis_, pp. 50-88) on the first part of Wallis's treatise + _De motu_, published in 1669; also he sent _Three Papers_ to the Royal + Society on selected points treated very briefly, and when Wallis, + still not weary of confuting, shortly replied, published them + separately with triumphant _Considerations on Dr Wallis's Answer to + them_ (_E.W._ vii. 429-448). Next year (1672), having now, as he + believed, established himself with the Royal Society, he proceeded to + complete the discomfiture of Wallis by a public address to the Society + on all the points at issue between them from the beginning, _Lux + Mathematica excussa collisionibus Johannis Wallisii et Thomae + Hobbesii_ (_L.W._ v. 89-150), the light, as the author R. R. (Roseti + Repertor) added, being here "increased by many very brilliant rays." + Wallis replied in the _Transactions_, and then finally held his hand. + Hobbes's energy was not yet exhausted. In 1674, at the age of + eighty-six, he published his _Principia et problemata aliquot + geometrica, ante desperata nunc breviter explicata et demonstrata_ + (_L.W._ v. 150-214), containing in the chapters dealing with questions + of principle not a few striking observations, which ought not to be + overlooked in the study of his philosophy. His last piece of all, + _Decameron physiologicum_ (_E.W._ vii. 69-180), in 1678, was a new set + of dialogues on physical questions, most of which he had treated in a + similar fashion before; but now, in dealing with gravitation, he was + able to fire a parting shot at Wallis; and one more demonstration of + the equality of a straight line to the arc of a circle, thrown in at + the end, appropriately closed the strangest warfare in which perverse + thinker ever engaged.[19] + + + Later Years. + +We must now turn back to trace the fortunes of Hobbes and his other +doings in the last twenty years of his life. All these controversial +writings on mathematics and physics represent but one half of his +activity after the age of seventy; though, as regards the other half, it +is not possible, for a reason that will be seen, to say as definitely in +what order the works belonging to the period were produced. From the +time of the Restoration he acquired a new prominence in the public eye. +No year had passed since the appearance of _Leviathan_ without some +indignant protest against the influence which its trenchant doctrine was +calculated to produce upon minds longing above everything for civil +repose; but after the Restoration "Hobbism" became a fashionable creed, +which it was the duty of every lover of true morality and religion to +denounce. Two or three days after Charles's arrival in London, Hobbes +drew in the street the notice of his former pupil, and was at once +received into favour. The young king, if he had ever himself resented +the apparent disloyalty of the "Conclusion" of _Leviathan_, had not +retained the feeling long, and could appreciate the principles of the +great book when the application of them happened, as now, to be turned +in his own favour. He had, besides, a relish for Hobbes's wit (as he +used to say, "Here comes the bear to be baited"), and did not like the +old man the less because his presence at court scandalized the bishops +or the prim virtue of Chancellor Hyde. He even went the length of +bestowing on Hobbes (but not always paying) a pension of L100, and had +his portrait hung up in the royal closet. These marks of favour, +naturally, did not lessen Hobbes's self-esteem, and perhaps they +explain, in his later writings, a certain slavishness toward the regal +authority, which is wholly absent from his rational demonstration of +absolutism in the earlier works. At all events Hobbes was satisfied with +the rule of a king who had appreciated the author of _Leviathan_, and +protected him when, after a time, protection in a very real sense became +necessary. His eagerness to defend himself against Wallis's imputation +of disloyalty, and his apologetic dedication of the _Problemata physica_ +to the king, are evidence of the hostility with which he was being +pressed as early as 1662; but it was not till 1666 that he felt himself +seriously in danger. In that year the Great Fire of London, following on +the Great Plague, roused the superstitious fears of the people, and the +House of Commons embodied the general feeling in a bill against atheism +and profaneness. On the 17th of October it was ordered that the +committee to which the bill was referred "should be empowered to receive +information touching such books as tend to atheism, blasphemy and +profaneness, or against the essence and attributes of God, and in +particular the book published in the name of one White,[20] and the book +of Mr Hobbes called the _Leviathan_, and to report the matter with their +opinion to the House." Hobbes, then verging upon eighty, was terrified +at the prospect of being treated as a heretic, and proceeded to burn +such of his papers as he thought might compromise him. At the same time +he set himself, with a very characteristic determination, to inquire +into the actual state of the law of heresy. The results of his +investigation were first announced in three short Dialogues added (in +place of the old "Review and Conclusion," for which the day had passed) +as an Appendix to his Latin translation of _Leviathan_ (_L.W._ iii.), +included with the general collection of his works published at Amsterdam +in 1668. In this appendix, as also in the posthumous tract, published in +1680, _An Historical Narration concerning Heresy and the Punishment +thereof_ (_E.W._ iv. 385-408), he aimed at showing that, since the High +Court of Commission had been put down, there remained no court of heresy +at all to which he was amenable, and that even when it stood nothing was +to be declared heresy but what was at variance with the Nicene Creed, as +he maintained the doctrine of _Leviathan_ was not. + +The only consequence that came of the parliamentary scare was that +Hobbes could never afterwards get permission to print anything on +subjects relating to human conduct. The collected edition of his Latin +works (in two quarto volumes) appeared at Amsterdam in 1668, because he +could not obtain the censor's licence for its publication at London, +Oxford or Cambridge. Other writings which he had finished, or on which +he must have been engaged about this time, were not made public till +after his death--the king apparently having made it the price of his +protection that no fresh provocation should be offered to the popular +sentiment. The most important of the works composed towards 1670, and +thus kept back, is the extremely spirited dialogue to which he gave the +title _Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England +and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the +year 1640 to the year 1660_.[21] To the same period probably belongs the +unfinished _Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common +Laws of England_ (_E.W._ vi. 1-160), a trenchant criticism of the +constitutional theory of English government as upheld by Coke. Aubrey +takes credit for having tried to induce Hobbes to write upon the subject +in 1664 by presenting him with a copy of Bacon's _Elements of the Laws +of England_, and though the attempt was then unsuccessful, Hobbes later +on took to studying the statute-book, with _Coke upon Littleton_. One +other posthumous production also (besides the tract on Heresy before +mentioned) may be referred to this, if not, as Aubrey suggests, an +earlier time--the two thousand and odd elegiac verses in which he gave +his view of ecclesiastical encroachment on the civil power; the quaint +verses, disposed in his now favourite dialogue-form, were first +published, nine years after his death, under the title _Historia +ecclesiastica_ (_L.W._ v. 341-408), with a preface by Thomas Rymer. + +For some time Hobbes was not even allowed to utter a word of protest, +whatever might be the occasion that his enemies took to triumph over +him. In 1669 an unworthy follower--Daniel Scargil by name, a fellow of +Corpus Christi College, Cambridge--had to recant publicly and confess +that his evil life had been the result of Hobbist doctrines. In 1674 +John Fell, the dean of Christ Church, who bore the charges of the Latin +translation of Anthony Wood's _History and Antiquities of the University +of Oxford_ (1670), struck out all the complimentary epithets in the +account of his life, and substituted very different ones; but this time +the king did suffer him to defend himself by publishing a dignified +letter (_Vit. Auct._ pp. xlvii.-l.), to which Fell replied by adding to +the translation when it appeared a note full of the grossest insults. +And, amid all his troubles, Hobbes was not without his consolations. No +Englishman of that day stood in the same repute abroad, and foreigners, +noble or learned, who came to England, never forgot to pay their +respects to the old man, whose vigour and freshness of intellect no +progress of the years seemed able to quench. Among these was the +grand-duke of Tuscany (Ferdinand II.), who took away some works and a +portrait to adorn the Medicean library. + +His pastimes in the latest years were as singular as his labours. The +autobiography in Latin verse, with its playful humour, occasional pathos +and sublime self-complacency, was thrown off at the age of eighty-four. +At eighty-five, in the year 1673, he sent forth a translation of four +books of the _Odyssey_ (ix.-xii.) in rugged but not seldom happily +turned English rhymes; and, when he found this _Voyage of Ulysses_ +eagerly received, he had ready by 1675 a complete translation of both +_Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ (_E.W._ x.), prefaced by a lively dissertation +"Concerning the Virtues of an Heroic Poem," showing his unabated +interest in questions of literary style. After 1675, he passed his time +at his patron's seats in Derbyshire, occupied to the last with +intellectual work in the early morning and in the afternoon hours, which +it had long been his habit to devote to thinking and to writing. Even as +late as August 1679 he was promising his publisher "somewhat to print in +English." The end came very soon afterwards. A suppression of urine in +October, in spite of which he insisted upon being conveyed with the +family from Chatsworth to Hardwick Hall towards the end of November, was +followed by a paralytic stroke, under which he sank on the 4th of +December, in his ninety-second year. He lies buried in the neighbouring +church of Ault Hucknall. + + + Personal characteristics. + +He was tall and erect in figure, and lived on the whole a temperate +life, though he used to say that he had been drunk about a hundred +times. His favourite exercise was tennis, which he played regularly even +after the age of seventy. Socially he was genial and courteous, though +in argument he occasionally lost his temper. As a friend he was generous +and loyal. Intellectually bold in the extreme, he was curiously timid in +ordinary life, and is said to have had a horror of ghosts. He read +little, and often boasted that he would have known as little as other +men if he had read as much. He appears to have had an illegitimate +daughter for whom he made generous provision. In the National Portrait +Gallery there is a portrait of him by J. M. Wright, and two others are +in the possession of the Royal Society. + + + Place in English thought. + +As already suggested, it cannot be allowed that Hobbes falls into any +regular succession from Bacon; neither can it be said that he handed on +the torch to Locke. He was the one English thinker of the first rank in +the long period of two generations separating Locke from Bacon, but, +save in the chronological sense, there is no true relation of succession +among the three. It would be difficult even to prove any ground of +affinity among them beyond a desposition to take sense as a prime factor +in the account of subjective experience: their common interest in +physical science was shared equally by rationalist thinkers of the +Cartesian school, and was indeed begotten of the time. Backwards, +Hobbes's relations are rather with Galileo and the other inquirers who, +from the beginning of the 17th century, occupied themselves with the +physical world in the manner that has come later to be distinguished by +the name of science in opposition to philosophy. But even more than in +external nature, Hobbes was interested in the phenomena of social life, +presenting themselves so impressively in an age of political revolution. +So it came to pass that, while he was unable, by reason of imperfect +training and too tardy development, with all his pains, to make any +contribution to physical science or to mathematics as instrumental in +physical research, he attempted a task which no other adherent of the +new "mechanical philosophy" conceived--nothing less than such a +universal construction of human knowledge as would bring Society and Man +(at once the matter and maker of Society) within the same principles of +scientific explanation as were found applicable to the world of Nature. +The construction was, of course, utterly premature, even supposing it +were inherently possible; but it is Hobbes's distinction, in his +century, to have conceived it, and he is thereby lifted from among the +scientific workers with whom he associated to the rank of those +philosophical thinkers who have sought to order the whole domain of +human knowledge. The effects of his philosophical endeavour may be +traced on a variety of lines. Upon every subject that came within the +sweep of his system, except mathematics and physics, his thoughts have +been productive of thought. When the first storm of opposition from +smaller men had begun to die down, thinkers of real weight, beginning +with Cumberland and Cudworth, were moved by their aversion to his +analysis of the moral nature of man to probe anew the question of the +natural springs and the rational grounds of human action; and thus it +may be said that Hobbes gave the first impulse to the whole of that +movement of ethical speculation that, in modern times, has been carried +on with such remarkable continuity in England. In politics the revulsion +from his particular conclusions did not prevent the more clear-sighted +of his opponents from recognizing the force of his supreme demonstration +of the practical irresponsibility of the sovereign power, wherever +seated, in the state; and, when in a later age the foundations of a +positive theory of legislation were laid in England, the school of +Bentham--James Mill, Grote, Molesworth--brought again into general +notice the writings of the great publicist of the 17th century, who, +however he might, by the force of temperament, himself prefer the rule +of one, based his whole political system upon a rational regard to the +common weal. Finally, the psychology of Hobbes, though too undeveloped +to guide the thoughts or even perhaps arrest the attention of Locke, +when essaying the scientific analysis of knowledge, came in course of +time (chiefly through James Mill) to be connected with the theory of +associationism developed from within the school of Locke, in different +ways, by Hartley and Hume; nor is it surprising that the later +associationists, finding their principle more distinctly formulated in +the earlier thinker, should sometimes have been betrayed into +affiliating themselves to Hobbes rather than to Locke. For his ethical +theories see Ethics. + + Sufficient information is given in the _Vitae Hobbianae auctarium_ + (_L.W._ i. p. lxv. ff.) concerning the frequent early editions of + Hobbes's separate works, and also concerning the works of those who + wrote against him, to the end of the 17th century. In the 18th + century, after Clarke's _Boyle Lectures_ of 1704-1705, the opposition + was less express. In 1750 _The Moral and Political Works_ were + collected, with life, &c., by Dr Campbell, in a folio edition, + including in order, _Human Nature_, _De corpore politico_, + _Leviathan_, _Answer to Bramhall's Catching of the Leviathan_, + _Narration concerning Heresy_, _Of Liberty and Necessity_, _Behemoth_, + _Dialogue of the Common Laws_, the Introduction to the _Thucydides_, + _Letter to Davenant and two others_, the Preface to the _Homer_, _De + mirabilibus Pecci_ (with English translation), _Considerations on the + Reputation, &., of T. H._ In 1812 the _Human Nature_ and the _Liberty + and Necessity_ (with supplementary extracts from the _Questions_ of + 1656) were reprinted in a small edition of 250 copies, with a + meritorious memoir (based on Campbell) and dedication to Horne Tooke, + by Philip Mallet. Molesworth's edition (1839-1845), dedicated to + Grote, has been referred to in a former note. Of translations may be + mentioned _Les Elemens philosophiques du citoyen_ (1649) and _Le Corps + politique_ (1652), both by S. de Sorbiere, conjoined with _Le Traite + de la nature humaine_, by d'Holbach, in 1787, under the general title + _Les Oeuvres philosophiques et politiques de Thomas Hobbes_; a + translation of the first section, "Computatio sive logica," of the _De + corpore_, included by Destutt de Tracy with his _Elemens d'ideologie_ + (1804); a translation of _Leviathan_ into Dutch in 1678, and another + (anonymous) into German--_Des Englanders Thomas Hobbes Leviathan oder + der kirchliche und burgerliche Staat_ (Halle, 1794, 2 vols.); a + translation of the _De cive_ by J. H. v. Kirchmann--_T. Hobbes: + Abhandlung uber den Burger, &c._ (Leipzig, 1873). Important later + editions are those of Ferdinand Tonnies, _Behemoth_ (1889), on which + see Croom Robertson's _Philosophical Remains_ (1894), p. 451; + _Elements of Law_ (1889). + + _Biographical and Critical Works._--There are three accounts of + Hobbes's life, first published together in 1681, two years after his + death, by R. B. (Richard Blackbourne, a friend of Hobbes's admirer, + John Aubrey), and reprinted, with complimentary verses by Cowley and + others, at the beginning of Sir W. Molesworth's collection of the + _Latin Works_: (1) _T. H. Malmesb. vita_ (pp. xiii.-xxi.), written by + Hobbes himself, or (as also reported) by T. Rymer, at his dictation; + (2) _Vitae Hobbianae auctarium_ (pp. xxii.-lxxx.), turned into Latin + from Aubrey's English; (3) _T. H. Malmesb. vita carmine expressa_ (pp. + lxxxi.-xcix.), written by Hobbes at the age of eighty-four (first + published by itself in 1680). The _Life of Mr T. H. of Malmesburie_, + printed among the _Lives of Eminent Men_, in 1813, from Aubrey's + papers in the Bodleian, &c. (vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 593-637), contains + some interesting particulars not found in the _Auctarium_. All that is + of any importance for Hobbes's life is contained in G. Croom + Robertson's _Hobbes_ (1886) in Blackwood's Philosophical Classics, and + Sir Leslie Stephen's _Hobbes_ (1904) in the "English Men of Letters" + series, both of which deal fully with his philosophy also. See also F. + Tonnies, _Hobbes Leben und Lehre_ (1896), _Hobbes-Analekten_ (1904 + foll.); G. Zart, _Einfluss der englischen Philosophie seit Bacon auf + die deutsche Philosophie des 18ten Jahrh._ (Berlin, 1881); G. Brandt, + _Thomas Hobbes: Grundlinien seiner Philosophie_ (1895); G. Lyon, _La + Philos. de Hobbes_ (1893); J. M. Robertson, _Pioneer Humanists_ + (1907); J. Rickaby, _Free Will and Four English Philosophers_ (1906), + pp. 1-72; J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories_ (1895); W. Graham, _English + Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine_ (1899); W. J. H. Campion, + _Outlines of Lectures on Political Science_ (1895). (G. C. R.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The translation, under the title _Eight Books of the + Peloponnesian War, written by Thucydides the son of Olorus, + interpreted with faith and diligence immediately out of the Greek by + Thomas Hobbes, secretary to the late Earl of Devonshire_, appeared in + 1628 (or 1629), after the death of the earl, to whom touching + reference is made in the dedication. It reappeared in 1634, with the + date of the dedication altered, as if then newly written. Though + Hobbes claims to have performed his work "with much more diligence + than elegance," his version is remarkable as a piece of English + writing, but is by no means accurate. It fills vols. viii. and ix. in + Molesworth's collection (11 vols., including index vol.) of Hobbes's + _English Works_ (London, Bohn, 1839-1845). The volumes of this + collection will here be cited as E. W. Molesworth's collection of the + Latin _Opera philosophica_ (5 vols., 1839-1845) will be cited as + _L.W._ The five hundred and odd Latin hexameters under the title _De + mirabilibus Pecci_ (_L.W._ v. 323-340), giving an account of a short + excursion from Chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the Derbyshire + Peak, were written before 1628 (in 1626 or 1627), though not + published till 1636. It was a New Year's present to his patron, who + gave him L5 in return. A later edition, in 1678, included an English + version by another hand. + + [2] Hobbes, in minor works dealing with physical questions (L.W. iv. + 316; _E.W._ vii. 112), makes two incidental references to Bacon's + writings, but never mentions Bacon as he mentions Galileo, Kepler, + Harvey, and others (_De corpore_, ep. ded.), among the lights of the + century. The word "Induction," which occurs in only three or four + passages throughout all his works (and these again minor ones), is + never used by him with the faintest reminiscence of the import + assigned to it by Bacon; and, as will be seen, he had nothing but + scorn for experimental work in physics. + + [3] The free English abstract of Aristotle's _Rhetoric_, published in + 1681, after Hobbes's death, as _The Whole Art of Rhetoric_ (_E.W._ + vi. 423-510), corresponds with a Latin version dictated to his young + pupil. Among Hobbes's papers preserved at Hardwick, where he died, + there remains the boy's dictation-book, interspersed with headings, + examples, &c. in Hobbes's hand. + + [4] Among the Hardwick papers there is preserved a MS. copy of the + work, under the title _Elementes of Law Naturall and Politique_, with + the dedication to the earl of Newcastle, written in Hobbes's own + hand, and dated May 9, 1640. This dedication was prefixed to the + first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves, under + the title _Human Nature_ in 1650. + + [5] The book, of which the copies are rare (one in Dr Williams's + library in London and one in the Bodleian), was printed in quarto + size (Paris, 1642), with a pictorial title-page (not afterwards + reproduced) of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions, + "Libertas," "Imperium," "Religio." The title _Elementorum + philosophiae sectio tertia, De Cive_, expresses its relation to the + unwritten sections, which also comes out in one or two + back-references in the text. + + [6] _L.W._ ii. 133-134. In this first public edition (12mo), the + title was changed to _Elementa philosophica de cive_, the references + in the text to the previous sections being omitted. The date of the + dedication to the young earl of Devonshire was altered from 1641 to + 1646. + + [7] Described as "nobilis Languedocianus" in _Vit._; doubtless the + same with the "Dominus Verdusius, nobilis Aquitanus," to whom was + dedicated the _Exam. et emend. math. hod._ (_L.W._ iv.) in 1660. Du + Verdus was one of Hobbes's profoundest admirers and most frequent + correspondents in later years; there are many of his letters among + Hobbes's papers at Hardwick. + + [8] _The Human Nature_ corresponds with cc. i.-xiii. of the first + part of the original treatise. The remaining six chapters of the part + stand now as Part I. of the _De Corpore Politico_. Part II. of the + _D.C.P._ corresponds with the original second part of the whole work. + + [9] At the beginning of this year he wrote and published in Paris a + letter on the nature and conditions of poetry, chiefly epic, in + answer to an appeal to his judgment made in the preface to Sir W. + Davenant's heroic poem, _Gondibert_ (_E.W._ iv. 441-458). The letter + is dated Jan. 10, 1650 (1650/1). + + [10] This presentation copy, so described by Clarendon (_Survey of + the Leviathan_, 1676, p. 8), is doubtless the beautifully written and + finely bound MS. now to be found in the British Museum (Egerton MSS. + 1910). + + [11] During all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive + from his patron a yearly pension of L80, and they remained in steady, + correspondence. The earl, having sided with the king in 1642, was + declared unfit to sit in the House of Peers, and though, by + submission to Parliament, he recovered his estates when they were + sequestered later on, he did not sit again till 1660. Among Hobbes's + friends at this time are specially mentioned John Selden and William + Harvey, who left him a legacy of L10. According to Aubrey, Selden + left him an equal bequest, but this seems to be a mistake. Harvey + (not Bacon) is the only Englishman he mentions in the dedicatory + epistle prefixed to the _De corpore_, among the founders, before + himself, of the new natural philosophy. + + [12] The treatise bore the date, "Rouen, Aug. 20, 1652," but it + should have been 1646, as afterwards explained by Hobbes himself + (_E.W._ v. 25). + + [13] "The _Vit. auct._ refers to 1676, a 'Letter to William duke of + Newcastle on the Controversy about Liberty and Necessity, held with + Benjamin Laney, bishop of Ely.' In that year there did appear a + (confused) little tract written by Laney against Hobbes's concluding + statement of his own 'Opinion' in the 'Liberty and Necessity' of 1654 + (1646), but I can find no trace of any further writing by Hobbes on + the subject" (G. Croom Robertson, _Hobbes_, p. 202). + + [14] This translation, _Concerning Body_, though not made by Hobbes, + was revised by him; but it is far from accurate, and not seldom, at + critical places (e.g. c. vi. S 2), quite misleading. Philosophical + citations from the _De corpore_ should always be made in the original + Latin. Molesworth reprints the Latin, not from the first edition of + 1655, but from the modified edition of 1668--modified, in the + mathematical chapters, in general (not exact) keeping with the + English edition of 1656. The Vindex episode, referred to in the _Six + Lessons_, becomes intelligible only by going beyond Molesworth to the + original Latin edition of 1655. + + [15] They were composed originally, in a somewhat different and + rather more extended form, as the second part of an English treatise + on Optics, completed by the year 1646. Of this treatise, preserved in + Harleian MSS. 3360, Molesworth otherwise prints the dedication to the + marquis of Newcastle, and the concluding paragraphs (_E.W._ vii. + 467-471). + + [16] _L.W._ iv. 1-232. The propositions on the circle, forty-six in + number (shattered by Wallis in 1662), were omitted by Hobbes when he + republished the _Dialogues_ in 1668, in the collected edition of his + Latin works from which Molesworth reprints. In the part omitted, at + p. 154 of the original edition, Hobbes refers to his first + introduction to Euclid, in a way that confirms the story in Aubrey + quoted in an earlier paragraph. + + [17] Remaining at Oxford, Wallis, in fact, took no active part in the + constitution of the new society, but he had been, from 1645, one of + the originators of an earlier association in London, thus continued + or revived. This earlier society had been continued also at Oxford + after the year 1649, when Wallis and others of its members received + appointments there. + + [18] The _Problemata physica_ was at the same time put into English + (with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical + appendix), and presented to the king, to whom the work was dedicated + in a remarkable letter apologizing for _Leviathan_. In its English + form, as _Seven Philosophical Problems and Two Propositions of + Geometry_ (_E.W._ vii. 1-68), the work was first published in 1682, + after Hobbes's death. + + [19] Wallis's pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his + works (1693-1697), and have become extremely rare. + + [20] The De medio animarum statu of Thomas White, a heterodox + Catholic priest, who contested the natural immortality of the soul. + White (who died 1676) and Hobbes were friends. + + [21] _E.W._ vi. 161-418. Though _Behemoth_ was kept back at the + king's express desire, it saw the light, without Hobbes's leave, in + 1679, before his death. + + + + +HOBBY, a small horse, probably from early quotations, of Irish breed, +trained to an easy gait so that riding was not fatiguing. The common use +of the word is for a favourite pursuit or occupation, with the idea +either of excessive devotion or of absence of ulterior motive or of +profit, &c., outside the occupation itself. This use is probably not +derived from the easy ambling gait of the Irish "hobby," but from the +"hobby-horse," the mock horse of the old morris-dances, made of a +painted wooden horse's head and tail, with a framework casing for an +actor's body, his legs being covered by a cloth made to represent the +"housings" of the medieval tilting-horse. A hobby or hobby-horse is thus +a toy, a diversion. The O. Fr. _hobin_, or _hobi_, Mod. _aubin_, and +Ital. _ubina_ are probably adaptations of the English, according to the +_New English Dictionary_. The O. Fr. hober, to move, which is often +taken to be the origin of all these words, is the source of a use of +"hobby" for a small kind of falcon, _falco subbuteo_, used in hawking. + + + + +HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE, 1ST BARON (1819-1904), English judge, fourth +son of Henry Hobhouse, permanent under-secretary of state in the Home +Office, was born at Hadspen, Somerset, on the 10th of November 1819. +Educated at Eton and Balliol, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn +in 1845, and rapidly acquired a large practice as a conveyancer and +equity draftsman; he became Q.C. in 1862, and practised in the Rolls +Court, retiring in 1866. He was an active member of the charity +commission and urged the appropriation of pious bequests to educational +and other purposes. In 1872 he began a five years' term of service as +legal member of the council of the governor-general of India, his +services being acknowledged by a K.C.S.I.; and in 1881 he was appointed +a member of the judicial committee of the privy council, on which he +served for twenty years. He was made a peer in 1885, and consistently +supported the Liberal party in the House of Lords. He died on the 6th of +December 1904, leaving no heir to the barony. + + His papers read before the Social Science Association on the subject + of property were collected in 1880 under the title of _The Dead Hand_. + + + + +HOBOKEN, a small town of Belgium on the right bank of the Scheldt about +4 m. above Antwerp. It is only important on account of the shipbuilding +yard which the Cockerill firm of Seraing has established at Hoboken. +Many wealthy Antwerp merchants have villas here, and it is the +headquarters of several of the leading rowing clubs on the Scheldt. Pop. +(1904) 12,816. + + + + +HOBOKEN, a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Hudson +river, adjoining Jersey City on the S. and W. and opposite New York +city, with which it is connected by ferries and by two subway lines +through tunnels under the river. Pop. (1890) 43,648; (1900) 59,364, of +whom 21,380 were foreign-born, 10,843 being natives of Germany; (1910 +census) 70,324. Of the total population in 1900, 48,349 had either one +or both parents foreign-born, German being the principal racial element. +The city is served by the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & +Western railways, being the eastern terminus of the latter, and is +connected by electric railway with the neighbouring cities of +north-eastern New Jersey. In Hoboken are the piers of the North German +Lloyd, the Hamburg American, the Netherlands American, the Scandinavian +and the Phoenix steamship lines. Hoboken occupies a little more than 1 +sq. m. and lies near the foot of the New Jersey Palisades, which rise +both on the W. and N. to a height of nearly 200 ft. Much of its surface +has had to be filled in to raise it above high tide, but Castle Point, +in the N.E., rises from the generally low level about 100 ft. On this +Point are the residence and private estate of the founder of the city, +John Stevens (1749-1838), Hudson Park, and facing it the Stevens +Institute of Technology, an excellent school of mechanical engineering +endowed by Edwin A. Stevens (1795-1868), son of John Stevens, opened in +1871, and having in 1909-1910 34 instructors and 390 students. The +institute owes much to its first president, Henry Morton (1836-1902), a +distinguished scientist, whose aim was "to offer a course of instruction +in which theory and practice were carefully balanced and thoroughly +combined," and who gave to the institute sums aggregating $175,000 (see +_Morton Memorial, History of Stevens Institute_, ed. by Furman, 1905). +In connexion with the institute there is a preparatory department, the +Stevens School (1870). The city maintains a teachers' training school. +Among the city's prominent buildings are the Delaware, Lackawanna & +Western station, the Hoboken Academy (1860), founded by German +Americans, and the public library. The city has an extensive coal trade +and numerous manufactures, among which are lead pencils, leather goods, +silk goods, wall-paper and caskets. The value of the manufactured +product increased from $7,151,391 in 1890 to $12,092,872 in 1900, or +69.1%. The factory product in 1905 was valued at $14,077,305, an +increase of 34.3% over that for 1900. The site of Hoboken (originally +"Hobocanhackingh," the place of the tobacco pipe) was occupied about +1640 as a Dutch farm, but in 1643 the stock and all the buildings except +a brew-house were destroyed by the Indians. In 1711 title to the place +was acquired by Samuel Bayard, a New York merchant, who built on Castle +Point his summer residence. During the War of Independence his +descendant, William Bayard, was a loyalist, and his home was burned and +his estate confiscated. In 1784 the property was purchased by John +Stevens, the inventor, who in 1804 laid it out as a town. For the next +thirty-five years its "Elysian Fields" were a famous pleasure resort of +New York City. Hoboken was incorporated as a town in 1849 and as a city +in 1855. On the 30th of June 1900 the wharves of the North German Lloyd +Steamship Company and three of its ocean liners were almost completely +destroyed by a fire, which caused a loss of more than 200 lives and over +$5,000,000. + + + + +HOBSON'S CHOICE, i.e. "this or nothing," an expression that arose from +the fact that the Cambridge-London carrier, Thomas Hobson (1544-1630), +refused, when letting his horses on hire, to allow any animal to leave +the stable out of its turn. Among other bequests made by Hobson, and +commemorated by Milton, was a conduit for the Cambridge market-place, +for which he provided the perpetual maintenance. See _Spectator_, No. +509 (14th of October 1712). + + + + +HOBY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1566), English diplomatist and translator, son of +William Hoby of Leominster, was born in 1530. He entered St John's +College, Cambridge, in 1545, but in 1547 he went to Strassburg, where he +was the guest of Martin Bucer, whose _Gratulation ... unto the Church of +Englande for the restitution of Christes Religion_ he translated into +English. He then proceeded to Italy, visiting Padua and Venice, Florence +and Siena, and in May 1550 he had settled at Rome, when he was summoned +by his half-brother, Sir Philip Hoby (1505-1558), then ambassador at the +emperor's court, to Augsburg. The brothers returned to England at the +end of the year, and Thomas attached himself to the service of the +marquis of Northampton, whom he accompanied to France on an embassy to +arrange a marriage between Edward VI. and the princess Elizabeth. +Shortly after he returned to England he started once more for Paris, and +in 1552 he was engaged on his translation of _The Courtyer of Count +Baldessar Castilio_. His work was probably completed in 1554, and the +freedom of the allusions to the Roman church probably accounts for the +fact that it was withheld from publication until 1561. The _Cortegiano_ +of Baldassare Castiglione, which Dr Johnson called "the best book that +ever was written upon good breeding," is a book as entirely typical of +the Italian Renaissance as Machiavelli's _Prince_ in another direction. +It exercised an immense influence on the standards of chivalry +throughout Europe, and was long the recognized authority for the +education of a nobleman. The accession of Mary made it desirable for the +Hobys to remain abroad, and they were in Italy until the end of 1555. +Thomas Hoby married in 1558 Elizabeth, the learned daughter of Sir +Anthony Cook, who wrote a Latin epitaph on her husband. He was knighted +in 1566 by Elizabeth, and was sent to France as English ambassador. He +died on the 13th of July in the same year in Paris, and was buried in +Bisham Church. + +His son, SIR EDWARD HOBY (1560-1617), enjoyed Elizabeth's favour, and he +was employed on various confidential missions. He was constable of +Queenborough Castle, Kent, where he died on the 1st of March 1617. He +took part in the religious controversies of the time, publishing many +pamphlets against Theophilus Higgons and John Fludd or Floyd. He +translated, from the French of Mathieu Coignet, _Politique Discourses on +Trueth and Lying_ (1586). + + The authority for Thomas Hoby's biography is a MS. "Booke of the + Travaile and lief of me Thomas Hoby, with diverse things worth the + noting." This was edited for the Royal Historical Society by Edgar + Powell in 1902. Hoby's translation of _The Courtyer_ was edited (1900) + by Professor Walter Raleigh for the "Tudor Translations" series. + + + + +HOCHE, LAZARE (1768-1797), French general, was born of poor parents near +Versailles on the 24th of June 1768. At sixteen years of age he enlisted +as a private soldier in the _Gardes francaises_. He spent his entire +leisure in earning extra pay by civil work, his object being to provide +himself with books, and this love of study, which was combined with a +strong sense of duty and personal courage, soon led to his promotion. +When the _Gardes francaises_ were broken up in 1789 he was a corporal, +and thereafter he served in various line regiments up to the time of his +receiving a commission in 1792. In the defence of Thionville in that +year Hoche earned further promotion, and he served with credit in the +operations of 1792-1793 on the northern frontier of France. At the +battle of Neerwinden he was aide-de-camp to General le Veneur, and when +Dumouriez deserted to the Austrians, Hoche, along with le Veneur and +others, fell under suspicion of treason; but after being kept under +arrest and unemployed for some months he took part in the defence of +Dunkirk, and in the same year (1793) he was promoted successively _chef +de brigade_, general of brigade, and general of division. In October +1793 he was provisionally appointed to command the Army of the Moselle, +and within a few weeks he was in the field at the head of his army in +Lorraine. His first battle was that of Kaiserslautern (28th-30th of +November) against Prussians. The French were defeated, but even in the +midst of the Terror the Committee of Public Safety continued Hoche in +his command. Pertinacity and fiery energy in their eyes outweighed +everything else, and Hoche soon showed that he possessed these +qualities. On the 22nd of December he stormed the lines of Froschweiler, +and the representatives of the Convention with his army at once added +the Army of the Rhine to his sphere of command. On the 26th of December +the French carried by assault the famous lines of Weissenburg, and +Hoche pursued his success, sweeping the enemy before him to the middle +Rhine in four days. He then put his troops into winter quarters. Before +the following campaign opened, he married Anne Adelaide Dechaux at +Thionville (March 11th, 1794). But ten days later he was suddenly +arrested, charges of treason having been preferred by Pichegru, the +displaced commander of the Army of the Rhine, and by his friends. Hoche +escaped execution, however, though imprisoned in Paris until the fall of +Robespierre. Shortly after his release he was appointed to command +against the Vendeans (21st of August 1794). He completed the work of his +predecessors in a few months by the peace of Jaunaye (15th of February +1795), but soon afterwards the war was renewed by the Royalists. Hoche +showed himself equal to the crisis and inflicted a crushing blow on the +Royalist cause by defeating and capturing de Sombreuil's expedition at +Quiberon and Penthievre (16th-21st of July 1795). Thereafter, by means +of mobile columns (which he kept under good discipline) he succeeded +before the summer of 1796 in pacifying the whole of the west, which had +for more than three years been the scene of a pitiless civil war. After +this he was appointed to organize and command the troops destined for +the invasion of Ireland, and he started on this enterprise in December +1796. A tempest, however, separated Hoche from the expedition, and after +various adventures the whole fleet returned to Brest without having +effected its purpose. Hoche was at once transferred to the Rhine +frontier, where he defeated the Austrians at Neuwied (April), though +operations were soon afterwards brought to an end by the Preliminaries +of Leoben. Later in 1797 he was minister of war for a short period, but +in this position he was surrounded by obscure political intrigues, and, +finding himself the dupe of Barras and technically guilty of violating +the constitution, he quickly laid down his office, returning to his +command on the Rhine frontier. But his health grew rapidly worse, and he +died at Wetzlar on the 19th of September 1797 of consumption. The belief +was widely spread that he had been poisoned, but the suspicion seems to +have been without foundation. He was buried by the side of his friend +Marceau in a fort on the Rhine, amidst the mourning not only of his army +but of all France. + + See Privat, _Notions historiques sur la vie morale, politique et + militaire du general Hoche_ (Strassburg, 1798); Daunou, _Eloge du + general Hoche_ (1798), delivered on behalf of the Institut at Hoche's + funeral; Rousselin, _Vie de Lazare Hoche, general des armees de la + republique francaise_ (Paris, 1798; this work was printed at the + public expense and distributed to the schools); Dubroca, _Eloge + funebre du general Hoche_ (Paris, 1800); _Vie et pensees du general + Hoche_ (Bern); Champrobert, _Notice historique sur Lazare Hoche, le + pacificateur de la Vendee_ (Paris, 1840); Dourille, _Histoire de + Lazare Hoche_ (Paris, 1844); Desprez, _Lazare Hoche d'apres sa + correspondance_ (Paris, 1858; new ed., 1880); Bergounioux, _Essai sur + la vie de Lazare Hoche_ (1852); E. de Bonnechose, _Lazare Hoche_ + (1867); H. Martin, _Hoche et Bonaparte_ (1875); Dutemple, _Vie + politique et militaire du general Hoche_ (1879); Escaude, _Hoche en + Irlande_ (1888); Cuneo d'Ornano, _Hoche_ (1892); A. Chuquet, _Hoche et + la lutte pour l'Alsace_ (a volume of this author's series on the + campaigns of the Revolution, 1893); E. Charavaray, _Le General Hoche_ + (1893); A. Duruy, _Hoche et Marceau_ (1885). + + + + +HOCHHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, +situated on an elevation not far from the right bank of the Main, 3 m. +above its influx into the Rhine and 3 m. E. of Mainz by the railway from +Cassel to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 3779. It has an Evangelical and +a Roman Catholic church, and carries on an extensive trade in wine, the +English word "Hock," the generic term for Rhine wine, being derived from +its name. Hochheim is mentioned in the chronicles as early as the 7th +century. It is also memorable as the scene of a victory gained here, on +the 7th of November 1813 by the Austrians over the French. + + See Schuler, _Geschichte der Stadt Hochheim am Main_ (Hochheim, 1888). + + + + +HOCHST, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau on +the Main, 6 m. by rail W. of Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 14,121. It +is a busy industrial town with large dye-works and manufactures of +machinery, snuff, tobacco, waxcloth, gelatine, furniture and biscuits. +Brewing is carried on and there is a considerable river trade. The +Roman Catholic church of St Justinus is a fine basilica originally built +in the 9th century; it has been restored several times, and a Gothic +choir was added in the 15th century. The town has also an Evangelical +church and a synagogue, and a statue of Bismarck by Alois Mayer. Hochst +belonged formerly to the electors of Mainz who had a palace here; this +was destroyed in 1634 with the exception of one fine tower which still +remains. In 1622 Christian, duke of Brunswick, was defeated here by +Count Tilly, and in 1795 the Austrians gained a victory here over the +French. + +Hochst is also the name of a small town in Hesse. This has some +manufactures, and was formerly the seat of a Benedictine monastery. + + + + +HOCHSTADT, a town of Bavaria, Germany, in the district of Swabia, on the +left bank of the Danube, 34 m. N.E. of Ulm by rail. Pop. (1905) 2305. It +has three Roman Catholic churches, a castle flanked by walls and towers +and some small industries, including malting and brewing. Hochstadt, +which came into the possession of Bavaria in 1266, has been a place of +battles. Here Frederick of Hohenstaufen, vicegerent of the Empire for +Henry IV., was defeated by Henry's rival, Hermann of Luxemburg, in 1081; +in 1703 the Imperialists were routed here by Marshal Villars in command +of the French; in August 1704 Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the +French and Bavarians commanded by Max Emanuel, the elector of Bavaria +and Marshal Tallard, this battle being usually known as that of +Blenheim; and in June 1800 an engagement took place here between the +Austrians and the French. + +There is another small town in Bavaria named Hochstadt. Pop. 2000. This +is on the river Aisch, not far from Bamberg, to which bishopric it +belonged from 1157 to 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria. + + + + +HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON, BARON (1829-1884), Austrian +geologist, was born at Esslingen, Wurtemberg, on the 30th of April 1829. +He was the son of Christian Ferdinand Hochstetter (1787-1860), a +clergyman and professor at Brunn, who was also a botanist and +mineralogist. Having received his early education at the evangelical +seminary at Maulbronn, he proceeded to the university of Tubingen; there +under F. A. Quenstedt the interest he already felt in geology became +permanently fixed, and there he obtained his doctor's degree and a +travelling scholarship. In 1852 he joined the staff of the Imperial +Geological Survey of Austria and was engaged until 1856 in parts of +Bohemia, especially in the Bohmerwald, and in the Fichtel and Karlsbad +mountains. His excellent reports established his reputation. Thus he +came to be chosen as geologist to the Novara expedition (1857-1859), and +made numerous valuable observations in the voyage round the world. In +1859 he was engaged by the government of New Zealand to make a rapid +geological survey of the islands. On his return he was appointed in 1860 +professor of mineralogy and geology at the Imperial Polytechnic +Institute in Vienna, and in 1876 he was made superintendent of the +Imperial Natural History Museum. In these later years he explored +portions of Turkey and eastern Russia, and he published papers on a +variety of geological, palaeontological and mineralogical subjects. He +died at Vienna on the 18th of July 1884. + + PUBLICATIONS.--_Karlsbad, seine geognostischen Verhaltnisse und seine + Quellen_ (1858); _Neu-Seeland_ (1863); _Geological and Topographical + Atlas of New Zealand_ (1864); _Leitfaden der Mineralogie und Geologie_ + (with A. Bisching) (1876, ed. 8, 1890). + + + + +HOCKEY (possibly derived from the "hooked" stick with which it is +played; cf. O. Fr. _hoquet_, shepherd's crook), a game played with a +ball or some similar object by two opposing sides, using hooked or bent +sticks, with which each side attempts to drive it into the other's goal. +In one or more of its variations Hockey was known to most northern +peoples in both Europe and Asia, and the Romans possessed a game of +similar nature. It was played indiscriminately on the frozen ground or +the ice in winter. In Scotland it was called "shinty," and in Ireland +"hurley," and was usually played on the hard, sandy sea-shore with +numerous players on each side. The rules were simple and the play very +rough. + +Modern Hockey, properly so called, is played during the cold season on +the hard turf, and owes its recent vogue to the formation of "The Men's +Hockey Association" in England in 1875. The rules drawn up by the +Wimbledon Club in 1883 still obtain in all essentials. Since 1895 +"international" matches at hockey have been played annually between +England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales; and in 1907 a match was played +between England and France, won by England by 14 goals to nil. In 1890 +Divisional Association matches (North, South, West, Midlands) and +inter-university matches (Oxford and Cambridge) were inaugurated, and +have since been played annually. County matches are also now regularly +played in England, twenty-six counties competing in 1907. Of other +hockey clubs playing regular matches in 1907, there were eighty-one in +the London district, and fifty-nine in the provinces. + +[Illustration: Diagram of Hockey Field. + + G, Goal. RW, Right Wing. + RB, Right Back. RI, Inside Right. + LB, Left Back. CF, Centre Forward. + RH, Right Half. LI, Inside Left. + CH, Centre Half. LW, Left Wing.] + LH, Left Half. + + The game is played by teams of eleven players on a ground 100 yds. + long and 50 to 60 yds. wide. The goals are in the centre of each + end-line, and consist of two uprights 7 ft. high surmounted by a + horizontal bar, enclosing a space 12 ft. wide. In front of each goal + is a space enclosed by a curved line, its greatest diameter from the + goal-line being 15 ft., called the _striking-circle_. The positions of + the players on each side may be seen on the accompanying diagram. Two + umpires, one on each side of the centre-line, officiate. + + The ball is an ordinary cricket-ball painted white. The stick has a + hard-wood curved head, and a handle of cork or wrapped cane. It must + not exceed 2 in. in diameter nor 28 oz. in weight. At the start of the + game, which consists of two thirty or thirty-five minute periods, the + two centre-forwards "bully off" the ball in the middle of the field. + In "bullying off" each centre must strike the ground on his own side + of the ball three times with his stick and strike his opponent's stick + three times alternately; after which either may strike the ball. Each + side then endeavours, by means of striking, passing and dribbling, to + drive the ball into its opponents' goal. A player is "off side" if he + is nearer the enemy's goal than one of his own side who strikes the + ball, and he may not strike the ball himself until it has been touched + by one of the opposing side. The ball may be caught (but not held) or + stopped by any part of the body, but may not be picked up, carried, + kicked, thrown or knocked except with the stick. An opponent's stick + may be hooked, but not an opponent's person, which may not be + obstructed in any way. No left-handed play is allowed. Penalties for + infringing rules are of two classes; "free hits" and "penalty + bullies," to be taken where the foul occurred. For flagrant fouls + penalty goals may also be awarded. A "corner" occurs when the ball + goes behind the goal-line, but not into goal. If it is hit by the + attacking side, or unintentionally by the defenders, it must be + brought out 25 yds., in a direction at right angles to the goal-line + from the point where it crossed the line, and there "bullied." But if + the ball is driven from within the 25-yd. line unintentionally behind + the goal-line by the defenders, a member of the attacking side is + given a free hit from a point within 3 yds. of a corner flag, the + members of the defending side remaining behind their goal-line. If the + ball is hit intentionally behind the goal-line by the attacking side, + the free hit is taken from the point where the ball went over. No goal + can be scored from a free hit directly. + +_Ice Hockey_ (or _Bandy_, to give it its original name) is far more +popular than ordinary Hockey in countries where there is much ice; in +fact in America "Hockey" means Ice Hockey, while the land game is called +Field Hockey. Ice Hockey in its simplest form of driving a ball across a +given limit with a stick or club has been played for centuries in +northern Europe, attaining its greatest popularity in the Low Countries, +and there are many 16th- and 17th-century paintings extant which +represent games of Bandy, the players using an implement formed much +like a golf club. + + In England Bandy is controlled by the "National Bandy Association." A + team consists of eleven players, wearing skates, and the proper space + for play is 200 yds. by 100 yds. in extent. The ball is of solid + india-rubber, between 2(1/4) and 2(3/4) in. in diameter. The bandies + are 2 in. in diameter and about 4 ft. long. The goals, placed in the + centre of each goal-line, consist of two upright posts 7 ft. high and + 12 ft. apart, connected by a lath. A match is begun by the referee + throwing up the ball in the centre of the field, after which it must + not be touched other than with the bandy until a goal is scored or the + ball passes the boundaries of the course, in which case it is hit into + the field in any direction excepting forward from the point where it + went out by the player who touched it last. If the ball is hit across + the goal-line but not into a goal, it is hit out by one of the + defenders from the point where it went over, the opponents not being + allowed to approach nearer than 25 yds. from the goal-line while the + hit is made. + + [Illustration: Hockey Stick.] + + In America the development of the modern game is due to the Victoria + Hockey Club and McGill University (Montreal). About 1881 the secretary + of the former club made the first efforts towards drawing up a + recognized code of laws, and for some time afterwards playing rules + were agreed upon from time to time whenever an important match was + played, the chief teams being, besides those already mentioned, the + Ottawa, Quebec, Crystal and Montreal Hockey Clubs, the first general + tournament taking place in 1884. Three years later the "Amateur Hockey + Association of Canada" was formed, and a definite code of rules drawn + up. Soon afterwards, in consequence of exhibitions given by the best + Canadian teams in some of the larger cities of the United States, the + new game was taken up by American schools, colleges and athletic + clubs, and became nearly as popular in the northern states as in the + Dominion. The rules differ widely from those of English Bandy. The + rink must be at least 112 ft. long by 58 ft. wide, and seven players + form a side. The goals are 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. high and are provided + with goal-nets. Instead of the English painted cricket-ball a puck is + used, made of vulcanized rubber in the form of a draught-stone, 1 in. + thick, and 3 in. in diameter. The sticks are made of one piece of hard + wood, and may not be more than 3 in. wide at any part. The game is + played for two half-hour or twenty-minute periods with an intermission + of ten minutes. At the beginning of a match, and also when a goal has + been made, the puck is _faced_, i.e. it is placed in the middle of the + rink between the sticks of the two left-centres, and the referee calls + "play." Whichever side then secures the ball endeavours by means of + passing and dribbling to get the puck into a position from which a + goal may be _shot_. The puck may be stopped by any part of the person + but not carried or knocked except with the stick. No stick may be + raised above the shoulder except when actually striking the puck. When + the puck is driven off the rink or behind the goal, or a foul has been + made behind the goal, it is faced 5 yds. inside the rink. The + goal-keeper must maintain a standing position. + + There are a number of Hockey organizations in America, all under the + jurisdiction of the "American Amateur Hockey League" in the United + States and the "Canadian Amateur Athletic League" in Canada. + + _Ice Polo_, a winter sport similar to Ice Hockey, is almost + exclusively played in the New England states. A rubber-covered ball is + used and the stick is heavier than that used in Ice Hockey. The + radical difference between the two games is that, in Ice Polo, there + is no strict off-side rule, so that passes and shots at goal may come + from any and often the most unexpected direction. Five men constitute + a team: a goal-tend, a half-back, a centre and two rushers. The + rushers must be rapid skaters, adepts in dribbling and passing and + good goal shots. The centre supports the rushers, passing the ball to + them or trying for goal himself. The half-back is the first defence + and the goal-tend the last. The rink is 150 ft. long. + + _Ring Hockey_ may be played on the floor of any gymnasium or large + room by teams of six, comprising a goal-keeper, a quarter, three + forwards and a centre. The goals consist of two uprights 3 ft. high + and 4 ft. apart. The ring, which takes the place of the ball or puck, + is made of flexible rubber, and is 5 in. in diameter with a 3-in. + opening through the centre. It weighs between 12 and 16 oz. The stick + is a wand of light but tough wood, between 36 and 40 in. long, about + 3/4 in. in diameter, provided with a 5-in. guard 20 in. from the lower + end. The method of shooting is to insert the end of the stick in the + hole of the ring and drive it towards the goal. A goal shot from the + field counts one point, a goal from a foul 1/2 point. When a foul is + called by the referee a player of the opposing side is allowed a free + shot for goal from any point on the quarter line. + + _Roller Polo_, played extensively during the winter months in the + United States, is practically Ice Polo adapted to the floors of + gymnasiums and halls, the players, five on a side, wearing + roller-skates. The first professional league was organized in 1883. + + + + +HOCK-TIDE, an ancient general holiday in England, celebrated on the +second Monday and Tuesday after Easter Sunday. Hock-Tuesday was an +important term day, rents being then payable, for with Michaelmas it +divided the rural year into its winter and summer halves. The derivation +of the word is disputed: any analogy with Ger. _hoch_, "high," being +generally denied. No trace of the word is found in Old English, and +"hock-day," its earliest use in composition, appears first in the 12th +century. The characteristic pastime of hock-tide was called binding. On +Monday the women, on Tuesday the men, stopped all passers of the +opposite sex and bound them with ropes till they bought their release +with a small payment, or a rope was stretched across the highroads, and +the passers were obliged to pay toll. The money thus collected seems to +have gone towards parish expenses. Many entries are found in parish +registers under "Hocktyde money." The hock-tide celebration became +obsolete in the beginning of the 18th century. At Coventry there was a +play called "The Old Coventry Play of Hock Tuesday." This, suppressed at +the Reformation owing to the incidental disorder, and revived as part of +the festivities on Queen Elizabeth's visit to Kenilworth in July 1575, +depicted the struggle between Saxons and Danes, and has given colour to +the suggestion that hock-tide was originally a commemoration of the +massacre of the Danes on St Brice's Day, the 13th of November A.D. 1002, +or of the rejoicings at the death of Hardicanute on the 8th of June 1042 +and the expulsion of the Danes. But the dates of these anniversaries do +not bear this out. + + + + +HOCUS, a shortened form of "hocus pocus," used in the 17th century in +the sense of "to play a trick on any one," to "hoax," which is generally +taken to be a derivative. "Hocus pocus" appears to have been a mock +Latin expression first used as the name of a juggler or conjurer. Thus +in Ady's _Candle in the Dark_ (1655), quoted in the _New English +Dictionary_, "I will speak of one man ... that went about in King James +his time ... who called himself, The Kings Majesties most excellent +Hocus Pocus, and so was called, because that at the playing of every +Trick, he used to say, _Hocus pocus, tontus talontus, vade celeriter +jubeo_, a dark composure of words, to blinde the eyes of the beholders, +to make his Trick pass the more currantly without discovery." +Tillotson's guess (_Sermons_, xxvi.) that the phrase was a corruption of +_hoc est corpus_ and alluded to the words of the Eucharist, "in +ridiculous imitation of the priests of the Church of Rome in their trick +of Transubstantiation," has frequently been accepted as a serious +derivation, but has no foundation. A connexion with a supposed demon of +Scandinavian mythology, called "Ochus Bochus," is equally unwarranted. +"Hocus" is used as a verb, meaning to drug, stupefy with opium, &c., for +a criminal purpose. This use dates from the beginning of the 19th +century. + + + + +HODDEN (a word of unknown origin), a coarse kind of cloth made of undyed +wool, formerly much worn by the peasantry of Scotland. It was usually +made on small hand-looms by the peasants themselves. Grey hodden was +made by mixing black and white fleeces together in the proportion of one +to twelve when weaving. + + + + +HODDESDON, an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary division of +Hertfordshire, England, near the river Lea, 17 m. N. from London by the +Great Eastern railway (Broxbourne and Hoddesdon station on the Cambridge +line). Pop. (1901), 4711. This is the northernmost of a series of +populous townships extending from the suburbs of London along the Lea +valley as far as its junction with the Stort, which is close to +Hoddesdon. They are in the main residential. Hoddesdon was a famous +coaching station on the Old North Road; and the Bull posting-house is +mentioned in Matthew Prior's "Down Hall." The Lea has been a favourite +resort of anglers (mainly for coarse fish in this part) from the time of +Izaak Walton, in whose book Hoddesdon is specifically named. The church +of St Augustine, Broxbourne, is a fine example of Perpendicular work, +and contains interesting monuments, including an altar tomb with +enamelled brasses of 1473. Hoddesdon probably covers the site of a +Romano-British village. + + + + +HODEDA (_Hodeida_, _Hadeda_), a town in Arabia situated on the Red Sea +coast 14 deg. 48' N. and 42 deg. 57' E. It lies on a beach of muddy sand +exposed to the southerly and westerly winds. Steamers anchor more than a +mile from shore, and merchandize has to be transhipped by means of +_sambuks_ or native boats. But Hodeda has become the chief centre of the +maritime trade of Turkish Yemen, and has superseded Mokha as the great +port of export of South Arabian coffee. The town is composed of +stone-built houses of several storeys, and is surrounded, except on the +sea face, by a fortified enceinte. The population is estimated at +33,000, and contains, besides the Arab inhabitants and the Turkish +officials and garrison, a considerable foreign element, Greeks, Indians +and African traders from the opposite coast. There are consulates of +Great Britain, United States, France, Germany, Italy and Greece. The +steam tonnage entering and clearing the port in 1904 amounted to 78,700 +tons, the highest hitherto recorded. Regular services are maintained +with Aden, and with Suez, Massowa and the other Red Sea ports. Large +dhows bring dates from the Persian Gulf, and occasional steamers from +Bombay call on their way to Jidda with cargoes of grain. The imports for +1904 amounted in value to L467,000, the chief items being piece goods, +food grains and sugar; the exports amounted to L451,000, including +coffee valued at L229,000. + + + + +HODENING, an ancient Christmas custom still surviving in Wales, Kent, +Lancashire and elsewhere. A horse's skull or a wooden imitation on a +pole is carried round by a party of youths, one of whom conceals himself +under a white cloth to simulate the horse's body, holding a lighted +candle in the skull. They make a house-to-house visitation, begging +gratuities. The "Penitential" of Archbishop Theodore (d. 690) speaks of +"any who, on the kalands of January, clothe themselves with the skins of +cattle and carry heads of animals." This, coupled with the fact that +among the primitive Scandinavians the horse was often the sacrifice made +at the winter solstice to Odin for success in battle, has been thought +to justify the theory that hodening is a corruption of Odining. + + + + +HODGE, CHARLES (1797-1878), American theologian, was born in +Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of December 1797. He graduated +at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) in 1815, and in 1819 at the +Princeton Theological seminary, where he became an instructor in 1820, +and the first professor of Oriental and Biblical literature in 1822. +Meanwhile, in 1821, he had been ordained as a Presbyterian minister. +From 1826 to 1828 he studied under de Sacy in Paris, under Gesenius and +Tholuck in Halle, and under Hengstenberg, Neander and Humboldt in +Berlin. In 1840 he was transferred to the chair of exegetical and +didactic theology, to which subjects that of polemic theology was added +in 1854, and this office he held until his death. In 1825 he established +the quarterly _Biblical Repertory_, the title of which was changed to +_Biblical Repertory and Theological Review_ in 1830 and to _Biblical +Repertory and Princeton Review_ in 1837. With it, in 1840, was merged +the _Literary and Theological Review_ of New York, and in 1872 the +American Presbyterian Review of New York, the title becoming +_Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review_ in 1872 and _Princeton +Review_ in 1877. He secured for it the position of theological organ of +the Old School division of the Presbyterian church, and continued its +principal editor and contributor until 1868, when the Rev. Lyman H. +Atwater became his colleague. His more important essays were republished +under the titles _Essays and Reviews_ (1857), _Princeton Theological +Essays, and Discussions in Church Polity_ (1878). He was moderator of +the General Assembly (O.S.) in 1846, a member of the committee to revise +the _Book of Discipline_ of the Presbyterian church in 1858, and +president of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1868-1870. +The 24th of April 1872, the fiftieth anniversary of his election to his +professorship, was observed in Princeton as his jubilee by between 400 +and 500 representatives of his 2700 pupils, and $50,000 was raised for +the endowment of his chair. He died at Princeton on the 19th of June +1878. Hodge was one of the greatest of American theologians. + + Besides his articles in the _Princeton Review_, he published a + _Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_ (1835, abridged 1836, + rewritten and enlarged 1864, new ed. 1886), _Constitutional History of + the Presbyterian Church in the United States_ (2 vols., 1839-1840); + _The Way of Life_ (1841); _Commentaries on Ephesians_ (1856); 1 + _Corinthians_ (1857); 2 _Corinthians_ (1859); _Systematic Theology_ (3 + vols., 2200 pp., 1871-1873), probably the best of all modern + expositions of Calvinistic dogmatic; and _What is Darwinism?_ (1874), + in which he opposed "Atheistic Evolutionism." After his death a volume + of _Conference Papers_ (1879) was published. His life, by his son, was + published in 1880. + +His son, ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER HODGE (1823-1886), also famous as a +Presbyterian theologian, was born at Princeton on the 18th of July 1823. +He graduated at the College of New Jersey in 1841, and at the Princeton +Theological seminary in 1846, and was ordained in 1847. From 1847 to +1850 he was a missionary at Allahabad, India, and was then pastor of +churches successively at Lower West Nottingham, Maryland (1851-1855); at +Fredericksburg, Virginia (1855-1861), and at Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania +(1861-1864). From 1864 to 1877 he was professor of didactic and +polemical theology in the Allegheny Theological seminary at Allegheny, +Pennsylvania, where he was also from 1866 to 1877 pastor of the North +Church (Presbyterian). In 1878 he succeeded his father as professor of +didactic theology at the Princeton seminary. He died on the 11th of +November 1886. Besides writing the biography of his father, he was the +author of _Outlines of Theology_ (1860, new ed. 1875; enlarged, 1879); +_The Atonement_ (1867); _Exposition of the Confession of Faith_ (1869); +and _Popular Lectures on Theological Themes_ (1887). + + See C. A. Salmond's _Charles and A. A. Hodge_ (New York, 1888). + + + + +HODGKIN, THOMAS (1831- ), British historian, son of John Hodgkin +(1800-1875), barrister, was born in London on the 29th of July 1831. +Having been educated as a member of the Society of Friends and taken the +degree of B.A. at London University, he became a partner in the banking +house of Hodgkin, Barnett & Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne, a firm afterwards +amalgamated with Lloyds' Bank. While continuing in business as a banker, +Hodgkin devoted a good deal of time to historical study, and soon became +a leading authority on the history of the early middle ages, his books +being indispensable to all students of this period. His chief works are, +_Italy and her Invaders_ (8 vols., Oxford, 1880-1899); _The Dynasty of +Theodosius_ (Oxford, 1889); _Theodoric the Goth_ (London, 1891); and an +introduction to the _Letters_ of Cassiodorus (London, 1886). He also +wrote a _Life of Charles the Great_ (London, 1897); _Life of George Fox_ +(Boston, 1896); and the opening volume of Longman's _Political History +of England_ (London, 1906). + + + + +HODGKINSON, EATON (1789-1861), English engineer, the son of a farmer, +was born at Anderton near Northwich, Cheshire, on the 26th of February +1789. After attending school at Northwich, he began to help his widowed +mother on the farm, but to escape from that uncongenial occupation he +persuaded her in 1811 to remove to Manchester and start a pawnbroking +business. There he made the acquaintance of John Dalton, and began those +inquiries into the strength of materials which formed the work of his +life. He was associated with Sir William Fairbairn in an important +series of experiments on cast iron, and his help was sought by Robert +Stephenson in regard to the forms and dimensions of the tubes for the +Britannia bridge. A paper which he communicated to the Royal Society on +"Experimental Researches on the Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron and +other Materials," in 1840 gained him a Royal medal in 1841, and he was +also elected a fellow. In 1847 he was appointed professor of the +mechanical principles of engineering in University College, London, and +at the same time he was employed as a member of the Royal Commission +appointed to inquire into the application of iron to railway structures. +In 1848 he was chosen president of the Manchester Philosophical Society, +of which he had been a member since 1826, and to which, both previously +and subsequently, he contributed many of the more important results of +his discoveries. For several years he took an active part in the +discussions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, of which he was +elected an honorary member in 1851. He died at Eaglesfield House, near +Manchester, on the 18th of June 1861. + + + + +HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894), English administrator, ethnologist +and naturalist, was born at Lower Beech, Prestbury, Cheshire, on the 1st +of February 1800. His father, Brian Hodgson, came of a family of country +gentlemen, and his mother was a daughter of William Houghton of +Manchester. In 1816 he obtained an East Indian writership. After passing +through the usual course at Haileybury, he went out to India in 1818, +and after a brief service at Kumaon as assistant-commissioner was in +1820 appointed assistant to the Resident at Katmandu, the capital of +Nepal. In 1823 he obtained an under-secretaryship in the foreign +department at Calcutta, but his health failed, and in 1824 he returned +to Nepal, to which the whole of his life, whether in or out of India, +may be said to have been thenceforth given. He devoted himself +particularly to the collection of Sanskrit MSS. relating to Buddhism, +and hardly less so to the natural history and antiquities of the +country, and by 1839 had contributed eighty-nine papers to the +_Transactions_ of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. His investigations of +the ethnology of the aboriginal tribes were especially important. In +1833 he became Resident in Nepal, and passed many stormy years in +conflict with the cruel and faithless court to which he was accredited. +He succeeded, nevertheless, in concluding a satisfactory treaty in 1839; +but in 1842 his policy, which involved an imperious attitude towards the +native government, was upset by the interference of Lord Ellenborough, +but just arrived in India and not unnaturally anxious to avoid trouble +in Nepal during the conflict in Afghanistan. Hodgson took upon himself +to disobey his instructions, a breach of discipline justified to his own +mind by his superior knowledge of the situation, but which the +governor-general could hardly be expected to overlook. He was, +nevertheless, continued in office for a time, but was recalled in 1843, +and resigned the service. In 1845 he returned to India and settled at +Darjeeling, where he devoted himself entirely to his favourite pursuits, +becoming the greatest authority on the Buddhist religion and on the +flora of the Himalayas. It was he who early suggested the recruiting of +Gurkhas for the Indian army, and who influenced Sir Jung Bahadur to lend +his assistance to the British during the mutiny in 1857. In 1858 he +returned to England, and lived successively in Cheshire and +Gloucestershire, occupied with his studies to the last. He died at his +seat at Alderley Grange in the Cotswold Hills on the 23rd of May 1894. +No man has done so much to throw light on Buddhism as it exists in +Nepal, and his collections of Sanskrit manuscripts, presented to the +East India Office, and of natural history, presented to the British +Museum, are unique as gatherings from a single country. He wrote +altogether 184 philological and ethnological and 127 scientific papers, +as well as some valuable pamphlets on native education, in which he took +great interest. His principal work, _Illustrations of the Literature and +Religion of Buddhists_ (1841), was republished with the most important +of his other writings in 1872-1880. + + His life was written by Sir W. W. Hunter in 1896. + + + + +HODMEZO-VASARHELY, a town of Hungary, in the county of Csongrad, 135 m. +S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 60,824 of which about two-thirds +are Protestants. The town, situated on Lake Hod, not far from the right +bank of the Tisza, has a modern aspect. The soil of the surrounding +country, of which 383 sq. m. belong to the municipality, is exceedingly +fertile, the chief products being wheat, mangcorn, barley, oats, millet, +maize and various descriptions of fruit, especially melons. Extensive +vineyards, yielding large quantities of both white and red grapes, +skirt the town, and the horned cattle and horses of Hodmezo-Vasarhely +have a good reputation; sheep and pigs are also extensively reared. The +commune is protected from inundations of the Tisza by an enormous dike, +but the town, nevertheless, sometimes suffers considerable damage during +the spring floods. + + + + +HODOGRAPH (Gr. [Greek: hodos], a way, and [Greek: graphein], to write), +a curve of which the radius vector is proportional to the velocity of a +moving particle. It appears to have been used by James Bradley, but for +its practical development we are mainly indebted to Sir William Rowan +Hamilton, who published an account of it in the _Proceedings of the +Royal Irish Academy_, 1846. If a point be in motion in any orbit and +with any velocity, and if, at each instant, a line be drawn from a fixed +point parallel and equal to the velocity of the moving point at that +instant, the extremities of these lines will lie on a curve called the +hodograph. Let PP1P2 be the path of the moving point, and let OT, OT1, +OT2, be drawn from the fixed point O parallel and equal to the +velocities at P, P1, P2 respectively, then the locus of T is the +hodograph of the orbits described by P (see figure). From this +definition we have the following important fundamental property which +belongs to all hodographs, viz. that at any point the tangent to the +hodograph is parallel to the direction, and the velocity in the +hodograph equal to the magnitude of the resultant acceleration at the +corresponding point of the orbit. This will be evident if we consider +that, since radii vectores of the hodograph represent velocities in the +orbit, the elementary arc between two consecutive radii vectores of the +hodograph represents the velocity which must be compounded with the +velocity of the moving point at the beginning of any short interval of +time to get the velocity at the end of that interval, that is to say, +represents the change of velocity for that interval. Hence the +elementary arc divided by the element of time is the rate of change of +velocity of the moving-point, or in other words, the velocity in the +hodograph is the acceleration in the orbit. + +[Illustration] + + Analytically thus (Thomson and Tait, _Nat. Phil._):--Let x, y, z be + the coordinates of P in the orbit, [xi], [eta], [zeta] those of the + corresponding point T in the hodograph, then + + [xi] = dx/dt, [eta] = dy/dt, [zeta] = dz/dt; + + therefore + + d[xi] d[eta] d[zeta] + ---------- = ----------- = ----------- (1). + (d^2x/dt^2) (d^2y/dt^2) (d^2z/dt^2) + + Also, if s be the arc of the hodograph, + + ds / /d[xi]\^2 /d[eta]\^2 /d[zeta]\^2 + -- = v = / ( ----- ) + ( ------ ) + ( ------- ) + dt \/ \ dt / \ dt / \ dt / + + / /d^2x\^2 /d^2y\^2 /d^2z\^2 + = / ( --- ) + ( --- ) + ( --- ) (2). + \/ \dt^2/ \dt^2/ \dt^2/ + + Equation (1) shows that the tangent to the hodograph is parallel to + the line of resultant acceleration, and (2) that the velocity in the + hodograph is equal to the acceleration. + + Every orbit must clearly have a hodograph, and, conversely, every + hodograph a corresponding orbit; and, theoretically speaking, it is + possible to deduce the one from the other, having given the other + circumstances of the motion. + + For applications of the hodograph to the solution of kinematical + problems see MECHANICS. + + + + +HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES (1821-1858), known as "Hodson of Hodson's +Horse," British leader of light cavalry during the Indian Mutiny, third +son of the Rev. George Hodson, afterwards archdeacon of Stafford and +canon of Lichfield, was born on the 19th of March 1821 at Maisemore +Court, near Gloucester. