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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:11:58 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:11:58 -0700 |
| commit | 1cbebe0fe2ae6542746d0696545020a8e631f8c5 (patch) | |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6 + "Home, Daniel" to "Hortensius, Quintus" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 13, 2012 [EBook #39127] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 6 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE VI<br /><br /> +Home, Daniel to Hortensius, Quintus</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HOPKINS, ESEK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HOME, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HOPKINS, MARK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HOMEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HOPKINS, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HOME OFFICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HOPKINS, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HOMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HOPKINSON, FRANCIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HOMER, WINSLOW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HOPKINSON, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HOMESTEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HOPKINSVILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HOPPNER, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HOP-SCOTCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HOMICIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HOMILETICS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HOR, MOUNT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HOMILY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HORACE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HOMOEOPATHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HORAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HOMONYM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HORAPOLLON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HOMS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HORATII and CURIATII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HO-NAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HORATIUS COCLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HONAVAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HORDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HONDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HOREB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D’</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HOREHOUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HONDURAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HORGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HONE, NATHANIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HORIZON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HONE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HORMAYR, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HORMISDAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HONEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HORMIZD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HONEYCOMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HORMUZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HONEY-EATER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HORN, ARVID BERNHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HONEY-GUIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HONEY LOCUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HORN</a> (English hero)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HONEYMOON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HORN</a> (of animals)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HONEYSUCKLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HORN</a> (wind instrument)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HONFLEUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HORNBEAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HONG-KONG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HORNBILL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HONITON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HORNBLENDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HONNEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HORN-BOOK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HONOLULU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HONORIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HORNCASTLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HONORIUS, FLAVIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HORN DANCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HONOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HORNE, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HONOURABLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HONTHORST, GERARD VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HORNELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HOOCH, PIETER DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HORNEMANN, FREDERICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HOOD, JOHN BELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HORNER, FRANCIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HORNER, LEONARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HOOD, SIR SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HÖRNES, MORITZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HOOD, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HORNFELS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HOOD, TOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HORNING, LETTERS OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR WILLIAM ACLAND HOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HORNPIPE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HORNSEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HOROWITZ, ISAIAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HORREUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HOOK, JAMES CLARKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HORROCKS, JEREMIAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HORROCKS, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HORSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HOOKAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HORSE LATITUDES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HOOKE, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HORSE-MACKEREL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HOOKER, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HORSEMANSHIP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HORSENS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HOOKER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HORSE-POWER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HOOKER, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HORSE-RACING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HORSERADISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HOOLE, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HORSE-SHOES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HOOLIGAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HORSETAIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HOOPER, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HORSHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HOOPOE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HORSLEY, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HOORN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HOOSICK FALLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HORSLEY, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HOP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HORSLEY, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HOPE, ANTHONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HORSMAN, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HOPE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HORST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HOPEDALE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HORTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HOPFEN, HANS VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HORTEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HOPI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS</a> (Roman orator)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HÖPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS</a> (dictator of Rome)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1833-1886), Scottish spiritualist, +was born near Edinburgh on the 20th of March 1833, his father +being said to be a