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diff --git a/39140.txt b/39140.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9ccd9a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/39140.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3479 @@ +Project Gutenberg's A Racial Study of the Fijians, by Norman E. Gabel + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: A Racial Study of the Fijians + +Author: Norman E. Gabel + +Release Date: March 14, 2012 [EBook #39140] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS *** + + + + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Jude Eylander, Joseph Cooper +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration: Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional divisions of +population made by the author.] + + A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS + + BY + NORMAN E. GABEL + + ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS + + Vol. 20, No. I + + UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA + + ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS + + Editors: C. W. Meighan, Harry Hoijer. Eshref Shevky + Volume 20, No. 1. pp. 1-44, plates 1-15 + + Submitted by editors April 11, 1957 + Issued March 27, 1958 + Price. $1.00 + + University of California Press + Berkeley and Los Angeles + California + + Cambridge University Press + London, England + + Manufactured in the United States of America + + + + +CONTENTS + + + _Page_ + Introduction 1 + The problem and procedure 1 + The habitat 2 + History 3 + Population 3 + Racial background 4 + Acknowledgments 4 + + Measurements and indices 5 + General 5 + Weight 5 + Stature 5 + Span 5 + Span-stature index 5 + The trunk 5 + Sitting height 5 + Relative sitting height 5 + Biacromial 6 + Relative shoulder breadth 6 + Bi-iliac 6 + Shoulder-hip 6 + Chest breadth 6 + Chest depth 6 + Thoracic 6 + Arms and legs 6 + Arm length 6 + Humeral length 6 + Radial length 7 + Radial-humeral 7 + Leg length 7 + Tibial length 7 + Calf circumference 7 + The head 7 + Head circumference 7 + Head length 7 + Head breadth 7 + Cephalic index 7 + Head height 8 + Length-height 8 + Breadth-height 8 + Cranial module 8 + Minimum frontal 8 + Fronto-parietal 8 + The face 8 + Bizygomatic 8 + Cephalo-facial 9 + Zygo-frontal 9 + Total face height 9 + Total facial index 9 + Upper face height 9 + Upper facial index 9 + Bigonial 9 + Fronto-gonial 9 + Zygo-gonial 10 + Nasal height 10 + Nasal breadth 10 + Nasal index 10 + Nasal depth 10 + Nasal-depth index 10 + Mouth breadth 10 + Lip thickness 10 + Ear length 10 + Ear breadth 11 + Ear index 11 + Bicanine breadth 11 + + Morphological observations 12 + Pigmentation 12 + Skin color: exposed 12 + Skin color: unexposed 12 + Hair color 13 + Eye color 13 + Hair 13 + Hair form 13 + Hair texture 14 + Head hair quantity 14 + Hair length 14 + Baldness 14 + Beard quantity 14 + Body hair 15 + Grayness: head 15 + Grayness: beard 16 + The face 16 + Prognathism: total 16 + Prognathism: mid-facial 16 + Prognathism: alveolar 16 + Malar projection: lateral 16 + Malar projection: frontal 16 + Gonial angles 16 + Palate shape 16 + Chin prominence 17 + Chin type 17 + The head 17 + Temporal fullness 17 + Occipital protrusion 17 + Lambdoidal flattening 17 + Occipital flattening 17 + Median sagittal crest 17 + Parietal bosses 17 + Cranial asymmetry 17 + Facial asymmetry 18 + Eyes 18 + Eye folds: external 18 + Eye fold: median 18 + Eye folds: internal 18 + Eye obliquity 18 + Eye opening 18 + Forehead 18 + Brow ridges 18 + Forehead height 19 + Forehead slope 19 + Nose 19 + Nasion depression 19 + Root height 19 + Root breadth 19 + Nasal septum 19 + Bridge height 19 + Bridge breadth 19 + Nasal profile 19 + Nasal-tip thickness 20 + Nasal-tip inclination 20 + Nasal wings 20 + Mouth 20 + Lip thickness: membranous 20 + Lip thickness: integumental 20 + Lip eversion 20 + Lip seam 20 + Teeth 21 + Bite 21 + Caries 21 + Crowding 21 + Tooth eruption 21 + Wear 21 + Ears 21 + Ear helix 21 + Darwin's point 21 + Ear-lobe type 22 + Ear-lobe size 22 + Ear protrusion 22 + Ear slant 22 + Body build 22 + Body build: endomorph 22 + Body build: mesomorph 22 + Body build: ectomorph 22 + Summary 23 + + Conclusions 25 + + Literature cited 26 + + Plates 27 + + +MAP + + Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional divisions of population + made by the author ... frontispiece + + + + +A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS +BY +NORMAN E. GABEL + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +This paper concerns itself with a physical survey of the native male +population of Fiji. The main objective is a description of these people +by means of anthropometric procedure.[1] The treatment includes, first, +a description of the Fijians as a whole, second, a comparison with +neighboring people, and third, regional differences among the Fijians +themselves. + + +THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE + +The data used in this survey were secured in 1954 during a stay of seven +months in Fiji. My plan was to obtain anthropometric samples from +several parts of the archipelago; this plan was only slightly altered as +time and transportation facilities directed. Each of the three main +administrative districts into which the islands are divided were visited +and within each district samples were secured from most of the +constituent provinces. The original sample consisted of 880 subjects. +Later, 65 subjects were excluded for various reasons: some were part +Samoan or Tongan, a few were Rotumans, and others were immature. The +number finally used stands at 815. + +A limited amount of comparative material has been included in order to +help locate the Fijians in the overall Pacific picture. These data were +drawn from W. W. Howells, "Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the +Solomon Islands" in The American Museum of Natural History, +Anthropological Papers, volume 33, part 4, 1933, and from L. R. +Sullivan, "A Contribution to Tongan Somatology" based on the field +studies of E. W. Gifford and W. C. McKern, in Memoires of the Bernice P. +Bishop Museum, volume 8, number 4, 1922. The latter report provides +comparison with what may be termed western Polynesians who are also the +nearest Polynesians to the Fijians. The Fijian data in Howell's paper +make it possible for me to check some of my own Fijian material, and the +Solomon Island data in the same report provide a Melanesian measuring +stick. + +Since an over-all description of the Fijians is the initial concern of +this paper, each physical trait measured or derived from measurement is +tabulated according to range, average, and deviation. Traits observed +but not measured are presented according to degree of development, e.g., +absent, medium, and pronounced, and according to percentage of +occurrence. Further statistical manipulation is not deemed necessary for +the writer's purposes. + +It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people. They are +regarded, and with good reason, as a hybrid of, mainly, Melanesian and +Polynesian components. Their geographical location, their history, and +their physical appearance bear this out. + +The proportions of Polynesian and Melanesian elements are, of course, +not evenly distributed throughout Fiji. Even superficial observation +indicates that the natives range from strongly Melanesian to markedly +Polynesian. To demonstrate how this variability follows certain regional +trends, the data have been broken down into four geographical areas. +This subdivision rests on several considerations and merits further +comment. + +One of the subgroups represents the people of the mountainous interior +of Viti Levu, the main island of Fiji (see accompanying map). This +region may be regarded as something of a refuge area. Fijians from this +relatively isolated locality might reasonably be expected to exhibit +more of the earlier racial elements of the total composition. It should +be pointed out, however, that the degree of isolation associated with +this; interior; group is not extreme. Fiji tradition and history +indicate extensive interregional movement. Particularly in early +historic times, when the advent of firearms and other Western culture +greatly stimulated intergroup warfare and cannibalism, there was much +moving about from one region to another. With all this, the interior +people still remained, as indeed they are today, more apart from the +rest of the population and less subject to outside influence. + +The second segment chosen for interregional comparison is in the central +Lau Islands and is designated in this paper as the "eastern" group. +Lying as they do, at the eastern end of Fiji, they are closest to Tonga, +the nearest Polynesian neighbors. Tongan contact with Fiji in +prehistoric as well as more recent times is well established.[2] It is +in the Lau Islands that Polynesian cultural affinities are most marked. +Hence, it seems a logical choice for a second and separate glance in the +racial history. + +The third comparative sample might be termed an intermediate group. It +is taken from the coastal villages of eastern Viti Levu, largely from +the provinces of Rewa and Tailevu. This area is geographically between +the "interior" and "eastern" groups and is referred to in this paper as +the "coastal" group. + +The final regional division represents the northwestern parts of Viti +Levu. This is the place where, according to Fiji tradition, their +ancestors first landed after migrating from the west.[3] Fijian legend, +which gives this hint of their ancestry, does not include a physical +description of these immigrants. Nor does it define the physical +appearance of the earlier people whom the newcomers encountered and with +whom they mingled. On the rather slim hope that anthropometry might shed +a little light on this questionable phase of Fijian history, this area, +along with the first three, has received separate treatment. + + +THE HABITAT + +The islands of Fiji are centrally located in the southwest Pacific. Over +three hundred islands and islets make up the archipelago, which spreads +between latitudes 15' and 22' south of the equator for 300 miles. The +international date line runs through Fiji at the Koro Sea and the Moala +Island group. + +The total land area of the islands is about the equivalent of the state +of Delaware, somewhat over 7,000 square miles. Two great islands account +for nearly 95 per cent of the total area: Viti Levu, the largest, is +over 4,000 square miles, and Vanua Levu, about half as large. Over 90 +per cent of the native population lives on these two islands although +nearly a hundred other islands are inhabited. + +Most of the islands are made up of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The +largest islands rest on a submerged portion of an ancient land mass, +sometimes called the Melanesian continent, which goes back in time to +the Paleozoic and, in its prime, intermittently connected Fiji with +southeastern Asia and Australia. Subsequent submergence, followed by +cycles of volcanic upbuilding, erosion, and more submergence over eons +of time, gave the big islands their upper foundations. The last +extensive volcanic activity and land uplift occurred in the Pleistocene +and accounts for many of the present mountain masses. The final touches +to the Fiji profile have been wrought by more recent weathering and +erosion. Sedimentation is still going on at river mouths and along the +coasts, where deltas are being built and mangrove thickets flourish. + +Many of the smaller islands are old limestone masses that were pushed up +from the sea. Unlike the high craggy volcanic islands, these are lower +and flat-topped. Typically, they contain a basin-shaped depressed area +that is surrounded by a rim. These depressions are usually fertile and +heavily forested. + +Coral islands make up the third variety of land forms. These are always +small and low. Their small size, thinner soil, and lack of fresh water +make them much less suitable for human habitation. But even a thin layer +of soil produces a luxurious vegetation. + +Fringing and barrier reefs are abundant throughout the archipelago, +surrounding nearly every island. The most striking of these formations +is the Great Sea Reef, which forms an arc of nearly 300 miles along the +western fringe of Fiji and encloses large areas of coral-infested sea. + +Moderately high mountains give to the larger islands a generally rugged +terrain. The more extensive ranges lie across the path of the prevailing +south and easterly winds producing windward and leeward climatic areas. +On the windward side rainfall is heavy and rather evenly distributed +over the year. Here the valleys and mountain slopes support a typical +dense tropical growth. The leeward side, however, receives much less +moisture and has wet and dry seasons. Scattered patches of trees and +grasses cover the ground, whereas heavy stands of forest are confined to +valley bottoms and higher mountain slopes. The mountainous interior of +Viti Levu contains a number of peaks over 3,000 feet, the highest of +which is Mt. Victoria, 4,341 feet. + +Surface water is abundant on the bigger islands. Several large and +navigable rivers drain Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The Rewa River, on the +east side of Viti Levu is the largest and is navigable for small craft +for 70 miles. Smaller rivers and hundreds of streams are important +sources of food and drink for the people of the interior. + +Great flood plains are formed at the mouths of the larger rivers. These +and the fertile flats that run back along the valleys contain the +greatest population densities. + +The climate is generally