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and +accepted a cadetship in the Indian army at the advanced age for those +days of twenty-three. Joining the 2nd Bengal Grenadiers he went through +the first Sikh War, and was present at the battles of Moodkee, +Ferozeshah and Sobraon. In one of his letters home at this period he +calls the campaign a "tissue of mismanagement, blunders, errors, +ignorance and arrogance", and outspoken criticism such as this brought +him many bitter enemies throughout his career, who made the most of +undeniable faults of character. In 1847, through the influence of Sir +Henry Lawrence, he was appointed adjutant of the corps of Guides, and in +1852 was promoted to the command of the Guides with the civil charge of +Yusafzai. But his brusque and haughty demeanour to his equals made him +many enemies. In 1855 two separate charges were brought against him. The +first was that he had arbitrarily imprisoned a Pathan chief named Khadar +Khan, on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of Colonel Mackeson. +The man was acquitted, and Lord Dalhousie removed Hodson from his civil +functions and remanded him to his regiment on account of his lack of +judgment. The second charge was more serious, amounting to an accusation +of malversation in the funds of his regiment. He was tried by a court of +inquiry, who found that his conduct to natives had been "unjustifiable +and oppressive," that he had used abusive language to his native +officers and personal violence to his men, and that his system of +accounts was "calculated to screen peculation and fraud." Subsequently +another inquiry was carried out by Major Reynell Taylor, which dealt +simply with Hodson's accounts and found them to be "an honest and +correct record ... irregularly kept." At this time the Guides were split +up into numerous detachments, and there was a system of advances which +made the accounts very complicated. The verdicts of the two inquiries +may be set against each other, and this particular charge declared "not +proven." It is possible that Hodson was careless and extravagant in +money matters rather than actually dishonest; but there were several +similar charges against him. During a tour through Kashmir with Sir +Henry Lawrence he kept the purse and Sir Henry could never obtain an +account from him; subsequently Sir George Lawrence accused him of +embezzling the funds of the Lawrence Asylum at Kasauli; while Sir +Neville Chamberlain in a published letter says of the third brother, +Lord Lawrence, "I am bound to say that Lord Lawrence had no opinion of +Hodson's integrity in money matters. He has often discussed Hodson's +character in talking to me, and it was to him a regret that a man +possessing so many fine gifts should have been wanting in a moral +quality which made him untrustworthy." Finally, on one occasion Hodson +spent L500 of the pay due to Lieutenant Godby, and under threat of +exposure was obliged to borrow the money from a native banker through +one of his officers named Bisharat Ali. + +It was just at the time when Hodson's career seemed ruined that the +Indian Mutiny broke out, and he obtained the opportunity of +rehabilitating himself. At the very outset of the campaign he made his +name by riding with despatches from General Anson at Karnal to Meerut +and back again, a distance of 152 m. in all, in seventy-two hours, +through a country swarming with the rebel cavalry. This feat so pleased +the commander-in-chief that he empowered him to raise a regiment of 2000 +irregular horse, which became known to fame as Hodson's Horse, and +placed him at the head of the Intelligence Department. In his double +role of cavalry leader and intelligence officer, Hodson played a large +part in the reduction of Delhi and consequently in saving India for the +British empire. He was the finest swordsman in the army, and possessed +that daring recklessness which is the most useful quality of leadership +against Asiatics. In explanation of the fact that he never received the +Victoria Cross it was said of him that it was because he earned it every +day of his life. But he also had the defects of his qualities, and could +display on occasion a certain cruelty and callousness of disposition. +Reference has already been made to Bisharat Ali, who had lent Hodson +money. During the siege of Delhi another native, said to be an enemy of +Bisharat Ali's, informed Hodson that he had turned rebel and had just +reached Khurkhouda, a village near Delhi. Hodson thereupon took out a +body of his sowars, attacked the village, and shot Bisharat Ali and +several of his relatives. General Crawford Chamberlain states that this +was Hodson's way of wiping out the debt. Again, after the fall of Delhi, +Hodson obtained from General Wilson permission to ride out with fifty +horsemen to Humayun's tomb, 6 m. out of Delhi, and bring in Bahadur +Shah, the last of the Moguls. This he did with safety in the face of a +large and threatening crowd, and thus dealt the mutineers a heavy blow. +On the following day with 100 horsemen he went out to the same tomb and +obtained the unconditional surrender of the three princes, who had been +left behind on the previous occasion. A crowd of 6000 persons gathered, +and Hodson with marvellous coolness ordered them to disarm, which they +proceeded to do. He sent the princes on with an escort of ten men, while +with the remaining ninety he collected the arms of the crowd. On +galloping after the princes he found the crowd once more pressing on the +escort and threatening an attack; and fearing that he would be unable to +bring his prisoners into Delhi he shot them with his own hand. This is +the most bitterly criticized action in his career, but no one but the +man on the spot can judge how it is necessary to handle a crowd; and in +addition one of the princes, Abu Bukt, heir-apparent to the throne, had +made himself notorious for cutting off the arms and legs of English +children and pouring the blood into their mothers' mouths. Considering +the circumstances of the moment, Hodson's act at the worst was one of +irregular justice. A more unpleasant side to the question is that he +gave the king a safe conduct, which was afterwards seen by Sir Donald +Stewart, before he left the palace, and presumably for a bribe; and he +took an armlet and rings from the bodies of the princes. He was freely +accused of looting at the time, and though this charge, like that of +peculation, is matter for controversy, it is very strongly supported. +General Pelham Burn said that he saw loot in Hodson's boxes when he +accompanied him from Fatehgarh to take part in the siege of Lucknow, and +Sir Henry Daly said that he found "loads of loot" in Hodson's boxes +after his death, and also a file of documents relating to the Guides +case, which had been stolen from him and of which Hodson denied all +knowledge. On the other hand the Rev. G. Hodson states in his book that +he obtained the inventory of his brother's possessions made by the +Committee of Adjustment and it contained no articles of loot, and Sir +Charles Gough, president of the committee, confirmed this evidence. This +statement is totally incompatible with Sir Henry Daly's and is only one +of many contradictions in the case. Sir Henry Norman stated that to his +personal knowledge Hodson remitted several thousand pounds to Calcutta +which could only have been obtained by looting. On the other hand, +again, Hodson died a poor man, his effects were sold for L170, his widow +was dependent on charity for her passage home, was given apartments by +the queen at Hampton Court, and left only L400 at her death. + +Hodson was killed on the 11th of March 1858 in the attack on the Begum +Kotee at Lucknow. He had just arrived on the spot and met a man going to +fetch powder to blow in a door; instead Hodson, with his usual +recklessness, rushed into the doorway and was shot. On the whole, it can +hardly be doubted that he was somewhat unscrupulous in his private +character, but he was a splendid soldier, and rendered inestimable +services to the empire. + + The controversy relating to Hodson's moral character is very + complicated and unpleasant. Upon Hodson's side see Rev. G. Hodson, + _Hodson of Hodson's Horse_ (1883), and L. J. Trotter, _A Leader of + Light Horse_ (1901); against him, R. Bosworth Smith, _Life of Lord + Lawrence_, appendix to the 6th edition of 1885; T. R. E. Holmes, + _History of the Indian Mutiny_, appendix N to the 5th edition of 1898, + and _Four Famous Soldiers_ by the same author, 1889; and General Sir + Crawford Chamberlain, _Remarks on Captain Trotter's Biography of Major + W. S. R. Hodson_ (1901). + + + + +HODY, HUMPHREY (1659-1707), English divine, was born at Odcombe in +Somersetshire in 1659. In 1676 he entered Wadham College, Oxford, of +which he became fellow in 1685. In 1684 he published _Contra historiam +Aristeae de LXX. interpretibus dissertatio_, in which he showed that the +so-called letter of Aristeas, containing an account of the production of +the Septuagint, was the late forgery of a Hellenist Jew originally +circulated to lend authority to that version. The dissertation was +generally regarded as conclusive, although Isaac Vossius published an +angry and scurrilous reply to it in the appendix to his edition of +Pomponius Mela. In 1689 Hody wrote the _Prolegomena_ to the Greek +chronicle of John Malalas, published at Oxford in 1691. The following +year he became chaplain to Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, +and for his support of the ruling party in a controversy with Henry +Dodwell regarding the non-juring bishops he was appointed chaplain to +Archbishop Tillotson, an office which he continued to hold under +Tenison. In 1698 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford, +and in 1704 was made archdeacon of Oxford. In 1701 he published _A +History of English Councils and Convocations_, and in 1703 in four +volumes _De Bibliorum textis originalibus_, in which he included a +revision of his work on the Septuagint, and published a reply to +Vossius. He died on the 20th of January 1707. + + A work, _De Graecis Illustribus_, which he left in manuscript, was + published in 1742 by Samuel Jebb, who prefixed to it a Latin life of + the author. + + + + +HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886), American inventor, was born in New York +City on the 12th of September 1812. He was the son of Robert Hoe +(1784-1833), an English-born American mechanic, who with his +brothers-in-law, Peter and Matthew Smith, established in New York City a +manufactory of printing presses, and used steam to run his machinery. +Richard entered his father's manufactory at the age of fifteen and +became head of the firm (Robert Hoe & Company) on his father's death. He +had considerable inventive genius and set himself to secure greater +speed for printing presses. He discarded the old flat-bed model and +placed the type on a revolving cylinder, a model later developed into +the well-known Hoe rotary or "lightning" press, patented in 1846, and +further improved under the name of the Hoe web perfecting press (see +PRINTING). He died in Florence, Italy, on the 7th of June 1886. + + See _A Short History of the Printing Press_ (New York, 1902) by his + nephew Robert Hoe (1839-1909), who was responsible for further + improvements in printing, and was an indefatigable worker in support + of the New York Metropolitan Museum. + + + + +HOE (through Fr. _houe_ from O.H.G. _houwa_, mod. Ger. _Haue_; the root +is seen in "hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from +"hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe, +Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c.; this is the same as Northern +English "heugh" and is connected with "hang"), an agricultural and +gardening implement used for extirpating weeds, for stirring the +surface-soil in order to break the capillary channels and so prevent the +evaporation of moisture, for singling out turnips and other root-crops +and similar purposes. Among common forms of hoe are the ordinary +garden-hoe (numbered _1_ in fig. 1), which consists of a flat blade set +transversely in a long wooden handle; the Dutch or thrust-hoe (_2_), +which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion of a spade; +and the swan-neck hoe (_3_), the best manual hoe for agricultural +purposes, which has a long curved neck to attach the blade to the +handle; the soil falls back over this, blocking is thus avoided and a +longer stroke obtained. Several types of horse-drawn hoe capable of +working one or more rows at a time are used among root and grain crops. +The illustrations show two forms of the implement, the blades of which +differ in shape from those of the garden-hoe. Fig. 2 is in ordinary use +for hoeing between two lines of beans or turnips or other "roots." Fig. +3 is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also convertible +into a root-hoe. In the lever-hoe, which is largely used in grain crops, +the blades may be raised and lowered by means of a lever. The +horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles in the rear, but its +successful working depends on accurate drilling of the seed, because +unless the rows are parallel the roots of the plants are liable to be +cut and the foliage injured. Thus Jethro Tull (17th century), with whose +name the beginning of the practice of horse-hoeing is principally +connected, used the drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in +the so-called "Horse-hoeing Husbandry" (see AGRICULTURE). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Three Forms of Manual Hoe.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Martin's One-Row Horse Hoe.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Martin's General Purpose Steerage Horse Hoe.] + + + + +HOEFNAGEL, JORIS (1545-1601), Dutch painter and engraver, the son of a +diamond merchant, was born at Antwerp. He travelled abroad, making +drawings from archaeological subjects, and was a pupil of Jan Bol at +Mechlin. He was afterwards patronized by the elector of Bavaria at +Munich, where he stayed eight years, and by the Emperor Rudolph at +Prague. He died at Vienna in 1601. He is famous for his miniature work, +especially on a missal in the imperial library at Vienna; he painted +animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history; and his +engravings (especially for Braun's _Civitates orbis terrarum_, 1572, and +Ortelius's _Theatrum orbis terrarum_, 1570) give him an interesting +place among early topographical draughtsmen. + + + + +HOF, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper Franconia, +beautifully situated on the Saale, on the north-eastern spurs of the +Fichtelgebirge, 103 m. S.W. of Leipzig on the main line of railway to +Regensburg and Munich. Pop. (1885) 22,257; (1905) 36,348. It has one +Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches (among the latter that of +St Michael, which was restored in 1884), a town hall of 1563, a +gymnasium with an extensive library, a commercial school and a hospital +founded in 1262. It is the seat of various flourishing industries, +notably woollen, cotton and jute spinning, jute weaving, and the +manufacture of cotton and half-woollen fabrics. It has also dye-works, +flour-mills, saw-mills, breweries, iron-works, and manufactures of +machinery, iron and tin wares, chemicals and sugar. In the neighbourhood +there are large marble quarries and extensive iron mines. Hof, +originally called Regnitzhof, was built about 1080. It was held for some +time by the dukes of Meran, and was sold in 1373 to the burgraves of +Nuremberg. The cloth manufacture introduced into it in the 15th century, +and the manufacture of veils begun in the 16th century, greatly promoted +its prosperity, but it suffered severely in the Albertine and Hussite +wars as well as in the Thirty Years' War. In 1792 it came into the +possession of Prussia; in 1806 it fell to France; and in 1810 it was +incorporated with Bavaria. In 1823 the greater part of the town was +destroyed by fire. + + See Ernst, _Geschichte und Beschreibung des Bezirks und der Stadt Hof_ + (1866); Tillmann, _Die Stadt Hof und ihre Umgebung_ (Hof, 1899), and + C. Meyer, _Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hof_ (1894-1896). + + + + +HOFER, ANDREAS (1767-1810), Tirolese patriot, was born on the 22nd of +November 1767 at St Leonhard, in the Passeier valley. There his father +kept an inn known as "am Sand," which Hofer inherited, and on that +account he was popularly known as the "Sandwirth." In addition to this +he carried on a trade in wine and horses with the north of Italy, +acquiring a high reputation for intelligence and honesty. In the wars +against the French from 1796 to 1805 he took part, first as a +sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia. By the treaty of +Pressburg (1805) Tirol was transferred from Austria to Bavaria, and +Hofer, who was almost fanatically devoted to the Austrian house, became +conspicuous as a leader of the agitation against Bavarian rule. In 1808 +he formed one of a deputation who went to Vienna, at the invitation of +the archduke John, to concert a rising; and when in April 1809 the +Tirolese rose in arms, Hofer was chosen commander of the contingent from +his native valley, and inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the Bavarians +at Sterzing (April 11). This victory, which resulted in the temporary +reoccupation of Innsbruck by the Austrians, made Hofer the most +conspicuous of the insurgent leaders. The rapid advance of Napoleon, +indeed, and the defeat of the main Austrian army under the archduke +Charles, once more exposed Tirol to the French and Bavarians, who +reoccupied Innsbruck. The withdrawal of the bulk of the troops, however, +gave the Tirolese their chance again; after two battles fought on the +Iselberg (May 25 and 29) the Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the +country, and Hofer entered Innsbruck in triumph. An autograph letter of +the emperor Francis (May 29) assured him that no peace would be +concluded by which Tirol would again be separated from the Austrian +monarchy, and Hofer, believing his work accomplished, returned to his +home. Then came the news of the armistice of Znaim (July 12), by which +Tirol and Vorarlberg were surrendered by Austria unconditionally and +given up to the vengeance of the French. The country was now again +invaded by 40,000 French and Bavarian troops, and Innsbruck fell; but +the Tirolese once more organized resistance to the French "atheists and +freemasons," and, after a temporary hesitation, Hofer--on whose head a +price had been placed--threw himself into the movement. On the 13th of +August, in another battle on the Iselberg, the French under Marshal +Lefebvre were routed by the Tirolese peasants, and Hofer once more +entered Innsbruck, which he had some difficulty in saving from sack. +Hofer was now elected _Oberkommandant_ of Tirol, took up his quarters in +the Hofburg at Innsbruck, and for two months ruled the country in the +emperor's name. He preserved the habits of a simple peasant, and his +administration was characterized in part by the peasant's shrewd common +sense, but yet more by a pious solicitude for the minutest details of +faith and morals. On the 29th of September Hofer received from the +emperor a chain and medal of honour, which encouraged him in the belief +that Austria did not intend again to desert him; the news of the +conclusion of the treaty of Schonbrunn (October 14), by which Tirol was +again ceded to Bavaria, came upon him as an overwhelming surprise. The +French in overpowering force at once pushed into the country, and, an +amnesty having been stipulated in the treaty, Hofer and his companions, +after some hesitation, gave in their submission. On the 12th of +November, however, urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant +leaders and deceived by false reports of Austrian victories, Hofer again +issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms. The summons met +with little response; the enemy advanced in irresistible force, and +Hofer, a price once more set on his head, had to take refuge in the +mountains. His hiding-place was betrayed by one of his neighbours, named +Josef Raffl, and on the 27th of January 1810 he was captured by Italian +troops and sent in chains to Mantua. There he was tried by +court-martial, and on the 20th of February was shot, twenty-four hours +after his condemnation. This crime, which was believed to be due to +Napoleon's direct orders, caused an immense sensation throughout Germany +and did much to inflame popular sentiment against the French. At the +court of Austria, too, which was accused of having cynically sacrificed +the hero, it produced a painful impression, and Metternich, when he +visited Paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess Marie +Louise to Napoleon, was charged to remonstrate with the emperor. +Napoleon expressed his regret, stating that the execution had been +carried out against his wishes, having been hurried on by the zeal of +his generals. In 1823 Hofer's remains were removed from Mantua to +Innsbruck, where they were interred in the Franciscan church, and in +1834 a marble statue was erected over his tomb. In 1893 a bronze statue +of him was also set up on the Iselberg. At Meran his patriotic deeds of +heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually in the +open air. In 1818 the patent of nobility bestowed upon him by the +Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his family. + + See _Leben und Thaten des ehemaligen Tyroler Insurgenten-Chefs Andr. + Hofer_ (Berlin, 1810); _Andr. Hofer und die Tyroler Insurrection im + Jahre 1809_ (Munich, 1811); Hormayr, _Geschichte Andr. Hofer's + Sandwirths auf Passeyr_ (Leipzig, 1845); B. Weber, _Das Thal Passeyr + und seine Bewohner mit besonderer Rucksicht auf Andreas Hofer und das + Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck, 1851); Rapp, _Tirol im Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck, + 1852); Weidinger, _Andreas Hofer und seine Kampfgenossen_ (3rd ed., + Leipzig, 1861); Heigel, _Andreas Hofer_ (Munich, 1874); Stampfer, + _Sandwirt Andreas Hofer_ (Freiburg, 1874); Schmolze, _Andreas Hofer + und seine Kampfgenossen_ (Innsbruck, 1900). His history has supplied + the materials for tragedies to B. Auerbach and Immermann, and for + numerous ballads, of which some remain very popular in Germany (see + Franke, _Andreas Hofer im Liede_, Innsbruck, 1884). + + + + +HOFFDING, HARALD (1843- ), Danish philosopher, was born and educated in +Copenhagen. He became a schoolmaster, and ultimately in 1883 professor +in the university of Copenhagen. He was much influenced by Soren +Kierkegaard in the early development of his thought, but later became a +positivist, retaining, however, and combining with it the spirit and +method of practical psychology and the critical school. His best-known +work is perhaps his _Den nyere Filosofis Historie_ (1894), translated +into English from the German edition (1895) by B. E. Meyer as _History +of Modern Philosophy_ (2 vols., 1900), a work intended by him to +supplement and correct that of Hans Brochner, to whom it is dedicated. +His _Psychology, the Problems of Philosophy_ (1905) and _Philosophy of +Religion_ (1906) also have appeared in English. + + Among Hoffding's other writings, practically all of which have been + translated into German, are: _Den engelske Filosofi i vor Tid_ (1874); + _Etik_ (1876; ed. 1879); _Psychologi i Omrids paa Grundlag of + Erfaring_ (ed. 1892); _Psykologiske Undersogelser_ (1889); _Charles + Darwin_ (1889); _Kontinuiteten i Kants filosofiske Udviklingsgang_ + (1893); _Det psykologiske Grundlag for logiske Domme_ (1899); + _Rousseau und seine Philosophie_ (1901); _Mindre Arbejder_ (1899). + + + + +HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1798-1874), known as HOFFMANN VON +FALLERSLEBEN, German poet, philologist and historian of literature, was +born at Fallersleben in the duchy of Luneburg, Hanover, on the 2nd of +April 1798, the son of the mayor of the town. He was educated at the +classical schools of Helmstedt and Brunswick, and afterwards at the +universities of Gottingen and Bonn. His original intention was to study +theology, but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature. In 1823 he +was appointed custodian of the university library at Breslau, a post +which he held till 1838. He was also made extraordinary professor of the +German language and literature at that university in 1830, and ordinary +professor in 1835; but he was deprived of his chair in 1842 in +consequence of his _Unpolitische Lieder_ (1840-1841), which gave much +offence to the authorities in Prussia. He then travelled in Germany, +Switzerland and Italy, and lived for two or three years in Mecklenburg, +of which he became a naturalized citizen. After the revolution of 1848 +he was enabled to return to Prussia, where he was restored to his +rights, and received the _Wartegeld_--the salary attached to a promised +office not yet vacant. He married in 1849, and during the next ten years +lived first in Bingerbruck, afterwards in Neuwied, and then in Weimar, +where together with Oskar Schade (1826-1906) he edited the _Weimarische +Jahrbuch_ (1854-1857). In 1860 he was appointed librarian to the Duke of +Ratibor at the monasterial castle of Corvey near Hoxter on the Weser, +where he died on the 19th of January 1874. Fallersleben was one of the +best popular poets of modern Germany. In politics he ardently +sympathized with the progressive tendencies of his time, and he was +among the earliest and most effective of the political poets who +prepared the way for the outbreak of 1848. As a poet, however, he +acquired distinction chiefly by the ease, simplicity and grace with +which he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life. +Although he had not been scientifically trained in music, he composed +melodies for many of his songs, and a considerable number of them are +sung by all classes in every part of Germany. Among the best known is +the patriotic _Deutschland, Deutschland uber Alles_, composed in 1841 on +the island of Heligoland, where a monument was erected in 1891 to his +memory (subsequently destroyed). + + The best of his poetical writings is his _Gedichte_ (1827; 9th ed., + Berlin, 1887); but there is great merit also in his _Alemannische + Lieder_ (1826; 5th ed., 1843), _Soldatenlieder_ (1851), + _Soldatenleben_ (1852), _Rheinleben_ (1865), and in his _Funfzig + Kinderlieder_, _Funfzig neue Kinderlieder_, and _Alte und neue + Kinderlieder_. His _Unpolitische Lieder_, _Deutsche Lieder aus der + Schweiz_ and _Streiflichter_ are not without poetical value, but they + are mainly interesting in relation to the movements of the age in + which they were written. As a student of ancient Teutonic literature + Hoffmann von Fallersleben ranks among the most persevering and + cultivated of German scholars, some of the chief results of his + labours being embodied in his _Horae Belgicae_, _Fundgruben fur + Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur_, _Altdeutsche Blatter_, + _Spenden zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte_ and _Findlinge_. Among his + editions of particular works may be named _Reineke Vos_, _Monumenta + Elnonensia_ and _Theophilus_. _Die deutsche Philologie im Grundriss_ + (1836) was at the time of its publication a valuable contribution to + philological research, and historians of German literature still + attach importance to his _Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes bis + auf Luther_ (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), _Unsere volkstumlichen Lieder_ (3rd + ed., 1869) and _Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder des 16. und 17. + Jahrh._ (2nd ed., 1860). In 1868-1870 Hoffmann published in 6 vols. an + autobiography, _Mein Leben: Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen_ (an + abbreviated ed. in 2 vols., 1894). His _Gesammelte Werke_ were edited + by H. Gerstenberg in 8 vols. (1891-1894); his _Ausgewahlte Werke_ by + H. Benzmann (1905, 4 vols.). See also _Briefe von Hoffmann von + Fallersleben und Moritz Haupt an Ferdinand Wolf_ (1874); J. M. Wagner, + _Hoffmann von Fallersleben, 1818-1868_ (1869-1870), and R. von + Gottschall, _Portrats und Studien_ (vol. v., 1876). + + + + +HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM (1776-1822), German romance-writer, was +born at Konigsberg on the 24th of January 1776. For the name Wilhelm he +himself substituted Amadeus in homage to Mozart. His parents lived +unhappily together, and when the child was only three they separated. +His bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understanding nor +sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament. Hoffmann showed more +talent for music and drawing than for books. In 1792, when little over +sixteen years old, he entered the university of Konigsberg, with a view +to preparing himself for a legal career. The chief features of interest +in his student years were an intimate friendship for Theodor Gottlieb +von Hippel (1775-1843), a nephew of the novelist Hippel, and an unhappy +passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons; the latter found its +outlet, not merely in music, but also in two novels, neither of which he +was able to have published. In the summer of 1795 he began his practical +career as a jurist in Konigsberg, but his mother's death and the +complications in which his love-affair threatened to involve him made +him decide to leave his native town and continue his legal +apprenticeship in Glogau. In the autumn of 1798 he was transferred to +Berlin, where the beginnings of the new Romantic movement were in the +air. Music, however, had still the first place in his heart, and the +Berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests. + +In 1800 further promotion brought him to Posen, where he gave himself up +entirely to the pleasures of the hour. Unfortunately, however, his +brilliant powers of caricature brought him into ill odour, and instead +of receiving the hoped-for preferment in Posen itself, he found himself +virtually banished to the little town of Plozk on the Vistula. Before +leaving Posen he married, and his domestic happiness alleviated to some +extent the monotony of the two years' exile. His leisure was spent in +literary studies and musical composition. In 1804 he was transferred to +Warsaw, where, through J. E. Hitzig (1780-1849), he was introduced to +Zacharias Werner, and began to take an interest in the later Romantic +literature; now, for the first time, he discovered how writers like +Novalis, Tieck, and especially Wackenroder, had spoken out of his own +heart. But in spite of this literary stimulus, his leisure in Warsaw was +mainly occupied by composition; he wrote music to Brentano's _Lustige +Musikanten_ and Werner's _Kreuz an der Ostsee_, and also an opera _Liebe +und Eifersucht_, based on Calderon's drama _La Banda y la Flor_. + +The arrival of the French in Warsaw and the consequent political changes +put an end to Hoffmann's congenial life there, and a time of tribulation +followed. A position which he obtained in 1808 as musical director of a +new theatre in Bamberg availed him little, as within a very short time +the theatre was bankrupt and Hoffmann again reduced to destitution. But +these misfortunes induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out +the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving music +lessons. The editor of the _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ expressed +his willingness to accept contributions from Hoffmann, and here appeared +for the first time some of the musical sketches which ultimately passed +over into the _Phantasiestucke in Callots Manier_. This work appeared in +four volumes in 1814 and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer. +Meanwhile, Hoffmann had again been for some time attached, in the +capacity of musical director, to a theatrical company, whose +headquarters were at Dresden. In 1814 he gladly embraced the opportunity +that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in Berlin, and two +years later he was appointed councillor of the Court of Appeal +(_Kammergericht_). Hoffmann had the reputation of being an excellent +jurist and a conscientious official; he had leisure for literary +pursuits and was on the best of terms with the circle of Romantic poets +and novelists who gathered round Fouque, Chamisso and his old friend +Hitzig. Unfortunately, however, the habits of intemperance which, in +earlier years, had thrown a shadow over his life, grew upon him, and his +health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the wine-house, +in company unworthy of him. He was struck down by locomotor ataxy, and +died on the 24th of July 1822. + +The _Phantasiestucke_, which had been published with a commendatory +preface by Jean Paul, were followed in 1816 by the gruesome novel--to +some extent inspired by Lewis's _Monk--Die Elixiere des Teufels_, and +the even more gruesome and grotesque stories which make up the +_Nachtstucke_ (1817, 2 vols.). The full range of Hoffmann's powers is +first clearly displayed in the collection of stories (4 vols., +1819-1821) _Die Serapionsbruder_, this being the name of a small club of +Hoffmann's more intimate literary friends. _Die Serapionsbruder_ +includes not merely stories in which Hoffmann's love for the mysterious +and the supernatural is to be seen, but novels in which he draws on his +own early reminiscences (_Rat Krespel_, _Fermate_), finely outlined +pictures of old German life (_Der Artushof_, _Meister Martin der Kufner +und seine Gesellen_), and vivid and picturesque incidents from Italian +and French history (_Doge und Dogaressa_, the story of Marino Faliero, +and _Das Fraulein von Scuderi_). The last-mentioned story is usually +regarded as Hoffmann's masterpiece. Two longer works also belong to +Hoffmann's later years and display to advantage his powers as a +humorist; these are _Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober_ (1819), and +_Lebensansichten des Katers Murr, nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des +Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler_ (1821-1822). + +Hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the Romantic movement in +Germany. He combined with a humour that reminds us of Jean Paul the warm +sympathy for the artist's standpoint towards life, which was enunciated +by early Romantic leaders like Tieck and Wackenroder; but he was +superior to all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination. His +works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes--in this respect they mark +a descent from the high ideals of the Romantic school; but the gruesome +was only one outlet for Hoffmann's genius, and even here the secret of +his power lay not in his choice of subjects, but in the wonderfully +vivid and realistic presentation of them. Every line he wrote leaves the +impression behind it that it expresses something felt or experienced; +every scene, vision or character he described seems to have been real +and living to him. It is this realism, in the best sense of the word, +that made him the great artist he was, and gave him so extraordinary a +power over his contemporaries. + + The first collected edition of Hoffmann's works appeared in ten + volumes (_Ausgewahlte Schriften_, 1827-1828); to these his widow added + five volumes in 1839 (including the 3rd edition of J. E. Hitzig's _Aus + Hoffmanns Leben und Nachlass_, 1823). Other editions of his works + appeared in 1844-1845, 1871-1873, 1879-1883, and, most complete of + all, _Samtliche Werke_, edited by E. Grisebach, in 15 vols. (1900). + There are many editions of selections, as well as cheap reprints of + the more popular stories. All Hoffmann's important works--except + _Klein Zaches_ and _Kater Murr_--have been translated into English: + _The Devil's Elixir_ (1824), _The Golden Pot_ by Carlyle (in _German + Romance_, 1827), _The Serapion Brethren_ by A. Ewing (1886-1892), &c. + In France Hoffmann was even more popular than in England. Cp. G. + Thurau, _Hoffmanns Erzahlungen in Frankreich_ (1896). An edition of + his _Oeuvres completes_ appeared in 12 vols. in Paris in 1830. The + best monograph on Hoffmann is by G. Ellinger, _E. T. A. Hoffmann_ + (1894); see also O. Klinke, _Hoffmanns Leben und Werke vom Standpunkte + eines Irrenarztes_ (1903); and the exhaustive bibliography in + Goedeke's _Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_, 2nd ed., + vol. viii. pp. 468 ff. (1905). (J. G. R.) + + + + +HOFFMANN, FRANCOIS BENOIT (1760-1828), French dramatist and critic, was +born at Nancy on the 11th of July 1760. He studied law at the university +of Strassburg, but a slight hesitation in his speech precluded success +at the bar, and he entered a regiment on service in Corsica. He served, +however, for a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, he wrote some +poems which brought him into notice at the little court of Luneville +over which the marquise de Boufflers then presided. In 1784 he went to +Paris, and two years later produced the opera _Phedre_. His opera +_Adrien_ (1792) was objected to by the government on political grounds, +and Hoffmann, who refused to make the changes proposed to him, ran +considerable risk under the revolutionary government. His later operas, +which were numerous, were produced at the Opera Comique. In 1807 he was +invited by Etienne to contribute to the _Journal de l'Empire_ +(afterwards the _Journal des debats_). Hoffmann's wide reading qualified +him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned, apparently with no +difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine to violent attacks on the +Jesuits. His severe criticism of Chateaubriand's _Martyrs_ led the +author to make some changes in a later edition. He had the reputation of +being an absolutely conscientious and incorruptible critic and thus +exercised wide influence. Hoffmann died in Paris on the 25th of April +1828. Among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent one-act +comedy, _Le Roman d'une heure_ (1803), and an amusing one-act opera _Les +Rendez-vous bourgeois_. + + See Sainte-Beuve, "M. de Feletz et la critique litteraire sous + l'Empire" in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. i. + + + + +HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH (1660-1742), German physician, a member of a family +that had been connected with medicine for 200 years before him, was born +at Halle on the 19th of February 1660. At the gymnasium of his native +town he acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he +attributed much of his after success. At the age of eighteen he went to +study medicine at Jena, whence in 1680 he passed to Erfurt, in order to +attend Kasper Cramer's lectures on chemistry. Next year, returning to +Jena, he received his doctor's diploma, and, after publishing a thesis, +was permitted to teach. Constant study then began to tell on his +health, and in 1682, leaving his already numerous pupils, he proceeded +to Minden in Westphalia to recruit himself, at the request of a relative +who held a high position in that town. After practising at Minden for +two years, Hoffmann made a journey to Holland and England, where he +formed the acquaintance of many illustrious chemists and physicians. +Towards the end of 1684 he returned to Minden, and during the next three +years he received many flattering appointments. In 1688 he removed to +the more promising sphere of Halberstadt, with the title of physician to +the principality of Halberstadt; and on the founding of Halle university +in 1693, his reputation, which had been steadily increasing, procured +for him the primarius chair of medicine, while at the same time he was +charged with the responsible duty of framing the statutes for the new +medical faculty. He filled also the chair of natural philosophy. With +the exception of four years (1708-1712), which he passed at Berlin in +the capacity of royal physician, Hoffmann spent the rest of his life at +Halle in instruction, practice and study, interrupted now and again by +visits to different courts of Germany, where his services procured him +honours and rewards. His fame became European. He was enrolled a member +of many learned societies in different foreign countries, while in his +own he became privy councillor. He died at Halle on the 12th of November +1742. + + Of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in Haller's + _Bibliotheca medicinae practicae_. The chief is _Medicina rationalis + systematica_, undertaken at the age of sixty, and published in 1730. + It was translated into French in 1739, under the title of _Medecine + raisonnee d'Hoffmann_. A complete edition of Hoffmann's works, with a + life of the author, was published at Geneva in 1740, to which + supplements were added in 1753 and 1760. Editions appeared also at + Venice in 1745 and at Naples in 1753 and 1793. (See also MEDICINE.) + + + + +HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH (1805-1878), German scholar, was born at +Wurzburg on the 16th of February 1805. After studying at Wurzburg he +went on the stage in 1825; but owing to an accidental meeting with the +German traveller, Dr Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796-1866), in July +1830, his interest was diverted to Oriental philology. From Siebold he +acquired the rudiments of Japanese, and in order to take advantage of +the instructions of Ko-ching-chang, a Chinese teacher whom Siebold had +brought home with him, he made himself acquainted with Malay, the only +language except Chinese which the Chinaman could understand. In a few +years he was able to supply the translations for Siebold's _Nippon_; and +the high character of his work soon attracted the attention of older +scholars. Stanislas Julien invited him to Paris; and he would probably +have accepted the invitation, as a disagreement had broken out between +him and Siebold, had not M. Baud, the Dutch colonial minister, appointed +him Japanese translator with a salary of 1800 florins (L150). The Dutch +authorities were slow in giving him further recognition; and he was too +modest a man successfully to urge his claims. It was not till after he +had received the offer of the professorship of Chinese in King's +College, London, that the authorities made him professor at Leiden and +the king allowed him a yearly pension. In 1875 he was decorated with the +order of the Netherlands Lion, and in 1877 he was elected corresponding +member of the Berlin Academy. He died at the Hague on the 23rd of +January 1878. + + Hoffmann's chief work was his unfinished Japanese Dictionary, begun in + 1839 and afterwards continued by L. Serrurier. Unable at first to + procure the necessary type, he set himself to the cutting of punches, + and even when the proper founts were obtained he had to act as his own + compositor as far as Chinese and Japanese were concerned. His Japanese + grammar (_Japanische Sprachlehre_) was published in Dutch and English + in 1867, and in English and German in 1876. Of his miscellaneous + productions it is enough to mention "Japans Bezuge mit der koraischen + Halbinsel und mit Schina" in _Nippon_, vii.; _Yo-San-fi-Rok_, _L'Art + d'elever les vers a soie au Japon, par Ouckaki Mourikouni_ (Paris, + 1848); "Die Heilkunde in Japan" in _Mittheil. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. + fur Natur- und Volkerk. Ost-Asiens_ (1873-1874); and _Japanische + Studien_ (1878). + + + + +HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1818-1892), German chemist, was born at +Giessen on the 8th of April 1818. Not intending originally to devote +himself to physical science, he first took up the study of law and +philology at Gottingen, and the general culture he thus gained stood him +in good stead when he turned to chemistry, the study of which he began +under Liebig. When, in 1845, a school of practical chemistry was started +in London, under the style of the Royal College of Chemistry, Hofmann, +largely through the influence of the Prince Consort, was appointed its +first director. It was with some natural hesitation that he, then a +_Privatdozent_ at Bonn, accepted the position, which may well have +seemed rather a precarious one; but the difficulty was removed by his +appointment as extraordinary professor at Bonn, with leave of absence +for two years, so that he could resume his career in Germany if his +English one proved unsatisfactory. Fortunately the college was more or +less successful, owing largely to his enthusiasm and energy, and many of +the men who were trained there subsequently made their mark in chemical +history. But in 1864 he returned to Bonn, and in the succeeding year he +was selected to succeed E. Mitscherlich as professor of chemistry and +director of the laboratory in Berlin University. In leaving England, of +which he used to speak as his adopted country, Hofmann was probably +influenced by a combination of causes. The public support extended to +the college of chemistry had been dwindling for some years, and before +he left it had ceased to have an independent existence and had been +absorbed into the School of Mines. This event he must have looked upon +as a curtailment of its possibilities of usefulness. But, in addition, +there is only too much reason to suppose that he was disappointed at the +general apathy with which his science was regarded in England. No man +ever realized more fully than he how entirely dependent on the advance +of scientific knowledge is the continuation of a country's material +prosperity, and no single chemist ever exercised a greater or more +direct influence upon industrial development. In England, however, +people cared for none of these things, and were blind to the commercial +potentialities of scientific research. The college to which Hofmann +devoted nearly twenty of the best years of his life was starved; the +coal-tar industry, which was really brought into existence by his work +and that of his pupils under his direction at that college, and which +with a little intelligent forethought might have been retained in +England, was allowed to slip into the hands of Germany, where it is now +worth millions of pounds annually; and Hofmann himself was compelled to +return to his native land to find due appreciation as one of the +foremost chemists of his time. The rest of his life was spent in Berlin, +and there he died on the 5th of May 1892. That city possesses a +permanent memorial to his name in Hofmann House, the home of the German +Chemical Society (of which he was the founder), which was formally +opened in 1900, appropriately enough with an account of that great +triumph of German chemical enterprise, the industrial manufacture of +synthetical indigo. + +Hofmann's work covered a wide range of organic chemistry, though with +inorganic bodies he did but little. His first research, carried out in +Liebig's laboratory at Giessen, was on coal-tar, and his investigation +of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha established the nature of +aniline. This substance he used to refer to as his first love, and it +was a love to which he remained faithful throughout his life. His +perception of the analogy between it and ammonia led to his famous work +on the amines and ammonium bases and the allied organic phosphorus +compounds, while his researches on rosaniline, which he first prepared +in 1858, formed the first of a series of investigations on colouring +matters which only ended with quinoline red in 1887. But in addition to +these and numberless other investigations for which he was responsible +the influence he exercised through his pupils must also be taken into +account. As a teacher, besides the power of accurately gauging the +character and capabilities of those who studied under him, he had the +faculty of infecting them with his own enthusiasm, and thus of +stimulating them to put forward their best efforts. In the lecture-room +he laid great stress on the importance of experimental demonstrations, +paying particular attention to their selection and arrangement, though, +since he himself was a somewhat clumsy manipulator, their actual +exhibition was generally entrusted to his assistants. He was the +possessor of a clear and graceful, if somewhat florid, style, which +showed to special advantage in his numerous obituary notices or +encomiums (collected and published in three volumes _Zur Erinnerung an +vorangegangene Freunde_, 1888). He also excelled as a speaker, +particularly at gatherings of an international character, for in +addition to his native German he could speak English, French and Italian +with fluency. + + See _Memorial Lectures delivered before the Chemical Society, + 1893-1900_ (London, 1901). + + + + +HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON (1810-1877), Lutheran theologian +and historian, was born on the 21st of December 1810 at Nuremberg, and +studied theology and history at the university of Erlangen. In 1829 he +went to Berlin, where Schleiermacher, Hengstenberg, Neander, Ranke and +Raumer were among his teachers. In 1833 he received an appointment to +teach Hebrew and history in the gymnasium of Erlangen. In 1835 he became +_Repetent_, in 1838 _Privatdozent_ and in 1841 _professor +extraordinarius_ in the theological faculty at Erlangen. In 1842 he +became _professor ordinarius_ at Rostock, but in 1845 returned once more +to Erlangen as the successor of Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless +(1806-1879), founder of the _Zeitschrift fur Protestantismus und +Kirche_, of which Hofmann became one of the editors in 1846, J. F. +Hofling (1802-1853) and Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) being his +collaborators. He was a conservative in theology, but an enthusiastic +adherent of the progressive party in politics, and sat as member for +Erlangen and Furth in the Bavarian second chamber from 1863 to 1868. He +died on the 20th of December 1877. + +He wrote _Die siebzig Jahre des Jeremias u. die siebzig Jahrwochen des +Daniel_ (1836); _Geschichte des Aufruhrs in den Cevennen_ (1837); +_Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte fur Gymnasien_ (1839), which became a +text-book in the Protestant gymnasia of Bavaria; _Weissagung u. +Erfullung im alten u. neuen Testamente_ (1841-1844; 2nd ed., 1857-1860); +_Der Schriftbeweis_ (1852-1856; 2nd ed., 1857-1860); _Die heilige +Schrift des neuen Testaments zusammenhangend untersucht_ (1862-1875); +_Schutzschriften_ (1856-1859), in which he defends himself against the +charge of denying the Atonement; and _Theologische Ethik_ (1878). His +most important works are the five last named. In theology, as in +ecclesiastical polity, Hofmann was a Lutheran of an extreme type, +although the strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid +him open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy. He was the head of what +has been called the Erlangen School, and "in his day he was +unquestionably the chief glory of the University of Erlangen" +(Lichtenberger). + + See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ and the + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and cf. F. Lichtenberger, _History + of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889) pp. 446-458. + + + + +HOFMANN, MELCHIOR (c. 1498-1543-4), anabaptist, was born at Hall, in +Swabia, before 1500 (Zur Linden suggests 1498). His biographers usually +give his surname as above; in his printed works it is Hoffman, in his +manuscripts Hoffmann. He was without scholarly training, and first +appears as a furrier at Livland. Attracted by Luther's doctrine, he came +forward as a lay preacher, combining business travels with a religious +mission. Accompanied by Melchior Rinck, also a skinner or furrier, and a +religious enthusiast, he made his way to Sweden. Joined by Bernard +Knipperdolling, the party reached Stockholm in the autumn of 1524. Their +fervid attacks on image worship led to their expulsion. By way of +Livonia, Hofmann arrived at Dorpat in November 1524, but was driven +thence in the following January. Making his way to Riga, and thence to +Wittenberg, he found favour with Luther; his letter of the 22nd of June +1525 appears in a tract by Luther of that year. He was again at Dorpat +in May 1526; later at Magdeburg. Returning to Wittenberg, he was coldly +received; he wrote there his exposition of Daniel xii. (1527). Repairing +to Holstein, he got into the good graces of Frederick I. of Denmark, and +was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the Gospel at Kiel. He was +extravagant in denunciation, and developed a Zwinglian view of the +Eucharist. Luther was alarmed. At a colloquy of preachers in Flensburg +(8th April 1529) Hofmann, John Campanus and others were put on their +defence. Hofmann maintained (against the "magic" of the Lutherans) that +the function of the Eucharist, like that of preaching, is an appeal for +spiritual union with Christ. Refusing to retract, he was banished. At +Strassburg to which he now turned, he was well received (1529) till his +anabaptist development became apparent. He was in relations with +Schwenkfeld and with Carlstadt, but assumed a prophetic role of his own. +Journeying to East Friesland, (1530) he founded a community at Emden +(1532), securing a large following of artisans. Despite the warning of +John Trypmaker, who prophesied for him "six months" in prison, he +returned in the spring of 1533 to Strassburg, where we hear of his wife +and child. He gathered from the Apocalypse a vision of "resurrections" +of apostolic Christianity, first under John Hus, and now under himself. +The year 1533 was to inaugurate the new era; Strassburg was to be the +seat of the New Jerusalem. In May 1533 he and others were arrested. +Under examination, he denied that he had made common cause with the +anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet, a mere witness of the Most +High, but refused the articles of faith proposed to him by the +provincial synod. Hofmann and Claus Frey, an anabaptist, were detained +in prison, a measure due to the terror excited by the Munster episode of +1533-1534. The synod, in 1539, made further effort to reclaim him. The +last notice of his imprisonment is on the 19th of November 1543; he +probably died soon after. + +Two of his publications, with similar titles, in 1530, are noteworthy as +having influenced Menno Simons and David Joris (_Weissagung vsz heiliger +gotlicher geschrifft_, and _Prophecey oder Weissagung vsz warer heiliger +gotlicher schrifft_). Bock treats him as an antitrinitarian, on grounds +which Wallace rightly deems inconclusive. With better reason Trechsel +includes him among pioneers of some of the positions of Servetus. His +Christology was Valentinian. While all are elected to salvation, only +the regenerate may receive baptism, and those who sin after regeneration +sin against the Holy Ghost, and cannot be saved. His followers were +known as Hofmannites or Melchiorites. + + See G. Herrmann, _Essai sur la vie et les ecrits de M. Hofmann_ + (1852); F. O. zur Linden, _M. Hofmann, ein Prophet der Wiedertaufer_ + (1885); H. Holtzmann, in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1880); + Hegler in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1900); Bock, _Hist. Antitrin._ + (1776), ii.; Wallace, _Antitrin. Biography_ (1850) iii., app. iii.; + Trechsel, _Prot. Antitrin. vor F. Socin_ (1839) i.; Barclay, _Inner + Life of Rel. Societies_ (1876). An alleged portrait, from an engraving + of 1608, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross, _Pansebeia_ (1655). + (A. Go.*) + + + + +HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT (1824-1877), German botanist, was +born at Leipzig on the 18th of May 1824. He came of a family engaged in +trade, and after being educated at the _Realschule_ of Leipzig he +entered business as a music-dealer. Much of his botanical work was done +while he was so employed, till in 1863 he was nominated, without +intermediate academic steps, to the chair in Heidelberg; thence he was +transferred in 1872 to Tubingen, in succession to H. von Mohl. His first +work was on the distribution of the Coniferae in the Himalaya, but his +attention was very soon devoted to studying the sexuality and origin of +the embryo of Phanerogams. His contributions on this subject extended +from 1847 till 1860, and they finally settled the question of the origin +of the embryo from an ovum, as against the prevalent pollen-tube theory +of M. J. Schleiden, for he showed that the pollen-tube does not itself +produce the embryo, but only stimulates the ovum already present in the +ovule. He soon turned his attention to the embryology of Bryophytes and +Pteridophytes, and gave continuous accounts of the germination of the +spores and fertilization in _Pilularia_, _Salvinia_, _Selaginella_. Some +of the main facts of the life of ferns and mosses were already known; +these, together with his own wider observations, were worked into that +great general pronouncement published in 1851 under the title, +_Vergleichende Untersuchungen der Keimung, Entfaltung und Fruchtbildung +koherer Kryptogamen und der Samenbildung der Coniferen_. This work will +always stand in the first rank of botanical books. It antedated the +_Origin of Species_ by eight years, but contained facts and comparisons +which could only become intelligible on some theory of descent. The plan +of life-story common to them all, involving two alternating generations, +was demonstrated for Liverworts, Mosses, Ferns, Equiseta, Rhizocarps, +Lycopodiaceae, and even Gymnosperms, with a completeness and certainty +which must still surprise those who know the botanical literature of the +author's time. The conclusions of Hofmeister remain in their broad +outlines unshaken, but rather strengthened by later-acquired details. In +the light of the theory of descent the common plan of life-history in +plants apparently so diverse as those named acquires a special +significance; but it is one of the remarkable features of this great +work that the writer himself does not theorize--with an unerring insight +he points out his comparisons and states his homologies, but does not +indulge in explanatory surmises. It is the typical work of an heroic age +of plant-morphology. From 1857 till 1862 Hofmeister wrote occasionally +on physiological subjects, such as the ascent of sap, and curvatures of +growing parts, but it was in morphology that he found his natural +sphere. In 1861, in conjunction with other botanists, a plan was drawn +up of a handbook of physiological botany, of which Hofmeister was to be +editor. Though the original scheme was never completed, the editor +himself contributed two notable parts, _Die Lehre von der Pflanzenzelle_ +(1867) and _Allgemeine Morphologie der Gewachse_ (1868). The former +gives an excellent summary of the structure and relations of the +vegetable cell as then known, but it did not greatly modify current +views. The latter was notable for its refutation of the spiral theory of +leaf arrangement in plants, founded by C. F. Schimper and A. Braun. +Hofmeister transferred the discussion from the mere study of mature form +to the observation of the development of the parts, and substituted for +the "spiral tendency" a mechanical theory based upon the observed fact +that new branchings appear over the widest gaps which exist between next +older branchings of like nature. With this important work Hofmeister's +period of active production closed; he fell into ill-health, and retired +from his academic duties some time before his death at Lindenau, near +Leipzig, on the 12th of January 1877. (F. O. B.) + + + + +HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK (1845-1909), South African politician, was born at +Cape Town on the 4th of July 1845. He was educated at the South African +College, and at an early age turned his attention to politics, first as +a journalist. He was editor of the _Zuid Afrikaan_ till its +incorporation with _Ons Land_, and of the _Zuid Afrikaansche +Tijdschrift_. By birth, education and sympathies a typical Dutch +Afrikander, he set himself to organize the political power of his +fellow-countrymen. This he did very effectively, and when in 1879 he +entered the Cape parliament as member for Stellenbosch, he became the +real leader of the Dutch party. Yet he only held office for six +months--as minister without portfolio in the Scanlen ministry from May +to November 1881. He held no subsequent official post in the colony, +though he shared with Sir Thomas Upington and Sir Charles Mills the +honour of representing the Cape at the intercolonial conference of 1887. +Here he supported the proposal for entrusting the defence of Simon's +Town to Cape Colony, leaving only the armament to be provided by the +imperial government, opposed trans-oceanic penny postage, and moved a +resolution in favour of an imperial customs union. At the colonial +conference of 1894 at Ottawa he was again one of the Cape +representatives. In 1888 and in 1889 he was a member of the South +African customs conference. + +His chief importance as a public man was, however, derived from his +power over the Dutch in Cape Colony, and his control of the Afrikander +Bond. In 1878 he had himself founded the "Farmers' Association," and as +the Cape farmers were almost entirely Dutch the Association became a +centre of Dutch influence. When the Bond was formed in 1882, with purely +political aims, Hofmeyr made haste to obtain control of it, and in 1883 +amalgamated the Farmers' Association with it. Under his direction the +constitution of the Bond was modified by the elimination of the +provisions inconsistent with loyalty to the British crown. But it +remained an organization for obtaining the political supremacy of the +Cape Dutch. (See CAPE COLONY: _History_.) His control over the Bond +enabled him for many years, while free from the responsibilities of +office, to make and unmake ministers at his will, and earned for him the +name of "Cabinet-maker of South Africa." Although officially the term +"Afrikander" was explained by Hofmeyr to include white men of whatever +race, yet in practice the influence of the Bond was always exerted in +favour of the Dutch, and its power was drawn from the Dutch districts of +Cape Colony. The sympathies of the Bond were thus always strongly with +the Transvaal, as the chief centre of Dutch influence in South Africa; +and Hofmeyr's position might in many respects be compared with that of +Parnell at the head of the Irish Nationalist party in Great Britain. In +the Bechuanaland difficulty of 1884 Hofmeyr threw all the influence of +the Bond into the scale in favour of the Transvaal. But in the course of +the next few years he began to drift away from President Kruger. He +resented the reckless disregard of Cape interests involved in Kruger's +fiscal policy; he feared that the Transvaal, after its sudden leap into +prosperity upon the gold discoveries of 1886, might overshadow all other +Dutch influences in South Africa; above all he was convinced, as he +showed by his action at the London conference, that the protection of +the British navy was indispensable to South Africa, and he set his face +against Kruger's intrigues with Germany, and his avowed intention of +acquiring an outlet to the sea in order to get into touch with foreign +powers. + +In 1890 Hofmeyr joined forces with Cecil Rhodes, who became premier of +Cape Colony with the support of the Bond. Hofmeyr's influence was a +powerful factor in the conclusion of the Swaziland convention of 1890, +as well as in stopping the "trek" to Banyailand (Rhodesia) in 1891--a +notable reversal of the policy he had pursued seven years before. But +the reactionary elements in the Bond grew alarmed at Rhodes's +imperialism, and in 1895 Hofmeyr resigned his seat in parliament and the +presidency of the Bond. Then came the Jameson Raid, and in its wake +there rolled over South Africa a wave of Dutch and anti-British feeling +such as had not been known since the days of Majuba. (The proclamation +issued by Sir Hercules Robinson disavowing Jameson was suggested by +Hofmeyr, who helped to draw up its terms.) Once more Hofmeyr became +president of the Bond. By an alteration of the provincial constitution, +all power in the Cape branch of the Bond was vested in the hands of a +vigilance committee of three, of whom Hofmeyr and his brother were two. +As the recognized leader of the Cape Dutch, he protested against such +abuses as the dynamite monopoly in the Transvaal, and urged Kruger even +at the eleventh hour to grant reasonable concessions rather than plunge +into a war that might involve Cape Afrikanderdom and the Transvaal in a +common ruin. In July 1899 he journeyed to Pretoria, and vainly supported +the proposal of a satisfactory franchise law, combined with a limited +representation of the Uitlanders in the Volksraad, and in September +urged the Transvaal to accede to the proposed joint inquiry. During the +negotiations of 1899, and after the outbreak of war, the official organ +of the Bond, _Ons Land_, was conspicuous for its anti-British attitude, +and its violence forced Lord Roberts to suppress it in the Cape Colony +district under martial law. Hofmeyr never associated himself publicly +with the opinions expressed by _Ons Land_, but neither did he repudiate +them. The tide of race sympathy among his Dutch supporters made his +position one of great difficulty, and shortly after the outbreak of war +he withdrew to Europe, and refused to act as a member of the +"Conciliation Committee" which came to England in 1901 in the interests +of the Boer republics. + +Towards the close of the war Hofmeyr returned to South Africa and +organized the Bond forces for the general election held in Cape Colony +at the beginning of 1904, which resulted in the defeat of the Bond +party. Hofmeyr retained his ascendancy over the Cape Dutch, but now +began to find himself somewhat out of sympathy with the larger outlook +on South African affairs taken by the younger leaders of the Boers in +the Transvaal. During 1906 he gave offence to the extreme section of the +Bond by some criticisms of the _taal_ and his use of English in public +speeches. At the general election in 1908 the Bond, still largely under +his direction, gained a victory at the polls, but Hofmeyr himself was +not a candidate. In the renewed movement for the closer union of the +South African colonies he advocated federation as opposed to +unification. When, however, the unification proposals were ratified by +the Cape parliament, Hofmeyr procured his nomination as one of the Cape +delegates to England in the summer of 1909 to submit the draft act of +union to the imperial government. He attended the conferences with the +officials of the Colonial Office for the preparation of the draft act, +and after the bill had become law went to Germany for a "cure." He +returned to London in October 1909, where he died on the 16th of that +month. His body was taken to Cape Town for burial. + + + + +HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS (1802-1886), Dutch theologian, was born at +Leer in East Friesland, Prussia, on the 8th of October 1802, and was +educated at the Gymnasium and university of Groningen. For three years +(1826-1829) he was pastor of the Reformed Church at Ulrum, and then +entered upon his lifelong duties as professor of theology at Groningen. +With his colleagues L. G. Pareau, J. F. van Vordt, and W. Muurling he +edited from 1837 to 1872 the _Waarheid in Liefde_. In this review and in +his numerous books he vigorously upheld the orthodox faith against the +Dutch "modern theology" movement. Many of his works were written in +Latin, including _Disputatio, qua ep. ad Hebraeos cum Paulin. epistolis +comparatur_ (1826), _Institutiones historiae ecclesiae_ (1835), +_Institutio theologiae naturalis_ (1842), _Encyclopaedia theologi +christiani_ (1844). Others, in Dutch, were: _The Divine Education of +Humanity up to the Coming of Jesus Christ_ (3 vols., 1846), _The Nature +of the Gospel Ministry_ (1858), _The "Modern Theology" of the +Netherlands_ (1869), _The Old Catholic Movement_ (1877). He became +professor emeritus in 1872, and died at Groningen on the 5th of December +1886. + + + + +HOGARTH, WILLIAM (1697-1764), the great English painter and pictorial +satirist, was born at Bartholomew Close in London on the 10th of +November 1697, and baptized on the 28th in the church of St Bartholomew +the Great. He had two younger sisters, Mary, born in 1699, and Ann, born +in 1701. His father, Richard Hogarth, who died in 1718, was a +schoolmaster and literary hack, who had come to the metropolis to seek +that fortune which had been denied to him in his native Westmorland. The +son seems to have been early distinguished by a talent for drawing and +an active perceptive faculty rather than by any close attention to the +learning which he was soon shrewd enough to see had not made his parent +prosper. "Shows of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when an infant," +he says, "and mimicry, common to all children, was remarkable in me.... +My exercises when at school were more remarkable for the ornaments which +adorned them than for the exercise itself." This being the case, it is +no wonder that, by his own desire, he was apprenticed to a silver-plate +engraver, Mr Ellis Gamble, at the sign of the "Golden Angel" in +Cranbourne Street or Alley, Leicester Fields. For this master he +engraved a shop-card which is still extant. When his apprenticeship +began is not recorded; but it must have been concluded before the +beginning of 1720, for in April of that year he appears to have set up +as engraver on his own account. His desires, however, were not limited +to silver-plate engraving. "Engraving on copper was, at twenty years of +age, my utmost ambition." For this he lacked the needful skill as a +draughtsman; and his account of the means which he took to supply this +want, without too much interfering with his pleasure, is thoroughly +characteristic, though it can scarcely be recommended as an example. +"Laying it down," he says, "first as an axiom, that he who could by any +means acquire and retain in his memory, perfect ideas of the subjects he +meant to draw, would have as clear a knowledge of the figure as a man +who can write freely hath of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet and +their infinite combinations (each of these being composed of lines), +and would consequently be an accurate designer, ... I therefore +endeavoured to habituate myself to the exercise of a sort of technical +memory, and by repeating in my own mind, the parts of which objects were +composed, I could by degrees combine and put them down with my pencil." +This account, it is possible, has something of the complacency of the +old age in which it was written; but there is little doubt that his +marvellous power of seizing expression owed less to patient academical +study than to his unexampled eye-memory and tenacity of minor detail. +But he was not entirely without technical training, since, by his own +showing, he occasionally "took the life" to correct his memories, and is +known to have studied at Sir James Thornhill's then recently opened art +school. + +"His first employment" (i.e. after he set up for himself) "seems," says +John Nichols, in his _Anecdotes_, "to have been the engraving of arms +and shop bills." After this he was employed in designing "plates for +booksellers." Of these early and mostly insignificant works we may pass +over "The Lottery, an Emblematic Print on the South Sea Scheme," and +some book illustrations, to pause at "Masquerades and Operas" (1724), +the first plate he published on his own account. This is a clever little +satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades of the Swiss +adventurer Heidegger, the popular Italian opera-singers, Rich's +pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and last, but by no means least, the +exaggerated popularity of Lord Burlington's protege, the architect +painter William Kent, who is here represented on the summit of +Burlington Gate, with Raphael and Michelangelo for supporters. This +worthy, Hogarth had doubtless not learned to despise less in the school +of his rival Sir James Thornhill. Indeed almost the next of Hogarth's +important prints was aimed at Kent alone, being that memorable burlesque +of the unfortunate altarpiece designed by the latter for St Clement +Danes, which, in deference to the ridicule of the parishioners, Bishop +Gibson took down in 1725. Hogarth's squib, which appeared subsequently, +exhibits it as a very masterpiece of confusion and bad drawing. In 1726 +he prepared twelve large engravings for Butler's _Hudibras_. These he +himself valued highly, and they are the best of his book illustrations. +But he was far too individual to be the patient interpreter of other +men's thoughts, and it is not in this direction that his successes are +to be sought. + +To 1727-1728 belongs one of those rare occurrences which have survived +as contributions to his biography. He was engaged by Joshua Morris, a +tapestry worker, to prepare a design for the "Element of Earth." Morris, +however, having heard that he was "an engraver, and no painter," +declined the work when completed, and Hogarth accordingly sued him for +the money in the Westminster Court, where, on the 28th of May 1728, the +case was decided in his (Hogarth's) favour. It may have been the +aspersion thus early cast on his skill as a painter (coupled perhaps +with the unsatisfactory state of print-selling, owing to the +uncontrolled circulation of piratical copies) that induced him about +this time to turn his attention to the production of "small conversation +pieces" (i.e. groups in oil of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in. +high), many of which are still preserved in different collections. +"This," he says, "having novelty, succeeded for a few years." Among his +other efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were "The Wanstead +Conversation," "The House of Commons examining Bambridge," an infamous +warden of the Fleet, and several pictures of the chief actors in Gay's +popular _Beggar's Opera_. + +On the 23rd of March 1729 he was married at old Paddington church to +Jane Thornhill, the only daughter of Kent's rival above mentioned. The +match was a clandestine one, although Lady Thornhill appears to have +favoured it. We next hear of him in "lodgings at South Lambeth," where +he rendered some assistance to the then well-known Jonathan Tyers, who +opened Vauxhall in 1732 with an entertainment styled a _ridotto al +fresco_. For these gardens Hogarth painted a poor picture of Henry VIII. +and Anne Boleyn, and he also permitted Hayman to make copies of the +later series of the "Four Times of the Day." In return, the grateful +Tyers presented him with a gold pass ticket "_In perpetuam Beneficii +Memoriam_." It was long thought that Hogarth designed this himself. Mr +Warwick Wroth (_Numismatic Chronicle_, vol. xviii.) doubts this, +although he thinks it probable that Hogarth designed some of the silver +Vauxhall passes which are figured in Wilkinson's _Londina illustrata_. +The only engravings between 1726 and 1732 which need be referred to are +the "Large Masquerade Ticket" (1727), another satire on masquerades, and +the print of "Burlington Gate" (1731), evoked by Pope's _Epistle to Lord +Burlington_, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This +print gave great offence, and was, it is said, suppressed. + +By 1731 Hogarth must have completed the earliest of the series of moral +works which first gave him his position as a great and original genius. +This was "A Harlot's Progress," the paintings for which, if we may trust +the date in the last of the pictures, were finished in that year. Almost +immediately afterwards he must have begun to engrave them--a task he had +at first intended to leave to others. From an advertisement in the +_Country Journal; or, the Craftsman_, 29th of January 1732, the pictures +were then being engraved, and from later announcements it seems clear +that they were delivered to the subscribers early in the following +April, on the 21st of which month an unauthorized prose description of +them was published. We have no record of the particular train of thought +which prompted these story-pictures; but it may perhaps be fairly +assumed that the necessity for creating some link of interest between +the personages of the little "conversation pieces" above referred to, +led to the further idea of connecting several groups or scenes so as to +form a sequent narrative. "I wished," says Hogarth, "to compose pictures +on canvas, similar to representations on the stage." "I have +endeavoured," he says again, "to treat my subject as a dramatic writer; +my picture is my stage, and men and women my players, who by means of +certain actions and gestures are to exhibit _a dumb show_." There was +never a more eloquent dumb show than this of the "Harlot's Progress." In +six scenes the miserable career of a woman of the town is traced out +remorselessly from its first facile beginning to its shameful and +degraded end. Nothing of the detail is softened or abated; the whole is +acted out _coram populo_, with the hard, uncompassionate morality of the +age the painter lived in, while the introduction here and there of one +or two well-known characters such as Colonel Charteris and Justice +Gonson give a vivid reality to the satire. It had an immediate success. +To say nothing of the fact that the talent of the paintings completely +reconciled Sir James Thornhill to the son-in-law he had hitherto refused +to acknowledge, more than twelve hundred names of subscribers to the +engravings were entered in the artist's book. On the appearance of plate +iii. the lords of the treasury trooped to the print shop for Sir John +Gonson's portrait which it contained. The story was made into a +pantomime by Theophilus Cibber, and by some one else into a ballad +opera; and it gave rise to numerous pamphlets and poems. It was painted +on fan-mounts and transferred to cups and saucers. Lastly, it was freely +pirated. There could be no surer testimony to its popularity. + +From the MSS. of George Vertue in the British Museum (Add. MSS. +23069-98) it seems that during the progress of the plates, Hogarth was +domiciled with his father-in-law, Sir James Thornhill, in the Middle +Piazza, Covent Garden (the "second house eastward from James Street"), +and it must have been thence that set out the historical expedition from +London to Sheerness of which the original record still exists at the +British Museum. This is an oblong MS. volume entitled _An Account of +what seem'd most Remarkable in the Five Days' Peregrination of the Five +Following Persons, vizt., Messieurs Tothall, Scott, Hogarth, Thornhill +and Forrest. Begun on Saturday May 27th 1732 and Finish'd On the 31st of +the Same Month. Abi tu et fac similiter. Inscription on Dulwich College +Porch_. The journal, which is written by Ebenezer, the father of +Garrick's friend Theodosius Forrest, gives a good idea of what a +"frisk"--as Johnson called it--was in those days, while the +illustrations were by Hogarth and Samuel Scott the landscape painter. +John Thornhill, Sir James's son, made the map. This version (in prose) +was subsequently run into rhyme by one of Hogarth's friends, the Rev. +Wm. Gostling of Canterbury, and after the artist's death both versions +were published. In the absence of other biographical detail, they are of +considerable interest to the student of Hogarth. In 1733 Hogarth moved +into the "Golden Head" in Leicester Fields, which, with occasional +absences at Chiswick, he continued to occupy until his death. By +December of this year he was already engaged upon the engravings of a +second Progress, that of a Rake. It was not as successful as its +predecessor. It was in eight plates in lieu of six. The story is +unequal; but there is nothing finer than the figure of the desperate +hero in the Covent Garden gaming-house, or the admirable scenes in the +Fleet prison and Bedlam, where at last his headlong career comes to its +tragic termination. The plates abound with allusive suggestion and +covert humour; but it is impossible to attempt any detailed description +of them here. + +"A Rake's Progress" was dated June 25, 1735, and the engravings bear the +words "according to Act of Parliament." This was an act (8 Geo. II. cap. +13) which Hogarth had been instrumental in obtaining from the +legislature, being stirred thereto by the shameless piracies of rival +printsellers. Although loosely drawn, it served its purpose; and the +painter commemorated his success by a long inscription on the plate +entitled "Crowns, Mitres, &c.," afterwards used as a subscription ticket +to the Election series. These subscription tickets to his engravings, +let us add, are among the brightest and most vivacious of the artist's +productions. That to the "Harlot's Progress" was entitled "Boys peeping +at Nature," while the Rake's Progress was heralded by the delightful +etching known as "A Pleased Audience at a Play, or The Laughing +Audience." + +We must pass more briefly over the prints which followed the two +Progresses, noting first "A Modern Midnight Conversation," an admirable +drinking scene which comes between them in 1733, and the bright little +plate of "Southwark Fair," which, although dated 1733, was published +with "A Rake's Progress" in 1735. Between these and "Marriage _a la +mode_," upon the pictures of which the painter must have been not long +after at work, come the small prints of the "Consultation of Physicians" +and "Sleeping Congregation" (1736), the "Scholars at a Lecture" (1737); +the "Four Times of the Day" (1738), a series of pictures of 18th century +life, the earlier designs for which have been already referred to; the +"Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn" (1738), which Walpole held to +be, "for wit and imagination, without any other end, the best of all the +painter's works"; and finally the admirable plates of the Distrest Poet +painfully composing a poem on "Riches" in a garret, and the Enraged +Musician fulminating from his parlour window upon a discordant orchestra +of knife-grinders, milk-girls, ballad-singers and the rest upon the +pavement outside. These are dated respectively 1736 and 1741. To this +period also (i.e. the period preceding the production of the plates of +"Marriage _a la mode_") belong two of those history pictures to which, +in emulation of the Haymans and Thornhills, the artist was continually +attracted. "The Pool of Bethesda" and the "Good Samaritan," "with +figures seven feet high," were painted _circa_ 1736, and presented by +the artist to St Bartholomew's Hospital, where they remain. They were +not masterpieces; and it is pleasanter to think of his connexion with +Captain Coram's recently established Foundling Hospital (1739), which he +aided with his money, his graver and his brush, and for which he painted +that admirable portrait of the good old philanthropist which is still, +and deservedly, one of its chief ornaments. + +In "A Harlot's Progress" Hogarth had not strayed much beyond the lower +walks of society, and although, in "A Rake's Progress," his hero was +taken from the middle classes, he can scarcely be said to have quitted +those fields of observation which are common to every spectator. It is +therefore more remarkable, looking to his education and antecedents, +that his masterpiece, "Marriage _a la mode_," should successfully +depict, as the advertisement has it, "a variety of modern occurrences in +high life." Yet, as an accurate delineation of upper class 18th century +society, his "Marriage _a la mode_" has never, we believe, been +seriously assailed. The countess's bedroom, the earl's apartment with +its lavish coronets and old masters, the grand saloon with its marble +pillars and grotesque ornaments, are fully as true to nature as the +frowsy chamber in the "Turk's Head Bagnio," the quack-doctor's museum in +St Martin's Lane, or the mean opulence of the merchant's house in the +city. And what story could be more vividly, more perspicuously, more +powerfully told than this godless alliance of _sacs et parchemins_--this +miserable tragedy of an ill-assorted marriage? There is no defect of +invention, no superfluity of detail, no purposeless stroke. It has the +merit of a work by a great master of fiction, with the additional +advantages which result from the pictorial fashion of the narrative; and +it is matter for congratulation that it is still to be seen by all the +world in the National Gallery in London, where it can tell its own tale +better than pages of commentary. The engravings of "Marriage _a la +mode_" were dated April 1745. Although by this time the painter found a +ready market for his engravings, he does not appear to have been equally +successful in selling his pictures. The people bought his prints; but +the richer and not numerous connoisseurs who purchased pictures were +wholly in the hands of the importers and manufacturers of "old masters." +In February 1745 the original oil paintings of the two Progresses, the +"Four Times of the Day" and the "Strolling Actresses" were still unsold. +On the last day of that month Hogarth disposed of them by an ill-devised +kind of auction, the details of which may be read in Nichols's +_Anecdotes_, for the paltry sum of L427, 7s. No better fate attended +"Marriage _a la mode_," which six years later became the property of Mr +Lane of Hillingdon for 120 guineas, being then in Carlo Maratti frames +which had cost the artist four guineas a piece. Something of this was no +doubt due to Hogarth's impracticable arrangements, but the fact shows +conclusively how completely blind his contemporaries were to his merits +as a painter, and how hopelessly in bondage to the all-powerful +picture-dealers. Of these latter the painter himself gave a graphic +picture in a letter addressed by him under the pseudonym of "Britophil" +to the _St James's Evening Post_, in June 1737. + +But if Hogarth was not successful with his dramas on canvas, he +occasionally shared with his contemporaries in the popularity of +portrait painting. For a picture, executed in 1746, of Garrick as +Richard III. he was paid L200, "which was more," says he, "than any +English artist ever received for a single portrait." In the same year a +sketch of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill, +had an exceptional success. + +We must content ourselves with a brief enumeration of the most important +of his remaining works. These are "The Stage Coach or Country Inn Yard" +(1747); the series of twelve plates entitled "Industry and Idleness" +(1747), depicting the career of two London apprentices; the "Gate of +Calais" (1749), which had its origin in a rather unfortunate visit paid +to France by the painter after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the "March +to Finchley" (1750); "Beer Street," "Gin Lane" and the "Four Stages of +Cruelty" (1751); the admirable representations of election humours in +the days of Sir Robert Walpole, entitled "Four Prints of an Election" +(1755-1758); and the plate of "Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism, a +Medley" (1762), adapted from an earlier unpublished design called +"Enthusiasm Delineated." Besides these must be chronicled three more +essays in the "great style of history painting," viz. "Paul before +Felix," "Moses brought to Pharaoh's Daughter" and the Altarpiece for St +Mary Redcliffe at Bristol. The first two were engraved in 1751-1752, the +last in 1794. A subscription ticket to the earlier pictures, entitled +"Paul before Felix Burlesqued," had a popularity far greater than that +of the prints themselves. + +In 1745 Hogarth painted that admirable portrait of himself with his dog +Trump, which is now in the National Gallery. In a corner of this he had +drawn on a palette a serpentine curve with the words "The Line of +Beauty." Much inquiry ensued as to the meaning of this hieroglyphic; and +in an unpropitious hour the painter resolved to explain himself in +writing. The result was the well-known _Analysis of Beauty_ (1753), a +treatise to fix "the fluctuating ideas of Taste," otherwise a desultory +essay having for pretext the precept attributed to Michelangelo that a +figure should be always "Pyramidall, Serpent like and multiplied by one +two and three." The fate of the book was what might have been expected. +By the painter's adherents it was praised as a final deliverance upon +aesthetics; by his enemies and professional rivals, its obscurities, and +the minor errors which, notwithstanding the benevolent efforts of +literary friends, the work had not escaped, were made the subject of +endless ridicule and caricature. It added little to its author's fame, +and it is perhaps to be regretted that he ever undertook it. Moreover, +there were further humiliations in store for him. In 1759 the success of +a little picture called "The Lady's Last Stake," painted for Lord +Charlemont, procured him a commission from Sir Richard Grosvenor to +paint another picture "upon the same terms." Unhappily on this occasion +he deserted his own field of genre and social satire, to select the +story from Boccaccio (or rather Dryden) of Sigismunda weeping over the +heart of her murdered lover Guiscardo, being the subject of a picture in +Sir Luke Schaub's collection by Furini which had recently been sold for +L400. The picture, over which he spent much time and patience, was not +regarded as a success; and Sir Richard rather meanly shuffled out of his +bargain upon the plea that "the constantly having it before one's eyes, +would be too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one's mind." +Sigismunda, therefore, much to the artist's mortification, and the +delight of the malicious, remained upon his hands. As, by her husband's +desire, his widow valued it at L500, it found no purchaser until after +her death, when the Boydells bought it for 56 guineas. It was exhibited, +with others of Hogarth's pictures, at the Spring Gardens exhibition of +1761, for the catalogue of which Hogarth engraved a Head-piece and a +Tail-piece which are still the delight of collectors; and finally, by +the bequest of Mr J. H. Anderdon, it passed in 1879 to the National +Gallery, where, in spite of theatrical treatment and a repulsive theme, +it still commands admiration for its colour, drawing and expression. + +In 1761 Hogarth was sixty-five years of age, and he had but three years +more to live. These three years were embittered by an unhappy quarrel +with his quondam friends, John Wilkes and Churchill the poet, over which +most of his biographers are contented to pass rapidly. Having succeeded +John Thornhill in 1757 as serjeant painter (to which post he was +reappointed at the accession of George III.), an evil genius prompted +him in 1762 to do some "timed" thing in the ministerial interest, and he +accordingly published the indifferent satire of "The Times, plate i." +This at once brought him into collision with Wilkes and Churchill, and +the immediate result was a violent attack upon him, both as a man and an +artist, in the opposition _North Briton_, No. 17. The alleged decay of +his powers, the miscarriage of Sigismunda, the cobbled composition of +the _Analysis_, were all discussed with scurrilous malignity by those +who had known his domestic life and learned his weaknesses. The old +artist was deeply wounded, and his health was failing. Early in the next +year, however, he replied by that portrait of Wilkes which will for ever +carry his squinting features to posterity. Churchill retaliated in July +by a savage _Epistle to William Hogarth_, to which the artist rejoined +by a print of Churchill as a bear, in torn bands and ruffles, not the +most successful of his works. "The pleasure, and pecuniary advantage," +writes Hogarth manfully, "which I derived from these two engravings" (of +Wilkes and Churchill), "together with occasionally riding on horseback, +restored me to as much health as can be expected at my time of life." He +produced but one more print, that of "Finis, or The Bathos," March 1764, +a strange jumble of "fag ends," intended as a tail-piece to his +collected prints; and on the 26th October of the same year he died of an +aneurism at his house in Leicester Square. His wife, to whom he left his +plates as a chief source of income, survived him until 1789. He was +buried in Chiswick churchyard, where a tomb was erected to him by his +friends in 1771, with an epitaph by Garrick. Not far off, on the road +to Chiswick Gardens, still stands the little red-brick Georgian villa +in which from September 1749 until his death he spent the summer +seasons. After many vicissitudes and changes of ownership it was +purchased in 1902 by Lieut.