natural son of the 10th earl of Home, and his +mother a member of a family credited with second sight. He +went with his mother to America, and on her death was adopted +by an aunt. In the United States he came out as a spiritualistic +medium, though, it should be noted, he never sought to make +money out of his exhibitions. In 1855 he came to England and +gave numerous séances, which were attended by many well-known +people. Robert Browning, the poet, went to one of these, +but without altering his contempt for spiritualism, and he +subsequently gave his impression of Home in the unflattering +poem of “Sludge the Medium” (1864); Home, nevertheless, +had many disciples, and gave séances at several European courts. +He became a Roman Catholic, but was expelled from Rome as +a sorcerer. In 1866 Mrs Lyon, a wealthy widow, adopted him +as her son, and settled £60,000 upon him. Repenting, however, +of her action, she brought a suit for the return of her money, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span> +on the ground that it had been obtained by “spiritual” influence. +It was held that the burden of establishing the validity of the +gift lay on Home, and as he failed to do so the case was decided +against him. He continued, however, to give séances, mostly +on the Continent, and in 1871 appeared before the tsar of Russia +and two Russian scientists, who attested the phenomena evoked. +Returning to England he submitted to a series of experiments +designed to test his pretensions before Professor (subsequently +Sir William) Crookes, which the latter declared to be thoroughly +genuine; and Professor von Boutlerow, of the Russian Academy +of Science, after witnessing a similar series of experiments, +expressed the same opinion. Home published two volumes +of <i>Incidents of my Life and Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism</i>. +He married successively two well-connected Russian ladies. +He died at Auteuil, France, on the 21st of June 1886.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOME, JOHN<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1722-1808), Scottish dramatic poet, was born +on the 22nd of September 1722 at Leith, where his father, +Alexander Home, who was distantly related to the earls of +Home, filled the office of town-clerk. He was educated at the +grammar school of his native town, and at the university of +Edinburgh, where he graduated M.A. in 1742. Though he +showed a fondness for the profession of arms, he studied divinity, +and was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh in 1745. In +the same year he joined as a volunteer against the Pretender, +and was taken prisoner at the battle of Falkirk (1746). With +many others he was carried to the castle of Doune in Perthshire, +but soon effected his escape. In July 1746 Home was presented +to the parish of Athelstaneford, Haddingtonshire, vacant by +the death of Robert Blair, the author of <i>The Grave</i>. He had +leisure to visit his friends and became especially intimate with +David Hume who belonged to the same family as himself. His +first play, <i>Agis: a tragedy</i>, founded on Plutarch’s narrative, +was finished in 1747. He took it to London and submitted it +to Garrick for representation at Drury Lane, but it was rejected +as unsuitable for the stage. The tragedy of <i>Douglas</i> was suggested +to him by hearing a lady sing the ballad of <i>Gil Morrice</i> +or <i>Child Maurice</i> (F. J. Child, <i>Popular Ballads</i>, ii. 263). The +ballad supplied him with the outline of a simple and striking +plot. After five years’ labour he completed his play, which +he took to London for Garrick’s opinion. It also was rejected, +but on his return to Edinburgh his friends resolved that it +should be brought out in that city. It was produced on the +14th of December 1756 with overwhelming success, in spite +of the opposition of the presbytery, who summoned Alexander +Carlyle to answer for having attended its representation. Home +wisely resigned his charge in 1757, after a visit to London, where +<i>Douglas</i> was brought out at Covent Garden on the 14th of March. +Peg Woffington played Lady Randolph, a part which found a +later exponent in Mrs Siddons. David Hume summed up his +admiration for <i>Douglas</i> by saying that his friend possessed +“the true theatric genius of Shakespeare and Otway, refined +from the unhappy barbarism of the one and licentiousness of +the other.” Gray, writing to Horace Walpole (August, 1757), +said that the author “seemed to have retrieved the true language +of the stage, which has been lost for these hundred years,” but +Samuel Johnson held aloof from the general enthusiasm, and +averred that there were not ten good lines in the whole play +(Boswell, <i>Life</i>, ed. Croker, 1848, p. 390). In 1758 Home became +private secretary to Lord Bute, then secretary of state, and was +appointed tutor to the prince of Wales; and in 1760 his patron’s +influence procured him a pension of £300 per annum and in +1763 a sinecure worth another £300. Garrick produced <i>Agis</i> +at Drury Lane on the 21st of February 1758. By dint of good +acting and powerful support, according to Genest (<i>Short Account</i> +&c., iv. 513 seq.), the piece kept the stage for eleven days, but +it was lamentably inferior to <i>Douglas</i>. In 1760 his tragedy, +<i>The Siege of Aquileia</i>, was put on the stage, Garrick taking the +part of Aemilius. In 1769 his tragedy of <i>The Fatal Discovery</i> +had a run of nine nights; <i>Alonzo</i> also (1773) had fair success +in the representation; but his last tragedy, <i>Alfred</i> (1778), was +so coolly received that he gave up writing for the stage. In +1778 he joined a regiment formed by the duke of Buccleuch. +He sustained severe injuries in a fall from horseback which +permanently affected his brain, and was persuaded by his +friends to retire. From 1767 he resided either at Edinburgh +or at a villa which he built at Kilduff near his former parish. +It was at this time that he wrote his <i>History of the Rebellion of +1745</i>, which appeared in 1802. Home died at Merchiston +Bank, near Edinburgh, on the 5th of September 1808, in his +eighty-sixth year.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Works of John Home</i> were collected and published by Henry +Mackenzie in 1822 with “An Account of the Life and Writings +of Mr John Home,” which also appeared separately in the same year, +but several of his smaller poems seem to have escaped the editor’s +observation. These are—“The Fate of Caesar,” “Verses upon +Inveraray,” “Epistle to the Earl of Eglintoun,” “Prologue on the +Birthday of the Prince of Wales, 1759” and several “Epigrams,” +which are printed in vol. ii. of <i>Original Poems by Scottish Gentlemen</i> +(1762). See also Sir W. Scott, “The Life and Works of John Home” +in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> (June, 1827). <i>Douglas</i> is included in numerous +collections of British drama. Voltaire published his <i>Le Caffé, ou +l’Écossaise</i> (1760), <i>Londres</i> (really Geneva), as a translation from the +work of Mr Hume, described as <i>pasteur de l’église d’Édimbourg</i>, but +Home seems to have taken no notice of the mystification.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMEL,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gomel</span>, a town of Russia, in the government of +Mogilev, and 132 m. by rail S.S.E. of the town of Mogilev, on +the Sozh, a tributary of the Dnieper. Pop. (1900) 45,081, +nearly half of whom are Jews. It is an important junction of +the railways from Vilna to Odessa and from Orel to Poland, +and is in steamer communication with Kiev and Mogilev. In +front of Prince Paskevich’s castle stands an equestrian statue +of the Polish general Joseph Poniatowski, and in the cathedral +is the tomb of the chancellor Nikolai Petrovich Rumantsev, +by Canova. The town carries on a brisk trade in hops, corn +and timber; there are also paper-pulp mills and oil factories. +Homel was founded in the 12th century, and after changing +hands several times between Poles and Russians was annexed +to Russia in 1772. In 1648 it suffered at the hands of the Cossack +chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOME OFFICE,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a principal government department in the +United Kingdom, the creation of which dates from 1782, when +the conduct of foreign affairs, which had previously been divided +between the northern and southern secretaries, was handed +over to the northern department (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Foreign Office</a></span>). The +home department retained control of Irish and colonial affairs, +and of war business until 1794, when