pleasant and healthful. Tropical extremes of +heat and humidity are moderated by the prevailing trades, which usually +supply cool and pleasant breezes from the east. Still, days of +uncomfortable heat and oppressive humidity are not unknown; however, +such periods are protracted only in the interior. The climate is far +from uniform throughout the islands. The windward sides, where rainfall +often exceeds a hundred inches, have a more even temperature and +sunshine is more moderate. On the leeward sides there is less general +cloudiness and more sunshine, especially during the dry season. The +smaller islands generally resemble the leeward areas in climate. + +Native plant and animal life, like much of the southwest Pacific, is +southeastern Asiatic in type and in origin. In the more profuse and +varied windward sides there are several general vegetation zones. Along +the coasts and in the larger river basins occur alluvial vegetation +largely dominated by several kinds of mangrove, which is densest in mud +flats washed by the tide. In this zone trees are scattered, and many of +them bear useful nuts and fruits. On the slopes and ridges behind the +coastal belts are the great tropical rain forests. They make up a dense +cover of evergreen trees interwoven with wild creepers and vines. Thick +stands of shrubs and smaller trees add to the tropical profusion. Above +2,000 feet the forests thin out and become more heavily coated with moss +and lichens, and ferns and orchids attach themselves to the branches. +Beyond 3,000 feet is the cloud belt, and above this trees become stunted +and are finally replaced by hardy shrubs that cling to the rocks and +crags. + +On the leeward sides, patches of rain forest are found only in the +moister areas. More typical of this zone are thin-leaved trees +interspersed in large expanses of meadow and grassland. + +A number of native plants are very vital to the Fijian livelihood and +some have modern economic importance. Several timber trees are essential +to house building, canoe construction, and wood carving. The ubiquitous +palms, here as elsewhere in the Pacific, are vital sources of food, +drink, building, and weaving materials and cordage. The mangrove +provides firewood, house poles, fishing fences, and traps, laths for +bows and black dye for their hair and tapa. Valuable starch is secured +from the sago palm, which is cut just before flowering, and the leaves +are a common thatching material. Various reeds, canes, and bamboos and +lianas are useful to Fiji economy. In the drier areas reeds and grasses +provide material for house walls, thatch, fish fences, and arrow shafts. +Several kinds of trees yield edible nuts and fruits. + +Like other central-Pacific island groups, Fiji is poorly provided with +indigenous mammals. A small gray rat is a considerable pest in gardens +and homes, and a large nocturnal bat, which is called a flying fox, +lives in tree colonies and is often seen at dusk in banana groves or +other feeding places. All the economically important animals of Fiji +have been introduced, such as pigs, fowl, dogs, cattle, horses, sheep, +and goats. + +Bird life is diverse and interesting, although in a number of places +introduced forms, like mynahs and turtle doves, have forced the native +varieties back into the jungle. Several game birds such as doves, +pigeons, and ducks are occasionally hunted. + +Snakes and lizards are fairly common on the islands; none is poisonous. +Some are eaten, but the practice is not usual. Snakes had a more +important place in the former religious and totemic practices. + +Much more vital to the native economy is the abundant and varied marine +life. This, with gardening, provides the foundation of Fijian +subsistence. Turtles, crabs, prawns, eels, to say nothing of scores of +fishes, are hunted, trapped, poisoned, speared, and netted. The cycle of +the balolo worm has here the same importance as in other Pacific +islands. + + +HISTORY + +The first western contact with Fiji was made in 1643 when Captain Abel +Tasman entered Fijian waters and sighted several islands and reefs +without realizing the nature of his discovery. Over a hundred years +later, Captain Cook made a second contact by stopping at one of the +southern Lau Islands. Real knowledge of the area began in 1792 when +Captain Bligh sailed through the archipelago from the southeast to the +northwest, following the famous mutiny of the _Bounty_. Bligh made an +attempt to land, was attacked by natives, and continued through the +islands with no more landings. He did, however, make a record of most of +the islands he passed. + +In the nineteenth century, commercial contacts began in the form of +sandalwood trade. This profitable commodity brought Europeans and +Americans first to the Sandalwood Coast on the west side of Vanua Levu. +During this period the first systematic survey of Fijian waters was +made by the U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1840. After little more +than a decade the sandalwood supply was depleted to the point where +trade virtually ceased. + +As a result of this initial commercial contact, which was mainly around +western Vanua Levu and eastern Viti Levu, some marked changes were +effected in Fijian culture. After the sandalwood traders abandoned Fiji +for more profitable fields, a number of deserters and ship-wrecked men +remained. These beachcombers, along with firearms that had been +introduced by trade or salvaged from wrecks, brought about the first +striking alterations. Rival chiefs competed for the acquisition of +muskets, gunpowder, and beachcombers. The latter in some instances +became attached to royal households as dubious advisors and instructors +in the use of guns, powder, and shot. Some of these coaches enjoyed a +status resembling that of household pets. + +The introduction of firearms changed the native political scene and +increased the scope and destructiveness of warfare. For a time the +rulers of Mbau in eastern Viti nearly monopolized the supply of muskets +and white men. This established their political supremacy over rival +leaders. Larger and stronger political and military alliances, some +resembling small kingdoms, developed for purposes of defense or +aggression. As warfare grew more frequent, new diseases entered the +islands and trade in liquor advanced. + +After the third decade of the nineteenth century better elements began +to enter Fiji and ensuing culture contact was not so consistently +deplorable. _Beche-de-mer_ traders and whalers began to visit the islands +for trade goods and supplies. Some began to settle at the east end of +Viti Levu. Missionaries came in the 1830's and the Christianization of +Fiji began. + +Internal conflict between rival chiefs, attacks on French, British, and +American ships, with subsequent reprisals, continued and intensified. By +mid-century, rivalry between the local kingdoms of Mbau and Rewa reached +a peak. At this time the powerful ruler of Mbau, Thakombau, who +dominated a large segment of eastern Viti Levu, had become hard pressed +by his Rewa enemies. Thakombau submitted to the missionaries who had +been pressing his conversion. With his support of the missionaries, the +native struggles became a religious war between Christianity and +paganism as well as between nativism and westernism. Thakombau's cause +was rescued in 1855 when King George of Tonga brought an army of 2,000 +warriors to Fiji and combined his strength with that of the kingdom of +Mbau. Thenceforth Thakombau remained the paramount chief in eastern Fiji +and for some twenty ensuing years ruled under the dominance of Tongan +princes. Another Tongan chief, Ma'afu, arrived in 1848 and set up a +political domain that rivaled the kingdom of Thakombau. + +Throughout these struggles and particularly with the conversion of +Thakombau and the leadership of the already Christianized Tongan chiefs, +native religion, including cannibalism, rapidly declined. Meanwhile, +English, Australian, and New Zealand settlers were augmenting earlier +trade contacts. Plantations and trade centers developed, and in 1857 a +British consul was appointed and set up at Levuka on the east coast of +Viti Levu. A few years later Thakombau sought relief from the payment of +indemnities to foreign powers and from internal harassments by an offer +to cede his dominions to Great Britain. The initial offer was declined +and the British consul was recalled in 1860. + +The next ten years saw a continuation of political and military turmoil +stemming from rival interests of native rulers, Tongan interlopers, and +European immigrants. A second appeal to the British government resulted +in an unconditional deed of cession on October 10, 1874, which marks the +beginning of Fiji's status as a British Crown Colony. + + +POPULATION + +Over 300,000 people live in the Fiji Islands. Of these about 140,000 are +native Fijians. The others are arranged in the following divisions:[4] + + Indians 154,803 + Europeans 6,500 + Part European 7,496 + Polynesians } + Melanesians } 4,133 + Micronesians } + Rotumans 3,990 + Chinese 3,857 + Others 649 + +When Fiji became a British Crown Colony in 1874 the population was +entirely native except for a handful of outsiders. At that time the +population has been variously estimated at approximately 200,000. +Shortly thereafter a measles epidemic reduced their number severely. +This, with other epidemics and maladies for which they had little or no +immunity or resistence, continued the decimation until by 1905 there +were only 87,000. During the next decade they held their own, until in +1919 the influenza scourge brought them to their lowest level of 83,000. +This was the last serious setback to their number; since that time the +population has been on the upgrade. + +A present threat to Fijian population, in the opinion of many, stems not +from disease but from the Indian presence. This began in the latter part +of the nineteenth century when Indian immigration of indentured laborers +began. The influx went on until 1916 by which time some 40,000 to 50,000 +Indians had come to Fiji and very few had returned to India. Since then, +the Indians have increased more rapidly than the Fijians until they now +outnumber them. This situation has, of course, created numerous problems +beyond the scope of this paper. + +It is significant to point out that intermarriage or interbreeding +between Fijians and Indians is relatively slight. The amount of mingling +of Fijians with Europeans or Orientals cannot be demonstrated +statistically, but it has not been extensive. The Fijians, on the whole, +retain pretty much of their prehistoric racial make-up. + + +RACIAL BACKGROUND + +It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people, derived +mainly from Melanesian and Polynesian sources. Both of these parental +strains in turn are commonly believed to be racial blends. Hooton +describes the Melanesians as Oceanic Negroes whose composition includes +Negrito, Australoid, "plus convex-nosed Mediterranean plus minor +fractions of Malay and Polynesian."[5] Birdsell sees the same three +strains in Melanesia which he believes contribute to the Australians, +namely Negrito, Murrayan, and Carpentarian, plus a small amount of +Mongoloid. He believes they differ from Australians in being "basically +negritic in their genetic composition as a result of the rain forest +environment."[6] Polynesians, however, are usually thought to be derived +from Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid strains in which the Caucasoid +component is more often the strongest. + +The composite character of the Fijians has been variously explained as +far as order and time of the contributing elements are concerned. One +theory regards a Negroid stock as aboriginal to which a Polynesian +strain was later added. An early explanation of this sort is that of +Fornander who held that the ancestors of the modern Polynesians coming +from southeastern Asia via Indonesia in the early centuries A.D. made a +prolonged stopover in Fiji as they moved eastward. This left a +Polynesian imprint on the native Fijian physical appearance as well as +on their language and culture.[7] Later on, Churchill added a second +movement of Polynesians from the west about a thousand years later. This +was used to explain a certain amount of Mongoloid elements that needed +accounting for in western Polynesia.[8] + +A differing interpretation brings the Polynesian influence into Fiji +from the east in relatively recent times. Thomson, for example, regards +it as mainly Tongan. There are many references in the eighteenth and +nineteenth centuries to Tongan presence in Fiji; they came to trade, to +fight, and merely to visit. + +Hocart believes the Polynesians at one time occupied most of Fiji until +they were driven eastward to Tonga and Samoa by native Melanesians.[9] +Howells tentatively suggests another possibility: originally all of Fiji +was occupied by Polynesians except perhaps for some Melanesian tribes in +the mountainous interior of Viti Levu. Around the eleventh century a +wave of immigrants from the west reached Fiji. "The newcomers, taking +possession of the archipelago, partly amalgamated with and partly pushed +out the Polynesian tenants, just as did the hill tribes of Hocart's +theory, the refugees fleeing to Somoa and Tonga."[10] Howells associates +this immigration with the Fijian tradition of an arrival of ancestral +families from across the western sea. + +This Fijian tradition of their own origin includes a landing on the west +coast of Viti Levu at Nandi by an ancestral chief and his sons who came +across the sea from the west. Several of his sons moved eastward and +eventually founded families with native wives in various parts of the +archipelago. These families ultimately became consolidated into +present-day tribes or federations. Most Fijian social units derive their +origin from this or similar legendary immigrations. These eposodes +occurred eight or ten and, in one case, fifteen generations ago.