-Colonel Shipway of Chiswick, who turned it +into a Hogarth museum and preserved it to the nation. + +From such records of him as survive, Hogarth appears to have been much +what from his portrait one might suppose him to have been--a blue-eyed, +honest, combative little man, thoroughly insular in his prejudices and +antipathies, fond of flattery, sensitive like most satirists, a good +friend, an intractable enemy, ambitious, as he somewhere says, in all +things to be singular, and not always accurately estimating the extent +of his powers. With the art connoisseurship of his day he was wholly at +war, because, as he believed, it favoured foreign mediocrity at the +expense of native talent; and in the heat of argument he would probably, +as he admits, often come "to utter blasphemous expressions against the +divinity even of Raphael Urbino, Correggio and Michelangelo." But it was +rather against the third-rate copies of third-rate artists--the +"ship-loads of dead Christs, Holy Families and Madonnas"--that his +indignation was directed; and in speaking of his attitude with regard to +the great masters of art, it is well to remember his words to Mrs +Piozzi:--"The connoisseurs and I are at war, you know; and because I +hate _them_, they think I hate _Titian_--and let them!" + +But no doubt it was in a measure owing to this hostile attitude of his +towards the all-powerful picture-brokers that his contemporaries failed +to recognize adequately his merits as a painter, and persisted in +regarding him as an ingenious humorist alone. Time has reversed that +unjust sentence. He is now held to have been a splendid painter, pure +and harmonious in his colouring, wonderfully dexterous and direct in his +handling, and in his composition leaving little or nothing to be +desired. As an engraver his work is more conspicuous for its vigour, +spirit and intelligibility than for finish and beauty of line. He +desired that it should tell its own tale plainly, and bear the distinct +impress of his individuality, and in this he thoroughly succeeded. As a +draughtsman his skill has sometimes been debated, and his work at times +undoubtedly bears marks of haste, and even carelessness. If, however, he +is judged by his best instead of his worst, he will not be found wanting +in this respect. But it is not after all as a draughtsman, an engraver +or a painter that he claims his unique position among English +artists--it is as a humorist and a satirist upon canvas. Regarded in +this light he has never been equalled, whether for his vigour of realism +and dramatic power, his fancy and invention in the decoration of his +story, or his merciless anatomy and exposure of folly and wickedness. If +we regard him--as he loved to regard himself--as "author" rather than +"artist," his place is with the great masters of literature--with the +Thackerays and Fieldings, the Cervantes and Molieres. + + AUTHORITIES.--The main body of Hogarth literature is to be found in + the autobiographical _Memoranda_ published by John Ireland in 1798, + and in the successive _Anecdotes_ of the antiquary John Nichols. Much + minute information has also been collected in F. G. Stephens's + _Catalogue of the Satirical Prints and Drawings in the British + Museum_. But a copious bibliography of books, pamphlets, &c., relating + to Hogarth, together with detailed catalogues of his paintings and + prints, will be found in the _Memoir_ of Hogarth by Austin Dobson. + First issued in 1879, this was reprinted and expanded in 1891, 1897, + 1902 and finally in 1907. Pictures by Hogarth from private collections + are constantly to be found at the annual exhibitions of the Old + Masters at Burlington House; but most of the best-known works have + permanent homes in public galleries. "Marriage _a la mode_." + "Sigismunda," "Lavinia Fenton," the "Shrimp Girl," the "Gate of + Calais," the portraits of himself, his sister and his servants, are + all in the National Gallery; the "Rake's Progress" and the Election + Series, in the Soane Museum; and the "March to Finchley" and "Captain + Coram" in the Foundling. There are also notable pictures in the + Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge and the National Portrait Gallery. At + the Print Room in the British Museum there is also a very interesting + set of sixteen designs for the series called "Industry and Idleness," + the majority of which formerly belonged to Horace Walpole. (A. D.) + + + + +HOGG, JAMES (1770-1835), Scottish poet, known as the "Ettrick Shepherd," +was baptized at Ettrick in Selkirkshire on the 9th of December 1770. +His ancestors had been shepherds for centuries. He received hardly any +school training, and seems to have had difficulty in getting books to +read. After spending his early years herding sheep for different +masters, he was engaged as shepherd by Mr Laidlaw, tenant of Blackhouse, +in the parish of Yarrow, from 1790 till 1799. He was treated with great +kindness, and had access to a large collection of books. When this was +exhausted he subscribed to a circulating library in Peebles. While +attending to his flock, he spent a great deal of time in reading. He +profited by the company of his master's sons, of whom William Laidlaw is +known as the friend of Scott and the author of _Lucy's Flittin'_. Hogg's +first printed piece was "The Mistakes of a Night" in the _Scots +Magazine_ for October 1794, and in 1801 he published his _Scottish +Pastorals_. In 1802 Hogg became acquainted with Sir Walter Scott, who +was then collecting materials for his _Border Minstrelsy_. On Scott's +recommendation Constable published Hogg's miscellaneous poems (_The +Mountain Bard_) in 1807. By this work, and by _The Shepherd's Guide, +being a Practical Treatise on the Diseases of Sheep_, Hogg realized +about L300. With this money he unfortunately embarked in farming in +Dumfriesshire, and in three years was utterly ruined, having to abandon +all his effects to his creditors. He returned to Ettrick, only to find +that he could not even obtain employment as a shepherd; so he set off in +February 1810 to push his fortune in Edinburgh as a literary adventurer. +In the same year he published a collection of songs, _The Forest +Minstrel_, to which he was the largest contributor. This book, being +dedicated to the countess of Dalkeith (afterwards duchess of Buccleuch), +and recommended to her notice by Scott, was rewarded with a present of +100 guineas. He then began a weekly periodical, _The Spy_, which he +continued from September 1810 till August 1811. The appearance of _The +Queen's Wake_ in 1813 established Hogg's reputation as a poet; Byron +recommended it to John Murray, who brought out an English edition. The +scene of the poem is laid in 1561; the queen is Mary Stuart; and the +"wake" provides a simple framework for seventeen poems sung by rival +bards. It was followed by the _Pilgrims of the Sun_ (1815), and _Mador +of the Moor_ (1816). The duchess of Buccleuch, on her death-bed (1814), +had asked her husband to do something for the Ettrick bard; and the duke +gave him a lease for life of the farm of Altrive in Yarrow, consisting +of about 70 acres of moorland, on which the poet built a house and spent +the last years of his life. In order to obtain money to stock his farm +Hogg asked various poets to contribute to a volume of verse which should +be a kind of poetic "benefit" for himself. Failing in his applications +he wrote a volume of parodies, published in 1816, as _The Poetic Mirror, +or the Living Bards of Great Britain_. He took possession of his farm in +1817; but his literary exertions were never relaxed. Before 1820 he had +written the prose tales of _The Brownie of Bodsbeck_ (1818) and two +volumes of _Winter Evening Tales_ (1820), besides collecting, editing +and writing part of two volumes of _The Jacobite Relics of Scotland_ +(1819-1821), and contributing largely to _Blackwood's Magazine_. "The +Chaldee MS.," which appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_ (October 1817), +and gave such offence that it was immediately withdrawn, was largely +Hogg's work. + +In 1820 he married Margaret Phillips, a lady of a good Annandale family, +and found himself possessed of about L1000, a good house and a +well-stocked farm. Hogg's connexion with _Blackwood's Magazine_ kept him +continually before the public; his contributions, which include the best +of his prose works, were collected in the _Shepherd's Calendar_ (1829). +The wit and mischief of some of his literary friends made free with his +name as the "Shepherd" of the _Noctes Ambrosianae_, and represented him +in ludicrous and grotesque aspects; but the effect of the whole was +favourable to his popularity. "Whatever may be the merits of the picture +of the Shepherd [in the _Noctes Ambrosianae_]--and no one will deny its +power and genius," writes Professor Veitch--"it is true, all the same, +that this Shepherd was not the Shepherd of Ettrick or the man James +Hogg. He was neither a Socrates nor a Falstaff, neither to be credited +with the wisdom and lofty idealizings of the one, nor with the +characteristic humour and coarseness of the other." _The Three Perils of +Woman_ (1820), and _The Three Perils of Man_ (1822), were followed in +1825 by an epic poem, _Queen Hynde_, which was unfavourably received. He +visited London in 1832, and was much lionized. On his return a public +dinner was given to him in Peebles,--Professor Wilson in the chair,--and +he acknowledged that he had at last "found fame." His health, however, +was seriously impaired. With his pen in his hand to the last, Hogg in +1834 published a volume of _Lay Sermons_, and _The Domestic Manners and +Private Life of Sir Walter Scott_, a book which Lockhart regarded as an +infringement on his rights. In 1835 appeared three volumes of _Tales of +the Wars of Montrose_. Hogg died on the 21st of November 1835, and was +buried in the churchyard of his native parish Ettrick. His fame had +seemed to fill the whole district, and was brightest at its close; his +presence was associated with all the border sports and festivities; and +as a man James Hogg was ever frank, joyous and charitable. It is mainly +as a great peasant poet that he lives in literature. Some of his lyrics +and minor poems--his "Skylark," "When the Kye comes Hame," his verses on +the "Comet" and "Evening Star," and his "Address to Lady Ann Scott"--are +exquisite. _The Queen's Wake_ unites his characteristic excellences--his +command of the old romantic ballad style, his graceful fairy mythology +and his aerial flights of imagination. In the fairy story of Kilmeny in +this work Hogg seems completely transformed; he is absorbed in the ideal +and supernatural, and writes under direct and immediate inspiration. + + See Hogg's "Memoir of the Author's Life, written by himself," prefixed + to the 3rd edition (1821) of _The Mountain Bard_, also _Memorials of + James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd_, edited by his daughter, Mrs M. G. + Garden (enlarged edition with preface by Professor Veitch, 1903), and + Sir G. B. S. Douglas, _James Hogg_ (1899) in the "Famous Scots" + series; also _The Poems of James Hogg_, selected by William Wallace + (1903). John Wilson ("Christopher North") had a real affection for + Hogg, but for some reason or other made no use of the materials placed + in his hands for a biography of the poet. The memoir mentioned on the + title-page of the _Works_ (1838-1840) never appeared, and the memoir + prefixed to the edition of Hogg's works published by Blackie & Co. + (1865) was written by the Rev. Thomas Thompson. See also Wilson's + _Noctes Ambrosianae_; Mrs Oliphant's _Annals of a Publishing House_, + vol. i. chap. vii.; Gilfillan's _First Gallery of Literary Portraits_; + Cunningham's _Biog. and Crit. Hist. of Lit._; and the general index to + _Blackwood's Magazine_. A collected edition of Hogg's Tales appeared + in 1837 in 6 vols., and a second in 1851; his _Poetical Works_ were + published in 1822, 1838-1840 and 1865-1866. For an admirable account + of the social entertainments Hogg used to give in Edinburgh, see + _Memoir of Robert Chambers_ (1874), by Dr William Chambers, pp. + 263-270. + + + + +HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1792-1862), English man of letters, was born at +Norton, Durham, on the 24th of May 1792. He was educated at Durham +grammar school and at University College, Oxford. Here he became the +intimate friend of the poet Shelley, with whom in 1811 he was expelled +from the university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the +authorship of the pamphlet _The Necessity for Atheism_. He was then sent +to study law at York, where he remained for six months. Hogg's behaviour +to Harriet Shelley interrupted his relations with her husband for some +time, but in 1813 the friendship was renewed in London. In 1817 Hogg was +called to the bar, and became later a revising barrister. In 1844 he +inherited L2000 under Shelley's will, and in 1855, in accordance with +the wishes of the poet's family, began to write Shelley's biography. The +first two volumes of it were published in 1858, but they proved to be +far more an autobiography than a biography, and Shelley's +representatives refused Hogg further access to the materials necessary +for its completion. Hogg died on the 27th of August 1862. + + + + +HOGMANAY, the name in Scotland and some parts of the north of England +for New Year's Eve, as also for the cake then given to the children. On +the morning of the 31st of December the children in small bands go from +door to door singing: + + "Hogmanay + Trollolay + Gie's o' your white bread and nane o' your grey"; + + +and begging for small gifts or alms. These usually take the form of an +oaten cake. The derivation of the term has been much disputed. Cotgrave +(1611) says: "It is the voice of the country folks begging small +presents or New Year's gifts ... an ancient term of rejoicing derived +from the Druids, who were wont the first of each January to go into the +woods, where, having sacrificed and banquetted together, they gathered +mistletoe, esteeming it excellent to make beasts fruitful and most +soverayne against all poyson." And he connects the word, through such +Norman French forms as _hoguinane_, with the old French _aguilanneuf_, +which he explains as _au gui-l'an-neuf_, "to the mistletoe! the New +Year!"--this being (on his interpretation) the Druidical salutation to +the coming year as the revellers issued from the woods armed with boughs +of mistletoe. But though this explanation may be accepted as containing +the truth in referring the word to a French original, Cotgrave's +detailed etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists, and the +identical French _aguilanneuf_ remains, like it, in obscurity. + + + + +HOGSHEAD, a cask for holding liquor or other commodities, such as +tobacco, sugar, molasses, &c.; also a liquid measure of capacity, +varying with the contents. As a measure for beer, cider, &c., it equals +54 gallons. A statute of Richard III. (1483) fixed the hogshead of wine +at 63 wine-gallons, i.e. 52(1/2) imperial gallons. The etymology of the +word has been much discussed. According to Skeat, the origin is to be +found in the name for a cask or liquid measure appearing in various +forms in several Teutonic languages, in Dutch _oxhooft_ (modern +_okshoofd_), Dan. _oxehoved_, O. Swed. _oxhufvod_, &c. The word should +therefore be "oxhead," and "hogshead" is a mere corruption. It has been +suggested that the name arose from the branding of such a measure with +the head of an ox (see _Notes and Queries_, series iv. 2, 46, note by H. +Tiedeman). The _New English Dictionary_ does not attempt any explanation +of the term, and takes "hogshead" as the original form, from which the +forms in other languages have been corrupted. The earlier Dutch forms +_hukeshovet_ and _hoekshoot_ are nearer to the English form, and, +further, the Dutch for "ox" is os. + + + + +HOHENASPERG, an ancient fortress of Germany, in the kingdom of +Wurttemberg, 10 m. N. of Stuttgart, is situated on a conical hill, 1100 +ft. high, overlooking the town of Asperg. It was formerly strongly +fortified and was long the state prison of the kingdom of Wurttemberg. +Among the many who have been interned here may be mentioned the +notorious Jew financier, Joseph Suss-Oppenheimer (1692-1738) and the +poet C. F. D. Schubart (1739-1791). It is now a reformatory. Hohenasperg +originally belonged to the counts of Calw; it next passed to the counts +palatine of Tubingen and from them was acquired in 1308 by Wurttemberg. +In 1535 the fortifications were extended and strengthened, and in 1635 +the town was taken by the Imperialists, who occupied it until 1649. + + See Schon, _Die Staatsgefangenen von Hohenasperg_ (Stuttgart, 1899); + and Biffart, _Geschichte der Wurttembergischen Feste Hohenasperg_ + (Stuttgart, 1858). + + + + +HOHENFRIEDBERG, or HOHENFRIEDEBERG, a village of Silesia, about 6 m. +from the small town of Striegau. It gives its name to a battle (also +called the battle of Striegau) in the War of the Austrian Succession, +fought on the 3rd of June 1745 between the Prussians under Frederick the +Great and the Austrians and Saxons commanded by Prince Charles of +Lorraine. In May the king, whose army had occupied extended winter +quarters in Silesia, had drawn it together into a position about Neisse +whence he could manoeuvre against the Austrians, whether they invaded +Silesia by Troppau or Glatz, or joined their allies (who, under the duke +of Weissenfels, were on the upper Elbe), and made their advance on +Schweidnitz, Breslau or Liegnitz. On the Austrians concentrating towards +the Elbe, Frederick gradually drew his army north-westward along the +edge of the mountain country until on the 1st of June it was near +Schweidnitz. At that date the Austro-Saxons were advancing (very slowly +owing to the poorness of the roads and the dilatoriness of the Saxon +artillery train) from Waldenburg and Landshut through the mountains, +heading for Striegau. After a few minor skirmishes at the end of May, +Frederick had made up his mind to offer no opposition to the passage of +the Allies, but to fall upon them as they emerged, and the Prussian army +was therefore kept concentrated out of sight, while only selected +officers and patrols watched the debouches of the mountains. On the +other hand the Allies had no intention of delivering battle, but meant +only, on emerging from the mountains, to take up a suitable camping +position and thence to interpose between Breslau and the king, believing +that "the king was at his wits' end, and, once the army really began its +retreat on Breslau, there would be frightful consternation in its +ranks." But in fact, as even the coolest observers noticed, the Prussian +army was in excellent spirits and eager for the "decisive affair" +promised by the king. On the 3rd of June, watched by the invisible +patrols, the Austrians and Saxons emerged from the hills at +Hohenfriedberg with bands playing and colours flying. Their advanced +guard of infantry and cavalry spread out into the plain, making for a +line of hills spreading north-west from Striegau, where the army was to +encamp. But the main body moved slowly, and at last Prince Charles and +Weissenfels decided to put off the occupation of the line of hills till +the morrow. The army bivouacked therefore in two separate wings, the +Saxons (with a few Austrian regiments) between Gunthersdorf and +Pilgramshain, the Austrians near Hausdorf. They were about 70,000 +strong, Frederick 65,000. + +[Illustration: Hohenfriedberg, June 4, 1745.] + +The king had made his arrangements in good time, aided by the enemy's +slowness, and in the evening he issued simple orders to move. About 9 +P.M. the Prussians marched off from Alt-Jauernigk towards Striegau, the +guns on the road, the infantry and cavalry, in long open columns of +companies and squadrons, over the fields on either side--a night march +well remembered by contrast with others as having been executed in +perfect order. Meanwhile General Dumoulin, who commanded an advanced +detachment between Striegau and Stanowitz, broke camp silently and moved +into position below the hill north-west of Striegau, which was found to +be occupied by Saxon light infantry outposts. The king's orders were for +Dumoulin and the right wing of the main army to deploy and advance +towards Haslicht against the Saxons, and for the left wing infantry to +prolong the line from the marsh to Gunthersdorf, covered by the +left-wing cavalry on the plain near Thomaswaldau. On the side of the +Austrians, the outlying hussars are said to have noticed and reported +the king's movement, for the night was clear and starlit, but their +report, if made, was ignored. + +At 4 A.M. Dumoulin advanced on Pilgramshain, neglecting the fire of the +Saxon outpost on the Spitzberg, whereupon this promptly retired in +order to avoid being surrounded. Dumoulin then posted artillery on the +slope of the hill and deployed his six grenadier battalions facing the +village. The leading cavalry of the main army came up and deployed on +Dumoulin's left front in open rolling ground. Meantime the duke of +Weissenfels had improvised a line of defence, posting his infantry in +the marshy ground and about Pilgramshain, and his cavalry, partly in +front of Pilgramshain and partly on the intervening space, opposite that +of the Prussians. But before the marshy ground was effectively occupied +by the duke's infantry, his cavalry had been first shaken by the fire of +Dumoulin's guns on the Spitzberg and a heavy battery that was brought up +on to the Grabener Fuchsberg, and then charged by the Prussian +right-wing cavalry, and in the melee the Allies were gradually driven in +confusion off the battlefield. The cavalry battle was ended by 6.30 +A.M., by which time Dumoulin's grenadiers, stiffened by the line +regiment Anhalt (the "Old Dessauer's" own), were vigorously attacking +the garden hedges and walls of Pilgramshain, and the Saxon and Austrian +infantry in the marsh was being attacked by Prince Dietrich of Dessau +with the right wing of the king's infantry. The line infantry of those +days, however, did not work easily in bad ground, and the Saxons were +steady and well drilled. After an hour's fight, well supported by the +guns and continually reinforced as the rest of the army closed up, the +prince expelled the enemy from the marsh, while Dumoulin drove the light +troops out of Pilgramshain. By 7 A.M. the Saxons, forming the left wing +of the allied army, were in full retreat. + +While his allies were being defeated, Prince Charles of Lorraine had +done nothing, believing that the cannonade was merely an outpost affair +for the possession of the Spitzberg. His generals indeed had drawn out +their respective commands in order of battle, the infantry south of +Gunthersdorf, the cavalry near Thomaswaldau, but they had no authority +to advance without orders, and stood inactive, while, 1 m. away, the +Prussian columns were defiling over the Striegau Water. This phase of +the king's advance was the most delicate of all, and the moment that he +heard from Prince Dietrich that the marsh was captured he stopped the +northward flow of his battalions and swung them westward, the left wing +cavalry having to cover their deployment. But when one-third of this +cavalry only had crossed at Teichau the bridge broke. For a time the +advanced squadrons were in great danger. But they charged boldly, and a +disjointed cavalry battle began, during which (Ziethen's hussars having +discovered a ford) the rest of the left-wing cavalry was able to cross. +At last 25 intact squadrons under Lieut.-General von Nassau charged and +drove the Austrians in disorder towards Hohenfriedberg. This action was +the more creditable to the victors in that 45 squadrons in 3 separate +fractions defeated a mass of 60 squadrons that stood already deployed to +meet them. + +Meanwhile the Prussian infantry columns of the centre and left had +crossed Striegau Water and deployed to their left, and by 8.30 they were +advancing on Gunthersdorf and the Austrian infantry south of that place. +Frederick's purpose was to roll up the enemy from their inner flank, and +while Prince Dietrich, with most of the troops that had forced the +Saxons out of the marsh, pursued Weissenfels, two regiments of his and +one of Dumoulin's were brought over to the left wing and sent against +the north side of Gunthersdorf. In the course of the general forward +movement, which was made in what was for those days a very irregular +line, a wide gap opened up between the centre and left, behind which 10 +squadrons of the Bayreuth dragoon regiment, with Lieut.-General von +Gessler, took up their position. Thus the line advanced. The grenadiers +on the extreme left cleared Thomaswaldau, and their fire galled the +Austrian squadrons engaged in the cavalry battle to the south. Then +Gunthersdorf, attacked on three sides, was also evacuated by the enemy. +But although Frederick rode back from the front saying "the battle is +won," the Prussian infantry, in spite of its superior fire discipline, +failed for some time to master the defence, and suffered heavily from +the eight close-range volleys they received, one or two regiments losing +40 and 50% of their strength. The Austrians, however, suffered still +more; feeling themselves isolated in the midst of the victorious enemy, +they began to waver, and at the psychological moment Gessler and the +Bayreuth dragoons charged into their ranks and "broke the equilibrium." +These 1500 sabres scattered twenty battalions of the enemy and brought +in 2500 prisoners and 66 Austrian colours, and in this astounding charge +they themselves lost no more than 94 men. By nine o'clock the battle was +over, and the wrecks of the Austro-Saxon army were retreating to the +mountains. The Prussians, who had been marching all night, were too far +spent to pursue. + + The loss of the allies was in all 15,224, 7985 killed and wounded, and + 7239 prisoners, as well as 72 guns and 83 standards and colours. The + Prussians lost 4666 killed and wounded, 71 missing. + + + + +HOHENHEIM, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 7 m. S. +of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. 300. It came in 1768 from the counts of +Hohenheim to the dukes of Wurttemberg, and in 1785 Duke Karl Eugen built +a country house here. This house with grounds is now the seat of the +most important agricultural college in Germany; it was founded in 1817, +was raised to the position of a high school in 1865, and now ranks as a +technical high school with university status. + + See Frohlich, _Das Schloss und die Akademie Hohenheim_ (Stuttgart, + 1870). + + + + +HOHENLIMBURG, a town of Germany, on the Lenne, in the Prussian prov. of +Westphalia, 30 m. by rail S.E. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 12,790. It has +two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. The +town is the seat of various iron and metal industries, while dyeing, +cloth-making and linen-weaving are also carried on here. It is the chief +town of the county of Limburg, and formerly belonged to the counts of +Limburg, a family which became extinct in 1508. Later it passed to the +counts of Bentheim-Tecklenburg. The castle of Hohenlimburg, which +overlooks the town, is now the residence of Prince Adolf of +Bentheim-Tecklenburg. + + + + +HOHENLOHE, a German princely family which took its name from the +district of Hohenlohe in Franconia. At first a countship, its two +branches were raised to the rank of principalities of the Empire in 1744 +and 1764 respectively; in 1806 they lost their independence and their +lands now form part of the kingdoms of Bavaria and of Wurttemberg. At +the time of the mediatization the area of Hohenlohe was 680 sq. m. and +its estimated population was 108,000. The family is first mentioned in +the 12th century as possessing the castle of Hohenloch, or Hohenlohe, +near Uffenheim, and its influence was soon perceptible in several of the +Franconian valleys, including those of the Kocher, the Jagst and the +Tauber. Henry I. (d. 1183) was the first to take the title of count of +Hohenlohe, and in 1230 his grandsons, Gottfried and Conrad, supporters +of the emperor Frederick II., founded the lines of Hohenlohe-Hohenlohe +and Hohenlohe-Brauneck, names taken from their respective castles. The +latter became extinct in 1390, its lands passing later to Brandenburg, +while the former was divided into several branches, only two of which, +however, Hohenlohe-Weikersheim and Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld, need +be mentioned here. Hohenlohe-Weikersheim, descended from Count Kraft I. +(d. 1313), also underwent several divisions, that which took place after +the deaths of Counts Albert and George in 1551 being specially +important. At this time the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and +Hohenlohe-Waldenburg were founded by the sons of Count George. +Meanwhile, in 1412, the family of Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld had +become extinct, and its lands had passed through the marriages of its +heiresses into other families. + +The existing branches of the Hohenlohe family are descended from the +lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg, established in +1551. The former of these became Protestant, while the latter remained +Catholic. Of the family of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, which underwent several +partitions and inherited Gleichen in 1631, the senior line became +extinct in 1805, while in 1701 the junior line divided itself into +three branches, those of Langenburg, Ingelfingen and Kirchberg. +Kirchberg died out in 1861, but members of the families of +Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen are still alive, the +latter being represented by the branches of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen and +Hohenlohe-Ohringen. The Roman Catholic family of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg +was soon divided into three branches, but two of these had died out by +1729. The surviving branch, that of Schillingsfurst, was divided into +the lines of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein; other +divisions followed, and the four existing lines of this branch of the +family are those of Waldenburg, Schillingsfurst, Jagstberg and +Bartenstein. The family of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst possesses the +duchies of Ratibor and of Corbie inherited in 1824. + +The principal members of the family are dealt with below. + +I. FRIEDRICH LUDWIG, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1746-1818), +Prussian general, was the eldest son of Prince Johann Friedrich (d. +1796) of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, and began his military career as a boy, +serving against the Prussians in the last years of the Seven Years' War. +Entering the Prussian army after the peace (1768), he was on account of +his rank at once made major, and in 1775 he became lieutenant-colonel; +in 1778 he took part in the War of the Bavarian Succession and about the +same time was made a colonel. Shortly before the death of Frederick the +Great he was promoted to the rank of major-general and appointed chief +of a regiment. For some years the prince did garrison duty at Breslau, +until in 1791 he was made governor of Berlin. In 1794 he commanded a +corps in the Prussian army on the Rhine and distinguished himself +greatly in many engagements, particularly in the battle of +Kaiserslautern on the 20th of September. He was at this time the most +popular soldier in the Prussian army. Blucher wrote of him that "he was +a leader of whom the Prussian army might well be proud." He succeeded +his father in the principality, and acquired additional lands by his +marriage with a daughter of Count von Hoym. In 1806 Hohenlohe, now a +general of infantry, was appointed to command the left-wing army of the +Prussian forces opposing Napoleon, having under him Prince Louis +Ferdinand of Prussia; but, feeling that his career had been that of a +prince and not that of a scientific soldier, he allowed his +quartermaster-general Massenbach to influence him unduly. Disputes soon +broke out between Hohenlohe and the commander-in-chief, the duke of +Brunswick, the armies marched hither and thither without effective +results, and finally Hohenlohe's army was almost destroyed by Napoleon +at Jena (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The prince displayed his usual +personal bravery in the battle, and managed to rally a portion of his +corps near Erfurt, whence he retired into Prussia. But the pursuers +followed him up closely, and, still acting under Massenbach's advice, he +surrendered the remnant of his army at Prenzlau on the 28th of October, +a fortnight after Jena and three weeks after the beginning of +hostilities. Hohenlohe's former popularity and influence in the army had +now the worst possible effect, for the commandants of garrisons +everywhere lost heart and followed his example. After two years spent as +a prisoner of war in France Hohenlohe retired to his estates, living in +self-imposed obscurity until his death on the 15th of February 1818. He +had, in August 1806, just before the outbreak of the French War, +resigned the principality to his eldest son, not being willing to become +a "mediatized" ruler under Wurttemberg suzerainty. + +II. LUDWIG ALOYSIUS, prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Bartenstein +(1765-1829), marshal and peer of France, was born on the 18th of August +1765. In 1784 he entered the service of the Palatinate, which he quitted +in 1792 in order to take the command of a regiment raised by his father +for the service of the emigrant princes of France. He greatly +distinguished himself under Conde in the campaigns of 1792-1793, +especially at the storming of the lines of Weissenburg. Subsequently he +entered the service of Holland, and, when almost surrounded by the army +of General Pichegru, conducted a masterly retreat from the island of +Bommel. From 1794 to 1799 he served as colonel in the Austrian +campaigns; in 1799 he was named major-general by the archduke Charles; +and after obtaining the rank of lieutenant-general he was appointed by +the emperor governor of the two Galicias. Napoleon offered to restore to +him his principality on condition that he adhered to the confederation +of the Rhine, but as he refused, it was united to Wurttemberg. After +Napoleon's fall in 1814 he entered the French service, and in 1815 he +held the command of a regiment raised by himself, with which he took +part in the Spanish campaign of 1823. In 1827 he was created marshal and +peer of France. He died at Luneville on the 30th of May 1829. + +III. ALEXANDER LEOPOLD FRANZ EMMERICH, prince of +Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfurst (1794-1849), priest and reputed +miracle-worker, was born at Kupferzell, near Waldenburg, on the 17th of +August 1794. By his mother, the daughter of an Hungarian nobleman, he +was from infancy destined for the church; and she entrusted his early +education to the ex-Jesuit Riel. In 1804 he entered the "Theresianum" at +Vienna, in 1808 the academy at Bern, in 1810 the archiepiscopal seminary +at Vienna, and afterwards he studied at Tyrnau and Ellwangen. He was +ordained priest in 1815, and in the following year he went to Rome, +where he entered the society of the "Fathers of the Sacred Heart." +Subsequently, at Munich and Bamberg, he was blamed for Jesuit and +obscurantist tendencies, but obtained considerable reputation as a +preacher. His first co-called miraculous cure was effected, in +conjunction with a peasant, Martin Michel, on a princess of +Schwarzenberg who had been for some years paralytic. Immediately he +acquired such fame as a performer of miraculous cures that multitudes +from various countries flocked to partake of the beneficial influence of +his supposed supernatural gifts. Ultimately, on account of the +interference of the authorities with his operations, he went in 1821 to +Vienna and then to Hungary, where he became canon at Grosswardein and in +1844 titular bishop of Sardica. He died at Voslau near Vienna on the +17th of November 1849. He was the author of a number of ascetic and +controversial writings, which were collected and published in one +edition by S. Brunner in 1851. + +IV. KRAFT, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1827-1892), soldier and +military writer, son of Prince Adolf of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen +(1797-1873), was born at Koschentin in Upper Silesia. He was a nephew of +the Prince Hohenlohe noticed above, who commanded the Prussians at Jena. +Educated with great rigour, owing to the impoverishment of the family +estates during the Napoleonic wars, he was sent into the Prussian army, +and commissioned to the artillery at the least expensive arm of the +service. He joined the Prussian Guard artillery in 1845, and it was soon +discovered that he had unusual aptitudes as an artillery officer. For a +time his brother officers resented the presence of a prince, until it +was found that he made no attempt to use his social position to secure +advancement. After serving as a military attache in Vienna and on the +Transylvanian frontier during the Crimean War, he was made a captain on +the general staff, and in 1856 personal aide-de-camp to the king, +remaining, however, in close touch with the artillery. In 1864, having +become in the meanwhile successively major and lieut.-colonel, he +resigned the staff appointments to become commander of the new Guard +Field Artillery regiment and in the following year he became colonel. In +1866 he saw his first real active service. In the bold advance of the +Guard corps on the Austrian right wing at Koniggratz (see SEVEN WEEKS' +WAR), he led the Guard reserve artillery with the greatest dash and +success, and after the short war ended he turned his energies, now +fortified by experience, to the better tactical training of the Prussian +artillery. In 1868 he was made a major-general and assigned to command +the Guard artillery brigade. In this capacity he gained great +distinction during the Franco-German war and especially at Gravelotte +and Sedan; he was in control of the artillery attack on the +fortifications of Paris. In 1873 he was placed in command of an infantry +division, and three years later was promoted lieutenant-general. He +retired in 1879, was made general of infantry in 1883 and general of +artillery in 1889. His military writings were numerous, and amongst +them several have become classics. These are _Briefe uber Artillerie_ +(Eng. trans. _Letters on Artillery_, 1887); _Briefe uber Strategie_ +(1877; Eng. trans. _Letters on Strategy_, 1898); and _Gesprache uber +Reiterei_ (1887; Eng. trans. _Conversations on Cavalry_). The _Briefe +uber Infanterie_ and _Briefe uber Kavallerie_ (translated into English, +_Letters on Infantry_, _Letters on Cavalry_, 1889) are of less +importance, though interesting as a reflection of prevailing German +ideas. His memoirs (_Aus meinem Leben_) were prepared in retirement near +Dresden, and the first volume (1897) created such a sensation that eight +years were allowed to elapse before the publication was continued. +Prince Kraft died near Dresden on the 16th of January 1892. + (C. F. A.) + +V. CHLODWIG KARL VICTOR, prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst +(1819-1901), statesman, was born on the 31st of March 1819 at +Schillingsfurst in Bavaria. His father, Prince Franz Joseph (1787-1841), +was a Catholic, his mother, Princess Konstanze of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, +a Protestant. In accordance with the compromise customary at the time, +Prince Chlodwig and his brothers were brought up in the religion of +their father, while his sisters followed that of their mother. In spite +of the difference of creed the family was very united, and it was to the +spirit that rendered this possible that the prince owed his liberal and +tolerant point of view, which was to exercise an important influence on +his political activity. As the younger son of a cadet line of his house +it was necessary for Prince Chlodwig to follow a profession. For a while +he thought of obtaining a commission in the British army through the +influence of his aunt, Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (_nee_ +princess of Leiningen), Queen Victoria's half-sister. He decided, +however, to enter the Prussian diplomatic service. His application to be +excused the preliminary steps, which involved several years' work in +subordinate positions in the Prussian civil service, was refused by +Frederick William IV., and the prince, with great good sense, decided to +sacrifice his pride of rank and to accept the king's conditions. As +auscultator in the courts at Coblenz he acquired a taste for +jurisprudence, became a _Referendar_ in September 1843, and after some +months of travel in France, Switzerland and Italy went to Potsdam as a +civil servant (May 13, 1844). These early years were invaluable, not +only as giving him experience of practical affairs but as affording him +an insight into the strength and weakness of the Prussian system. The +immediate result was to confirm his Liberalism. The Prussian principle +of "propagating enlightenment with a stick" did not appeal to him; he +"recognized the confusion and want of clear ideas in the highest +circles," the tendency to make agreement with the views of the +government the test of loyalty to the state; and he noted in his journal +(June 25, 1844) four years before the revolution of '48, "a slight cause +and we shall have a rising." "The free press," he notes on another +occasion, "is a necessity, progress the condition of the existence of a +state." If he was an ardent advocate of German unity, and saw in Prussia +the instrument for its attainment, he was throughout opposed to the +"Prussification" of Germany, and ultimately it was he who made the +unification of Germany possible by insisting at once on the principle of +union with the North German states and at the same time on the +preservation of the individuality of the states of the South. + +On the 12th of November 1834 the landgrave Viktor Amadeus of +Hesse-Rotenburg died, leaving to his nephews, the princes Viktor and +Chlodwig Hohenlohe, his allodial estates: the duchy of Ratibor in +Silesia, the principality of Corvey in Westphalia, and the lordship of +Treffurt in the Prussian governmental district of Erfurt. On the death +of Prince Franz Joseph on the 14th of January 1841 it was decided that +the principality of Schillingsfurst should pass to the third brother, +Philipp Ernst, as the two elder sons, Viktor and Chlodwig, were provided +for already under their uncle's will, the one with the duchy of Ratibor, +the other with Corvey and Treffurt. The youngest son, Gustav (b. +February 28, 1823), the future cardinal, was destined for the Church. On +the death of Prince Philipp Ernst (May 3, 1845) a new arrangement was +made: Prince Chlodwig became prince of Schillingsfurst, while Corvey was +assigned to the duke of Ratibor; Treffurt was subsequently sold by +Prince Chlodwig, who purchased with the price large estates in Posen. +This involved a complete change in Prince Chlodwig's career. His new +position as a "reigning" prince and hereditary member of the Bavarian +Upper House was incompatible with that of a Prussian official. On the +18th of April 1846 he took his seat as a member of the Bavarian +_Reichsrath_, and on the 26th of June received his formal discharge from +the Prussian service. + +Save for the interlude of 1848 the political life of Prince Hohenlohe +was for the next eighteen years not eventful. During the revolutionary +years his sympathies were with the Liberal idea of a united Germany, and +he compromised his chances of favour from the king of Bavaria by +accepting the task (November 1, 1848) of announcing to the courts of +Rome, Florence and Athens the accession to office of the Archduke John +of Austria as regent of Germany. But he was too shrewd an observer to +hope much from a national parliament which "wasted time in idle babble," +or from a democratic victory which had stunned but not destroyed the +German military powers. On the 16th of February 1847 he had married the +Princess Marie of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, the heiress to vast +estates in Russia.[1] This led to a prolonged visit to Werki in +Lithuania (1851-1853) in connexion with the management of the property, +a visit repeated in 1860. In general this period of Hohenlohe's life was +occupied in the management of his estates, in the sessions of the +Bavarian _Reichsrath_ and in travels. In 1856 he visited Rome, during +which he noted the baneful influence of the Jesuits. In 1859 he was +studying the political situation at Berlin, and in the same year he paid +a visit to England. The marriage of his brother Konstantin in 1859 to +another princess of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg led also to frequent +visits to Vienna. Thus Prince Hohenlohe was brought into close touch +with all the most notable people in Europe. At the same time, during +this period (1850-1866) he was endeavouring to get into relations with +the Bavarian government, with a view to taking a more active part in +affairs. Towards the German question his attitude at this time was +tentative. He had little hope of a practical realization of a united +Germany, and inclined towards the tripartite divisions under Austria, +Prussia and Bavaria--the so-called "Trias." He attended the _Furstentag_ +at Frankfort in 1863, and in the Schleswig-Holstein question was a +supporter of the prince of Augustenburg. It was at this time that, at +the request of Queen Victoria, he began to send her regular reports on +the political condition of Germany. + +Prince Hohenlohe's importance in history, however, begins with the year +1866. In his opinion the war was a blessing. It had demonstrated the +insignificance of the small and middle states, "a misfortune for the +dynasties"--with whose feelings a mediatized prince could scarcely be +expected to be over-sympathetic--but the best possible good fortune for +the German nation. In the Bavarian _Reichsrath_ Hohenlohe now began to +make his voice heard in favour of a closer union with Prussia; clearly, +if such a union were desirable, he was the man in every way best fitted +to prepare the way for it. One of the main obstacles in the way was the +temperament of Louis II. of Bavaria, whose ideas of kingship were very +remote from those of the Hohenzollerns, whose pride revolted from any +concession to Prussian superiority, and who--even during the crisis of +1866--was more absorbed in operas than in affairs of state. Fortunately +Richard Wagner was a politician as well as a composer, and equally +fortunately Hohenlohe was a man of culture capable of appreciating "the +master's" genius. It was Wagner, apparently, who persuaded the king to +place Hohenlohe at the head of his government (_Denkwurdigkeiten_, i. +178, 211), and on the 31st of December 1866 the prince was duly +appointed minister of the royal house and of foreign affairs and +president of the council of ministers. + +As head of the Bavarian government Hohenlohe's principal task was to +discover some basis for an effective union of the South German states +with the North German Confederation, and during the three critical years +of his tenure of office he was, next to Bismarck, the most important +statesman in Germany. He carried out the reorganization of the Bavarian +army on the Prussian model, brought about the military union of the +southern states, and took a leading share in the creation of the customs +parliament (_Zollparlament_), of which on the 28th of April 1868 he was +elected a vice-president. During the agitation that arose in connexion +with the summoning of the Vatican council Hohenlohe took up an attitude +of strong opposition to the ultramontane position. In common with his +brothers, the duke of Ratibor and the cardinal, he believed that the +policy of Pius IX.--inspired by the Jesuits (that "devil's society," as +he once called it)--of setting the Church in opposition to the modern +State would prove ruinous to both, and that the definition of the dogma +of papal infallibility, by raising the pronouncements of the Syllabus of +1864 into articles of faith, would commit the Church to this policy +irrevocably. This view he embodied into a circular note to the Catholic +powers (April 9, 1869), drawn up by Dollinger, inviting them to exercise +the right of sending ambassadors to the council and to combine to +prevent the definition of the dogma. The greater powers, however, were +for one reason or another unwilling to intervene, and the only practical +outcome of Hohenlohe's action was that in Bavaria the powerful +ultramontane party combined against him with the Bavarian "patriots" who +accused him of bartering away Bavarian independence to Prussia. The +combination was too strong for him; a bill which he brought in for +curbing the influence of the Church over education was defeated, the +elections of 1869 went against him, and in spite of the continued +support of the king he was forced to resign (March 7, 1870). + +Though out of office, his personal influence continued very great both +at Munich and Berlin and had not a little to do with favourable terms of +the treaty of the North German Confederation with Bavaria, which +embodied his views, and with its acceptance by the Bavarian +parliament.[2] Elected a member of the German Reichstag, he was on the +23rd of March 1871 chosen one of its vice-presidents, and was +instrumental in founding the new groups which took the name of the +Liberal Imperial party (_Liberale Reichspartei_), the objects of which +were to support the new empire, to secure its internal development on +Liberal lines, and to oppose clerical aggression as represented by the +Catholic Centre. Like the duke of Ratibor, Hohenlohe was from the first +a strenuous supporter of Bismarck's anti-papal policy, the main lines of +which (prohibition of the Society of Jesus, &c.) he himself suggested. +Though sympathizing with the motives of the Old Catholics, however, he +realized that they were doomed to sink into a powerless sect, and did +not join them, believing that the only hope for a reform of the Church +lay in those who desired it remaining in her communion.[3] In 1872 +Bismarck proposed to appoint Cardinal Hohenlohe Prussian envoy at the +Vatican, but his views were too much in harmony with those of his +family, and the pope refused to receive him in this capacity.[4] + +In 1873 Bismarck chose Prince Hohenlohe to succeed Count Harry Arnim as +ambassador in Paris, where he remained for seven years. In 1878 he +attended the congress of Berlin as third German representative, and in +1880, on the death of Bernhardt Ernst von Bulow (October 20), secretary +of state for foreign affairs, he was called to Berlin as temporary head +of the Foreign Office and representative of Bismarck during his absence +through illness. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed Manteuffel as governor +of Alsace-Lorraine. In this capacity he had to carry out the coercive +measures introduced by the chancellor in 1887-1888, though he largely +disapproved of them;[5] his conciliatory disposition, however, did much +to reconcile the Alsace-Lorrainers to German rule. He remained at +Strassburg till October 1894, when, at the urgent request of the +emperor, he consented, in spite of his advanced years, to accept the +chancellorship in succession to Caprivi. The events of his +chancellorship belong to the general history of Germany (q.v.); as +regards the inner history of this time the editor of his memoirs has +very properly suppressed the greater part of the detailed comments which +the prince left behind him. In general, during his term of office, the +personality of the chancellor was less conspicuous in public affairs +than in the ease of either of his predecessors. His appearances in the +Prussian and German parliaments were rare, and great independence was +left to the secretaries of state. What influence the tact and experience +of Hohenlohe exercised behind the scenes on the masterful will and +impulsive character of the emperor cannot as yet be generally known. + +Prince Hohenlohe resigned the chancellorship on the 17th of October +1900, and died at Ragaz on the 6th of July 1901. On the 16th of February +1897 he had celebrated his golden wedding; on the 21st of December of +the same year the princess died. There were six children of the +marriage: Elizabeth (b. 1847); Stephanie (b. 1851); Philipp Ernst, +reigning prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst (b. 1853), who married +Princess Charielee Ypsilanti; Albert (1857-1866); Moritz and Alexander, +twins (b. 1862). + + All other authorities for the life of Prince Hohenlohe have been + superseded by the _Denkwurdigkeiten_ (2 vols., Stuttgart and Leipzig, + 1906). With the exception noted above these are singularly full and + outspoken, the latter quality causing no little scandal in Germany and + bringing down on Prince Alexander, who was responsible for their + publication, the disfavour of the emperor. They form not only the + record of a singularly full and varied life, but are invaluable to the + historian for the wealth of material they contain and for + appreciations of men and events by an observer who had the best + opportunities for forming a judgment. The prince himself they reveal + not only as a capable man of affairs, though falling short of + greatness, but as a personality of singular charm, tenacious of his + principles, tolerant, broad-minded, and possessed of a large measure + of the saving grace of humour. + + See generally A. F. Fischer, _Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe_ + (1866-1871); K. Weller, _Hohenlohisches Urkundenbuch_, 1153-1350 + (Stuttgart, 1899-1901), and _Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe_ + (Stuttgart, 1904). (W. A. P.; C. F. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Through her mother, _nee_ Princess Stephanie Radziwill (d. 1832). + Before Prince Wittgenstein's death (1887) a new law had forbidden + foreigners to hold land in Russia. Prince Hohenlohe appears, however, + to have sold one of his wife's estates and to have secured certain + privileges from the Russian court for the rest. + + [2] Speech of December 30, 1870, in the _Reichsrath_. + _Denkwurdigkeiten_, ii. 36. + + [3] "If I wished to leave the Church because of all the scandalous + occurrences in the Catholic Church, I should have had to secede while + studying Church history," _op. cit._ ii. 92. + + [4] Dr Johann Friedrich (q.v.), afterwards one of the Old Catholic + leaders, was his secretary at the time of the Vatican council, and + supplied historical and theological material to the opposition + bishops. + + [5] He protested against the passport system as likely to lead to a + war with France, for which he preferred not to be responsible (Letter + to Wilmowski, _Denkw._ ii. 433), but on the chancellor taking full + responsibility consented to retain office. + + + + +HOHENSTAUFEN, the name of a village and ruined castle near Lorsch in +Swabia, now in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, which gave its name to a +celebrated Swabian family, members of which were emperors or German +kings from 1138 to 1208, and again from 1214 to 1254. The earliest known +ancestor was Frederick, count of Buren (d. 1094), whose son Frederick +built a castle at Staufen, or Hohenstaufen, and called himself by this +name. He was a firm supporter of the emperor Henry IV., who rewarded his +fidelity by granting him the dukedom of Swabia in 1079, and giving him +his daughter Agnes in marriage. In 1081 he remained in Germany as +Henry's representative, but only secured possession of Swabia after a +struggle lasting twenty years. In 1105 Frederick was succeeded by his +son Frederick II., called the One-eyed, who, together with his brother +Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III., held south-west Germany +for their uncle the emperor Henry V. Frederick inherited the estates of +Henry V. in 1125, but failed to secure the throne, and took up an +attitude of hostility towards the new emperor, Lothair the Saxon, who +claimed some of the estates of the late emperor as crown property. A war +broke out and ended in the complete submission of Frederick at Bamberg. +He retained, however, his dukedom and estates. In 1138 Conrad of +Hohenstaufen was elected German king, and was succeeded in 1152, not by +his son but by his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, son of his brother +Frederick (d. 1147). Conrad's son Frederick inherited the duchy of +Franconia which his father had received in 1115, and this was retained +by the Hohenstaufen until the death of Duke Conrad II. in 1196. In 1152 +Frederick received the duchy of Swabia from his cousin the German king +Frederick I., and on his death in 1167 it passed successively to +Frederick's three sons Frederick, Conrad and Philip. The second +Hohenstaufen emperor was Frederick Barbarossa's son, Henry VI., after +whose death a struggle for the throne took place between Henry's brother +Philip, duke of Swabia, and Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor +Otto IV. Regained for the Hohenstaufen by Henry's son, Frederick II., in +1214, the German kingdom passed to his son, Conrad IV., and when +Conrad's son Conradin was beheaded in Italy in 1268, the male line of +the Hohenstaufen became extinct. Daughters of Philip of Swabia married +Ferdinand III., king of Castile and Leon, and Henry II., duke of +Brabant, and a daughter of Conrad, brother of the emperor Frederick I., +married into the family of Guelph. The castle of Hohenstaufen was +destroyed in the 16th century during the Peasants' War, and only a few +fragments now remain. + + See F. von Raumer, _Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit_ + (Leipzig, 1878); B. F. W. Zimmermann, _Geschichte der Hohenstaufen_ + (Stuttgart, 1st ed., 1838; 2nd ed., 1865); F. W. Schirrmacher, _Die + letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Gottingen, 1871). + + + + +HOHENSTEIN (Hohenstein-Ernstthal), a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Saxony, on the slopes of the Erzgebirge, and on the railway +Reichenbach-Chemnitz, 12 m. N.E. of Zwickau. Pop. (1905) 13,903. +Hohenstein possesses two fine Evangelical churches, a town hall, +restored in 1876, and several monuments to famous men. The principal +industries are the spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of +machines, stockings, gloves and woollen and silk fabrics, cotton +printing and dyeing. Many of the inhabitants are also employed in the +neighbouring copper and arsenic mines. Not far from Hohenstein there is +a mineral spring, connected with which there are various kinds of baths. +Hohenstein is the birthplace of the physicist G. H. von Schubert and of +C. G. Schroter (1699-1782), one of the inventors of the pianoforte. +Hohenstein consists of two towns, Hohenstein and Ernstthal, which were +united in 1898. + +Another place of the same name is a town in East Prussia. Pop. (1900) +2467. This Hohenstein, which was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1359, +has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, a synagogue and several +educational establishments. + + + + +HOHENZOLLERN, the name of a castle which stood on the hill of Zollern +about 1(1/2) m. south of Hechingen, and gave its name to the family to +which the present German emperor belongs. A vague tradition connects the +house with the Colonna family of Rome, or the Colalto family of +Lombardy; but one more definite unites the Hohenzollerns with the +Burkhardingers, who were counts in Raetia during the early part of the +10th century, and two of whom became dukes of Swabia. Tassilo, a member +of this family, is said to have built a castle at Zollern early in the +9th century; but the first historical mention of the name is in the +_Chronicon_ of a certain Berthold (d. 1088), who refers to Burkhard and +Wezil, or Werner, of Zollern, or Zolorin. These men appear to have been +counts of Zollern, and to have met their death in 1061. The family of +Wezil died out in 1194, and the existing branches of the Hohenzollerns +are descended from Burkhard and his son Frederick, whose eldest son, +Frederick II., was in great favour with the German kings, Lothair the +Saxon and Conrad III. Frederick II. died about 1145, and his son and +successor, Frederick III., was a constant supporter of the Hohenstaufen. +This count married Sophia, daughter and heiress of Conrad, burgrave of +Nuremberg, and about 1192 he succeeded his father-in-law as burgrave, +obtaining also some lands in Austria and Franconia. He died about 1200, +and his sons, Conrad and Frederick, ruled their lands in common until +1227, when an important division took place. Conrad became burgrave of +Nuremberg, and, receiving the lands which had come into the family +through his mother, founded the Franconian branch of the family, which +became the more important of the two; while Frederick, receiving the +county of Zollern and the older possessions of the family, was the +ancestor of the Swabian branch. + +Early in the 12th century Burkhard, a younger son of Frederick I., +secured the county of Hohenberg, and this district remained in the +possession of the Hohenzollerns until the death of Count Sigismund in +1486. Its rulers, however, with the exception of Count Albert II. (d. +1298), played an unimportant part in German history. Albert, who was a +Minnesinger, was loyal to the declining fortunes of the Hohenstaufen, +and afterwards supported his brother-in-law, Rudolph of Habsburg, in his +efforts to obtain the German throne. He shared in the campaigns of +Rudolph and fell in battle in 1298, during the struggle between Adolph +of Nassau and Albert of Habsburg (afterwards King Albert I.). When this +family became extinct in 1486 Hohenberg passed to the Habsburgs. + +The Franconian branch of the Hohenzollerns was represented in 1227 by +Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, whom the emperor Frederick II. appointed +guardian of his son Henry, and administrator of Austria. After a short +apostasy, during which he supported Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, +Conrad returned to the side of the Hohenstaufen and aided Conrad IV. He +died in 1261, when his son and successor, the burgrave Frederick III., +had already obtained Bayreuth through his marriage with Elizabeth, +daughter of Otto of Meran (d. 1234). Frederick took a leading part in +German affairs, and it is interesting to note that he had a considerable +share in securing the election of his uncle, Rudolph of Habsburg, as +German king in 1273. He died in 1297 and was succeeded by his son, +Frederick IV. This burgrave fought for King Albert I. in Thuringia, and +supported Henry VII. in his efforts to secure Bohemia for his son John; +but in 1314, forsaking his father's policy, he favoured Louis, +afterwards the emperor Louis IV., in his struggle with Frederick, duke +of Austria, and by his conduct at the battle of Muhldorf in 1322 and +elsewhere earned the designation of "saviour of the empire." Frederick, +however, did not neglect his hereditary lands. He did something for the +maintenance of peace and the security of traders, gave corporate +privileges to villages, and took the Jews under his protection. His +services to Louis were rewarded in various ways, and, using part of his +wealth to increase the area of his possessions, he bought the town and +district of Ansbach in 1331. Dying in 1332, Frederick was succeeded by +his son, John II., who, after one of his brothers had died and two +others had entered the church, ruled his lands in common with his +brother Albert. About 1338 John bought Culmbach and Plassenburg, and on +the strength of a privilege granted to him in 1347 he seized many +robber-fortresses and held the surrounding lands as imperial fiefs. In +general he continued his father's policy, and when he died in 1357 was +succeeded by his son, Frederick V., who, after the death of his uncle +Albert in 1361, became sole ruler of Nuremberg, Ansbach and Bayreuth. +Frederick lived in close friendship with the emperor Charles IV., who +formally invested him with Ansbach and Bayreuth and made him a prince of +the empire in 1363. In spite of the troubled times in which he lived, +Frederick was a successful ruler, and introduced a regular system of +public finance into his lands. In 1397 he divided his territories +between his sons John and Frederick, and died in the following year. His +elder son, John III., who had married Margaret, a daughter of the +emperor Charles IV., was frequently in the company of his +brothers-in-law, the German kings Wenceslaus and Sigismund. He died +without sons in 1420. + +Since 1397 the office of burgrave of Nuremberg had been held by John's +brother, Frederick, who in 1415 received Brandenburg from King +Sigismund, and became margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I. (q.v.). On +his brother's death in 1420 he reunited the lands of his branch of the +family, but in 1427 he sold his rights as burgrave to the town of +Nuremberg. The subsequent history of this branch of the Hohenzollerns is +identified with that of Brandenburg from 1415 to 1701, and with that of +Prussia since the latter date, as in this year the elector Frederick +III. became king of Prussia. In 1871 William, the seventh king, took the +title of German emperor. While the electorate of Brandenburg passed +according to the rule of primogeniture, the Franconian possessions of +the Hohenzollerns, Ansbach and Bayreuth, were given as appanages to +younger sons, an arrangement which was confirmed by the _dispositio +Achillea_ of 1473. These principalities were ruled by the sons and +descendants of the elector Albert Achilles from 1486 to 1603; and, after +reverting to the elector of Brandenburg, by the descendants of the +elector John George from 1603 to 1791. In 1791 Prince Charles Alexander +(d. 1806), who had inherited both districts, sold his lands to Prussia. + +The influence of the Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns was weakened by +several partitions of its lands; but early in the 16th century it rose +to some eminence through Count Eitel Frederick II. (d. 1512), a friend +and adviser of the emperor Maximilian I. Eitel received from this +emperor the district of Haigerloch, and in 1534 his grandson Charles (d. +1576) was granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vohringen by the +emperor Charles V. In 1576 the sons of Charles divided their lands, and +founded three branches of the family, one of which is still flourishing. +Eitel Frederick IV. took Hohenzollern with the title of +Hohenzollern-Hechingen; Charles II. Sigmaringen and Vohringen and the +title of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; and Christopher took Haigerloch. +Christopher's family died out in 1634, but the remaining lines are of +some importance. Count John George of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was made a +prince in 1623, and John of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen soon received the +same honour. In 1695 these two branches of the family entered conjointly +into an agreement with Brandenburg, which provided that, in case of the +extinction of either of the Swabian branches, the remaining branch +should inherit its lands; and if both branches became extinct the +principalities should revert to Brandenburg. During the 17th and 18th +centuries and during the period of the Napoleonic wars the history of +these lands was very similar to that of the other small estates of +Germany. In consequence of the political troubles of 1848 Princes +Frederick William of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Charles Anton of +Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen resigned their principalities, and accordingly +these fell to the king of Prussia, who took possession on the 12th of +March 1850. By a royal decree of the 20th of May following the title of +"highness," with the prerogatives of younger sons of the royal house, +was conferred on the two princes. The proposal to raise Prince Leopold +of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1835-1905) to the Spanish throne in 1870 +was the immediate cause of the war between France and Germany. In 1908 +the head of this branch of the Hohenzollerns, the only one existing +besides the imperial house, was Leopold's son William (b. 1864), who, +owing to the extinction of the family of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1869, +was called simply prince of Hohenzollern. In 1866 Prince Charles of +Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Rumania, becoming king in +1881. + +The modern Prussian province of Hohenzollern is a long, narrow strip of +territory bounded on the S.W. by Baden and in other directions by +Wurttemberg. It was divided into two principalities, +Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen, until 1850, when +these were united. They now form the government of Sigmaringen (q.v.). + +The castle of Hohenzollern was destroyed in 1423, but it has been +restored several times. Some remains of the old building may still be +seen adjoining the present castle, which was built by King Frederick +William IV. + + See _Monumenta Zollerana_, edited by R. von Stillfried and T. Marker + (Berlin, 1852-1890); _Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des + Hauses Hohenzollern_, edited by E. Berner (Berlin, 1901 fol.); R. von + Stillfried, _Altertumer und Kunstdenkmale des erlauchten Hauses von + Hohenzollern_ (Berlin, 1852-1867) and _Stammtafeln des Gesamthauses + Hohenzollern_ (Berlin, 1869); L. Schmid, _Die alteste Geschichte des + erlauchten Gesamthauses der koniglichen und furstlichen Hohenzollern_ + (Tubingen, 1884-1888); E. Schwartz, _Stammtafel des preussischen + Konigshauses_ (Breslau 1898); _Hohenzollernsche Forschungen, Jahrbuch + fur die Geschichte der Hohenzollern_, edited by C. Meyer (Berlin, + 1891-1902); _Hohenzollern Jahrbuch, Forschungen und Abbildungen zur + Geschichte der Hohenzollern in Brandenburg-Freussen_, edited by Seidel + (Leipzig, 1897-1903), and T. Carlyle, _History of Frederick the Great_ + (London, 1872-1873). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +HOKKAIDO, the Japanese name for the northern division of the empire +(_Hoku_ = north, _kai_ = sea, and _do_ = road), including Yezo, the +Kuriles and their adjacent islets. + + + + +HOKUSAI (1760-1849), the greatest of all the Japanese painters of the +Popular School (_Ukiyo-ye_), was born at Yedo (Tokyo) in the 9th month +of the 10th year of the period Horeki, i.e. October-November 1760. He +came of an artisan family, his father having been a mirror-maker, +Nakajima Issai. After some practice as a wood-engraver he, at the age of +eighteen, entered the studio of Katsugawa Shunsho, a painter and +designer of colour-prints of considerable importance. His disregard for +the artistic principles of his master caused his expulsion in 1785; and +thereafter--although from time to time Hokusai studied various styles, +including especially that of Shiba Gokan, from whom he gained some +fragmentary knowledge of European methods--he kept his personal +independence. For a time he lived in extreme poverty, and, although he +must have gained sums for his work which might have secured him comfort, +he remained poor, and to the end of his life proudly described himself +as a peasant. He illustrated large numbers of books, of which the +world-famous _Mangwa_, a pictorial encyclopaedia of Japanese life, +appeared in fifteen volumes from 1812 to 1875. Of his colour-prints the +"Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji" (the whole set consisting of forty-six +prints) were made between 1823 and 1829; "Views of Famous Bridges" (11), +"Waterfalls" (8), and "Views of the Lu-chu Islands" (8), are the best +known of those issued in series; but Hokusai also designed some superb +broadsheets published separately, and his _surimono_ (small prints made +for special occasions and ceremonies) are unequalled for delicacy and +beauty. The "Hundred Views of Mount Fuji" (1834-1835), 3 vols., in +monochrome, are of extraordinary originality and variety. As a painter +and draughtsman Hokusai is not held by Japanese critics to be of the +first rank, but this verdict has never been accepted by Europeans, who +place him among the greatest artists of the world. He possessed great +powers of observation and characterization, a singular technical skill, +an unfailing gift of good humour, and untiring industry. He was an eager +student to the end of his long life, and on his death-bed said, "If +Heaven had lent me but five years more, I should have become a great +painter." He died on the 10th of May 1849. + + See E. de Goncourt, _Hokousai_ (1896); M. Revon, _Etude sur Hokusai_ + (1896); E. F. Fenollosa, _Catalogue of the Exhibition of Paintings by + Hokusai at Tokyo_ (1901); E. F. Strange, Hokusai (1906). (E. F. S.) + + + + +HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH, BARON D' (1723-1789), French +philosopher and man of letters, of German origin, was born at +Heidelsheim in the palatinate in 1723. Of his family little is known; +according to J. J. Rousseau his father was a rich parvenu, who brought +his son at an early age to Paris, where the latter spent most of his +life. Much of Holbach's fame is due to his intimate connexion with the +brilliant coterie of bold thinkers and polished wits whose creed, the +new philosophy, is concentrated in the famous _Encyclopedie_. Possessed +of easy means and being of hospitable disposition, he kept open house +for Helvetius, D'Alembert, Diderot, Condillac, Turgot, Buffon, Grimm, +Hume, Garrick, Wilkes, Sterne, and for a time J. J. Rousseau, guests +who, while enjoying the intellectual pleasure of their host's +conversation, were not insensible to his excellent cuisine and costly +wines. For the _Encyclopedie_ he compiled and translated a large number +of articles on chemistry and mineralogy, chiefly from German sources. He +attracted more attention, however, in the department of philosophy. In +1767 _Christianisme devoile_ appeared, in which he attacked Christianity +and religion as the source of all human evils. This was followed up by +other works, and in 1770 by a still more open attack in his most famous +book, _Le Systeme de la nature_, in which it is probable he was +assisted by Diderot. Denying the existence of a deity, and refusing to +admit as evidence all a priori arguments, Holbach saw in the universe +nothing save matter in spontaneous movement. What men call their souls +become extinct when the body dies. Happiness is the end of mankind. "It +would be useless and almost unjust to insist upon a man's being virtuous +if he cannot be so without being unhappy. So long as vice renders him +happy, he should love vice." The restraints of religion were to be +replaced by an education developing an enlightened self-interest. The +study of science was to bring human desires into line with their natural +surroundings. Not less direct and trenchant are his attacks on political +government, which, interpreted by the light of after events, sound like +the first distant mutterings of revolution. Holbach exposed the logical +consequences of the theories of the Encyclopaedists. Voltaire hastily +seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the Systeme in the article +"Dieu" in his _Dictionnaire philosophique_, while Frederick the Great +also drew up an answer to it. Though vigorous in thought and in some +passages clear and eloquent, the style of the Systeme is diffuse and +declamatory, and asserts rather than proves its statements. Its +principles are summed up in a more popular form in _Bon Sens, ou idees +naturelles opposees aux idees surnaturelles_ (Amsterdam, 1772). In the +Systeme social (1773), the _Politique naturelle_ (1773-1774) and the +_Morale universelle_ (1776) Holbach attempts to rear a system of +morality in place of the one he had so fiercely attacked, but these +later writings had not a tithe of the popularity and influence of his +earlier work. He published his books either anonymously or under +borrowed names, and was forced to have them printed out of France. The +uprightness and sincerity of his character won the friendship of many to +whom his philosophy was repugnant. J. J. Rousseau is supposed to have +drawn his portrait in the virtuous atheist Wolmar of the _Nouvelle +Heloise_. He died on the 21st of January 1789. + + Holbach is also the author of the following and other works: _Esprit + du clerge_ (1767); _De l'imposture sacerdotale_ (1767); _Pretres + demasques_ (1768); _Examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de St + Paul_ (1770); _Histoire critique de Jesus-Christ_ (1770), and + _Ethocratie_ (1776). For further particulars as to his life and + doctrines see Grimm's _Correspondance litteraire_, &c. (1813); + Rousseau's _Confessions_; Morellet's _Memoires_ (1821); Madame de + Genlis, _Les Diners du Baron Holbach_; Madame d'Epinay's _Memoires_; + Avezac-Lavigne, _Diderot et la societe du Baron d'Holbach_ (1875), and + Morley's _Diderot_ (1878). + + + + +HOLBEACH, a market town in the Holland or Spalding parliamentary +division of Lincolnshire, England, on the Midland and Great Northern +joint railway, 23(1/2) m. N.E. of Peterborough. Pop. of urban district +(1901), 4755. All Saints' Church, with a lofty spire, is a fine specimen +of late Decorated work. The grammar school, founded in 1669, occupies a +building erected in 1877. Other public buildings are the assembly rooms +and a market house. Roman and Saxon remains have been found, and the +market dates from the 13th century. + + + + +HOLBEIN, HANS, the elder (c. 1460-1524), belonged to a celebrated family +of painters in practice at Augsburg and Basel from the close of the 15th +to the middle of the 16th century. Though closely connected with Venice +by her commercial relations, and geographically nearer to Italy than to +Flanders, Augsburg at the time of Maximilian cultivated art after the +fashion of the Flemings, and felt the influence of the schools of Bruges +and Brussels, which had branches at Cologne and in many cities about the +headwaters of the Rhine. It was not till after the opening of the 16th +century, and between that and the era of the Reformation, that Italian +example mitigated to some extent the asperity of South German painting. +Flemish and German art was first tempered with Italian elements at +Augsburg by Hans Holbein the elder. Hans first appears at Augsburg as +partner to his brother Sigismund, who survived him and died in 1540 at +Berne. Sigismund is described as a painter, but his works have not come +down to us. Hans had the lead of the partnership at Augsburg, and signed +all the pictures which it produced. In common with Herlen, Schongauer, +and other masters of South Germany, he first cultivated a style akin to +that of Memlinc and other followers of the schools of Brussels and +Bruges, but he probably modified the systems of those schools by +studying the works of the masters of Cologne. As these early impressions +waned, they were replaced by others less favourable to the expansion of +the master's fame; and as his custom increased between 1499 and 1506, we +find him relying less upon the teaching of the schools than upon a mere +observation and reproduction of the quaintnesses of local passion plays. +Most of his early works indeed are taken from the Passion, and in these +he obviously marshalled his figures with the shallow stage effect of the +plays, copying their artificial system of grouping, careless to some +extent of proportion in the human shape, heedless of any but the coarser +forms of expression, and technically satisfied with the simplest methods +of execution. If in any branch of his art he can be said to have had a +conscience at this period, we should say that he showed it in his +portrait drawings. It is seldom that we find a painted likeness worthy +of the name. The drawings of which numbers are still preserved in the +galleries of Basel, Berlin and Copenhagen show extraordinary quickness +and delicacy of hand, and a wonderful facility for seizing character; +and this happily is one of the features which Holbein bequeathed to his +more famous son, Hans the younger. It is between 1512 and 1522 that +Holbein tempered the German quality of his style with some North Italian +elements. A purer taste and more pleasing realism mark his work, which +in drapery, dress and tone is as much more agreeable to the eye as in +respect of modelling and finish it is smoother and more carefully +rounded. Costume, architecture, ornament and colour are applied with +some knowledge of the higher canons of art. Here, too, advantage accrued +to Hans the younger, whose independent career about this time began. + +The date of the elder Holbein's birth is unknown. But his name appears +in the books of the tax-gatherers of Augsburg in 1494, superseding that +of Michael Holbein, who is supposed to have been his father. Previous to +that date, and as early as 1493, he was a painter of name, and he +executed in that year, it is said, for the abbey at Weingarten, the +wings of an altarpiece representing Joachim's Offering, the Nativity of +the Virgin, Mary's Presentation in the Temple, and the Presentation of +Christ, which now hang in separate panels in the cathedral of Augsburg. +In these pieces and others of the same period, for instance in two +Madonnas in the Moritz chapel and castle of Nuremberg, we mark the clear +impress of the schools of Van der Weyden and Memlinc; whilst in later +works, such as the Basilica of St Paul (1504) in the gallery of +Augsburg, the wane of Flemish influence is apparent. But this +altarpiece, with its quaint illustrations of St Paul's life and +martyrdom, is not alone of interest because its execution is +characteristic of old Holbein. It is equally so because it contains +portraits of the master himself, accompanied by his two sons, the +painters Ambrose (c. 1494-c. 1519) and Hans the younger. Later pictures, +such as the Passion series in the Furstenberg gallery at Donaueschingen, +or the Martyrdom of St Sebastian in the Munich Pinakothek, contain +similar portraits, the original drawings of which are found in old +Holbein's sketch-book at Berlin, or in stray leaves like those possessed +by the duke of Aumale in Paris. Not one of these fails to give us an +insight into the character, or a reflex of the features, of the members +of this celebrated family. Old Holbein seems to ape Leonardo, allowing +his hair and beard to grow wildly, except on the upper lip. Hans the +younger is a plain-looking boy. But his father points to him with his +finger, and hints that though but a child he is clearly a prodigy. + +After 1516 Hans Holbein the elder appears as a defaulter in the +registers of the tax-gatherers at Augsburg; but he willingly accepts +commissions abroad. At Issenheim in Alsace, where Grunewald was employed +in 1516, old Holbein also finds patrons, and contracts to complete an +altarpiece. But misfortune or a bailiff pursues him, and he leaves +Issenheim, abandoning his work and tools. According to Sandrart, he +wanders to Basel and takes the freedom of its gild. His brother +Sigismund and others are found suing him for debt before the courts of +Augsburg. Where he lived when he executed the altarpiece, of which two +wings with the date of 1522 are in the gallery of Carlsruhe, is +uncertain; where he died two years later is unknown. He slinks from ken +at the close of a long life, and disappears at last heeded by none but +his own son, who claims his brushes and paints from the monks of +Issenheim without much chance of obtaining them. His name is struck off +the books of the Augsburg gild in 1524. + + The elder Holbein was a prolific artist, who left many pictures behind + him. Earlier than the Basilica of St Paul, already mentioned, is the + Basilica of St Mary Maggiore, and a Passion in eleven pieces, in the + Augsburg gallery, both executed in 1499. Another Passion, with the + root of Jesse and a tree of the Dominicans, is that preserved in the + Staedel, Saalhof, and church of St Leonard at Frankfort. It was + executed in 1501. The Passion of Donaueschingen was finished after + 1502, in which year was completed the Passion of Kaisheim, a + conglomerate of twenty-seven panels, now divided amongst the galleries + of Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Schleissheim. An altarpiece of the + same class, commissioned for the monastery of St Moritz at Augsburg in + 1504-1508, has been dispersed and lost. 1512 is the date of a + Conception in the Augsburg gallery, long assigned, in consequence of a + forged inscription, to Hans Holbein the younger. A diptych, with a + Virgin and Child, and a portrait of an old man, dated 1513, came in + separate parts into the collections of Mr Posonyi and Count + Lanckoronski at Vienna. The sketch-books of Berlin, Copenhagen and + Augsburg give a lively picture of the forms and dress of Augsburg + residents at the beginning of the 16th century. They comprise + portraits of the emperor Maximilian, the future Charles V., Kunz von + der Rosen, the fool of Maximilian, the Fuggers, friars, merchants, and + at rare intervals ladies. + + See also the biography by Stodtner (Berlin, 1896). + + + + +HOLBEIN, HANS, the younger (1497-1543), German painter, favourite son of +Hans Holbein the elder, was probably born at Augsburg about the year +1497. Though Sandrart and Van Mander declare that they do not know who +gave him the first lessons, he doubtless received an artist's education +from his father. About 1515 he left Augsburg with Ambrose, his elder +brother, to seek employment as an illustrator of books at Basel. His +first patron is said to have been Erasmus, for whom, shortly after his +arrival, he illustrated with pen-and-ink sketches an edition of the +_Encomium Moriae_, now in the museum of Basel. But his chief occupation +was that of drawing titlepage-blocks and initials for new editions of +the Bible and classics issued from the presses of Froben and other +publishers. His leisure hours, it is supposed, were devoted to the +production of rough painter's work, a schoolmaster's sign in the Basel +collection, a table with pictures of St Nobody in the library of the +university at Zurich. In contrast with these coarse productions, the +portraits of Jacob Meyer and his wife in the Basel museum, one of which +purports to have been finished in 1516, are miracles of workmanship. It +has always seemed difficult indeed to ascribe such excellent creations +to