an additional secretary +of state was re-appointed. In 1801 the colonial business was +transferred from the home department, which now attends only +to domestic affairs. The head of the department, the principal +secretary of state for home affairs, or home secretary, is a +member of the government for the time being, and of the cabinet, +receiving a salary of £5000 a year. He is the proper medium +of communication between the sovereign and the subject, and +receives petitions addressed to the crown. He is responsible +for the maintenance of the king’s peace and attends to the +administration of criminal justice, police and prisons, and +through him the sovereign exercises his prerogative of mercy. +Within his department is the supervision of lunatic asylums, +reformatories and industrial schools, and it is his duty to see +after the internal well-being of the country, to enforce the rules +made for the health or safety of the community generally, +and especially of those classes employed in special trades or +dangerous occupations. He is assisted by a permanent under-secretary, +a parliamentary secretary and several assistant +under-secretaries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Anson, <i>Law and Custom of the Constitution</i>. (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMER<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<span class="grk" title="Homêros">Ὃμηρος</span>), the great epic poet of Greece. Many of +the works once attributed to him are lost; those which remain +are the two great epics, the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>, thirty-three +<i>Hymns</i>, a mock epic (the <i>Battle of the Frogs and Mice</i>), and +some pieces of a few lines each (the so-called <i>Epigrams</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Ancient Accounts of Homer.</i>—Of the date of Homer probably +no record, real or pretended, ever existed. Herodotus (ii. 53) +maintains that Hesiod and Homer lived not more than 400 years +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span> +before his own time, consequently not much before 850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +From the controversial tone in which he expresses himself it is +evident that others had made Homer more ancient; and accordingly +the dates given by later authorities, though very various, +generally fall within the 10th and 11th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But none +of these statements has any claim to the character of external +evidence.</p> + +<p>The extant lives of Homer (edited in Westermann’s <i>Vitarum +Scriptores Graeci minores</i>) are eight in number, including the +piece called the <i>Contest of Hesiod and Homer</i>. The longest is +written in the Ionic dialect, and bears the name of Herodotus, +but is certainly spurious. In all probability it belongs to the +time which was fruitful beyond all others in literary forgeries, +viz. the 2nd century of our era.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The other lives are certainly not +more ancient. Their chief value consists in the curious short +poems or fragments of verse which they have preserved—the +so-called <i>Epigrams</i>, which used to be printed at the end of +editions of Homer. These are easily recognized as “Popular +Rhymes,” a form of folk-lore to be met with in most countries, +treasured by the people as a kind of proverbs.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In the Homeric +<i>epigrams</i> the interest turns sometimes on the characteristics +of particular localities—Smyrna and Cyme (<i>Epigr.</i> iv.), Erythrae +(<i>Epigr.</i> vi., vii.), Mt Ida (<i>Epigr.</i> x.). Neon Teichos (<i>Epigr.</i> i.); +others relate to certain trades or occupations—potters (Epigr. +xiv.), sailors, fishermen, goat herds, &c. Some may be fragments +of longer poems, but evidently they are not the work of any +one poet. The fact that they were all ascribed to Homer merely +means that they belong to a period in the history of the Ionian +and Aeolian colonies when “Homer” was a name which drew +to itself all ancient and popular verse.</p> + +<p>Again, comparing the “epigrams” with the legends and +anecdotes told in the Lives of Homer, we can hardly doubt that +they were the chief source from which these Lives were +derived. Thus in Epigr. iv. we find a blind poet, a native of +Aeolian Smyrna, through which flows the water of the sacred +Meles. Here is doubtless the source of the chief incident of the +Herodotean Life—the birth of Homer “Son of the Meles.” The +epithet Aeolian implies high antiquity, inasmuch as according +to Herodotus Smyrna became Ionian about 688 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Naturally +the Ionians had their own version of the story—a version which +made Homer come out with the first Athenian colonists.</p> + +<p>The same line of argument may be extended to the <i>Hymns</i>, +and even to some of the lost works of the post-Homeric or +so-called “Cyclic” poets. Thus:—</p> + +<p>1. The hymn to the Delian Apollo ends with an address of +the poet to his audience. When any stranger comes and asks +who is the sweetest singer, they are to answer with one voice, +the “blind man that dwells in rocky Chios; his songs deserve +the prize for all time to come.” Thucydides, who quotes this +passage to show the ancient character of the Delian festival, +seems to have no doubt of the Homeric authorship of the hymn. +Hence we may most naturally account for the belief that Homer +was a Chian.</p> + +<p>2. The <i>Margites</i>—a humorous poem which kept its ground +as the reputed work of Homer down to the time of Aristotle—began +with the words, “There came to Colophon an old man, +a divine singer, servant of the Muses and Apollo.” Hence +doubtless the claim of Colophon to be the native city of Homer—a +claim supported in the early times of Homeric learning by the +Colophonian poet and grammarian Antimachus.</p> + +<p>3. The poem called the <i>Cypria</i> was said to have been given +by Homer to Stasinus of Cyprus as a daughter’s dowry. The +connexion with Cyprus appears further in the predominance given +in the poem to Aphrodite.</p> + +<p>4. The <i>Little Iliad</i> and the <i>Phocaïs</i>, according to the Herodotean +life, were composed by Homer when he lived at Phocaea with +a certain Thestorides, who carried them off to Chios and there +gained fame by reciting them as his own. The name Thestorides +occurs in <i>Epigr.</i> v.</p> + +<p>5. A similar story was told about the poem called the <i>Taking +of Oechalia</i> (<span class="grk" title="Oichalias Halôsis">Οἰχαλίας Ἅλωσις</span>), the subject of which was one +of the exploits of Heracles. It passed under the name of Creophylus, +a friend or (as some said) a son-in-law of Homer; but +it was generally believed to have been in fact the work of the +poet himself.</p> + +<p>6. Finally the <i>Thebaid</i> always counted as the work of Homer. +As to the <i>Epigoni</i>, which carried on the Theban story, some +doubt seems to have been felt.</p> + +<p>These indications render it probable that the stories connecting +Homer with different cities and islands grew up after his poems +had become known and famous, especially in the new and +flourishing colonies of Aeolis and Ionia. The contention for +Homer, in short, began at a time when his real history was lost, +and he had become a sort of mythical figure, an “eponymous +hero,” or personification of a great school of poetry.</p> + +<p>An interesting confirmation of this view from the negative +side is furnished by the city which ranked as chief among the +Asiatic colonies of Greece, viz. Miletus. No legend claims for +Miletus even a visit from Homer, or a share in the authorship of +any Homeric poem. Yet Arctinus of Miletus was said to have +been a “disciple of Homer,” and was certainly one of the earliest +and most considerable of the “Cyclic” poets. His <i>Aethiopis</i> +was composed as a sequel to the <i>Iliad</i>; and the structure and +general character of his poems show that he took the <i>Iliad</i> as +his model. Yet in his case we find no trace of the disputed +authorship which is so common with other “Cyclic” poems. +How has this come about? Why have the works of Arctinus +escaped the attraction which drew to the name of Homer such +epics as the <i>Cypria</i>, the <i>Little Iliad</i>, the <i>Thebaid</i>, the <i>Epigoni</i>, +the <i>Taking of Oechalia</i> and the <i>Phocais</i>. The most obvious +account of the matter is that Arctinus was never so far forgotten +that his poems became the subject of dispute. We seem through +him to obtain a glimpse of an early post-Homeric age in Ionia, +when the immediate disciples and successors of Homer were +distinct figures in a trustworthy tradition—when they had not +yet merged their individuality in the legendary “Homer” of the +Epic Cycle.