[11] +Where these ancestors came from or what their racial affiliations were +is not described in the stories. On the basis of supposed similarities +of place-names, claims have been made for Africa as the place of origin, +but the validity of them is dubious. It is likely that these traditions +refer only to the more recent immigrations from the west. As to the +racial make-up of the ancestors, it is commonly believed that they were +Polynesians who, after settling in various parts of Fiji, took native +wives, presumably Melanesian, and originated many of the existing family +lines. This assumption does not rest on any actual physical reference to +their appearance but on such cultural data as their patrilineal +succession and their tradition of strong hereditary chieftainship. + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENTS + +I am indebted to a number of people of Fiji whose assistance and +cooeperation were helpful. Thanks are due to Sir Ronald Garvey, governor +of Fiji, whose approval of my project gave administrative sanction. Mr. +G. Kingsley Roth, the Secretary for Fijian Affairs, secured for me the +cooeperation of the Fijian Affairs Department, which in turn gave me +access to the proper native officers and leaders, furnished me with +necessary transportation; he also gave me some sound advice. Also of the +Fijian Affairs Office, Ratu Dr. Dobi helped me make the necessary +contacts as my work took me from one area to another. Mr. Robbin H. +Yarrow, safety officer of the Emperor Gold Mining Company, was most +helpful during my stay at Vatukoula, where I secured an excellent sample +of the northern provinces. + +The young Fijian who acted as my interpreter, guide, and recorder was +Joji Qalelawe; my especial thanks to him for his intelligent and +cheerful cooeperation. + + + + +MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES + + +GENERAL + +_Weight_[12] + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 814 105-300 163.0 20.3 12.5 + Interior 0 0 0 0 0 + East 73 130-245 168.1 19.3 11.5 + Coast 210 118-300 160.7 22.8 14.2 + N.W. 79 120-212 161.9 16.9 10.4 + +The average weight of 163 pounds, coupled with their rather tall +stature, describes the Fijian as a large person, on the whole. Their +generous weight does not reflect excessive obesity; the body build, as +will be pointed out later, is prevailingly muscular and athletic. +Variation among the regional samples is not significant; all the groups +average more than 160 pounds. + +_Stature_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 150.1-195.0 172.5 6.1 3.5 + Interior 154 150.1-183.7 169.6 6.0 3.5 + East 120 160.2-190.5 173.3 6.0 3.5 + Coast 210 156.1-195.0 173.4 5.8 3.4 + N.W. 79 159.8-186.0 172.7 5.8 3.3 + Fiji (Howells) 133 158-190 170.8 6.1 3.6 + Solomons (Howells) 85 146-181 160.2 6.8 4.2 + Tonga (Sullivan) 92 160-188 173.0 5.2 3.0 + +The stature of the Fijians is moderately tall. Howells' series of +Fijians, as well as mine, indicate this category. In this measurement, +the Fijians are similar to the Tongans. They are 12 cm. taller than the +Melanesians. + +Among the Fijian themselves, the interior people of the highlands are +definitely shorter than the rest of the population. + +Rumors still persist of remnants of pygmoid people in the interior +mountains of Viti Levu. I found no evidence of them either in my travels +in the interior or by extensive inquiries among natives and Europeans +who had thorough knowledge of the whole island. + +_Span_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 155.0-208.0 180.0 15.1 8.8 + Interior 154 155.0-201.0 179.5 7.5 4.2 + East 120 166.4-200.5 178.1 24.3 13.6 + Coast 210 160.1-208.0 181.2 14.6 8.1 + N.W. 79 165.1-202.0 180.0 21.6 11.9 + +Span of the arms also reflects the generous proportions of the Fijians. +Regional difference is not marked. Relative to stature, the hill people +have the longer arms and the eastern natives the shortest. The greater +relative arm length of the hill tribes seems to be owing more to +deficiency of stature than to excessive arm length or shoulder breadth. + +_Span-Stature Index_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 96.1-116.3 104.3 8.5 8.15 + Interior 154 99.4-115.1 105.2 2.3 2.2 + East 120 99.1-108.5 102.7 13.5 13.14 + Coast 210 97.9-116.3 104.4 7.7 7.4 + N.W. 79 100.2-109.7 104.1 12.0 11.5 + + +THE TRUNK + +_Sitting Height_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 75.1-100 87.0 3.5 3.9 + Interior 154 75.1-94 84.4 9.4 11.0 + East 120 81-100 88.5 3.5 3.9 + Coast 210 80-99 87.7 3.2 3.6 + N.W. 79 80-94 86.0 2.9 3.3 + Fiji (Howells) 132 78-101 88.3 3.06 3.46 + Solomons (Howells) 85 69-95 83.6 3.8 4.5 + +A total sitting height average of 87 cm. attests the generous general +body length. A regional trend follows the same curve as that for +stature. The eastern body length is greatest; it exceeds the over-all +average by 1-1/2 cm. and is more than 4 cm. larger than the interior +people who fall at the bottom of the scale of sitting height. Howells' +Fijian series is close to my eastern average. Compared with the Solomon +Islands natives, the Fijians are much more elongated. + +_Relative Sitting Height_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 45-58 50.4 1.5 3.0 + Interior 154 46-56 49.8 1.4 2.8 + East 120 48-54 51.0 1.3 2.5 + Coast 210 46-56 50.5 1.4 2.8 + N.W. 79 47-54 50.2 1.4 2.8 + Fiji (Howells) 132 46-57 51.7 1.36 2.63 + Solomons (Howells) 85 46-57 52.1 1.64 2.92 + +The relative sitting height ratio for all Fijians is 50.4 per cent. The +eastern average of 51 per cent indicates a little more legginess, +whereas the interior groups tend somewhat to longer trunks. + +_Biacromial_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 28-47 39.7 8.2 6.2 + Interior 154 29-43 39.0 6.2 4.7 + East 120 35-45 39.9 6.1 4.0 + Coast 210 28-45 39.7 7.6 4.9 + N.W. 79 35-47 40.5 6.6 3.9 + +The Fijians are generally a broad-shouldered people. The inhabitants of +Ra and Ba have the highest average and the interior people are least +broad-shouldered. + +_Relative Shoulder Breadth_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 18-27 22.3 1.3 5.8 + Interior 154 19-25 22.9 1.0 3.9 + East 120 20-26 23.0 1.0 3.9 + Coast 210 18-26 22.9 1.0 4.4 + N.W. 79 20-27 23.4 3.1 13.2 + +Relative to total stature, shoulder breadth averages 22.3 per cent. No +significant regional differences are indicated. + +_Bi-Iliac_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 23-40 29.2 5.6 5.3 + Interior 154 25-38 29.0 5.1 5.2 + East 120 27-34 29.5 4.1 4.8 + Coast 210 23-37 29.2 5.9 5.5 + N.W. 79 26-32 29.3 4.6 5.0 + +The Fijians, as a whole, are fairly broad-hipped; this condition holds +with little variation in all the provinces. + +_Shoulder-Hip_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 58-101 73.7 4.3 5.8 + Interior 154 65-100 74.6 4.2 5.6 + East 120 67-82 73.8 3.2 4.3 + Coast 210 58-99 73.5 4.3 5.9 + N.W. 79 62-86 72.8 5.9 8.1 + +The total shoulder-hip ratio describes the shoulders as 73.7 per cent as +wide as the hips. These ratios do not vary greatly in different parts of +Fiji. The somewhat higher index of the hill groups is owing largely to +their narrower shoulders, whereas the superior shoulder breadth of the +northwest provinces contributes mostly to the lower hip-shoulder index. + +_Chest Breadth_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 24-39 28.6 6.4 5.7 + Interior 154 25-33 28.6 3.3 4.7 + East 120 26-39 29.4 7.2 5.8 + Coast 210 25-37 28.7 7.8 6.2 + N.W. 79 25-32 28.9 4.3 4.9 + +Broad chests are also characteristic in Fiji. The eastern men surpass +the Viti Levu males, and the interior groups have the narrowest chests, +but the regional variations are small. + +_Chest Depth_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 184-308 22.9 5.5 7.0 + Interior 154 195-263 22.4 3.2 5.8 + East 120 189-295 22.5 4.9 6.6 + Coast 210 184-300 21.7 5.7 7.2 + N.W. 79 192-250 21.8 3.3 6.0 + +The chests of the Fijians are also fairly deep. The close similarity in +chest depth of the interior group and the eastern sample is rather +striking inasmuch as the former are nearly 4 cm. shorter in stature. +This would indicate that the interior group, for their size, are +relatively deep-chested. + +_Thoracic_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 59-96 76.4 4.6 6.0 + Interior 154 69-88 78.5 3.9 5.0 + East 120 65-85 76.3 4.3 5.6 + Coast 210 56-89 75.5 4.7 6.2 + N.W. 79 65-85 75.7 4.4 5.8 + +The thoracic index shows that the Fijians are deep-chested relative to +thoracic breadth as well as in absolute values. Again the interior +people stand out for their deeper chests. + + +ARMS AND LEGS + +_Arm Length_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 45-87 75.2 5.0 6.6 + Interior 154 45-83 73.6 4.8 6.1 + East 120 52-84 75.1 3.9 5.2 + Coast 210 57-87 76.0 4.9 6.4 + N.W. 79 55-86 75.3 6.6 8.8 + +The over-all arm length is 75.2 cm. Shorter arms seem to be +characteristic of the interior population where the average is nearly 2 +cm. less than the over-all average. The eastern group has the longest +arms; the other samples are intermediate. + +_Humeral Length_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 26-39 32.8 8.6 5.7 + Interior 154 28-38 32.8 7.1 5.2 + East 120 28-39 32.9 8.3 5.6 + Coast 210 26-38 32.9 9.1 5.8 + N.W. 79 28-38 33.0 7.9 5.4 + +Length of the upper arm averages 33 cm. for all Fijians; the several +provinces are closely similar in this trait. + +_Radial Length_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 23-35 27.6 4.1 5.1 + Interior 154 24-33 27.3 2.4 4.5 + East 120 23-34 27.5 6.9 6.1 + Coast 210 24-35 27.9 3.5 4.8 + N.W. 79 25-32 27.9 3.4 4.8 + +Lower arm length is 27.6 cm. and also varies but little among the +regional samples. + +_Radial-Humeral_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 65-113 84.0 4.2 5.0 + Interior 154 77-104 83.0 3.8 4.6 + East 120 65-95 83.5 4.7 5.6 + Coast 210 75-113 84.7 4.2 4.9 + N.W. 79 77-94 82.2 3.6 4.3 + +The radial-humeral ratio indicates that the lower arm of Fijians is 84 +per cent as long as the upper arm. None of the subgroups deviates +markedly from this average. + +_Leg Length_[13] + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 61-98 84.3 10.5 12.5 + Interior 154 74-96 81.1 8.6 12.9 + East 120 73-96 84.1 8.6 10.3 + Coast 210 68-97 85.3 7.2 8.5 + N.W. 79 75-95 85.7 4.4 5.2 + +Average leg length is 84.3 cm., and some regional differences are +manifest. The legs of the hill people are shorter by 3 cm. than are the +other groups. Their neighbors to the northwest and east have the longest +legs, and the eastern are intermediate. + +_Tibial Length_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 34-49 40.9 8.3 6.9 + Interior 154 35-45 40.3 13.4 10.8 + East 120 35-47 40.7 6.2 5.2 + Coast 210 35-47 41.2 6.8 5.1 + N.W. 79 36-47 40.9 6.1 5.9 + +Lower leg length is around 40 cm. for all Fijians. The regional pattern +is similar to that of total leg length: shortest in the highlands, +intermediate in the east, and longest in the coastal and northwestern +districts. + +_Calf Circumference_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 29-57 37.6 6.7 7.1 + Interior 154 31-51 37.0 6.4 7.1 + East 120 33-50 38.1 4.7 6.5 + Coast 210 29-48 37.2 9.4 7.9 + N.W. 79 30-43 37.7 7.6 6.3 + +The generous girth of the calf of the Fijians reflects their sturdily +muscled legs. The eastern groups excel the other Fijians in this +respect, whereas the interior groups have the lowest average for calf +circumference. + + +THE HEAD + +_Head Circumference_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 410-630 562.4 7.8 6.7 + Interior 154 537-613 565.3 4.1 2.5 + East 120 528-630 566.3 4.9 2.9 + Coast 210 410-630 563.5 4.6 3.5 + N.W. 79 537-597 557.7 14.3 11.5 + +The head circumference average of 562.4 mm. Probably is a little on the +large size because of the thick wiry hair of most Fijians; the eastern +groups appear to have the largest heads and the northwestern groups show +a rather abrupt drop. + +_Head Length_[14] + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 162-215 187.9 9.4 5.0 + Interior 154 170-210 190.1 7.6 4.0 + East 120 172-209 188.6 6.6 3.5 + Coast 210 162-215 187.4 13.5 7.2 + N.W. 79 165-214 187.2 7.9 4.2 + Fiji (Howells) 133 164-208 188.8 7.29 3.86 + Solomons (Howells) 85 170-208 188.5 6.5 3.5 + Tonga (Sullivan) 117 173-213 191.0 6.6 3.5 + +Total head length for all Fijians is 187.9 mm; longest heads occur in +the interior. Both Howells' Fijian average and the Solomon Islands +series are close to the above value. Gifford's Tongan head length of 191 +mm. Somewhat exceeds the Fijian. + +_Head Breadth_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 122-186 155.9 6.8 7.7 + Interior 154 135-170 152.1 6.6 4.3 + East 120 144-172 157.2 5.2 3.3 + Coast 210 141-186 158.3 9.3 8.5 + N.W. 79 122-185 152.9 8.6 8.2 + Fiji (Howells) 133 135-170 153.7 6.1 3.9 + Solomons (Howells) 85 126-158 144.7 5.2 3.6 + Tonga (Sullivan) 117 145-167 154.8 4.3 2.8 + +General head breadth is 155.9 mm., and considerable regional variation +is shown. Fijians of the interior have the narrowest heads, whereas the +coastal and eastern people have appreciably wider heads. Howells' series +of Fijians are closest to my highland groups. + +The Solomon Islanders are markedly narrower headed than the Fijians, +whereas Sullivan's Tongan series is nearer the Fijian average. + +_Cephalic Index_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 