Holbein's nineteenth year; and it is hardly credible that he should +have been asked to do things of this kind so early, especially when it +is remembered that neither he nor his brother Ambrose were then allowed +to matriculate in the guild of Basel. Not till 1517 did Ambrose, whose +life otherwise remains obscure, join that corporation; Hans, not +overburdened with practice, wandered into Switzerland, where (1517) he +was employed to paint in the house of Jacob Hertenstein at Lucerne. In +1519 Holbein reappeared at Basel, where he matriculated and, there is +every reason to think, married. Whether, previous to this time, he took +advantage of his vicinity to the Italian border to cross the Alps is +uncertain. Van Mander says that he never was in Italy; yet the large +wall-paintings which he executed after 1519 at Basel, and the series of +his sketches and pictures which is still extant, might lead to the +belief that Van Mander was misinformed. The spirit of Holbein's +compositions for the Basel town hall, the scenery and architecture of +his numerous drawings, and the cast of form in some of his imaginative +portraits, make it more likely that he should have felt the direct +influence of North Italian painting than that he should have taken +Italian elements from imported works or prints. The Swiss at this period +wandered in thousands to swell the ranks of the French or imperial +armies fighting on Italian soil, and the road they took may have been +followed by Hans on a more peaceful mission. He shows himself at all +events familiar with Italian examples at various periods of his career; +and if we accept as early works the "Flagellation," and the "Last +Supper" at Basel, coarse as they are, they show some acquaintance with +Lombard methods of painting, whilst in other pieces, such as the series +of the Passion in oil in the same collection, the modes of Hans Holbein +the elder are agreeably commingled with a more modern, it may be said +Italian, polish. Again, looking at the "Virgin" and "Man of Sorrows" in +the Basel museum, we shall be struck by a searching metallic style akin +to that of the Ferrarese; and the "Lais" or the "Venus and Amor" of the +same collection reminds us of the Leonardesques of the school of Milan. +When Holbein settled down to an extensive practice at Basel in 1519, he +decorated the walls of the house "Zum Tanz" with simulated architectural +features of a florid character after the fashion of the Veronese; and +his wall paintings in the town-hall, if we can truly judge of them by +copies, reveal an artist not unfamiliar with North Italian composition, +distribution, action, gesture and expression. In his drawings too, +particularly in a set representing the Passion at Basel, the +arrangement, and also the perspective, form and decorative ornament, are +in the spirit of the school of Mantegna. Contemporary with these, +however, and almost inexplicably in contrast with them as regards +handling, are portrait-drawings such as the likenesses of Jacob Meyer, +and his wife, which are finished with German delicacy, and with a power +and subtlety of hand seldom rivalled in any school. Curiously enough, +the same contrast may be observed between painted compositions and +painted portraits. The "Bonifacius Amerbach" of 1519 at Basel is +acknowledged to be one of the most complete examples of smooth and +transparent handling that Holbein ever executed. His versatility at this +period is shown by a dead Christ (1521), a corpse in profile on a +dissecting table, and a set of figures in couples; the "Madonna and St +Pantalus," and "Kaiser Henry with the Empress Kunigunde" (1522), +originally composed for the organ loft of the Basel cathedral, now in +the Basel museum. Equally remarkable, but more attractive, though +injured, is the "Virgin and Child between St Ursus and St Nicholas" (not +St Martin) giving alms to a beggar, in the gallery of Solothurn. This +remarkable picture is dated 1522, and seems to have been ordered for an +altar in the minster of St Ursus of Solothurn by Nicholas Conrad, a +captain and statesman of the 16th century, whose family allowed the +precious heirloom to fall into decay in a chapel of the neighbouring +village of Grenchen. Numerous drawings in the spirit of this picture, +and probably of the same period in his career, might have led Holbein's +contemporaries to believe that he would make his mark in the annals of +Basel as a model for painters of altarpieces as well as a model for +pictorial composition and portrait. The promise which he gave at this +time was immense. He was gaining a freedom in draughtsmanship that gave +him facility to deal with any subject. Though a realist, he was sensible +of the dignity and severity of religious painting. His colour had almost +all the richness and sweetness of the Venetians. But he had fallen on +evil times, as the next few years undoubtedly showed. Amongst the +portraits which he executed in these years are those of Froben, the +publisher, known only by copies at Basel and Hampton Court, and Erasmus, +who sat in 1523, as he likewise did in 1530, in various positions, +showing his face threequarters as at Longford, Basel, Turin, Parma, the +Hague and Vienna, and in profile as in the Louvre or at Hampton Court. +Besides these, Holbein made designs for glass windows, and for woodcuts, +including subjects of every sort, from the Virgin and Child with saints +of the old time to the Dance of Death, from gospel incidents extracted +from Luther's Bible to satirical pieces illustrating the sale of +indulgences and other abuses denounced by Reformers. Holbein, in this +way, was carried irresistibly with the stream of the Reformation, in +which, it must now be admitted, the old traditions of religious painting +were wrecked, leaving nothing behind but unpictorial elements which +Cranach and his school vainly used for pictorial purposes. + +Once only, after 1526, and after he had produced the "Lais" and "Venus +and Amor," did Holbein with impartial spirit give his services and +pencil to the Roman Catholic cause. The burgomaster Meyer, whose +patronage he had already enjoyed, now asked him to represent himself and +his wives and children in prayer before the Virgin; and Holbein produced +the celebrated altarpiece now in the palace of Prince William of Hesse +at Darmstadt, the shape and composition of which are known to all the +world by its copy in the Dresden museum. The drawings for this +masterpiece are amongst the most precious relics in the museum of Basel. +The time now came when art began to suffer from unavoidable depression +in all countries north of the Alps. Holbein, at Basel, was reduced to +accept the smallest commissions--even for scutcheons. Then he saw that +his chances were dwindling to nothing, and taking a bold resolution, +armed with letters of introduction from Erasmus to More, he crossed the +Channel to England, where in the one-sided branch of portrait painting +he found an endless circle of clients. Eighty-seven drawings by Holbein +in Windsor Castle, containing an equal number of portraits, of persons +chiefly of high quality, testify to his industry in the years which +divide 1528 from 1543. They are all originals of pictures that are still +extant, or sketches for pictures that were lost or never carried out. +Sir Thomas More, with whom he seems to have had a very friendly +connexion, sat to him for likenesses of various kinds. The drawing of +his head is at Windsor. A pen-and-ink sketch, in which we see More +surrounded by all the members of his family, is now in the gallery of +Basel, and numerous copies of a picture from it prove how popular the +lost original must once have been. At the same period were executed the +portraits of Warham (Lambeth and Louvre), Wyatt (Louvre), Sir Henry +Guildford and his wife (Windsor), all finished in 1527, the astronomer +Nicholas Kratzer (Louvre), Thomas Godsalve (Dresden), and Sir Bryan Tuke +(Munich) in 1528. In this year, 1528, Holbein returned to Basel, taking +to Erasmus the sketch of More's family. With money which he brought from +London he purchased a house at Basel wherein to lodge his wife and +children, whose portraits he now painted with all the care of a husband +and father (1528). He then witnessed the flight of Erasmus and the fury +of the iconoclasts, who destroyed in one day almost all the religious +pictures at Basel. The municipality, unwilling that he should suffer +again from the depression caused by evil times, asked him to finish the +frescoes of the town-hall, and the sketches from these lost pictures are +still before us to show that he had not lost the spirit of his earlier +days, and was still capable as a composer. His "Rehoboam receiving the +Israelite Envoys," and "Saul at the Head of his Array meeting Samuel," +testify to Holbein's power and his will, also proved at a later period +by the "Triumphs of Riches and Poverty," executed for the Steelyard in +London (but now lost), to prefer the fame of a painter of history to +that of a painter of portraits. But the reforming times still remained +unfavourable to art. With the exception of a portrait of Melanchthon +(Hanover) which he now completed, Holbein found little to do at Basel. +The year 1530, therefore, saw him again on the move, and he landed in +England for the second time with the prospect of bettering his fortunes. +Here indeed political changes had robbed him of his earlier patrons. The +circle of More and Warham was gone. But that of the merchants of the +Steelyard took its place, for whom Holbein executed the long and +important series of portraits that lie scattered throughout the +galleries and collections of England and the Continent, and bear date +after 1532. Then came again the chance of practice in more fashionable +circles. In 1533 the "Ambassadors" (National Gallery), and the "Triumphs +of Wealth and Poverty" were executed, then the portraits of Leland and +Wyatt (Longford), and (1534) the portrait of Thomas Cromwell. Through +Cromwell Holbein probably became attached to the court, in the pay of +which he appears permanently after 1537. From that time onwards he was +connected with all that was highest in the society of London. Henry +VIII. invited him to make a family picture of himself, his father and +family, which obtained a post of honour at Whitehall. The beautiful +cartoon of a part of this fine piece at Hardwicke Hall enables us to +gauge its beauty before the fire which destroyed it in the 17th century. +Then Holbein painted Jane Seymour in state (Vienna), employing some +English hand perhaps to make the replicas at the Hague, Sion House and +Woburn; he finished the Southwell of the Uffizi (copy at the Louvre), +the jeweller Morett at Dresden, and last, not least, Christine of +Denmark, who gave sittings at Brussels in 1538. During the journey which +this work involved Holbein took the opportunity of revisiting Basel, +where he made his appearance in silk and satin, and _pro forma_ only +accepted the office of town painter. He had been living long and +continuously away from home, not indeed observing due fidelity to his +wife, who still resided at Basel, but fairly performing the duties of +keeping her in comfort. His return to London in autumn enabled him to do +homage to the king in the way familiar to artists. He presented to Henry +at Christmas a portrait of Prince Edward. Again abroad in the summer of +1539, he painted with great fidelity the princess Anne of Cleves, at +Duren near Cologne, whose form we still see depicted in the great +picture of the Louvre. That he could render the features of his sitter +without flattery is plain from this one example. Indeed, habitual +flattery was contrary to his habits. His portraits up to this time all +display that uncommon facility for seizing character which his father +enjoyed before him, and which he had inherited in an expanded form. No +amount of labour, no laboriousness of finish--and of both he was ever +prodigal--betrayed him into loss of resemblance or expression. No +painter was ever quicker at noting peculiarities of physiognomy, and it +may be observed that in none of his faces, as indeed in none of the +faces one sees in nature, are the two sides alike. Yet he was not a +child of the 16th century, as the Venetians were, in substituting touch +for line. We must not look in his works for modulations of surface or +subtle contrasts of colour in juxtaposition. His method was to the very +last delicate, finished and smooth, as became a painter of the old +school. + +Amongst the more important creations of Holbein's later time we should +note his "Duke of Norfolk" at Windsor, the hands of which are so +perfectly preserved as to compensate for the shrivel that now disfigures +the head. Two other portraits of 1541 (Berlin and Vienna), the Falconer +at the Hague, and John Chambers at Vienna (1542), are noble specimens of +portrait art; most interesting and of the same year are the likenesses +of Holbein himself, of which several examples are extant--one +particularly good at Fahna, the seat of the Stackelberg family near +Riga, and another at the Uffizi in Florence. Here Holbein appears to us +as a man of regular features, with hair just turning grey, but healthy +in colour and shape, and evidently well to do in the world. Yet a few +months only separated him then from his death-bed. He was busy painting +a picture of Henry the VIII. confirming the Privileges of the Barber +Surgeons (Lincoln's Inn Fields), when he sickened of the plague and died +after making a will about November 1543. His loss must have been +seriously felt in England. Had he lived his last years in Germany, he +would not have changed the current which decided the fate of painting in +that country; he would but have shared the fate of Durer and others who +merely prolonged the agony of art amidst the troubles of the +Reformation. (J. A. C.) + + The early authorities are Karel Van Mander's _Het Schilder Boek_ + (1604), and J. von Sandrart, _Accademia Todesca_ (1675). See also R. + N. Wornum, _Life and Work of Holbein_ (1867); H. Knackfuss, _Holbein_ + (1899); G. S. Davies, _Holbein_ (1903); A. F. G. A. Woltmann, _Holbein + und seine Zeit_ (1876). + + + + +HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG, BARON (1684-1754), the great Scandinavian +writer, was born at Bergen, in Norway, on the 3rd of December 1684. Both +Holberg's parents died in his childhood, his father first, leaving a +considerable property; and in his eleventh year he lost his mother also. +Before the latter event, however, the family had been seriously +impoverished by a great fire, which destroyed several valuable +buildings, but notwithstanding this, the mother left to each of her six +children some little fortune. In 1695 the boy Holberg was taken into the +house of his uncle, Peder Lem, who sent him to the Latin school, and +prepared him for the profession of a soldier; but soon after this he was +adopted by his cousin Otto Munthe, and went to him up in the mountains. +His great desire for instruction, however, at last induced his family +to send him back to Bergen, to his uncle, and there he remained, eagerly +studying, until the destruction of that city by fire in 1702, when he +was sent to the university of Copenhagen. But he soon exhausted his +resources, and, having nothing to live upon, was glad to hurry back to +Norway, where he accepted the position of tutor in the house of a rural +dean at Voss. He soon returned to Copenhagen, where in 1704 he took his +degree, and worked hard at French, English and Italian. But he had to +gain his living, and accordingly he accepted the post of tutor once +more, this time in the house of Dr Smith, vice-bishop of Bergen. The +good doctor had travelled much, and the reading of his itineraries and +note-books awakened such a longing for travel in the young Holberg that +at last, at the close of 1704, having scraped together 60 dollars, he +went on board a ship bound for Holland. He proceeded as far as +Aix-la-Chapelle, where he fell sick of a fever, and suffered so much +from weakness and poverty, that he made his way on foot to Amsterdam, +and came back to Norway. Ashamed to be seen so soon in Bergen, he +stopped at Christianssand, where he lived through the winter, supporting +himself by giving lessons in French. In the spring of 1706 he travelled, +in company with a student named Brix, through London to Oxford, where he +studied for two years, gaining his livelihood by giving lessons on the +violin and the flute. He mentions, with gratitude, the valuable +libraries of Oxford, and it is pleasant to record that it was while he +was there that it first occurred to him, as he says, "how splendid and +glorious a thing it would be to take a place among the authors." Through +London and Elsinore he reached Copenhagen a third time, and began to +lecture at the university; his lectures were attended, but he got no +money. He was asked in 1709 to conduct a rich young gentleman to +Dresden, and on his return journey he lectured at Leipzig, Halle and +Hamburg. Once more in Copenhagen, he undertook to teach the children of +Admiral Gedde. Weary with this work, he took a post at Borch College in +1710, where he wrote, and printed in 1711, his first work, _An +Introduction to the History of the Nations of Europe_, and was permitted +to present to King Frederick IV. two manuscript essays on Christian IV. +and Frederick III. The king soon after presented him with the title of +Professor, and with the Rosenkrantz grant of 100 dollars for four years, +the holder of which was expected to travel. Holberg accordingly started +in 1714, and visited, chiefly on foot, a great portion of Europe. From +Amsterdam he walked through Rotterdam to Antwerp, took a boat to +Brussels, and on foot again reached Paris. Walking and skating, he +proceeded in the depth of winter to Marseilles, and on by sea to Genoa. +On the last-mentioned voyage he caught a fever, and nearly died in that +city. On his recovery he pushed on to Civita Vecchia and Rome. When the +spring had come, being still very poor and in feeble health, he started +homewards on foot by Florence, across the Apennines, through Bologna, +Parma, Piacenza, Turin, over the Alps, through Savoy and Dauphine to +Lyons, and finally to Paris, where he arrived in excellent health. After +spending a month in Paris, he walked on to Amsterdam, took sail to +Hamburg, and so went back to Denmark in 1716. He spent the next two +years in extreme poverty, and published his _Introduction to Natural and +Popular Law_. But at last, in 1718, his talents were recognized by his +appointment as professor of metaphysics at the university of Copenhagen; +and in 1720 he was promoted to the lucrative chair of public eloquence, +which gave him a seat in the consistory. His pecuniary troubles were now +at an end. Hitherto he had written only on law, history and philology, +although in a Latin controversy with the jurist Andreas Hojer of +Flensborg his satirical genius had flashed out. But now, and until 1728, +he created an entirely new class of humorous literature under the +pseudonym of Hans Mikkelsen. The serio-comic epic of _Peder Paars_, the +earliest of the great classics of the Danish language, appeared In 1719. +This poem was a brilliant satire on contemporary manners, and enjoyed an +extraordinary success. But the author had offended in it several +powerful persons who threatened his life, and if Count Danneskjold had +not personally interested the king in him, Holberg's career might have +had an untimely close. During the next two years he published five +shorter satires, all of which were well received by the public. The +great event of 1721 was the erection of the first Danish theatre in +Gronnegade, Copenhagen; Holberg took the direction of this house, in +which was played, in September 1722, a Danish translation of L'Avare. +Until this time no plays had been acted in Denmark except in French and +German, but Holberg now determined to use his talent in the construction +of Danish comedy. The first of his original pieces performed was _Den +politiske Kandestober_ (The Pewterer turned Politician); he wrote other +comedies with miraculous rapidity, and before 1722 was closed, there had +been performed in succession, and with immense success, _Den +Vaegelsindede_ (The Waverer), _Jean de France_, _Jeppe paa Bjerget_, and +_Gert the Westphalian_. Of these five plays, four at least are +masterpieces; and they were almost immediately followed by others. +Holberg took no rest, and before the end of 1723 the comedies of +_Barselstuen_ (The Lying-in Room), _The Eleventh of July_, _Jakob von +Thyboe_, _Den Bundeslose_ (The Fidget), _Erasmus Montanus_, _Don +Ranudo_, _Ulysses of Ithaca_, _Without Head or Tail_, _Witchcraft_ and +_Melampe_ had all been written, and some of them acted. In 1724 the most +famous comedy that Holberg produced was _Henrik and Pernille_. But in +spite of this unprecedented blaze of dramatic genius the theatre fell +into pecuniary difficulties, and had to be closed, Holberg composing for +the last night's performance, in February 1727, a _Funeral of Danish +Comedy_. All this excessive labour for the stage had undermined the +great poet's health, and in 1725 he had determined to take the baths at +Aix-la-Chapelle; but instead of going thither he wandered through +Belgium to Paris, and spent the winter there. In the spring he returned +to Copenhagen with recovered health and spirits, and worked quietly at +his protean literary labours until the great fire of 1728. In the period +of national poverty and depression that followed this event, a +puritanical spirit came into vogue which was little in sympathy with +Holberg's dramatic or satiric genius. He therefore closed his career as +a dramatic poet by publishing in 1731 his acted comedies, with the +addition of five which he had no opportunity of putting on the stage. +With characteristic versatility, he adopted the serious tone of the new +age, and busied himself for the next twenty years with historical, +philosophical and statistical writings. During this period he published +his poetical satire called _Metamorphosis_ (1726), his _Epistolae ad +virum perillustrem_ (1727), his _Description of Denmark and Norway_ +(1729), _History of Denmark_, _Universal Church History_, _Biographies +of Famous Men_, _Moral Reflections_, _Description of Bergen_ (1737), _A +History of the Jews_, and other learned and laborious compilations. The +only poem he published at this time was the famous _Nicolai Klimii iter +subterraneum_ (1741), afterwards translated into Danish by Baggesen. +When Christian VI. died in 1747, pietism lost its sway; the theatre was +reopened and Holberg was appointed director, but he soon resigned this +arduous post. The six comedies he wrote in his old age did not add to +his reputation. His last published work was his _Epistles_, in 5 vols. +the last of them posthumous (1754). In 1747 he was created by the new +king Baron of Holberg. In August 1753 he took to his bed, and he died at +Copenhagen on the 28th of January 1754, in the seventieth year of his +age. He was buried at Soro, in Zealand. He had never married, and he +bequeathed all his property, which was considerable, to Soro College. + +Holberg was not only the founder of Danish literature and the greatest +of Danish authors, but he was, with the exception of Voltaire, the first +writer in Europe during his own generation. Neither Pope nor Swift, who +perhaps excelled him in particular branches of literary production, +approached him in range of genius, or in encyclopaedic versatility. +Holberg found Denmark provided with no books, and he wrote a library for +her. When he arrived in the country, the Danish language was never heard +in a gentleman's house. Polite Danes were wont to say that a man wrote +Latin to his friends, talked French to the ladies, called his dogs in +German, and only used Danish to swear at his servants. The single genius +of Holberg revolutionized this system. He wrote poems of all kinds in a +language hitherto employed only for ballads and hymns; he instituted a +theatre, and composed a rich collection of comedies for it; he filled +the shelves of the citizens with works in their own tongue on history, +law, politics, science, philology and philosophy, all written in a true +and manly style, and representing the extreme attainment of European +culture at the moment. Perhaps no author who ever lived has had so vast +an influence over his countrymen, an influence that is still at work +after 200 years. + + The editions of Holberg's works are legion. Complete editions of the + _Comedies_ are too numerous to be quoted; the best is that brought out + in 3 vols. by F. I. Lichtenberg, in 1870. Of _Peder Paars_ there exist + at least twenty-three editions, besides translations in Dutch, German + and Swedish. The _Iter subterraneum_ has been three several times + translated into Danish, ten times into German, thrice into Swedish, + thrice into Dutch, thrice into English, twice into French, twice into + Russian and once into Hungarian. The life of Holberg was written by + Welhaven in 1858 and by Georg Brandes in 1884. Among works on his + genius by foreigners may be mentioned an exhaustive study by Robert + Prutz (1857), and _Holberg considere comme imitateur de Moliere_, by + A. Legrelle (Paris, 1864). (E. G.) + + + + +HOLBORN, a central metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N.W. +by St Pancras, N.E. by Finsbury, S.E. by the City of London, S. and W. +by the City of Westminster and St Marylebone. Pop. (1901), 59,405. Area +405.1 acres. Its main thoroughfare is that running E. and W. under the +names of Holborn Viaduct, High Holborn and New Oxford Street. + +The name of Holborn was formerly derived from Old Bourne, a tributary of +the Fleet, the valley of which is clearly seen where Holborn Viaduct +crosses Farringdon Street. Of the existence of this tributary, however, +there is no evidence, and the origin of the name is found in +_Hole-bourne_, the stream in the hollow, in allusion to the Fleet +itself. The fall and rise of the road across the valley before the +construction of the viaduct (1869) was abrupt and inconvenient. In +earlier times a bridge here crossed the Fleet, leading from Newgate, +while a quarter of a mile west of the viaduct is the site of Holborn +Bars, at the entrance to the City, where tolls were levied. The better +residential district of Holborn, which extends northward to Euston Road +in the borough of St Pancras, is mainly within the parish of St George, +Bloomsbury. The name of Bloomsbury is commonly derived from William +Blemund, a lord of the manor in the 15th century. A dyke called +Blemund's Ditch, of unknown origin, bounded it on the south, where the +land was marshy. During the 18th century Bloomsbury was a fashionable +and wealthy residential quarter. The reputation of the district +immediately to the south, embraced in the parish of St Giles in the +Fields, was far different. From the 17th century until modern times this +was notorious as a home of crime and poverty. Here occurred some of the +earliest cases of the plague which spread over London in 1664-1665. The +opening of the thoroughfares of New Oxford Street (1840) and Shaftesbury +Avenue (1855) by no means wholly destroyed the character of the +district. The circus of Seven Dials, east of Shaftesbury Avenue, affords +a typical name in connexion with the lowest aspect of life in London. A +similar notoriety attached to Saffron Hill on the eastern confines of +the borough. By a singular contrast, the neighbouring thoroughfare of +Hatton Garden, leading north from Holborn Circus, is a centre of the +diamond trade. + +Of the ecclesiastical buildings of Holborn that of first interest is the +chapel of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, opening from Holborn Circus. Ely +Place takes its name from a palace of the bishops of Ely, who held land +here as early as the 13th century. Here died John of Gaunt in 1399. The +property was acquired by Sir Christopher Hatton, Lord Chancellor under +Queen Elizabeth, after whom Hatton Garden is named; though the bishopric +kept some hold upon it until the 18th century. The chapel, the only +remnant of the palace, is a beautiful Decorated structure with a vaulted +crypt, itself above ground-level. Both are used for worship by Roman +Catholics, by whom the chapel was acquired in 1874 and opened five years +later after careful restoration. The present parish church of St Giles +in the Fields, between Shaftesbury Avenue and New Oxford Street, dates +from 1734, but here was situated a leper's hospital founded by Matilda, +wife of Henry I., in 1101. Its chapel became the parish church on the +suppression of the monasteries. The church of St Andrew, the parish of +which extends into the City, stands near Holborn Viaduct. It is by Wren, +but there are traces of the previous Gothic edifice in the tower. +Sacheverell was among its rectors (1713-1724), and Thomas Chatterton +(1770) was interred in the adjacent burial ground, no longer extant, of +Shoe Lane Workhouse; the register recording his Christian name as +William. Close to this church Is the City Temple (Congregational). + +Two of the four Inns of Court, Lincoln's Inn and Gray's Inn, lie within +the borough. Of the first the Tudor gateway opens upon Chancery Lane. +The chapel, hall and residential buildings surrounding the squares +within, are picturesque, but of later date. To the west lie the fine +square, with public gardens, still called, from its original character, +Lincoln's Inn Fields. Gray's Inn, between High Holborn and Theobald's +Road, and west of Gray's Inn Road, is of similar arrangement. The fabric +of the small chapel is apparently of the 14th century, and may have been +attached to the manor house of Portpool, held at that period by the +Lords Grey of Wilton. Of the former Inns of Chancery attached to these +Inns of Court the most noteworthy buildings remaining are those of +Staple Inn, of which the timbered and gabled Elizabethan front upon High +Holborn is a unique survival of its character in a London thoroughfare; +and of Barnard's Inn, occupied by the Mercer's School. Both these were +attached to Gray's Inn. Of Furnival's and Thavies Inns, attached to +Lincoln's Inn, only the names remain. The site of the first is covered +by the fine red brick buildings of the Prudential Assurance Company, +Holborn Viaduct. Among other institutions in Holborn, the British +Museum, north of New Oxford Street, is pre-eminent. The varied +collections of Sir John Soane, accumulated at his house in Lincoln's Inn +Fields, are open to view as the Soane Museum. There may also be +mentioned the Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn Fields, with +museum; the Royal Colleges of Organists, and of Veterinary Surgeons, the +College of Preceptors, the Jews' College, and the Metropolitan School of +Shorthand. Among hospitals are the Italian, the Homoeopathic, the +National for the paralysed and epileptic, the Alexandra for children +with hip disease, and the Hospital for sick children. The Foundling +Hospital, Guilford Street, was founded by Thomas Coram in 1739. + + + + +HOLCROFT, THOMAS (1745-1809), English dramatist and miscellaneous +writer, was born on the 10th of December 1745 (old style) in Orange +Court, Leicester Fields, London. His father, besides having a +shoemaker's shop, kept riding horses for hire; but having fallen into +difficulties was reduced ultimately to the necessity of hawking pedlary. +The son accompanied his parents in their tramps, and succeeded in +procuring the situation of stable boy at Newmarket, where he spent his +evenings chiefly in miscellaneous reading and the study of music. +Gradually he obtained a knowledge of French, German and Italian. At the +end of his term of engagement as stable boy he returned to assist his +father, who had again resumed his trade of shoemaker in London; but +after marrying in 1765, he became a teacher in a small school in +Liverpool. He failed in an attempt to set up a private school, and +became prompter in a Dublin theatre. He acted in various strolling +companies until 1778, when he produced _The Crisis; or, Love and +Famine_, at Drury Lane. _Duplicity_ followed in 1781. Two years later he +went to Paris as correspondent of the _Morning Herald_. Here he attended +the performances of Beaumarchais's _Mariage de Figaro_ until he had +memorized the whole. The translation of it, with the title _The Follies +of the Day_, was produced at Drury Lane in 1784. _The Road to Ruin_, his +most successful melodrama, was produced in 1792. A revival in 1873 ran +for 118 nights. Holcroft died on the 23rd of March 1809. He was a member +of the Society for Constitutional Information, and on that account was, +in 1794, indicted of high treason, but was discharged without a trial. +Among his novels may be mentioned _Alwyn_ (1780), an account, largely +autobiographical, of a strolling comedian, and _Hugh Trevor_ +(1794-1797). He also was the author of _Travels from Hamburg through +Westphalia, Holland and the Netherlands to Paris_, of some volumes of +verse and of translations from the French and German. + + His _Memoirs written by Himself and continued down to the Time of his + Death, from his Diary, Notes and other Papers_, by William Hazlitt, + appeared in 1816, and was reprinted, in a slightly abridged form, in + 1852. + + + + +HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON (1822-1896), English classical scholar, came of an +old Staffordshire family. He was educated at King Edward's school, +Birmingham, and Trinity College, Cambridge (senior classic, 1845; +fellow, 1847). He was vice-principal of Cheltenham College (1853-1858), +and headmaster of Queen Elizabeth's school, Ipswich (1858-1883). He died +in London on the 1st of December 1896. In addition to several school +editions of portions of Cicero, Thucydides, Xenophon and Plutarch, he +published an expurgated text of Aristophanes with a useful onomasticon +(re-issued separately, 1902) and larger editions of Cicero's _De +officiis_ (revised ed., 1898) and of the _Octavius_ of Minucius Felix +(1853). His chief works, however, were his _Foliorum silvula_ (1852), a +collection of English extracts for translation into Greek and Latin +verse; _Folia silvulae_ (translations of the same); and _Foliorum +centuriae_, a companion volume of extracts for Latin prose translation. +In English schools these books have been widely used for the teaching of +Latin and Greek composition. + + + + +HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC, BART. (1807-1897), English inventor and manufacturer, +was the son of Isaac Holden, a native of Cumberland, and was born at +Hurlet, a village between Paisley and Glasgow, on the 7th of May 1807. +His early life was passed in very straitened circumstances, but his +father spared no pains to give him as much elementary education as +possible. At the age of ten he began to work as weaver's draw-boy, and +afterwards was employed in a cotton mill. Meanwhile his education was +continued at the night schools, and from time to time, as funds allowed, +he was taken from work and sent to the grammar-school, to which he at +last went regularly for a year or two until he was fifteen, when his +father removed to Paisley and apprenticed him to an uncle, a +shawl-weaver there. This proving too much for his strength, in 1823 he +became assistant teacher in a school at Paisley, and in 1828 he was +appointed mathematical teacher in the Queen's Square Academy, Leeds. At +the end of six months he was transferred to Lingard's grammar school, +near Huddersfield, and shortly afterwards became classical master at +Castle Street Academy, Reading. It was here that in 1829 he invented a +lucifer match by adopting sulphur as the medium between the explosive +material and the wood, but he refused to patent the invention. In 1830 +his health again failed, and he returned to Scotland, where a Glasgow +friend set up a school for him. After six months, however, he was +recommended for the post of bookkeeper to Messrs. Townend Brothers, +worsted manufacturers, of Cullingworth, where his interest in machinery +soon led to his transfer from the counting-house to the mill. There his +experiments led him to the invention of his square motion wool-comber +and of a process for making genappe yarns, a patent for which was taken +out by him in conjunction with S. C. Lister (Lord Masham) in 1847. The +firm of Lister & Holden, which established a factory near Paris in 1848, +carried on a successful business, and in 1859, when Lister retired, was +succeeded by Isaac Holden and Sons, which became the largest +wool-combing business in the world, employing upwards of 4000 +workpeople. In 1865 Holden's medical advisers insisted on complete +change of occupation, and he entered parliament as Liberal member for +Knaresborough. From 1868 to 1882 he was without a seat, but in the +latter year he was elected for the northern division of the West Riding, +and in 1885 for Keighley. He was created a baronet in 1893, and died +suddenly at Oakworth House, near Keighley, on the 13th of August 1897. + +His son and heir, Sir Angus Holden, was in 1908 created a peer with the +title of Baron Holden of Alston. + + + + +HOLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1770-1843), German poet, was born +on the 20th of March 1770, at Lauffen on the Neckar. His mother +removing, after a second marriage, to Nurtingen, he began his education +at the classical school there. He was destined by his relations for the +church, and with this view was later admitted to the seminaries at +Denkendorf and Maulbronn. At the age of eighteen he entered as a student +of theology the university of Tubingen, where he remained till 1793. He +was already the writer of occasional verses, and had begun to sketch his +novel _Hyperion_, when he was introduced in this year to Schiller, and +obtained through him the post of tutor to the young son of Charlotte von +Kalb. A year later he left this situation to attend Fichte's lectures, +and to be near Schiller in Jena. The latter recognized in the young poet +something of his own genius, and encouraged him by publishing some of +his early writings in his periodicals _Die neue Thalia_ and _Die Horen_. +In 1796 Holderlin obtained the post of tutor in the family of the banker +J. F. Gontard in Frankfort-on-Main. For Gontard's beautiful and gifted +wife, Susette, the "Diotima" of his _Hyperion_, he conceived a violent +passion; and she became at once his inspiration and his ruin. At the end +of two years, during which time the first volume of _Hyperion_ was +published (1797), a crisis appears to have occurred in their relations, +for the young poet suddenly left Frankfort. In spite of ill-health, he +now completed _Hyperion_, the second volume of which appeared in 1799, +and began a tragedy, _Der Tod des Empedokles_, a fragment of which is +published among his works. His friends became alarmed at the alternate +depression and nervous irritability from which he suffered, and he was +induced to go to Switzerland, as tutor in a family at Hauptwill. There +his health improved; and several of his poems, among which are _Der +blinde Sanger_, _An die Hoffnung_ and _Dichtermut_, were written at this +time. In 1801 he returned home to arrange for the publication of a +volume of his poems; but, on the failure of this enterprise, he was +obliged to accept a tutorship at Bordeaux. "Diotima" died a year later, +in June 1802, and the news is supposed to have reached Holderlin shortly +afterwards, for in the following month he suddenly left Bordeaux, and +travelled homewards on foot through France, arriving at Nurtingen +destitute and insane. Kind treatment gradually alleviated his condition, +and in lucid intervals he occupied himself by writing verses and +translating Greek plays. Two of these translations--the _Antigone_ and +_Oedipus rex_ of Sophocles--appeared in 1804, and several of his short +poems were published by Franz K. L. von Seckendorff in his +_Musenalmanach_, 1807 and 1808. In 1804 Holderlin obtained the sinecure +post of librarian to the landgrave Frederick V. of Hesse-Homburg, and +went to live in Homburg under the supervision of friends; but two years +later becoming irremediably but harmlessly insane, he was taken in the +summer of 1807 to Tubingen, where he remained till his death on the 7th +of June 1843. + +Holderlin's writings are the production of a beautiful and sensitive +mind; but they are intensely, almost morbidly, subjective, and they lack +real human strength. Perhaps his strongest characteristic was his +passion for Greece, the result of which was that he almost entirely +discarded rhyme in favour of the ancient verse measures. His poems are +all short pieces; of his tragedy only a fragment was written. _Hyperion, +oder der Eremit in Griechenland_ (1797-1799), is a romance in letters, +in which the stormy fervour of the "Sturm und Drang" is combined with a +romantic enthusiasm for Greek antiquity. The interest centres not in the +story, for the novel has little or none--Hyperion is a young Greek who +takes part in the rising of his people against the Turks in 1770--but in +its lyric subjectivity and the dithyrambic beauty of its language. + + Holderlin's lyrics, _Lyrische Gedichte_, were edited by L. Uhland and + G. Schwab in 1826. A complete edition of his works, _Samtliche Werke_, + with a biography by C. T. Schwab, appeared in 1846; also _Dichtungen_ + by K. Kostlin (Tubingen, 1884), and (the best edition) _Gesammelte + Dichtungen_ by B. Litzmann (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1897). For biography + and criticism, see C. C. T. Litzmann, _F. Holderlins Leben_ (Berlin, + 1890), A. Wilbrandt, _Holderlin_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1891), and C. + Muller, _Friedrich Holderlin, sein Leben und sein Dichten_ (Bremen, + 1894). + + + + + +HOLDERNESSE, EARL OF, an English title borne by Sir John Ramsay and +later by the family of Darcy. John Ramsay (c. 1580-1626), a member of +the Scottish family of Ramsay of Dalhousie, was knighted for his share +in rescuing James VI. from the hands of John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, in +August 1600. In 1606 the king created him Viscount Haddington and Lord +Ramsay of Barns, and in 1621 made him an English peer as earl of +Holdernesse. Ramsay died without surviving issue in February 1626, when +his titles became extinct. In 1644 Charles I. created his nephew, Prince +Rupert, earl of Holdernesse, but when the prince died unmarried in +November 1682 the earldom again became extinct. Conyers Darcy +(1599-1689), who was made earl of Holdernesse in 1682 only a few days +after the death of Rupert, was the son and heir of Conyers Darcy, Lord +Darcy and Conyers (c. 1571-1654), and succeeded his father in these +baronies in March 1654. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his only son +Conyers (c. 1620-1692), who was member of parliament for Yorkshire +during the reign of Charles II. In his turn he was succeeded by his +grandson Robert (1681-1722). Robert's only son, Robert Darcy, 4th earl +of Holdernesse (1718-1778), was a diplomatist and a politician. From +1744 to 1746 he was ambassador at Venice and from 1749 to 1751 he +represented his country at the Hague. In 1751 he became one of the +secretaries of state, and he remained in office until March 1761, when +he was dismissed by George III. From 1771 to 1776 he acted as governor +to two of the king's sons, a "solemn phantom" as Horace Walpole calls +him. He left no sons, and all his titles became extinct except the +barony of Conyers, which had been created by writ in 1509 in favour of +his ancestor Sir William Conyers (d. 1525). This descended to his only +daughter Amelia (1754-1784), the wife of Francis Osborne, afterwards 5th +duke of Leeds, and when the 7th duke of Leeds died in 1859 it passed to +his nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling into abeyance +on his death. Hornby castle in Yorkshire, now the principal seat of the +dukes of Leeds, came to them through marriage of the 5th duke with the +heiress of the families of Conyers and of Darcy. + + + + +HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL (1806-1860), Jewish rabbi, a leader of reform in the +German Synagogue, was born in Posen in 1806 and died in Berlin in 1860. +In 1836 he was appointed rabbi at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in 1840 he was +transferred to the rabbinate of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He then became +prominent as an advocate on the one hand of religious freedom (much +trammelled at the time by Prussian state laws) and on the other of +reform within the Jewish community. Various rabbinical conferences were +held, at Brunswick (1844), Frankfort-on-the-Main (1845) and Breslau +(1846). At all of these Holdheim was a strong supporter of the policy of +modifying ritual (especially with regard to Sabbath observance, marriage +laws and liturgical customs). In 1846 he was chosen Rabbi of the new +Berlin congregation and there exercised considerable influence on the +course of Jewish reform. + + See I. H. Ritter in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_, i. 202. The same + authority has written the life of Holdheim in vol. iii. of his + _Geschichte der judischen Reformation_ (Berlin, 1865). Graetz in his + _History_ passes an unfavourable judgment on Holdheim, and there were + admittedly grounds for opposition to Holdheim's attitude. A moderate + criticism is contained in Dr D. Philipson's _History of the Reform + Movement_ in Judaism (London, 1906). + + + + +HOLGUIN, a town of the high plateau country in the interior of Oriente +province, Cuba, about 65 m. N.W. of Santiago de Cuba. Pop. (1907) 7592. +The town is near the Maranon and Jigue rivers, on a plain from which +hills rise on all sides except the E., on which side it is open to the +winds of the plateau. Holguin was long the principal acclimatization +station for Spanish troops. The oldest public buildings are two churches +built in 1800 and 1809 respectively. Holguin has trade in cabinet woods, +tobacco, Indian corn and cattle products, which it exports through its +port Gibara, about 25 m. N.N.E., with which it is connected by railway. +Holguin was settled about 1720 and became a _ciudad_ (city) in 1751. In +the Ten Years' War of 1868-78 and in the revolution of 1895-98 Holguin +was an insurgent centre. + + + + +HOLIDAY, originally the "holy day," a festival set apart for religious +observances as a memorial of some sacred event or sacred person; hence a +day on which the ordinary work or business ceases. For the religious +sense see FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, and SUNDAY. Apart from the use of the +term for a single day of rest or enjoyment, it is commonly used in the +plural for a recognized and regular period (as at schools, &c.) of +absence from work. It is unnecessary here to deal with what may be +regarded as private holidays, which are matters of agreement between +employer and employed or between the authorities of this or that +institution and those who attend it. In recent years there has been a +notable tendency in most occupations to shorten the hours of labour, and +make holidays more regular. It will suffice to deal here with public +holidays, the observance of which is prescribed by the state. In one +respect these have been diminished, in so far as saints' days are no +longer regarded as entailing non-attendance at the government offices in +England, as was the case at the beginning of the 19th century. But while +the influence of religion in determining such holidays has waned, the +importance of making some compulsory provision for social recreation has +made itself felt. In England four days, known as Bank Holidays (q.v.), +are set apart by statute to be observed as general holidays, while the +sovereign may by proclamation appoint any day to be similarly observed. +Endeavours have been made from time to time to get additional days +recognized as general holidays, such as Empire Day (May 24th), Arbor +Day, &c. In the British colonies there is no uniform practice. In Canada +eight days are generally observed as public holidays: New Year's Day, +Good Friday, Easter Monday, Christmas Day, the birthday of the +sovereign, Victoria Day, Dominion Day and Labour Day. Some of the +provinces have followed the American example by adding an Arbor Day. +Alberta and Saskatchewan observe Ash Wednesday. In Quebec, where the +majority of the population is Roman Catholic, the holy days are also +holidays, namely, the Festival of the Epiphany, Ash Wednesday, Good +Friday, Easter Monday, the Ascension, All Saint's Day, Conception Day, +Christmas Day. In 1897 Labour Day was added. In New South Wales, the 1st +of January, Good Friday, Easter Eve, Easter Monday, the birthday of the +sovereign, the 1st of August, the birthday of the prince of Wales, +Christmas Day and the 26th of December, are observed as holidays. In +Victoria there are thirteen public holidays during the year, and in +Queensland fourteen. In New Zealand the public holidays are confined to +four, Christmas Day, New Year's Day, Good Friday and Labour Day. In most +of the other British colonies the usual number of public holidays is +from six to eight. + +In the United States there is no legal holiday in the sense of the +English bank holidays. A legal holiday is dependent upon state and +territorial legislation. It is usual for the president to proclaim the +last Thursday in November as a day of thanksgiving; this makes it only a +legal holiday in the District of Columbia, and in the territories, but +most states make it a general holiday. Independence Day (July 4th) and +Labour Day (first Monday in September) are legal holidays in most +states. There are other days which, in connexion with particular events +or in remembrance of particular persons, have been made legal holidays +by particular states. For example, Lincoln's birthday, Washington's +birthday, Memorial Day (May 30th), Patriots' Day (April 19th, Maine and +Mass.), R. E. Lee's birthday (Jan. 19th, Ala., Fla., Ga., Va.), +Pioneers' Day (July 24th, Utah), Colorado Day (Aug. 1st), Battle of New +Orleans (Jan. 8th, La.), Bennington Battle Day (Aug. 16th, Vt.), +Defender's Day (Sept, 12th, Md.), Arbor Day (April 22nd, Nebraska; +second Friday in May R.I., &c.), Admission Day (September 9th, Cal.; +Oct. 31st, Nev.), Confederate Memorial Day (April 26th, Ala., Fla., Ga., +Miss., May 10th, N. & S. Car., June 3rd, La., Miss., Texas), &c. + + See M'Curdy, _Bibliography of Articles relating to Holidays_ (Boston, + 1905). (T. A. I.) + + + + +HOLINSHED (or HOLLINGSHEAD), RAPHAEL (d. c. 1580), English chronicler, +belonged probably to a Cheshire family, and according to Anthony Wood +was educated at one of the English universities, afterwards becoming a +"minister of God's Word." The authenticity of these facts is doubtful, +although it is possible that Raphael was the Holinshed who matriculated +from Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1544. About 1560 he came to London +and was employed as a translator by Reginald or Reyner Wolfe, to whom he +says he was "singularly beholden." Wolfe was already engaged in the +preparation of a universal history, and Holinshed worked for some years +on this undertaking; but after Wolfe's death in 1573 the scope of the +work was abridged, and it appeared in 1578 as the _Chronicles of +England, Scotland, and Ireland_. The work was in two volumes, which were +illustrated, and although Holinshed did a great deal of the work he +received valuable assistance from William Harrison (1534-1593) and +others, while the part dealing with the history of Scotland is mainly a +translation of Hector Boece's _Scotorum historiae_. Afterwards, as is +shown by his will, Holinshed served as steward to Thomas Burdet of +Bramcott, Warwickshire, and died about 1580. + + A second edition of the _Chronicles_, enlarged and improved but + without illustrations, which appeared in 1587, contained statements + which were offensive to Queen Elizabeth and her advisers, and + immediately after publication some of the pages were excised by order + of the privy council. These excisions were published separately in + 1723. An edition of the _Chronicles_, in accordance with the original + text, was published in six volumes in 1808. The work contains a large + amount of information, and shows that its compilers were men of great + industry; but its chief interest lies in the fact that it was largely + used by Shakespeare and other Elizabethan dramatists; Shakespeare, who + probably used the edition of 1587, obtaining from the _Chronicles_ + material for most of his historical plays, and also for _Macbeth_, + _King Lear_ and part of _Cymbeline_. A single manuscript by Holinshed + is known to be extant. This is a translation of Florence of Worcester, + and is in the British Museum. See W. G. Boswell-Stone, _Shakspere's + Holinshed_. _The Chronicle and the historical plays compared_ (London, + 1896). + + + + +HOLKAR, the family name of the Mahratta ruler of Indore (q.v.), which +has been adopted as a dynastic title. The termination -_kar_ implies +that the founder of the family came from the village of Hol near Poona. + + + + +HOLL, FRANK (1845-1888), English painter, was born in London on the 4th +of July 1845, and was educated chiefly at University College School. He +was a grandson of William Holl, an engraver of note, and the son of +Francis Holl, A.R.A., another engraver, whose profession he originally +intended to follow. Entering the Royal Academy schools as a probationer +in painting in 1860, he rapidly progressed, winning silver and gold +medals, and making his debut as an exhibitor in 1864 with "A Portrait," +and "Turned out of Church," a subject picture. "A Fern Gatherer" (1865); +"The Ordeal" (1866); "Convalescent" (the somewhat grim pathos of which +attracted much attention), and "Faces in the Fire" (1867), succeeded. +Holl gained the travelling studentship in 1868; the successful work was +characteristic of the young painter's mood, being "The Lord gave, and +the Lord hath taken away." His insatiable zeal for work of all kinds +began early to undermine the artist's health, but his position was +assured by the studentship picture, which created a sort of _furore_, +although, as with most of his works, the blackness of its coloration, +probably due to his training as an engraver, was even more decidedly +against it than the sadness of its theme. Otherwise, this painting +exhibited nearly all the best technical qualities to which he ever +attained, except high finish and clearness, and a very sincere vein of +pathos. Holl was much below Millais In portraiture, and far inferior In +all the higher ways of design; in technical resources, relatively +speaking, he was but scantily provided. The range of his studies and the +manner of his painting were narrower than those of Josef Israels, with +whom, except as a portrait-painter, he may better be compared than with +Millais. In 1870 he painted "Better is a Dinner of Herbs where Love is, +than a Stalled Ox and Hatred therewith"; "No Tidings from the Sea," a +scene in a fisherman's cottage, in 1871--a story told with +breath-catching pathos and power; "I am the Resurrection and the Life" +(1872); "Leaving Home" (1873), "Deserted" (1874), both of which had +great success; "Her First-born," girls carrying a baby to the grave +(1876); and "Going Home" (1877). In 1877 he painted the two pictures +"Hush" and "Hushed." "Newgate, Committed for Trial," a very sad and +telling piece, first attested the breaking down of the painter's health +in 1878. In this year he was elected A.R.A., and exhibited "The Gifts of +the Fairies," "The Daughter of the House," "Absconded," and a very fine +portrait of Samuel Cousins, the mezzotint engraver. This last canvas is +a masterpiece, and deserved the success which attended the print +engraved from it. Holl was overwhelmed with commissions, which he would +not decline. The consequences of this strain upon a constitution which +was never strong were more or less, though unequally, manifest in +"Ordered to the Front," a soldier's departure (1880); "Home Again," its +sequel, in 1883 (after which he was made R.A.). In 1886 he produced a +portrait of Millais as his diploma work, but his health rapidly declined +and he died at Hampstead, on the 31st of July 1888. Holl's better +portraits, being of men of rare importance, attest the commanding +position he occupied in the branch of art he so unflinchingly followed. +They include likenesses of Lord Roberts, painted for queen Victoria +(1882); the prince of Wales, Lord Dufferin, the duke of Cleveland +(1885); Lord Overstone, Mr Bright, Mr Gladstone, Mr Chamberlain, Sir J. +Tenniel, Earl Spencer, Viscount Cranbrook, and a score of other +important subjects. (F. G. S.) + + + + +HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733-1769), English actor, was born in Chiswick, the +son of a baker. He made his first appearance on the stage in the title +role of _Oroonoko_ at Drury Lane in 1755, John Palmer, Richard Yates and +Mrs Cibber being in the cast. He played under Garrick, and was the +original Florizel in the latter's adaptation of Shakespeare's _Winter's +Tale_. Garrick thought highly of him, and wrote a eulogistic epitaph for +his monument in Chiswick church. + +His nephew, Charles Holland (1768-1849) was also an actor, who played +with Mrs Siddons and Kean. + + + + +HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART. (1788-1873), English physician and author, was +born at Knutsford, Cheshire, on the 27th of October 1788. His maternal +grandmother was the sister of Josiah Wedgwood, whose grandson was +Charles Darwin; and his paternal aunt was the mother of Mrs Gaskell. +After spending some years at a private school at Knutsford, he was sent +to a school at Newcastle-on-Tyne, whence after four years he was +transferred to Dr J. P. Estlin's school near Bristol. There he at once +took the position of head boy, in succession to John Cam Hobhouse, +afterwards Lord Broughton, an honour which required to be maintained by +physical prowess. On leaving school he became articled clerk to a +mercantile firm in Liverpool, but, as the privilege was reserved to him +of passing two sessions at Glasgow university, he at the close of his +second session sought relief from his articles, and in 1806 began the +study of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, where he graduated in +1811. After several years spent in foreign travel, he began practice in +1816 as a physician in London--according to his own statement, "with a +fair augury of success speedily and completely fulfilled." This +"success," he adds, "was materially aided by visits for four successive +years to Spa, at the close of that which is called the London season." +It must also, however, be in a great degree attributed to his happy +temperament and his gifts as a conversationalist--qualities the +influence of which, in the majority of cases belonging to his class of +practice, is often of more importance than direct medical treatment. In +1816 he was elected F.R.S., and in 1828 F.R.C.S. He became physician in +ordinary to Prince Albert in 1840, and was appointed in 1852 physician +in ordinary to the queen. In April 1853 he was created a baronet. He was +also a D.C.L. of Oxford and a member of the principal learned societies +of Europe. He was twice married, his second wife being a daughter of +Sydney Smith, a lady of considerable literary talent, who published a +biography of her father. Sir Henry Holland at an early period of his +practice resolved to devote to his professional duties no more of his +time than was necessary to secure an income of L5000 a year, and also to +spend two months of every year solely in foreign travel. By the former +resolution he secured leisure for a wide acquaintance with general +literature, and for a more than superficial cultivation of several +branches of science; and the latter enabled him, besides visiting, "and +most of them repeatedly, every country of Europe," to make extensive +tours in the other three continents, journeying often to places little +frequented by European travellers. As, moreover, he procured an +introduction to nearly all the eminent personages in his line of travel, +and knew many of them in his capacity of physician, his acquaintance +with "men and cities" was of a species without a parallel. The _London +Medical Record_, in noticing his death, which took place on his +eighty-fifth birthday, October 27, 1873, remarked that it "had occurred +under circumstances highly characteristic of his remarkable career." On +his return from a journey in Russia he was present, on Friday, October +24th, at the trial of Marshal Bazaine in Paris, dining with some of the +judges in the evening. He reached London on the Saturday, took ill the +following day, and died quietly on the Monday afternoon. + + Sir Henry Holland was the author of _General View of the Agriculture + of Cheshire_ (1807); _Travels in the Ionian Isles, Albania, Thessaly + and Greece_ (1812-1813, 2nd ed., 1819); _Medical Notes and + Reflections_ (1839); _Chapters on Mental Physiology_ (1852); _Essays + on Scientific and other Subjects contributed to the Edinburgh and + Quarterly Reviews_ (1862); and _Recollections of Past Life_ (1872). + + + + +HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705-1774), English statesman, second son +of Sir Stephen Fox, was born on the 28th of September 1705. Inheriting a +large share of the riches which his father had accumulated, he +squandered it soon after attaining his majority, and went to the +Continent to escape from his creditors. There he made the acquaintance +of a countrywoman of fortune, who became his patroness and was so lavish +with her purse that, after several years' absence, he was in a position +to return home and, in 1735, to enter parliament as member for Hindon in +Wiltshire. He became the favourite pupil and devoted supporter of Sir +Robert Walpole, achieving unequalled and unenviable proficiency in the +worst political arts of his master and model. As a speaker he was fluent +and self-possessed, imperturbable under attack, audacious in exposition +or retort, and able to hold his own against Pitt himself. Thus he made +himself a power in the House of Commons and an indispensable member of +several administrations. He was surveyor-general of works from 1737 to +1742, was member for Windsor from 1741 to 1761; lord of the treasury in +1743, secretary at war and member of the privy council in 1746, and in +1755 became leader of the House of Commons, secretary of state and a +member of the cabinet under the duke of Newcastle. In 1757, in the +rearrangements of the government, Fox was ultimately excluded from the +cabinet, and given the post of paymaster of the forces. During the war, +which Pitt conducted with extraordinary vigour, and in which the nation +was intoxicated with glory, Fox devoted himself mainly to accumulating a +vast fortune. In 1762 he again accepted the leadership of the House, +with a seat in the cabinet, under the earl of Bute, and exercised his +skill in cajolery and corruption to induce the House of Commons to +approve of the treaty of Paris of 1763; as a recompense, he was raised +to the House of Lords with the title of Baron Holland of Foxley, +Wiltshire, on the 16th of April 1763. In 1765 he was forced to resign +the paymaster generalship, and four years later a petition of the livery +of the city of London against the ministers referred to him as "the +public defaulter of unaccounted millions." The proceedings brought +against him in the court of exchequer were stayed by a royal warrant; +and in a statement published by him he proved that in the delays in +making up the accounts of his office he had transgressed neither the law +nor the custom of the time. From the interest on the outstanding +balances he had, none the less, amassed a princely fortune. He strove, +but in vain, to obtain promotion to the dignity of an earl, a dignity +upon which he had set his heart, and he died at Holland House, +Kensington, on the 1st of July 1774, a sorely disappointed man, with a +reputation for cunning and unscrupulousness which cannot easily be +matched, and with an unpopularity which justifies the conclusion that he +was the most thoroughly hated statesman of his day. Lord Holland married +in 1744 Lady Georgina Caroline Lennox, daughter of the duke of +Richmond, who was created Baroness Holland, of Holland, Lincolnshire, in +1762. There were four sons of the marriage: Stephen, 2nd Lord Holland +(d. 1774); Henry (d. an infant); Charles James (the celebrated +statesman); and Henry Edward (1755-1811), soldier and diplomatist. + + See Walpole's and other memoirs of the time, also the article FOX, + CHARLES JAMES. + + + + +HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1590-1649), 2nd son of Robert, 1st +earl of Warwick, and of Penelope, Sir Philip Sidney's "Stella," daughter +of Walter Devereux, 1st earl of Essex, was baptized on the 19th of +August 1590, educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, knighted on the +3rd of June 1610, and returned to parliament for Leicester in 1610 and +1614. In 1610 he was present at the siege of Juliers. Favours were +showered upon him by James I. He was made gentleman of the bedchamber to +Charles, prince of Wales, and captain of the yeomen of the guard; and on +the 8th of March 1623 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Kensington. +In 1624 he was sent to Paris to negotiate the marriage treaty between +Charles and Henrietta Maria. On the 15th of September he was created +earl of Holland, and in 1625 was sent on two further missions, first to +Paris to arrange a treaty between Louis XIII. and the Huguenots, and +later to the Netherlands in company with Buckingham. In October 1627 he +was given command of the troops sent to reinforce Buckingham at Rhe, but +through delay in starting only met the defeated troops on their return. +He succeeded Buckingham as chancellor of Cambridge University; was +master of the horse in 1628, and was appointed constable of Windsor and +high steward to the queen in 1629. He interested himself, like his elder +brother, Lord Warwick, in the plantations; and was the first governor of +the Providence company in 1630, and one of the proprietors of +Newfoundland in 1637. In 1631 he was made chief-justice-in-eyre south of +the Trent, and in this capacity was responsible for the unpopular +revival of the obsolete forest laws. He intrigued at court against +Portland and against Strafford, who expressed for him the greatest +contempt. In 1636 he was disappointed at not obtaining the great office +of lord high admiral, but was made instead groom of the stole. In 1639 +he was appointed general of the horse, and drew ridicule upon himself by +the fiasco at Kelso. In the second war against the Scots he was +superseded in favour of Conway. He opposed the dissolution of the Short +Parliament, joined the peers who supported the parliamentary cause, and +gave evidence against Strafford. He was, however, won back to the king's +side by the queen, and on the 16th of April 1641 made captain general +north of the Trent. Dissatisfied, however, with Charles's refusal to +grant him the nomination of a new baron, he again abandoned him, refused +the summons to York, and was deprived of his office as groom of the +stole at the instance of the queen, who greatly resented his +ingratitude. He was chosen by the parliament in March and July 1642 to +communicate its votes to Charles, who received him, much to his +indignation, with studied coldness. He was appointed one of the +committee of safety in July; made zealous speeches on behalf of the +parliamentary cause to the London citizens; and joined Essex's army at +Twickenham, where, it is said, he persuaded him to avoid a battle. In +1643 he appeared as a peacemaker, and after failing to bring over Essex, +he returned to the king. His reception, however, was not a cordial one, +and he was not reinstated in his office of groom of the stole. After, +therefore, accompanying the king to Gloucester and taking part in the +first battle of Newbury, he once more returned to the parliament, +declaring that the court was too much bent on continuing hostilities, +and the influence of the "papists" too strong for his patriotism. He was +restored to his estates, but the Commons obliged the Lords to exclude +him from the upper house, and his petition in 1645 for compensation for +his losses and for a pension was refused. His hopes being in this +quarter also disappointed, he once again renewed his allegiance to the +king's cause; and after endeavouring to promote the negotiations for +peace in 1645 and 1647 he took up arms in the second Civil War, received +a commission as general, and put himself at the head of 600 men at +Kingston. He was defeated on the 7th of July 1647, captured at St Neots +shortly afterwards, and imprisoned at Warwick Castle. He was tried +before a "high court of justice" on the 3rd of February 1649, and in +spite of his plea that he had received quarter was sentenced to death. +He was executed together with Hamilton and Capel on the 9th of March. +Clarendon styles him "a very well-bred man and a fine gentleman in good +times."[1] He was evidently a man of shallow character, devoid of +ability, raised far above his merits and hopelessly unfit for the great +times in which he lived. Lord Holland married Elizabeth, daughter and +heiress of Sir Walter Cope of Kensington, and, besides several +daughters, had four sons, of whom the eldest, Robert, succeeded him as +2nd earl of Holland, and inherited the earldom of Warwick in 1673. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, xi. 263. + + + + +HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD BARON (1773-1840), was the son +of Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland, his mother, Lady Mary Fitzpatrick, +being the daughter of the earl of Upper Ossory. He was born at +Winterslow House in Wiltshire, on the 21st of November 1773, and his +father died in the following year. He was educated at Eton and at Christ +Church, Oxford, where he became the friend of Canning, of Hookham Frere, +and of other wits of the time. Lord Holland did not take the same +political side as his friends in the conflicts of the revolutionary +epoch. He was from his boyhood deeply attached to his uncle, C. J. Fox, +and remained steadily loyal to the Whig party. In 1791 he visited Paris +and became acquainted with Lafayette and Talleyrand, and in 1793 he +again went abroad to travel in France and Italy. At Florence he met with +Lady Webster, wife of Sir Godfrey Webster, Bart., who left her husband +for him. She was by birth Elizabeth Vassall (1770-1845), daughter of +Richard Vassall, a planter in Jamaica. A son was born of their irregular +union, a Charles Richard Fox (1796-1873), who after some service in the +navy entered the Grenadiers, and was known in later life as a collector +of Greek coins. His collection was bought for the royal museum of Berlin +when he died in 1873. He married Lady Mary Fitzclarence, a daughter of +William IV. by Mrs Jordan. Sir Godfrey Webster having obtained a +divorce, Lord Holland was enabled to marry on the 6th of July 1797. He +had taken his seat in the House of Lords on the 5th of October 1796. +During several years he may be said almost to have constituted the Whig +party in the Upper House. His protests against the measures of the Tory +ministers were collected and published, as the _Opinions of Lord +Holland_ (1841), by Dr Moylan of Lincoln's Inn. In 1800 he was +authorized to take the name of Vassall, and after 1807 he signed himself +Vassall Holland, though the name was no part of his title. In 1800 Lord +and Lady Holland went abroad and remained in France and Spain till 1805, +visiting Paris during the Peace of Amiens, and being well received by +Napoleon. Lady Holland always professed a profound admiration of +Napoleon, of which she made a theatrical display after his fall, and he +left her a gold snuff-box by his will. In public life Lord Holland took +a share proportionate to his birth and opportunities. He was appointed +to negotiate with the American envoys, Monroe and W. Pinkney, was +admitted to the privy council on the 27th of August 1806, and on the +15th of October entered the cabinet "of all the talents" as lord privy +seal, retiring with the rest of his colleagues in March 1807. He led the +opposition to the Regency bill in 1811, and he attacked the "orders in +council" and other strong measures of the government taken to counteract +Napoleon's Berlin decrees. He was in fact in politics a consistent Whig, +and in that character he denounced the treaty of 1813 with Sweden which +bound England to consent to the forcible union of Norway, and he +resisted the bill of 1816 for confining Napoleon in St Helena. His +loyalty as a Whig secured recognition when his party triumphed in the +struggle for parliamentary reform, by his appointment as chancellor of +the duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne, +and he was still in office when he died on the 22nd of October 1840. +Lord Holland is notable, not for his somewhat insignificant political +career, but as a patron of literature, as a writer on his own account, +and because his house was the centre and the headquarters of the Whig +political and literary world of the time; and Lady Holland (who died on +the 16th of November 1845) succeeded in taking the sort of place in +London which had been filled in Paris during the 18th century by the +society ladies who kept "salons." Lord Holland's _Foreign Reminiscences_ +(1850) contain much amusing gossip from the Revolutionary and Napoleonic +era. His _Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (1852) is an important contemporary +authority. His small work on _Lope de Vega_ (1806) is still of some +value. Holland had two legitimate sons, Stephen, who died in 1800, and +Henry Edward, who became 4th Lord Holland. When this peer died in +December 1859 the title became extinct. + + See _The Journal of Elizabeth, Lady Holland_, edited by the earl of + Ilchester (1908); and Lloyd Sanders, _The Holland House Circle_ + (1908). + + + + +HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881), American author and editor, was +born in Belchertown, Massachusetts, on the 24th of July 1819. He +graduated in 1843 at the Berkshire Medical College (no longer in +existence) at Pittsfield, Mass., and after practising medicine in +1844-1847, and making an unsuccessful attempt, with Charles Robinson +(1818-1894), later first governor of the state of Kansas, to establish a +hospital for women, he taught for a brief period in Richmond, Virginia, +and in 1848 was superintendent of schools in Vicksburg, Mississippi. In +1849 he became assistant editor under Samuel Bowles, and three years +later one of the owners, of the Springfield (Massachusetts) +_Republican_, with which he retained his connexion until 1867. He then +travelled for some time in Europe, and in 1870 removed to New York, +where he helped to establish and became editor and one-third owner of +_Scribner's Monthly_ (the title of which was changed in 1881 to _The +Century_), which absorbed the periodicals _Hours at Home_, _Putnam's +Magazine_ and the _Riverside Magazine_. He remained editor of this +magazine until his death. Dr Holland's books long enjoyed a wide +popularity. The earlier ones were published over the pseudonym "Timothy +Titcomb." His writings fall into four classes: history and biography, +represented by a _History of Western Massachusetts_ (1855), and a _Life +of Abraham Lincoln_ (1865); fiction, of which _Miss Gilbert's Career_ +(1860) and _The Story of Sevenoaks_ (1875) remain faithful pictures of +village life in eastern United States; poetry, of which _Bitter-Sweet_ +(1858) and _Kathrina, Her Life and Mine_ (1867) were widely read; and a +series of homely essays on the art of living, of which the most +characteristic were _Letters to Young People, Single and Married_ +(1858), _Gold Foil, hammered from Popular Proverbs_ (1859), _Letters to +the Jonses_ (1863), and _Every-Day Topics_ (2 series, 1876 and 1882). +While a resident of New York, where he died on the 12th of October 1881, +he identified himself with measures for good government and school +reform, and in 1872 became a member and for a short time in 1873 was +president of the Board of Education. + + See Mrs H. M. Plunkett's _Josiah Gilbert Holland_ (New York, 1894). + + + + +HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637), English scholar, "the translator-general +in his age," was born at Chelmsford in Essex. He was the son of a +clergyman, John Holland, who had been obliged to take refuge in Germany +and Denmark with Miles Coverdale during the Marian persecution. Having +become a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and taken the degree of +M.A., he was incorporated at Oxford (July 11th, 1585). Having +subsequently studied medicine, about 1595 he settled as a doctor in +Coventry, but chiefly occupied himself with translations. In 1628 he was +appointed headmaster of the free school, but, owing probably to +advancing age, he held office for only eleven months. His latter days +were oppressed by poverty, partly relieved by the generosity of the +common council of Coventry, which in 1632 assigned him L3, 6s. 8d. for +three years, "if he should live so long." He died on the 9th of +February, 1636-1637. His fame is due solely to his translations, which +included Livy, Pliny's _Natural History_, Plutarch's _Morals_, +Suetonius, Ammianus Marcellinus and Xenophon's _Cyropaedia_. He +published also an English version, with additions, of Camden's +_Britannia_. His Latin translation of Brice Bauderon's _Pharmacopaea_ +and his _Regimen sanitatis Salerni_ were published after his death by +his son, HENRY HOLLAND (1583-?1650), who became a London bookseller, and +is known to bibliographers for his _Bazili[omega]logia; a Booke of +Kings, beeing the true and liuely Effigies of all our English Kings from +the Conquest_ (1618), and his _Her[omega]ologia Anglica_ (1620). + + + + +HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450), Scottish writer, +author of the _Buke of the Howlat_, was secretary or chaplain to the +earl of Moray (1450) and rector of Halkirk, near Thurso. He was +afterwards rector of Abbreochy, Loch Ness, and later held a chantry in +the cathedral of Norway. He was an ardent partisan of the Douglases, and +on their overthrow retired to Orkney and later to Shetland. He was +employed by Edward IV. in his attempt to rouse the Western Isles through +Douglas agency, and in 1482 was excluded from the general pardon granted +by James III. to those who would renounce their fealty to the Douglases. + +The poem, entitled the _Buke of the Howlat_, written about 1450, shows +his devotion to the house of Douglas:-- + + "On ilk beugh till embrace + Writtin in a bill was + O Dowglass, O Dowglass + Tender and trewe!" + + (ii. 400-403). + +and is dedicated to the wife of a Douglas-- + + "Thus for ane Dow of Dunbar drew I this Dyte, + Dowit with ane Dowglass, and boith war thei dowis." + +but all theories of its being a political allegory in favour of that +house may be discarded. Sir Walter Scott's judgment that the _Buke_ is +"a poetical apologue ... without any view whatever to local or natural +politics" is certainly the most reasonable. The poem, which extends to +1001 lines written in the irregular alliterative rhymed stanza, is a +bird-allegory, of the type familiar in the _Parlement of Foules_. It has +the incidental interest of showing (especially in stanzas 62 and 63) the +antipathy of the "Inglis-speaking Scot" to the "Scots-speaking Gael" of +the west, as is also shown in Dunbar's _Flyting with Kennedy_. + + The text of the poem is preserved in the Asloan and Bannatyne MSS. + Fragments of an early 16th century black-letter edition, discovered by + D. Laing, are reproduced in the _Adversaria_ of the Bannatyne Club. + The poem has been frequently reprinted, by Pinkerton, in his _Scottish + Poems_ (1792); by D. Laing (Bannatyne Club 1823; reprinted in "New + Club" series, Paisley, 1882); by the Hunterian Club in their edition + of the Bannatyne MS., and by A. Diebler (Chemnitz, 1893). The latest + edition is that by F. J. Amours in _Scottish Alliterative Poems_ + (Scottish Text Society, 1897), pp. 47-81. (See also Introduction pp. + xx.-xxxiv.) + + + + +HOLLAND, officially the kingdom of the Netherlands (_Koningrijk der +Nederlanden_), a maritime country in the north-west of Europe. The name +Holland is that of the former countship, which forms part of the +political, as well as the geographical centre of the kingdom (see the +next article). + +_Topography._--Holland is bounded on the E. by Germany, on the S. by +Belgium, on the W. and N. by the North Sea, and at the N.E. corner by +the Dollart. From Stevensweert southward to the extreme corner of +Limburg the boundary line is formed by the river Maas or Meuse.