</p> + +<p><i>Recitation of the Poems.</i>—The recitation of epic poetry was +called in historical times “rhapsody” (<span class="grk" title="rhapsôdia">ῥαψῳδία</span>). The word +<span class="grk" title="rhapsôdos">ῥαψῳδός</span> is post-Homeric, but was known to Pindar, who gives +two different explanations of it—“singer of stitched verse” +(<span class="grk" title="rhaptôn hepeôn aoidoi">ῥαπτῶν ἐπέων ἀοιδοί</span>), and “singer with the wand” (<span class="grk" title="rhabdos">ῥαβδός</span>). +Of these the first is etymologically correct (except that it should +rather be “stitcher of verse”); the second was suggested by +the fact, for which there is early evidence, that the reciter was +accustomed to hold a wand in his hand—perhaps, like the +sceptre in the Homeric assembly, as a symbol of the right to a +hearing.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>The first notice of rhapsody meets us at Sicyon, in the reign +of Cleisthenes (600-560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who “put down the rhapsodists +on account of the poems of Homer, because they are all about +Argos and the Argives” (Hdt. v. 67). This description applies +very well to the <i>Iliad</i>, in which Argos and Argives occur on +almost every page. It may have suited the <i>Thebaid</i> still better, +but there is no need to understand it only of that poem, as Grote +does. The incident shows that the poems of the Ionic Homer had +gained in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and in the Doric parts of the Peloponnesus, +the ascendancy, the national importance and the +almost canonical character which they ever afterwards retained.</p> + +<p>At Athens there was a law that the Homeric poems should be +recited (<span class="grk" title="rhapsôdeisthai">ῥαψῳδεῖσθαι</span>) on every occasion of the Panathenaea. +This law is appealed to as an especial glory of Athens by the +orator Lycurgus (<i>Leocr.</i> 102). Perhaps therefore the custom +of public recitation was exceptional,<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and unfortunately we do +not know when or by whom it was introduced. The Platonic +dialogue <i>Hipparchus</i> attributes it to Hipparchus, son of Peisistratus. +This, however, is part of the historical romance of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span> +which the dialogue mainly consists. The author makes (perhaps +wilfully) all the mistakes about the family of Peisistratus which +Thucydides notices in a well-known passage (vi. 54-59). In one +point, however, the writer’s testimony is valuable. He tells us +that the law required the rhapsodists to recite “taking each +other up in order (<span class="grk" title="ex hypolêpseôs ephexês">ἐξ ὑπολήψεως ἐφεξῆς</span>), as they still do.” This +recurs in a different form in the statement of Diogenes Laertius +(i. 2. 57) that Solon made a law that the poems should be recited +“with prompting” (<span class="grk" title="ex hypobolês">ἐξ ὑποβολῆς</span>). The question as between +Solon and Hipparchus cannot be settled; but it is at least clear +that a due order of recitation was secured by the presence of +a person charged to give the rhapsodists their cue (<span class="grk" title="hypoballein">ὑποβάλλειν</span>). +It was necessary, of course, to divide the poem to be recited into +parts, and to compel each contending rhapsodist to take the part +assigned to him. Otherwise they would have chosen favourite +or show passages.</p> + +<p>The practice of poets or rhapsodists contending for the prize +at the great religious festivals is of considerable antiquity, +though apparently post-Homeric. It is brought vividly before us +in the Hymn to Apollo (see the passage mentioned above), +and in two Hymns to Aphrodite (v. and ix.). The latter of these +may evidently be taken to belong to Salamis in Cyprus and the +festival of the Cyprian Aphrodite, in the same way that the +Hymn to Apollo belongs to Delos and the Delian gathering. +The earliest trace of such contests is to be found in the story +of Thamyris, the Thracian singer, who boasted that he could +conquer even the Muses in song (<i>Il.</i> ii. 594 ff.).</p> + +<p>Much has been made in this part of the subject of a family +or clan (<span class="grk" title="genos">γένος</span>) of Homeridae in the island of Chios. On the one +hand, it seemed to follow from the existence of such a family that +Homer was a mere “eponymus,” or mythical ancestor; on the +other hand, it became easy to imagine the Homeric poems +handed down orally in a family whose hereditary occupation it +was to recite them, possibly to add new episodes from time to +time, or to combine their materials in new ways, as their poetical +gifts permitted. But, although there is no reason to doubt the +existence of a family of “Homeridae,” it is far from certain that +they had anything to do with Homeric poetry. The word +occurs first in Pindar (<i>Nem.</i> 2. 2), who applies it to the rhapsodists +(<span class="grk" title="Homêridai rhaptôn epeôn aoidoi">Ὁμηρίδαι ῥαπτῶν ἐπέων ἀοίδοί</span>). On this a scholiast says +that the name “Homeridae” denoted originally descendants +of Homer, who sang his poems in succession, but afterwards was +applied to rhapsodists who did not claim descent from him. +He adds that there was a famous rhapsodist, Cynaethus of +Chios, who was said to be the author of the Hymn to Apollo, and +to have first recited Homer at Syracuse about the 69th Olympiad. +Nothing here connects the Homeridae with Chios. The statement +of the scholiast is evidently a mere inference from the +patronymic form of the word. If it proves anything, it proves +that Cynaethus, who was a Chian and a rhapsodist, made no +claim to Homeric descent. On the other hand our knowledge of +Chian Homeridae comes chiefly from the lexicon of Harpocration, +where we are told that Acusilaus and Hellanicus said that they +were so called from the poet; whereas Seleucus pronounced +this to be an error. Strabo also says that the Chians put forward +the Homeridae as an argument in support of their claim to +Homer. These Homeridae, then, belonged to Chios, but there +is no indication of their being rhapsodists. On the contrary, +Plato and other Attic writers use the word to include interpreters +and admirers—in short, the whole “spiritual kindred”—of +Homer. And although we hear of “descendants of Creophylus” +as in possession of the Homeric poems, there is no similar story +about descendants of Homer himself. Such is the evidence on +which so many inferences are based.</p> + +<p>The result of the notices now collected is to show that the +early history of epic recitation consists of (1) passages in the +Homeric hymns showing that poets contended for the prize at +the great festivals, (2) the passing mention in Herodotus of +rhapsodists at Sicyon, and (3) a law at Athens, of unknown +date, regulating the recitation at the Panathenaea. Let us now +compare these data with the account given in the Homeric poems. +The word “rhapsode” does not yet exist; we hear only of the +“singer” (<span class="grk" title="aoidos">ἀοιδός</span>), who does not carry a wand or laurel-branch, +but the lyre (<span class="grk" title="phormigx">φόρμιγξ</span>), with which he accompanies his “song.” +In the <i>Iliad</i> even the epic “singer” is not met with. It is +Achilles himself who sings the stories of heroes (<span class="grk" title="klea andrôn">κλέα ἀνδρῶν</span>) +in his tent, and Patroclus is waiting (<i>respondere paratus</i>), to +take up the song in his turn (<i>Il.</i> ix. 191). Again we do not hear +of poetical contests (except in the story of Thamyris already +mentioned) or of recitation of epic poetry at festivals. The +<i>Odyssey</i> gives us pictures of two great houses, and each has its +singer. The song is on a subject taken from the Trojan war, at +some point chosen by the singer himself, or by his hearers. +Phemius pleases the suitors by singing of the calamitous return of +the Greeks; Demodocus sings of a quarrel between Ulysses and +Achilles, and afterwards of the wooden horse and the capture +of Troy.