68-99 83.0 6.4 7.7 + Interior 154 68-96 80.0 6.0 7.3 + East 120 72-92 83.9 3.8 4.5 + Coast 210 72-99 84.2 7.2 8.6 + N.W. 79 71-95 81.6 10.3 12.6 + Fiji (Howells) 133 68-94 81.54 4.7 5.7 + Solomons (Howells) 85 65-88 76.8 3.9 5.1 + Tonga (Sullivan) 117 73-89 81.1 3.1 3.9 + +Most Fijians tend to brachycephaly. The eastern natives and those of the +coastal series have the broadest heads. The interior people show +definitely lesser values in this ratio than do the other groups. +Howells' Fijian series is close to the northwestern Fijians in their +mesocephaly, and so is the Tongan mean. The Solomon series borders on +dolicocephaly. + +_Head Height_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 110-154 129.5 6.8 7.9 + Interior 154 114-140 127.7 4.8 3.8 + East 120 114-148 129.6 5.0 3.9 + Coast 210 112-154 120.0 7.0 5.4 + N.W. 79 117-142 127.6 9.2 8.9 + +Head height averages do not differ greatly among the provinces. The +interior and northwestern people have somewhat lower heads; the coastal +and eastern people show slight superiority. + +_Length-Height_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 55-84 69.0 3.4 3.6 + Interior 154 59-77 67.2 3.9 5.8 + East 120 61-78 68.7 3.2 4.7 + Coast 210 55-84 69.4 3.7 4.3 + N.W. 79 58-84 68.1 4.5 3.5 + +Relative to head length, the cranial vault of Fijians is high. The +mountain people show the lowest relative head height, whereas the other +provinces are nearer to the over-all average. + +_Breadth-Height_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 66-102 83.0 3.0 3.3 + Interior 154 75-96 84.0 3.9 4.6 + East 120 75-91 82.4 3.4 4.1 + Coast 210 66-97 82.8 5.3 8.4 + N.W. 79 73-92 81.2 8.6 9.7 + +Head height relative to total breadth is 83 per cent. In this ratio the +interior groups have the highest index, a condition owing more to +deficiency in cranial breadth than to superior head height. + +_Cranial Module_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 141-176 157.7 10.5 6.7 + Interior 154 147-166 156.6 11.5 7.3 + East 120 148-172 158.4 4.4 2.7 + Coast 210 143-176 158.5 15.5 9.7 + N.W. 79 141-171 155.9 10.7 6.7 + +Head size as expressed by the cranial module averages 157.7 mm. for all +Fijians. Regional fluctuation is unimportant. + +_Minimum Frontal_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 99-125 109.9 4.0 2.7 + Interior 154 100-121 109.8 3.6 3.3 + East 120 99-122 110.8 3.8 3.4 + Coast 210 100-125 109.7 4.7 4.3 + N.W. 79 101-120 109.4 3.7 3.4 + +A minimum frontal diameter of 109.9 mm. indicates a fairly ample +forehead breadth for the total sample. None of the subgroups depart much +from this value. + +_Fronto-Parietal_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 58-89 70.6 4.3 6.1 + Interior 154 63-82 72.2 3.3 4.6 + East 120 64-79 70.5 3.0 4.3 + Coast 210 58-77 69.9 4.1 5.9 + N.W. 79 61-89 69.7 8.7 12.5 + +Forehead breadth relative to total cranial width is 70.6 per cent. The +greatest deviation from this average occurs in the interior where the +fronto-parietal ratio is 72.2 per cent and lesser head breadth more than +greater forehead width causes the higher index. + + +THE FACE + +_Bizygomatic_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 110-164 145.7 5.0 3.4 + Interior 154 110-163 145.8 6.3 4.3 + East 120 137-161 146.7 4.3 2.9 + Coast 210 128-164 145.2 4.9 3.4 + N.W. 79 136-156 145.1 4.3 3.0 + Fiji (Howells) 132 130-159 144.05 5.05 3.5 + Solomons (Howells) 84 115-149 138.0 5.5 4.0 + Tonga (Sullivan) 116 131-159 143.5 5.9 4.1 + +Broad faces are the rule among most of these people, as the total +average of 145.7 mm. shows. Regional values for this criterion are +closely alike in all parts of Fiji, the eastern showing a slight +superiority in bizygomatic breadth. + +Howells' Fiji series is slightly lower in this diameter as is the Tongan +average. The Solomon Islands natives have definitely narrower faces. + +_Cephalo-Facial_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 82-108 93.5 5.7 6.1 + Interior 154 84-108 96.0 4.8 5.0 + East 120 82-102 93.3 3.2 3.4 + Coast 210 85-103 92.5 5.7 6.2 + N.W. 79 80-104 92.6 6.4 7.3 + Fiji (Howells) 132 85-111 93.7 3.5 3.7 + Solomons (Howells) 84 85-111 95.4 3.8 4.0 + Tonga (Sullivan) 116 85-103 92.8 3.5 3.7 + +Face breadth relative to head width averages 93.5 per cent for all +Fijians; Howell's series is much the same. The narrower heads of the +interior people largely account for their higher index; otherwise there +is general similarity in the several provinces. + +_Zygo-Frontal_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 64-100 75.5 3.0 3.9 + Interior 154 64-98 75.4 3.2 4.2 + East 120 68-99 75.5 2.5 3.3 + Coast 210 66-100 75.5 3.1 4.1 + N.W. 79 66-93 75.4 2.9 3.8 + Tonga (Sullivan) 116 63-84 73.1 4.2 5.8 + +The ratio of forehead width to face breadth is 75.5. All of the regional +averages for the zygo-frontal index are strikingly alike among the +Fijians in every instance; the forehead is about three-quarters the +breadth of the face. The Tongan ratio is a little lower. + +_Total Face Height_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 100-147 122.5 6.0 4.9 + Interior 154 103-137 121.3 5.6 4.6 + East 120 110-147 124.7 5.8 4.7 + Coast 210 107-142 122.6 6.1 5.0 + N.W. 79 100-143 121.7 6.8 5.6 + Fiji (Howells) 133 105-159 121.8 6.9 5.7 + Solomons (Howells) 85 100-129 116.4 6.6 5.7 + Tonga (Sullivan) 116 112-147 128.2 6.8 5.3 + +Fijian faces have the moderate average height of 122.5 mm. Slightly +shorter faces occur in the interior people, whereas the greatest total +face height average occurs in the east. The Fijian of Howells' series is +close to mine. The Tongan value for face height describes them as +definitely longer faced. The Solomon Islanders depart in the other +direction with decidedly shorter faces. + +_Total Facial Index_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 68-104 84.1 4.6 5.5 + Interior 154 73-96 83.2 4.4 5.3 + East 120 75-101 85.0 4.4 5.2 + Coast 210 73-97 84.5 4.6 5.4 + N.W. 79 68-104 83.9 5.6 6.7 + Fiji (Howells) 132 74-105 84.7 5.0 6.0 + Solomons (Howells) 84 74-97 84.5 4.4 5.2 + Tonga (Sullivan) 116 78-102 89.3 4.4 5.0 + +Relative to maximum breadth, the Fijian face tends to shortness, +although this is due largely to their generous facial breadth rather +than absolute deficiency of height. The interior groups have the lowest +values and the eastern groups show relatively broad faces. + +The Tongan average is much higher than any of the Fijian values, whereas +the Solomon Islanders show similarity to the Fijians in this feature. + +_Upper Face Height_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 56-84 70.2 5.1 7.3 + Interior 154 59-79 69.1 3.9 5.6 + East 120 64-83 71.7 4.0 5.6 + Coast 210 59-84 70.4 6.6 9.4 + N.W. 79 58-80 69.4 4.8 6.9 + +The ratio of the upper face height to maximum facial breadth shows the +Fijians of the interior to be relatively shorter faced and the eastern +people longest. The coastal and northwestern series are intermediate. + +_Upper Facial Index_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 37-65 48.2 3.7 7.7 + Interior 154 41-65 47.4 3.3 7.0 + East 120 42-59 48.9 2.9 5.9 + Coast 210 40-59 48.5 4.8 9.9 + N.W. 79 39-56 47.8 3.5 7.3 + +The ratio of the upper face height to maximum facial breadth shows the +Fijians of the interior to be relatively shorter faced and the eastern +people longest. The coastal and northwestern series are intermediate. + +_Bigonial_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 95-146 109.7 5.1 4.6 + Interior 154 95-146 109.8 6.0 3.6 + East 120 97-125 110.6 5.1 4.6 + Coast 210 95-129 109.9 5.3 4.8 + N.W. 79 99-119 109.1 4.5 4.1 + Tonga (Sullivan) 116 92-119 104.8 5.8 5.5 + +Lower jaw breadth as expressed by the bigonial diameter indicates a +tendency to broadness shared with little variation among all the +subgroups. The Tongan value is considerably smaller. + +_Fronto-Gonial_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 80-122 99.9 5.5 5.5 + Interior 154 84-122 100.0 6.0 6.0 + East 120 86-115 99.9 5.3 5.3 + Coast 210 80-114 100.3 6.0 6.0 + N.W. 79 85-113 99.8 4.8 4.8 + +Similarly the bigonial diameter in relation to forehead breadth is much +the same in all groups, the general average nearly 100 per cent. + +_Zygo-Gonial_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 65-86 75.3 4.1 5.4 + Interior 154 67-86 75.4 6.0 8.0 + East 120 65-82 75.4 3.5 4.6 + Coast 210 66-83 75.7 3.4 4.5 + N.W. 79 68-83 75.2 3.4 4.5 + Tonga (Sullivan) 116 63-87 73.2 4.6 6.2 + +Relative to face breadth, jaw width is 75.3 per cent with very little +geographic variation. + +_Nasal Height_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 42-65 53.9 3.4 6.3 + Interior 154 45-65 53.2 3.5 6.6 + East 120 48-62 54.7 3.1 5.7 + Coast 210 46-63 54.1 3.4 6.3 + N.W. 79 45-61 52.9 3.5 6.6 + Fiji (Howells) 133 44-63 52.4 3.9 7.4 + Solomons (Howells) 85 40-59 49.9 3.8 7.7 + Tonga (Sullivan) 117 47-65 57.4 3.9 6.8 + +The Fijian nose may be called medium long. Greatest nasal heights occur +in the eastern and in the coastal series. The interior and northwestern +groups have shorter noses. The Fijians of Howells' series fall near the +short end of my averages. Natives of the Solomons are definitely lower +in nasal height, whereas the Tongan's average is so much higher that one +suspects a difference in the location of the nasion. + +_Nasal Breadth_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 31-62 46.7 3.4 7.3 + Interior 154 40-61 47.6 3.4 7.1 + East 120 38-53 45.5 3.0 6.6 + Coast 210 38-62 46.4 3.3 7.1 + N.W. 79 31-57 47.4 3.6 7.6 + Fiji (Howells) 133 37-54 46.19 3.0 6.0 + Solomons (Howells) 85 34-51 44.6 2.8 6.3 + Tonga (Sullivan) 117 38-55 44.4 3.0 6.8 + +Broad noses are common to most Fijians. The greatest contrast is between +the narrower-nosed eastern people and the interior people, among whom +the widest noses occur. The nose of the Solomon Islanders is somewhat +narrower, according to Howells' data, and the Tongan average is also +lower. + +_Nasal Index_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 61-112 87.1 8.2 9.4 + Interior 154 69-109 89.7 8.1 9.0 + East 120 61-100 83.2 7.6 9.1 + Coast 210 63-111 86.0 7.1 8.7 + N.W. 79 63-110 89.9 8.6 9.6 + Fiji (Howells) 133 68-123 88.8 8.3 9.3 + Solomons (Howells) 85 68-119 87.1 8.9 10.2 + Tonga (Sullivan) 117 61-98 77.6 7.6 9.8 + +Platyrrhini is the rule in Fiji, but individual and regional variations +are great. There are some leptorrine subjects in every province, and +there are some whose noses are broader than long. The interior people +and the northwestern groups have the relatively broadest noses, whereas +the eastern index is more moderate. The noses of Sullivan's Tongans are +relatively longer than the Lauans. The Solomon Island average is +identical with the Fijian. + +_Nasal Depth_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 16-32 22.0 2.9 3.2 + Interior 154 17-32 22.5 2.1 9.3 + East 120 17-28 21.9 1.8 8.2 + Coast 210 17-32 21.8 3.6 6.5 + N.W. 79 16-29 22.3 1.9 8.5 + +Nasal depth averages 22 mm.; the regional variation is very small. + +_Nasal-Depth Index_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 32-60 47.2 6.8 6.8 + Interior 154 34-59 47.4 5.1 6.6 + East 120 35-60 48.4 4.6 9.5 + Coast 210 32-58 47.0 8.1 7.2 + N.W. 79 34-58 47.2 5.5 6.7 + +_Mouth Breadth_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 29-72 57.6 4.7 8.2 + Interior 154 34-72 59.6 4.4 7.4 + East 120 33-66 56.5 3.9 6.9 + Coast 210 29-67 57.3 4.0 7.0 + N.W. 79 36-65 57.3 4.4 7.8 + +Mouth breadth averages show the interior groups to have widest mouths, +the eastern people least wide, and the coastal and northwestern people +intermediate. + +_Lip Thickness_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 9-45 22.4 3.8 6.9 + Interior 154 12-31 23.4 3.6 5.4 + East 120 12-29 21.7 3.4 5.7 + Coast 210 16-45 20.8 3.6 5.3 + N.W. 79 10-29 22.0 3.9 5.7 + +Thick lips are characteristic of most Fijians. The interior average is +highest for this diameter, whereas the northwestern Fijians have +least-thick lips. + +_Ear Length_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 55-83 66.6 4.5 6.8 + Interior 154 53-83 66.0 4.8 7.3 + East 120 55-80 67.2 5.0 7.4 + Coast 210 55-77 66.7 4.9 7.3 + N.W. 79 57-75 66.5 3.7 5.6 + Tonga (Sullivan) 117 56-81 66.0 4.6 6.9 + +Fijian ears on the whole tend to be long, as the average 66.6 mm. +indicates. Regional differences are slight. Tongans closely resemble +Fijians. + +_Ear Breadth_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 24-55 34.3 3.2 9.3 + Interior 154 27-41 33.7 2.5 7.4 + East 120 29-40 34.1 4.0 11.7 + Coast 210 29-55 34.7 3.9 11.2 + N.W. 79 25-42 33.8 2.9 8.6 + Tonga (Sullivan) 116 25-42 34.5 2.6 7.6 + +Ear breadth is also generous, and regional differences hardly exceed 1.5 +mm., including the Tongans. + +_Ear Index_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 38-62 51.6 5.0 9.7 + Interior 154 40-61 51.1 3.6 7.0 + East 120 41-59 50.6 5.8 11.5 + Coast 210 42-62 52.1 6.7 12.9 + N.W. 79 38-59 50.9 4.0 7.9 + Tonga (Sullivan) 116 41-62 52.4 3.9 7.5 + +Length-breadth ear ratios indicate that coastal groups have somewhat +broader, and the northwestern people the relative longest, ears. + +_Bicanine Breadth_ + + No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. + + Total sample 815 24-72 39.8 11.7 19.4 + Interior 154 37-49 39.9 10.7 16.8 + East 120 36-68 41.8 7.4 7.7 + Coast 210 24-72 39.0 13.4 14.3 + N.W. 79 38-49 38.6 14.0 16.3 + +Bicanine breadth is characteristically great among Fijians, reflecting +the ample jaws and teeth. Widest diameters are seen in the east, +followed by the hill people of the interior. The northwestern groups +have the least bicanine diameter. + + + + +MORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS + +PIGMENTATION + +_Skin Color: Exposed_ + + Brunet Swarthy Lt. Brn Med. Brn Dk. Brn Black Total + + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 1 .01 5 .6 30 4 400 48 377 46 0 0 813 + Interior 0 0 0 0 1 1 55 36 97 63 0 0 153 + East 0 0 3 2 12 10 99 83 6 6 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 1 0 7 3 85 41 116 56 0 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 0 0 1 1 42 53 36 46 0 0 79 + Fiji II 0 0 0 0 0 0 128 96 5 4 0 0 133 + Solomons 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 5 79 93 2 3 85 + Tonga (Range from Lt. Brown to Dk. Brown.) + +Color of skin includes exposed and unexposed areas. The former was +observed on the face, since the Fijians do not use any kind of face or +head covering. This condition in the total series divides itself quite +evenly between medium brown and dark brown. A few have light-brown skin; +only six individuals are classified as swarthy and brunet. None was +judged to be completely black. The Fijians of Howells' series are +described as 96 per cent medium brown[15] and 5 per cent dark brown, a +discrepancy I would attribute to personal judgment difference. The +Solomon Islanders are markedly darker than the Fijians, the majority +have dark-brown skin and 3 per cent are black, whereas 5 per cent have +medium-brown complexions. + +Tongan data on skin color cannot be directly adjusted to my statistics. +Sullivan's comment on their skin color states that it is "a medium +yellowish-brown where it is unexposed to the sun. Exposed parts of the +skin of a few of the persons were a very dark chocolate" (Sullivan, +1922, p. 248). + +Among the Fijians themselves, the greatest contrasts occur between the +eastern and the interior groups of Viti Levu. Where 63 per cent of the +latter have dark-brown skin, only 5 per cent of eastern fall into this +category. The bulk of eastern (83 per cent) have medium-brown skin as +against 36 per cent of hill people. The coastal and northwestern +provinces are, like the total series, more evenly divided between medium +and dark brown. + +_Skin Color: Unexposed_ + + Brunet Swarthy Lt. Brn Med. Brn Dk. Brn Black Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 6 1 9 1 242 30 545 66 11 1 0 0 813 + Interior 0 0 0 0 20 13 133 87 0 0 0 0 153 + East 3 3 4 3 77 64 36 30 0 0 0 0 120 + Coast 1 1 2 1 56 27 148 71 2 1 0 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 1 1 20 25 57 72 1 1 0 0 79 + Fiji II 0 0 0 0 0 0 127 96 5 4 0 0 132 + Solomons 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 11 74 87 2 2 85 + +Unexposed skin color was observed on the under surface of the upper arm +near the armpit. The anticipated shift in color range results in a +reduction of dark-skin incidence to a mere 1 per cent, and an increase +in medium brown to 60 per cent and of light brown to 30 per cent. + +Howells' describes 96 per cent of his Fijians as medium brown, 4 per +cent dark brown, and none light brown. The Solomon Islanders seem +definitely darker than the Fijians whether they are compared with +Howells' or my series. + +The eastern groups continues to contrast with the interior people. The +former show a majority of 64 per cent in the light-brown category as +compared with 13 per cent among the interior groups; the latter have a +medium-brown incidence of 87 per cent against 30 per cent among Lauans. + +_Hair Color_ + + Black Dk. Brn Med. Brn Lt. Brn Red-Brown Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 757 93 31 5 1 0 0 0 18 2 807 + Interior 145 95 8 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 153 + East 114 95 6 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 120 + Coast 193 92 11 5 0 0 0 0 5 2 204 + N.W. 70 89 5 6 0 0 0 0 4 5 75 + Fiji II 118 91 9 7 0 0 0 0 3 2 130 + Solomons 55 65 26 31 0 0 3 4 0 0 84 + Tonga 0 94 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + +Black hair is the usual color, although 5 per cent are described as dark +brown and a few red-brown. This latter variation is a rufous color +(reddish-brown) and it may be a little more frequent than the data +indicate because the Fijians frequently dye their hair with a substance +extracted from mangrove bark. This intensifies the usual blackness of +the hair and adds a satisfying gloss. More sophisticated natives have +access to modern hair dye and lacking this, some have been known to +resort to black shoe polish. + +Hair bleaching is no longer practiced in Fiji. + +The hair of the Solomons Islands is not so uniformly black, nearly a +third have dark-brown hair and a few are light brown. + +_Eye Color_ + + Black Dk. Brown Med. Brown Lt. Brown Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 2 0 550 68 257 31 4 1 813 + Interior 0 0 131 86 22 14 0 0 153 + East 0 0 71 59 48 40 1 1 120 + Coast 0 0 127 61 81 39 1 0 209 + N.W. 1 1 53 67 25 32 0 0 79 + Fiji II 0 0 130 98 0 0 2 2 132 + Solomons 0 0 85 100 0 0 0 0 85 + Tonga 0 3 0 94 0 0 0 3 + +A little more than two-thirds of Fijians' eyes are described as dark +brown. The remaining third have medium-brown eyes. There were four +individuals who were light brown. Howells, with his Fijian series, is +more generous with the darker designation; he designated 98 per cent as +dark brown and 2 per cent light brown. His Solomons sample is described +as dark brown without exception. The Tongan data also is recorded as +more uniformly dark brown than my Fijians. + +The Fijians of the interior of Viti Levu have more deeply pigmented eyes +than the others; 86 per cent are classed as dark brown and only 14 per +cent medium brown. + + +HAIR + +_Hair Form_ + + Straight Low Wave Deep Wave Curl Frizz Wool Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 0 0 7 0.1 13 0.2 91 11.0 702 862 0 0 813 + Interior 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 149 97 0 0 153 + East 0 0 1 1 10 8 37 31 72 60 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 0 1 3 0 18 9 188 90 0 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 2 3 0 0 7 9 70 89 0 0 79 + Fiji II 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 16 38 33 59 51 116 + Solomons 2 3.3 1 1.6 0 0 16 26 17 28 25 41 61 + +Frizzly hair is the condition of over 85 per cent of Fijians; 11 per +cent are curly-haired, whereas over twenty individuals have wavy hair. +Straight hair is absent. The Fiji II series of Howell distinguishes +between frizzly and wooly hair, which I do not. Their combined incidence +is 83 per cent, quite close to my frequency of frizzly. Whether one does +or does not distinguish between frizzly and wooly hair, there is no +doubt that most Fijians have Negroid hair form. The Solomon Islanders +are surprising with somewhat less Negroid hair form than the Fijians. +Their combined percentage of frizzly and wooly is 69, which is nearly 20 +per cent less than that of the Fijians. Twenty per cent have curly hair +against 11 per cent among Fijians. Also, the only instances of straight +hair occur in the Solomons. + +In the Fijian breakdown, the interior groups have the most Negroid hair; +97 per cent have frizzly hair and 3 per cent have curly hair. The +eastern people are the least Negroid in this respect; frizzly hair drops +to 60 per cent, whereas curly hair advances to 30 per cent and wavy hair +to 9 per cent. The coastal and northwestern series are closer to the +interior groups with about 90 per cent frizzly hair. + +_Hair Texture_ + + Course Medium Fine Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 804 99 9 1 0 0 813 + Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153 + East 116 97 4 3 0 0 120 + Coast 208 100 1 0 0 0 209 + N.W. 78 99 1 1 0 0 79 + +Hair texture is prevailingly coarse; only 1 per cent of the total series +shows medium coarseness and none have fine hair. This preponderance of +coarse hair is much the same in all the provinces, although the eastern +people do depart slightly with a 3 per cent incidence of medium-coarse +hair. + +It might be added that Fijian hair is quite stiff or wiry. For example, +when the hair is unshorn, it stands out like a mop. A Fijian can insert +a long stemmed flower in his hair and it will stay in place with no +additional fastening. + +_Head Hair Quantity_ + + Absent Subm. +[16] ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 0 0 61 7 219 27 533 65 0 0 813 + Interior 0 0 26 17 27 18 100 65 0 0 153 + East 0 0 5 4 24 20 91 76 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 11 5 63 30 135 65 0 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 7 9 21 27 51 65 0 0 79 + Fiji II 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 132 92 133 + Solomons 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 80 94 85 + +Head hair quantity is pronounced in the majority of Fijians (65 per +cent); it is moderate in 27 per cent and submedium in 7 per cent. +Howells describes nearly all the Fijians as having very pronounced head +hair--99 per cent, which would appear to be a personal difference in +appraisal. In any case, the two series agree that Fijians have hair of +more than moderate quantity. The Melanesians of the Solomons are also +characterized by much head hair. + +Regionally, the only significant variation in this trait is shown in the +east, where more individuals have a submedium designation. In the +absence of age data, this contrast cannot be fairly interpreted. + +_Hair Length_ + +It might be observed here that although hair length was not included in +this survey, on the basis of personal but unrecorded observation, the +Fijians conform to the Melanesian pattern. Most Fijian men now cut their +hair short in the Western style, but some still do not. Women generally +trim their hair but not short. The natural length of head hair is +intermediate between the short-haired African Negroes and the +long-haired Caucasians and Mongolians. + +_Baldness_ + + Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 731 90 40 3 30 4 12 1 0 0 813 + Interior 122 80 12 8 12 8 7 5 0 0 153 + East 112 93 3 3 4 3 1 1 0 0 120 + Coast 194 93 10 5 4 2 1 0 0 0 209 + N.W. 72 91 1 1 3 4 3 4 0 0 79 + +The lack of age correlations also limits the value of data on baldness, +but some meaning can nevertheless be extracted. Regardless of age, with +an incidence of pronounced baldness of 1 per cent among all adult males +and of 4 per cent for a moderate condition, it is a clear indication +that Fijians are not prone to loss of head hair. + +_Beard Quantity_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 0 0 234 29 370 44 208 26 1 .01 813 + Interior 0 0 22 14 67 44 64 42 0 0 153 + East 0 0 45 38 59 49 16 13 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 60 29 94 45 54 26 1 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 22 28 30 38 27 34 0 0 79 + Fiji II + cheeks 27 21 2 2 44 34 46 35 12 9 131 + skin 9 7 0 0 52 40 56 43 14 10 131 + Solomons + cheeks 21 25 0 0 42 49 22 26 0 0 85 + chin 7 8 0 0 53 62 25 29 0 0 85 + Tonga + chin 0 0 0 19 0 31 50 0 0 0 0 + lower chk. 0 4 0 37 0 18 40 0 0 0 0 + +Moderate beard quantity is shown by 44 per cent of Fijians; the +remainder are fairly evenly divided between the submedium and pronounced +categories. Howells' series, which records beard quantity for the cheeks +and chin separately, shows a higher frequency of pronounced and very +pronounced designations. However, his data includes many individuals who +have no beards at all. Both series are doubtless influenced by the fact +that they contain a preponderance of young adult; a greater proportion +of older men would have greatly raised the incidence of the pronounced +categories. + +Nearly all modern Fijians have adopted the Western practice of shaving. +Examination of earlier pictures and written description of Fijians +leaves no doubt that the majority of mature men possess luxurious beards +when nature is unrestrained. + +The natives of the Solomon Islands, according to Howells, are a little +less bearded than the Fijians. + +The Tongans are a little more heavily bearded than the Fijians. + +Some geographical variation is indicated by my data. The interior people +of Fiji have the highest incidence of face hair; 42 per cent are +recorded as pronounced. Least endowed are the eastern Fijians, where 13 +per cent have pronounced beards and 38 per cent are submedium. The +coastal and northwestern series conform more closely to the overall +distribution. + +_Body Hair_[17] + + Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 0 0 243 30 328 40 162 20 80 10 813 + Interior 0 0 31 20 56 37 41 27 25 16 153 + East 0 0 55 46 45 38 14 12 6 5 120 + Coast 0 0 57 27 82 39 46 22 24 11 209 + N.W. 0 0 16 20 36 46 19 24 8 8 79 + Tonga 0 0 23 29 0 26 0 22 0 0 0 + +The body hair endowment is also not unimpressive. Forty per cent show a +moderate condition, 20 per cent are pronounced, and 10 per cent very +pronounced; none are totally devoid of body hair; 30 per cent are +submedium. Chest hair among the Tongans is somewhat less in evidence; +although the majority range from submedium to pronounced, 23 per cent +are described as hairless. + +The provincial distribution in Fiji follows that of face hair: the +interior groups are hairiest and the eastern people least so. + +The anatomical distribution of body hair deserves some comment, even +though specific observations were made on the chest. Not infrequently +the hair is heavier on the upper legs than on the chest. Occasionally, +too, the back of the shoulders is quite hairy as well as the belly. + +_Grayness: Head_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 621 76 82 10 82 10 28 3 3 3 813 + Interior 80 52 37 24 19 12 17 11 0 0 153 + East 91 76 13 11 16 13 0 0 0 0 120 + Coast 176 84 14 7 17 8 2 1 0 0 209 + N.W. 60 76 8 10 9 11 2 3 0 0 79 + +_Grayness: Beard_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Total sample 610 75 61 8 90 11 52 6 0 0 813 + Interior 72 47 30 20 20 13 31 20 0 0 153 + East 89 74 9 8 18 15 4 3 0 0 120 + Coast 178 85 8 4 21 10 2 1 0 0 209 + N.W. 60 76 6 8 11 14 2 3 0 0 79 + +Grayness of the hair data without corresponding age incidence is not +particularly significant. It is clear, nevertheless, that premature +grayness is not common. I would hazard the judgment that on the whole +the Fijians show less tendency to grayness than do Caucasians. + +The higher incidence of grayness of the interior sample of Fijians is +likely due to a larger number of older men in that series. + + +THE FACE + +_Prognathism: Total_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 206 25 306 38 288 35 13 2 813 + Interior 40 26 59 39 52 34 2 1 153 + East 54 45 55 46 11 9 0 0 120 + Coast 47 22 84 40 73 35 5 2 209 + N.W. 18 23 29 37 32 41 0 0 79 + Tonga 63 53 26 22 29 25 0 0 118 + +_Prognathism: Mid-Facial_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 517 64 184 23 109 13 3 1/2 813 + Interior 133 87 15 10 5 3 0 0 153 + East 100 83 17 14 3 3 0 0 120 + Coast 122 58 49 23 37 18 1 1 209 + N.W. 48 61 20 25 11 14 0 0 79 + +_Prognathism: Alveolar_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 798 98 9 1 4 1/2 2 0 813 + Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 153 + East 120 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 120 + Coast 207 99 0 0 1 1/2 1 1/2 209 + N.W. 76 {96} 2 3 0 0 1 1 79 + +Slight and moderate total prognathism characterizes most Fijians but it +is pronounced in only 13 of the 813 subjects. A quarter of the series +show no prognathism. The eastern people are least prognathic with a zero +incidence of 45 per cent. The other regional sample are close to the +general condition. + +Mid-facial prognathism has a submedium incidence of 23 per cent and a +medium of 13 per cent; the remainder lack the condition, except three +individuals who are pronounced. + +The coastal and northwestern groups have more frequent medium +designations. Alveolar prognathism is almost entirely lacking in all +groups. + +_Malar Projection: Lateral_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 1 0 2 0 264 32 543 67 3 0 813 + Interior 0 0 0 0 62 41 91 59 0 0 153 + East 0 0 0 0 25 21 95 79 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 0 0 68 33 141 67 0 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 0 0 28 35 50 63 1 1 79 + +_Malar Projection: Frontal_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 4 1/2 0 0 709 87 100 12 809 + Interior 0 0 0 0 139 91 14 9 153 + East 0 0 0 0 103 86 17 14 120 + Coast 1 0 0 0 181 87 27 13 209 + N.W. 0 0 0 0 67 85 12 15 79 + +The facial contours generally include lateral malar projection; +two-thirds show a pronounced condition and the balance are medium. The +eastern people have high cheek bones oftener than do the others. + +Frontal malar projection is also common but more often moderately so; 87 +per cent show medium projection and 12 per cent are pronounced. + +_Gonial Angles_ + + Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 24 3 459 56 325 40 5 1 813 + Interior 0 0 97 63 55 36 1 1 153 + East 1 1 65 54 54 45 0 0 120 + Coast 7 3 110 53 90 43 2 1 209 + N.W. 3 4 49 62 27 34 0 0 79 + +_Palate Shape_ + + Parabolic Sm. U Lg. U Square Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 493 61 2 0 303 37 15 2 813 + Interior 94 61 0 0 59 39 0 0 153 + East 81 68 0 0 38 32 1 1 120 + Coast 131 63 0 0 71 34 7 3 209 + N.W. 50 63 1 1 27 34 1 1 79 + +A fairly strong tendency to well-developed gonial angles is indicated; +40 per cent show pronounced angles and nearly all the rest are medium. +These proportions hold pretty much for all groups. + +Palate shape also attests to the well-developed jaws of Fijians; it is a +large U in 37 per cent of the subjects; 2 per cent are square and the +remainder parabolic. + +_Chin Prominence_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 2 0 164 20 593 73 54 7 813 + Interior 0 0 36 24 110 72 7 5 153 + East 0 0 25 21 89 74 6 5 120 + Coast 0 0 41 20 153 73 13 6 207 + N.W. 1 1 11 14 55 70 9 11 76 + +_Chin Type_ + + Median Bilateral Total + No. % No. % + + Fiji I 673 83 140 17 813 + Interior 130 85 23 15 153 + East 112 93 8 7 120 + Coast 162 78 45 22 207 + N.W. 62 82 14 18 76 + +A well-developed chin further typifies most Fijian faces; nearly +three-quarters have a moderate chin prominence, 7 per cent are +pronounced, and the remainder are submedium. This range is much the same +in the subgroups. + +The chin is commonly median although 17 per cent have the bilateral +type. The bilateral chin is least frequent in Lau (7 per cent). + + +THE HEAD + +_Temporal Fullness_ + + Absent Subm. + Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 1 0 563 69 249 31 813 + Interior 0 0 113 74 40 26 153 + East 0 0 70 58 50 42 120 + Coast 1 0 148 71 60 29 208 + N.W. 0 0 59 75 20 25 79 + +_Occipital Protrusion_ + + Absent Subm. + Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 13 2 775 95 25 3 813 + Interior 4 3 149 97 0 0 153 + East 0 0 116 97 4 3 120 + Coast 3 1 193 92 13 6 209 + N.W. 0 0 79 100 0 0 79 + +A narrowness in the temporal part of the head is indicated. Sixty-nine +per cent of the subject show submedium temporal fullness, whereas the +remainder are moderate. This condition is not marked and may best be +described as a discernable tendency. + +The back of the head is generally rather flat as the 95 per cent +incidence of occipital protrusion indicates. This is a natural +condition; no intentional flattening is practiced by Fijians. + +_Lambdoidal Flattening_ + + Absent Subm. + Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 754 93 32 4 27 3 813 + Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153 + East 113 94 5 4 2 2 120 + Coast 188 90 13 6 8 4 209 + N.W. 72 91 3 4 4 5 79 + +_Occipital Flattening_ + + Absent Subm. + Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 809 100 2 0 2 0 813 + Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153 + East 120 100 0 0 0 0 120 + Coast 209 100 0 0 0 0 209 + N.W. 79 99 0 0 1 1 79 + +_Median Sagittal Crest_ + + Absent Subm. + Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 600 74 177 22 36 4 813 + Interior 96 63 46 30 11 7 153 + East 109 91 10 8 1 1 120 + Coast 160 77 43 21 6 3 209 + N.W. 53 57 24 30 2 3 79 + +_Parietal Bosses_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 17 2 413 51 381 47 2 0 813 + Interior 1 1 130 85 22 14 0 0 153 + East 4 3 66 55 50 42 0 0 120 + Coast 6 3 82 39 120 57 1 0 209 + N.W. 1 1 40 51 38 48 0 0 79 + +A median sagittal crest though not striking is recorded in a number of +cases. It has a submedium incidence of 22 per cent and pronounced 4 per +cent. Among the interior people, the crest is more common. Because of +the heavy, bushy, and wiry hair of Fijians it is probable that some +instances of this feature were not detected by simple palpation, and the +incidence may be higher than the data indicate. + +Submedium development of the parietal bosses is rather common occurring +in 51 per cent of the series. It is very common in the interior (85 per +cent). + +_Cranial Asymmetry_ + + Absent Left Right Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji 813 100 0 0 0 0 813 + Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153 + East 119 100 0 0 0 0 119 + Coast 208 100 0 0 0 0 208 + N.W. 79 100 0 0 0 0 79 + +_Facial Asymmetry_ + + Absent Left Right Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji 806 100 1 0 0 0 807 + Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153 + East 117 98 0 0 2 2 119 + Coast 206 99 0 0 2 1 208 + N.W. 78 99 1 0 0 0 79 + +Cranial and facial assymetry are generally lacking, at least in any +marked degree. Normal asymmetries of the face and head were ignored in +this description. + + +EYES + +_Eye Folds: External_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji 804 98 5 1 4 1 0 0 813 + Interior 152 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 153 + East 119 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 120 + Coast 209 99 1 1 1 1 0 0 208 + N.W. 78 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 79 + +_Eye Fold: Median_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 782 96 3 1/2 25 3 3 1/2 813 + Interior 152 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 153 + East 108 90 1 1 10 8 1 1 120 + Coast 202 97 1 0 5 2 1 0 209 + N.W. 78 99 0 0 0 0 1 1 79 + +_Eye Folds: Internal_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 778 96 4 0 30 4 1 0 813 + Interior 151 99 0 0 2 1 0 0 153 + East 102 85 1 1 17 14 1 0 120 + Coast 203 97 0 0 6 3 0 0 209 + N.W. 78 99 0 0 1 1 0 0 79 + Fiji II 116 89 7 5-1/2 7 5-1/2 0 0 130 + Solomons 80 94 2 2-1/2 3 3-1/2 0 0 85 + Tonga 63 57 33 30 9 8 6 5 111 + +Eye folds are not a feature of the Fijian facial make-up. The external +fold is present in only 2 per cent of the total series. The median fold +shows a 96 per cent absence. The eastern groups exceed the other +provinces with a 10 per cent occurrence. The internal eye fold has a +total presence of 4 per cent and is also commoner in the east (14 per +cent). + +_Eye Obliquity_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 251 31 358 43 201 25 3 1 813 + Interior 92 60 46 30 14 9 1 1 153 + East 33 28 52 35 45 38 0 0 120 + Coast 47 22 102 49 58 28 2 1 209 + N.W. 27 34 32 41 20 25 0 0 79 + +_Eye Opening_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 0 0 75 9-1/2 737 91 1 1/2 813 + Interior 0 0 24 16 128 84 1 1 153 + East 0 0 13 11 107 89 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 9 4 200 96 0 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 7 9 72 91 0 0 79 + +Some degree of eye obliquity is present in the majority of cases; 43 per +cent show a submedium condition; 25 per cent are medium and three +individuals have pronouncedly oblique eyes. The remainder, or 31 per +cent, have no obliquity. In the east, the natives depart from this total +distribution in opposite directions. The interior groups have much less +eye obliquity; the eastern people, a great deal more. The other +provinces are quite close to the total frequencies. + +Eye opening height is preponderately moderate (91 per cent). The +remaining 10 per cent with one exception show submedium eye opening. +Regional variation is not great. The eastern and interior groups have a +little higher frequency in the submedium class. + + +FOREHEAD + +_Brow Ridges_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 0 0 148 19 364 44 295 36 6 1 813 + Interior 0 0 16 10 69 45 64 42 4 3 153 + East 0 0 28 23 42 35 50 42 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 42 20 99 47 67 32 1 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 19 24 40 51 19 24 1 1 79 + +Brow ridges are a marked feature of Fijians in general. None of them +lack some supraorbital development. Forty-four per cent have medium brow +ridges, 36 per cent are pronounced, and 1 per cent are very pronounced. +The other 19 per cent are small. The interior and eastern groups share a +little higher incidence of pronounced brow ridges; the other regions are +nearer the total distribution of variations. + +_Forehead Height_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 0 0 444 55 369 45 0 0 813 + Interior 0 0 90 59 63 41 0 0 153 + East 0 0 68 57 52 43 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 110 53 99 47 0 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 46 58 33 42 0 0 79 + +_Forehead Slope_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 8 1 280 34 460 56 65 8 813 + Interior 0 0 53 35 87 57 13 8 153 + East 0 0 38 32 72 60 10 8 120 + Coast 4 2 78 37 113 54 14 7 209 + N.W. 2 3 27 34 47 59 4 4 79 + Tonga 1 1 70 60 45 39 0 0 116 + +Forehead height is submedium in more than half the cases (55 per cent); +the others are all medium. There is no significant variation among the +subgroups. + +A sloping forehead is quite characteristic of the Fijian head; 56 per +cent are moderately sloping, 8 per cent are pronounced, and 34 per cent +are submedium. Only 1 per cent have foreheads with no recession. +Regional differences are very slight. + + +NOSE + +_Nasion Depression_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 1 0 170 21 579 71 63 8 813 + Interior 0 0 41 27 103 67 9 6 153 + East 1 1 32 27 85 71 2 2 120 + Coast 0 0 45 22 144 69 10 10 209 + N.W. 0 0 18 23 56 71 6 6 79 + +_Root Height_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 1 0 63 8 555 67 194 24 813 + Interior 0 0 16 10 96 63 41 27 153 + East 1 1 3 3 77 64 39 33 120 + Coast 0 0 10 5 157 75 42 20 209 + N.W. 0 0 4 5 57 72 18 23 79 + +_Root Breadth_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 0 0 1 0 258 32 554 68 813 + Interior 0 0 0 0 38 25 115 75 153 + East 0 0 1 1 53 44 66 55 120 + Coast 0 0 0 0 67 32 142 68 209 + N.W. 0 0 0 0 24 30 55 70 79 + +_Nasal Septum_ + + Straight Concave Convex Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 777 99 0 0 36 4 813 + Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 153 + East 118 98 0 0 2 2 120 + Coast 196 94 0 0 13 6 199 + N.W. 78 99 0 0 1 1 79 + +_Bridge Height_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 0 0 54 7 644 79 115 14 813 + Interior 0 0 13 8 124 81 16 10 153 + East 0 0 1 1 98 82 21 18 120 + Coast 0 0 10 5 173 83 26 12 209 + N.W. 0 0 7 9 60 76 12 15 79 + Tonga 0 0 21 22 81 70 9 8 111 + +_Bridge Breadth_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 0 0 0 0 265 33 546 67 813 + Interior 0 0 0 0 29 19 124 81 153 + East 0 0 0 0 72 60 48 40 120 + Coast 0 0 0 0 62 30 147 70 209 + N.W. 0 0 0 0 23 29 56 71 79 + +_Nasal Profile_ + + Concave Straight Convex Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 14 2 625 77 173 21 812 + Interior 0 0 123 80 30 20 153 + East 1 1 88 73 31 26 120 + Coast 4 2 171 82 34 16 209 + N.W. 1 1 59 75 19 24 79 + +Moderate nasion depression characterizes the majority of noses (71 per +cent). Pronounced depression is recorded for 8 per