[1] On +the east a natural geographical boundary was formed by the long line of +marshy fens extending along the borders of Overysel, Drente and +Groningen. The kingdom extends from 53 deg. 32' 21" (Groningen Cape on +Rottum Island) to 50 deg. 45' 49" N. (Mesch in the province of +Limburg), and from 3 deg. 23' 27" (Sluis in the province of Zeeland) to +7 deg. 12' 20" E. (Langakkerschans in the province of Groningen). The +greatest length from north to south, viz. that from Rottum Island to +Eisden near Maastricht is 164 m., and the greatest breadth from +south-west to north-east, or from Zwin near Sluis to Losser in Overysel, +144 m. The area is subject to perpetual variation owing, on the one +hand, to the erosion of the coasts, and, on the other, to reclamation of +land by means of endiking and drainage operations. In 1889 the total +area was calculated at 12,558 sq. m., and, including the Zuider Zee and +the Wadden (2050 sq. m.) and the Dutch portion of the Dollart (23 sq. +m.), 14,613 sq. m. In no country in Europe has the character of the +territory exercised so great an influence on the inhabitants as in the +Netherlands; and, on the other hand, no people has so extensively +modified the condition of its territory as the Dutch. The greatest +importance attaches therefore to the physical conformation of the +country. + + + Coast. + + The coast-line extends in a double curve from south-west to + north-east, and is formed by a row of sand dunes, 171 m. in length, + fringed by a broad sandy beach descending very gradually into the sea. + In the north and south, however, this line is broken by the inlets of + the sea which form the Frisian and the South Holland and Zeeland + islands respectively; but the dunes themselves are found continued + along the seaward side of these islands, thus indicating the original + continuity of the coast-line. The breadth of the dunes naturally + varies greatly, the maximum width of about 4375 yds. being found at + Schoorl, north-west of Alkmaar. The average height of the individual + dune-tops is not above 33 ft., but attains a maximum of 197 ft. at the + High Blinkert, near Haarlem. The steepness of the dunes on the side + towards the sea is caused by the continual erosion, probably + traceable, in part at least, to the channel current (which at mean + tide has a velocity of 14 or 15 in. per second), and to the strong + west or north-west winds which carry off large quantities of material. + This alteration of coast-line appears at Loosduinen, where the moor or + fenland formerly developed behind the dunes now crops out on the shore + amid the sand, being pressed to the compactness of lignite by the + weight of the sand drifted over it. Again, the remains of the Roman + camp Brittenburg or Huis te Britten, which originally lay within the + dunes and, after being covered by them, emerged again in 1520, were, + in 1694, 1600 paces out to sea, opposite Katwijk; while, besides + Katwijk itself, several other villages of the west coast, as Domburg, + Scheveningen, Egmond, have been removed further inland. The tendency + of the dunes to drift off on the landward side is prevented by the + planting of bent-grass (_Arundo arenaria_), whose long roots serve to + bind the sand together. It must be further remarked that both the + "dune-pans," or depressions, which are naturally marshy through their + defective drainage, and the _geest_ grounds--that is, the grounds + along the foot of the downs--have been in various places either + planted with wood or turned into arable and pasture land; while the + numerous springs at the base of the dunes are of the utmost value to + the great cities situated on the marshy soil inland, the example set + by Amsterdam in 1853 in supplying itself with this water having been + readily followed by Leiden, the Hague, Flushing, &c. + + As already remarked, the coast-line of Holland breaks up into a series + of islands at its northern and southern extremities. The principal + sea-inlets in the north are the Texel Gat or Marsdiep and the Vlie, + which lead past the chain of the Frisian Islands into the large inland + sea or gulf called the Zuider Zee, and the Wadden or "shallows," which + extend along the shores of Friesland and Groningen as far as the + Dollart and the mouth of the Ems. The inland sea-board thus formed + consists of low coasts of sea-clay protected by dikes, and of some + high diluvial strata which rise far enough above the level of the sea + to make dikes unnecessary, as in the case of the Gooi hills between + Naarden and the Eem, the Veluwe hills between Nykerk and Elburg, and + the steep cliffs of the Gaasterland between Oude Mirdum and Stavoren. + The Dollart was formed in 1277 by the inundation of the Ems basin, + more than thirty villages being destroyed at once. The Zuider Zee and + the bay in the Frisian coast known as the Lauwers Zee also gradually + came into existence in the 13th century. The extensive sea-arms + forming the South Holland and Zeeland archipelago are the Hont or West + Scheldt, the East Scheldt, the Grevelingen (communicating with Krammer + and the Volkerak) and the Haringvliet, which after being joined by the + Volkerak is known as the Hollandsch Diep. These inlets were formerly + of much greater extent than now, but are gradually closing up owing to + the accumulation of mud deposits, and no longer have the same freedom + of communication with one another. At the head of the Hollandsch Diep + is the celebrated railway bridge of the Moerdyk (1868-1871) 1607 yds. + in length; and above this bridge lies the Biesbosch ("reed forest"), a + group of marshy islands formed by a disastrous inundation in 1421, + when seventy-two villages and upwards of 100,000 lives were destroyed. + + + Relief and levels. + + Besides the dunes the only hilly regions of Holland are the southern + half of the province of Limburg, the neighbourhood of Nijmwegen, the + hills of Utrecht, including the Gooi hills, the Veluwe region in + Gelderland, the isolated hills in the middle and east of Overysel and + the Hondsrug range in Drente. The remainder of the country is flat, + and shows a regular downward slope from south-east to north-west, in + which direction the rivers mainly flow. The elevation of the surface + of the country ranges between the extreme height of 1057 ft. near + Vaals in the farthest corner of Limburg, and 16-20 ft. below the + Amsterdam zero[2] in some of the drained lands in the western half of + the country. In fact, one quarter of the whole kingdom, consisting of + the provinces of North and South Holland, the western portion of + Utrecht as far as the Vaart Rhine, Zeeland, except the southern part + of Zeeland-Flanders, and the north-west part of North Brabant, lies + below the Amsterdam zero; and altogether 38% of the country, or all + that part lying west of a line drawn through Groningen, Utrecht and + Antwerp, lies within one metre above the Amsterdam zero and would be + submerged if the sea broke down the barrier of dunes and dikes. This + difference between the eastern and western divisions of Holland has + its counterpart in the landscape and the nature of the soil. The + western division consists of low fen or clay soil and presents a + monotonous expanse of rich meadow-land, carefully drained in regular + lines of canals bordered by stunted willows, and dotted over with + windmills, the sails of canal craft and the clumps of elm and poplar + which surround each isolated farm-house. The landscape of the eastern + division is considered less typical. Here the soil consists mainly of + sand and gravel, and the prevailing scenery is formed of waste heaths + and patches of wood, while here and there fertile meadows extend along + the banks of the streams, and the land is laid out in the highly + regular manner characteristic of fen reclamation (see DRENTE). + + + Rivers. + + The entire drainage of Holland is into the North Sea. The three + principal rivers are the Rhine, the Maas (Meuse) and the Scheldt + (Schelde), and all three have their origin outside the country, whilst + the Scheldt has its mouth only in Holland, giving its name to the two + broad inlets of the sea which bound the Zeeland islands. The Rhine in + its course through Holland is merely the parent stream of several + important branches, splitting up into Rhine and Waal, Rhine and Ysel, + Crooked Rhine and Lek (which takes two-thirds of the waters), and at + Utrecht into Old Rhine and Vecht, finally reaching the sea through the + sluices at Katwijk as little more than a drainage canal. The Ysel and + the Vecht flow to the Zuider Zee; the other branches to the North Sea. + The Maas, whose course is almost parallel to that of the Rhine, + follows in a wide curve the general slope of the country, receiving + the Roer, the Mark and the Aa. Towards its mouth its waters find their + way into all the channels intersecting the South Holland archipelago. + The main stream joining the Waal at Gorinchem flows on to Dordrecht as + the Merwede, and is continued thence to the sea by the Old Maas, the + North, and the New Maas, the New Maas being formed by the junction of + the Lek and the North. From Gorinchem the New Merwede (constructed in + the second half of the 19th century) extends between dykes through the + marshes of the Biesbosch to the Hollandsch Diep. These great rivers + render very important service as waterways. The mean velocity of their + flow seldom exceeds 4.9 ft., but rises to 6.4 ft. when the river is + high. In the lower reaches of the streams the velocity and slope are + of course affected by the tides. In the Waal ordinary high water is + perceptible as far up as Zalt Bommel in Gelderland, in the Lek the + maximum limits or ordinary and spring tides are at Vianen and + Kuilenburg respectively, in the Ysel above the Katerveer at the + junction of the Willemsvaart and past Wyhe midway between Zwolle and + Deventer; and in the Maas near Heusden and at Well in Limburg. Into + the Zuider Zee there also flow the Kuinder, the Zwarte Water, with its + tributary the Vecht, and the Eem. The total length of navigable + channels is about 1150 m., but sand banks and shallows not + infrequently impede the shipping traffic at low water during the + summer. The smaller streams are often of great importance. Except + where they rise in the fens they call into life a strip of fertile + grassland in the midst of the barren sand, and are responsible for the + existence of many villages along their banks. Following the example of + the great Kampen irrigation canal in Belgium, artificial irrigation is + also practised by means of some of the smaller streams, especially in + North Brabant, Drente and Overysel, and in the absence of streams, + canals and sluices are sometimes specially constructed to perform the + same service. The low-lying spaces at the confluences of the rivers, + being readily laid under water, have been not infrequently chosen as + sites for fortresses. As a matter of course, the streams are also + turned to account in connexion with the canal system--the Dommel, + Berkel, Vecht, Regge, Holland Ysel, Gouwe, Rotte, Schie, Spaarne, + Zaan, Amstel, Dieze, Amer, Mark, Zwarte Water, Kuinder and the + numerous Aas in Drente and Groningen being the most important in this + respect. + + + Lakes. + + It is unnecessary to mention the names of the numerous marshy lakes + which exist, especially in Friesland and Groningen, and are connected + with rivers or streamlets. Those of Friesland are of note for the + abundance of their fish and their beauty of situation, on which last + account the Uddelermeer in Gelderland is also celebrated. The Rockanje + Lake near Brielle is remarkable for the strong salty solution which + covers even the growing reeds with a hard crust. Many of the lakes + are nothing more than deep pits or marshes from which the peat has + been extracted. + +[Illustration: Holland Map.] + +_Dikes._--The circumstance that so much of Holland is below the +sea-level necessarily exercises a very important influence on the +drainage, the climate and the sanitary conditions of the country, as +well as on its defence by means of inundation. The endiking of low lands +against the sea which had been quietly proceeding during the first +eleven centuries of the Christian era, received a fresh impetus in the +12th and 13th centuries from the fact that the level of the sea then +became higher in relation to that of the land. This fact is illustrated +by the broadening of river mouths and estuaries at this time, and the +beginning of the formation of the Zuider Zee. A new feature in diking +was the construction of dams or sluices across the mouths of rivers, +sometimes with important consequences for the villages situated on the +spot. Thus the dam on the Amstel (1257) was the origin of Amsterdam, and +the dam on the Ye gave rise to Edam. But Holland's chief protection +against inundation is its long line of sand dunes, in which only two +real breaches have been effected during the centuries of erosion. These +are represented by the famous sea dikes called the Westkapelle dike and +the Hondsbossche Zeewering, or sea-defence, which were begun +respectively in the first and second halves of the 15th century. The +first extends for a distance of over 4000 yds. between the villages of +Westkapelle and Domburg in the island of Walcheren; the second is about +4900 yds. long, and extends from Kamperduin to near Petten, whence it is +continued for another 1100 yds. by the Pettemer dike. These two sea +dikes were reconstructed by the state at great expense between the year +1860 and 1884, having consisted before that time of little more than a +protected sand dike. The earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and +by piles, and at the more dangerous points also by _zinkstukken_ +(sinking pieces), artificial structures of brushwood laden with stones, +and measuring some 400 yds. in circuit, by means of which the current is +to some extent turned aside. The Westkapelle dike, 12,468 ft. long, has +a seaward slope of 300 ft., and is protected by rows of piles and basalt +blocks. On its ridge, 39 ft. broad, there is not only a roadway but a +service railway. The cost of its upkeep is more than L6000 a year, and +of the Hondsbossche Zeewering L2000 a year. When it is remembered that +the woodwork is infested by the pile worm (_Teredo navalis_), the +ravages of which were discovered in 1731, the labour and expense +incurred in the construction and maintenance of the sea dikes now +existing may be imagined. In other parts of the coast the dunes, though +not pierced through, have become so wasted by erosion as to require +artificial strengthening. This is afforded, either by means of a +so-called sleeping dike (_slaperdyk_) behind the weak spot, as, for +instance, between Kadzand and Breskens in Zeeland-Flanders, and again +between 's Gravenzande and Loosduinen; or by means of piers or +breakwaters (_hoofden_, heads) projecting at intervals into the sea and +composed of piles, or brushwood and stones. The first of such +breakwaters was that constructed in 1857 at the north end of the island +of Goeree, and extends over 100 yds. into the sea at low water. Similar +constructions are to be found on the seaward side of the islands of +Walcheren, Schouwen and Voorne, and between 's Gravenzande and +Scheveningen, and Katwijk and Noordwijk. Owing to the obstruction which +they offer to drifting sands, artificial dunes are in course of time +formed about them, and in this way they become at once more effective +and less costly to maintain. The firm and regular dunes which now run +from Petten to Kallantsoog (formerly an island), and thence northwards +to Huisduinen, were thus formed about the Zyper (1617) and Koegras +(1610) dikes respectively. From Huisduinen to Nieuwediep the dunes are +replaced by the famous Helder sea-wall. The shores of the Zuider Zee and +the Wadden, and the Frisian and Zuider Zee islands, are also partially +protected by dikes. In more than one quarter the dikes have been +repeatedly extended so as to enclose land conquered from the sea, the +work of reclamation being aided by a natural process. Layer upon layer +of clay is deposited by the sea in front of the dikes, until a new +fringe has been added to the coast-line on which sea-grasses grasses +begin to grow. Upon these clay-lands (_kwelders_) horses, cattle and +sheep are at last able to pasture at low tide, and in course of time +they are in turn endiked. + +River dikes are as necessary as sea dikes, elevated banks being found +only in a few places, as on the Lower Rhine. Owing to the unsuitability +of the foundations, Dutch dikes are usually marked by a great width, +which at the crown varies between 13 and 26 ft. The height of the dike +ranges to 40 in. above high water-level. Between the dikes and the +stream lie "forelands" (_interwaarden_), which are usually submerged in +winter, and frequently lie 1 or 2 yds, higher than the country within +the dikes. These forelands also offer in course of time an opportunity +for endiking and reclamation. In this way the towns of Rotterdam, +Schiedam, Vlaardingen and Maasluis have all gradually extended over the +Maas dike in order to keep in touch with the river, and the small town +of Delftshaven is built altogether on the outer side of the same dike. + + _Impoldering._--The first step in the reclamation of land is to + "impolder" it, or convert it into a "polder" (i.e. a section of + artificially drained land), by surrounding it with dikes or quays for + the two-fold purpose of protecting it from all further inundation from + outside and of controlling the amount of water inside. Impoldering for + its own sake or on a large scale was impossible as long as the means + of drainage were restricted. But in the beginning of the 15th century + new possibilities were revealed by the adaptation of the windmill to + the purpose of pumping water. It was gradually recognized that the + masses of water which collected wherever peat-digging had been carried + on were an unnecessary menace to the neighbouring lands, and also that + a more enduring source of profit lay in the bed of the fertile + sea-clay under the peat. It became usual, therefore, to make the + subsequent drainage of the land a condition of the extraction of peat + from it, this condition being established by proclamation in 1595. + + _Drainage._--It has been shown that the western provinces of Holland + may be broadly defined as lying below sea-level. In fact the surface + of the sea-clay in these provinces is from 11(1/2) to 16(1/2) ft. + below the Amsterdam zero. The ground-water is, therefore, relatively + very high and the capacity of the soil for further absorption + proportionately low. To increase the reservoir capacity of the polder, + as well as to conduct the water to the windmills or engines, it is + intersected by a network of ditches cut at right angles to each other, + the amount of ditching required being usually one-twelfth of the area + to be drained. In modern times pumping engines have replaced + windmills, and the typical old Dutch landscape with its countless + hooded heads and swinging arms has been greatly transformed by the + advent of the chimney stacks of the pumping-stations. The power of the + pumping-engines is taken on the basis of 12 h.p. per 1000 hectares for + every metre that the water has to be raised, or stated in another + form, the engines must be capable of raising nearly 9 lb. of water + through 1 yd. per acre per minute. The main ditches, or canals, + afterwards also serve as a means of navigation. The level at which it + is desired to keep the water in these ditches constitutes the unit of + water measurement for the polder, and is called the polder's _zomer + peil_ (Z.P.) or summer water-level. In pasture-polders (_koepolders_) + Z.P. is 1 to 1(1/2) ft. below the level of the polder, and in + agricultural polders 2(1/2) to 3(1/2) ft. below. Owing to the + shrinkage of the soil in reclaimed lands, however, that is, lands + which have been drained after fen or other reclamation, the sides of + the polder are often higher than the middle, and it is necessary by + means of small dams or sluices to make separate water-tight + compartments (_afpolderingen_), each having its own unit of + measurement. Some polders also have a winter peil as a precaution + against the increased fall of water in that season. The summer + water-level of the pasture polders south of the former Y is about 4 to + 8 ft. below the Amsterdam zero, but in the Noorderkwartier to the + north, it reaches 10(1/2) ft. below A. P. in the Beschotel polder, and + in reclaimed lands (_droogmakerijen_) may be still lower, thus in the + Reeuwyk polder north of Gouda it is 21(1/4) ft. below. + + The drainage of the country is effected by natural or artificial + means, according to the slope of the ground. Nearly all the polders of + Zeeland and South Holland are able to discharge naturally into the sea + at average low water, self-regulating sluices being used. But in North + Holland and Utrecht on the contrary the polder water has generally to + be raised. In some deep polders and drained lands where the water + cannot be brought to the required height at once, windmills are found + at two or even three different levels. The final removal of polder + water, however, is only truly effected upon its discharge into the + "outer waters" of the country, that is, the sea itself or the large + rivers freely communicating with it; and this happens with but a small + proportion of Dutch polders, such as those of Zeeland, the Holland + Ysel and the Noorderkwartier. + + As the system of impoldering extended, the small sluggish rivers were + gradually cut off by dikes from the marshy lands through which they + flowed, and by sluices from the waters with which they communicated. + Their level ranges from about 1(1/2) to 4 ft. above that of the pasture + polders. In addition, various kinds of canals and endiked or embanked + lakes had come into existence, forming altogether a vast network of + more or less stagnant waters. These waters are utilized as the + temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder water, each system of + reservoirs being termed a _boezem_ (bosom or basin), and all lands + watering into the same boezem being considered as belonging to it. The + largest boezem is that of Friesland, which embraces nearly the whole + province. It sometimes happens that a polder is not in direct contact + with the boezem to which it belongs, but first drains into an adjacent + polder, from which the water is afterwards removed. In the same way, + some boezems discharge first into others, which then discharge into + the sea or rivers. This is usually the case where there is a great + difference in height between the surface of the boezem and the outer + waters, and may be illustrated by the Alblasserwaard and the Rotte + boezems in the provinces of South and North Holland respectively. In + time of drought the water in the canals and boezems is allowed to run + back into the polders, and so serve a double purpose as + water-reservoirs. Boezems, like polders, have a standard water-level + which may hot be exceeded, and as in the polder this level may vary in + the different parts of an extended boezem. The height of the _boezem + peil_ ranges between 1(1/3) ft. above to 1(5/6) ft. below the + Amsterdam zero, though the average is about 1 to 1(2/3) ft. below. + Some boezems, again, which are less easily controlled, have a "danger + water-level" at which they refuse to receive any more water from the + surrounding polders. The Schie or Delflands boezem of South Holland is + of this kind, and such a boezem is termed _besloten_ or "sequestered," + in contradistinction to a "free" boezem. A third kind of boezem is the + reserve or _berg-boezem_, which in summer may be made dry and used for + agriculture, while in winter it serves as a special reserve. The + centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this + complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclamation are + better imagined than described, and even at the present day the + evidences of the struggle are far less apparent than real. + + _Geology._--Except in Limburg, where, in the neighbourhood of + Maastricht, the upper layers of the chalk are exposed and followed by + Oligocene and Miocene beds, the whole of Holland is covered by recent + deposits of considerable thickness, beneath which deep borings have + revealed the existence of Pliocene beds similar to the "Crags" of East + Anglia. They are divided into the _Diestien_, corresponding in part + with the English Coralline Crag, the _Scaldisien_ and _Poederlien_ + corresponding with the Walton Crag, and the _Amstelien_ corresponding + with the Red Crag of Suffolk. In the south of Holland the total + thickness of the Pliocene series is only about 200 ft., and they are + covered by about 100 ft. of Quaternary deposits; but towards the north + the beds sink down and at the same time increase considerably in + thickness, so that at Utrecht a deep boring reached the top of the + Pliocene at a depth of 513 ft. and at 1198 ft. it had not touched the + bottom. At Amsterdam the top of the Pliocene lay 625 ft. below the + surface, but the boring, 1098 ft. deep, did not reach the base of the + uppermost division of the Pliocene, viz. the _Amstelien_. Eastward and + westward of Amsterdam, as well as southward, the Pliocene beds rise + slowly to the surface, and gradually decrease in thickness. They were + laid down in a broad bay which covered the east of England and nearly + the whole of the Netherlands, and was open to the North Sea. There is + evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the + deposition of these beds, until at length the Rhine flowed over to + England and entered the sea north of Cromer. The appearance of + northern shells in the upper divisions of the Pliocene series + indicates the approach of the Glacial period, and glacial drift + containing Scandinavian boulders now covers much of the country east + of the Zuider Zee. The more modern deposits of Holland consist of + alluvium, wind-blown sands and peat.[3] + + _Climate._--Situated in the temperate zone between 50 deg. and 53 deg. + N. the climate of Holland shows a difference in the lengths of day and + night extending in the north to nine hours, and there is a + correspondingly wide range of temperature; it also belongs to the + region of variable winds. On an average of fifty years the mean annual + temperature was 49.8 deg. Fahr.; the maximum, 93.9 deg. Fahr.; the + minimum, -5.8 deg. Fahr. The mean annual barometric height is 29.93 + in.; the mean annual moisture, 81%; the mean annual rainfall, 27.99 + in. The mean annual number of days with rain is 204, with snow 19, and + with thunder-storms 18. The increased rainfall from July to December + (the summer and autumn rains), and the increased evaporation in spring + and summer (5.2 in. more than the rainfall), are of importance as + regards "poldering" and draining operations. The prevalence of + south-west winds during nine months of the year and of north-west + during three (April-June) has a strong influence on the temperature + and rainfall, tides, river mouths and outlets, and also, geologically, + on dunes and sand drifts, and on fens and the accumulation of clay on + the coast. The west winds of course increase the moisture, and + moderate both the winter cold and the summer heat, while the east + winds blowing over the continent have an opposite influence. It + cannot be said that the climate is particularly good, owing to the + changeableness of the weather, which may alter completely within a + single day. The heavy atmosphere likewise, and the necessity of living + within doors or in confined localities, cannot but exercise an + influence on the character and temperament of the inhabitants. Only of + certain districts, however, can it be said that they are positively + unhealthy; to this category belong some parts of the Holland + provinces, Zeeland, and Friesland, where the inhabitants are exposed + to the exhalations from the marshy ground, and the atmosphere is often + burdened with sea-fogs. + + _Fauna._--In the densely populated Netherlands, with no extensive + forests, the fauna does not present any unusual varieties. The otter, + martin and badger may be mentioned among the rarer wild animals, and + the weasel, ermine and pole-cat among the more common. In the 18th + century wolves still roamed the country in such large numbers that + hunting parties were organized against them; now they are unknown. + Roebuck and deer are found in a wild state in Gelderland and Overysel, + foxes are plentiful in the dry wooded regions on the borders of the + country, and hares and rabbits in the dunes and other sandy stretches. + Among birds may be reckoned about two hundred and forty different + kinds which are regular inhabitants, although nearly two hundred of + these are migratory. The woodcock, partridge, hawk, water-ousel, + magpie, jay, raven, various kinds of owls, wood-pigeon, golden-crested + wren, tufted lark and titmouse are among the birds which breed here. + Birds of passage include the buzzard, kite, quail, wild fowl of + various kinds, golden thrush, wagtail, linnet, finch and nightingale. + Storks are plentiful in summer and might almost be considered the most + characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape. + + _Flora._--The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four + physiographical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely, the + heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts. Heath (_Erica tetralix_) + and ling (_Calluna vulgaris_) cover all the waste sandy regions in the + eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the meadow-lands is + monotonous. In the more damp and marshy places the bottom is covered + with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth equisetum, and rush. In the ditches + and pools common yellow and white water-lilies are seen, as well as + water-soldier (_Stratiotes aloides_), great and lesser reed-mace, + sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant forms of the dunes are stunted and + meagre as compared with the same forms elsewhere. The most common + plant here is the stiff sand-reed (_Arundo arenaria_), called + sand-oats in Drente and Overysel, where it is much used for making + mats. Like the sand-reed, the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the + buckthorn (_Hippophae rhamnoides_) perform a useful service in helping + to bind the sand together. Furze and the common juniper are regular + dune plants, and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel + and Gelderland. Thyme and the small white dune-rose (_Rosa + pimpinellifolia_) also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (_Sedum + acre_), field fever-wort, reindeer moss, common asparagus, sheep's + fescue grass, the pretty Solomon-seal (_Polygonatum officinale_), and + the broad-leaved or marsh orchis (_Orchis latifolia_). The sea-plants + which flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly + assist the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated + in places. Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and + Groningen, the Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer + the shore to sandspurry (_Spergularia_), or sea-poa or floating meadow + grass (_Glyceria maritima_), which grows up to the dikes, and affords + pasture for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the + Biesbosch lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable + quantities for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (_Zostera + marina_) is found in large patches in the northern half of the Zuider + Zee, where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of + June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along the + rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the sand + and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common. + +_Population._--The following table shows the area and population in the +eleven provinces of the Netherlands:-- + + +--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+ + | |Area in|Population| Population |Density per| + | Province | sq. m.| 1890. | 1900. | sq. m. in | + | | | | | 1900. | + +--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+ + | North Brabant| 1,980 | 509,628 | 553,842 | 280 | + | Gelderland | 1,965 | 512,202 | 566,549 | 288 | + | South Holland| 1,166 | 949,641 | 1,144,448 | 981 | + | North Holland| 1,070 | 829,489 | 968,131 | 905 | + | Zeeland | 690 | 199,234 | 216,295 | 313 | + | Utrecht | 534 | 221,007 | 251,034 | 470 | + | Friesland | 1,282 | 335,558 | 340,262 | 265 | + | Overysel | 1,291 | 295,445 | 333,338 | 258 | + | Groningen | 790 | 272,786 | 299,602 | 379 | + | Drente | 1,030 | 130,704 | 148,544 | 144 | + | Limburg | 850 | 255,721 | 281,934 | 332 | + | +-------+----------+------------+-----------+ + | Total |12,648 |4,511,415 | 5,104,137* | 404 | + +--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+ + * This total includes 158 persons assigned to no province. + +The extremes of density of population are found in the provinces of +North Holland and South Holland on the one hand, and Drente on the +other. This divergence is partly explained by the difference of +soil--which in Drente comprises the maximum of waste lands, and in South +Holland the minimum--and partly also by the greater facilities which the +seaward provinces enjoy of earning a subsistence, and the greater +variety of their industries. The largest towns are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, +the Hague, Utrecht, Groningen, Haarlem, Arnhem, Leiden, Nijmwegen, +Tilburg. Other considerable towns are Dordrecht, Maastricht, Leeuwarden, +Zwolle, Delft, 's Hertogenbosch, Schiedam, Deventer, Breda, Apeldoorn, +Helder, Enschede, Gouda, Zaandam, Kampen, Hilversum, Flushing, +Amersfoort, Middelburg, Zutphen and Alkmaar. Many of the smaller towns, +such as Assen, Enschede, Helmond, Hengelo, Tiel, Venlo, Vlaardingen, +Zaandam, Yerseke, show a great development, and it is a noteworthy fact +that the rural districts, taken as a whole, have borne an equal share in +the general increase of population. This, taken in conjunction with the +advance in trade and shipping, the diminution in emigration, and the +prosperity of the savings banks, points to a favourable state in the +condition of the people. + + + Roads. + + _Communications._--The roads are divided into national or royal roads, + placed directly under the control of the _water-staat_ and supported + by the state; provincial roads, under the direct control of the states + of the provinces, and almost all supported by the provincial + treasuries; communal and polder roads, maintained by the communal + authorities and the polder boards; and finally, private roads. The + system of national roads, mainly constructed between 1821 and 1827, + but still in process of extension, brings into connexion nearly all + the towns. + + + Canals. + + The canal system of Holland is peculiarly complete and extends into + every part of the country, giving to many inland towns almost a + maritime appearance. The united length of the canals exceeds 1500 m. + As a matter of course the smaller streams have been largely utilized + in their formation, while the necessity for a comprehensive drainage + system has also contributed in no small degree. During the years + 1815-1830 a large part of the extensive scheme of construction + inaugurated by King William I. was carried out, the following canals, + among others, coming into existence in that period: the North Holland + ship canal (depth, 16(1/2) ft.) from Amsterdam to den Helder, the + Grift canal between Apeldoorn and Hattem, the Willemsvaart connecting + Zwolle with the Ysel, the Zuid Willemsvaart, or South William's canal + (6(1/2) ft.), from 's Hertogenbosch to Maastricht, and the + Ternuzen-Ghent ship canal. After 1849 the canal programme was again + taken up by the state, which alone or in conjunction with the + provincial authorities constructed the Apeldoorn-Dieren canal + (1859-1869), the drainage canals of the "Peel" marsh in North Brabant, + and of the eastern provinces, namely, the Deurne canal (1876-1892) + from the Maas to Helenaveen, the Almelo (1851-1858) and Overysel + (1884-1888) canals from Zwolle, Deventer and Almelo to Koevorden, and + the Stieltjes (1880-1884), and Orange (1853-1858 and 1881-1889) canals + in Drente, the North Williams canal (1856-1862) between Assen and + Groningen, the Ems (1866-1876) ship canal from Groningen to Delfzyl, + and the New Merwede, and enlarged the canal from Harlingen by way of + Leeuwarden to the Lauwars Zee. The large ship canals to Rotterdam and + Amsterdam, called the New Waterway and the North Sea canal + respectively, were constructed in 1866-1872 and 1865-1876 at a cost of + 2(1/2) and 3 million pounds sterling, the former by widening the + channel of the Scheur north of Rozenburg, and cutting across the Hook + of Holland, the latter by utilizing the bed of the Y and cutting + through the dunes at Ymuiden. In 1876 an agreement was arrived at with + Germany for connecting the important drainage canals in Overysel, + Drente and Groningen with the Ems canal system, as a result of which + the Almelo-Noordhorn (1884-1888) and other canals came into existence. + + The canals differ in character in the different provinces. In Zeeland + they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the river + mouths; for example, the one from Middelburg to Veere and Flushing + (1866-1878), from Goes to the East Scheldt, and from Zierikzee also to + the East Scheldt. The South Beveland (1862-1866) canal connects the + East and West Scheldt; similarly in South Holland the Voorne canal + unites the Haringvliet with the New Maas, which does not allow the + passage of large vessels above Brielle; whilst owing lo the banks and + shallows in front of Hellevoetsluis the New Waterway was cut to + Rotterdam. Of another character is the Zederik canal, which unites the + principal river of central Holland, the Lek, at Vianen by means of the + Linge with the Merwede at Gorkum. Amsterdam is connected with the Lek + and the Zederik canal via Utrecht by the Vecht and the Vaart Rhine + (1881-1893; depth 10.2 ft.). Again, a totally different character + belongs to the canals in North Brabant, and the east and north-east of + Holland where, in the absence of great rivers, they form the only + waterways which render possible the drainage of the fens and the + export of peat; and unite the lesser streams with each other. Thus in + Overysel, in addition to the canals already mentioned, the Dedemsvaart + connects the Vecht with the Zwarte Water near Hasselt; in Drente the + Smildervaart and Drentsche Hoofdvaart unites Assen with Meppel, and + receives on the eastern side the drainage canals of the Drente fens, + namely, the Orange canal and the Hoogeveen Vaart (1850-1860; + 1880-1893). Groningen communicates with the Lauwers Zee by the + Reitdiep (1873-1876), while the canal to Winschoten and the + Stadskanaal, or State canal (1877-1880), bring it into connexion with + the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the province and in + Drente. In Friesland, finally, besides the ship canal from Harlingen + to the Lauwers Zee there are canals from Leeuwarden to the Lemmer, + whence there is a busy traffic with Amsterdam; and the Caspar Robles + or Kolonels Diep, and the Hoendiep connect it with Groningen. + + + Railways. + + The construction of railways was long deferred and slowly + accomplished. The first line was that between Amsterdam and Haarlem, + opened in 1839 by the Holland railway company (_Hollandsch Yzeren + Spoorweg Maatschappij_). In 1845 the state undertook to develop the + railway system, and a company of private individuals was formed to + administer it under the title of the _Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van + Staatspoorwegen_. In 1860, however, the total length of railways was + only 208 m., and in that year a parliamentary bill embodying a + comprehensive scheme of construction was adopted. By 1872 this + programme was nearly completed, and 542 m. of new railway had been + added. In 1873 and 1875 a second and a third bill provided for the + extension of the railway system at the cost of the state, and, in + 1876, 1882 and 1890 laws were introduced readjusting the control of + the various lines, some of which were transferred to the Holland + railway. The state railway system was completed in 1892, and since + that time the utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new + undertakings. These include various local lines such as the line + Alkmaar-Hoorn (1898), Ede-Barneveld-Nykerk, Enschede-Ahaus in Germany + (1902), Leeuwarden to Franeker, Harlingen and Dokkum, and the line + Zwolle-Almelo (junction at Marienberg) + Koevorden-Stadskanal-Veendam-Delfzyl, connecting all the fen countries + on the eastern borders. The electric railway Amsterdam-Zandvoort was + opened in 1904. The frame upon which the whole network of the Dutch + railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from north + and south and four transverse lines from west to east. The two + longitudinal lines are the railway den Helder via Haarlem + (1862-1867),[4] Rotterdam (1839-1847), and Zwaluwe (1869-1877) to + Antwerp (1852-1855), belonging to the Holland railway company, and the + State railway from Leeuwarden and Groningen (1870) (junction at + Meppel, 1867) Zwolle (1866)--Arnhem (1865)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Venlo + (1883)--Maastricht (1865). The four transverse lines belong to the + State and Holland railways alternately and are, beginning with the + State railway: (1) the line Flushing (1872)--Rozendaal (1860)--Tilburg + (1863)--Bokstel (whence there is a branch line belonging to the North + Brabant and Germany railway company via Vechel to Goch in Germany, + opened in 1873)--Eindhoven--Venlo and across Prussian border (1866); + (2) the line Hook of Holland--Rotterdam (1893)--Dordrecht + (1872-1877)--Elst (1882-1885)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Cleves, Germany + (1865); (3) the line Rotterdam--Utrecht (1866-1869) and + Amsterdam--Utrecht--Arnhem (1843-1845) to Emmerich in Germany (1856): + this line formerly belonged to the Netherlands-Rhine railway company, + but was bought by the state in 1890; and finally (4) the line + Amsterdam--Hilversum--Amersfoort--Apeldoorn (1875), whence it is + continued (a) via Deventer, Almelo and Hengelo to Salzbergen, Germany + (1865); (b) via Zutphen, Hengelo (1865), Enschede (1866) to Gronau, + Germany; (c) via Zutphen (1876) and Ruurlo to Winterswyk (1878). Of + these (1) and (2) form the main transcontinental routes in connexion + with the steamboat service to England (ports of Queenborough and + Harwich respectively). Two other lines of railway, both belonging to + the state, also traverse the country west to east, namely, the line + Rozendaal--'s Hertogenbosch (1890)--Nijmwegen, and in the extreme + north, the line from Harlingen through Leeuwarden (1863) and Groningen + (1866) to the border at Nieuwe Schans (1869), whence it was connected + with the German railways in 1876. The northern and southern provinces + are further connected by the lines Amsterdam--Zaandam + (1878)--Enkhuizen (1885), whence there is a steam ferry across the + Zuider Zee to Stavoren, from where the railway is continued to + Leeuwarden (1883-1885); the Netherlands Central railway, + Utrecht--Amersfoort--Zwoole--Kampen (1863); and the line Utrecht--'s + Hertogenbosch (1868-1869) which is continued southward into Belgium by + the lines bought in 1898 from the Grand Central Beige railway, namely, + via Tilburg to Turnhout (1867), and via Eindhoven (1866) to Hasselt. + In 1892 Greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in the + post-offices, making a difference of twenty minutes with mean + Amsterdam time. + + + Tramways. + + Since 1877 railway communication has been largely supplemented by + steam-tramways, which either run along the main roads or across the + country on special embankments, while one of them is carried across + the river Ysel at Doesburg on a pontoon bridge. The state first began + to encourage the construction of these local light railways by means + of subsidies in 1893, since when some of the most prominent lines have + come into existence, such as Purmerend--Alkmaar (1898), + Zutphen--Emmerich (1902), along the Dedemsvaart in Overysel (1902), + from 's Hertogenbosch via Utrecht and Eindhoven to Turnhout in Belgium + (1898), and especially those connecting the South Holland and Zeeland + islands with the railway, namely, between Rotterdam and Numansdorp on + the Hollandsch Diep (1898), and from Breda or Bergen-op-Zoom, via + Steenbergen to St Philipsland, Zierikzee and Brouwershaven (1900). An + electric tramway connects Haarlem and Zandvoort. The number of + passengers carried by the steam-tramways is relatively higher than + that of the railways. The value of the goods traffic is not so high, + owing, principally, to the want of intercommunication between the + various lines on account of differences in the width of the gauge. + +_Agriculture._--Waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren stretches +of heaths found in Drente, Overysel, Gelderland and North Brabant. They +formerly served to support large flocks of sheep and some cattle, but +are gradually transformed by the planting of woods, as well as by +strenuous efforts at cultivation. Zeeland and Groningen are the two +principal agricultural provinces, and after them follow Limburg, North +Brabant, Gelderland and South Holland. The chief products of cultivation +on the heavy clay soil are oats, barley and wheat, and on the +sand-grounds rye, buckwheat and potatoes. Flax and beetroot are also +cultivated on the clay lands. Tobacco, hemp, hops, colza and chicory +form special cultures. With the possible exception of oats, the cereals +do not suffice for home consumption, and maize is imported in large +quantities for cattle-feeding, and barley for the distilleries and +breweries. Horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order, and +flourish especially on the low fen soil and _geest_ grounds along the +foot of the dunes in the provinces of North and South Holland. The +principal market products are cauliflower, cabbage, onions, asparagus, +gherkins, cucumbers, beans, peas, &c. The principal flowers are +hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus and other bulbous plants, the +total export of which is estimated at over L200,000. Fruit is everywhere +grown, and there is a special cultivation of grapes and figs in the +Westland of South Holland. The woods, or rather the plantations, +covering 6%, consist of (1) the so-called forest timber (_opgaandhout_; +Fr. _arbres de haute futaie_), including the beech, oak, elm, poplar, +birch, ash, willow and coniferous trees; and (2) the copse wood +(_akkermaal_ or _hakhout_), embracing the elder, willow, beech, oak, &c. +This forms no unimportant branch of the national wealth. + + + Livestock. + + With nearly 35% of the total surface of the country under permanent + pasture, cattle-breeding forms one of the most characteristic + industries of the country. The provinces of Friesland, North and South + Holland, and Utrecht take the lead as regards both quality and + numbers. A smaller, hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep + are kept upon the heath-lands in the eastern provinces, which also + favour the rearing of pigs and bee-culture. Horse-breeding is most + important in Friesland, which produces the well-known black breed of + horse commonly used in funeral processions. Goats are most numerous in + Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry, especially fowls, are generally + kept. Stock-breeding, like agriculture, has considerably improved + under the care of the government (state and provincial), which grants + subsidies for breeding, irrigation of pasture-lands, the importation + of finer breeds of cattle and horses, the erection of factories for + dairy produce, schools, &c. + + _Fisheries._--The fishing industry of the Netherlands may be said to + have been in existence already in the 13th century, and in the + following century received a considerable impetus from the discovery + how to cure herring by William Beukelszoon, a Zeeland fisherman. It + steadily declined during the 17th and 18th centuries, however, but + again began to revive in the last half of the 19th century. The + fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas, + namely, the "deep-sea" fishery of the North Sea, and the "inner" + (_binnengaatsch_) fisheries of the Wadden, the Zuider Zee, and the + South Holland and Zeeland waters. The deep-sea fishery may be farther + divided into the so-called "great" or "salt-herring" fishery, mainly + carried on from Vlaardingen and Maasluis during the summer and autumn, + and the "fresh-herring" fishery, chiefly pursued at Scheveningen, + Katwijk and Noordwijk. The value of the herring fisheries is enhanced + by the careful methods of smoking and salting, the export of salted + fish being considerable. In the winter the largest boats are laid up + and the remainder take to line-fishing. Middelharnis, Pernis and + Zwartewaal are the centres of this branch of fishery, which yields + halibut, cod, ling and haddock. The trawl fisheries of the coast yield + sole, plaice, turbot, brill, skate, &c., of which a large part is + brought alive to the market. In the Zuider Zee small herring, flat + fish, anchovies and shrimps are caught, the chief fishing centres + being the islands of Texel, Urk and Wieringen, and the coast towns of + Helder, Bunschoten, Huizen, Enkhuizen, Vollendam, Kampen, Harderwyk, + Vollenhove. The anchovy fishing which takes place in May, June and + July sometimes yields very productive results. Oysters and mussels are + obtained on the East Scheldt, and anchovies at Bergen-op-Zoom; while + salmon, perch and pike are caught in the Maas, the Lek and the New + Merwede. The oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in the hands + of the state, which lets them to the highest bidder. Large quantities + of eels are caught in the Frisian lakes. The fisheries not only supply + the great local demand, but allow of large exports. + +_Manufacturing Industries._--The mineral resources of Holland give no +encouragement to industrial activity, with the exception of the +coal-mining in Limburg, the smelting of iron ore in a few furnaces in +Overysel and Gelderland, the use of stone and gravel in the making of +dikes and roads, and of clay in brickworks and potteries, the quarrying +of stone at St Pietersberg, &c. Nevertheless the industry of the country +has developed in a remarkable manner since the separation from Belgium. +The greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry, which flourishes +especially in the Twente district of Overysel, where jute is also worked +into sacks. In the manufacture of woollen and linen goods Tilburg ranks +first, followed by Leiden, Utrecht and Eindhoven; that of half-woollens +is best developed at Roermond and Helmond. Other branches of industry +include carpet-weaving at Deventer, the distillation of brandy, gin and +liqueurs at Schiedam, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and beer-brewing in most +of the principal towns; shoe-making and leather-tanning in the +Langstraat district of North Brabant; paper-making at Apeldoorn, on the +Zaan, and in Limburg; the manufacture of earthenware and faience at +Maastricht, the Hague and Delft, as well as at Utrecht, Purmerend and +Makkum; clay pipes and stearine candles at Gouda; margarine at Osch; +chocolate at Weesp and on the Zaan; mat-plaiting and broom-making at +Genemuiden and Blokzyl; diamond-cutting and the manufacture of quinine +at Amsterdam; and the making of cigars and snuff at Eindhoven, +Amsterdam, Utrecht, Kampen, &c. Shipbuilding is of no small importance +in Holland, not only in the greater, but also in the smaller towns along +the rivers and canals. The principal shipbuilding yards are at +Amsterdam, Kinderdijk, Rotterdam and at Flushing, where there is a +government dockyard for building warships. + + _Trade and Shipping._--To obtain a correct idea of the trade of + Holland, greater attention than would be requisite in the case of + other countries must be paid to the inland traffic. It is impossible + to state the value of this in definite figures, but an estimate may be + formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in the + rivers and canals, and from the quantity of produce brought to the + public market. In connexion with this traffic there is a large fleet + of tug boats; but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are becoming + more common. Some of the lighters used in the Rhine transport trade + have a capacity of 3000 tons. A great part of the commercial business + at Rotterdam belongs to the commission and transit trade. The other + principal ports are Flushing, Terneuzen (for Belgium), Harlingen, + Delfzyl, Dordrecht, Zaandam, Schiedam, Groningen, den Helder, + Middelburg, Vlaardingen. Among the national mail steamship services + are the lines to the East and West Indies, Africa and the United + States. An examination of its lists of exports and imports will show + that Holland receives from its colonies its spiceries, coffee, sugar, + tobacco, indigo, cinnamon; from England and Belgium its manufactured + goods and coals; petroleum, raw cotton and cereals from the United + States; grain from the Baltic provinces, Archangel, and the ports of + the Black Sea; timber from Norway and the basin of the Rhine, yarn + from England, wine from France, hops from Bavaria and Alsace; iron-ore + from Spain; while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to Germany, + its agricultural produce to the London market, its fish to Belgium and + Germany, and its cheese to France, Belgium and Hamburg, as well as + England. The bulk of trade is carried on with Germany and England; + then follow Java, Belgium, Russia, the United States, &c. In the last + half of the 19th century the total value of the foreign commerce was + more than trebled. + +_Constitution and Government._--The government of the Netherlands is +regulated by the constitution of 1815, revised in 1848 and 1887, under +which the sovereign's person is inviolable and the ministers are +responsible. The age of majority of the sovereign is eighteen. The crown +is hereditary in both the male and the female line according to +primogeniture; but it is only in default of male heirs that females can +come to the throne. The crown prince or heir apparent is the first +subject of the sovereign, and bears the title of the prince of Orange. +The sovereign alone has executive authority. To him belong the ultimate +direction of foreign affairs, the power to declare war and peace, to +make treaties and alliances, and to dissolve one or both chambers of +parliament, the supreme command of the army and navy, the supreme +administration of the state finances and of the colonies and other +possessions of the kingdom, and the prerogative of mercy. By the +provisions of the same constitution he establishes the ministerial +departments, and shares the legislative power with the first and second +chambers of parliament, which constitute the states-general and sit at +the Hague. The heads of the departments to whom the especial executive +functions are entrusted are eight in number--ministers respectively of +the interior, of "water-staat," trade and industry (that is, of public +works, including railways, post-office, &c.), of justice, of finance, of +war, of marine, of the colonies and of foreign affairs. There is a +department of agriculture, but without a minister at its head. The heads +of departments are appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the +sovereign, usually determined, however, as in all constitutional states, +by the will of the nation as indicated by its representatives. + +The number of members in the first chamber is 50, South Holland sending +10, North Holland 9, North Brabant and Gelderland each 6, Friesland 4, +Overysel, Limburg and Groningen each 3, Zeeland, Utrecht and Drente each +2. According to the fundamental law (_Grondwet_) of 1887, they are +chosen by the provincial states, not only from amongst those who bear +the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province, but also from +amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank. Those deputies who +are not resident in the Hague are entitled to receive 16s. 8d. a day +during the session. The duration of parliament is nine years, a third of +the members retiring every three years. The retiring members are +eligible for re-election. The members of the second chamber are chosen +in the electoral districts by all capable male citizens not under 23 +years of age, who pay one or more direct taxes, ranging from a minimum +of one guilder (1s. 8d.) towards the income tax. The number of members +is 100, Amsterdam returning 9, Rotterdam 5, the Hague 3, Groningen and +Utrecht 2 members each. Members must be at least thirty years old, and +receive an annual allowance of L166, besides travelling expenses. They +only, and the government, have the right of initiating business, and of +proposing amendments. Their term is four years, but they are +re-eligible. All communications from the sovereign to the states-general +and from the states to the sovereign, as well as all measures relating +to internal administration or to foreign possessions, are first +submitted to the consideration of the council of state, which consists +of 14 members appointed by the sovereign, who is the president. The +state council also has the right of making suggestions to the sovereign +in regard to subjects of legislation and administration. + + The provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial states, + which are returned by direct election by the same electors as vote for + the second chamber. The term is for six years, but one-half of the + members retire every three years subject to re-election or renewal. + The president of the assembly is the royal commissioner for the + province. As the provincial states only meet a few times in the year, + they name a committee of deputy-states which manages current general + business, and at the same time exercises the right of control over the + affairs of the communes. At the head of every commune stands a + communal council, whose members must be not under 23 years of age. + They are elected for six years (one-third of the council retiring + every two years) by the same voters as for the provincial states. + Communal franchise is further restricted, however, to those electors + who pay a certain sum to the communal rates. The number of councillors + varies according to the population between 7 and 45. One of the + special duties of the council is the supervision of education. The + president of the communal council is the burgomaster, who is named by + the sovereign in every instance for six years, and receives a salary + varying from L40 to over L600. Provision is made for paying the + councillors a certain fee--called "presence-money"--when required. + The burgomaster has the power to suspend any of the council's decrees + for 30 days. The executive power is vested in a college formed by the + burgomaster and two, three or four magistrates (_wethouders_) to be + chosen by and from the members of the council. The provinces are + eleven in number. + + _National Defence._--The home defence system of Holland is a militia + with strong cadres based on universal service. Service in the + "militia" or 1st line force is for 8 years, in the 2nd line for 7. + Every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called up + for long or short periods of training, and the maximum peace strength + under arms in the summer is about 35,000, of whom half are permanent + cadres and half militiamen. In 1908 12,300 of the year's contingent + were trained for eight months and more, and 5200 for four months. The + war strength of the militia is 105,000, that of the second line or + reserve 70,000. The defence of the country is based on the historic + principle of concentrating the people and their resources in the heart + of the country, covered by a wide belt of inundations. The chosen line + of defence is marked by a series of forts which control the sluices, + extending from Amsterdam, through Muiden, thence along the Vecht and + through Utrecht to Gorinchem (Gorkum) on the Waal. The line continues + thence by the Hollandsche Diep and Volkerak to the sea, and the coast + also is fortified. The army in the colonies numbers in all about + 26,000, all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily + enlisted European regulars. The military expenditure in 1908 was + L2,331,255. The Dutch navy at home and in Indian waters consists + (1909) of 9 small battleships, 6 small cruisers and 80 other vessels, + manned by 8600 officers and men of the navy and about 2250 marines. + Recruiting is by voluntary enlistment, with contingent powers of + conscription amongst the maritime population. + + _Justice._--The administration of justice is entrusted (1) to the high + council (_hooge raad_) at the Hague, the supreme court of the whole + kingdom, and the tribunal for all high government officials and for + the members of the states-general; (2) to the five courts of justice + established at Amsterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, Leeuwarden and 's + Hertogenbosch; (3) to tribunals established in each arrondissement; + (4) to cantonal judges appointed over a group of communes, whose + jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount (under 200 + guilders), and to breaches of police regulations, and who at the same + time look after the interest of minors. The high council is composed + of 12 to 14 councillors, a procureur-general and three + advocates-general. Criminal and correctional procedure were formerly + divided between the courts of justice and the arrondissement + tribunals; but this distinction was suppressed by the penal code of + 1886, thereby increasing the importance of the arrondissement courts, + which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal courts. + + Besides the prisons, which include one built on the cellular principle + at Breda, the state supports three penal workhouses for drunkards and + beggars. There are also the penal colonies at Veenhuizen in Drente, + which were brought from the Society of Charity (_Maatschappij van + Weldadigkeid_) in 1859. The inmates practise agriculture, as well as + various industries for supplying all the requirements of the colony. + The objection raised against these establishments is that the + prisoners do not represent the real vagabondage of the country, but a + class of more or less voluntary inmates. Children under 16 years of + age are placed in the three state reformatories, and there is an + institution for vagabond women at Rotterdam. + + _Charitable and other Institutions._--Private charities have always + occupied a distinguished position in the Netherlands, and the + principle of the law of 1854 concerning the relief of the poor is, + that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails. All + private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they + can collect public funds. In some cases these institutions are + organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities. At + the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural + colonies belonging to the Society of Charity (see DRENTE). Of the + numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and the + fine arts, the following are strictly national--the Royal Academy of + Sciences (1855), the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute + (1854), the National Academy of the Plastic Arts, the Royal School of + Music, the National Archives, besides various other national + collections and museums. Provincial scientific societies exist at + Middelburg, Utrecht, 's Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, and there are + private and municipal associations, institutions and collections in a + large number of the smaller towns. Among societies of general utility + are the Society for Public Welfare (_Maatschappij tot nut van't + algemeen_, 1785), whose efforts have been mainly in the direction of + educational reform; the Geographical Society at Amsterdam (1873); + Teyler's Stichting or foundation at Haarlem (1778), and the societies + for the promotion of industry (1777), and of sciences (1752) in the + same town; the Institute of Languages, Geography and Ethnology of the + Dutch Indies (1851), and the Indian Society at the Hague, the Royal + Institute of Engineers at Delft (1848), the Association for the + Encouragement of Music at Amsterdam, &c. + + _Religion._--Religious conviction is one of the most characteristic + traits of the Dutch people, and finds expression in a large number of + independent religious congregations. The bond between church and + state which had been established by the synod of Dort (1618) and the + organization of the Low-Dutch Reformed Church (_Nederlandsche + Hervormde Kerk_) as the national Protestant church, practically came + to an end in the revolution of 1795, and in the revision of the + Constitution in 1848 the complete religious liberty and equality of + all persons and congregations was guaranteed. The present organization + of the Reformed Church dates from 1852. It is governed by a general + assembly or "synod" of deputies from the principal judicatures, + sitting once a year. The provinces are subdivided into "classes," and + the classes again into "circles" (_ringen_), each circle comprising + from 5 to 25 congregations, and each congregation being governed by a + "church council" or session. The provincial synods are composed of + ministers and elders deputed by the classes; and these are composed of + the ministers belonging to the particular class and an equal number of + elders appointed by the local sessions. The meetings of the circles + have no administrative character, but are mere brotherly conferences. + The financial management in each congregation is entrusted to a + special court (_kerk-voogdij_) composed of "notables" and church + wardens. In every province there is besides, in the case of the + Reformed Church, a provincial committee of supervision for the + ecclesiastical administration. For the whole kingdom this supervision + is entrusted to a common "collegium" or committee of supervision, + which meets at the Hague, and consists of 11 members named by the + provincial committee and 3 named by the synod. Some congregations have + withdrawn from provincial supervision, and have thus free control of + their own financial affairs. The oldest secession from the Orthodox + Church is that of the Remonstrants, who still represent the most + liberal thought in the country, and have their own training college at + Leiden. Towards 1840 a new congregation calling itself the Christian + Reformed Church (_Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk_) arose as a protest + against the government and the modern tendencies of the Reformed + Church; and for the same reason those who had founded the Free + University of Amsterdam (1880) formed themselves in 1886 into an + independent body called the _Nederlandsche Gereformeerde Kerk_. In + 1892 these two churches united under the name of the Reformed Churches + (_Gereformeerde Kerken_) with the doctrine and discipline of Dort. + They have a theological seminary at Kampen. Other Protestant bodies + are the Walloons, who, though possessing an independent church + government, are attached to the Low-Dutch Reformed Church; the + Lutherans, divided into the main body of Evangelical Lutherans and a + smaller division calling themselves the Re-established or Old + Lutherans (_Herstelde Lutherschen_) who separated in 1791 in order to + keep more strictly to the Augsburg confession; the Mennonites founded + by Menno Simons of Friesland, about the beginning of the 16th century; + the Baptists, whose only central authority is the General Baptist + Society founded at Amsterdam in 1811; the Evangelical Brotherhood of + Hernhutters or Moravians, who have churches and schools at Zeist and + Haarlem; and a Catholic Apostolic Church (1867) at the Hague. There + are congregations of English Episcopalians at the Hague, Amsterdam and + Rotterdam, and German Evangelicals at the Hague (1857) and Rotterdam + (1861). In 1853 the Roman Catholic Church, which before had been a + mission in the hands of papal legates and vicars, was raised into an + independent ecclesiastical province with five dioceses, namely, the + archbishopric of Utrecht, and the suffragan bishoprics of Haarlem, + Breda, 's Hertogenbosch and Roermond, each with its own seminary. Side + by side with the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the + Old Catholics or Old Episcopalian Church (_Oud Bisschoppelijke + Clerezie_), and the Jansenists (see JANSENISM). The Old Catholics, + with whom the Jansenists are frequently confused, date from the 17th + century. Besides an archbishop at Utrecht, the Old Catholics have + bishops at Deventer and Haarlem, and a training college at Amersfoort. + They numbered in 1905 about 9000 (see UTRECHT). The large Jewish + population in Holland had its origin in the wholesale influx of + Portuguese Jews at the end of the 16th, and of German Jews in the + beginning of the 17th century. In 1870 they were reorganized under the + central authority of the Netherlands Israelite Church, and divided + into head and "ring" synagogues and associated churches. The Roman + Catholic element preponderates in the southern provinces of Limburg, + and North Brabant, but in Friesland, Groningen and Drente the Baptists + and Christian Reformed are most numerous. + + _Education._--Every grade of education in the Netherlands is under the + control and supervision of the state, being administered by a special + department under the ministry for the interior. In 1889 the state + recognized private denominational schools, and in 1900 passed a law of + compulsory attendance. Infant schools, which are generally in the + hands of private societies or the municipal authorities, are not + interfered with by the state. According to the law of 1889 primary + education is carried on in the ordinary and in continuation schools + for boys and girls (co-education having been long in vogue). These + schools are established in every commune, the state contributing aid + at the rate of 25% of the total expenditure. The age of admission is + six; and the course is for six years, 7-13 being the legal age limits; + the fee, from which poverty exempts, is almost nominal. Nature-study, + continued in the secondary schools, is an essential part in the + curriculum of these schools, and elementary general history, English, + French and German are among the optional subjects. While the boys are + instructed in woodwork, needlework is taught to the girls, its + introduction in 1889 having been the first recognition of practical + instruction in any form. Continuation schools (_herhalingsscholen_) + must be organized wherever required, and are generally open for six + months in winter, pupils of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending. + Secondary schools were established by the law of 1863 and must be + provided by every commune of 10,000 inhabitants; they comprise the + Burgher-Day-and-Evening schools and the Higher-Burgher schools. The + first named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in + industrial or agricultural pursuits, the day classes gradually fell + into disuse. The length of the course as prescribed by law is two + years, but it is usually extended to three or four years, and the + instruction, though mainly theoretical, has regard to the special + local industries; the fees, if any, may not exceed one pound sterling + per annum. Special mention must be made in this connexion of the + school of engineering in Amsterdam (1878) and the Academy of Plastic + Arts at Rotterdam. The higher-burgher schools have either a three or a + five years' course, and the fees vary from L2, 10s. to L5 a year. The + instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific. In both + schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course, that of the + higher-burgher schools admitting to the natural science and medical + branches of university education, a supplementary examination in Greek + and Latin being required for other branches. The gymnasia, or + classical schools, fall legally speaking under the head of higher + education. By the law of 1876, every town of 20,000 inhabitants, + unless specially exempted, must provide a gymnasium. A large + proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to the extent + of half their net cost. The curriculum is classical and philological, + but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in favour of + scientific subjects for those who wish. The fees vary from L5 to L8 a + year, but, owing to the absence of scholarships and bursaries, are + sometimes remitted, as in the case of the higher-burgher schools. + Among the schools which give specialized instruction, mention must be + made of the admirable trade schools (_ambachtsscholen_) established in + 1861, and the corresponding industrial schools for girls; the fishery + schools and schools of navigation; the many private schools of + domestic science, and of commerce and industry, among which the + municipal school at Enschede (1886) deserves special mention; and the + school of social work, "Das Huis," at Amsterdam (1900). For the + education of medical practitioners, civil and military, the more + important institutions are the National Obstetrical College at + Amsterdam, the National Veterinary School at Utrecht, the National + College for Military Physicians at Amsterdam and the establishment at + Utrecht for the training of military apothecaries for the East and + West Indies. The organization of agricultural education under the + state is very complete, and includes a state professor of agriculture + for every province (as well as professors of horticulture in several + cases), "winter schools" of agriculture and horticulture, and a state + agricultural college at Wageningen (1876) with courses in home and + colonial agriculture. The total fees at this college, including board + and lodging, are about L50 a year. According to the law of 1898, the + state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or testing-stations. + Other schools of the same class are the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten + schools of agriculture, gardening and forestry in Drente, the school + of instruction in butter and cheese making (_zuivelbereiding_) at + Bolsward and the state veterinary college at Utrecht. + + There are three state universities in Holland, namely, Leiden (1575), + Groningen (1585) and Utrecht (1634). The ancient athenaeums of + Franeker (1585) and Harderwyk (1603) were closed in 1811, but that of + Amsterdam was converted into a municipal university in 1877. In each + of these universities there are five faculties, namely, law, theology, + medicine, science and mathematics, and literature and philosophy, the + courses for which are respectively four, five, eight, and six or seven + years for the two last named. The fees amount to 200 florins (L16, + 13s. 4d.) per annum and are payable for four years. Two kinds of + degrees are conferred, namely, the ordinary (_candidaats_) and the + "doctor's" degrees. Pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only + eligible for the first. There is also a free (Calvinistic) university + at Amsterdam founded in 1880 and enjoying, since 1905, the right of + conferring degrees. It has, however, no faculties of law or science. + The state polytechnic school at Delft (1864) for the study of + engineering in all its branches, architecture and naval construction, + has a nominal course of four years, and confers the degree of + "engineer." The fees are the same as those of the universities, and as + at the universities there are bursaries. A national institution at + Leiden for the study of languages, geography and ethnology of the + Dutch Indies has given place to communal institutions of the same + nature at Delft and at Leiden, founded in 1864 and 1877. The centre of + Dutch university life, which is non-residential, is the students' + corps, at the head of which is a "senate," elected annually from among + the students of four years' standing. Membership of the corps is + gained after a somewhat trying novitiate, but is the only passport to + the various social and sports societies. + + All teachers in the Netherlands must qualify for their profession by + examination. Under the act of 1898 they are trained either in the + state training-colleges, or in state-aided municipal, and private + denominational colleges; or else by means of state or private + state-aided courses of instruction. The age of admission to this class + of training is from 14 to 18, and the course is for four years. In the + last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary "practice" + school attached to each college, and students are also taught to make + models explanatory of the various subjects of instruction after the + manner of the Swedish Sloyd (Slojd) system. Assistant-teachers wishing + to qualify as head-teachers must have had two years' practical + experience. Pupil-teachers can only give instruction under the + supervision of a certificated teacher. The minimum salary of teachers + is determined by law. The teaching, which follows the so-called + "Heuristic" method, and the equipment of schools of every description, + are admirable. + + _Finance._--The following statement shows the revenue and expenditure + of the kingdom for the years 1889, 1900-1901 and 1905:-- + + _Revenue._ + + +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Source. | 1889. | 1901. | 1905. | + +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | L | L | L | + | Excise | 3,678,075 | 4,042,500 | 4,514,998 | + | Direct taxation | 2,300,865 | 2,900,175 | 3,135,665 | + | Indirect taxation | 2,004,745 | 1,805,583 | 1,946,666 | + | Post Office | 539,405 | 865,750 | 1,103,333 | + | Government telegraphs | 106,970 | 187,375 | 211,333 | + | Export and Import duties| 440,247 | 801,500 | 930,912 | + | State domains | 213,186 | 147,000 | 139,000 | + | Pilot dues | 106,079 | 191,667 | 200,000 | + | State lotteries | 54,609 | 54,250 | 52,666 | + | Game and Fisheries | 11,660 | 11,000 | 11,750 | + | Railways | .. | 361,512 | 349,011 | + | Part paid by East Indies| | | | + | on account of interest | | | | + | and redemption of | | | | + | public debt | .. | .. | 321,916 | + | Netherland Bank | | | | + | contribution | .. | .. | 160,500 | + +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total* | 9,475,337 |11,394,220 |14,017,079 | + +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + * Including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail. + + _Expenditure._ + + +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Object. | 1889. | 1901. | 1905. | + +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | L | L | L | + | National Debt | 2,727,591 | 2,906,214 | 2,899,770 | + | Department of War | 1,708,698 | 1,893,036 | 2,474,011 | + | " Waterstaat| 1,790,291 | 2,448,339 | 2,869,951 | + | " Finance | 1,537,404 | 2,092,343 | 2,297,180 | + | " Marine | 1,038,536 | 1,388,141 | 1,396,137 | + | " Interior | 815,188 | 1,330,563 | 1,613,134 | + | " Justice | 426,343 | 529,159 | 592,073 | + | " Colonies | 93,829 | 109,768 | 251,150 | + | Dept. of Foreign Affairs| 57,312 | 71,101 | 82,403 | + | Royal Household | 54,166 | 66,667 | 66,666 | + | Superior Authorities of | | | | + | the State | 52,476 | 56,792 | 58,251 | + | Unforeseen Expenditure | 1,745 | 4,166 | 4,166 | + +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total* |10,393,579 |12,896,289 |14,907,781 | + +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + * Including, besides the ordinary budget, the outlays in payment + of annuities, in funding and discharging debt, in railway + extension, &c. + + The total debt in 1905 amounted to L96,764,266, the annual interest + amounted to L3,396,590. During the years 1850-1905, L27,416,651 has + been devoted to the redemption of the public debt. The total wealth of + the kingdom is estimated at 900 millions sterling. The various + provinces and communes have separate budgets. The following table + gives a statement of the provincial and communal finances:-- + + _Revenue._ + + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1889. | 1900. | 1905. | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | L | L | L | + | Provincial | 722,583 | 445,333 | 718,199 | + | Communal | 6,132,000 | 9,311,666 |12,750,083 | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + _Expenditure._ + + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1889. | 1900. | 1905. | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | L | L | L | + | Provincial | 740,333 | 445,333 | 702,718 | + | Communal | 5,683,800 | 8,503,250 |12,085,250 | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +_Colonies._--The Dutch colonies in the Malay Archipelago have an area of +600,000 sq. m., with a population of 23,000,000, among which are 35,000 +Europeans, 319,000 Chinese, 15,000 Arabs, and 10,000 other immigrant +Asiatics. The West Indian possessions of Holland include Dutch Guiana or +the government of Surinam, and the Dutch Antilles or the government of +Curacoa and its dependencies (St Eustatius, Saba, the southern half of +St Martin, Curacoa, Bonaire and Aruba), a total area of 60,000 sq. m., +with 90,000 inhabitants, of whom a small portion are Europeans, and the +rest negroes and other people of colour, and Chinese. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief place is due to the following geographical + publications:--Dr H. Blink, _Nederland en zijne Bewoners_ (Amsterdam, + 1888-1892), containing a copious bibliography; _Tegenwoordige Staat + van Nederland_ (Amsterdam, 1897); R. Schuiling, _Aardrijkskunde van + Nederland_ (Zwolle, 1884); A. A. Beekman, _De Strijd om het Bestaan_ + (Zutphen, 1887), a manual on the characteristic hydrography of the + Netherlands; and E. Reclus' _Nouvelle geographie universelle_ (1879; + vol. iv.). The _Gedenboek uitgeven ter gelegenheid van het + fijftig-jarig bestaan van het Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs_, + 1847-1897 ('s Gravenhage, 1898), is an excellent aid in studying + technically the remarkable works on Dutch rivers, canals, sluices, + railways and harbours, and drainage and irrigation works. The + _Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van Nederland_, by P. H. Witkamp (Arnhem, + 1895), is a complete gazetteer with historical notes, and _Nomina + Geographica Neerlandica_, published by the Netherlands Geographical + Society (Amsterdam, 1885, &c.), contains a history of geographical + names. _Geschiedenis van den Boereastand en den landbouw in + Nederland_, H. Blink (Groningen, 1902), and the report on agriculture, + published at the Hague by the Royal Commission appointed in 1896, + furnish special information in connexion with this subject. Of more + general interest are: _Eene halve Eeuw, 1848-1898_, edited by Dr P. H. + Ritter (Amsterdam, 1898), containing a series of articles on all + subjects connected with the kingdom during the second half of the 19th + century, written by specialists; and _Les Pays Bas_ (Leiden, 1899), + and _La Hollande geographique, ethnologique, politique, &c._ (Paris, + 1900), both works of the same class as the preceding. + + Books of travel include some of considerable topographical as well as + literary interest, from Lodovico Guicciardini (1567) down to Edmondo + de Amicis (_Holland_, translated from the Italian, London, 1883); H. + Havard, _Dead Cities of the Zuider Zee, &c._ (translated from the + French, London 1876), and D. S. Meldrum, _Holland and the Hollanders_ + (London, 1899) in the 19th century. Mention may also be made of _Old + Dutch Towns and Villages of the Zuider Zee_, by W. J. Tuyn (translated + from the Dutch, London, 1901), _Nieuwe Wandelingen door Nederland_, by + J. Craandijk and P. A. Schipperus (Haarlem, 1888); _Friesland Meres + and through the Netherlands_, by H. M. Doughty (London, 1887); _On + Dutch Waterways_, by G. C. Davis (London, 1887); _Hollande et + hollandais_, by H. Durand (Paris, 1893); and _Holland and Belgium_ by + Professor N. G. van Kampen (translated from the Dutch, London, 1860), + the last three being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations. + Works of historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are + _Merkwaardige Kasteelen in Nederland_, by J. van Lennep and W. J. + Hofdyk (Leiden, 1881-1884); _Noord-Hollandsche Oudheden_, by G. van + Arkel and A. W. Weisman, published by the Royal Antiquarian Society + (Amsterdam, 1891); and _Oud Holland_, edited by A. D. de Vries and N. + de Roever (Amsterdam, 1883-1886), containing miscellaneous + contributions to the history of ancient Dutch art, crafts and letters. + Natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the + Royal Zoological Society "Natura Artis Magistra" at Amsterdam, and the + _Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland_ (Haarlem, 1856-1863) written by + specialists, and including ethnology and flora. Military and naval + defence may be studied in _De vesting Holland_, by A. L. W. Seijffardt + (Utrecht, 1887), and the _Handbook of the Dutch Army_, by Major W. L. + White, R.A. (London, 1896); ecclesiastical history in _The Church in + the Netherlands_, by P. H. Ditchfield (London, 1893); and education in + vol. viii. of the _Special Reports on Educational Subjects_ issued by + the Board of Education, London. Statistics are furnished by the annual + publication of the Society for Statistics in the Netherlands, + Amsterdam. + + +HISTORY FROM 1579 TO MODERN TIMES[5] + + + Consequences of the Union of Utrecht. + + Sovereignty offered to the Duke of Anjou. + + The Ban against William of Orange. + + The Act of Abjuration. + + The Apology. + +The political compact known as the Union of Utrecht differed from its +immediate predecessors, the Pacification of Ghent, the Union of Brussels +and the Perpetual Edict, in its permanence. The confederacy of the +northern provinces of the Netherlands which was effected (29th of +January 1579) by the exertions of John of Nassau, was destined to be the +beginning of a new national life. The foundation was laid on which the +Republic of the United Netherlands was to be raised. Its immediate +results were far from promising. The falling away of the Walloon +provinces and the Catholic nobles from the patriot cause threatened it +with ruin. Nothing but the strong personal influence and indefatigable +labours of the prince of Orange stood in the way of a more general +defection. Everywhere, save in staunch and steadfast Holland and +Zeeland, a feeling of wavering and hesitation was spreading through the +land. In Holland and Zeeland William was supreme, but elsewhere his aims +and his principles were misrepresented and misunderstood. He saw that +unaided the patriotic party could not hope to resist the power of Philip +II., and he had therefore resolved to gain the support of France by the +offer of the sovereignty of the Netherlands to the duke of Anjou. But +Anjou was a Catholic, and this fact aroused among the Protestants a +feeling that they were being betrayed. But the prince persisted in the +policy he felt to be a necessity, and (23rd of Jan. 1581) a treaty was +concluded with the duke, by which he, under certain conditions, agreed +to accept the sovereignty of the Netherlands provinces, except Holland +and Zeeland. These two provinces were unwilling to have any sovereign +but William himself, and after considerable hesitation he agreed to +become their Count (24th of July 1581). He felt that he was justified in +taking this step because of the Ban which Philip had published on the +15th of March 1581, in which Orange had been proclaimed a traitor and +miscreant, and a reward offered to any one who would take his life. His +practical answer to the king was the act of Abjuration, by which at his +persuasion the representatives of the provinces of Brabant, Flanders, +Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland and Utrecht, assembled at the Hague, +declared that Philip had forfeited his sovereignty over them, and that +they held themselves henceforth absolved from their allegiance to him. +In a written defence, the famous _Apology_, published later in the year, +William replied at great length to the charges that had been brought +against him, and carrying the war into the enemy's camp, endeavoured to +prove that the course he had pursued was justified by the crimes and +tyranny of the king. + + + Attempt on the Life of Orange by Jean Jaureguy. + + The French Fury. + + Assassination of William the Silent. + +The duke of Anjou was solemnly inaugurated as duke of Brabant (February +1582), and shortly afterwards as duke of Gelderland, count of Flanders +and lord of Friesland. William had taken up his residence at Antwerp in +order to give the French prince his strongest personal support, and +while there a serious attempt was made upon his life (March 18th) by a +youth named Jean Jaureguy. He fired a pistol at the prince close to his +head, and the ball passed under the right ear and out at the left jaw. +It was a terrible wound, but fortunately not fatal. Meanwhile Anjou soon +grew tired of his dependent position and of the limitations placed upon +his sovereignty. He resolved by a secret and sudden attack (17th of +January 1583) to make himself master of Antwerp and of the person of +Orange. The assault was made, but it proved an utter failure. The +citizens resisted stoutly behind barricades, and the French were routed +with heavy loss. The "French Fury" as it was called, rendered the +position of Anjou in the Netherlands impossible, and made William +himself unpopular in Brabant. He accordingly withdrew to Delft. In the +midst of his faithful Hollanders he felt that he could still organize +resistance, and stem the progress made by Spanish arms and Spanish +influence under the able leadership of Alexander of Parma. Antwerp, with +St Aldegonde as its burgomaster, was still in the hands of the patriots +and barred the way to the sea, and covered Zeeland from invasion. Never +for one moment did William lose heart or relax his efforts and +vigilance; he felt that with the two maritime provinces secure the +national cause need not be despaired of. But his own days had now drawn +to their end. The failure of Jaureguy did not deter a young Catholic +zealot, by name Balthazar Gerard, from attempting to assassinate the man +whom he looked upon as the arch-enemy of God and the king. Under the +pretext of seeking a passport, Gerard penetrated into the Prinsenhof at +Delft, and firing point blank at William as he left the dining hall, +mortally wounded him (10th of July 1584). Amidst general lamentations +"the Father of his Country," as he was called, was buried with great +state in the Nieuwe Kerk at Delft at the public charge. + + + Maurice of Nassau. + + The Sovereignty offered to Henry III. and declined. + + Leicester Governor-general. + +But though the great leader was dead, he had not striven or worked in +vain. The situation was critical, but there was no panic. Throughout the +revolted provinces there was a general determination to continue the +struggle to the bitter end. To make head, however, against the +victorious advance of Parma, before whose arms all the chief towns of +Brabant and Flanders, Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and lastly--after a +valiant defence--Antwerp itself had fallen, it was necessary to look for +the protection of a foreign ruler. The government, now that the +commanding personal influence of William was no more, was without any +central authority which could claim obedience. The States-General were +but the delegates of a number of sovereign provinces, and amongst these +Holland by its size and wealth (after the occupation by the Spaniards of +Brabant and Flanders) was predominant. Maurice of Nassau, William's +second son, had indeed on his father's death been appointed captain and +admiral-general of the Union, president of the Council of State, and +stadholder of Holland and Zeeland, but he was as yet too young, only +seventeen, to take a leading part in affairs. Count Hohenloo took the +command of the troops with the title of lieutenant-general. Two devoted +adherents of William of Orange, Paul Buys, advocate of Holland, and +Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, pensionary of Rotterdam, were the statesmen +who at this difficult juncture took the foremost part in directing the +policy of the confederacy. They turned first to France. The sovereignty +of the provinces was offered to Henry III., but the king, harassed by +civil discords in his own country, declined the dangerous honour (1585). +Repelled in this direction, the States-General next turned themselves to +England. Elizabeth was alarmed by the successes of the Spanish arms, and +especially by the fall of Antwerp; and, though refusing the sovereignty, +she agreed to send a force of 5000 foot and 1000 horse to the aid of the +Provinces under the command of the earl of Leicester, her expenses being +guaranteed by the handing over to her the towns of Flushing, Brill and +Rammekens as pledges (10th of August 1585). Leicester, on landing in +Holland, was in the presence of the States-General and of Maurice of +Nassau invested with the title of governor-general and practically +sovereign powers (February 1586). + + + Failure and withdrawal of Leicester. + +The new governor had great difficulties to contend with. He knew nothing +of the language or the character of the people he was called upon to +govern; his own abilities both as general and statesman were mediocre; +and he was hampered constantly in his efforts by the niggardliness and +changing whims of his royal mistress. In trying to consolidate the +forces of the Provinces for united action and to centralize its +government, he undoubtedly did his best, according to his lights, for +the national cause. But he was too hasty and overbearing. His edict +prohibiting all commercial intercourse with the enemy at once aroused +against him the bitter hostility of the merchants of Holland and +Zeeland, who thrived by such traffic. His attempts to pack the council +of State, on which already two Englishmen had seats, with personal +adherents and to override the opposition of the provincial states of +Holland to his arbitrary acts, at last made his position impossible. The +traitorous surrender of Deventer and Zutphen by their English governors, +Stanley and York, both Catholics, rendered all Englishmen suspect. The +States of Holland under the leadership of Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, +took up an attitude of resolute hostility to him, and the States of +Holland dominated the States-General. In the midst of these divided +councils the important seaport of Sluis was taken by Parma. Utterly +discredited, Leicester (6th of August 1587) abandoned the task, in +which he had met with nothing but failure, and returned to England. + + + Johan van Oldenbarneveldt. + + Maurice of Nassau. + +Nothing could have been worse than the position of the States at the +beginning of 1588. Had Parma had a free hand, in all probability he +would have crushed out the revolt and reconquered the northern +Netherlands. But the attention of the Spanish king was at this time +concentrated upon the success of the Invincible Armada. The army of +Parma was held in readiness for the invasion of England, and the United +Provinces had a respite. They were fortunately able to avail themselves +of it. The commanding abilities of Oldenbarneveldt, now advocate of +Holland, gradually gathered into his hands the entire administration of +the Republic. He became indispensable and, as his influence grew, more +and more did the policy of the provinces acquire unity and consistency +of purpose. At the same time Maurice of Nassau, now grown to man's +estate, began to display those military talents which were to gain for +him the fame of being the first general of his time. But Maurice was no +politician. He had implicit trust in the advocate, his father's faithful +friend and counsellor, and for many years to come the statesman and the +soldier worked in harmony together for the best interests of their +country (see OLDENBARNEVELDT, and MAURICE, prince of Orange). At the +side of Maurice, as a wise adviser, stood his cousin William Louis, +stadholder of Friesland, a trained soldier and good commander in the +field. + + + Campaign of 1591. + + Death of Parma. + + New province of Stadt en Landen. + +After the destruction of the Armada, Parma had been occupied with +campaigns on the southern frontier against the French, and the +Netherlanders had been content to stand on guard against attack. The +surprise of Breda by a stratagem (8th of March 1590) was the only +military event of importance up to 1591. But the two stadholders had not +wasted the time. The States' forces had been reorganized and brought to +a high state of military discipline and training. In 1591 the +States-General, after considerable hesitation, were persuaded by Maurice +to sanction an offensive campaign. It was attended by marvellous +success. Zutphen was captured on the 20th of May, Deventer on the 20th +of June. Parma, who was besieging the fort of Knodsenburg, was forced to +retire with loss. Hulst fell after a three days' investment, and finally +Nymegen was taken on the 21st of October. The fame of Maurice, a +consummate general at the early age of twenty-four, was on all men's +lips. The following campaign was signalized by the capture of Steenwyk +and Koevorden. On the 8th of December 1592 Parma died, and the States +were delivered from their most redoubtable adversary. In 1593 the +leaguer of Geertruidenburg put the seal on Maurice's reputation as an +invincible besieger. The town fell after an investment of three months. +Groningen was the chief fruit of the campaign of 1594. With its +dependent district it was formed into a new province under the name of +Stadt en Landen. William Louis became the stadholder (see GRONINGEN). +The soil of the northern Netherlands was at last practically free from +the presence of Spanish garrisons. + + + Triple Alliance of France, England and the United Provinces. + +The growing importance of the new state was signalized by the +conclusion, in 1596, of a triple alliance between England, France and +the United Provinces. It was of short duration and purchased by hard +conditions, but it implied the recognition by Henry IV. and Elizabeth of +the States-General, as a sovereign power, with whom treaties could be +concluded. Such a recognition was justified by the brilliant successes +of the campaign of 1597. It began with the complete rout of a Spanish +force of 4500 men at Turnhout in January, with scarcely any loss to the +victors. Then in a succession of sieges Rheinberg, Meurs, Groenlo, +Bredevoort, Enschede, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal and Lingen fell into the +hands of Maurice. + + + Albert and Isabel, Sovereigns of the Netherlands. + +The relations of the Netherlands to Spain were in 1598 completely +changed. Philip II. feeling death approaching, resolved to marry his +elder daughter, the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia, to her cousin, the +Cardinal Archduke Albert of Austria, who had been governor-general of +the Netherlands since 1596, and to erect the Provinces into an +independent sovereignty under their joint rule. The instrument was +executed in May; Philip died in September; the marriage took place in +November. In case the marriage should have no issue, the sovereignty of +the Netherlands was to revert to the king of Spain. The archdukes (such +was their official title) did not make their _joyeuse entree_ into +Brussels until the close of 1599. The step was taken too late to effect +a reconciliation with the rebel provinces. Peace overtures were made, +but the conditions were unacceptable. The States-General never seriously +considered the question of giving in their submission to the new +sovereigns. The traders of Holland and Zeeland had thriven mightily by +the war. Their ships had penetrated to the East and West Indies, and +were to be found in every sea. The year 1600 saw the foundation of the +Chartered East India Company (see DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY). The +question of freedom of trade with the Indies had become no less vital to +the Dutch people than freedom of religious worship. To both these +concessions Spanish policy was irreconcilably opposed. + + + The Battle of Nieuport. + + Siege of Ostend. + +Dunkirk, as a nest of freebooters who preyed upon Dutch commerce, was +made the objective of a daring offensive campaign in 1600 by the orders +of the States-General under the influence of Oldenbarneveldt in the +teeth of the opposition of the stadholders Maurice and William Louis. By +a bold march across Flanders, Maurice reached Nieuport on the 1st of +July, and proceeded to invest it. The archduke Albert, however, followed +hard on his steps with an army of seasoned troops, and Maurice, with his +communications cut, was forced to fight for his existence. A desperate +combat took place on the dunes between forces of equal strength and +valour. Only by calling up his last reserves did victory declare for +Maurice. The archduke had to fly for his life. Five thousand Spaniards +were killed; seven hundred taken, and one hundred and five standards. To +have thus worsted the dreaded Spanish infantry in open fight was a great +triumph for the States troops and their general, but it was barren of +results. Maurice refused to run further risks and led back his army to +Holland. For the following three years all the energies alike of the +archdukes and the States-General were concentrated on the siege of +Ostend (15th of July 1601-20th of Sept. 1604), the solitary possession +of the Dutch in Flanders. The heroic obstinacy of the defence was +equalled by the perseverance of the attack, and there was a vast +expenditure, especially on the side of the Spaniards, of blood and +treasure. At last when reduced to a heap of ruins, Ostend fell before +the resolution of Ambrosio de Spinola, a Genoese banker, to whom the +command of the besiegers had been entrusted (see SPINOLA). A month +before the surrender, however, another and more commodious seaport, +Sluis, had fallen into the possession of the States army under Maurice, +and thus the loss of Ostend was discounted. + + + Negotiations for Peace. + + The Twelve Years' Truce. + +Spinola proved himself to be a general of a high order, and the +campaigns of 1606 and 1607 resolved themselves into a duel of skill +between him and Maurice without much advantage accruing to either side. +But the archdukes' treasury was now empty, and their credit exhausted; +both sides were weary of fighting, and serious negotiations for peace +were set on foot. The disposition of the Spaniards to make concessions +was further quickened by the destruction of their fleet at Gibraltar by +the Dutch admiral Heemskerk, (April 1607). But there were many +difficulties in the way. The peace party in the United Provinces headed +by Oldenbarneveldt was opposed by the stadholders Maurice and William +Louis, the great majority of the military and naval officers, the +Calvinist preachers and many leading merchants. The Spaniards on their +side were obdurate on the subjects of freedom of trade in the Indies and +of freedom of religious worship. At last, after the negotiations had +been repeatedly on the point of breaking off, a compromise was effected +by the mediation of the envoys of France and England. On the 9th of +April 1609 a truce for twelve years was agreed upon. On all points the +Dutch demands were granted. The treaty was concluded with the Provinces, +"in the quality of free States over whom the archdukes made no +pretentions." The _uti possidetis_ as regards territorial possession was +recognized. Neither the granting of freedom of worship to Roman +Catholics nor the word "Indies" was mentioned, but in a secret treaty +King Philip undertook to place no hindrance in the way of Dutch trade, +wherever carried on. + + + Theological strife in Holland. + + Arminius and Gomarus. + + Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants. + + Waard-gelders. + + Oldenbarneveldt executed. + +One of the immediate results of this triumph of his policy was the +increase of Oldenbarneveldt's influence and authority in the government +of the Republic. But though Maurice and his other opponents had +reluctantly yielded to the advocate's skilful diplomacy and persuasive +arguments, a soreness remained between the statesman and the stadholder +which was destined never to be healed. The country was no sooner +relieved from the pressure of external war than it was torn by internal +discords. After a brief interference in the affairs of Germany, where +the intricate question of the Cleves-Julich succession was already +preparing the way for the Thirty Years' War, the United Provinces became +immersed in a hot and absorbing theological struggle with which were +mixed up important political issues. The province of Holland was the +arena in which it was fought out. Two professors of theology at Leiden, +Jacobus Arminius (see ARMINIUS) and Franciscus Gomarus, became the +leaders of two parties, who differed from one another upon certain +tenets of the abstruse doctrine of predestination. Gomarus supported the +orthodox Calvinist view; Arminius assailed it. The Arminians appealed to +the States of Holland (1610) in a Remonstrance in which their +theological position was defined. They were henceforth known as +"Remonstrants"; their opponents were styled "Contra-Remonstrants." The +advocate and the States of Holland took sides with the Remonstrants, +Maurice and the majority of the States-General (four provinces out of +seven) supported the Contra-Remonstrants. It became a question of the +extent of the rights of sovereign princes under the Union. The +States-General wished to summon a national synod, the States of Holland +refused their assent, and made levies of local militia (_waard-gelders_) +for the maintenance of order. The States-General (9th of July 1618) took +up the challenge, and the prince of Orange, as captain-general, was +placed at the head of a commission to go in the first place to Utrecht, +which supported Oldenbarneveldt, and then to the various cities of +Holland to insist on the disbanding of the _waard-gelders_. On the side +of Maurice, whom the army obeyed, was the power of the sword. The +opposition collapsed; the recalcitrant provincial states were purged; +and the leaders of the party of state rights--the advocate himself, Hugo +de Groot (see GROTIUS), pensionary of Rotterdam, and Hoogerbeets, +pensionary of Leiden, were arrested and thrown into prison. The whole +proceedings were illegal, and the illegality was consummated by the +prisoners being brought before a special tribunal of 24 judges, nearly +all of whom were personal enemies of the accused. The trial was merely a +preliminary to condemnation. The advocate was sentenced to death, and +executed (13th of May 1619) in the Binnenhof at the Hague. The sentences +of Grotius and Hoogerbeets were commuted to perpetual imprisonment. + + + Synod of Dort. + +Meanwhile the National Synod had been summoned and had met at Dort on +the 13th of November 1618. One hundred members, many of them foreign +divines, composed this great assembly, who after 154 sittings gave their +seal to the doctrines of the Netherlands Confession and the Heidelberg +Catechism. The Arminians were condemned, their preachers deprived, and +the Remonstrant party placed under a ban (6th of May 1619). + + + Renewal of the war. + + Death of Maurice. + + The period of Frederick Henry. + + The East and West India Companies. + +In 1621 the Twelve Years' Truce came to an end, and war broke out once +more with Spain. Maurice, after the death of Oldenbarneveldt, was +supreme in the land, but he missed sorely the wise counsels of the old +statesman whose tragic end he had been so largely instrumental in +bringing about. He and Spinola found themselves once more at the head of +the armies in the field, but the health of the stadholder was +undermined, and his military genius was under a cloud. Deeply mortified +by his failure to relieve Breda, which was blockaded by Spinola, Maurice +fell seriously ill, and died on the 23rd of April 1625. He was succeeded +in his dignities by his younger brother Frederick Henry (see FREDERICK +HENRY, prince of Orange), who was appointed stadholder of Holland, +Zeeland, Utrecht, Overyssel and Gelderland, captain and adjutant-general +of the Union and head of the Council of State. Frederick Henry was as a +general scarcely inferior to Maurice, and a far more able statesman. The +moderation of his views and his conciliatory temper did much to heal the +wounds left by civil and religious strife, and during his time the power +and influence of the stadholderate attained their highest point. Such +was his popularity and the confidence he inspired that in 1631 his great +offices of state were declared hereditary, in favour of his +five-year-old son, by the _Acte de Survivance_. He did much to justify +the trust placed in him, for the period of Frederick Henry is the most +brilliant in the history of the Dutch Republic. During his time the East +India Company, which had founded the town of Batavia in Java as their +administrative capital, under a succession of able governor-generals +almost monopolized the trade of the entire Orient, made many conquests +and established a network of factories and trade posts stretching from +the Cape of Good Hope to Japan (see DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY). The West +India Company, erected in 1621, though framed on the same model, aimed +rather at waging war on the enemies' commerce than in developing their +own. Their fleets for some years brought vast booty into the company's +coffers. The Mexican treasure ships fell into the hands of Piet Heyn, +the boldest of their admirals, in 1628; and they were able to send +armies across the ocean, conquer a large part of Brazil, and set up a +flourishing Dutch dominion in South America (see Dutch West India +Company). The operations of these two great chartered companies occupy a +place among memorable events of Frederick Henry's stadholderate; they +are therefore mentioned here, but for further details the special +articles must be consulted. + + + Policy of Frederick Henry. + +When Frederick Henry stepped into his brother's place, he found the +United Provinces in a position of great danger and of critical +importance. The Protestants of Germany were on the point of being +crushed by the forces of the Austrian Habsburgs and the Catholic League. +It lay with the Netherlands to create a diversion in the favour of their +co-religionists by keeping the forces of the Spanish Habsburgs fully +occupied. But to do so with their flank exposed to imperialist attack +from the east, was a task involving grave risks and possible disaster. +In these circumstances, Frederick Henry saw the necessity of securing +French aid. It was secured by the skilful diplomacy of Francis van +Aarssens (q.v.) but on hard conditions. Richelieu required the +assistance of the Dutch fleet to enable him to overcome the resistance +of the Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle. The far-sighted stadholder, +despite popular opposition, by his powerful personal influence induced +the States-General to grant the naval aid, and thus obtain the French +alliance on which the safety of the republic depended. + + + Sieges of Hertogenbosch and Maestricht. + + Death of the Infanta Isabel. + +The first great military success of Frederick Henry was in 1629. His +capture of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-duc), hitherto supposed to be +impregnable, after a siege of five months was a triumph of engineering +skill. Wesel also was taken by surprise this same year. In 1631 a large +Spanish fleet carrying a picked force of 6000 soldiers, for the invasion +of Zeeland, was completely destroyed by the Dutch in the Slaak and the +troops made prisoners. The campaign of the following year was made +memorable by the siege of Maestricht. This important frontier town lying +on both sides of the river Meuse was taken by the prince of Orange in +the teeth of two relieving armies, Spanish and Imperialist, whose +united forces were far larger than his own. This brilliant feat of arms +was the prelude to peace negotiations, which led to a lengthy exchange +of diplomatic notes. No agreement, however, was reached. The death of +the Infanta Isabel in November 1633, and the reversion of the +Netherlands to the sovereignty of the king of Spain, rendered all +efforts to end the war, for the time being, fruitless. + + + Alliance with France. + + Capture of Breda. + + Battle of the Downs. + +At this juncture a strengthening of the French alliance seemed to the +prince not merely expedient, but necessary. He had to contend against a +strong peace party in Holland headed by the pensionary Pauw, but with +the aid of the diplomatic skill of Aarssens all opposition was overcome. +Pauw was replaced as pensionary by Jacob Cats, and the objections of +Richelieu were met and satisfied. A defensive and offensive alliance +with France was concluded early in 1635 against the king of Spain, and +each party bound itself not to make a peace or truce without the assent +of the other. A large French force was sent into the Netherlands and +placed under the command of the prince of Orange. The military results +of the alliance were during the first two campaigns inconsiderable. The +Cardinal Infant Ferdinand had been appointed governor of the +Netherlands, and he proved himself an excellent general, and there were +dissensions in the councils of the allies. In 1637 the stadholder was +able to add to his fame as an invincible besieger of cities. His failure +to relieve Breda had hastened the death of Maurice. It fell in 1625 into +the hands of Spinola after a blockade of eleven months; it was now +retaken by Frederick Henry after a siege of eleven weeks, in the face of +immense difficulties. The reluctance of the States of Holland, and of +Amsterdam in particular, to grant adequate supplies caused the campaigns +of 1638 and 1639 to be in the main defensive and dilatory. An attempted +attack on Antwerp was foiled by the vigilance of the Cardinal Infant. A +body of 6000 men under Count William of Nassau were surprised and +utterly cut to pieces. The year 1639, which had begun with abortive +negotiations, and in which the activity of the stadholder had been much +hampered by ill-health, was not to end, however, without a signal +triumph of the Dutch arms, but it was to be on sea and not on land. A +magnificent Spanish armada consisting of 77 vessels, manned by 24,000 +soldiers and sailors under the command of Admiral Oquendo, were sent to +the Channel in September with orders to drive the Dutch from the narrow +seas and land a large body of troops at Dunkirk. Attacked by a small +Dutch fleet under Admiral Marten Tromp, the Spaniards sheltered +themselves under the English Downs by the side of an English squadron. +Tromp kept watch over them until he had received large reinforcements, +and then (21st of October) boldly attacked them as they lay in English +waters. Oquendo himself with seven vessels escaped under cover of a fog; +all the rest of the fleet was destroyed. This crushing victory assured +to the Dutch the command of the sea during the rest of the war. The +naval power of Spain never in fact recovered from the blow. + + + English and Dutch Commercial Rivalry. + + Marriage of William and Mary. + +The triumph of Tromp had, however, a bad effect on public feeling in +England. The circumstances under which the battle of the Downs was won +were galling to the pride of the English people, and intensified the +growing unfriendliness between two nations, one of whom possessed and +the other claimed supremacy upon the seas. The prosperity of the +world-wide Dutch commerce was looked upon with eyes of jealousy across +the Channel. Disputes had been constantly recurring between Dutch and +English traders in the East Indies and elsewhere, and the seeds were +already sown of that stern rivalry which was to issue in a series of +fiercely contested wars. But in 1639-1640 civil discords in England +stood in the way of a strong foreign policy, and the adroit Aarssens was +able so "to sweeten the bitterness of the pill" as to bring King Charles +not merely to "overlook the scandal of the Downs," but to consent to the +marriage of the princess royal with William, the only son of the +stadholder. The wedding of the youthful couple (aged respectively 14 and +10 years) took place on the 12th of May 1641 (see WILLIAM II., PRINCE OF +ORANGE). This royal alliance gave added influence and position to the +house of Orange-Nassau. + + + Changed relations of the United Provinces with France and Spain. + +About this time various causes brought about a change in the feelings +which had hitherto prevented any possibility of peace between Spain and +the United Netherlands. The revolt of Portugal (December 1640) weakened +the Spanish power, and involved the loss to Spain of the Portuguese +colonies. But it was in the Portuguese colonies that the conquests of +the Dutch East and West India Companies had been made, and the question +of the Indies as between Netherlander and Spaniard assumed henceforth +quite a different complexion. Aarssens, the strongest advocate of the +French alliance, passed away in 1641, and his death was quickly followed +by those of Richelieu and Louis XIII. The victory of Conde at Rocroy +opened the eyes of Frederick Henry to the danger of a French conquest of +the Belgian provinces; and, feeling his health growing enfeebled, the +prince became anxious before his death to obtain peace and security for +his country by means of an accommodation with Spain. In 1643 +negotiations were opened which, after many delays and in the face of +countless difficulties, were at length, four years later, to terminate +successfully. + + + Death of Frederick Henry--his last campaigns. + +The course of the _pourparlers_ would doubtless have run more smoothly +but for the infirm health and finally the death of the prince of Orange +himself. Frederick Henry expired on the 14th of March 1647, and was +buried by the side of his father and brother in Delft. In his last +campaigns he had completed with signal success the task which, as a +military commander, he had set himself,--of giving to the United +Provinces a thoroughly defensible frontier of barrier fortresses. In +1644 he captured Sas de Ghent; in 1645 Hulst. That portion of Flanders +which skirts the south bank of the Scheldt thus passed into the +possession of the States, and with it the complete control of all the +waterways to the sea. + + + The Peace of Munster. + + Complete triumph of the Dutch. + +The death of the great stadholder did not, however, long delay the +carrying out of the policy on which he had set his heart, of concluding +a separate peace with Spain behind the back of France, notwithstanding +the compact of 1635 with that power. A provisional draft of a treaty had +already been drawn up before the demise of Frederick Henry, and +afterwards, despite the strenuous opposition of the new prince of Orange +(who, under the _Acte de Survivance_, had inherited all his father's +offices and dignities) and of two of the provinces, Zeeland and Utrecht, +the negotiations were by the powerful support of the States of Holland +and of the majority of the States-General, quickly brought to a +successful issue. The treaty was signed at Munster on the 30th of +January 1648. It was a peace practically dictated by the Dutch, and +involved a complete surrender of everything for which Spain had so long +fought. The United Provinces were recognized as free and independent, +and Spain dropped all her claims; the _uti possidetis_ basis was adopted +in respect to all conquests; the Scheldt was declared entirely closed--a +clause which meant the ruin of Antwerp for the profit of Amsterdam; the +right to trade in the East and West Indies was granted, and all the +conquests made by the Dutch from the Portuguese were ceded to them; the +two contracting parties agreed to respect and keep clear of each other's +trading grounds; each was to pay in the ports of the other only such +tolls as natives paid. Thus, triumphantly for the revolted provinces, +the eighty years' war came to an end. At this moment the republic of the +United Netherlands touched, perhaps, the topmost point of its prosperity +and greatness. + + + The form of Government in the United Provinces. + + The position of Holland and Amsterdam. + +No sooner was peace concluded than bitter disputes arose between the +provincial States of Holland and the prince of Orange, supported by the +other six provinces, upon the question of the disbanding of the military +forces. William was a young man (he was twenty-one at the time of his +father's death) of the highest abilities and of soaring ambition. He +was totally opposed to the peace with Spain, and wished to bring about a +speedy resumption of the war. With this view he entered into secret +negotiations for a French alliance which, as far as can be gathered from +extant records, had for its objects the conquest and partition by the +allies of the Belgic provinces, and joint action in England on behalf of +Charles II. As a preliminary step William aimed at a centralization of +the powers of government in the United Provinces in his own person. He +saw clearly the inherent defects of the existing federation, and he +wished to remedy a system which was so complicated as to be at times +almost unworkable. The States-General were but the delegates, the +stadholders the servants, of a number of sovereign provinces, each of +which had different historical traditions and a different form of +government, and one of which--Holland--in wealth and importance +outweighed the other six taken together. Between the States of Holland +and the States-General there was constant jealousy and friction. And yet +strangely enough the States of Holland themselves were not really +representative of the people of that province, but only of the limited, +self-coopting burgher aristocracies of certain towns, each of which with +its rights and liberties had a quasi-independence of its own. Foremost +among these was the great commercial capital, Amsterdam, whose rich +burgher patriciate did not scruple on occasion to defy the authority of +the States-General, the stadholder and even of the States of Holland +themselves. + + + The position in 1650. + + The question of disbanding the forces. + + The Prisoners of Loevenstein. + + Sudden Death of William II. + +The States of Holland had, in the years that followed the truce of 1609, +measured their strength with that of the States-General, but the issue +had been decided conclusively in favour of the federal authority by the +sword of Maurice. The party and the principles of Oldenbarneveldt, +however, though crushed, were not extinguished, and though Frederick +Henry by his personal influence and prudent statesmanship had been able +to surmount the difficulties placed in his way, he had had to encounter +at times strong opposition, and had been much hampered in the conduct +both of his campaigns and of his policy. With the conclusion of the +peace of Munster and the death of the veteran stadholder the struggle +for predominance in the Union between the Orange-federalist and the +Hollander States-rights parties was certain to be renewed. The moment +seemed to be favourable for the assertion of provincial sovereignty +because of the youth and inexperience of the new prince of Orange. But +William II., though little more than a boy, was endowed with singular +capacity and great strength of will, and he was intent upon ambitious +projects, the scope of which has been already indicated. The collision +came, which was perhaps inevitable. The States-General in the disbanding +of the forces wished to retain the _cadres_ of the regiments complete in +case of a renewal of the war. The States of Holland objected, and, +although the army was a federal force, gave orders for the general +disbanding of the troops in the pay of the province. The officers +refused to obey any orders but those of the council of State of the +Union. The provincial states, on their part, threatened them with loss +of pay. At this juncture the States-General, as in 1618, appointed a +commission headed by the prince of Orange to visit the towns of Holland, +and provide for the maintenance of order and the upholding of the Union. +Both parties put themselves in the wrong, the province by refusing its +quota to the federal war-sheet, the generality by dealing with +individual towns instead of with the states of the province. The +visitation was a failure. The town councils, though most of them willing +to receive William in his capacity as stadholder, declined to give a +hearing to the commission. Amsterdam refused absolutely to admit either +stadholder or commission. In these circumstances William resolved upon +strong measures. Six leading members of the States of Holland were +seized (30th of July 1650) and imprisoned in Loevenstein Castle, and +troops under the command of William Frederick, stadholder of Friesland, +were sent to surprise Amsterdam. But the town council had been warned, +and the gates were shut and guarded. The _coup d'etat_ nevertheless was +completely successful. The anti-Orange party, remembering the fate of +Oldenbarneveldt, were stricken with panic at the imprisonment of their +leaders. The States of Holland and the town council of Amsterdam gave in +their submission. The prisoners were released, and public thanks were +rendered to the prince by the various provincial states for "his great +trouble, care and prudence." William appeared to be master of the +situation but his plans for future action were never to be carried into +effect. Busily engaged in secret negotiations with France, he had +retired to his hunting seat at Dieren, when he fell ill with smallpox on +the 27th of October. A few days later he expired at the Hague (6th of +November), aged but twenty-four years. A week after his death, his +widow, the princess Mary of England, gave birth to a son who, as William +III., was to give added lustre to the house of Orange. + + + The Grand Assembly. + +The anti-Orange particularist party, which had just suffered decisive +defeat, now lifted up its head again. At the instance of Holland a Grand +Assembly was summoned, consisting of delegates from all the provinces, +to consider the state of the Union, the army and religion. It met at the +Hague on the 18th of January 1651. The conclusions arrived at were that +all sovereign powers resided in the provinces, and that to them +severally, each within its own borders, belonged the control of the +military forces and of religion. There was to be no captain-general of +the Union. All the provinces, except Friesland and Groningen, which +remained true to William Frederick of Nassau-Dietz, agreed to leave the +office of stadholder vacant. The practical result was the establishment +of the hegemony of Holland in the Union, and the handing over of the +control of its policy to the patrician oligarchies who formed the town +councils of that province. + + + The office of Grand Pensionary. + + John de Witt. + +Such a system would have been unworkable but for the fact that with the +revival of the political principles of Oldenbarneveldt, there was found +a statesman of commanding ability to fill the office in which the famous +advocate of Holland had for so many years been "minister of all affairs" +in the forming state. The title of advocate had indeed been replaced by +that of grand pensionary (_Raad Pensionaris_), but the duties assigned +to the office remained the same, the only change of importance being +that the advocate was appointed for life, the grand pensionary for a +term of five years. The grand pensionary was nominally the paid servant +of the States of Holland, but his functions were such as to permit a man +of talent and industry in the stadholderless republic to exercise +control in all departments of policy and of government. All +correspondence passed through his hands, he wrote all despatches, +conducted the debates over which he presided, kept the minutes, drafted +the resolutions, and was _ex officio_ the leader and spokesman of the +delegates who represented the Province of Holland in the States-General. +Such was the position to which John de Witt, a young man of twenty-eight +years of age, belonging to one of the most influential patrician +families of Dordrecht (his father, Jacob de Witt, was one of the +prisoners of Loevenstein) was appointed in 1653. From that date until +1672 it was his brain and his will that guided the affairs of the United +Netherlands. He was supreme in the States of Holland, and Holland was +dominant in the States-General (see JOHN DE WITT). + + + Disputes between English and Dutch Traders. + + Naval struggle with England. + + Peace of Westminster. + + Act of Seclusion. + +The death of William II. had left the Dutch republic at the very highest +point of commercial prosperity, based upon an almost universal carrying +trade, and the strictest system of monopoly. Friction and disputes had +frequently arisen between the Dutch and the English traders in different +parts of the world, and especially in the East Indies, culminating in +the so-called "Massacre of Amboyna"; and the strained relations between +the two nations would, but for the civil discords in England, have +probably led to active hostilities during the reign of Charles I. With +the accession of Cromwell to power the breach was widened. A strong +party in the Provinces were unfriendly to the Commonwealth, and insults +were offered in the Hague to the English envoys. The parliament replied +by passing the memorable Navigation Act (Oct. 1651), which struck a +deadly blow at the Dutch carrying trade. It was the beginning of that +struggle for supremacy upon the seas which was to end, after three great +wars, in the defeat of the weaker country. The first English war lasted +from May 1652 to April 1654, and within fifteen months twelve sea-fights +took place, which were desperately contested and with varying success. +The leaders on both sides--the Netherlanders Tromp (killed in action on +the 10th of August 1653) and de Ruyter, the Englishmen Blake and +Monk--covered themselves with equal glory. But the losses to Dutch trade +were so serious that negotiations for peace were set on foot by the +burgher party of Holland, and Cromwell being not unwilling, an agreement +was reached in the Treaty of Westminster, signed on the 5th of April +1654. The Dutch conceded the striking of the flag and compensation for +English claims against the Dutch in the East Indies and elsewhere. The +act of Seclusion, which barred the young prince of Orange from holding +the office of stadholder and of captain-general, had been one of the +conditions on which Cromwell had insisted. The consent of the +States-General was refused, but by a secret treaty Holland, under the +influence of de Witt, accepted it in their own name as a sovereign +province. The popular feeling throughout the United Provinces was +strongly antagonistic to the act of Seclusion, by which at the dictation +of a foreign power a ban of exclusion was pronounced against the house +of Orange-Nassau, to which the republic owed its independence. + + + War with Sweden. + +In 1658, the States-General interfered to save the Danes from Charles +Gustavus of Sweden. In 1659 a treaty of peace was concluded between +France, England and the United Provinces with a view to the settlement +of the Dano-Swedish question, which ended in securing a northern peace +in 1660, and in keeping the Baltic open for Dutch trade. The foreign +affairs of the republic were throughout these years ably conducted by de +Witt, and the position of Dutch colonial expansion in the Eastern seas +made secure and firm. An advantageous peace with Portugal was made in +1662. + + + Second English war. + + Peace of Breda. + + The Triple Alliance. + +Meanwhile the Commonwealth in England had been followed in 1660 by the +restoration of the monarchy. To conciliate the new king the act of +Seclusion was repealed, and the education of the young prince of Orange +was undertaken by the States of Holland under the superintendence of de +Witt. But Charles owed a grudge against Holland, and he was determined +to gratify it. The Navigation Act was re-enacted, old grievances +revived, and finally the Dutch colony of New Netherland was seized in +time of peace (1664) and its capital, New Amsterdam, renamed New York. +War broke out in 1665, and was marked by a series of terrific battles. +On the 13th of June 1665 the Dutch admiral Obdam was completely defeated +by the English under the duke of York. The four days' fight (11th-14th +of June 1666) ended in a hard-won victory by de Ruyter over Monk, but +later in this year (August 3rd) de Ruyter was beaten by Ayscue and +forced to take refuge in the Dutch harbours. He had his revenge, for on +the 22nd of June 1667 the Dutch fleet under de Ruyter and Cornelius de +Witt made their way up the Medway as far as Chatham and burnt the +English fleet as it lay at anchor. Negotiations between the two +countries were already in progress and this event hastened a settlement. +The peace of Breda was signed (31st of July 1667) on terms on the whole +favourable to the Dutch. New Netherland was retained by England in +exchange for Suriname. In the following year by the efforts of Sir +William Temple the much vaunted Triple Alliance was concluded between +Great Britain, the United Provinces and Sweden to check the ambitious +designs of Louis XIV. The instability of Charles II., who sold himself +to Louis by the treaty of Dover (1670), speedily rendered it of no +effect, and left the United Provinces to face unaided the vengeance of +the French king. + + + The French invasion. + + William III. Stadholder and Captain-general. + + The third English war. + + Murder of the Brothers de Witt. + +From 1668 to 1672 Louis made ready to destroy the Dutch, and so well had +his diplomacy served him that they were left without a friend in Europe. +In 1672 the storm broke: the English without a declaration of war tried, +unsuccessfully, to intercept the Dutch Mediterranean fleet; and the +French at the same time set forth in apparently irresistible strength to +overcome the despised traders of Holland. The States were ill-prepared +on land though their fleet was strong and ready; party spirit had become +intensely bitter as the prince of Orange (see WILLIAM III.) grew to +man's estate, and the ruling burgher party, knowing how great was the +popularity of William, especially in the army, had purposely neglected +their land forces. Town after town fell before the French armies, and to +de Witt and his supporters there seemed to be nothing left but to make +submission and accept the best terms that Louis XIV. would grant. The +young prince alone rose to the height of the occasion, and set his face +against such cowardly counsels, and he had the enthusiastic support of +the great majority of the people. Amidst general acclamation William was +elected stadholder, first of Zeeland, then of Holland, and was appointed +captain-general of the Union (June 1672). Meanwhile the fleet under de +Ruyter had encountered a combined English and French force in Solebay +(7th of June), and after a desperate fight, in which the French had but +slackly supported their allies, had more then held its own. William, in +his turn, with an army wholly insufficient to meet the French in the +open field, was able to persuade his countrymen to open the dikes and by +flooding the land to prevent its occupation by the enemy. The courage +and resourcefulness of their youthful leader inspired the people to make +heroic sacrifices for their independence, but unfortunately such was the +revulsion of feeling against the grand pensionary, that he himself and +his brother Cornelius were torn in pieces by an infuriated mob at the +Hague (20th of August). + + + Peace of Westminster. + + The war with France. + + Death of de Ruyter. + + Peace of Nymwegen. + +William, now supreme in the States, while on land struggling with +chequered success against the superior forces of the French, strove by +his diplomacy, and not in vain, to gain allies for the republic. The +growing power of France caused alarm to her neighbours, and Sweden, +Denmark, Spain and the emperor lent a willing ear to the persuasions of +the stadholder and were ready to aid his efforts to curb the ambition of +Louis. On sea in 1673 de Ruyter, in a series of fiercely contested +battles, successfully maintained his strenuous and dogged conflict +against the united English and French fleets. In England the war was +exceedingly unpopular, and public opinion forced Charles II. to conclude +peace. The treaty of Westminster, which provided that all conquests +should be restored, was signed on the 14th of February 1674. The French +now found themselves threatened on many sides, and were reduced to the +defensive. The prince, however, suffered a defeat at Seneff, and was in +1674 prevented from invading France. The war, nevertheless, during the +following years was on the whole advantageous to the Dutch. In 1676 a +Dutch squadron fought two hard but indecisive battles with a superior +French force, off Stromboli (8th of January) and off Messina (22nd of +April). In the last-named fight Admiral de Ruyter was badly wounded and +died (29th of April). In 1677 negotiations for peace went on, and were +forwarded by the marriage, at the close of the year, of William of +Orange with his cousin the princess Mary, daughter of the duke of York. +At last (August 1678) a peace was concluded at Nymwegen by which the +Dutch secured the integrity and independence of their country. All the +conquests made by the French were given up. + + + League of Augsburg. + + Revolution of 1688. + + The Grand Alliance. + + William and Heinsius. + +The aggressive policy of Louis XIV. in the years that followed the peace +of Nymwegen enabled William to lay the foundations of the famous +confederacy which changed the whole aspect of European politics. The +league of Augsburg (1686), which followed the revocation of the edict of +Nantes, placed Orange at the head of the resistance to French +domination. The league was formed by the emperor, Spain, Sweden, the +United Provinces and by several German states. In England William and +Mary were looked upon as the natural successors to the throne on the +death of James II., and William kept up close relations with the +malcontents in Church and State, who disliked the arbitrary and +papistical policy of his father-in-law. But with the birth of a prince +of Wales the situation was changed, and William determined to intervene +actively in English affairs. His opportunity came when Louis XIV., +having declared war against the Empire, had invaded the Palatinate. The +opposition of Amsterdam to an English expedition, in the absence of +danger from the side of France, was overcome. The Revolution of 1688 +ensued, and England became, under William's strong rule, the chief +member of the Great Coalition against French aggression. In the Grand +Alliance of 1689-1690 he was accused of sacrificing Dutch to English +interests, but there can be no doubt that William loved his native +country better than his adopted one, and was a true patriot. If the +United Provinces suffered in prosperity through their close relations +with and subordination to Great Britain during a long series of years, +it was due not to the policy of William, but to the fact that the +territory of the republic was small, open to attack by great military +powers, and devoid of natural resources. The stadholder's authority and +popularity continued unimpaired, despite of his frequent absences in +England. He had to contend, like his predecessors, with the perennial +hostility of the burgher aristocracy of Amsterdam, and at times with +other refractory town councils, but his power in the States during his +life was almost autocratic. His task was rendered lighter by the +influence and ability of Heinsius, the grand pensionary of Holland, a +wise and prudent statesman, whose tact and moderation in dealing with +the details and difficulties of internal administration were +conspicuous. The stadholder gave to Heinsius his fullest confidence, and +the pensionary on his part loyally supported William's policy and placed +his services ungrudgingly at his disposal (see HEINSIUS). + + + War with France. + + Peace of Ryswick. + + Death of William III. + +The conduct of the war by the allies was far from successful. In 1690 +(July 1st) Waldeck was defeated by Luxemburg at Fleurus; and the +Anglo-Dutch fleet was so severely handled by Tourville (10th July) off +Beachy Head that for two years the command of the sea remained in the +possession of the French. A striking victory off Cape la Hogue (29th of +May 1692) restored, however, supremacy to the allies. On land the +combined armies fared ill. In 1691 the French took Mons, and in 1692 +Namur, in which year after a hard-fought battle William was defeated at +Steenkirk and in 1693 at Neerwinden. But William's military genius never +shone so brightly as in the hour of defeat; he never knew what it was to +be beaten, and in 1695 his recapture of Namur was a real triumph of +skill and resolution. At last, after long negotiations, exhaustion +compelled the French king to sign the peace of Ryswick in 1697, in which +William was recognized by France as king of England, the Dutch obtaining +a favourable commercial treaty, and the right to garrison the Netherland +barrier towns. This peace, however, did no more than afford a breathing +space during which Louis XIV. prepared for a renewal of the struggle. +The great question of the Spanish succession was looming in all men's +eyes, and though partition treaties between the interested powers were +concluded in 1698 and 1700, it is practically certain that the French +king held himself little bound by them. In 1701 he elbowed the Dutch +troops out of the barrier towns; he defied England by recognizing James +III. on the death of his father; and it was clear that another war was +imminent when William III. died in 1702. + + + Stadholderless Government. + +In 1672 the stadholdership in five provinces had been made hereditary in +the family of the prince of Orange, but William died childless, and the +republican burgher party was strong enough to prevent the posts being +filled up. William had wished that his cousin, Count John William Friso +of Nassau, stadholder of Friesland and Groningen, should succeed him, +but his extreme youth and the jealousy of Holland against a "Frisian" +stood in the way of his election. The result was a want of unity in +counsel and action among the provinces, Friesland and Groningen standing +aloof from the other five, while Holland and Zeeland had to pay for +their predominance in the Union by being left to bear the bulk of the +charges. Fortunately there was no break of continuity in the policy of +the States, the chief conduct of affairs remaining, until his death in +1720, in the capable and tried hands of the grand pensionary Heinsius, +who had at his side a number of exceptionally experienced and wise +counsellors--among these Simon van Slingeland, for forty-five years +(1680-1725) secretary of the council of state, and afterwards grand +pensionary of Holland (1727-1736), and Francis Fagel, who succeeded his +father in 1699 as recorder (_Griffier_) of the States-General, and held +that important office for fifty years. The tradition of William III. was +thus preserved, but with the loss of the firm hand and strong +personality of that great ruler the United Provinces were relegated to a +subordinate place in the councils of the nations, and with the gradual +decadence of its navy the Dutch republic ceased to rank as a power to be +reckoned with. + + + War of the Spanish Succession. + + Treaty of Utrecht. + +In the War of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 1702, Dutch +troops took part in the campaigns of Marlborough and Eugene, and had +their share in winning the great victories of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies +(1706), Oudenarde (1708) and Malplaquet (1709). At the peace of Utrecht, +concluded in 1713, the interests of the Netherlands were but +half-heartedly supported by the English plenipotentiaries, and the +French were able to obtain far more favourable terms than they had the +power to exact. But they were compelled to abandon all claim to the +Spanish Netherlands, which were formally handed over to the United +Provinces, as trustees, to be by them, after the conclusion of a +satisfactory barrier treaty, given up to the emperor, and be known +henceforth as the Austrian Netherlands. The peace of Utrecht taught the +Dutch that the great powers around them, while ready to use their +resources for war, would not scruple to abandon them when they wanted +peace; they, therefore, determined henceforth to stand clear of all +foreign complications. With 1713 the influence of the United Netherlands +upon European politics comes almost to an end. + + + Peace policy. + + Ostend East India Company. + + War of the Austrian Succession. + + Revolution of 1747. + + William IV. + +The ruling party in the States took an active part in securing George I. +on the throne of England; and they succeeded in coming to an agreement +both with France and with Austria over the difficulties connected with +the barrier towns, and were thus able in tranquillity to concentrate +their energies upon furthering the interests of their trade. Under the +close oligarchical rule of the patrician families, who filled all +offices in the town councils, the States of Holland, in which the +influence of Amsterdam was dominant, and which in their turn exercised +predominance in the States-General, became more and more an assembly of +"shopkeepers" whose policy was to maintain peace for the sake of the +commerce on which they thrived. For thirty years after the peace of +Utrecht the Provinces kept themselves free from entanglement in the +quarrels of their neighbours. The foundation of the Ostend East India +Company (see OSTEND COMPANY), however, by the emperor Joseph II. in +1723, at once aroused the strong opposition of the Amsterdam merchants +who looked upon this invasion of their monopoly with alarm, and declared +that the Ostend Company had been set up in contravention to the terms of +Article V. of the treaty of Munster. In maintaining this position the +States had the support of England, but it was not until 1731 that they +succeeded in obtaining the suppression of the company by consenting to +guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. This step led in 1743 to +their being involved in the War of the Austrian Succession, and thus +being drawn into hostilities with France, which invaded the barrier +country. In 1744 they formed with Great Britain, Austria and Saxony, a +Quadruple Alliance, and put a contingent of troops in the field. The +Dutch took an active part in the campaign of 1745 and suffered heavily +at Fontenoy, after which battle Marshal Saxe overran the Austrian +Netherlands. The French captured all the barrier towns, and in 1747 +entered Dutch Flanders and made an easy conquest. The United Provinces, +as in 1672, seemed to lie at the mercy of their enemies, and as in that +eventful year, popular feeling broke down the opposition of the burgher +oligarchies, and turned to William IV., prince of Orange, as the saviour +of the state. John William Friso had died young in 1711, leaving a +posthumous son, William Charles Henry Friso, who was duly elected +stadholder by the two provinces, Friesland and Groningen, which were +always faithful to his family, and in 1722 he became also, though with +very limited powers, stadholder of Gelderland. The other provinces, +however, under pressure from Holland, bound themselves not to elect +stadholders, and they refused to revive the office of captain-general of +the Union. By the conquest of Dutch Flanders Zeeland was threatened, and +the states of that province, in which there were always many Orange +partisans, elected (April 1747) William stadholder, captain-general and +admiral of Zeeland. The example once given was infectious, and was +followed in rapid succession by Holland, Utrecht and Overysel. Finally +the States-General (May 4) appointed the prince, who was the first +member of his family to be stadholder of all the seven provinces, +captain and admiral-general of the Union, and a little later these +offices were declared hereditary in both the male and female lines. + + + Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. + + Death of William IV. + + Anne of England Regent. + +William IV., though not a man of great ability, was sincerely anxious to +do his utmost for securing the maintenance of peace, and the development +of the resources and commercial prosperity of the country, and his +powerful dynastic connexions (he had married Anne, eldest daughter of +George II.) gave him weight in the councils of Europe. The peace of +Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, in which the influence of Great Britain was +exerted on behalf of the States, though it nominally restored the old +condition of things, left the Provinces crippled by debt, and fallen low +from their old position among the nations. At first the stadholder's +efforts to promote the trade and welfare of the country were hampered by +the distrust and opposition of Amsterdam, and other strongholds of +anti-Orange feeling, and just as his good intentions were becoming more +generally recognized, William unfortunately died, on the 22nd of October +1751, aged forty years, leaving his three-year-old son, William V., heir +to his dignities. The princess Anne of England became regent, but she +had a difficult part to play, and on the outbreak of the Seven Years' +War in which the Provinces were determined to maintain neutrality, her +English leanings brought much unpopularity upon her. She died in 1759, +and for the next seven years the regency passed into the hands of the +States, and the government was practically stadholderless. + + + William V. + + The Armed Neutrality. + + War with England. + + Peace of Paris. + +In 1766 William V. was declared to be of age; and his accession to power +was generally welcomed. He was, however, a weak man, without energy or +resolution, and he allowed himself to be entirely led by his old +guardian the duke of Brunswick, and by his wife Frederica Wilhelmina of +Prussia, a woman of marked ability, to whom he entirely deferred. In the +American War of Independence William's sympathies were strongly on the +English side, while those of the majority of the Dutch people were with +the revolted colonies. It is, however, certain that nothing would have +driven the Provinces to take part in the war but for the overbearing +attitude of the British government with regard to the right of neutral +shipping upon the seas, and the heavy losses sustained by Dutch commerce +at the hands of British privateers. The famous agreement, known as the +"Armed Neutrality," with which in 1780 the States of the continent at +the instigation of Catherine II. of Russia replied to the maritime +claims put forward by Great Britain drew the Provinces once more into +the arena of European politics. Every effort was made by the English to +prevent the Dutch from joining the league, and in this they were +assisted by the stadholder, but at last the States-General, though only +by the bare majority of four provinces against three, determined to +throw in their lot with the opponents of England. Nothing could have +been more unfortunate, for the country was not ready for war, and party +spirit was too strong for united action to be taken or vigorous +preparations to be made. When war broke out Dutch commerce was +destroyed, and the Dutch colonies were at the mercy of the English fleet +without the possibility of a blow being struck in their defence. An +indecisive, but bravely fought action with Admiral Parker at the Dogger +Bank showed, however, that the Dutch seamen had lost none of their old +dogged courage, and did much to soothe the national sense of +humiliation. In the negotiations of the Treaty of Paris (1783) the Dutch +found themselves abandoned by their allies, and compelled to accept the +disadvantageous but not ungenerous terms accorded to them by Great +Britain. They had to sacrifice some of their East Indian possessions and +to concede to the English freedom of trade in the Eastern seas. + + + The "Patriot" Party. + + Intervention of the King of Prussia. + + Difficulty with the Emperor. + + Prussian Invasion. + + Restoration to power of William V. + +One result of this humiliating and disastrous war was the strengthening +of the hands of the anti-Orange burgher-regents, who had now arrogated +to themselves the name of "patriots." It was they, and not the +stadholder, who had been mainly responsible for the Provinces joining +"the Armed Neutrality," but the consequences of the war, in which this +act had involved them, was largely visited upon the prince of Orange. +The "patriot" party did their utmost to curtail his prerogatives, and +harass him with petty insults, and at last the Prussian king was obliged +to interfere to save his niece, who was even more unpopular than her +weak husband, from being driven from the country. In 1784 the emperor +Joseph II. took advantage of the dissensions in the Provinces to raise +the question of the opening of the Scheldt. He himself was, however, no +more prepared for attack than the Republic for defence, but the Dutch +had already sunk so low, that they agreed to pay a heavy indemnity to +induce the Austrians to drop a demand they were unable to enforce. To +hold the mouth of the Scheldt and prevent at all costs a revival of +Antwerp as a commercial port had been for two centuries a cardinal point +of Dutch policy. This difficulty removed, the agitation of the +"patriots" against the stadholderate form of government increased in +violence, and William speedily found his position untenable. An insult +offered to the prince of Orange in 1787 led to an invasion of the +country by a Prussian army. Amsterdam capitulated, the country was +occupied, and the patriot leaders declared incapable of holding any +office. The Orange party was completely triumphant, and William V., +under the protection of Prussia and England, with which states the +United Provinces were compelled to ally themselves, was restored to +power. It was, however, impossible to make the complicated and creaking +machinery of the constitution of the worn-out republic of the United +Netherlands work smoothly, and in all probability it would have been +within a very short time replaced by an hereditary monarchy, had not the +cataclysm of the French Revolution swept it away from its path, never to +be revived. + + + The French invade the Netherlands. + + Overthrow of the Stadholderate. + + Flight of William V. + + The Batavian Republic. + + Changes of Government. + +When war broke out between the French revolutionary government and the +coalition of kings, the Provinces remained neutral as long as they +could. It was not till Dumouriez had overrun all the Austrian +Netherlands in 1792, and had thrown open the passage of the Scheldt, +that they were drawn into the war. The patriot party sided with the +French, but for various reasons the conquest of the country was delayed +until 1795. In the closing months of 1794 Pichegru, at the head of a +large and victorious army, invaded the Provinces. The very severe frost +of that winter gave his troops an easy passage over all the rivers and +low-lying lands; town after town fell before him; he occupied Amsterdam, +and crossing the ice with his cavalry took the Dutch fleet, as it lay +frost-bound at the Texel. The stadholder and his family fled to England, +and the disorganized remnants of the allied forces under the duke of +York retreated into Germany. The "patriots," as the anti-Orange +republicans still styled themselves, received the French with open arms +and public rejoicings, and the government was reorganized so as to bring +it into close harmony with that of Paris. The stadholderate, the offices +of captain and admiral-general, and all the ancient organization of the +United Netherlands were abolished, and were transformed into the +Batavian Republic, in close alliance with France. But the Dutch had soon +cause to regret their revolutionary ardour. French alliance meant French +domination, and participation in the wars of the Revolution. Its +consequences were the total ruin of Dutch commerce, and the seizure of +all the Dutch colonies by the English. Internally one change of +government succeeded another; after the States-General came a national +convention; then in 1798 a constituent assembly with an executive +directory; then chambers of representatives; then a return to the +earlier systems under the names of the eight provincial and one central +Commissions (1801). These changes were the outcome of a gradual reaction +in a conservative direction. + + + Constitution of 1805. + + Louis Bonaparte King of Holland. + + The Sovereign Prince. + + Creation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. + + The Hundred Days. + + William I. crowned at Brussels. + + Constitution of the Netherlands. + +The peace of Amiens gave the country a little rest, and the Dutch got +back the Cape of Good Hope and their West Indian colonies; it was, +however, but the brief and deceptive interlude between two storms; when +war began again England once more took possession of all she had +restored. In 1805 the autocratic will of Napoleon Bonaparte imposed upon +them a new constitution, and Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck (1765-1825) was +made, under the ancient title of grand pensionary, head of the +government. In the next year the French emperor added Holland, as the +United Provinces were now named, to the ring of dependent sovereignties, +by means of which he sought to build up a universal empire, and he +forced his brother Louis to be the unwilling king of an unwilling +people. The new king was a man of excellent intentions and did his best +to promote the interest of his subjects, but finding himself unable to +protect them from the despotic overlordship of his brother, after a four +years' reign, Louis abdicated. In 1810 the Northern Netherlands by +decree of Napoleon were incorporated in the French empire, and had to +bear the burdens of conscription and of a crushing weight of taxation. +The defeat of Leipzig in 1813 was the signal for a general revolt in the +Netherlands; the prince of Orange (son of William V.) was recalled, and +amidst general rejoicing accepted at Amsterdam the offer of the +sovereignty under a free constitution (Dec. 1, 1813), with the title of +sovereign prince. On the downfall of Napoleon the great powers +determined to create in the Low Countries a powerful state, and by the +treaty of London (June 14, 1814) the Belgians were united with the Dutch +provinces to form the kingdom of the Netherlands, which was also to +include the bishopric of Liege and the duchy of Bouillon, and the prince +of Orange was placed upon the throne on the 15th of March 1815 as +William I., king of the Netherlands (see WILLIAM I., king of the +Netherlands). The ancestral possessions of the House of Nassau were +exchanged for Luxemburg, of which territory King William in his personal +capacity became grand duke. The carrying out of the treaty was delayed +by the Hundred Days' campaign, which for a short time threatened its +very existence. The daring invasion of Napoleon, however, afforded the +Dutch and Belgian contingents of the allied army the opportunity to +fight side by side under the command of William, prince of Orange, +eldest son of the new king, who highly distinguished himself by his +gallantry at Quatre Bras, and afterwards at Waterloo where he was +wounded (see WILLIAM II., king of the Netherlands). The Congress of +Vienna confirmed the arrangements made by the treaty of London, and +William I. was crowned king of the Netherlands at Brussels on the 27th +of September 1815. Under the constitution the king, as hereditary +sovereign, possessed full executive powers, and the initiative in +proposing laws. He had the power of appointing his own council of state. +The legislative body bore the time-honoured title of States-General, and +was divided into an Upper Chamber nominated by the king, and a Lower +Chamber elected by the people. Freedom of worship, freedom of the press, +and political equality were principles of the constitution, guaranteed +to all. + + + Difference between the Dutch and Belgic provinces. + + The Belgian Revolution. + + Reign of William II. + + Accession of William III. + + The Constitution of 1848. + + Political parties in the Netherlands. + +The union of the Dutch and Belgian provinces, like so many of the +territorial arrangements of the Congress of Vienna, was an attempt to +create a strong state out of diverse and jarring elements. It was an +artificial union, which nothing but consummate tact and statesmanship +could have rendered permanent and solid. North and south were divided +from one another by religious belief, by laws and usages, by material +interests, and by two centuries and a half of widely severed national +life. The Belgians were strict Catholics, the Dutch Calvinistic +Protestants. The Dutch were chiefly a commercial and seafaring people, +with interests in distant lands and colonial possessions; the Belgians +were agriculturists, except where their abundance of minerals made them +manufacturers. The national traits of the Dutch were a blend of German +and English, the national leaning of the Belgians was towards France and +French ideals. Nevertheless the materials were there out of which a +really broad-minded and conciliatory handling of religion and racial +difficulties might have gradually built up a Netherland nation able to +hold from its population and resources a considerable place among +European powers. For it must not be forgotten that some two-thirds of +the Belgian people are by origin and language of the same race as the +Dutch. But when difficulties and differences arose between North and +South, as they were sure to arise, they were not dealt with wisely. The +king had good intentions, but his mind was warped by Dutch prejudices, +and he was ill-advised and acted unadvisedly. The consequences were the +Belgian Revolution of 1830, which ended in the intervention of the great +powers, and the setting up, in 1831, of Belgium as an independent +kingdom. The final settlement of outstanding questions between the two +countries was not reached till 1839 (for an account of the Belgian +Revolution, see BELGIUM). King William I. in the following year, having +become unpopular through his resistance to reform, resigned his crown to +his son William II., who reigned in peace till his death in 1849, when +he was succeeded by his eldest son William III. (see WILLIAM III., king +of the Netherlands). His accession marked the beginning of +constitutional government in the Netherlands. William I. had been to a +large extent a personal ruler, but William II., though for a time +following in his father's steps, had been moved by the revolutionary +outbreaks of 1848 to concede a revision of the constitution. The +fundamental law of 1848 enacted that the first chamber of the +States-General should be elected by the Provincial Estates instead of +being appointed by the king, and that the second chamber should be +elected directly by all persons paying a certain amount in taxation. +Ministers were declared responsible to the States-General, and a liberal +measure of self-government was also granted. During the long reign of +William III. (1849-1890) the chief struggles of parties in the +Netherlands centred round religious education. On the one side are the +liberals, divided into moderates and progressives, the representatives +to a large extent of the commercial towns. Opposed to them is the +coalition of the orthodox Protestant conservatives, styled +anti-revolutionaries, supported by the Calvinistic peasantry, and the +Catholics, who represent about one-third of the population and have +their headquarters in Dutch Brabant, Dutch Flanders and Limburg. There +is also in the Netherlands a small, but very strenuous socialist party, +which was founded by the active propaganda of an ex-pastor +Domela-Nieuwenhuis. It draws its chief strength from Amsterdam and +certain country districts of Friesland. + + + Religious education. + +The liberals were in power from 1871 to 1888 continuously, but a +Catholic-anti-revolutionary ministry under Baron Mackay held office from +1888 to 1891, and again a coalition ministry was formed in 1901 with Dr +Kuyper at its head. From 1894 to 1897 a ministry of moderate liberals +supported by a large part of the Catholic and anti-revolutionary parties +were in power. The constitution of 1848 made it the duty of the state to +provide free primary secular education, but it allowed to members of all +creeds the liberty of establishing private schools, and this was carried +into effect by a law passed in 1857 by the joint efforts of the liberals +and Catholics against the opposition of the orthodox Calvinists. But the +long liberal ascendancy closed the ranks of the Catholic-Calvinist +coalition, and united them against the neutral schools, and in 1889 they +were able to pass a law enabling not only the unsectarian public +schools, but all private schools organized by societies and bodies +recognized by the law to receive subventions from the state. In 1890 +there were 3000 public schools with 450,000 scholars and 1300 private +schools with 195,000 scholars. + + + Extension of the suffrage. + + Military service. + +The subject of the extension of the franchise has also been the cause of +violent party strife and controversy. It was taken in hand as early as +1872, but as a revision of the constitution was necessary, no change was +actually carried out till 1887. The law of that year lowered the +qualification of the payer of a direct tax to 10 fl. Votes were given to +all householders paying a certain _minimum_ house duty, and to all +lodgers who had for a given time paid a _minimum_ of rent, also to all +who possessed certain educational and social qualifications, whose +definition was left to be specified by a later law. The passing of such +a law was deferred by the coalition (Catholic-Orthodox) ministry of +1888-1891. The liberal ministry of 1891 attempted to deal with the +question, and a proposal was made by the minister Tak van Poortvliet, +which almost amounted to universal suffrage. The educational +qualification was to be able to write, the social that of not receiving +charitable relief. This proposal caused a cleavage right through all +parties. It was supported by the radical left, by a large portion of the +Orthodox-Calvinists under Dr Kuyper, and by some Catholics; it had +against it the moderate liberals, the aristocratic section of the +Orthodox-Calvinists, the bulk of the Catholics, and a few radicals under +an influential leader van Houten. After a fierce electoral fight the +Takkians were victors at the first polls, but were beaten at the second +ballots. Of the 46 Takkians, 35 were liberals; of the 54 anti-Takkians, +24 were Catholics. A moderate liberal ministry was formed (1894) and in +1896 carried into law what was known as the van Houten project. It gave +the right of voting to all Dutchmen over twenty-five years of age, who +paid 1 fl. in direct taxation; were householders or lodgers as defined +in 1887, or tenants of a vessel of, at least, 24 tons; were the +recipients of certain salaries or had certain deposits in the public +funds or savings banks. By this reform the number of electors, which had +been raised in 1887 from 140,000 to 300,000, was augmented to 700,000. +The question of universal military service has also divided parties. The +principle of personal service has been strongly opposed by the Catholics +and conservatives, but became the law of the land in 1898, though +exemptions were conceded in favour of ecclesiastics and certain classes +of students. + + + The Achin war. + +The long-continued and costly wars with the sultan of Achin have during +a series of years been a source of trouble to Dutch ministries. In +1871-1872 Great Britain, in exchange for certain possessions of Holland +on the coast of Guinea, agreed to recognize the right of the Dutch to +occupy the north of Sumatra. The sultan of Achin opposed by force of +arms the efforts of the Dutch to make their occupation effective, and +has succeeded in maintaining a vigorous resistance, the Dutch colonial +troops suffering severely from the effects of the insalubrious climate. +Until 1871 the surplus derived from the colonial budget had been turned +into a deficit, and the necessity of imposing fresh taxes to meet the +war expenses has led to the downfall both of individual ministries and +of cabinets. + + + Queen Wilhelmina. + +William III. dying in 1890 was succeeded by his only surviving child, +Wilhelmina. The new queen being a minor, her mother, the queen-dowager +Emma, became regent. One effect of the accession of Queen Wilhelmina was +the severance of the bond between the Netherlands and Luxemburg. The +grand duchy, being hereditary only in the male line, passed to the +nearest agnate, the duke of Nassau. In 1898 the queen, having reached +the age of eighteen, assumed the government. She married in 1901 Prince +Henry of Mecklenburg. The outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 led to a +strong outburst of sympathy among the Dutch on behalf of their kinsmen +in South Africa, and there were times during the war, especially after +President Kruger had fled from the Transvaal in a Dutch war vessel and +had settled in Holland, when it was a task of some difficulty for the +Dutch government to prevent the relations between Great Britain and the +Netherlands from becoming strained. The ministry, however, under Dr +Kuyper were able to keep the popular feeling in favour of the Boers in +restraint, and to maintain towards Great Britain a correct attitude of +strict neutrality. In 1903 the government took strong measures to +prevent a threatened general strike of railway employees, the military +were called out, and occupied the stations. A bill was passed by the +States-General declaring railway strikes illegal. The elections of 1905 +for the Second Chamber gave the liberals a narrow majority of four. Dr +Kuyper accordingly resigned, and a moderate liberal cabinet was formed +by Th. H. de Meester. The fact that up to 1908 the queen had not become +a mother gradually caused some public concern as to the succession; but +in 1909 Queen Wilhelmina, amid national rejoicings, gave birth to a +princess. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See (for the general history) J. Wagenaar, + _Vaderlandsche historie_, to 1751 (21 vols., 1749-1759); continuation + by Az. P. Loosjes, from 1751-1810 (48 vols., 1786-1811); W. + Bilderdijk, _Geschiedenis der Vaderlands_ (13 vols., 1832-1853); Groen + G. van Prinsterer, _Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland_ (6th + ed., 1895); (for particular periods): L. ab Aitzema, _Saken van spaet + en oorlogh in ende om trent de Vereenigde Nederlanden (1621-1668)_ (15 + vols., 1657-1671); continuation by Lambert van den Bos (Lambertus + Sylvius) (4 vols., 1685-1699). The work of Aitzema contains a large + number of important diplomatic and other documents; A. de Wicquefort, + _Histoire des provinces des Pays-Bas depuis la paix de Munster_ + (1648-1658) (2 vols., 1719-1743); in these volumes will be also found + a rich collection of original documents; R. Fruin, _Tien jaren uit den + tactig jarigen oorlog (1588-1598)_, (6th ed., 1905), a standard work; + J. L. Motley, _History of the United Netherlands (1584-1609)_, (4 + vols., 1860-1868); P. J. Blok, _History of the People of the + Netherlands_, vol. iii. (1568-1621) (trans. by Ruth Putnam, 1900); + _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iii. ch. xix. and vol. iv. ch. xxv. + (see the bibliographies); Ant. L. Pontales, _Vingt annees de + republique parlementaire au 17me siecle. Jean de Witt, grand + pensionnaire de Hollande_ (1884); E. C. de Gerlache, _Histoire du + royaume des Pays-Bas 1814-1830_ (3 vols., 1859); Bosch J. de Kemper, + _Geschiedenis van Nederland na 1830_ (5 vols., 1873-1882); also the + following important works: Groen G. van Prinsterer, _Archives ou + correspondance inedite de la maison d'Orange-Nassau_, 2^e serie + (1584-1688) (5 vols., 1857-1860); J. de Witt, _Brieven (1652-1669)_ (6 + vols., 1723-1725); A. Kluit, _Historie der Hollandsche Staatsregering + tot 1795_ (5 vols., 1802-1805); G. W. Vreede, _Inleiding tot eene + geschiedenis der Nederlandsche diplomatic_ (6 vols., 1850-1865); J. C. + de Jonge, _Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewesen_, (6 vols., + 1833-1848); E. Luzac, _Holland's Rijkdom_ (4 vols., 1781); R. Fruin, + _Geschiedenis der Staatsinstellingen in Nederland tot den val der + Republick_, edn. Colenbrander (1901); N. G. van Kampen, _Geschiedenis + der Nederlanders buiten Europa_ (4 vols., 1833); W. J. A. Jonckbloet, + _Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde_ (2 vols. 1881); C. Busken + Huet, _Het Land van Rembrandt-studien over de Nordnederlandsche + beschaving in de 17^e eeuw_ (2 vols., 1886); L. D. Petit, _Repertorium + der verhandelingen en bijdragen betreffende de geschiedenis des + Vaterlands in tijdschriften en mengel werken tot op 1900 verschenen_, + 2 parts (1905); other parts of this valuable _repertorium_ are in + course of publication. (G. E.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] At Maastricht, however, a portion lies on the left bank of the + river, measured, according to the treaty with Belgium, 19th of April + 1839, art. 4, by an average radius of 1200 Dutch fathoms (7874 ft.) + from the outer glacis of the fortress. + + [2] The datum plane, or basis of the measurement of heights, is + throughout Holland, and also in some of the border districts of + Germany, the _Amsterdamsch Peil_ (A.P.), or Amsterdam water-level, + and represents the average high water-level of the Y at Amsterdam at + the time when it was still open to the Zuider Zee. Local and + provincial "peils" are, however, also in use on some waterways. + + [3] See J. Lorie, _Contributions a la geologie des Pays-bas_ + (1885-1895), _Archives du Mus. Teyler_ (Haarlem), ser. 2, vol. ii. + pp. 109-240, vol. iii. pp. 1-160, 375-461, vol. iv. pp. 165-309 and + _Bull. soc. belge geol._ vol. iii. (1889); _Mem._ pp. 409-449; F. W. + Harmer, "On the Pliocene Deposits of Holland," &c., _Quart. Journ. + Geol. Soc., London_, vol. lii. (1896) pp. 748-781, pls. xxxiv., xxxv. + + [4] The dates indicate the period of construction of the different + sections. + + [5] For the history of the Netherlands previous to the confederacy of + the northern provinces in 1579 see NETHERLANDS. + + + + +HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF.--The first mention of Holland in any +document is found in an imperial _gift brief_ dated May 2nd, 1064. In +this the phrase "_omnis comitatus in Hollandt_" occurs, but without any +further description of the locality indicated. A comparison with other +documentary evidence, however, leads to the identification of Holland +with the _forestum Merweda_, or the bush-grown fenland lying between the +Waal, the old Meuse and the Merwe. It is the district surrounding the +town of Dordrecht. A portion of the original Holland was submerged by a +great inundation in 1421, and its modern appellation of Biesbosch +(reed-forest) is descriptive of what must have been the condition of the +entire district in early times. The word Holland is indeed by many +authorities thought to be a corruption of Holt-land (it was sometimes so +spelt by 13th-century writers) and to signify wood-land. The earliest +spelling is, however, Holland, and it is more probable that it means +lowlying-land (hol = hollow), a derivation which is equally applicable +to the district in Lincolnshire which bears the same name. + + + The first Count of Holland. + +The title count of Holland appears to have been first borne by the +Frisian count Dirk III., who founded Dordrecht (about 1015) and made it +his residence (see below). It was not, however, till late in the 11th +century that his successors adopted the style "_Hollandensis comes_" as +their territorial designation (it is found for the first time on a seal +of Dirk V. 1083), and that the name Holland became gradually extended +northwards to connote all the land subject to the rule of the counts +between Texel and the Maas. + + + Dirk I. + + Dirk II. + + Extent of his dominions. + + Arnulf. + + Dirk III. + + Foundation of Dordrecht. + + Defeat of Godfrey of Lorraine. + + Beginning of the County of Holland. + +The beginnings of the history of this feudal state (the later Holland) +centre round the abbey of Egmont in whose archives its records have been +preserved. In 922 Charles the Simple gave in full possession to a count +in Frisia, Dirk by name (a shortened form of Diederic, Latin +Theodoricus), "the church of Egmont with all that belonged to it from +Swithardeshage to Kinhem." This man, usually known as Dirk I., died +about 939 and was succeeded by his son of the same name. Among the +records of the abbey of Egmont is a document by which the emperor Arnulf +gave to a certain count Gerolf the same land "between Swithardeshage and +Kinhem," afterwards held by Dirk I. It is generally assumed that this +Gerolf was his father, otherwise their deed of gift would not have been +preserved among the family papers. Dirk II. was the founder of the abbey +of Egmont. His younger son Egbert became archbishop of Treves. His elder +son Arnulf married Liutgardis, daughter of Siegfried of Luxemburg and +sister-in-law of the emperor Henry II. He obtained from the emperor Otto +III., with whom he was in great favour in 983, a considerable extension +of territory, that now covered by the Zuider Zee and southward down to +Nijmwegen. In the deed of gift he is spoken of as holding the three +countships of Maasland, Kinhem or Kennemerland and Texla or Texel; in +other words his rule extended over the whole country from the right bank +of the Maas or Meuse to the Vlie. He appears also to have exercised +authority at Ghent. He died in 988. Arnulf was count till 993, when he +was slain in battle against the west Frisians, and was succeeded by his +twelve-year-old son Dirk III. During the guardianship of his mother, +Liutgardis, the boy was despoiled of almost all his possessions, except +Kennemerland and Maasland. But no sooner was he arrived at man's estate +than Dirk turned upon his enemies with courage and vigour. He waged war, +successfully with Adelbold, the powerful bishop of Utrecht, and made +himself master not only of his ancestral possessions, but of the +district on the Meuse known as the Bushland of Merweda (_forestum +Merweda_), hitherto subject to the see of Utrecht. In the midst of this +marshy tract, at a point commanding the courses of the Meuse and the +Waal, he built a castle (about 1015) and began to levy tolls. Around +this castle sprang up the town of Thuredrecht or Dordrecht. The +possession of this stronghold was so injurious to the commerce of Tiel, +Cologne and the Rhenish towns with England that complaints were made by +the bishop of Utrecht and the archbishop of Cologne to the emperor. +Henry II. took the part of the complainants and commissioned Duke +Godfrey of Lorraine to chastise the young Frisian count. Duke Godfrey +invaded Dirk's lands with a large army, but they were impeded by the +swampy nature of the country and totally defeated with heavy loss (July +29, 1018). The duke was himself taken prisoner. The result was that Dirk +was not merely confirmed in his possession of Dordrecht and the Merweda +Bushland (the later Holland) but also of the territory of a vassal of +the Utrecht see, Dirk Bavo by name, which he conquered. This victory of +1018 is often regarded as the true starting-point of the history of the +county of Holland. Having thus established his rule in the south, Dirk +next proceeded to bring into subjection the Frisians in the north. He +appointed his brother Siegfrid or Sikka as governor over them. In his +later years Dirk went upon a pilgrimage to the Holy Land from which he +returned in 1034; and ruled in peace until his death in 1039. + + + Dirk IV. + + Quarrel with Flanders about Zeeland. + +His son, Dirk IV., was one of the most enterprising of his warlike and +strenuous race. He began the long strife with the counts of Flanders, as +to the lordship over Walcheren and other islands of Zeeland; the quarrel +was important, as dealing with the borderland between French and German +overlordship. This strife, which lasted 400 years, did not at first +break out into actual warfare, because both Dirk and Baldwin V. of +Flanders had a common danger in the emperor Henry III., who in 1046 +occupied the lands in dispute. Dirk allied himself with Godfrey the +Bearded of Lorraine, who was at war with the emperor, and his territory +was invaded by a powerful imperial fleet and army (1047). But Dirk +entrenched himself in his stronghold at Vlaardingen, and when winter +came on he surrounded and cut off with his light boats a number of the +enemy's ships, and destroyed a large part of their army as they made +their way amidst the marches, which impeded their retreat. He was able +to recover what he had lost and to make peace on his own terms. Two +years later he was again assailed by a coalition headed by the +archbishop of Cologne and the bishop of Utrecht. They availed themselves +of a very hard winter to penetrate into the land over the frozen water. +Dirk offered a stout resistance, but, according to the most trustworthy +account, was enticed into an ambuscade and was killed in the fight +(1049). He died unmarried and was succeeded by his brother Floris I. + + + Floris I. + + Dirk V. + + Robert the Frisian guardian to his stepson + + Godfrey the Hunchback of Lorraine conquers Holland. + + The Bishop of Utrecht surrenders it to Dirk V. + + Floris II. + + Dirk VI. + +Floris, like his predecessors, was hard-fighting and tenacious. He +gradually recovered possession of his ancestral lands. He found a +formidable adversary in the able and warlike William, who, becoming +bishop of Utrecht in 1054, was determined to recover the lost +possessions of his see; and in 1058, in alliance with Hanno, archbishop +of Cologne, Egbert, margrave of Brandenburg, the bishop of Liege and +others, invaded the Frisian territory. At first success attended the +invaders and many places fell into their hands, but finally they were +surprised and defeated near Dordrecht. The counts of Guelders and +Louvain were among the prisoners that fell into the hands of Floris. The +attack was renewed in 1061. In a battle at Nederhemert Floris met with +his death in the hour of victory. He is said to have been killed as, +wearied with pursuing, he lay asleep under a tree. He was succeeded by +his son, Dirk V., a child, under the guardianship of his mother, +Gertrude of Saxony. Bishop William seems now to have seized his +opportunity and occupied all the territory that he claimed. In this he +was confirmed by two charters of the emperor Henry IV. (April 30 and May +2, 1064). Among the possessions thus assigned to him is found _comitatus +omnis in Hollandt cum omnibus ad bannum regalem pertinentibus_. An +examination of these documents shows the possessions of Dirk as _in +Westflinge et circa oras Rheni_, i.e. west of the Vlie and around the +mouths of the Rhine. Gertrude and her son appear to have withdrawn to +the islands of Frisia (Zeeland), leaving William in undisturbed +occupation of the disputed lands. In 1063 Gertrude contracted a marriage +with Robert, the second son of Baldwin V. of Flanders, a man famous for +his adventurous career (see FLANDERS). On his marriage his father +invested him with Imperial Flanders, as an apanage including the islands +of Frisia (Zeeland) west of the Scheldt. He now became guardian to his +stepson, in whose inheritance lay the islands east of the Scheldt. +Robert thus, in his own right and that of Dirk, was ruler of all Frisia +(Zeeland), and thus became known among his Flemish countrymen as Robert +the Frisian. The death of his brother Baldwin VI. in 1070 led to civil +war in Flanders, the claim of Robert to the guardianship of his nephew +Arnulf being disputed by Richilde, the widow of Baldwin. The issue was +decided by the decisive victory of Robert at Cassel (February 1071) when +Arnulf was killed and Richilde taken prisoner (see Flanders). While +Robert was thus engaged in Flanders, an effort was made to recover "the +County of Holland" and other lands now held by William of Utrecht. The +people rose in revolt, but by command of the emperor Henry IV. were +speedily brought back under episcopal rule by an army under the command +of Godfrey the Hunchback, duke of Lower Lorraine. Again in 1076, at the +request of the bishop, Duke Godfrey visited his domains in the Frisian +borderland. At Delft, of which town tradition makes Godfrey the founder, +the duke was treacherously murdered (February 26, 1076). William of +Utrecht died on the 17th of the following April. Dirk V., now grown to +man's estate, was not slow to take advantage of the favourable juncture. +With the help of Robert (his stepfather) he raised an army, besieged +Conrad, the successor of William, in the castle of Ysselmonde and took +him prisoner. The bishop purchased his liberty by surrendering all claim +to the disputed lands. Henceforth the Frisian counts became definitively +known as counts of Holland. Dirk V. died in 1091 and was succeeded by +his son Floris II. the Fat. This count had a peaceful and prosperous +reign of thirty-one years. After his death (1122) his widow, Petronilla +of Saxony, governed in the name of Dirk VI., who was a minor. The +accession of her half-brother, Lothaire of Saxony, to the imperial +throne on the death of Henry V. greatly strengthened her position. The +East Frisian districts, Oostergoo and Westergoo, were by Lothaire +transferred from the rule of the bishops of Utrecht to that of the +counts of Holland (1125). These Frisians proved very troublesome +subjects to Dirk VI. In 1132 they rose in insurrection under the +leadership of Dirk's own brother, Floris the Black. The emperor Conrad +III. (1138), who was of the rival house of Hohenstaufen, gave back these +Frisian districts to the bishop; it was in truth somewhat of an empty +gift. The Frisian peasants and fisher folk loved their independence, and +were equally refractory to the rule of any distant overlord, whether +count or bishop. Dirk VI. was succeeded in 1157 by Floris III. + + + Floris III. + + Dirk VII. + + William I. + + Floris IV. + +Floris III. reversed the traditional policy of his house by allying +himself with the Hohenstaufens. He became a devoted adherent and friend +of Frederick Barbarossa. He had troubles with West Friesland and +Groningen, and a war with the count of Flanders concerning their +respective rights in West Zeeland, in which he was beaten. In 1170 a +great flood caused immense devastation in the north and helped to form +the Zuider Zee. In 1189 Floris accompanied Frederick Barbarossa upon the +third Crusade, of which he was a distinguished leader. He died in 1190 +at Antioch of pestilence. His son, Dirk VII., had a stormy, but on the +whole successful reign. Contests with the Flemings in West Zeeland and +with the West Frisians, stirred up to revolt by his brother William, +ended in his favour. The brothers were reconciled and William was made +count of East Friesland. In 1202, however, Dirk was defeated and taken +prisoner by the duke of Brabant, and had to purchase peace on +humiliating terms. He only survived his defeat a short time and died +early in 1204, leaving as his only issue a daughter, Ada, 17 years of +age. The question of female succession thus raised was not likely to be +accepted without a challenge by William. It had been the intention of +Dirk VII. to secure the recognition of his daughter's rights by +appointing his brother her guardian. His widow Alida, however, an +ambitious woman of strong character, as soon as her husband was dead, +hurried on a marriage between Ada and Count Louis of Loon; and attempted +with the nobles of Holland, who now for the first time make their +appearance as a power in the country, to oppose the claim which William +had made to the countship as heir in the male line. A struggle ensued. +William was supported by the Zeelanders and Ada was forced to fly to +England. William, by a treaty concluded with Louis of Loon in 1206, +became undisputed count. He took an active part in the events of his +time. He fought by the side of the emperor Otto IV. in the great battle +of Bouvines in 1214 (see PHILIP AUGUSTUS), and was taken prisoner. Two +years later he accompanied Louis, the eldest son of Philip Augustus, in +his expedition against King John of England. William is perhaps best +known in history by his taking part in the fourth Crusade. He +distinguished himself greatly at the capture of Damietta (1219). He did +not long survive his return home, dying in 1222. The earliest charters +conveying civic privileges in the county of Holland date from his +reign--those of Geertruidenberg (1213) and of Dordrecht (1220). His son +Floris IV., being a minor, succeeded him under the guardianship of his +maternal uncle, Gerard III. of Gelderland. He maintained in later life +close relations of friendship with Gerard, and supported him in his +quarrel with the bishop of Utrecht (1224-1226). Floris was murdered in +1235 at a tournament at Corbie in Picardy by the count of Clermont. +Another long minority followed his death, during which his brother Otto, +bishop of Utrecht, acted as guardian to his nephew William II. + + + William II. + + Elected King of the Romans. + + Floris V. + + Alliance with Edward I. of England. + + First Charter to Amsterdam. + + Murder of Floris V. + +William II. became a man of mark. Pope Innocent IV., having deposed the +emperor Frederick II., after several princes had refused to allow +themselves to be nominated in the place of the Hohenstaufen, caused the +young count of Holland to be elected king of the Romans (1247) by an +assembly composed chiefly of German ecclesiastics. William took Aachen +in 1248 and was there crowned king; and after Frederick's death in 1250, +he had a considerable party in Germany. He brought a war with Margaret +of Flanders (Black Margaret) to a successful conclusion (1253). He was +on the point of proceeding to Rome to be crowned emperor, when in an +expedition against the West Frisians he perished, going down, horse and +armour, through the ice (1256). Like so many of his predecessors he left +his inheritance to a child. Floris V. was but two years old on his +father's death; and he was destined during a reign of forty years to +leave a deeper impress upon the history of Holland than any other of its +counts. Floris was a man of chivalrous character and high capacity, and +throughout his reign he proved himself an able and beneficent ruler. +Alike in his troubles with his turbulent subjects and in the perennial +disputes with his neighbours he pursued a strong, far-sighted and +successful policy. But his active interest in affairs was not limited to +the Netherlands. He allied himself closely with Edward I. of England in +his strife with France, and secured from the English king great trading +advantages for his people; the staple of wool was placed at Dort +(Dordrecht) and the Hollanders and Zeelanders got fishing rights on the +English coast. So intimate did their relations become that Floris sent +his son John to be educated at the court of Edward with a view to his +marriage with an English princess. To balance the power of the nobles he +granted charters to many of the towns. Floris made himself master of +Amstelland and Gooiland; and Amsterdam, destined to become the chief +commercial town of Holland, counts him the founder of its greatness. Its +earliest extant charter dates from 1275. In 1296 Floris forsook the +alliance of Edward I. for that of Philip IV. of France, probably because +Edward had given support to Guy, count of Flanders, in his dynastic +dispute with John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut, Floris's nephew (see +FLANDERS). The real motives of his policy will, however, never be known, +for shortly afterwards a conspiracy of disaffected nobles, headed by +Gijsbrecht van Amstel, Gerard van Velzen and Wolfert van Borselen, was +formed against him. He was by them basely murdered in the castle of +Muiden (June 27, 1296). The tragic event has been immortalized in dramas +from the pens of Holland's most famous writers (see VONDEL, HOOFT). The +burghers and people, who knew him to be their best friend, took such +vengeance on his slayers as permanently to reduce the power of the +nobles. + + + John I. + + Extinction of the first line of Counts. Their high character. + +John I., his son, was in England when his father was murdered; he was +but 15 years of age, feeble in body and mind. He was married to Eleanor, +daughter of Edward I. His reign was a struggle between John of Avesnes, +the young count's guardian and next heir, and Wolfert van Borselen, who +had a strong following in Zeeland. In 1299 van Borselen was killed, and +a few months later John I. died. John of Avesnes was at once recognized +as his successor by the Hollanders. Thus with John I. ended the first +line of counts, after a rule of nearly 400 years. Europe has perhaps +never seen an abler series of princes than these fourteen lineal +descendants of Dirk I. Excepting the last there is not a weak man among +them. Physically handsome and strong, model knights of the days of +chivalry, hard fighters, wise statesmen, they were born leaders of men; +always ready to advance the commerce of the country, they were the +supporters of the growing towns, and likewise the pioneers in the task +of converting a land of marshes and swamps into a fertile agricultural +territory rich in flocks and herds. As individuals they had their +failings, but one and all were worthy members of a high-souled race. + + + John II. of the House of Avesnes. + + William III. + + William IV. + + The Empress Margaret. + + William V. of the House of Bavaria. + + Albert of Bavaria. + + William VI. + + Jacqueline of Bavaria. + + Accession of the Burgundian Dynasty. + + Philip the Good. + + Flourishing state of Holland. + + Charles the Bold. + + Mary of Burgundy. + +John of Avesnes, who took the title of John II., was the son of John of +Avesnes, count of Hainaut, and Alida, sister of William II. of Holland. +On his succession to the countship the Hollanders were willing to +receive him, but the Zeelanders were hostile; and a long struggle ensued +before his authority was generally recognized. In 1301 Bishop William of +Utrecht invaded Amstelland, but was killed in battle. John made use of +his victory to secure the election of his brother Guy as bishop in his +place. A war with the Flemings followed, in which the Flemings were at +first victorious, but after a struggle of many vicissitudes they were at +length driven out of Holland and Zeeland In 1304. John II. died in that +year and was succeeded by his son William III., surnamed the Good +(1304-1337). In his reign the long-standing quarrel with Flanders, which +had during a century and a half caused so many wars, was finally settled +by the treaty of 1323, by which the full possession of West Zeeland was +granted to William, who on his part renounced all claim in Imperial +Flanders. The Amstelland with its capital, Amsterdam, which had hitherto +been held as a fief of Utrecht, was by William, on the death of his +uncle Bishop Guy, finally annexed to Holland. This count did much to +encourage civic life and to develop the resources of the country. He had +close relations through marriage with the three principal European +dynasties of his time. His wife was Jeanne of Valois, niece of the +French king; in 1323 the emperor Louis the Bavarian wedded his daughter +Margaret; and in 1328 his third daughter, Philippa of Hainaut, was +married to Edward III. of England. By their alliance William III. +occupied a position of much dignity and influence, which he used to +further the interests and increase the welfare of his hereditary lands. +He was in all respects a great prince and a wise and prudent statesman. +He was succeeded by his son, William IV., who was the ally of his +brother-in-law, Edward III., in his French wars. He was fond of +adventure, and in 1343 made a journey to the Holy Land in disguise, and +on his way took part in an expedition of the knights of the Teutonic +Order against the infidel Wends and Lithuanians. He was killed in battle +against the Frisians in 1345. He left no children, and the question as +to the succession now brought on Holland a period of violent civil +commotions. His inheritance was claimed by his eldest sister, the +empress Margaret, as well as by Philippa of Hainaut, or in other words, +by Edward III. of England. Margaret came in person and was duly +recognized as countess in Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut; but returned to +her husband after appointing her second son (the eldest, Louis, +renounced his rights) Duke William of Bavaria, as stadholder in her +place. William was but sixteen, and disorder and confusion soon reigned +in the land. The sudden death of the emperor in 1347 added to the +difficulties of his position. In 1349 Margaret was induced to resign her +sovereignty, and the stadholder became count under the title of William +V. This was the time of the formation of the famous parties in Holland, +known as Kabbeljauws (Cods) and Hoeks (Hooks); the former, the burgher +party, were the supporters of William (possibly the name was derived +from the light blue, scaly looking Bavarian coat of arms), the latter +the party of the disaffected nobles, who wanted to catch and devour the +fat burgher fish. In 1350 such was the disorder in the land that +Margaret, at the request of the nobles, came to Holland to take into her +own hands the reins of government. The struggle between the nobles and +the cities broke out into civil war. Edward III. came to Margaret's aid, +winning a sea-fight off Veere in 1351; a few weeks later the Hooks and +their English allies were defeated by William and the Cods at +Vlaardingen--an overthrow which ruined Margaret's cause. Edward III. +shortly afterwards changed sides, and the empress saw herself compelled +(1354) to come to an understanding with her son, he being recognized as +count of Holland and Zeeland, she of Hainaut. Margaret died two years +later, leaving William, who had married Matilda of Lancaster, in +possession of the entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance (July 1356). His +tenure of power was, however, very brief. Before the close of 1357 he +showed such marked signs of insanity that his wife, with his own consent +and the support of both parties, invited Duke Albert of Bavaria, younger +brother of William V., to be regent, with the title of Ruward (1358). +William lived in confinement for 31 years. Albert died in 1404, having +ruled the land well and wisely for 46 years, first as Ruward, then as +count. Despite outbreaks from time to time of the Hook and Cod troubles, +he was able to make his authority respected, and to help forward in many +ways the social progress of the country. The influence of the towns was +steadily on the increase, and their government began to fall into the +hands of the burgher patrician class, who formed the Cod party. Opposed +to them were the nobility and the lower classes, forming the Hook party. +In Albert's latter years a fresh outbreak of civil war (1392-1395) was +caused by the count's espousing the side of the Cods, while the Hooks +had the support of his eldest son, William. Albert was afterwards +reconciled to his son, who succeeded him as William VI. in 1404. On his +accession to power William upheld the Hooks, and secured their +ascendancy. His reign was much troubled with civil discords, but he was +a brave soldier, and was generally successful in his enterprises. He +died in 1417, leaving an only child, a daughter, Jacqueline (or Jacoba), +who had in her early youth been married to John, heir to the throne of +France. At a gathering held at the Hague (August 15, 1416) the nobles +and representatives of the cities of Holland and Zeeland had promised at +William's request to support his daughter's claims to the succession. +But John of France died (April 1417), and William VI. about a month +later, leaving the widowed Jacqueline at 17 years of age face to face +with a difficult situation. She was at first welcomed in Holland and +Zeeland, but found her claims opposed by her uncle, John of Bavaria, +supported by the Cod party. Every one from whom she might have expected +help betrayed her in turn, her second husband John IV. of Brabant, her +third husband Humphrey of Gloucester, her cousin Philip the Good of +Burgundy, all behaved shamefully to her. Her romantic and sad life has +rendered the courageous and accomplished Jacqueline the most picturesque +figure in the whole history of Holland. She struggled long against her +powerful kinsfolk, nor did she know happiness till near the end of her +life, when she abandoned the unequal strife, and found repose with +Francis of Borselen, Ruward of Holland, her fourth husband. Him Philip +the Good, duke of Burgundy, craftily seized; and thereby in 1433 the +Duchess Jacqueline was compelled to cede her rights over the counties of +Holland and Hainaut. Consequently at her death in 1436, as she left no +children, Philip succeeded to the full and undisputed possession of her +lands. He had already acquired by inheritance, purchase or force almost +all the other Netherland states; and now, with the extinction of the +Bavarian line of counts, Holland ceased to have an independent existence +and became an outlying province of the growing Burgundian power (see +BURGUNDY). During the years that followed the accession to the +sovereignty of Duke Philip, Holland plays but an insignificant part. It +was governed by a stadholder, and but small respect was shown for its +chartered rights and privileges. The quarrels between the Hook and Cod +factions still continued, but the outbreaks of civil strife were quickly +repressed by the strong hand of Philip. Holland during this time +contented herself with growing material prosperity. Her herring fishery, +rendered more valuable by the curing process discovered or introduced by +Benkelszoon, brought her increasing wealth, and her fishermen were +already laying the foundations of her future maritime greatness. It was +in the days of Duke Philip that Lorenz Koster of Haarlem contributed his +share to the discovery of printing. During the reign of Charles the Bold +(1467-1477) the Hollanders, like the other subjects of that warlike +prince, suffered much from the burden of taxation An outbreak at Hoorn +was by Charles sternly repressed. The Hollanders were much aggrieved by +the establishment of a high court of justice for the entire Netherlands +at Mechlin. (1474). This was regarded as a serious breach of their +privileges. The succession of Mary of Burgundy led to the granting to +Holland as to the other provinces of the Netherlands, of the Great +Privilege of March 1477, which restored the most important of their +ancient rights and liberties (see NETHERLANDS). A high court of justice +was established for Holland, Zeeland and Friesland, and the use of the +native language was made official. The Hook and Cod troubles again +disturbed the country. Hook uprisings took place at Leiden and Dordrecht +and had to be repressed by armed force. + + + Maximilian of Austria. + + Philip II. the Fair. + + The Emperor Charles V. (Charles III.). + + Philip III. + + William of Orange Stadholder. + + The revolt of the Netherlands. + + Union of Utrecht. + + Abjuration of Philip's Sovereignty. + +By the sudden death of the Duchess Mary in 1482 her possessions, +including the county of Holland, passed to her infant son Philip, under +the guardianship of his father the Archduke Maximilian of Austria. Thus +the Burgundian dynasty was succeeded by that of the Habsburgs. During +the regency of Maximilian the turbulence of the Hooks caused much strife +and unrest in Holland. Their leaders. Francis of Brederode and John of +Naaldwijk, seized Rotterdam and other places. Their overthrow finally +ended the strife between Hooks and Cods. The "Bread and Cheese War," an +uprising of the peasants in North Holland caused by famine, is a proof +of the misery caused by civil discords and oppressive taxation. In 1494, +Maximilian having been elected emperor, Philip was declared of age. His +assumption of the government was greeted with joy in Holland, and in his +reign the province enjoyed rest and its fisheries benefited from the +commercial treaty concluded with England. The story of Holland during +the long reign of his son and successor Charles III. (1506-1555), better +known as the emperor Charles V., belongs to the general history of the +Netherlands (see NETHERLANDS). On the abdication of Charles, his son +Philip II. of Spain became Philip III., count of Holland, the ruler +whose arbitrary rule in church and state brought about the revolt of the +Netherlands. His appointment of William, prince of Orange, as stadholder +of Holland and Zeeland was destined to have momentous results to the +future of those provinces (see WILLIAM THE SILENT). The capture of Brill +and of Flushing in 1572 by the Sea-Beggars led to the submission of the +greater part of Holland and Zeeland to the authority of the prince of +Orange, who, as stadholder, summoned the states of Holland to meet at +Dordrecht. This act was the beginning of Dutch independence. From this +time forward William made Holland his home. It became the bulwark of the +Protestant faith in the Netherlands, the focus of the resistance to +Spanish tyranny. The sieges of Haarlem, Alkmaar and Leiden saved Holland +from being overwhelmed by the armies of Alva and Requesens and stemmed +the tide of Spanish victory. The act of federation between Holland and +Zeeland brought about by the influence of William was the germ of the +larger union of Utrecht between the seven northern provinces in 1579. +But within the larger union the inner and closer union between Holland +and Zeeland continued to subsist. In 1580, when the sovereignty of the +Netherlands was offered to the duke of Anjou, the two maritime provinces +refused to acquiesce, and forced William to accept the title of count of +Holland and Zeeland. In the following year William in the name of the +two provinces solemnly abjured the sovereignty of the Spanish king (July +24). After the assassination of William (1584) the title of count of +Holland was never revived. + + + Government of Holland. + + Johan van Oldenbarneveldt. + + Contest between the Principles of National and Provincial Sovereignty. + +In the long struggle of the united provinces with Spain, which followed +the death of Orange, the brunt of the conflict fell upon Holland. More +than half the burden of the charges of the war fell upon this one +province; and with Zeeland it furnished the fleets which formed the +chief defence of the country. Hence the importance attached to the vote +of Holland in the assembly of the States-General. That vote was given by +deputies at the head of whom was the advocate (in later times called the +grand pensionary) of Holland, and who were responsible to, and the +spokesmen of, the provincial states. These states, which met at the +Hague in the same building as the States-General, consisted of +representatives of the burgher oligarchies (regents) of the principal +towns, together with representatives of the nobles, who possessed one +vote only. The advocate was the paid minister of the states. He presided +over their meetings, kept their minutes and conducted all +correspondence, and, as stated above, was their spokesman in the +States-General. The advocate (or grand pensionary) of Holland therefore, +if an able man, had opportunities for exercising a very considerable +influence, becoming in fact a kind of minister of all affairs. It was +this influence as exerted by the successive advocates of Holland, Paul +Buys and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, which rendered abortive the +well-meant efforts of the earl of Leicester to centralize the government +of the United Provinces. After his departure (1587) the advocate of +Holland, Oldenbarneveldt, became the indispensable statesman of the +struggling republic. The multiplicity of his functions gave to the +advocate an almost unlimited authority in the details of administration, +and for thirty years the conduct of affairs remained in his hands (see +OLDENBARNEVELDT). This meant the undisputed hegemony of Holland in the +federation, in other words of the burgher oligarchies who controlled the +town corporations of the province, and especially of Amsterdam. This +authority of Holland was, however, more than counterbalanced by the +extensive powers with which the stadholder princes of Orange were +invested; and the chief crises in the internal history of the Dutch +republic are to be found in the struggles for supremacy between two, in +reality, different principles of government. On the one side the +principle of provincial sovereignty which gave to the voice of Holland a +preponderating weight that was decisive; on the other side the principle +of national sovereignty personified in the princes of Orange, to whom +the States-General and the provincial states delegated executive powers +that were little less than monarchical. + + + Maurice Prince of Orange and John of Oldenbarneveldt. + + Frederick Henry Prince of Orange. + + William II. Prince of Orange. + + John de Witt. + + William III. Prince of Orange. + + William IV. Prince of Orange. + +The conclusion of the twelve years' truce in 1609 was a triumph for +Oldenbarneveldt and the province of Holland over the opposition of +Maurice, prince of Orange. In 1617 the outbreak of the religious dispute +between the Remonstrant and Contra-remonstrant parties brought on a life +and death struggle between the sovereign province of Holland and the +States-General of the union. The sword of Maurice decided the issue in +favour of the States-General. The claims of Holland were overthrown and +the head of Oldenbarneveldt fell upon the scaffold (1619). The +stadholder, Frederick Henry of Orange, ruled with well-nigh monarchical +authority (1625-1647), but even he at the height of his power and +popularity had always to reckon with the opposition of the states of +Holland and of Amsterdam, and many of his plans of campaign were +thwarted by the refusal of the Hollanders to furnish supplies. His son +William II. was but 21 years of age on succeeding to the stadholdership, +and the states of Holland were sufficiently powerful to carry through +the negotiations for the peace of Munster (1648) in spite of his +opposition. A life and death conflict again ensued, and once more in +1650 the prince of Orange by armed force crushed the opposition of the +Hollanders. The sudden death of William in the hour of his triumph +caused a complete revolution in the government of the republic. He left +no heir but a posthumous infant, and the party of the burgher regents of +Holland was once more in the ascendant. The office of stadholder was +abolished, and John de Witt, the grand pensionary (_Raad-Pensionaris_) +of Holland, for two decades held in his hands all the threads of +administration, and occupied the same position of undisputed authority +in the councils of the land as Oldenbarneveldt had done at the beginning +of the century. Amsterdam during this period was the centre and head of +the United Provinces. The principle of provincial sovereignty was +carried to its extreme point in the separate treaty concluded with +Cromwell in 1654, in which the province of Holland agreed to exclude for +ever the prince of Orange from the office of stadholder of Holland or +captain-general of the union. In 1672 another revolution took place. +John de Witt was murdered, and William III. was called to fill the +office of dignity and authority which had been held by his ancestors of +the house of Orange, and the stadholdership was declared to be +hereditary in his family. But William died without issue (see WILLIAM +III.) and a stadholderless period, during which the province of Holland +was supreme in the union, followed till 1737. This change was effected +smoothly, for though William had many differences with Amsterdam, he had +in Anthony Heinsius (van der Heim), who was grand pensionary of Holland +from 1690 to his death in 1720, a statesman whom he thoroughly trusted, +who worked with him in the furtherance of his policy during life and who +continued to carry out that policy after his death. In 1737 there was +once more a reversion to the stadholdership in the person of William +IV., whose powers were strengthened and declared hereditary both in the +male and female line in 1747. But until the final destruction of the +federal republic by the French armies, the perennial struggle went on +between the Holland or federal party (_Staatsgesinden_) centred at +Amsterdam--out of which grew the patriot party under William V.--and the +Orange or unionist party (_Oranjegesinden_), which was strong in the +smaller provinces and had much popular support among the lower classes. +The French conquest swept away the old condition of things never to +reappear; but allegiance to the Orange dynasty survived, and in 1813 +became the rallying point of a united Dutch people. At the same time the +leading part played by the province of Holland in the history of the +republic has not been unrecognized, for the country ruled over by the +sovereigns of the house of Orange is always popularly, and often +officially, known as Holland. + + + Constitution of the States of Holland. + + The Grand Pensionary. + + College of Deputed Councillors. + +The full title of the states of Holland in the 17th and 18th centuries +was: _de Edele Groot Mogende Heeren Staaten van Holland en +Westfriesland_. After 1608 this assembly consisted of nineteen members, +one representing the nobility (_ridderschap_), and eighteen, the towns. +The member for the nobles had precedence and voted first. The interests +of the country districts (_het platte land_) were the peculiar charges +of the member for the nobles. The nobles also retained the right of +appointing representatives to sit in the College of Deputed Councillors, +in certain colleges of the admiralty, and upon the board of directors of +the East India Company, and to various public offices. The following +eighteen towns sent representatives: South Quarter--(1) Dordrecht, (2) +Haarlem, (3) Delft, (4) Leiden, (5) Amsterdam, (6) Gouda, (7) Rotterdam, +(8) Gorinchem, (9) Schiedam, (10) Schoonhoven, (11) Brill; North +Quarter:--(12) Alkmaar, (13) Hoorn, (14) Enkhuizen, (15) Edam, (16) +Monnikendam, (17) Medemblik, (18) Purmerend. Each town (as did also the +nobles) sent as many representatives as they pleased, but the nineteen +members had only one vote each. Each town's deputation was headed by its +pensionary, who was the spokesman on behalf of the representatives. +Certain questions such as peace and war, voting of subsidies, imposition +of taxation, changes in the mode of government, &c., required unanimity +of votes. The grand pensionary (_Raad-Pensionaris_) was at once the +president and chief administrative officer of the states. He presided +over all meetings, conducted the business, kept the minutes, and was +charged with the maintenance of the rights of the states, with the +execution of their resolutions and with the entire correspondence. Nor +were his functions only provincial. He was the head and the spokesman of +the deputation of the states to the States-General of the union; and in +the stadholderless period the influence of such grand pensionaries of +Holland as John de Witt and Anthony Heinsius enabled the complicated and +intricate machinery of government in a confederacy of many sovereign and +semi-sovereign authorities without any recognized head of the state, to +work with comparative smoothness and a remarkable unity of policy. This +was secured by the indisputable predominance in the union of the +province of Holland. The policy of the states of Holland swayed the +policy of the generality, and historical circumstances decreed that the +policy of the states of Holland during long and critical periods should +be controlled by a succession of remarkable men filling the office of +grand pensionary. The states of Holland sat at the Hague in the months +of March, July, September and November. During the periods of +prorogation the continuous oversight of the business and interests of +the province was, however, never neglected. This duty was confided to a +body called the College of Deputed Councillors (_het Kollegie der +Gekommitteerde Raden_), which was itself divided into two sections, one +for the south quarter, another for the north quarter. The more +important--that for the south quarter--consisted of ten members, (1) the +senior member of the nobility, who sat for life, (2) representatives +(for periods of three years) of the eight towns: Dordrecht, Haarlem, +Delft, Leiden, Amsterdam, Gouda, Rotterdam and Gorinchem, with a tenth +member (usually elected biennially) for the towns of Schiedam, +Schoonhoven and Brill conjointly. The grand pensionary presided over the +meetings of the college, which had the general charge of the whole +provincial administration, especially of finance, the carrying out of +the resolutions of the states, the maintenance of defences, and the +upholding of the privileges and liberties of the land. With particular +regard to this last-named duty the college deputed two of its members to +attend all meetings of the states-general, to watch the proceedings and +report at once any proposals which they held to be contrary to the +interests or to infringe upon the rights of the province of Holland. The +institution of the College of Deputed Councillors might thus be +described as a vigilance committee of the states in perpetual session. +The existence of the college, with its many weighty and important +functions, must never be lost sight of by students who desire to have a +clear understanding of the remarkable part played by the province of +Holland in the history of the United Netherlands. (G. E.) + + + + +HOLLAND, a city of Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Macatawa Bay +(formerly called Black Lake), near Lake Michigan, and 25 m. W.S.W. of +Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 3945; (1900) 7790, of whom a large portion +were of Dutch descent; (1904) 8966; (1910) 10,490. It is served by the +Pere Marquette Railroad, by steamboat lines to Chicago and other lake +ports, and by electric lines connecting with Grand Rapids, Saugatuck, +and the neighbouring summer resorts. On Macatawa Bay are Ottawa Beach, +Macatawa Park, Jenison Park, Central Park, Castle Park and Waukezoo. In +the city itself are Hope College (co-educational; founded in 1851 and +incorporated as a college in 1866), an institution of the (Dutch) +Reformed Church in America; and the Western Theological Seminary (1869; +suspended 1877-1884) of the same denomination. Holland is a grain and +fruit shipping centre, and among its manufactures are furniture, +leather, grist mill products, iron, beer, pickles, shoes, beet sugar, +gelatine, biscuit (Holland rusk), electric and steam launches, and +pianos. In 1908 seven weekly, one daily, and two monthly papers (four +denominational) were published at Holland, five of them in Dutch. The +municipality owns its water-works and electric-lighting plant. Holland +was founded in 1847 by Dutch settlers, under the leadership of the Rev. +A. C. Van Raalte, and was chartered as a city in 1867. In 1871 much of +it was destroyed by a forest fire. + + + + +HOLLAND, a cloth so called from the country where it was first made. It +was originally a fine plain linen fabric of a brownish colour--unbleached +flax. Several varieties are now made: hollands, pale hollands and fine +hollands. They are used for aprons, blinds, shirts, blouses and dresses. + + + + +HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS [VACLAF HOLAR] (1607-1677), Bohemian etcher, +was born at Prague on the 13th of July 1607, and died in London, being +buried at St Margaret's church, Westminster, on the 28th of March 1677. +His family was ruined by the capture of Prague in the Thirty Years' War, +and young Hollar, who had been destined for the law, determined to become +an artist. The earliest of his works that have come down to us are dated +1625 and 1626; they are small plates, and one of them is a copy of a +Virgin and Child by Durer, whose influence upon Hollar's work was always +great. In 1627 he was at Frankfort, working under Matthew Merian, an +etcher and engraver; thence he passed to Strassburg, and thence, in 1633, +to Cologne. It was there that he attracted the notice of the famous +amateur Thomas, earl of Arundel, then on an embassy to the imperial +court; and with him Hollar travelled to Vienna and Prague, and finally +came in 1637 to England, destined to be his home for many years. Though +he lived in the household of Lord Arundel, he seems to have worked not +exclusively for him, but to have begun that slavery to the publishers +which was afterwards the normal condition of his life. In his first year +in England he made for Stent, the printseller, the magnificent View of +Greenwich, nearly a yard long, and received thirty shillings for the +plate,--perhaps a twentieth part of what would now be paid for a single +good impression. Afterwards we hear of his fixing the price of his work +at fourpence an hour, and measuring his time by a sandglass. The Civil +War had its effect on his fortunes, but none on his industry. Lord +Arundel left England in 1642, and Hollar passed into the service of the +duke of York, taking with him a wife and two children. With other +royalist artists, notably Inigo Jones and Faithorne, he stood the long +and eventful siege of Basing House; and as we have some hundred plates +from his hand dated during the years 1643 and 1644 he must have turned +his enforced leisure to good purpose. Taken prisoner, he escaped or was +released, and joined Lord Arundel at Antwerp, and there he remained eight +years, the prime of his working life, when he produced his finest plates +of every kind, his noblest views, his miraculous "muffs" and "shells," +and the superb portrait of the duke of York. In 1652 he returned to +London, and lived for a time with Faithorne the engraver near Temple Bar. +During the following years were published many books which he +illustrated:--Ogilby's _Virgil_ and _Homer_, Stapylton's _Juvenal_, and +Dugdale's _Warwickshire_, _St Paul's_ and _Monasticon_ (part i.). The +booksellers continued to impose on the simple-minded foreigner, +pretending to decline his work that he might still further reduce the +wretched price he charged them. Nor did the Restoration improve his +position. The court did nothing for him, and in the great plague he lost +his young son, who, we are told, might have rivalled his father as an +artist. After the great fire he produced some of his famous "Views of +London"; and it may have been the success of these plates which induced +the king to send him, in 1668, to Tangier, to draw the town and forts. +During his return to England occurred the desperate and successful +engagement fought by his ship the "Mary Rose," under Captain Kempthorne, +against seven Algerine men-of-war,--a brilliant affair which Hollar +etched for Ogilby's _Africa_. He lived eight years after his return, +still working for the booksellers, and retaining to the end his wonderful +powers; witness the large plate of Edinburgh (dated 1670), one of the +greatest of his works. He died in extreme poverty, his last recorded +words being a request to the bailiffs that they would not carry away the +bed on which he was dying. + +Hollar's variety was boundless; his plates number some 2740, and include +views, portraits, ships, religious subjects, heraldic subjects, +landscapes, and still life in a hundred different forms. No one that +ever lived has been able to represent fur, or shells, or a butterfly's +wing as he has done. His architectural drawings, such as those of +Antwerp and Strassburg cathedrals, and his views of towns, are +mathematically exact, but they are pictures as well. He could reproduce +the decorative works of other artists quite faultlessly, as in the +famous chalice after Mantegna's drawing. His _Theatrum mulierum_ and +similar collections reproduce for us with literal truth the outward +aspects of the people of his day; and his portraits, a branch of art in +which he has been unfairly disparaged, are of extraordinary refinement +and power. + + Almost complete collections of Hollar's works exist in the British + Museum and in the library at Windsor Castle. Two admirable catalogues + of his plates have been made, one in 1745 (2nd ed. 1759) by George + Vertue, and one in 1853 by Parthey. The latter, published at Berlin, + is a model of German thoroughness and accuracy. + + + + +HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES, BARON (1599-1680), English statesman and writer, +second son of John Holles, 1st earl of Clare (c. 1564-1637), by Anne, +daughter of Sir Thomas Stanhope, was born on the 31st of October 1599. +The favourite son of his father and endowed with great natural +abilities, Denzil Holles grew up under advantageous circumstances. +Destined to become later one of the most formidable antagonists of King +Charles's arbitrary government, he was in early youth that prince's +playmate and intimate companion. The earl of Clare was, however, no +friend to the Stuart administration, being especially hostile to the +duke of Buckingham; and on the accession of Charles to the throne the +king's offers of favour were rejected. In 1624 Holles was returned to +parliament for Mitchell in Cornwall, and in 1628 for Dorchester. He had +from the first a keen sense of the humiliations which attended the +foreign policy of the Stuart kings. Writing to Strafford, his +brother-in-law, on the 29th of November 1627, he severely censures +Buckingham's conduct of the expedition to the Isle of Rhe; "since +England was England," the declared, "it received not so dishonourable a +blow"; and he joined in the demand for Buckingham's impeachment in 1628. +To these discontents were now added the abuses arising from the king's +arbitrary administration. On the 2nd of March 1629, when Sir John Finch, +the speaker, refused to put Sir John Eliot's Protestations and was about +to adjourn the House by the king's command, Holles with another member +thrust him back into the chair and swore "he should sit still till it +pleased them to rise." Meanwhile Eliot, on the refusal of the speaker to +read the Protestations, had himself thrown them into the fire; the usher +of the black rod was knocking at the door for admittance, and the king +had sent for the guard. But Holles, declaring that he could not render +the king or his country better service, put the Protestations to the +House from memory, all the members rising to their feet and applauding. +In consequence a warrant was issued for his arrest with others on the +following day. They were prosecuted first in the Star Chamber and +subsequently in the King's Bench. When brought upon his _habeas corpus_ +before the latter court Holles offered with the rest to give bail, but +refused sureties for good behaviour, and argued that the court had no +jurisdiction over offences supposed to have been committed in +parliament. On his refusal to plead he was sentenced to a fine of 1000 +marks and to imprisonment during the king's pleasure. Holles had at +first been committed and remained for some time a close prisoner in the +Tower of London. The "close" confinement, however, was soon changed to a +"safe" one, the prisoner then having leave to take the air and exercise, +but being obliged to maintain himself at his own expense. On the 29th of +October Holles, with Eliot and Valentine, was transferred to the +Marshalsea. His resistance to the king's tyranny did not prove so stout +as that of some of his comrades in misfortune. Among the papers of the +secretary Sir John Coke is a petition of Holles, couched in humble and +submissive terms, to be restored to the king's favour;[1] having given +the security demanded for his good behaviour, he was liberated early in +1630, and on the 30th of October was allowed bail. Being still banished +from London he retired to the country, paying his fine in 1637 or 1638. +The fine was repaid by the parliament in July 1644, and the judgment was +revised on a writ of error in 1668. In 1638 we find him, notwithstanding +his recent experiences, one of the chief leaders in his county of the +resistance to ship money, though it would appear that he subsequently +made submission. + +Holles was a member of the Short and Long Parliaments assembled in 1640. +According to Laud he was now "one of the great leading men in the House +of Commons," and in Clarendon's opinion he was "a man of more +accomplished parts than any of his party" and of most authority. He was +not, however, in the confidence of the republican party. Though he was +at first named one of the managers for the impeachment of Strafford, +Holles had little share in his prosecution. According to Laud he held +out to Strafford hopes of saving his life if he would use his influence +with the king to abolish episcopacy, but the earl refused, and Holles +advised Charles that Strafford should demand a short respite, of which +he would take advantage to procure a commutation of the death sentence. +In the debate on the attainder he spoke on behalf of Strafford's family, +and later obtained some favours from the parliament for his eldest son. +In all other matters in parliament Holles took a principal part. He was +one of the chief movers of the Protestation of the 3rd of May 1641, +which he carried up to the Lords, urging them to give it their approval. +Although, according to Clarendon, he did not wish to change the +government of the church, he showed himself at this time decidedly +hostile to the bishops. He took up the impeachment of Laud to the House +of Peers, supported the Londoners' petition for the abolition of +episcopacy and the Root and Branch Bill, and afterwards urged that the +bishops impeached for their conduct in the affair of the late canons +should be accused of treason. He showed equal energy in the affairs of +Ireland at the outbreak of the rebellion, supported strongly the +independence and purity of the judicial bench, and opposed toleration of +the Roman Catholics. On the 9th of July 1641 he addressed the Lords on +behalf of the queen of Bohemia, expressing great loyalty to the king and +royal family and urging the necessity of supporting the Protestant +religion everywhere. Together with Pym, Holles drew up the Grand +Remonstrance, and made a vigorous speech in its support on the 22nd of +November 1641, in which he argued for the right of one House to make a +declaration, and asserted: "If kings are misled by their counsellors we +may, we must tell them of it." On the 15th of December he was a teller +in the division in favour of printing it. On the great subject of the +militia he also showed activity. He supported Hesilriges' Militia Bill +of the 7th of December 1641, and on the 31st of December he took up to +the king the Commons' demand for a guard under the command of Essex. +"Holles's force and reputation," said Sir Ralph Verney, "are the two +things that give the success to all actions." After the failure of the +attempt by the court to gain over Holles and others by offering them +posts in the administration, he was one of the "five members" impeached +by the king.[2] Holles at once grasped the full significance of the +king's action, and after the triumphant return to the House of the five +members, on the 11th of January, threw himself into still more +pronounced opposition to the arbitrary policy of the crown. He demanded +that before anything further was done the members should be cleared of +their impeachment; was himself leader in the impeachment of the duke of +Richmond; and on the 31st of January, when taking up the militia +petition to the House of Lords, he adopted a very menacing tone, at the +same time presenting a petition of some thousands of supposed starving +artificers of London, congregated round the House. On the 15th of June +he carried up the impeachment of the nine Lords who had deserted the +parliament; and he was one of the committee of safety appointed on the +4th of July. + +On the outbreak of the Civil War (see GREAT REBELLION) Holles, who had +been made lieutenant of Bristol, was sent with Bedford to the west +against the marquess of Hertford, and took part in the unsuccessful +siege of the latter at Sherborne Castle. He was present at Edgehill, +where his regiment of Puritans recruited in London was one of the few +which stood firm and saved the day for the parliament. On the 13th of +November his men were surprised at Brentford during his absence, and +routed after a stout resistance. In December he was proposed for the +command of the forces in the west, an appointment which he appears to +have refused. Notwithstanding his activity in the field for the cause of +the parliament, the appeal to arms had been distasteful to Holles from +the first. As early as September he surprised the House by the marked +abatement of his former "violent and fiery spirit," and his changed +attitude did not escape the taunts of his enemies, who attributed it +scornfully to his disaster at Brentford or to his new wife. He probably +foresaw that, to whichever side victory fell, the struggle could only +terminate in the suppression of the constitution and of the moderate +party on which all his hopes were based. His feelings and political +opinions, too, were essentially aristocratic, and he regarded with +horror the transference of the government of the state from the king and +the ruling families to the parliamentary leaders. He now advocated peace +and a settlement of the disputes by concessions on both sides; a +proposal full of danger because impracticable, and one therefore which +could only weaken the parliamentary resistance and prolong the struggle. +He warmly supported the peace negotiations on the 21st of November and +the 22nd of December, and his attitude led to a breach with Pym and the +more determined party. In June 1643 he was accused of complicity in +Waller's plot, but swore to his innocency; and his arrest with others of +the peace party was even proposed in August, when Holles applied for a +pass to leave the country. The king's successes, however, for the moment +put a stop to all hopes of peace; and in April 1644 Holles addressed the +citizens of London at the Guildhall, calling upon them "to join with +their purses, their persons, and their prayers together" to support the +army of Essex. In November Holles and Whitelocke headed the commission +appointed to treat with the king at Oxford. He endeavoured to convince +the royalists of the necessity of yielding in time, before the "new +party of hot men" should gain the upper hand. Holles and Whitelocke had +a private meeting with the king, when at Charles's request they drew up +the answer which they advised him to return to the parliament. This +interview was not communicated to the other commissioners or to +parliament, and though doubtless their motives were thoroughly +patriotic, their action was scarcely compatible with their position as +trustees of the parliamentary cause. Holles was also appointed a +commissioner at Uxbridge in January 1645 and endeavoured to overcome the +crucial difficulty of the militia by postponing its discussion +altogether. As leader of the moderate (or Presbyterian) party Holles now +came into violent antagonism with Cromwell and the army faction. "They +hated one another equally"; and Holles would not allow any merit in +Cromwell, accusing him of cowardice and attributing his successes to +chance and good fortune. With the support of Essex and the Scottish +commissioners Holles endeavoured in December 1644 to procure Cromwell's +impeachment as an incendiary between the two nations, and "passionately" +opposed the self-denying ordinance. In return Holles was charged with +having held secret communications with the king at Oxford and with a +correspondence with Lord Digby; but after a long examination by the +House he was pronounced innocent on the 19th of July 1645. Determined on +Cromwell's destruction, he refused to listen to the prudent counsels of +Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, who urged that Cromwell was too strong to be +resisted or provoked, and on the 29th of March 1647 drew up in +parliament a hasty proclamation declaring the promoters of the army +petition enemies to the state; in April challenging Ireton to a duel. + +The army party was now thoroughly exasperated against Holles. "They were +resolved one way or other to be rid of him," says Clarendon. On the 16th +of June 1647 eleven members including Holles were charged by the army +with various offences against the state, followed on the 23rd by fresh +demands for their impeachment and for their suspension, which was +refused. On the 26th, however, the eleven members, to avoid violence, +asked leave to withdraw. Their reply to the charges against them was +handed into the House on the 19th of July, and on the 20th Holles took +leave of the House in _A grave and learned speech..._. After the riot of +the apprentices on the 26th, for which Holles disclaimed any +responsibility, the eleven members were again (30th of July) recalled to +their seats, and Holles was one of the committee of safety appointed. On +the flight of the speaker, however, and part of the parliament to the +army, and the advance of the latter to London, Holles, whose party and +policy were now entirely defeated, left England on the 22nd of August +for Sainte-Mere Eglise in Normandy. On the 26th of January 1648 the +eleven members, who had not appeared when summoned to answer the charges +against them, were expelled. Not long afterwards, however, on the 3rd of +June, these proceedings were annulled; and Holles, who had then returned +and was a prisoner in the Tower with the rest of the eleven members, was +discharged. He returned to his seat on the 14th of August. + +Holles was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king at +Newport on the 18th of September 1648. Aware of the plans of the extreme +party, Holles threw himself at the king's feet and implored him not to +waste time in useless negotiations, and he was one of those who stayed +behind the rest in order to urge Charles to compliance. On the 1st of +December he received the thanks of the House. On the occasion of Pride's +Purge on the 6th of December Holles absented himself and escaped again +to France. From his retirement there he wrote to Charles II. in 1651, +advising him to come to terms with the Scots as the only means of +effecting a restoration; but after the alliance he refused Charles's +offer of the secretaryship of state. In March 1654 Cromwell, who in +alarm at the plots being formed against him was attempting to reconcile +some of his opponents to his government, sent Holles a pass "with +notable circumstances of kindness and esteem." His subsequent movements +and the date of his return to England are uncertain, but in 1656 +Cromwell's resentment was again excited against him as the supposed +author of a tract, really written by Clarendon. He appears to have been +imprisoned, for his release was ordered by the council on the 2nd of +September 1659. + +Holles took part in the conference with Monk at Northumberland House, +when the Restoration was directly proposed, and with the secluded +members took his seat again in parliament on the 21st of February 1660. +On the 23rd of February he was chosen one of the council to carry on the +government during the interregnum; on the 2nd of March the votes passed +against him and the sequestration of his estates were repealed, and on +the 7th he was made custos rotulorum for Dorsetshire. He took a leading +part in bringing about the Restoration, was chairman of the committee of +seven appointed to prepare an answer to the king's letter, and as one of +the deputed Lords and Commons he delivered at the Hague the invitation +to Charles to return. He preceded Charles to England to prepare for his +reception, and was sworn of the privy council on the 5th of June. He was +one of the thirty-four commissioners appointed to try the regicides in +September and October. On the 20th of April 1661 he was created Baron +Holles of Ifield in Sussex, and became henceforth one of the leading +members of the Upper House. + +Holles, who was a good French scholar, was sent as ambassador to France +on the 7th of July 1663. He was ostentatiously English, and a zealous +upholder of the national honour and interests; but his position was +rendered difficult by the absence of home support. On the 27th of +January 1666 war was declared, but Holles was not recalled till May. +Pepys remarks on the 14th of November: "Sir G. Cartaret tells me that +just now my Lord Holles had been with him and wept to think in what a +condition we are fallen." Soon afterwards he was employed on another +disagreeable mission in which the national honour was again at stake, +being sent to Breda to make a peace with Holland in May 1667. He +accomplished his task successfully, the articles being signed on the +21st of June. + +On the 12th of December he protested against Lord Clarendon's banishment +and was nearly put out of the council in consequence. In 1668 he was +manager for the Lords in the celebrated Skinner's case, in which his +knowledge of precedents was of great service, and on which occasion he +published the tract _The Grand Question concerning the Judicature of the +House of Peeres_ (1669). Holles, who was honourably distinguished by +Charles as a "stiff and sullen man," and as one who would not yield to +solicitation, now became with Halifax and Shaftesbury a leader in the +resistance to the domestic and foreign policy of the court. Together +with Halifax he opposed both the arbitrary Conventicle Act of 1670 and +the Test Oath of 1675, his objection to the latter being chiefly founded +on the invasion of the privileges of the peers which it involved; and he +defended with vigour the right of the Peers to record their protests. On +the 7th of January 1676 Holles with Halifax was summarily dismissed from +the council. On the occasion of the Commons petitioning the king in +favour of an alliance with the Dutch, Holles addressed a Letter to Van +Beuninghen at Amsterdam on "Love to our Country and Hatred of a Common +Enemy," enlarging upon the necessity of uniting in a common defence +against French aggression and in support of the Protestant religion. +"The People are strong but the Government is weak," he declares; and he +attributes the cause of weakness to the transference of power from the +nobility to the people, and to a succession of three weak princes. "Save +what (the Parliament) did, we have not taken one true step nor struck +one true stroke since Queen Elizabeth." He endeavoured to embarrass the +government this year in his tract on _Some Considerations upon the +Question whether the parliament is dissolved by its prorogation for 15 +months_. It was held by the Lords to be seditious and scandalous; while +for publishing another pamphlet written by Holles entitled _The Grand +Question concerning the Prorogation of this Parliament_ (otherwise _The +Long Parliament dissolved_) the corrector of the proof sheets was +committed to the Tower and fined L1000. In order to bring about the +downfall of Danby (afterwards duke of Leeds) and the disbanding of the +army, which he believed to be intended for the suppression of the +national liberties, Holles at this time (1677-1679) engaged, as did many +others, in a dangerous intrigue with Courtin and Barillon, the French +envoys, and Louis XIV.; he refused, however, the latter's presents on +the ground that he was a member of the council, having been appointed to +Sir William Temple's new modelled cabinet in 1679. Barillon described +him as at this period in his old age "the man of all England for whom +the different cabals have the most consideration," and as firmly opposed +to the arbitrary designs of the court. He showed moderation in the +Popish Plot, and on the question of the exclusion followed Halifax +rather than Shaftesbury. His long and eventful career closed by his +death on the 17th of February 1680. + +The character of Holles has been drawn by Burnet, with whom he was on +terms of friendship. "Hollis was a man of great courage and of as great +pride.... He was faithful and firm to his side and never changed through +the whole course of his life.... He argued well but too vehemently; for +he could not bear contradiction. He had the soul of an old stubborn +Roman in him. He was a faithful but a rough friend, and a severe but +fair enemy. He had a true sense of religion; and was a man of an +unblameable course of life and of a sound judgment when it was not +biased by passion."[3] Holles was essentially an aristocrat and a Whig +in feeling, making Cromwell's supposed hatred of "Lords" a special +charge against him; regarding the civil wars rather as a social than as +a political revolution, and attributing all the evils of his time to the +transference of political power from the governing families to the +"meanest of men." He was an authority on the history and practice of +parliament and the constitution, and besides the pamphlets already +mentioned was the author of _The Case Stated concerning the Judicature +of the House of Peers in the Point of Appeals_ (1675); _The Case Stated +of the Jurisdiction of the House of Lords in the point of Impositions_ +(1676); _Letter of a Gentleman to his Friend showing that the Bishops +are not to be judges in Parliament in Cases Capital_ (1679); _Lord +Holles his Remains, being a 2nd letter to a Friend concerning the +judicature of the Bishops in Parliament..._.[4] He also published _A +True Relation of the unjust accusation of certain French gentlemen_ +(1671), an account of Holles's intercession on their behalf and of his +dispute with Lord Chief Justice Keeling; and he left _Memoirs_, written +in exile in 1649, and dedicated "to the unparalleled Couple, Mr Oliver +St John ... and Mr Oliver Cromwell...." published in 1699 and reprinted +in Baron Maseres's _Select Tracts relating to the Civil Wars_, i. 189. +Several speeches of Holles were printed and are extant, and his Letter +to Van Beuninghen has been already quoted. + +Holles married (1) in 1628 Dorothy, daughter and heiress of Sir Francis +Ashley; (2) in 1642 Jane, daughter and co-heiress of Sir John Shirley of +Ifield in Sussex and widow of Sir Walter Covert of Slougham, Sussex; and +(3) in 1666 Esther, daughter and co-heiress of Gideon Le Lou of +Columbiers in Normandy, widow of James Richer. By his first wife he left +one son, Francis, who succeeded him as 2nd baron. He had no children by +his other wives, and the peerage became extinct in the person of his +grandson Denzil, 3rd Baron Holles, in 1694, the estates devolving on +John Holles (1662-1711), 4th earl of Clare and duke of Newcastle. + +Holles's brother, JOHN HOLLES, 2nd earl of Clare (1595-1666), was member +of parliament for East Retford in three parliaments before succeeding to +the peerage in 1637. He took some part in the Civil War, but "he was +very often of both parties, and never advantaged either." The earldom of +Clare, which had been granted in 1624 by James I. to his father, John +Holles, in return for the payment of L5000, became merged in the dukedom +of Newcastle in 1694, when John Holles, the 4th earl, was created duke +of Newcastle. + + Holles's Life has been written by C. H. Firth in the _Dictionary of + National Biography_; by Horace Walpole in _Royal and Noble Authors_, + ii. 28; by Guizot in _Monk's Contemporaries_ (Eng. trans., 1851); and + by A. Collins in _Historical Collections of Noble Families_ (1752), + and in the _Biographia Britannica_. See also S. R. Gardiner, _History + of England_ (1883-1884), and _History of the Great Civil War_ (1893); + Lord Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion_, edited by W. D. Macray; G. + Burnet, _History of His Own Time_ (1833); and B. Whitelock, + _Memorials_ (1732). (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Earl Cowper_, i. 422. + + [2] The speech of January 5 attributed to him and printed in + _Thomason Tracts_, E 199 (55), is a forgery. + + [3] Burnet's _History of His Own Times_, vi. 257, 268. + + [4] The rough draft, apparently in Holles's handwriting, is in + _Egerton MSS._ ff. 136-149. + + + + +HOLLOWAY, THOMAS (1800-1883), English patent-medicine vendor and +philanthropist, was born at Devonport, on the 22nd of September 1800, of +humble parents. Until his twenty-eighth year he lived at Penzance, where +he assisted his mother and brother in the baker's shop which his father, +once a warrant officer in a militia regiment, had left them at his +death. On coming to London he made the acquaintance of Felix Albinolo, +an Italian, from whom he obtained the idea for the ointment which was to +carry his name all over the world. The secret of his enormous success in +business was due almost entirely to advertisement, in the efficacy of +which he had great faith. He soon added the sale of pills to that of the +ointment, and began to devote the larger part of his profits to +advertising. Holloway's first newspaper announcement appeared on the +15th of October 1837, and in 1842 his yearly expenses for publicity had +reached the sum of L5000; this expenditure went on steadily increasing +as his sales increased, until it had reached the figure of L50,000 per +annum at the time of his death. It is, however, chiefly by the two +princely foundations--the Sanatorium and the College for Women at Egham +(q.v.), endowed by Holloway towards the close of his life--that his name +will be perpetuated, more than a million sterling having been set apart +by him for the erection and permanent endowment of these institutions. +In the deed of gift of the college the founder credited his wife, who +died in 1875, with the advice and counsel that led him to provide what +he hoped might ultimately become the nucleus of a university for women. +The philanthropic and somewhat eccentric donor (he had an unconcealed +prejudice against doctors, lawyers and parsons) died of congestion of +the lungs at Sunninghill on the 26th of December 1883. + + + + +HOLLY (_Ilex Aquifolium_), the European representative of a large genus +of trees and shrubs of the natural order Ilicineae, containing about 170 +species. The genus finds its chief development in Central and South +America; is well developed in Asia, especially the Chinese-Japanese +area, and has but few species in Europe, Africa and Australia. In +Europe, where _I. Aquifolium_ is the sole surviving species, the genus +was richly represented during the Miocene period by forms at first South +American and Asiatic, and later North American in type (Schimper, +_Paleont. veget._ iii. 204, 1874). The leaves are generally leathery and +evergreen, and are alternate and stalked; the flowers are commonly +dioecious, are in axillary cymes, fascicles or umbellules, and have a +persistent four- to five-lobed calyx, a white, rotate four- or rarely +five- or six-cleft corolla, with the four or five stamens adherent to +its base in the male, sometimes hypogynous in the female flowers, and a +two- to twelve-celled ovary; the fruit is a globose, very seldom ovoid, +and usually red drupe, containing two to sixteen one-seeded stones. + +[Illustration: _Ilex Aquifolium._ Shoot bearing leaves and fruit about +1/2 nat. size. + + 1. Flower with abortive stamens. + 2. Flower with abortive pistil. + 3. Floral diagram showing arrangement of parts in horizontal section. + 4. Fruit. + 5. Fruit cut transversely showing the four one-seeded stones.] + +The common holly, or Hulver (apparently the [Greek: kelastros] of +Theophrastus;[1] Ang.-Sax. _holen_ or _holegn_; Mid. Eng. _holyn_ or +_holin_, whence _holm_ and _holmtree_;[2] Welsh, _celyn_; Ger. +_Stechpalme_, _Hulse_, _Hulst_; O. Fr. _houx_; and Fr. _houlx_),[3] _I. +Aquifolium_, is an evergreen shrub or low tree, having smooth, +ash-coloured bark, and wavy, pointed, smooth and glossy leaves, 2 to 3 +in. long, with a spinous margin, raised and cartilaginous below, or, as +commonly on the upper branches of the older trees, entire--a peculiarity +alluded to by Southey in his poem _The Holly Tree_. The flowers, which +appear in May, are ordinarily dioecious, as in all the best of the +cultivated varieties in nurseries (_Gard. Chron._, 1877, i. 149). Darwin +(_Diff. Forms of Flow._, 1877, p. 297) says of the holly: "During +several years I have examined many plants, but have never found one that +was really hermaphrodite." Shirley Hibberd, however (_Gard. Chron._, +1877, ii. 777), mentions the occurrence of "flowers bearing globose +anthers well furnished with pollen, and also perfect ovaries." In his +opinion, _I. Aquifolium_ changes its sex from male to female with age. +In the female flowers the stamens are destitute of pollen, though but +slightly or not at all shorter than in the male flowers; the latter are +more numerous than the female, and have a smaller ovary and a larger +corolla, to which the filaments adhere for a greater length. The corolla +in male plants falls off entire, whereas in fruit-bearers it is broken +into separate segments by the swelling of the young ovary. The holly +occurs in Britain, north-east Scotland excepted, and in western and +southern Europe, from as high as 62 deg. N. lat. in Norway to Turkey and +the Caucasus and in western Asia. It is found generally in forest glades +or in hedges, and does not flourish under the shade of other trees. In +England it is usually small, probably on account of its destruction for +timber, but it may attain to 60 or 70 ft. in height, and Loudon mentions +one tree at Claremont, in Surrey, of 80 ft. Some of the trees on Bleak +Hill, Shropshire, are asserted to be 14 ft. in girth at some distance +from the ground (_N. and Q._, 5th ser., xii. 508). The holly is abundant +in France, especially in Brittany. It will grow in almost any soil not +absolutely wet, but flourishes best in rather dry than moist sandy loam. +Beckmann (_Hist. of Invent._, 1846, i. 193) says that the plant which +first induced J. di Castro to search for alum in Italy was the holly, +which is there still considered to indicate that its habitat is +aluminiferous. The holly is propagated by means of the seeds, which do +not normally germinate until their second year, by whip-grafting and +budding, and by cuttings of the matured summer shoots, which, placed in +sandy soil and kept under cover of a hand-glass in sheltered situations, +generally strike root in spring. Transplantation should be performed in +damp weather in September and October, or, according to some writers, in +spring or on mild days in winter, and care should be taken that the +roots are not dried by exposure to the air. It is rarely injured by +frosts in Britain, where its foliage and bright red berries in winter +render it a valuable ornamental tree. The yield of berries has been +noticed to be less when a warm spring, following on a wet winter season, +has promoted excess of growth. There are numerous varieties of the +holly. Some trees have yellow, and others white or even black fruit. In +the fruitless variety _laurifolia_, "the most floriferous of all +hollies" (Hibberd), the flowers are highly fragrant; the form known as +_femina_ is, on the other hand, remarkable for the number of its +berries. The leaves in the unarmed varieties _aureo-marginata_ and +_albo-marginata_ are of great beauty, and in _ferox_ they are studded +with sharp prickles. The holly is of importance as a hedge-plant, and is +patient of clipping, which is best performed by the knife. Evelyn's +holly hedge at Say's Court, Deptford, was 400 ft. long, 9 ft. high and 5 +ft. in breadth. To form fences, for which Evelyn recommends the +employment of seedlings from woods, the plants should be 9 to 12 in. in +height, with plenty of small fibrous roots, and require to be set 1 to +1(1/2) ft. apart, in well-manured and weeded ground and thoroughly +watered. + +The wood of the holly is even-grained and hard, especially when from the +heartwood of large trees, and almost as white as ivory, except near the +centre of old trunks, where it is brownish. It is employed in inlaying +and turning, and, since it stains well, in the place of ebony, as for +teapot handles. For engraving it is inferior to box. When dry it weighs +about 47(1/2) lb. per cub. ft. From the bark of the holly bird-lime is +manufactured. From the leaves are obtainable a colouring matter named +_ilixanthin_, _ilicic acid_, and a bitter principle, _ilicin_, which has +been variously described by different analytical chemists. They are +eaten by sheep and deer, and in parts of France serve as a winter fodder +for cattle. The berries provoke in man violent vomiting and purging, but +are eaten with immunity by thrushes and other birds. The larvae of the +moths _Sphinx ligustri_ and _Phoxopteryx naevana_ have been met with on +holly. The leaves are mined by the larva of a fly, _Phytomyza ilicis_, +and both on them and the tops of the young twigs occurs the plant-louse +_Aphis ilicis_ (Kaltenbach, _Pflanzenfeinde_, 1874, p. 427). The custom +of employing holly and other plants for decorative purposes at Christmas +is one of considerable antiquity, and has been regarded as a survival of +the usages of the Roman Saturnalia, or of an old Teutonic practice of +hanging the interior of dwellings with evergreens as a refuge for sylvan +spirits from the inclemency of winter. A Border proverb defines an +habitual story-teller as one that "lees never but when the hollen is +green." Several popular superstitions exist with respect to holly. In +the county of Rutland it is deemed unlucky to introduce it into a house +before Christmas Eve. In some English rural districts the prickly and +non-prickly kinds are distinguished as "he" and "she" holly; and in +Derbyshire the tradition obtains that according as the holly brought at +Christmas into a house is smooth or rough, the wife or the husband will +be master. Holly that has adorned churches at that season is in +Worcestershire and Herefordshire much esteemed and cherished, the +possession of a small branch with berries being supposed to bring a +lucky year; and Lonicerus mentions a notion in his time vulgarly +prevalent in Germany that consecrated twigs of the plant hung over a +door are a protection against thunder. + + Among the North American species of _Ilex_ are _I. opaca_, which + resembles the European tree, the Inkberry, _I. (Prinos) glabra_, and + the American Black Alder, or Winterberry, _I. (Prinos) verticillata_. + Hooker (_Fl. of Brit. India_, i. 598, 606) enumerates twenty-four + Indian species of _Ilex_. The Japanese _I. crenata_, and _I. + latifolia_, a remarkably hardy plant, and the North American _I. + Cassine_, are among the species cultivated in Britain. The leaves of + several species of _Ilex_ are used by dyers. The member of the genus + most important economically is _I. paraguariensis_, the prepared + leaves of which constitute Paraguay tea, or MATE (q.v.). Knee holly is + _Ruscus aculeatus_, or butcher's broom (see BROOM); sea holly, + _Eryngium maritimum_, an umbelliferous plant; and the mountain holly + of America, _Nemopanthes canadensis_, also a member of the order + Ilicineae. + + Besides the works above mentioned, see Louden, _Arboretum_, ii. 506 + (1844). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Hist. Plant._ i. 9. 3, iii. 3. 1, and 4. 6, _et passim_. On the + _aquifolium_ or _aquifolia_ of Latin authors, commonly regarded as + the holly, see A. de Grandsagne, _Hist. Nat. de Pline_, bk. xvi., + "Notes," pp. 199, 206. + + [2] The term "holm," as indicative of a prevalence of holly, is + stated to have entered into the names of several places in Britain. + From its superficial resemblance to the holly, the tree _Quercus + Ilex_, the evergreen oak, received the appellation of "holm-oak." + + [3] Skeat (_Etymolog. Dict._, 1879) with reference to the word holly + remarks: "The form of the base KUL (= Teutonic HUL) is probably + connected with Lat. _culmen_, a peak, _culmus_, a stalk; perhaps + because the leaves are 'pointed.'" Grimm (_Deut. Worterb._ Bd. iv.) + suggests that the term _Hulst_, as the O.H.G. _Hulis_, applied to the + butcher's broom, or knee-holly, in the earliest times used for + hedges, may have reference to the holly as a protecting (_hullender_) + plant. + + + + +HOLLYHOCK (from M.E. _holi_--doubtless because brought from the Holy +Land, where it is indigenous (Wedg.)--and A.