</p> + +<p>It may be granted that the author of the <i>Odyssey</i> can hardly +have been just such a singer as he himself describes. The songs +of Phemius and Demodocus are too short, and have too much +the character of improvisations. Nor is it necessary to suppose +that epic poetry, at the time to which the picture in the <i>Odyssey</i> +belongs, was confined to the one type represented. Yet in +several respects the conditions under which the singer finds himself +in the house of a chieftain like Odysseus or Alcinous are more +in harmony with the character of Homeric poetry than those of +the later rhapsodic contests. The subdivision of a poem like +the <i>Iliad</i> or <i>Odyssey</i> among different and necessarily unequal +performers must have been injurious to the effect. The highly +theatrical manner of recitation which was fostered by the spirit +of competition, and by the example of the stage, cannot have +done justice to the even movement of the epic style. It is not +certain indeed that the practice of reciting a long poem by the +agency of several competitors was ancient, or that it prevailed +elsewhere than at Athens; but as rhapsodists were numerous, +and popular favour throughout Greece became more and more +confined to one or two great works, it must have become almost +a necessity. That it was the mode of recitation contemplated +by the author of the <i>Iliad</i> or <i>Odyssey</i> it is impossible to believe.</p> + +<p>The difference made by substituting the wand or branch of +laurel for the lyre of the Homeric singer is a slighter one, though +not without significance. The recitation of the Hesiodic poems +was from the first unaccompanied by the lyre, <i>i.e.</i> they were +confessedly <i>said</i>, not <i>sung</i>; and it was natural that the example +should be extended to Homer. For it is difficult to believe that +the Homeric poems were ever “sung” in the strict sense of the +word. We can only suppose that the lyre in the hands of the +epic poet or reciter was in reality a piece of convention, a “survival” +from the stage in which narrative poetry had a lyrical +character. Probably the poets of the Homeric school—that +which dealt with war and adventure—were the genuine descendants +of minstrels whose “lays” or “ballads” were the amusement +of the feasts in an earlier heroic age; whereas the Hesiodic +compositions were non-lyrical from the first, and were only in +verse because that was the universal form of literature.</p> + +<p>It seems, then, that if we imagine Homer as a singer in a royal +house of the Homeric age, but with more freedom regarding the +limits of his subject, and a more tranquil audience than is allowed +him in the rapid movement of the <i>Odyssey</i>, we shall probably +not be far from the truth.</p> + +<p><i>Time and Place of Homer.</i>—The oldest direct references to +the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> are in Herodotus, who quotes from both +poems (ii. 53). The quotation from the <i>Iliad</i> is of interest +because it is made in order to show that Homer supported the +story of the travels of Paris to Egypt and Sidon (whereas the +Cyclic poem called the <i>Cypria</i> ignored them), and also because +the part of the <i>Iliad</i> from which it comes is cited as the “Aristeia +of Diomede.” This was therefore a recognized part of the poem.</p> + +<p>The earliest mention of the name of Homer is found in a +fragment of the philosopher Xenophanes (of the 6th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or possibly earlier), who complains of the false notions +implanted through the teaching of Homer. The passage shows, +not merely that Homer was well known at Colophon in the time +of Xenophanes, but also that the great advance in moral and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span> +religious ideas which forced Plato to banish Homer from his +republic had made itself felt in the days of the early Ionic +philosophers.</p> + +<p>Failing external testimony, the time and place of the Homeric +poems can only be determined (if at all) by internal evidence. +This is of two main kinds: (<i>a</i>) evidence of history, consisting +in a comparison of the political and social condition, the +geography, the institutions, the manners, arts and ideas of +Homer with those of other times; (<i>b</i>) evidence of language, +consisting in a comparison with later dialects, in respect of +grammar and vocabulary. To these may be added, as occasionally +of value, (<i>c</i>) much evidence of the direct influence of Homer +upon the subsequent course of literature and art.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The political condition of Greece in the earliest times +known to history is separated from the Greece of Homer by an +interval which can hardly be overestimated. The great national +names are different: instead of Achaeans, Argives, Danai, we +find Hellenes, subdivided into Dorians, Ionians, Aeolians—names +either unknown to Homer, or mentioned in terms more +significant than silence. At the dawn of Greek history Mycenae +is no longer the seat of empire; new empires, polities and +civilizations have grown up—Sparta with its military discipline, +Delphi with its religious supremacy, Miletus with its commerce +and numberless colonies, Aeolis and Ionia, Sicily and Magna +Graecia.</p> + +<p>While the political centre of Homeric Greece is at Mycenae, +the real centre is rather to be found In Boeotia. The Catalogue +of the Ships begins with Boeotia; the list of Boeotian towns is +much the longest; and they sail, not from the bay of Argos, +but from the Boeotian harbour of Aulis. This position is not +due to its chiefs, who are all of inferior rank. The importance of +Boeotia for Greek civilization is further shown by the ancient +worship of the Muses on Mount Helicon, and the fact that the +oldest poet whose birthplace was known was the Boeotian +Hesiod. Next to Boeotia and the neighbouring countries, it +appears that the Peloponnesus, Crete and Thessaly were the +most important seats of Greek population.</p> + +<p>In the Peloponnesus the face of things was completely altered +by the Dorian conquest, no trace of which is found in Homer. +The only Dorians known in Homer are those that the <i>Odyssey</i> +(xix. 177) places in Crete. It is difficult to connect them with the +Dorians of history.</p> + +<p>The eastern shores of the Aegean, which the earliest historical +records represent to us as the seat of a brilliant civilization, giving +way before the advance of the great military empires (Lydia +and afterwards Persia), are almost a blank in Homer’s map. +The line of settlements can be traced in the Catalogue from +Crete to Rhodes, and embraces the neighbouring islands of Cos +and Calymnos. The colonization of Rhodes by Tlepolemus is +related (<i>Il.</i> ii. 661 ff.), and seems to mark the farthest point +reached in the Homeric age. Between Rhodes and the Troad +Homer knows of but one city, Miletus—which is a Carian ally +of Troy—and the mouth of one river, the Cayster. Even the +Cyclades—Naxos, Paros, Melos—are unknown to the Homeric +world. The disposition of the Greeks to look to the west for the +centres of religious feeling appears in the mention of Dodona and +the Dodonaean Zeus, put in the mouth of the Thessalian Achilles.</p> + +<p>To the north we find the Thracians, known from the stories +of Thamyris the singer (<i>Il.</i> ii. 595), and Lycurgus, the enemy of +the young god Dionysus (<i>Il.</i> vi. 130). Here the Trojan empire +begins. It does not appear, however, that the Trojans are thought +of as people of a different language. As this is expressly said of +the Carians, and of the Trojan allies who were “summoned from +afar,” the contrary rather is implied regarding Troy itself.</p> + +<p>The mixed type of government described by Homer—consisting +of a king guided by a council of elders, and bringing all +important resolutions before the assembly of the fighting men—does +not seem to have been universal in Indo-European communities, +but to have grown up in many different parts of the +world under the stress of similar conditions. The king is the +commander in war, and the office probably owed its existence to +military necessities. It is not surrounded with any special +sacredness. There were ruling families, laying claim to divine +descent, from whom the king was naturally chosen, but his own +fitness is the essence of his title. The aged Laertes is set aside; +the young Telemachus does not succeed as a matter of course. +Nor are any very definite rights attached to the office. Each +tribe in the army before Troy was commanded by its own king +(or kings); but Agamemnon was supreme, and was “more a +king” (<span class="grk" title="basileiteros">βασιλείτερος</span>) than any other. The assembly is summoned +on all critical occasions, and its approval is the ultimate sanction. +A king therefore stands in almost as much need of oratory as of +warlike skill and prowess. Even the division of the spoil is not +made in the <i>Iliad</i> by Agamemnon, but by “the Achaeans” +(<i>Il.