cent, and submedium +occurrence in 21 per cent. Only one individual lacks any depression. +This distribution does not vary much among the provinces. + +A well-elevated nasal root is also characteristic; 67 per cent show +moderate elevation and 24 per cent pronounced, whereas 8 per cent are +submedium; one individual is without any elevation. The interior Fijians +have a little higher frequency of low nasal root (10 per cent), whereas +the eastern people, with a 30 per cent incidence, excel in the +pronounced category. + +More striking is the breadth of the Fijian nasal root. It is pronounced +in 68 per cent and moderate in the remainder of the series. Pronounced +breadth is commoner among the interior people (75 per cent) and least +preponderant in the east (55 per cent). + +The nasal septum is nearly always straight; the only departure from this +condition is a 4 per cent incidence of convexity. Regional differences +are not significant. + +Nasal bridge height is commonly medium (79 per cent) in the totality of +noses. Fourteen percent are pronouncedly high and 7 per cent are +submedium. The several provinces do not depart very far from this +distribution. + +The Fijian nose shows a strong tendency to broadness of the bridge. +Two-thirds show pronounced breadth of bridge and the remainder are +medium. Pronounced broadness increases in the interior groups (81 per +cent) and shows a marked decline in the east (40 per cent). + +Nasal profiles are most often straight (77 per cent), but convex noses +are not uncommon (21 per cent). Convexity is slightly more frequent in +the east (26 percent), whereas in the coastal people its incidence drops +to 16 per cent. + +_Nasal-Tip Thickness_ + + Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 1 0 344 42 461 58 1 0 812 + Interior 0 0 55 36 98 64 0 0 153 + East 1 1 80 67 39 33 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 94 45 114 55 1 1 209 + N.W. 0 0 27 34 52 66 0 0 79 + +_Nasal-Tip Inclination_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 731 90 57 7 24 3 0 0 812 + Interior 147 96 6 4 0 0 0 0 153 + East 109 91 6 5 5 4 0 0 120 + Coast 186 89 16 8 7 3 0 0 209 + N.W. 71 90 6 8 2 3 0 0 79 + +_Nasal Wings_ + + Compressed Medium Flaring Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 0 0 198 24 615 76 813 + Interior 0 0 25 16 128 84 153 + East 0 0 70 58 50 42 120 + Coast 0 0 42 20 167 80 209 + N.W. 0 0 16 20 63 80 79 + +The nasal tip is pronounced more often than not, 58 per cent showing +this condition. The remaining 42 per cent have tips of medium thickness. +Thicker tips occur more often in the interior (64 per cent) and in the +northwest (66 per cent), least often in the east (33 per cent). + +Usually the nasal tip is not inclined downward. Slight and moderate +inclination has a combined incidence of only 10 per cent. + +Flaring nasal wings are a common condition (76 per cent). This incidence +rises to 84 per cent in the interior and drops to 42 per cent in the +east. + + +MOUTH + +_Lip Thickness: Membranous_ + + Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 19 2 428 53 364 45 2 0 813 + Interior 10 7 43 28 100 65 0 0 153 + East 1 1 83 69 36 30 0 0 120 + Coast 1 1/2 88 42 119 57 1 1/2 209 + N.W. 4 5 39 49 36 46 0 0 79 + Tonga 12 10 97 84 7 6 0 0 116 + +_Lip Thickness: Integumental_ + + Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 4 1/2 608 75 201 25 0 0 813 + Interior 1 1/2 114 75 38 25 0 0 153 + East 1 1 100 83 19 16 0 0 120 + Coast 2 1 164 78 43 21 0 0 209 + N.W. 0 0 55 70 24 30 0 0 79 + Fiji II 0 0 1 1/2 26 20 106 80 133 + Solomons 0 0 0 0 12 14 73 86 85 + +_Lip Eversion_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 12 1 333 41 444 55 24 3 813 + Interior 0 0 63 41 88 58 2 1 153 + East 8 7 77 64 35 29 0 0 120 + Coast 0 0 63 30 138 66 8 4 209 + N.W. 1 1 26 33 51 65 1 1 79 + +_Lip Seam_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 33 4 429 53 343 42 8 1 813 + Interior 1 1 79 52 73 48 0 0 153 + East 14 12 77 64 29 24 0 0 120 + Coast 6 3 105 50 94 45 4 2 209 + N.W. 3 4 44 56 32 41 0 0 79 + +Fijian lips are Negroid in thickness in many instances. Membranous lips +are thick in 45 per cent of the series, medium in 53 per cent, and +submedium in 25 per cent. Thickest lips occur in the interior and +coastal areas where the pronounced type registers 65 per cent and 57 per +cent, respectively. In the east, lips are more moderate in thickness, +and the pronounced category drops to 30 per cent. + +Integumental lips also tend to be heavy but not so much as the mucous +parts. Twenty-five per cent of the total Fijians have thick integumental +lips and the remainder are moderate. Howells' Fiji II series classes 80 +per cent as very pronounced and the remainder as pronounced. The Solomon +Islanders, with an 86 per cent incidence of very pronounced, have the +heaviest lips of all. + +Lip eversion varies largely between moderate and submedium, 55 percent +and 41 per cent, respectively. The interior and coastal Fijians show +this trait a little more often than the others, whereas the eastern +people have least lip eversion. The lip seam is present in nearly all +cases, but not to a pronounced degree. Fifty-three per cent are +submedium and 42 per cent are moderate. The eastern groups are +definitely less endowed with this trait. The other provinces vary but +little from the total distribution. + + +TEETH + +_Bite_ + + Under E-E Subm. over + over Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 2 0 518 64 274 34 13 2 807 + Interior 0 0 94 61 59 39 0 0 153 + East 0 0 73 61 45 38 2 2 120 + Coast 1 0 130 62 76 36 0 0 207 + N.W. 1 1 49 62 23 29 3 4 76 + Fiji II 4 3 50 38 77 59 0 0 131 + Solomons 1 1 37 45 45 54 0 0 83 + +_Caries_ + + Absent Subm.(1-4) + (5-8) ++ (9-16) +++ (17-x) Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 645 78 80 10 58 7 22 3 8 1 813 + Interior 130 84 16 10 3 2 1 1 3 2 153 + East 100 83 10 12 4 3 2 1 4 3 120 + Coast 153 73 29 14 16 8 8 4 3 1 209 + N.W. 62 80 9 11 6 8 1 1 0 0 78 + +_Crowding_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 685 84 115 14 13 2 0 0 813 + Interior 134 88 19 12 0 0 0 0 153 + East 100 83 17 14 3 3 0 0 120 + Coast 180 86 25 12 4 2 0 0 209 + N.W. 64 81 14 18 0 0 0 0 78 + +_Tooth Eruption_ + + Complete Incomplete Total + No. % No. % + + Fiji I 796 98 15 2 811 + Interior 153 100 0 0 153 + East 119 99 1 1 120 + Coast 199 95 8 4 207 + N.W. 74 94 2 3 76 + +_Wear_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 184 23 443 54 144 18 42 5 813 + Interior 27 {18} 58 {38} 37 {24} 31 {20} 153 + East 26 {22} 69 {57} 24 {20} 1 {1} 120 + Coast 60 {29} 120 {57} 28 {13} 1 {1/2} 209 + N.W. 12 {15} 47 {60} 17 {22} 2 {3} 78 + +The jaws of Fijians have a rather distinctive frequency of edge-to-edge +bite. I recorded this as 64 per cent, but Howells' series indicates a 38 +per cent incidence. + +The quality of Fijian teeth as reflected by frequency of caries is +excellent. Nearly 80 per cent of the total show no tooth decay. The +soundest teeth from this standpoint occur in the interior, the east, and +the northwest. The coastal people show the highest incidence of caries, +an interesting point since many of this sample come from around Suva and +have more access to the Western processed foods. + +Tooth crowding is quite uncommon to Fijians, a condition consistent with +their generous jaw conformation. Crowding is noted in only 16 per cent +of the series, and most of it is slight. + +Tooth eruption is complete in nearly all the subjects. A 2 per cent +incidence of incomplete eruption is entirely due to the immaturity of +some of the young adults. No pathological suppression was noted. + +Some wear of the teeth is recorded for more than three-quarters of the +series, but lacking age incidence, the data has limited meaning. The +Fijian diet is not abrasive the way, for instance, it is for the Indians +of our Southwest, where the staple food is ground in stone mills. + + +EARS + +_Ear Helix_ + + Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 230 28 511 63 72 9 0 0 813 + Interior 45 29 99 65 9 6 0 0 153 + East 29 24 74 62 17 14 0 0 120 + Coast 58 28 128 61 23 11 0 0 209 + N.W. 24 30 51 65 4 5 0 0 79 + +_Darwin's Point_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 761 94 36 4 15 2 1 0 813 + Interior 150 98 3 2 0 0 0 0 153 + East 112 93 6 5 2 2 0 0 120 + Coast 187 89 13 6 4 4 1 0 209 + N.W. 77 97 2 3 0 0 0 0 79 + +_Ear-Lobe Type_ + + Soldered Attached Free Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 80 10 531 65 202 25 813 + Interior 47 31 74 48 32 21 153 + East 3 3 85 71 32 27 120 + Coast 9 4 141 67 59 28 209 + N.W. 5 6 52 66 22 28 79 + +_Ear-Lobe Size_ + + Subm. + ++ +++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 176 22 457 56 178 22 2 0 813 + Interior 49 32 66 43 38 25 0 0 153 + East 16 13 76 63 27 23 1 1 120 + Coast 31 15 123 59 55 26 0 0 209 + N.W. 20 25 47 59 12 15 0 0 79 + +_Ear Protrusion_ + + Absent Subm. + ++ Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 2 0 262 32 463 57 86 11 813 + Interior 1 1 47 31 90 59 15 10 153 + East 0 0 31 26 77 64 12 10 120 + Coast 1 0 75 36 114 55 19 9 209 + N.W. 0 0 26 33 49 62 4 5 79 + +_Ear Slant_ + + Absent Subm. + Total + No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 416 51 332 41 65 8 813 + Interior 78 51 67 44 8 5 153 + East 55 46 52 43 13 11 120 + Coast 118 56 74 35 17 8 209 + N.W. 38 48 39 49 2 3 79 + +The Fijian ear is a moderately distinctive appendage from a racial +standpoint. The helix shows moderate development on the whole and is +submedium otherwise except for a 9 per cent incidence of pronounced +appearance. Regional variation is small. + +The Darwin's point is noted in a number of cases: 4 per cent to a +submedium degree and 2 per cent medium. + +The ear lobe is somewhat distinctive with a 65 per cent incidence of the +attached condition and 10 per cent soldered. The remaining 25 per cent +is free. This distinctiveness is more marked among the interior groups +where the soldered type of lobe increases to 31 percent. + +Ear-lobe size is moderate in more than half the series, pronounced in 22 +per cent, and submedium in 22 per cent. Small lobes are commoner in the +interior province. + +Moderate ear protrusion is the commonest form followed by submedium. +Marked projection is recorded as 11 per cent. + +Ear slant either is lacking or slight in most instances; the series is +rather evenly divided between these two categories, the zero category +having a small majority. Moderate slant is noted for 8 per cent. + + +BODY BUILD + +_Body Build: Endomorph_ + + 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 260 32 334 42 126 15 46 6 33 4 12 1 811 + Interior 49 32 66 43 26 17 5 3 6 4 1 1 153 + East 30 25 54 45 21 18 5 4 8 7 1 1 119 + Coast 77 37 82 39 28 13 10 5 8 4 3 1 209 + N.W. 26 33 34 43 9 11 6 8 2 3 2 3 79 + +_Body Build: Mesomorph_ + + 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 1 {0.1} 2 {0.2} 33 4 131 16 227 28 419 52 813 + Interior 0 0 1 1 11 7 27 18 41 27 73 48 153 + East 1 1 0 0 2 2 14 12 38 32 65 54 120 + Coast 0 0 0 0 9 4 29 14 67 32 104 50 209 + N.W. 0 0 1 1 2 3 15 19 14 18 47 59 79 + +_Body Build: Ectomorph_ + + 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total + No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % + + Fiji I 351 43 195 24 110 14 88 11 68 8 1 {0.1} 813 + Interior 54 35 56 37 13 8 15 10 15 10 0 0 153 + East 49 41 33 28 15 13 12 10 11 9 0 0 120 + Coast 84 40 51 24 36 17 18 9 19 9 1 1 209 + N.W. 39 49 19 24 11 14 6 8 4 5 0 0 79 + +Variations in body build have been expressed with the Sheldon method of +somatotyping.[18] Accordingly, the Fijians are primarily and definitely +mesomorphic, with endomorphy the second strongest component, and +ectomorphy, third. About 80 per cent of the total series had a +mesomorphic rating of 5 and 6 which leaves no doubt as to the +prevailingly athletic physique. Endomorphy is seldom pronounced so that +obesity may be described as no more than occasional. A pronounced linear +build is likewise relatively infrequent. + +The Fijian subgroups do not vary markedly from the over-all pattern. + + +SUMMARY + +The preceding data may be summarized from three points of view. The +first will emphasize the physical features that are common to most +Fijians. At the outset it should be pointed out that a "typical" Fijian +does not exist, except as a statistical abstraction. The racial +composition of the Fijian is complex and far from being homogeneous. +There is no doubt, from the physical and cultural evidence, as well as +the geographical location, that Fijians are related to both Melanesians +and Polynesians. The second point is to give a precise indication of +these affinities with Melanesia and Polynesia. A third concern of this +analysis is the geographical variability within Fiji. This consists of a +regional breakdown of the Fijian data into interior, eastern, coastal, +and northwestern divisions, in order to demonstrate some of the local +variation of the Melanesian-Polynesian ingredients and their possible +meaning. + +_Body (pl. 1)._--In general size and appearance, the Fijian is tall and +well proportioned. His body is fairly tall and well muscled, that is, +predominately athletic in build. Obesity is relatively uncommon except +in moderate degrees. This rather tall stature allies the Fijians more +closely with the Polynesians. Shoulder, chest, and hip diameters also +indicate that Fijians are generously endowed. + +The Fijians who occupy the mountainous interior of the main island are +less tall than the coastal and eastern people; they also have narrower +shoulders, relatively deeper and narrower chests, whereas their arms and +legs are somewhat shorter. The eastern Fijians are tallest of all +subgroups. + +_Skin Color._--Most Fijians have either