-S. _hoc_, a mallow), +_Althaea rosea_, a perennial plant of the natural order _Malvaceae_, a +native of the East, which has been cultivated in Great Britain for about +three centuries. The ordinary hollyhock is single-blossomed, but the +florists' varieties have all double flowers, of white, yellow, rose, +purple, violet and other tints, some being almost black. The plant is in +its prime about August, but by careful management examples may be +obtained in blossom from July to as late as November. Hollyhocks are +propagated from seed, or by division of the root, or by planting out in +rich sandy soil, in a close frame, with a gentle bottom heat, single +eyes from woodshoots, or cuttings from outgrowths of the old stock or of +the lateral offsets of the spike. The seed may be sown in October under +cover, the plants obtained being potted in November, and kept under +glass till the following April, or, if it be late-gathered, in May or +June, in the open ground, whence, if required, the plants are best +removed in October or April. In many gardens, when the plants are not +disturbed, self-sown seedlings come up in abundance about April and May. +Seedlings may also be raised in February or March, by the aid of a +gentle heat, in a light and rich moist soil; they should not be watered +till they have made their second leaves, and when large enough for +handling should be pricked off in a cold frame; they are subsequently +transferred to the flower-bed. Hollyhocks thrive best in a well-trenched +and manured sandy loam. The spikes as they grow must be staked; and +water and, for the finest blossoms, liquid manure should be liberally +supplied to the roots. Plants for exhibition require the side growths to +be pinched out; and it is recommended, in cold, bleak or northerly +localities, when the flowering is over, and the stalks have been cut off +4 to 6 in. above the soil, to earth up the crowns with sand. Some of the +finest double-flowered kinds of hollyhock do not bloom well in Scotland. +The plant is susceptible of great modification under cultivation. The +forms now grown are due to the careful selection and crossing of +varieties. It is found that the most diverse varieties may be raised +with certainty from plants growing near together. + +The young shoots of the hollyhock are very liable to the attacks of +slugs, and to a disease occasioned by a fungus, _Puccinia malvacearum_, +which is a native of Chile, attained notoriety in the Australian +colonies, and finally, reaching Europe in 1869, threatened the +extermination of the hollyhock, the soft parts of the leaves of which it +destroys, leaving the venation only remaining. It has been found +especially hurtful to the plant in dry seasons. It is also parasitic on +the wild mallows. The disease appears on the leaves as minute hard +pale-brown pustules, filled with spores which germinate without a +resting-period, but when produced late in the season may last as +resting-spores until next spring. Spraying early in the season with +Bordeaux mixture is an effective preventive, but the best means of +treatment is to destroy all leaves as soon as they show signs of being +attacked, and to prevent the growth of other host-plants such as +mallows, in the neighbourhood. In hot dry seasons, red-spider injures +the foliage very much, but may be kept at bay by syringing the plants +frequently with plenty of clean water. + + + + +HOLLY SPRINGS, a city and the county-seat of Marshall county, +Mississippi, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, 45 m. S.E. of Memphis. +Pop. (1890) 2246; (1900) 2815 (1559 negroes); (1910) 2192. Holly Springs +is served by the Illinois Central and the Kansas City, Memphis & +Birmingham (Frisco System) railways. The city has broad and well-shaded +streets, and a fine court-house and court-house square. It is the seat +of Rust University (opened in 1867), a Methodist Episcopal institution +for negroes; of the Mississippi Synodical College (1905; Presbyterian), +for white girls; and of the North Mississippi Agricultural Experiment +Station. The principal industries are the ginning, compressing and +shipping of cotton, and the manufacture of cotton-seed oil, but the city +also manufactures pottery and brick from clay obtained in the vicinity, +and has an ice factory, bottling works and marble works. The +municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting +plant. Holly Springs was founded in 1837 and was chartered as a city in +1896. Early in December 1862 General Grant established here a large +depot of supplies designed for the use of the Federal army while on its +march toward Vicksburg, but General Earl Van Dorn, with a brigade of +cavalry, surprised the post at daylight on the 20th of this month, +burned the supplies and took 1500 prisoners. Holly Springs was the home +and is the burial-place of Edward Cary Walthall (1831-1898), a +Democratic member of the United States Senate in 1885-1894 and in +1895-1898. + + + + +HOLMAN, JAMES (1786-1857), known as the "Blind Traveller," was born at +Exeter on the 15th of October 1786. He entered the British navy in 1798 +as first-class volunteer, and was appointed lieutenant in April 1807. In +1810 he was invalided by an illness which resulted in total loss of +sight. In consideration of his helpless circumstances he was in 1812 +appointed one of the royal knights of Windsor, but the quietness of such +a life harmonized so ill with his active habits and keen interests that +he requested leave of absence to go abroad, and in 1819, 1820 and 1821 +journeyed through France, Italy, Switzerland, the parts of Germany +bordering on the Rhine, Belgium and the Netherlands. On his return he +published _The Narrative of a Journey through France_, &c. (London, +1822). He again set out in 1822 with the design of making the circuit of +the world, but after travelling through Russia into Siberia, he was +suspected of being a spy, was arrested when he had managed to penetrate +1000 m. beyond Smolensk, and after being conducted to the frontiers of +Poland, returned home by Austria, Saxony, Prussia and Hanover. He now +issued _Travels through Russia, Siberia_, &c. (London, 1825). Shortly +afterwards he again set out to accomplish by a somewhat different method +the design which had been frustrated by the Russian authorities; and an +account of his remarkable achievement was published in four volumes in +1834-1835, under the title of _A Voyage round the World, including +Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, &c., from 1827 to 1832_. +His last journeys were through Spain, Portugal, Moldavia, Montenegro, +Syria and Turkey; and he was engaged in preparing an account of this +tour when he died in London on the 29th of July 1857. + + + + +HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (1809-1894), American writer and physician, was +born on the 29th of August 1809 at Cambridge, Mass. His father, Abiel +Holmes (1763-1837), was a Calvinist clergyman, the writer of a useful +history, _Annals of America_, and of much very dull poetry. His mother +(the second wife of Abiel) was Sarah Wendell, of a distinguished New +York family. Through her Dr Holmes was descended from Governors Thomas +Dudley and Simon Bradstreet of Massachusetts, and from her he derived +his cheerfulness and vivacity, his sympathetic humour and wit. From +Phillips (Andover) Academy he entered Harvard in the "famous class of +'29," made further illustrious by the charming lyrics which he wrote for +the anniversary dinners from 1851 to 1889, closing with the touching +"After the Curfew." After graduation he studied law perfunctorily for a +year and dabbled in literature, winning the public ear by a spirited +lyric called forth by the order to destroy the old frigate +_Constitution_. These verses were sung all over the land, and induced +the Navy Department to revoke its order and save the old ship. Turning +next to medicine, and convinced by a brief experience in Boston that he +liked it, he went to Paris in March 1833. He studied industriously under +Louis and other famous physicians and surgeons in France, and in his +vacations visited the Low Countries, England, Scotland and Italy. +Returning to Boston at the close of 1835, filled with a high +professional ambition, he sought practice, but achieved only moderate +success. Social, brilliant in conversation, and a writer of gay little +poems, he seemed to the grave Bostonians not sufficiently serious. He +won prizes, however, for professional papers, and lectured on anatomy at +Dartmouth College. He wrote two papers on homoeopathy, which he attacked +with trenchant wit; also a valuable paper on the malarial fevers of New +England. In 1843 he published his essay on the _Contagiousness of +Puerperal Fever_, which stirred up a fierce controversy and brought upon +him bitter personal abuse; but he maintained his position with dignity, +temper and judgment; and in time he was honoured as the discoverer of a +beneficent truth. The volume of his medical essays holds some of his +most sparkling wit, his shrewdest observation, his kindliest humanity. +In 1840 he married Amelia Lee Jackson, daughter of the Hon. Charles +Jackson (1775-1855), formerly associate justice of the State supreme +judicial court, a lady of rare charm alike of mind and character. She +died in the winter of 1887-1888. Their first-born child, Oliver Wendell +Holmes, afterwards became chief justice of that same bench on which his +grandfather sat. In 1847 Dr Holmes was appointed professor of anatomy +and physiology In the Medical School of Harvard University, the duties +involving the giving of instruction also in kindred departments, so +that, as he said, he occupied "not a chair, but a settee in the school." +He delivered the anatomical lectures until November 1882, and in later +years these were his only link with the medical profession. They were +fresh, witty and lively; and the students were sent to him at the end of +the day, when they were fagged, because he alone could keep them awake. +In later years he made few finished contributions to medical knowledge; +his eager and impetuous temperament caused him to leave more patient +investigators to push to ultimate results the suggestions thrown out by +his fertile and imaginative mind. + +In 1836, being in that year the Phi Beta Kappa poet at Harvard +University, he published his first volume of _Poems_, which afterwards +reached a second edition. Among these earlier lyrics was "The Last +Leaf," one of the most delicate combinations of pathos and humour in +literature. His collected poetry fills three volumes. In 1856-1857 a +Boston publishing house (Phillips, Sampson, and Co.) invited James +Russell Lowell to edit a new magazine, which he agreed to do on +condition that he could secure the assistance of Dr Holmes. By this +urgent invitation the Doctor was equally surprised and flattered, for +heretofore he had stood rather outside the literary coterie of Cambridge +and Boston. He accepted with pleasure, and at once threw himself into +the enterprise with zeal. He christened it _The Atlantic Monthly_; and, +as Mr Howells afterwards said, he "not only named but made" it, for in +each number of its first volume there appeared one of the papers of the +_Autocrat of the Breakfast Table_. The opening of the _Autocrat_--"I was +just going to say when I was interrupted"--is explained by the fact that +in the old _New England Magazine_ (1831 to 1833) the Doctor had +published two _Autocrat_ papers, which, by his wish, have never been +reprinted. In the commercial panic of 1857 the new magazine would +inevitably have failed had it not been for these fascinating essays. +Their originality of conception, their wit and humour, their suggestions +of what then seemed bold ideas, and their expression of New Englandism, +all combined to make them so popular that the most harassed merchant in +that gloomy winter purchased them as a dose of cheering medicine. Thus +Dr Holmes made _The Atlantic Monthly_, which in return made him. A +success so immediate and so splendid settled the rest of his career; he +ceased to be a physician and became an author. These twelve papers were +immediately (1858) published as a volume. No sooner was the _Autocrat_ +silent than the _Professor_ (1859) succeeded him at the breakfast table. +The _Professor_ was preferred by more thoughtful readers, though it has +hardly been so widely popular as the _Autocrat_. Its theology, which +seemed in those days audacious, frightened many of the strict and +old-fashioned religionists of New England, though to-day it seems mild +enough. Twelve years later, in 1871, the Landlady had another boarder, +who took the vacant chair--the _Poet_ (published 1872). But here Holmes +fell a little short. In these three books, especially in the _Autocrat_ +and the _Professor_, the Doctor wrote as he talked at many a dinner +table in Boston, but less well. The animation and clash of talk roused +him. The dinners of the Saturday Club are among Boston's proudest +traditions, as they were the chief pleasure of Dr Holmes's life. There +he met Emerson, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Sumner, Agassiz, Motley, +and many other charming talkers, and among them all he was admitted to +be the best. + +There were characters and incidents, but hardly a story, in the +_Autocrat_ and the _Professor_. Holmes had an ambition for more +sustained work, and in 1861 his novel, _Elsie Venner_, at first called +_The Professor's Story_, was published. The book was illuminated +throughout by admirable pictures of character and society in the typical +New England town. But the rattlesnake element was unduly extravagant, +and in other respects the book was open to criticism as a work of art. +It was written with the same purpose which informed the greatest part of +the Doctor's literary work, and which had already been scented and +nervously condemned by the religious world. By heredity the Doctor was a +theologian; no other topic enchained him more than did the stern and +merciless dogmas of his Calvinist forefathers. His humanity revolted +against them, his reason condemned them, and he set himself to their +destruction as his task in literature. The religious world of his time +was still so largely under the control of old ideas that he was assailed +as a freethinker and a subverter of Christianity; though before his +death opinions had so changed that the bitterness of the attacks upon +him seemed incredible, even to some of those who had most vehemently +made them. None the less, undaunted and profoundly earnest, he returned, +six years later, to the same line of thought in his second novel, _The +Guardian Angel_ (published 1867). This, though less well known than +_Elsie Venner_, is in many respects better. No more lifelike and +charming picture of the society of the New England country-town of the +middle third of the 19th century has ever been drawn, and every page +sparkles with wit and humour. In 1884 and 1885 it was followed, still in +the same line, by _A Mortal Antipathy_, a production inferior to its +predecessors. + +Holmes generally held himself aloof from politics, and from those +"causes" of temperance, abolition and woman's rights which enthralled +most of his contemporaries in New England. The Civil War, however, +aroused him for the time; finding him first a strenuous Unionist, it +quickly converted him into an ardent advocate of emancipation. His +interest was enhanced by the career of his elder son Oliver (see below), +who was three times severely wounded, and finally rose to the rank of +lieut.-colonel in the Northern army. He wrote some ringing war lyrics, +and in 1863 delivered the Fourth of July oration in Boston, which showed +a masterly appreciation of the stirring public questions of the day. In +1878 Dr Holmes wrote a memoir of the historian John Lothrop Motley, an +affectionate tribute to one who had been his dear friend. In 1884 he +contributed the life of Emerson to the American "Men of Letters" series. +He admired the "Sage of Concord," but was not quite in intellectual +sympathy with him. Both were Liberals in thought, but in widely +different ways. But in spite of this handicap the volume proved very +popular. In 1888 he began the papers which he happily christened _Over +the Tea Cups_. As a _tour de force_ on the part of a man of nearly +fourscore years they are very remarkable. + +After his return from Paris in 1835 Dr Holmes lived in Boston, with +summer sojournings at Pittsfield and Beverly Farms, and occasional trips +to neighbouring cities, until 1886. He then undertook a four months' +journey in Europe, and in England had a sort of triumphal progress. On +his return he wrote _Our Hundred Days in Europe_ (1887), a courteous +recognition of the hospitality and praise which had been accorded to +him. During this visit Cambridge University made him Doctor of Letters, +Edinburgh University made him Doctor of Laws, and Oxford University made +him Doctor of Civil Law. Already, in 1880, Harvard University had made +him Doctor of Laws. He died on the 7th of October 1894, and was buried +from King's Chapel, Boston, in the cemetery of Mount Auburn. + +His eldest son Oliver Wendell (b. 1841), who graduated from Harvard in +1861 and fought in the Civil War, retiring from the army as brevet +lieut.-colonel in 1864, took up the study of law and was admitted to the +bar in Boston in 1866. He was for some years editor of the _American Law +Review_, and after being professor in the Harvard Law School in 1882 was +appointed in the same year a judge of the Massachusetts supreme court, +rising to be chief justice in 1899. In 1902 he was made a judge of the +United States Supreme Court. His work on _The Common Law_ (1881) and his +edition (1873) of Kent's _Commentaries_ are his principal publications; +and he became widely recognized as one of the great jurists of his day. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Holmes's _Complete Works_, in 13 volumes, were + published at Boston in 1891. See J. T. Morse, _Life and Letters of + Oliver Wendell Holmes_ (London, 1896); G. B. Ives, _Bibliography_ + (Boston, 1907); and the bibliography in P. K. Foley's _American + Authors_ (Boston, 1897). An essay by Sir Leslie Stephen is prefixed to + the "Golden Treasury" edition (1903) of _The Autocrat of the Breakfast + Table_. See also monographs by William Sloane Kennedy (Boston, 1882); + Emma E. Brown (Boston, 1884). (J. T. Mo.) + + + + +HOLMFIRTH, an urban district in the Holmfirth parliamentary division of +the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on and Holme and the Ribble, 6 m. +S. of Huddersfield, and on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. +(1901) 8977. The valley, walled by bold hills, is very picturesque. In +1852 great destruction was wrought in the town by the bursting of a +reservoir in the vicinity. The large industrial population is employed +in woollen manufactories, and in the neighbouring stone quarries. + + + + +HOLOCAUST (Gr. [Greek: holokauston], or [Greek: holokauton], wholly +burnt), strictly a sacrifice wholly destroyed by fire, such as the +sacrifices of the Jews, described in the Pentateuch as "whole burnt +offerings" (see SACRIFICE). The term is now often applied to a +catastrophe on a large scale, whether by fire or not, or to a massacre +or slaughter. + + + + +HOLOCENE (from Gr. [Greek: holos], whole, [Greek: kainos], recent), in +geology, the time division which embraces the youngest of all the +formations; it is equivalent to the "Recent" of some authors. The name +was proposed in 1860 by P. Gervais. The oldest deposits that may be +included are those containing neolithic implements; deposits of historic +times should also be grouped here; presumably the youngest are those to +be chronicled by the last man. The Holocene formations obviously include +all the varieties of deposits which are accumulating at the present day: +the gravels and alluvia of rivers; boulder clays, moraines and +fluvio-glacial deposits; estuarine, coastal and abyssal deposits of the +seas, and their equivalents in lakes; screes, taluses, wind-borne dust +and sand and desert formations; chemical deposits from saline waters; +peat, diatomite, marls, foraminiferal and other oozes; coral, algal and +shell banks, and other organic deposits; mud, lava and dust deposits of +volcanic origin and extrusions of asphalt and pitch; to all these must +be added the works of man. + + + + +HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES (1861- ), British artist, was born in Leeds on the +9th of April 1861. He received his art education under Professor Legros +at the Slade School, University College, London, where he had a +distinguished career. After passing six months at Newlyn, where he +painted his first picture exhibited in the Royal Academy, "Fishermen +Mending a Sail" (1885), he obtained a travelling scholarship and studied +for two years in Italy, a sojourn which greatly influenced his art. At +his return, on the invitation of Legros, he became for two years +assistant-master at the Slade School, and there devoted himself to +painting and etching. Among his pictures may be mentioned "The Death of +Torrigiano" (1886), "The Satyr King" (1889), "The Supper at Emmaus," +and, perhaps his best picture, "Pan and Peasants" (1893). For the church +of Aveley, Essex, he painted a triptych altarpiece, "The Adoration of +the Shepherds," with wings representing "St Michael" and "St Gabriel," +and designed as well the window, "The Resurrection." His portraits, such +as that of "G. F. Watts, R.A.," in the Legros manner, show much dignity +and distinction. Sir Charles Holroyd has made his chief reputation as an +etcher of exceptional ability, combining strength with delicacy, and a +profound technical knowledge of the art. Among the best known are the +"Monte Oliveto" series, the "Icarus" series, the "Monte Subasio" series, +and the "Eve" series, together with the plates, "The Flight into Egypt," +"The Prodigal Son," "A Barn on Tadworth Common" (etched in the open +air), and "The Storm." His etched heads of "Professor Legros," "Lord +Courtney" and "Night," are admirable alike in knowledge and in likeness. +His principal dry-point is "The Bather." In all his work Holroyd +displays an impressive sincerity, with a fine sense of composition, and +of style, allied to independent and modern feeling. He was appointed the +first keeper of the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery), and +on the retirement of Sir Edward Poynter in 1906 he received the +directorship of the National Gallery. He was knighted in 1903. His +_Michael Angelo Buonarotti_ (London, Duckworth, 1903) is a scholarly +work of real value. + + + + +HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON (1837-1909), German statesman, for more than +thirty years head of the political department of the German Foreign +Office. Holstein's importance began with the dismissal of Bismarck in +1890. The new chancellor, Caprivi, was ignorant of foreign affairs; and +Holstein, as the repository of the Bismarckian tradition, became +indispensable. This reluctance to emerge into publicity has been +ascribed to the part he had played under Bismarck in the Arnim affair, +which had made him powerful enemies; it was, however, possibly due to a +shrinking from the responsibility of office. Yet the weakness of his +position lay just in the fact that he was not ultimately responsible. He +protested against the despatch of the "Kruger telegram," but protested +in vain. On the other hand, where his ideas were acceptable, he was +generally able to realize them. Thus it was almost entirely due to him +that Germany acquired Kiao-chau and asserted her interests in China, and +the acquisition of Samoa was also largely his work. If the skill and +pertinacity with which Holstein carried through his plans in these +matters was learned in the school of Bismarck, he had not acquired +Bismarck's faculty for foreseeing their ulterior consequences. This is +true of his Chinese policy, and true also of his part in the Morocco +crisis. The emperor William II.'s journey to Tangier was undertaken on +his advice, as a protest against the supposed attempt at the isolation +of Germany; but of the later developments of German policy in the +Morocco question he did not approve, on the ground that the result would +merely be to strengthen the Anglo-French _entente_; and from the 12th of +March 1906 onwards he took no active part in the matter. To the last he +believed that the position of Germany would remain unsafe until an +understanding had been arrived at with Great Britain, and it was this +belief that determined his attitude towards the question of the fleet, +"beside which," he wrote in February 1909, "all other questions are of +lesser account." His views on this question were summarized in a +memorandum of December 1907, of which Herr von Rath gives a _resume_. He +objected to the programme of the German Navy League on three main +grounds: (1) the ill-feeling likely to be aroused in South Germany, (2) +the inevitable dislocation of the finances through the huge additional +charges involved, (3) the suspicion of Germany's motives in foreign +countries, which would bind Great Britain still closer to France. As for +the idea that Germany's power would be increased, this--he wrote in +reply to a letter from Admiral Galster--was "a simple question of +arithmetic"; for how would the sea-power of Germany be relatively +increased if for every new German ship Great Britain built two? Herr von +Holstein retired on the resignation of Prince Bulow, and died on the 8th +of May 1909. + + See Hermann von Rath, "Erinnerungen an Herrn von Holstein" in the + _Deutsche Revue_ for October 1909. He is also frequently mentioned + _passim_ in Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe's _Memoirs_. + + + + +HOLSTEIN, formerly a duchy of Germany. Until about 1110 the county of +Holstein formed part of the duchy of Saxony, and it was made a duchy in +1472. From 1460 to 1864 it was ruled by members of the house of +Oldenburg, some of whom were also kings of Denmark. It is now the +southern part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. (See +SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, and for history SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION.) + + + + +HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN (1825-1897), German theologian, was born +at Gustrow, Mecklenburg, on the 31st of March 1825, and educated at +Leipzig, Berlin and Rostock, where in 1852 he became a teacher of +religion in the Gymnasium. In 1870 he went to Bern as professor of New +Testament studies, passing thence in 1876 to Heidelberg, where he +remained until his death on the 26th of January 1897. Holsten was an +adherent of the Tubingen school, and held to Baur's views on the alleged +antagonism between Petrinism and Paulinism. + + Among his writings are _Zum Evangelium d. Paulus und d. Petrus_ + (1867); _Das Evangelium des Paulus dargestellt_ (1880); _Die + synoptischen Evangelien nach der Form ihres Inhalts_ (1886). + + + + +HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS, the Latinized name of Luc Holste (1596-1661), German +humanist, geographer and theological writer, was born at Hamburg. He +studied at Leiden university, where he became intimate with the most +famous scholars of the age--J. Meursius, D. Heinsius and P. Cluverius, +whom he accompanied on his travels in Italy and Sicily. Disappointed at +his failure to obtain a post in the gymnasium of his native town, he +left Germany for good. Having spent two years in Oxford and London, he +went to Paris. Here he obtained the patronage of N. de Peiresc, who +recommended him to Cardinal Francesco Barberini, papal nuncio and the +possessor of the most important private library in Rome. On the +cardinal's return in 1627 he took Holstenius to live with him in his +palace and made him his librarian. Although converted to Roman +Catholicism in 1625, Holstenius showed his liberal-mindedness by +strenuously opposing the strict censorship exercised by the Congregation +of the Index. He was appointed librarian of the Vatican by Innocent X., +and was sent to Innsbruck by Alexander VII. to receive Queen Christina's +abjuration of Protestantism. He died in Rome on the 2nd of February +1661. Holstenius was a man of unwearied industry and immense learning, +but he lacked the persistency to carry out the vast literary schemes he +had planned. He was the author of notes on Cluvier's _Italia antiqua_ +(1624); an edition of portions of Porphyrius (1630), with a dissertation +on his life and writings, described as a model of its kind; notes on +Eusebius _Against Hierocles_ (1628), on the Sayings of the later +Pythagoreans (1638), and the _De diis et mundo_ of the neo-Platonist +Sallustius (1638); _Notae et castigationes in Stephani Bysantini +ethnica_ (first published in 1684); and _Codex regularum, Collection of +the Early Rules of the Monastic Orders_ (1661). His correspondence +(_Epistolae ad diversos_, ed. J. F. Boissonade, 1817) is a valuable +source of information on the literary history of his time. + + See N. Wilckens, _Leben des gelehrten Lucae Holstenii_ (Hamburg, + 1723); Johann Moller, _Cimbria literata_, iii. (1744). + + + + +HOLSTER, a leather case to hold a pistol, used by a horseman and +properly fastened to the saddle-bow, but sometimes worn in the belt. The +same word appears in Dutch, from which the English word probably +directly derives. The root is _hel_- or _hul_- to cover, and is seen in +the O. Eng. _heolster_, a place of shelter or concealment, and in "hull" +a sheath or covering. The German word for the same object, _holfter_, +is, according to the New _English Dictionary_, from a different root. + + + + +HOLT, SIR JOHN (1642-1710), lord chief justice of England, was born at +Thame, Oxfordshire, on the 30th of December 1642. His father, Sir Thomas +Holt, possessed a small patrimonial estate, but in order to supplement +his income had adopted the profession of law, in which he was not very +successful, although he became sergeant in 1677, and afterwards for his +political services to the "Tories" was rewarded with knighthood. After +attending for some years the free school of the town of Abingdon, of +which his father was recorder, young Holt in his sixteenth year entered +Oriel College, Oxford. He is said to have spent a very dissipated youth, +and even to have been in the habit of taking purses on the highway, but +after entering Gray's Inn about 1660 he applied himself with exemplary +diligence to the study of law. He was called to the bar in 1663. An +ardent supporter of civil and religious liberty, he distinguished +himself in the state trials which were then so common by the able and +courageous manner in which he supported the pleas of the defendants. In +1685-1686 he was appointed recorder of London, and about the same time +he was made king's sergeant and received the honour of knighthood. His +giving a decision adverse to the pretensions of the king to exercise +martial law in time of peace led to his dismissal from the office of +recorder, but he was continued in the office of king's sergeant in order +to prevent him from becoming counsel for accused persons. Having been +one of the judges who acted as assessors to the peers in the Convention +parliament, he took a leading part in arranging the constitutional +change by which William III. was called to the throne, and after his +accession he was appointed lord chief justice of the King's Bench. His +merits as a judge are the more apparent and the more remarkable when +contrasted with the qualities displayed by his predecessors in office. +In judicial fairness, legal knowledge and ability, clearness of +statement and unbending integrity he has had few if any superiors on the +English bench. Over the civil rights of his countrymen he exercised a +jealous watchfulness, more especially when presiding at the trial of +state prosecutions, and he was especially careful that all accused +persons should be treated with fairness and respect. He is, however, +best known for the firmness with which he upheld his own prerogatives in +opposition to the authority of the Houses of Parliament. On several +occasions his physical as well as his moral courage was tried by extreme +tests. Having been requested to supply a number of police to help the +soldiery in quelling a riot, he assured the messenger that if any of the +people were shot he would have the soldiers hanged, and proceeding +himself to the scene of riot he was successful in preventing bloodshed. +While steadfast in his sympathies with the Whig party, Holt maintained +on the bench entire political impartiality, and always held himself +aloof from political intrigue. On the retirement of Somers from the +chancellorship in 1700 he was offered the great seal, but declined it. +His death took place in London on the 5th of March 1710. He was buried +in the chancel of Redgrave church. + + _Reports of Cases determined by Sir John Holt_ (1681-1710) appeared at + London in 1738; and _The Judgments delivered in the case of Ashby v. + White and others, and in the case of John Paty and others, printed + from original MSS._, at London (1837). See Burnet's _Own Times_; + _Tatler_, No. xiv.; a _Life_, published in 1764; Welsby, _Lives of + Eminent English Judges of the 17th and 18th Centuries_ (1846); + Campbell's _Lives of the Lord Chief Justices_; and Foss, _Lives of the + Judges_. + + + + +HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON (1798-1880), German poet and actor, was born at +Breslau on the 24th of January 1798, the son of an officer of Hussars. +Having served in the Prussian army as a volunteer in 1815, he shortly +afterwards entered the university of Breslau as a student of law; but, +attracted by the stage, he soon forsook academic life and made his debut +in the Breslau theatre as Mortimer in Schiller's _Maria Stuart_. He led +a wandering life for the next two years, appearing less on the stage as +an actor than as a reciter of his own poems. In 1821 he married the +actress Luise Rogee (1800-1825), and was appointed theatre-poet to the +Breslau stage. He next removed to Berlin, where his wife fulfilled an +engagement at the Court theatre. During his sojourn here he produced the +vaudevilles _Die Wiener in Berlin_ (1824), and _Die Berliner in Wien_ +(1825), pieces which enjoyed at the time great popular favour. In 1825 +his wife died; but soon after her death he accepted an engagement at the +Konigsstadter theatre in Berlin, when he wrote a number of plays, +notably _Lenore_ (1829) and _Der alte Feldherr_ (1829). In 1830 he +married Julie Holzbecher (1809-1839), an actress engaged at the same +theatre, and with her played in Darmstadt. Returning to Berlin in 1831 +he wrote for the composer Franz Glaser (1798-1861) the text of the opera +_Des Adlers Horst_ (1835), and for Ludwig Devrient the drama, _Der dumme +Peter_ (1837). In 1833 Holtei again went on the stage and toured with +his wife to various important cities, Hamburg, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich +and Vienna. In the last his declamatory powers as a reciter, +particularly of Shakespeare's plays, made a furore, and the poet-actor +was given the appointment of manager of the Josefstadter theatre in the +last-named city. Though proud of his successes both as actor and +reciter, Holtei left Vienna in 1836, and from 1837 to 1839 conducted the +theatre in Riga. Here his second wife died, and after wandering through +Germany reciting and accepting a short engagement at Breslau, he settled +in 1847 at Graz, where he devoted himself to a literary life and +produced the novels _Die Vagabunden_ (1851), _Christian Lammfell_ (1853) +and _Der letzte Komodiant_ (1863). The last years of his life were spent +at Breslau, where being in poor circumstances he found a home in the +_Kloster der barmherzigen Bruder_, and here he died on the 12th of +February 1880. + +As a dramatist Holtei may be said to have introduced the "vaudeville" +into Germany; as an actor, although remaining behind the greater artists +of his time, he contrived to fascinate his audience by the dramatic +force of his exposition of character; as a reciter, especially of +Shakespeare, he knew no rival. August Lewald said of Holtei that by the +energy of his poetic conception and plastic force he brought his +audience round to his own ideas; and he added, "an eloquence such as his +I have never met with in any other German." + +Holtei was not only a stage-poet but a lyric-writer of great charm. +Notable among such productions are _Schlesische Gedichte_ (1830; 20th +ed., 1893), _Gedichte_ (5th ed., 1861), _Stimmen des Waldes_ (2nd ed., +1854). Mention ought also to be made of Holtei's interesting +autobiography, _Vierzig Jahre_ (8 vols., 1843-1850; 3rd ed., 1862) with +the supplementary volume _Noch ein Jahr in Schlesien_ (1864). + + Holtei's _Theater_ appeared in 6 vols. (1867); his _Erzahlende + Schriften_, 39 vols. (1861-1866). See M. Kurnick, _Karl von Holtei, + ein Lebensbild_ (1880); F. Wehl, _Zeit und Menschen_ (1889); O. + Storch, _K. von Holtei_ (1898). + + + + +HOLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH (1748-1776), German poet, was born on +the 21st of December 1748 at the village of Mariensee in Hanover, where +his father was pastor. In 1769 he went to study theology at Gottingen. +Here he formed a close friendship with J. M. Miller, J. H. Voss, H. +Boie, the brothers Stolberg and others, and became one of the founders +of the famous society of young poets known as the _Gottinger +Dichterbund_ or _Hain_. When in 1774 he left the university he had +abandoned all intention of becoming a clergyman; but he was not destined +to enter any other profession. He died of consumption on the 1st of +September 1776 at Hanover. Holty was the most gifted lyric poet of the +Gottingen circle. He was influenced both by Uz and Klopstock, but his +love for the Volkslied and his delight in nature preserved him from the +artificiality of the one poet and the unworldliness of the other. A +strain of melancholy runs through all his lyrics. His ballads are the +pioneers of the rich ballad literature on English models, which sprang +up in Germany during the next few years. Among his most familiar poems +may be mentioned _Ub' immer Treu' und Redlichkeit_, _Tanzt dem schonen +Mai entgegen_, _Rosen auf dem Weg gestreut_, and _Wer wollte sich mit +Grillen plagen?_ + + Holty's _Gedichte_ were published by his friends Count Friedrich + Leopold zu Stolberg and J. H. Voss (Hamburg, 1783); a new edition, + enlarged by Voss, with a biography (1804); a more complete but still + imperfect edition by F. Voigts (Hanover, 1857). The first complete + edition was that of Karl Halm (Leipzig, 1870), who had access to MSS. + not hitherto known. See H. Ruete, _Holty, sein Leben und Dichten_ + (Guben, 1883), and A. Sauer, _Der Gottinger Dichterbund_, vol. ii. + (Stuttgart, 1894), where an excellent selection of Holty's poetry will + be found. + + + + +HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON (1829-1889), German +jurist, born at Vietmannsdorf, in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 14th +of October 1829, was descended from a family of the old nobility. He was +educated at Berlin and at Pforta, afterwards studying law at the +universities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. The struggles of 1848 +inspired him with youthful enthusiasm, and he remained for the rest of +his life a strong advocate of political liberty. In 1852 he graduated +LL.D. at Berlin; in 1857 he became a Privatdocent, and in 1860 he was +nominated a professor extraordinary. The predominant party in Prussia +regarded his political opinions with mistrust, and he was not offered an +ordinary professorship until February 1873, after he had decided to +accept a chair at the university of Munich. At Munich he passed the last +nineteen years of his life. During the thirty years that he was +professor he successively taught several branches of jurisprudence, but +he was chiefly distinguished as an authority on criminal and +international law. He was especially well fitted for organizing +collective work, and he has associated his name with a series of +publications of the first value. While acting as editor he often +reserved for himself, among the independent monographs of which the work +was composed, only those on subjects distasteful to his collaborators on +account of their obscurity or lack of importance. Among the compilations +which he superintended may be mentioned his _Encyclopadie der +Rechtswissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1870-1871, 2 vols.); his _Handbuch des +deutschen Strafrechts_ (Berlin, 1871-1877, 4 vols.), and his _Handbuch +des Volkerrechts auf Grundlage europaischer Staatspraxis_ (Berlin, +1885-1890, 4 vols.). Among his many independent works may be mentioned: +_Das irische Gefangnissystem_ (Leipzig, 1859), _Franzosische +Rechtszustande_ (Leipzig, 1859), _Die Deportation als Strafmittel_ +(Leipzig, 1859), _Die Kurzungsfahigkeit der Freiheitsstrafen_ (Leipzig, +1861), _Die Reform der Staatsanwaltschaft in Deutschland_ (Berlin, +1864), _Die Umgestaltung der Staatsanwaltschaft_ (Berlin, 1865), _Die +Principien der Politik_ (Berlin, 1869), _Das Verbrechen des Mordes und +die Todesstrafe_ (Berlin, 1875), _Rumaniens Uferrechte an der Donau_ +(Leipzig, 1883; French edition, 1884). He also edited or assisted in +editing a number of periodical publications on legal subjects. From 1866 +to the time of his death he was associated with Rudolf Ludwig Carl +Virchow in editing _Sammlung gemeinverstandlicher wissenschaftlicher +Vortrage_ (Berlin). Von Holtzendorff died at Munich on the 4th of +February 1889. + + + + +HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS (1832- ), German Protestant theologian, son +of Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804-1877), was born on the 17th of May 1832 +at Karlsruhe, where his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor +to the supreme consistory. He studied at Berlin, and eventually (1874) +was appointed professor ordinarius at Strassburg. A moderately liberal +theologian, he became best known as a New Testament critic and exegete, +being the author of the Commentary on the Synoptics (1889; 3rd ed., +1901), the Johannine books (1890; 2nd ed., 1893), and the Acts of the +Apostles (1901), in the series _Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament_. On +the question of the relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, Holtzmann in +his early work, _Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und +geschichtlicher Charakter_ (1863), presents a view which has been widely +accepted, maintaining the priority of Mark, deriving Matthew in its +present form from Mark and from Matthew's earlier "collection of +Sayings," the Logia of Papias, and Luke from Matthew and Mark in the +form in which we have them. + + Other noteworthy works are the _Lehrbuch der histor.-kritischen + Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1885, 3rd ed., 1892), and the + _Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (2 vols., 1896-1897). He + also collaborated with R. Zopffel in the preparation of a small + _Lexikon fur Theologie und Kirchenwesen_ (1882; 3rd ed., 1895), and in + 1893 became editor of the _Theol. Jahresbericht_. + + + + +HOLUB, EMIL (1847-1902), Bohemian traveller in south-central Africa, was +born at Holitz, eastern Bohemia, on the 7th of October 1847. He was +educated at Prague University, where he graduated M.D. In 1872 he went +to the Kimberley diamond-fields, and with the money earned by his +practice as a surgeon undertook expeditions into the northern Transvaal, +Mashonaland and through Bechuanaland to the Victoria Falls, making +extensive natural history collections, which he brought to Europe in +1879 and distributed among over a hundred museums and schools. In 1883 +he went back to South Africa with his wife, intending to cross the +continent to Egypt. In June 1886 the party crossed the Zambezi west of +the Victoria Falls, and explored the then almost unknown region between +that river and its tributary the Kafue. When beyond the Kafue the camp +was attacked by the Mashukulumbwe, and Holub was obliged to retrace his +steps. He returned to Austria in 1887 with a collection of great +scientific interest, of over 13,000 objects, now in various museums. +Holub died at Vienna on the 21st of February 1902. + + His principal works are: _Eine Culturskizze des + Marutse-Mambunda-reichs_ (Vienna, 1879); _Sieben Jahre in Sudafrika_, + &c. (2 vols., Vienna, 1880-1881), of which an English translation + appeared; _Die Colonisation Afrikas_ (Vienna, 1882); and _Von der + Kapstadt ins Land der Maschukulumbe_ (2 vols., Vienna, 1818-1890). + + + + +HOLY, sacred, devoted or set apart for religious worship or observance; +a term characteristic of the attributes of perfection and sinlessness of +the Persons of the Trinity, as the objects of human worship and +reverence, and hence transferred to those human persons who, either by +their devotion to a spiritual ascetic life or by their approximation to +moral perfection, are considered worthy of reverence. The word in Old +English was _halig_, and is common to other Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. +and Dutch _heilig_, Swed. _helig_, Dan. _hellig_. It is derived from +_hal_, hale, whole, and cognate with "health." The _New English +Dictionary_ suggests that the sense-development may be from "whole," +i.e. inviolate, from "health, well-being," or from "good-omen," +"augury." It is impossible to get behind the Christian uses, in which +from the earliest times it was employed as the equivalent of the Latin +_sacer_ and _sanctus_. + + + + +HOLY ALLIANCE, THE. The famous treaty, or declaration, known by this +name was signed in the first instance by Alexander I., emperor of +Russia, Francis I., emperor of Austria, and Frederick William III., king +of Prussia, on the 26th of September 1815, and was proclaimed by the +emperor Alexander the same day at a great review of the allied troops +held on the Champ des Vertus near Paris. The English version of the text +is as follows:-- + + In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity. + + _Holy Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia._ + + Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and the + Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events which + have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and + especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to + shower down upon those States which place their confidence and their + hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the necessity of + settling the steps to be observed by the Powers, in their reciprocal + relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion of our + Saviour teaches; + + _Government and Political Relations._ + + They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object than to + publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution, both + in the administration of their respective States, and in their + political relations with every other Government, to take for their + sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts of + Justice, Christian Charity and Peace, which, far from being applicable + only to private concerns, must have an immediate influence on the + councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being the only + means of consolidating human institutions and remedying their + imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed on the + following Articles:-- + + _Principles of the Christian Religion._ + + Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures which command + all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three contracting + Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and indissoluble + fraternity, and, considering each other as fellow countrymen, they + will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid and + assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects and + armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same spirit + of fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion, Peace + and Justice. + + _Fraternity and Affection._ + + Art. II. In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether between + the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be that of doing + each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by unalterable good + will the mutual affection with which they ought to be animated, to + consider themselves all as members of one and the same Christian + nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as merely + delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One family, + namely, Austria, Prussia and Russia, thus confessing that the + Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in + reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really + belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love, + science and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our Divine Saviour, + the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties + consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender + solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace which arises from + a good conscience, and which alone is durable, to strengthen + themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise of + the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind. + + _Accession of Foreign Powers._ + + Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the sacred + principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall acknowledge + how important it is for the happiness of nations, too long agitated, + that these truths should henceforth exercise over the destinies of + mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will be received with + equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance. + +The credit for inspiring this singular document was claimed by the +Baroness von Krudener (q.v.); in any case it was the outcome of the +tsar's mood of evangelical exaltation, and was in its inception +perfectly sincere. Neither Frederick William nor Francis signed +willingly, the latter remarking that "if it was a question of politics, +he must refer it to his chancellor, if of religion, to his confessor." +Metternich called it a "loud-sounding nothing," Castlereagh, "a piece of +sublime mysticism and nonsense." None the less, in accordance with its +last article, the signatures of all the European sovereigns were invited +to the instrument, the pope and the Ottoman sultan alone being excepted. +The prince regent courteously declined to sign, on the constitutional +ground that all acts of the British crown required the counter-signature +of a minister, but he sent a letter expressing his "entire concurrence +with the principles laid down by the 'august sovereigns' and stating +that it would always be his endeavour to regulate his conduct by their +'sacred maxims.'" With these exceptions, all the European sovereigns +sooner or later appended their names. + +In popular parlance, which has found its way into the language of +serious historians, the "Holy Alliance" soon became synonymous with the +combination of the great powers by whom Europe was ruled in concert +during the period of the congresses, and associated with the policy of +reaction which gradually dominated their counsels. For the understanding +of the inner history of the diplomacy of this period, however, a clear +distinction must be drawn between the Holy Alliance and the Grand, or +Quadruple (Quintuple) Alliance. The Grand Alliance was established on +definite treaties concluded for definite purposes, of which the chief +was the preservation of peace on the basis of the territorial settlement +of 1815. The Holy Alliance was a general treaty--hardly indeed a treaty +at all--which bound its signatories to act on certain vague principles +for no well-defined end; and in its essence it was so far from +necessarily reactionary that the emperor Alexander at one time declared +that it involved the grant of liberal constitutions by princes to their +subjects. Its main significance was due to the persistent efforts of the +tsar to make it the basis of the "universal union," or general +confederation of Europe, which he wished to substitute for the actual +committee of the great powers, efforts which were frustrated by the +vigorous diplomacy of Castlereagh, acting as the mouthpiece of the +British government (see EUROPE: _History_; ALEXANDER I. of Russia; +LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART, 2ND MARQUIS OF). + +As a diplomatic instrument the Holy Alliance never, as a matter of fact, +became effective. None the less, its principles and the fact of its +signature powerfully affected the course of European diplomacy during +the 19th century. It strongly influenced the emperor Nicholas I. of +Russia, to whom the brotherhood of sovereigns by divine right was an +article of faith, inspiring the principles of the convention of Berlin +(between Russia, Austria and Prussia) in 1833, and the tsar's +intervention in 1849 to crush the Hungarian insurrection on behalf of +his brother of Austria. That it had become synonymous with a conspiracy +against popular liberties was, however, a mere accident of the point of +view of those who interpreted its principles. It was capable of other +and more noble interpretations, and it was avowedly the inspiration of +the famous rescript of the emperor Nicholas II., embodied in the +circular of Count Muraviev to the European courts (August 4th, 1898), +which issued in the first international peace conference at the Hague in +1899. (W. A. P.) + + + + +HOLYHEAD (Caergybi, the fort of Cybi, the saint mentioned by Matthew +Arnold as meeting St Seiriol of Penmon, Anglesey), a seaport and +market-town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the small Holy Island, at +the western end of the county. Pop. of urban district (1901) 10,079. +Here the London and North-Western railway has a terminus, 263(1/2) m. +from London by rail. Holy Island is connected with Anglesey by an +embankment, 3/4 m. long, over which pass the railway and main road, the +tide flowing fast under the central piers. Once a small fishing village, +the town has since William IV.'s reign acquired importance as the Dublin +mail steam station. Its magnificent harbour of refuge was begun in 1847 +and opened in September 1873. The east breakwater scheme, which would +have covered the Platter's rocks--still very troublesome--and the +Skinner's, was abandoned for buoys which mark the spots. The north +breakwater is 7860 ft. long (instead of 5360, as originally planned). +The roadstead (400 acres) and enclosed area (267 acres) together make a +magnificent shelter for shipping. The rubble mound of the breakwater was +very costly to the railway company, as time after time it was swept away +by storms. On it is a central wall of some 38 ft. above low water, and +on the wall a promenade sheltered by a parapet. The lighthouse is at the +end of the breakwater, of which the whole cost was nearly 1(1/2) million +sterling. Additional works, begun in 1873 by the company, to extend the +old harbour and lengthen the quay by 4000 ft., were opened by King +Edward VII. (as prince of Wales) in 1880. These cost another half +million. George IV. passed through Holyhead in 1821 on his way to +Ireland, and there is a commemorative tablet on the old harbour pier. +The church is said to occupy the site of the old monastery (6th or early +7th century) of St Cybi, of whom there is a rude figure in the porch. +The churchyard wall, 6 ft. thick, is possibly partly Roman. On the south +of the harbour is an obelisk in memory of Captain Skinner, of the steam +packets, washed overboard in 1833. Pen Caergybi rises perpendicularly +from the sea to the height of 719 ft., at some 2 m. from the town; it is +a mass of serpentine rocks, off which lie the North and South Stacks, +each with a lighthouse with a revolving light, visible for 20 m., and +197 ft. above high water on the South Stack. On the hill are traces of +British fortification, including a circular building, probably a Roman +watch-tower. Coasting trade and fishing, with some shipbuilding and the +Irish traffic, occupy most of the inhabitants. + + See Hon. W. Stanley's _Holy Island and Holyhead_. + + + + +HOLY ISLAND, or LINDISFARNE, an irregularly shaped island in the North +Sea, 2 m. from the coast of Northumberland, in which county it is +included. Pop. (1901) 405. It is joined to the mainland at low water by +flat sands, over which a track, marked by wooden posts and practicable +for vehicles, leads to the island. There is a station on the +North-Eastern railway at Beak 9 m. S.E. of Berwick, opposite the island, +but 1(1/4) m. inland. The island measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 1(1/2) +N. to S., extreme distances. Its total area is 1051 acres. On the N. it +is sandy and barren, but on the S. very fertile and under cultivation. +Large numbers of rabbits have their warrens among the sands, and, with +fish, oysters and agricultural produce, are exported. There are several +fresh springs on the island, and in the north-east is a lake of 6 acres. +At the south-west angle is the little fishing village (formerly much +larger) which is now a favourite summer watering-place. Here is the +harbour, offering good shelter to small vessels. Holy Island derives its +name from a monastery founded on it by St Aidan, and restored in 1082 as +a cell of the Benedictine monastery at Durham. Its ruins, still +extensive and carefully preserved, justify Scott's description of it as +a "solemn, huge and dark-red pile." An islet, lying off the S.W. angle, +has traces of a chapel upon it, and is believed to have offered a +retreat to St Cuthbert and his successors. The castle, situated east of +the village, on a basaltic rock about 90 ft. high, dates from _c._ 1500. + +When St Aidan came at the request of King Oswald to preach to the +Northumbrians he chose the island of Lindisfarne as the site of his +church and monastery, and made it the head of the diocese which he +founded in 635. For some years the see continued in peace, numbering +among its bishops St Cuthbert, but in 793 the Danes landed on the island +and burnt the settlement, killing many of the monks. The survivors, +however, rebuilt the church and continued to live there until 883, when, +through fear of a second invasion of the Danes, they fled inland, taking +with them the body of St Cuthbert and other holy relics. The church and +monastery were again destroyed and the bishop and monks, on account of +the exposed situation of the island, determined not to return to it, and +settled first at Chester-le-Street and finally at Durham. With the fall +of the monastery the island appears to have become again untenanted, and +probably continued so until the prior and convent of Durham established +there a cell of monks from their own house. The inhabitants of Holy +Island were governed by two bailiffs at least as early as the 14th +century, and, according to J. Raine in his _History of North Durham_ +(1852), are called "burgesses or freemen" in a private paper dated 1728. +In 1323 the bailiffs and community of Holy Island were commanded to +cause all ships of the burthen of thirty tons or over to go to Ereswell +with their ships provisioned for a month at least and under double +manning to be ready to set out on the kings service. Towards the end of +the 16th century the fort on Holy Island was garrisoned for fear of +foreign invasion by Sir William Read, who found it very much in need of +repair, the guns being so decayed that the gunners "dare not give fire +but by trayne," and the master gunner had been "miserably slain" in +discharging one of them. During the Civil Wars the castle was held for +the king until 1646, when it was taken and garrisoned by the +parliamentarians. The only other historical event connected with the +island is the attempt made by two Jacobites in 1715 to hold it for the +Pretender. + + + + +HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB (1817-1906), English secularist and co-operator, +was born at Birmingham, on the 13th of April 1817. At an early age he +became an Owenite lecturer, and in 1841 was the last person convicted +for blasphemy in a public lecture, though this had no theological +character and the incriminating words were merely a reply to a question +addressed to him from the body of the meeting. He nevertheless underwent +six months' imprisonment, and upon his release invented the inoffensive +term "secularism" as descriptive of his opinions, and established the +_Reasoner_ in their support. He was also the last person indicted for +publishing an unstamped newspaper, but the prosecution dropped upon the +repeal of the tax. His later years were chiefly devoted to the promotion +of the co-operative movement among the working classes. He wrote the +history of the Rochdale Pioneers (1857), _The History of Co-operation in +England_ (1875; revised ed., 1906), and _The Co-operative Movement of +To-day_ (1891). He also published (1892) his autobiography, under the +title of _Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life_, and in 1905 two volumes of +reminiscences, _Bygones worth Remembering_. He died at Brighton on the +22nd of January 1906. + + See J. McCabe, _Life and Letters of G. J. Holyoake_ (2 vols., 1908); + C. W. F. Goss, _Descriptive Bibliography of the Writings of G. J. + Holyoake_ (1908). + + + + +HOLYOKE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in a bend of +the Connecticut river, about 8 m. N. of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 21,915; +(1890) 35,637; (1900) 45,712; (1910 census) 57,730. Of the total +population in 1900, 18,921 were foreign-born, including 6991 +French-Canadians, 5650 Irish, 1602 Germans and 1118 English; and 33,626 +were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 12,370 +of Irish and 11,050 of French-Canadian parentage. The city's area is +about 17 sq. m. The city is served by the Boston & Maine, and the New +York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and by an interurban line. Holyoke +is characteristically an industrial and mercantile city; it has some +handsome public buildings (the city hall and the public library, founded +in 1870, being especially noteworthy) and attractive environs. Holyoke +is the railway station for Mt Holyoke College, in South Hadley, about 4 +m. N. by E. of Holyoke; the city is connected with South Hadley by an +electric line. Just above Holyoke the Connecticut leaves the rugged +highlands through a rift between Mt Tom (1214 ft.; ascended by a +mountain-railway from Holyoke) and Mt Holyoke (954 ft.), and begins a +meandering valley course, falling (in the Hadley halls) in great volume +some 60 ft. in about 1(1/2) m. The water-power was unutilized until 1849, +when a great dam (1017 ft. long) was completed, which enabled vast power +to be developed along a series of canals laid out from the river. This +was, in its day, a colossal undertaking; and its success transformed +Holyoke from a farming village into a great manufacturing centre--in +1900 and 1905 the ninth largest of the commonwealth. In 1900 a stone dam +(1020 ft.), said to be the second largest in New England, was completed +at a cost of about $750,000. Cotton manufactures first, and later paper +products were chief in importance, and Holyoke now leads all the cities +in the United States in the manufacture of fine paper. In 1905 the total +value of all factory products was $30,731,332, of which $10,620,255 (or +34.6% of the total) represented paper and wood pulp; $5,019,817, cotton +goods; $1,318,409, woollen goods; $1,756,473, book binding and blank +books, and $2,022,759, foundry and machine-shop products. Silk and +worsted goods are other important manufactures. Opposite Holyoke, in +Hampshire county, is South Hadley Falls. The municipality owns and +operates the gas and electric-lighting plants and the water works (the +water-supply being derived from natural ponds, some of which are outside +the city limits), and owns and leases (to the New York, New Haven & +Hartford railroad) a railway extending (10.3 m.) to Westfield, Mass. +Holyoke was originally a part of Springfield, and after 1774 of West +Springfield. In 1850 it was incorporated as a township, and in 1873 was +chartered as a city. + + + + +HOLYSTONE, a soft kind of sandstone used by sailors for scrubbing and +cleaning the decks of ships. The origin of the word is doubtful. Some +authorities hold that it arose from the general practice of scrubbing +the decks for Sunday service; while others think the name arises from +the fact that the stone so employed is naturally porous and full of +holes. A small flint or stone having a natural hole in it, and worn as a +charm, is also called a holystone. + + + + +HOLY WATER, technically the water with which Christian believers sign +the cross on their foreheads on entering or leaving church. The edict of +Gratian lays down that it should be exorcized and blessed by the priest +and sprinkled with exorcized salt. This rite is found in the Gelasian, +Gregorian and other sacramentaries. In the East the water was blessed +once a month, in the Latin Church it is now blessed every Sunday. In the +4th century in the East it was usual to wash the hands on entering the +church (see ABLUTION). + +In the early church water was not expressly consecrated for baptisms and +other lustrations. "Water," says Tertullian in his tract on baptism, +"was the abode at the first of the divine Spirit, being more acceptable +then (to God) than the other elements." He pictures the world in the +beginning: "total darkness, formless as yet, without tending of stars, +the melancholy abyss, the earth unprepared, the heaven undevelopt. The +liquid alone an ever perfect material, smiling, simple, pure in its own +right, as a worthy vehicle underlay the God." Water was similarly pure +in itself in the old Persian religion. + +The _Canons of Hippolytus_, or Egyptian church order, of about A.D. 250, +give no prayer for consecration of fonts, but enact that "at cock crow +the baptismal party shall take their stand near waving water, pure, +prepared, sacred, of the sea." The _Teaching of the Apostles_, _c._ 100, +merely insists on "living," that is, clear and running water. The +ancient feeling, especially Jewish, was that in lustrations the same +water must not pass twice over the body. A stagnant pool was useless. +Bubbling waters too seemed to have a spirit in them. + +Either because running water was not always at hand, or as part of the +growing tendency of the church to multiply ceremonies, rituals arose +late in the 3rd century for consecrating water. The sacramentary of +Serapion, _c._ 350, provides a prayer asking that the divine Word may +descend into the water and hallow it, as of old it hallowed the Jordan. +In the Roman order of baptism the priest prays that "the font may +receive the grace of the only begotten Son from the holy Spirit, and +that the latter may impregnate with hidden admixture of His light this +water prepared for the regeneration of mankind, to the end that man +through a sanctification conceived from the immaculate womb of the +divine font, may emerge a heavenly offspring reborn as a new creature." +The water is then exorcized and evil spirits warned off, and lastly +blessed. During the prayer the priest twice signs the water with the +cross, and once blows upon it. + +The first mention of a special consecration of water for other ends than +baptism is in the _Acts of Thomas_ (? A.D. 200); it is for the purgation +of a youth already baptized who had killed his mistress because she +would not live chastely with him. The apostle prays: "Fountain sent unto +us from Rest, Power of Salvation from that Power proceeding which +overcomes and subjects all to its own will, come and dwell within these +waters, that the _Charisma_ (gift) of the holy Spirit may be fully +perfected through them." The youth then washes his hands, which on +touching the sacrament had withered up, and is healed. + +The church shared the universal belief that holiness or the holy Spirit +is quasi-material and capable of being held in suspense in water, just +as sin is a half material infection, absorbed and carried away by it. So +Tertullian writes: "The water which carried the Spirit of God (probably +regarded as a shadow or reflection-soul) borrowed holiness from that +which was carried upon it; for every underlying matter must needs absorb +and take up the quality of that matter which overhangs it; especially +does a corporeal so absorb a spiritual, as this can easily penetrate and +settle into it owing to the subtlety of its substance." + +"Water," he continues, "was generically hallowed by the Spirit of God +brooding over it at creation, and therefore all special waters are holy, +and at once obtain the sacrament of sanctification when God is invoked +(over them.) For the Spirit from heaven instantly supervenes and is upon +the waters, hallowing them out of itself, and being so hallowed they +drink up a power of hallowing." + +What is done in material semblance, he then argues, is repeated in the +unseen medium of the Spirit. The stains of idolatry, vice and fraud are +not visible on the flesh, yet they resemble real dirt. "The waters are +medicated in a manner through the intervention of the angel, and the +Spirit is corporeally washed in the water and the flesh is spiritually +purified in the same." + +Tertullian believed that an angel was sent down, when God was invoked, +like that which stirred the pool of Bethesda. As regards rival Isiac and +Mithraic baptisms, he asserts that their waters are destitute of divine +power; nay, are rather tenanted by the devil who in this matter sets +himself to rival God. "Without any religious rite at all," he urges, +"unclean spirits brood upon waters, aspiring to repeat that primordial +gestation of the divine Spirit." And he instances the "darkling springs +and lonely rivers which are said to snatch, to wit by force of a harmful +spirit." In the sequel he defines the role of the angel of baptism who +does not infuse himself in waters, already holy from the first; but +merely presides over the washing of the faithful, and ensures their +being made pure for the reception of the holy Spirit in the rite of +confirmation which immediately follows. "The devil who till now ruled +over us, we leave behind overwhelmed in the water." + +From all this we conclude that what is poetry to us--akin to the +folk-lore of water-sprites, naiads, kelpies, river-gods and +water-worship in general--was to Tertullian and to the generations of +believers who fashioned the baptismal rites, ablutions and beliefs of +the church, nothing less than grim reality and unquestionable fact. + + See John, marquess of Bute, and E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Blessing of + the Waters_ (London, 1901); E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (London, + 1903). (F. C. C.) + + + + +HOLY WEEK ([Greek: hebdomas megale, hagia] or [Greek: ton hagion, +xerophagias, apraktos], also [Greek: hemerai pathematon, hemerai +staurosimai]: _hebdomas_ [or _septimana_] _major_, _sancta_, +_authentica_ [i.e. _canonizata_, du Cange], _ultima_, _poenosa_, +_luctuosa_, _nigra_, _inofficiosa_, _muta_, _crucis_, _lamentationum_, +_indulgentiae_), in the Christian ecclesiastical year the week +immediately preceding Easter. The earliest allusion to the custom of +marking this week as a whole with special observances is to be found in +the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (v. 18, 19), dating from the latter half +of the 3rd century A.D. Abstinence from wine and flesh is there +commanded for all the days, while for the Friday and Saturday an +absolute fast is enjoined. Dionysius Alexandrinus also, in his canonical +epistle (260 A.D.), refers to the six fasting days ([Greek: hex ton +nesteion hemerai]) in a manner which implies that the observance of them +had already become an established usage in his time. There is some doubt +about the genuineness of an ordinance attributed to Constantine, in +which abstinence from public business was enforced for the seven days +immediately preceding Easter Sunday, and also for the seven which +followed it; the _Codex Theodosianus_, however, is explicit in ordering +that all actions at law should cease, and the doors of all courts of law +be closed during those fifteen days (l. ii. tit. viii.). Of the +particular days of the "great week" the earliest to emerge into special +prominence was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum Magnum +(Holy Saturday or Easter Eve) with its vigil, which in the early church +was associated with an expectation that the second advent would occur on +an Easter Sunday. + + For details of the ceremonial observed in the Roman Catholic Church + during this week, reference must be made to the _Missal_ and + _Breviary_. In the Eastern Church the week is marked by similar + practices, but with less elaboration and differentiation of rite. See + also EASTER, GOOD FRIDAY, MAUNDY THURSDAY, PALM SUNDAY and PASSION + WEEK. + + + + +HOLYWELL (_Tre'ffynnon_, well-town), a market town and contributory +parliamentary borough of Flintshire, N. Wales, situated on a height near +the left bank of the Dee estuary, 196 m. from London by the London & +North-Western railway (the station being 2 m. distant). Pop. of urban +district (1901) 2652. The parish church (1769) has some columns of an +earlier building, interesting brasses and strong embattled tower. The +remains of Basingwerk Abbey (_Maes glas_, green field), partly Saxon and +partly Early English, are near the station. It is of uncertain origin +but was used as a monastery before 1119. In 1131 Ranulph, 2nd earl of +Chester, introduced the Cistercians. In 1535, when Its revenues were +L150, 7s. 3d., it was dissolved, but revived under Mary I. and used as a +Roman Catholic burial place in 1647. Scarcely any traces remain of +Basingwerk castle, an old fort. Small up to the beginning of the 19th +century, Holywell has increasingly prospered, thanks to lime quarries, +lead, copper and zinc mines, smelting works, a shot manufactory, copper, +brass, iron and zinc works; brewing, tanning and mineral water, flannel +and cement works. St Winifred's holy well, one of the wonders of Wales, +sends up water at the rate of 21 tons a minute, of an almost unvarying +temperature, higher than that of ordinary spring water. To its curative +powers many crutches and _ex voto_ objects, hung round the well, as in +the Lourdes Grot, bear ample witness. The stones at the bottom are +slightly reddish, owing to vegetable substances. The well itself is +covered by a fine Gothic building, said to have been erected by +Margaret, countess of Richmond and mother of Henry VII., with some +portions of earlier date. The chapel (restored) is used for public +service. Catholics and others visit it in great numbers. There are +swimming baths for general use. In 1870 a hospice for poorer pilgrims +was erected. Other public buildings are St Winifred's (Catholic) church +and a convent, a town hall and a market-hall. The export trade is +expedited by quays on the Dee. + + + + +HOLYWOOD, a seaport of county Down, Ireland, on the east shore of +Belfast Lough, 4(1/2) m. N.E. from Belfast by the Belfast & County Down +railway. Its pleasant situation renders it a favourite residential +locality of the wealthier classes in Belfast. There was a religious +settlement here from the 7th century, which subsequently became a +Franciscan monastery. The old church dating from the late 12th or early +13th century marks its site. A Solemn League and Covenant was signed +here in 1644 for the defence of the kingdom, and the document is +preserved at Belfast. + + + + +HOLZMINDEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick, on the right +bank of the Weser, at the foot of the Sollinger Mountains, at the +junction of the railways Scherfede-Holzminden and Soest-Borssum, 56 m. +S.W. of Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 9938. It has an Evangelical and a Roman +Catholic church, a gymnasium, an architectural school and a school of +engineering. The prosperity of the town depends chiefly on agriculture +and the manufacture of iron and steel wares, and of chemicals, but +weaving and the making of pottery are also carried on, and there are +baryta mills and polishing-mills for sandstone. By means of the Weser it +carries on a lively trade. Holzminden obtained municipal rights from +Count Otto of Eberstein in 1245, and in 1410 it came into the possession +of Brunswick. + + + + +HOLZTROMPETE (Wooden Trumpet), an instrument somewhat resembling the +Alpenhorn (q.v.) in tone-quality, designed by Richard Wagner for +representing the natural pipe of the peasant in _Tristan and Isolde_. +This instrument is not unlike the cor anglais in rough outline, being a +conical tube of approximately the same length, terminating in a small +globular bell, but having neither holes nor keys; it is blown through a +cup-shaped mouthpiece made of horn. The Holztrompete is in the key of C; +the scale is produced by overblowing, whereby the upper partials from +the 2nd to the 6th are produced. A single piston placed at a third of +the distance from the mouthpiece to the bell gives the notes D and F. +Wagner inserted a note in the score concerning the cor anglais for which +the part was originally scored, and advised the use of oboe or clarinet +to reinforce the latter, the effect intended being that of a powerful +natural instrument, unless a wooden instrument with a natural scale be +specially made for the part, which would be preferable. The Holztrompete +was used at Munich for the first performance of _Tristan and Isolde_, +and was still in use there in 1897. At Bayreuth it was also used for the +Tristan performances at the festivals of 1886 and 1889, but in 1891 W. +Heckel's clarina, an instrument partaking of the nature of both oboe and +clarinet, was substituted for the Holztrompete and has been retained +ever since, having been found more effective.[1] (K. S.) + +[Illustration: Harmonic Series.] + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Communicated by Madame Wagner, December 28th, 1897. + + + + +HOMAGE (from _homo_, through the Low Lat. _hominaticum_, which occurs in +a document of 1035), one of the ceremonies used in the granting of a +fief, and indicating the submission of a vassal to his lord. It could be +received only by the suzerain in person. With head uncovered the vassal +humbly requested to be allowed to enter into the feudal relation; he +then laid aside his sword and spurs, ungirt his belt, and kneeling +before his lord, and holding his hands extended and joined between the +hands of his lord, uttered words to this effect: "I become your man from +this day forth, of life and limb, and will hold faith to you for the +lands I claim to hold of you." The oath of fealty, which could be +received by proxy, followed the act of homage; then came the ceremony of +investiture, either directly on the ground or by the delivery of a turf, +a handful of earth, a stone, or some other symbolical object. Homage was +done not only by the vassal to whom feudal lands were first granted but +by every one in turn by whom they were inherited, since they were not +granted absolutely but only on condition of military and other service. +An infant might do homage, but he did not thus enter into full +possession of his lands. The ceremony was of a preliminary nature, +securing that the fief would not be alienated; but the vassal had to +take the oath of fealty, and to be formally invested, when he reached +his majority. The obligations involved in the act of homage were more +general than those associated with the oath of fealty, but they provided +a strong moral sanction for more specific engagements. They essentially +resembled the obligations undertaken towards a Teutonic chief by the +members of his "comitatus" or "gefolge," one of the institutions from +which feudalism directly sprang. Besides _homagium ligeum_, there was a +kind of homage which imposed no feudal duty; this was _homagium per +paragium_, such as the dukes of Normandy rendered to the kings of +France, and as the dukes of Normandy received from the dukes of +Brittany. The act of liege homage to a particular lord did not interfere +with the vassal's allegiance as a subject to his sovereign, or with his +duty to any other suzerain of whom he might hold lands. + +The word is also used of the body of tenants attending a manorial court, +or of the court in a court baron (consisting of the tenants that do +homage and make inquiries and presentments, termed a _homage jury_). + + + + +HOMBERG, WILHELM (1652-1715), Dutch natural philosopher, was the son of +an officer of the Dutch East India Company, and was born at Batavia +(Java) on the 8th of January 1652. Coming to Europe with his family in +1670, he studied law at Jena and Leipzig, and in 1674 became an advocate +at Magdeburg. In that town he made the acquaintance of Otto von +Guericke, and under his influence determined to devote himself to +natural science. He, therefore, travelled in various parts of Europe for +study, and after graduating in medicine at Wittenberg, settled in Paris +in 1682. From 1685 to 1690 he practised as a physician at Rome; then +returning to Paris in 1691, he was elected a member of the Academy of +Sciences and appointed director of its chemical laboratory. Subsequently +he became teacher of physics and chemistry (1702), and private physician +(1705) to the duke of Orleans. His death occurred at Paris on the 24th +of September 1715. Homberg was not free from alchemistical tendencies, +but he made many solid contributions to chemical and physical knowledge, +recording observations on the preparation of Kunkel's phosphorus, on the +green colour produced in flames by copper, on the crystallization of +common salt, on the salts of plants, on the saturation of bases by +acids, on the freezing of water and its evaporation _in vacuo_, &c. Much +of his work was published in the _Recueil de l'Academie des Sciences_ +from 1692 to 1714. The _Sal Sedativum Hombergi_ is boracic acid, which +he discovered in 1702, and "Homberg's phosphorus" is prepared by fusing +sal-ammoniac with quick lime. + + + + +HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HOHE, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the +Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, prettily situated at the south-east +foot of the Taunus Mountains, 12 m. N. of Frankfort-on-Main, with which +it is connected by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,740. Homburg consists of an old +and a new town, the latter, founded by the landgrave of Hesse-Homburg +Frederick II. (d. 1708), being regular and well-built. Besides the +palatial edifices erected in connexion with the mineral water-cure, +there are churches of various denominations, Lutheran, Roman Catholic, +Russian-Greek and Anglican, schools and benevolent institutions. On a +neighbouring hill stands the palace of the former landgraves, built in +1680 and subsequently enlarged and improved. The White Tower, 183 ft. in +height, is said to date from Roman times, and certainly existed under +the lords of Eppstein, who held the district in the 12th century. The +palace is surrounded by extensive grounds, laid out in the manner of an +English park. The eight mineral springs which form the attraction of the +town to strangers belong to the class of saline acidulous chalybeates +and contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime. Their use is +beneficial for diseases of the stomach and intestines, and externally, +for diseases of the skin and rheumatism. The establishments connected +with the springs are arranged on a scale of great magnificence, and +include the Kurhaus (built 1841-1843), with a theatre, the Kaiser +Wilhelmsbad and the Kurhausbad. They lie grouped round a pretty park +which also furnishes the visitors with facilities for various +recreations, such as lawn tennis, croquet, polo and other games. The +industries of Homburg embrace iron founding and the manufacture of +leather and hats, but they are comparatively unimportant, the prosperity +of the town being almost entirely due to the annual influx of visitors, +which during the season from May to October inclusive averages 12,000. +In the beautiful neighbourhood lies the ancient Roman castle of +Saalburg, which can be reached by an electric tramway. + +Homburg first came into repute as a watering-place in 1834, and owing to +its gaming-tables, which were set up soon after, it rapidly became one +of the favourite and most fashionable health-resorts of Europe. In 1849 +the town was occupied by Austrian troops for the purpose of enforcing +the imperial decree against gambling establishments, but immediately on +their withdrawal the bank was again opened, and play continued unchecked +until 1872, when the Prussian government refused to renew the lease for +gambling purposes, which then expired. As the capital of the former +landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, the town shared the vicissitudes of that +state. + +Homburg is also the name of a town in Bavaria. Pop. (1900) 4785. It has +a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, and manufactures of iron +goods. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castles of Karlsberg +and of Hohenburg. The family of the counts of Homburg became extinct in +the 15th century. The town came into the possession of Zweibrucken in +1755 and later into that of Bavaria. + + See Supp, _Bad Homburg_ (7th ed., Homburg, 1903); Baumstark, _Bad + Homburg und seine Heilquellen_ (Wiesbaden, 1901); Schiek, _Homburg und + Umgebung_ (Homburg, 1896); Will, _Der Kurort Homburg, seine + Mineralquellen_ (Homburg, 1880); Hoeben, _Bad Homburg und sein + Heilapparat_ (Homburg, 1901); and N. E. Yorke-Davies, _Homburg and its + Waters_ (London, 1897). + + + + +HOME, EARLS OF. Alexander Home or Hume, 1st earl of Home (c. 1566-1619), +was the son of Alexander, 5th Lord Home (d. 1575), who fought against +Mary, queen of Scots, at Carberry Hill and at Langside, but was +afterwards one of her most stalwart supporters, being taken prisoner +when defending Edinburgh castle in her interests in 1573 and probably +dying in captivity. He belonged to an old and famous border family, an +early member of which, Sir Alexander Home, was killed at the battle of +Verneuil in 1424. This Sir Alexander was the father of Sir Alexander +Home (d. 1456), warden of the marches and the founder of the family +fortunes, whose son, another Sir Alexander (d. 1491), was created a lord +of parliament as Lord Home in 1473, being one of the band of nobles who +defeated the forces of King James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in +1488. Other distinguished members of the family were: the first lord's +grandson and successor, Alexander, 2nd Lord Home (d. 1506), chamberlain +of Scotland; and the latter's son, Alexander, 3rd Lord Home (d. 1516), a +person of great importance during the reign of James IV., whom he served +as chamberlain. He fought at Flodden, but before the death of the king +he had led his men away to plunder. During the minority of the new king, +James V., he was engaged in quarrelling with the regent, John Stewart, +duke of Albany, and in intriguing with England. In September 1516 he was +seized, was charged with treachery and beheaded, his title and estates +being restored to his brother George in 1522. George, who was killed in +September 1547 during a skirmish just before the battle of Pinkie, was +the father of Alexander, the 5th lord. + +Alexander Home became 6th Lord Home on his father's death in August +1575, and took part in many of the turbulent incidents which marked the +reign of James VI. He was warden of the east marches, and was often at +variance with the Hepburns, a rival border family whose head was the +earl of Bothwell; the feud between the Homes and the Hepburns was an old +one, and it was probably the main reason why Home's father, the 5th +lord, sided with the enemies of Mary during the period of her intimacy +with Bothwell. Home accompanied James to England in 1603 and was created +earl of Home in 1605; he died in April 1619. + +His son James, the 2nd earl, died childless in 1633 when his titles +passed to a distant kinsman, Sir James Home of Coldingknows (d. 1666), a +descendant of the 1st Lord Home. This earl was in the Scottish ranks at +the battle of Preston and lost his estates under the Commonwealth, but +these were restored to him in 1661. His descendant, William, the 8th +earl (d. 1761) fought on the English side at Prestonpans, and from his +brother Alexander, the 9th earl (d. 1786), the present earl of Home is +descended. In 1875 Cospatrick Alexander, the 11th earl (1799-1881), was +created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Douglas, and his son +Charles Alexander, the 12th earl (b. 1834), took the additional name of +Douglas. The principal strongholds of the Homes were Douglas castle in +Haddington and Home castle in Berwickshire. + + See H. Drummond, _Histories of Noble British Families_ (1846). + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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