</i> i. 162, 368). The taking of Briseïs from Achilles was an +arbitrary act, and against all rule and custom. The council +is more difficult to understand. The “elders” (<span class="grk" title="gerontes">γέροντες</span>) of the +<i>Iliad</i> are the same as the subordinate “kings”; they are +summoned by Agamemnon to his tent, and form a small council +of nine or ten persons. In Troy we hear of elders of the people +(<span class="grk" title="dêmogerontes">δημογέροντες</span>) who are with Priam, and are men past the +military age. So in Ithaca there are elders who have not gone to +Troy with the army. It would seem therefore that the meeting +in Agamemnon’s tent was only a copy or adaptation of the true +constitutional “council of elders,” which indeed was essentially +unfitted for the purposes of military service. The king’s palace, +if we may judge from Tiryns and Mycenae, was usually in a strong +situation on an “acropolis.” In the later times of democracy the +acropolis was reserved for the temples of the principal gods.</p> + +<p>Priesthood in Homer is found in the case of particular temples, +where an officer is naturally wanted to take charge of the sacred +inclosure and the sacrifices offered within it. It is perhaps an +accident that we do not hear of priests in Ithaca. Agamemnon +performs sacrifice himself, not because a priestly character was +attached to the kingly office, but simply because he was “master +in his own house.”</p> + +<p>The conception of “law” is foreign to Homer. The later +words for it (<span class="grk" title="nomos">νόμος</span>, <span class="grk" title="rhêtra">ῥήτρα</span>) are unknown, and the terms which +he uses (<span class="grk" title="dikê">δίκη</span> and <span class="grk" title="themis">θέμις</span>) mean merely “custom.” Judicial +functions are in the hands of the elders, who “have to do with +suits” (<span class="grk" title="dikaspoloi">δικασπόλοι</span>), and “uphold judgments” (<span class="grk" title="themistas +eiryatai">θέμιστας εἰρύαται</span>). On such matters as the compensation in cases of +homicide, it is evident that there were no rules, but merely a +feeling, created by use and wont, that the relatives of the slain +man should be willing to accept payment. The sense of anger +which follows a violation of custom has the name of +“Nemesis”—righteous +displeasure.</p> + +<p>As there is no law in Homer, so there is no morality. That +is to say, there are no general principles of action, and no words +which indicate that acts have been classified as good or bad, +right or wrong. Moral <i>feeling</i>, indeed, existed and was denoted +by “Aidos”; but the numerous meanings of this word—shame, +veneration, pity—show how rudimentary the idea was. And +when we look to practice we find that cruel and even treacherous +deeds are spoken of without the least sense that they deserve +censure. The heroes of Homer are hardly more moral agents +than the giants and enchanters of a fairy tale.</p> + +<p>The religious ideas of Homer differ in some important points +from those of later Greece. The Apollo of the <i>Iliad</i> has the +character of a local Asiatic deity—“ruler of Chryse and goodly +Cilla and Tenedos.” He may be compared with the Clarian +and the Lycian god, but he is unlike the Apollo of Dorian times, +the “deliverer” and giver of oracles. Again, the worship of +Dionysus, and of Demeter and Persephone, is mainly or wholly +post-Homeric. The greatest difference, however, lies in the +absence of hero-worship from the Homeric order of things. +Castor and Polydeuces, for instance, are simply brothers of +Helen who died before the expedition to Troy (<i>Il.</i> iii. 243.)</p> + +<p>The military tactics of Homer belong to the age when the +chariot was the principal engine of warfare. Cavalry is unknown, +and the battles are mainly decided by the prowess of the chiefs. +The use of the trumpet is also later. It has been supposed +indeed that the art of riding was known in Homer’s own time, +because it occurs in comparisons. But the riding which he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span> +describes (<i>Il.</i> xv. 679) is a mere exhibition of skill, such as we may +see in a modern circus. And though he mentions the trumpet +(<i>Il.</i> xviii. 219), there is nothing to show that it was used, as in +historical times, to give the signal for the charge.</p> + +<p>The chief industries of Homeric times are those of the carpenter +(<span class="grk" title="tektôn">τέκτων</span>), the worker in leather (<span class="grk" title="skutotomos">σκυτοτόμος</span>), the smith or +worker in metal (<span class="grk" title="chalkeus">χαλκεύς</span>)—whose implements are the hammer +and pincers—and the potter (<span class="grk" title="kerameus">κεραμεύς</span>); also spinning and +weaving, which were carried on by the women. The fine arts +are represented by sculpture in relief, carving in wood and ivory, +embroidery. Statuary is later; it appears to have come into +existence in the 7th century, about the time when casting in +metal was invented by Rhoecus of Samos. In general, as was +well shown by A. S. Murray,<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Homeric art does not rise above the +stage of <i>decoration</i>, applied to objects in common use; while +in point of style it is characterized by a richness and variety +of ornament which is in the strongest contrast to the simplicity +of the best periods. It is the work, in short, not of artists but of +skilled workmen; the ideal artist is “Daedalus,” a name which +implies mechanical skill and intricate workmanship, not beauty +of design.</p> + +<p>One art of the highest importance remains. The question +whether writing was known in the time of Homer was raised in +antiquity, and has been debated with especial eagerness ever +since the appearance of Wolf’s <i>Prolegomena</i>. In this case we +have to consider not merely the indications of the poems, but +also the external evidence which we possess regarding the use +of writing in Greece. This latter kind of evidence is much more +considerable now than it was in Wolf’s time. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span> +elsewhere in these volumes.)</p> + +<p>The oldest known stage of the Greek alphabet appears to be +represented by inscriptions of the islands of Thera, Melos and +Crete, which are referred to the 40th Olympiad (620 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The +oldest specimen of a distinctively Ionian alphabet is the famous +inscription of the mercenaries of Psammetichus, in Upper Egypt, +as to which the only doubt is whether the Psammetichus in +question is the first or the second, and consequently whether +the inscription is to be dated Ol. 40 or Ol. 47. Considering that +the divergence of two alphabets (like the difference of two +dialects) requires both time and familiar use, we may gather +from these facts that writing was well known in Greece early in +the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>The rise of prose composition in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> has +been thought to mark the time when memory was practically +superseded by writing as a means of preserving literature—the +earlier use of letters being confined to short documents, +such as lists of names, treaties, laws, &c. This conclusion, +however, is by no means necessary. It may be that down to +comparatively late rimes poetry was not commonly read, but +was recited from memory. But the question is—From what +time are we to suppose that the preservation of long poems was +generally secured by the existence of written copies? Now, +without counting the Homeric poems—which doubtless had +exceptional advantages in their fame and popularity—we find +a body of literature dating from the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to which +the theory of oral transmission is surely inapplicable. In the +Trojan cycle alone we know of the two epics of Arctinus, the +<i>Little Iliad</i> of Lesches, the <i>Cypria</i>, the <i>Nostoi</i>. The Theban +cycle is represented by the <i>Thebaid</i> (which Callinus, who was +of the 7th century, ascribed to Homer) and the <i>Epigoni</i>. Other +ancient epics—ancient enough to have passed under the name +of Homer—are the <i>Taking of Oechalia</i>, and the <i>Phocaïs</i>. Again, +there are the numerous works attributed to Hesiod and other +poets of the didactic, mythological and quasi-historical schools—Eumelus +of Corinth, Cinaethon of Sparta, Agias of Troezen, and +many more. The preservation of this vast mass can only be +attributed to writing, which must therefore have been in use for +two centuries or more before there was any considerable prose +literature. Nor is this in itself improbable.