medium- or dark-brown skin on the +exposed facial surfaces. The more protected body areas show higher +frequencies of medium brown and light brown. The Fijians are definitely +less dark than the Melanesians but are darker, on the whole, than the +Polynesians. + +The interior hill tribes are darker than the eastern and coastal groups. +The lightest average skin shade occurs in the east. + +_Hair (pls. 6 and 7)._--In several respects the hair is the most +consistent endowment of the Fijians. In nearly all instances it is +black, frizzly, and coarse. The only departure from this condition is an +occasional instance of dark brown and a few instances of rufous shade. +Curly hair is a more common exception in the east. The coastal and +northwestern people are nearer to the interior condition of frizzly +hair. All in all, the hair form is definitely Melanesian. Hair length +conforms to the general Melanesian condition, that is, intermediate +between short Negroid and long Caucasiod or Mongoloid. + +Considerable beard and body hair is common to Fijians (pls. 8 and 9). +Moderate to pronounced beard is shown by nearly three-quarters of the +total series, and body hair is even more prevelant. General hairiness is +also exhibited by the Solomon Islanders and the Tongans in the +comparative data. The interior tribes of Fiji are more hairy than the +other groups. This prevelence of body and face hair seems to conform to +parts of Melanesia where it may be regarded as an Australoid element. +Its presence in the Tongan data does not seem to be representative of +other Polynesians, who are generally described as more glabrous. + +_Head (pl. 2)._--Moderate brachycephaly is the commonest head form of +Fijians, although the total range is great. In this respect the Fijians +resemble the broad-headed Tongans, and are quite distinct from the +longer-headed Melanesians. The Fijian head, despite its general +brachycephaly, is rather compressed in the temporal area and submedium +in parietal elevation. The back of the cranium is characteristically +flattened, a natural conformation as no deformation is practiced. + +The interior mountain tribes of Fiji have narrower heads and lower +cranial indices than do the coastal and eastern groups. The interior +people also have lesser head heights and a higher breadth-height index. + +_Forehead (pl. 10)._--Moderate to strongly developed supraorbital ridges +are a common Fijian endowment. Similarly are low and sloping foreheads. +These features have been observed in western Melanesia, where, like +hairiness, they suggest Australoid of archaic Caucasoid elements. + +_Face._--Broadness characterizes the Fijian face. Bizygomatic breadth +locates them nearer to the Polynesians than to the narrower-faced +Melanesians. Strongly developed malars are common, and they tend to +project laterally more than frontally. Widest faces appear among the +eastern people. + +Bigonial and bicanine widths show that generous breadth includes the +lower parts of the face, a condition born out by strong gonial angles. + +Face length falls between the long-faced Tongans and the definitely +shorter-faced Melanesians (pls. 3 and 4). + +Some prognathism is common among Fijians, both total and mid-facial, but +the condition is not universal nor pronounced. The eastern Fijians are +the least prognathic (pl. 10). + +_Eyes._--Dark brown is the prevailing eye color, although many subjects +have medium-brown eyes. Eye folds are only occasional and eye-opening +height is usually moderate. Slight eye obliquity is common, more so in +the eastern sample. + +_Nose (pl. 4)._--Great variability marks the nasal area. The commonest +condition is a broad and moderately long nose. Medium nasion depression +is frequent; the root is wide and moderately elevated. Bridge breadth is +often pronounced and the nasal profile is straight to convex. The nasal +tip is characteristically thickened and nasal wings are usually flaring. +On the whole, there is a great deal of Melanesian in the Fijian nose; it +is Negroid, but not pronouncedly. Those aspects of the nose which may be +termed Negroid are commoner in the interior hill people and the +northwest and least evident in the east. + +_Lips (pl. 5)._--Thick and moderately everted lips occur in nearly half +the series. This Negroid combination is more manifest in the interior +and least in the east. Integumental lips tend to be heavy. + +_Teeth._--The condition of the teeth is generally excellent. Most Fijians +have broad, roomy jaws that permit complete and uncrowded tooth +development. Dental caries are very infrequent. A rather high incidence +of edge-to-edge bite is interesting. + +_Ears (pl. 5)._--The ears are usually moderate in length and tend to +protrude. Ear lobes are commonly large and are more often attached or +soldered than free. + + + + +CONCLUSIONS + + +On the whole the Fijians are predominately Melanesian but with numerous +Polynesian affinities that vary with locality. The Melanesian qualities +are in part Negroid or Negritoid and in part Australoid. The Negroid +resemblances are best illustrated by frizzly black hair, broad noses +with depressed nasion and flaring nostrils, thick lips, and dark +pigmentation (pls. 11 and 12). Australoid elements are general +hairiness, strong brow ridges, low, sloping foreheads, compressed +parietal and temporal areas, and some prognathism (pl. 13). The presence +of Australoid suggestions need not mean that they come from Australia, +but that they form a part of the Melanesian make-up. This interpretation +of the Melanesians as a hybrid people conforms with similar designations +by such students as Birdsell[19] and Hooton.[20] Polynesian influence in +Fiji is most clearly demonstrated by lighter pigmentation, tall and +muscular body build, moderate brachycephaly, broad faces and jaws, high +and fairly long noses and strong chins. I found much the same +resemblances between Fijians and Polynesians as did Howells;[21] +however, in my comparisons the Polynesian similarities are outweighed +and outnumbered by a greater array of Melanesian characters. The +essential Melanesian character of the Fijian population is further +demonstrated by recent blood-analysis comparisons; the conclusions of +Simmons _et al._, identify the Fijians as Melanesian.[22] + +The Fijians who live in the interior of Viti Levu show the most frequent +Melanesian traits (pls. 11 and 14). These people are shorter, have +narrower shoulders and chests; their heads are narrower and lower +vaulted; they have broader noses, thicker lips, are hairier, and have +darker skins. This condition, occurring as it does in the mountainous +interior, which may be regarded as a refuge area, supports the theory +that the Melanesian is the earlier component in Fiji. + +The eastern Fijians stand in considerable contrast to the interior +tribes and are the most Polynesian in appearance (pl. 15). They have +lighter skins, greater stature, and heavier musculature. Their heads are +broader, as are their faces and jaws; their noses are larger, narrower, +and higher bridged, and their chins are more pronounced. + +The coastal sample might be called intermediate or a more even blend of +Melanesian and Polynesian. + +The northwestern people resemble the coastal tribes. This means they +show fewer departures in either a Melanesian or Polynesian direction. +This also means they do not tell us whether the legendary ancestors, who +are supposed to have first landed in Fiji on the northwest coast of Viti +Levu,[23] were Melanesian or Polynesian. These data may mean one of +three things: (1) the Fijian tradition of a landing at this place eight +or ten generations ago is groundless, (2) the immigration did take place +but whatever racial traits predominated, whether Melanesian or +Polynesian, have been homogenized and obscured by subsequent +intermixture and by movements back and forth on Viti Levu, (3) the +landing did occur but the ancestors were already a +Melanesian-Polynesian blend when they arrived. + + + + +LITERATURE CITED + + +Birdsell. J. B. + 1948. Racial Origin of the Extinct Tasmanians. Records of the Queen + Victoria Museum, Tasmania, Vol. II, No. 3. + +Churchill, W. + 1911. The Polynesian Wanderings. Carnegie Institute of Washington, + Publ. No. 134, Washington. + +Derrick, R. A. + 1951. History of Fiji. Printing and Stationery Dept., Suva, Fiji. + +Fornander, A. + 1878. The Polynesian Race. London. + +Hocart, A. M. + 1929. Lau Islands, Fiji. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Bull. 62, + Honolulu. + +Hooton, E. A. + 1946. Up From the Ape. Macmillan Co., New York. + +Howells. W. W. + 1933. Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the Solomon Islands. + American Museum of Natural History. Anthropological Papers, + Vol. 33, Pt. 4. + +Roth, G. K. + 1953. The Fijian Way of Life. Oxford University Press, London. + +Simmon, R. T., J. J. Graydon, and G. Barnes + 1945. The Medical Journal of Australia, May 26. + +Sullivan, L. R. + 1922. A Contribution to Tongan Somotology. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, + Vol. VIII, No. 4. + +Thomson, B. + 1908. The Fijians: A Study of the Decay of Custom. Wm. Heinemann, + London. + + + + +PLATES + + +[Illustration: PLATE 1. NEAR-AVERAGE BODY FEATURES + Stature: 173.3 cm. + Weight: 172.1 lbs. + Arm length: 75.1 cm. + Leg length: 82.2 cm. + Shoulder breadth: 41 cm. + Hip breadth: 29.1 cm. + Shoulder-hip index: 71.0 + Chest breadth: 28.8 cm. + Chest depth: 22.8 cm. + Thoracic index: 75.7 + Sitting height: 86.3 cm. + Sitting height-stature index: 50.0 + Body build: Strongly mesomorphic] + +[Illustration: PLATE 2. NEAR-AVERAGE CRANIAL FEATURES + Head length: 187.2 mm. + Head breadth: 156.9 mm. + Cephalic index: 83.9 + Head height: 128.6 mm. + Length-height index: 68.7 + Length-breadth index: 81.1 + Minimum frontal diameter: 109.8 mm. + Fronto-parietal index: 70.0] + +[Illustration: PLATE 3. NEAR-AVERAGE FACIAL FEATURES + Bizygomatic breadth: 146.7 mm. + Cephalo-facial index: 93.2 + Zygo-frontal index: 75.3 + Bigonial breadth: 109.6 mm. + Fronto-gonial index: 100.1 + Zygo-gonial index: 74.7 + Bicanine breadth: 39.8 + Total facial height: 122.3 mm. + Total facial index: 84.1 + Upper facial height: 71.3 + Upper facial index: 48.9 + Nasal height: 53.1 + Nasal breadth: 45.5 + Nasal index: 85.6] + +[Illustration: PLATE 4. NEAR-AVERAGE FACE AND NOSE FEATURES + +_FACE_ + Pronounced malars + Moderately long face + Wide gonia + Moderate chin + Moderate prognathism + +_NOSE_ + Broad bridge + Wide root + Moderate length + Thick tip + Flaring nostrils + Straight profile] + +[Illustration: PLATE 5. NEAR-AVERAGE LIP AND EAR FEATURES + +_LIPS_ + Moderately thick + Pronounced lip seam + Moderate eversion + +_EARS_ + Moderate size + Small lobe + Attached lobe + Moderate protrusion] + +[Illustration: PLATE 6. NEAR-AVERAGE HAIR FEATURES + Black color + Frizzly form + Pronounced quantity + Coarse texture + Intermediate length] + +[Illustration: PLATE 7. HAIR FORM VARIANTS + CURLY HAIR WAVY HAIR] + +[Illustration: PLATE 8. PRONOUNCED BODY HAIR + 20 per cent occurrence] + +[Illustration: PLATE 9. PRONOUNCED BEARD + 26 per cent occurrence] + +[Illustration: PLATE 10. FACIAL VARIATIONS + + No prognathism + High forehead + Moderate browridges + + Moderate prognathism + Low, receding forehead + Pronounced browridges + + Pronounced prognathism + Low, receding forehead + Very pronounced browridges] + +[Illustration: PLATE 11. INTERIOR SUBJECT (MORE NEGROID) + Shorter stature + Narrower shoulders + Deeper chest + Darker skin + Narrower head + Broader nose + Thicker lips] + +[Illustration: PLATE 12. "NEGROID" FIJIAN] + +[Illustration: PLATE 13. INTERIOR SUBJECT (MORE AUSTRALOID) + Heavier beard and body hair + Lower, more sloping forehead + More compressed parietals + More pronounced brow ridges + More prognathic] + +[Illustration: PLATE 14. "AUSTRALOID" FIJIANS] + +[Illustration: PLATE 15. EASTERN SUBJECT (MORE POLYNESIAN) + Lighter skin + Less beard and body hair + Wavy hair + Wider head + Higher, steeper forehead + Less prognathic + Higher, narrower nose + Moderately thick lips] + +[Illustration: PLATE 16. "POLYNESIAN" FIJIANS] + + +[Footnote 1: Hooton, 1946, pp. 735-763.] + +[Footnote 2: Derrick, 1946, pp. 5-6.] + +[Footnote 3: Ibid., pp. 7-8.] + +[Footnote 4: Population statistics from "Fiji Information," of 1954, +issued by Public Relations Office, Suva, Fiji.] + +[Footnote 5: Hooton, 1946, p. 621.] + +[Footnote 6: Birdsell, 1949, p. 120.] + +[Footnote 7: Fornander, 1878.] + +[Footnote 8: Churchill, 1911.] + +[Footnote 9: Hocart, 1929, p. 236.] + +[Footnote 10: Howells, 1933, p. 335.] + +[Footnote 11: Roth, 1953, pp. 54, 55.] + +[Footnote 12: One pound deducted for dress (usually shorts only).] + +[Footnote 13: By subtracting sitting height from total stature.] + +[Footnote 14: Cranial measurements are not distorted by cradling +practice or other causes of deformation.] + +[Footnote 15: Howells records skin color with the von Luschan scale. I +have adjusted this scale to my own.] + +[Footnote 16: + means medium or moderate; ++ means pronounced; +++ means +very pronounced.] + +[Footnote 17: Observation taken on the chest.] + +[Footnote 18: W. H. Sheldon, _The Variation of Human Physique_, Harper and +Bros., 1940.] + +[Footnote 19: Birdsell, 1949, p. 120.] + +[Footnote 20: Hooton, 1946, p. 621.] + +[Footnote 21: Howells, 1933, p. 332.] + +[Footnote 22: Simmons _et al._, 1945, pp. 3-4] + +[Footnote 23: See pp. 1 and 4 of Introduction.] + +[Transcriber's Note: Figures incorrectly entered as zero have been calculated +and inserted in {}.] + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Racial Study of the Fijians, by Norman E. 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