</p> + +<p>The further question, whether the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> were +originally written, is much more difficult. External evidence +does not reach back so far, and the internal evidence is curiously +indecisive. The only passage which can be interpreted as a +reference to writing occurs in the story of Bellerophon, told by +Glaucus in the sixth book of the <i>Iliad</i>. Proetus, king of Corinth, +sent Bellerophon to his father-in-law the king of Lycia, and gave +him “baneful tokens” (<span class="grk" title="sêmata lugra">σήματα λυγρά</span>, <i>i.e.</i> tokens which were +messages of death), “scratching on a folded tablet many spirit-destroying +things, and bade him show this to his father-in-law, +that he might perish.” The king of Lycia asked duly (on the +tenth day from the guest’s coming) for a token (<span class="grk" title="hêtee sêma +idesthai">ᾔτεε σῆμα ἰδέσθαι</span>), and then knew what Proetus wished to be done. In +this account there is nothing to show exactly how the message +of Proetus was expressed. The use of writing for the purpose of +the token between “guest-friends” (<i>tessera hospitalis</i>) is certainly +very ancient. Mommsen (<i>Röm. Forsch</i>. i. 338 ff.) aptly compares +the use in treaties, which are the oldest species of public +documents. But we may suppose that tokens of some kind—like +the marks which the Greek chiefs make on the lots (<i>Il.</i> vii. +175 ff.)—were in use before writing was known. In any system +of signs there were doubtless means of recommending a friend, +or giving warning of the presence of an enemy. There is no +difficulty, therefore, in understanding the message of Proetus +without alphabetical writing. But, on the other hand, there +is no reason for so understanding it.</p> + +<p>If the language of Homer is so ambiguous where the use +of writing would naturally be mentioned, we cannot expect to +find more decisive references elsewhere. Arguments have been +founded upon the descriptions of the blind singers in the <i>Odyssey</i>, +with their songs inspired directly by the Muse; upon the appeals +of the poet to the Muses, especially in such a place as the opening +of the Catalogue; upon the Catalogue itself, which is a kind of +historical document put into verse to help the memory; upon +the shipowner in the <i>Odyssey</i>, who has “a good memory for his +cargo,” &c. It may be answered, however, that much of this +is traditional, handed down from the time when all poetry was +unwritten. Moreover it is one thing to recognize that a literature +is essentially oral in its form, characteristic of an age which was +one of hearing rather than of reading, and quite another to hold +that the same literature was preserved entirely by oral transmission.</p> + +<p>The result of these various considerations seems to be that +the age which we may call the Homeric—the age which is brought +before us in vivid outlines in the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>—lies beyond +the earliest point to which history enables us to penetrate. +And so far as we can draw any conclusion as to the author +(or authors) of the two poems, it is that the whole debate between +the cities of Aeolis and Ionia was wide of the mark. The author +of the <i>Iliad</i>, at least, was evidently a European Greek who +lived before the colonization of Asia Minor; and the claims +of the Asiatic cities mean no more than that in the days of their +prosperity these were the chief seats of the fame of Homer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>This is perhaps the place to consider whether the poems are to be +regarded as possessing in any degree the character; of historical +record. The question is one which in the absence of satisfactory +criteria will generally be decided by taste and predilection. A few +suggestions, however, may be made.</p> + +<p>1. The events of the <i>Iliad</i> take place in a real locality, the general +features of which are kept steadily in view. There is no doubt +about Sigeum and Rhoeteum, or the river Scamander, or the islands +Imbros, Lemnos and Tenedos. It is at least remarkable that a legend +of the national interest of the “tale of Troy” should be so definitely +localized, and that in a district, which was never famous as a seat of +Greek population. It may be urged, too, that the story of the <i>Iliad</i> +is singularly free from the exaggerated and marvellous character +which belongs as a rule to the legends of primitive peoples. The +apple of discord, the arrows of Philoctetes, the invulnerability of +Achilles, and similar fancies, are the additions of later poets. This +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span> +sobriety, however, belongs not to the whole <i>Iliad</i>, but to the events +and characters of the war. Such figures as Bellerophon, Nïobe, the +Amazons, which are thought of as traditions from an earlier generation, +show the marvellous element at work.</p> + +<p>2. Certain persons and events in the story have a distinctly +mythical stamp. Helen is a figure of this kind. There was another +story according to which she was carried off by Theseus, and recovered +by her brothers the Dioscuri. There are even traces of a +third version, in which the Messenian twins, Idas and Lynceus, +appear.</p> + +<p>3. The analogy of the French epic, the <i>Chanson de Roland</i>, +favours the belief that there was some nucleus of fact. The defeat +of Roncevaux was really suffered by a part of Charlemagne’s army. +But the Saracen army is purely mythical, the true enemy having +been the Gascons. If similarly we leave, as historical, the plain of +Troy, and the name Agamemnon, we shall perhaps not be far wrong.</p> +</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The dialect of Homer is an early or “primitive” form of +the language which we know as that of Attica in the classical +age of Greek literature. The proof of this proposition is to be +obtained chiefly by comparing the grammatical formation and +the syntax of Homer with those of Attic. The comparison of +the vocabulary is in the nature of things less conclusive on the +question of date. It would be impossible to give the evidence +in full without writing a Homeric grammar, but a few specimens +may be of interest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. The first aorist in Greek being a “weak” tense, <i>i.e.</i> formed +by a suffix (<span class="grk" title="-sa">-σᾰ</span>), whereas the second aorist is a “strong” tense, +distinguished by the form of the root-syllable, we expect to find a +constant tendency to diminish the number of second aorists in use. +No new second aorists, we may be sure, were formed any more than +new “strong” tenses, such as <i>came</i> or <i>sang</i>, can be formed in +English. Now in Homer there are upwards of 80 second aorists +(not reckoning aorists of “Verbs in <span class="grk" title="mi">μι</span>,” such as <span class="grk" title="hestên">ἕστην</span>, <span class="grk" title="ebên">ἔβην</span>), whereas +in all Attic prose not more than 30 are found. In this point therefore +the Homeric language is manifestly older. In Attic poets, it is true, +the number of such aorists is much larger than in prose. But here +again we find that they bear witness to Homer. Of the poetical +aorists in Attic the larger part are also Homeric. Others are not +really Attic at all, but borrowed from earlier Aeolic and Doric +poetry. It is plain, in short, that the later poetical vocabulary was +separated from that of prose mainly by the forms which the influence +of Homer had saved from being forgotten.</p> + +<p>2. While the whole class of “strong” aorists diminished, certain +smaller groups in the class disappeared altogether. Thus we find in +Homer, but not in the later language:—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The second aorist middle without the “thematic” ε or ο: as +<span class="grk" title="eblê-to">ἕβλη-το</span>, <i>was struck</i>; <span class="grk" title="ephi-to">ἔφθι-το</span>, <i>perished</i>; +<span class="grk" title="al-to">ᾶλ-το</span>, <i>leaped</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The aorist formed by reduplication: as <span class="grk" title="dedaev">δέδαεν</span>, <i>taught</i>; +<span class="grk" title="lelabesthai">λελαβέσθαι</span>, <i>to seize</i>. These constitute a distinct formation, generally +with a “causative” meaning; the solitary Attic specimen is <span class="grk" title="êgagon">ἤγαγον</span>.</p> + +<p>3. It had long been known that the subjunctive in Homer often +takes a short vowel (<i>e.g.</i> in the plural, <span class="grk" title="-omen">-ομεν</span>, <span class="grk" title="-ete">-ετε</span> instead of <span class="grk" title="-ômen">-ωμεν</span>, +<span class="grk" title="-ête">-ητε</span>, and in the Mid. <span class="grk" title="-omai">-ομαι</span>, &c. instead of <span class="grk" title="-ômai">-ωμαι</span>, &c.). This was +generally said to be done by “poetic licence,” or <i>metri gratia</i>. In +fact, however, the Homeric subjunctive is almost quite “regular,” +though the rule which it obeys is a different one from the Attic. It +may be summed up by saying that the subjunctive takes ω or η when +the indicative has ο or ε, and not otherwise. Thus Homer has +<span class="grk" title="i-men">ἴ-μεν</span>, <i>we go</i>, <span class="grk" title="i-o-men">ἴ-ο-μεν</span>, <i>let us go</i>. The later <span class="grk" title="i-ô-men">ἴ-ω-μεν</span> was at first a solecism, +an attempt to conjugate a “verb in <span class="grk" title="mi">μι</span>” like the “verbs in ω.” +It will be evident that under this rule the perfect and first aorist +subjunctive should always take a short vowel; and this accordingly +is the case, with very few exceptions.</p> + +<p>4. The article (<span class="grk" title="ho, hê, to">ὁ, ἡ, τό</span>) in Homer is chiefly used as an independent +pronoun (<i>he, she, it</i>), a use which in Attic appears only in a few combinations +(such as <span class="grk" title="ho mèn ... ho de">ὁ μὲν ... ὁ δέ</span>, <i>the one ... the other</i>). This difference +is parallel to the relation between the Latin <i>ille</i> and the article +of the Romance languages.</p> + +<p>5. The prepositions offer several points of comparison. What the +grammarians called “tmesis,” the separation of the preposition from +the verb with which it is compounded, is peculiar to Homer. The +true account of the matter is that in Homer the place of the preposition +is not rigidly fixed, as it was afterwards. Again, “with” +is in Homer <span class="grk" title="syn">σύν</span> (with the dative), in Attic prose <span class="grk" title="meta">μετά</span> with the +genitive. Here Attic poetry is intermediate; the use of <span class="grk" title="syn">σύν</span> is +retained as a piece of poetical tradition.</p> + +<p>6. In addition to the particle <span class="grk" title="an">ἄν</span>, Homer has another, <span class="grk" title="ken">κεν</span>, hardly +distinguishable in meaning. The Homeric uses of <span class="grk" title="an">ἄν</span> and <span class="grk" title="ken">κεν</span> are +different in several respects from the Attic, the general result being +that the Homeric syntax is more elastic. And yet it is perfectly +definite and precise. Homer uses no constructions loosely or without +corresponding differences of meaning. His rules are equally strict +with those of the later language, but they are not the same rules. +And they differ chiefly in this, that the less common combinations +of the earlier period were disused altogether in the later.</p> + +<p>7. In the vocabulary the most striking difference is that many +words appear from the metre to have contained a sound which they +afterwards lost, viz. that which is written in some Greek alphabets +by the “digamma” ϝ Thus the words <span class="grk" title="anax, asty, ergon, epos">ἄναξ, ἄστυ, ἔργον, ἔπος</span>, +and many others must have been written at one time <span class="grk" title="wanax, wasty, +wergon, wepos">ϝάναξ, ϝάστυ, ϝέργον, ϝέπος</span>. This letter, however, died out earlier in Ionic than +in most dialects, and there is no proof that the Homeric poems were +ever written with it.</p> +</div> + +<p>These are not, speaking generally, the differences that are +produced by the gradual divergence of dialects in a language. +They are rather to be classed with those which we find between +the earlier and the later stages of every language which has +had a long history. The Homeric dialect has passed into New +Ionic and Attic by gradual but ceaseless development of the +same kind as that which brought about the change from Vedic +to classical Sanskrit, or from old high German to the present +dialects of Germany.</p> + +<p>The points that have been mentioned, to which many others +might be added, make it clear that the Homeric and Attic dialects +are separated by differences which affect the whole structure +of the language, and require a considerable time for their development. +At the same time there is hardly one of these differences +which cannot be accounted for by the natural growth of the +language. It has been thought indeed that the Homeric dialect +was a mixed one, mainly Ionic, but containing Aeolic and even +Doric forms; this, however, is a mistaken view of the processes +of language. There are doubtless many Homeric forms which +were unknown to the later Ionic and Attic, and which are found +in Aeolic or other dialects. In general, however, these are <i>older</i> +forms, which must have existed in Ionic at one time, and may +very well have belonged to the Ionic of Homer’s time. So too +the digamma is called “Aeolic” by grammarians, and is found +on Aeolic and Doric inscriptions. But the letter was one of the +original alphabet, and was retained universally as a numeral. +It can only have fallen into disuse by degrees, as the sound +which it denoted ceased to be pronounced. The fact that there +are so many traces of it in Homer is a strong proof of the antiquity +of the poems, but no proof of admixture with Aeolic.</p> + +<p>There is one sense, however, in which an admixture of dialects +may be recognized. It is clear that the variety of forms in +Homer is too great for any actual spoken dialect. To take a +single instance: it is impossible that the genitives in <span class="grk" title="-oio">-οιο</span> and +in <span class="grk" title="-ou">-ου</span> should both have been in everyday use together. The +form in <span class="grk" title="-oio">-οιο</span> must have been poetical or literary, like the old +English forms that survive in the language of the Bible. The +origin of such double forms is not far to seek. The effect of +dialect on style was always recognized in Greece, and the dialect +which had once been adopted by a particular kind of poetry +was ever afterwards adhered to. The Epic of Homer was doubtless +formed originally from a spoken variety of Greek, but +became literary and conventional with time. It is Homer +himself who tells us, in a striking passage (<i>Il.</i> iv. 437) that all +the Greeks spoke the same language—that is to say, that they +understood one another, in spite of the inevitable local differences. +Experience shows how some one dialect in a country gains a +literary supremacy to which the whole nation yields. So Tuscan +became the type of Italian, and Anglian of English. But as +soon as the dialect is adopted, it begins to diverge from the +colloquial form. Just as modern poetical Italian uses many +older grammatical forms peculiar to itself, so the language of +poetry, even in Homeric times, had formed a deposit (so to +speak) of archaic grammar. There were doubtless poets before +Homer, as well as brave men before Agamemnon; and indeed +the formation of a poetical dialect such as the Homeric must +have been the work of several generations. The use of that +dialect (instead of Aeolic) by the Boeotian poet Hesiod, in a +kind of poetry which was not of the Homeric type, tends to +the conclusion that the literary ascendancy of the epic dialect +was anterior to the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>, and independent of the +influence exercised by these poems.</p> + +<p>What then was the original language of Homer? Where +and when was it spoken? [The answer given to this question +by Aug. Fick (in 1883) and still held, with modifications, by +some European scholars can no longer be maintained. Fick’s +original statement was that in or about the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span> +the poems, which had originally worn an Aeolic dress, were +transposed into Ionic. To this it is easily answered that such +an event is not only unique in history, but contrary to all that +we know of the Greek genius. At the period in question an +Aeolic literature, the lyrics of Sappho and Alcaeus, were in +existence. If it was found necessary to transpose the Aeolic +Homer, why did the Aeolic lyric verse escape? If, however, +as is the view of some of Fick’s followers, the transposition took +place several centuries earlier, before species of literature had +appropriated particular dialects, then the linguistic facts upon +which Fick relied to distinguish the “Aeolic” and “Ionic” +elements in Homer disappear. We have no means of knowing +what the Aeolic and Ionic of say the 9th century were, or if +there were such dialects at all. Certain prominent historical +differences between Aeolic and Ionic (the digamma and <span class="ov">α</span>) are +known to be unoriginal. The view that Homer underwent +at any time a passage from one dialect to another may be dismissed. +The tendency of modern dialectologists is to divide +the Greek dialects into Dorian and non-Dorian. The non-Dorian +dialects, Ionic, Attic and the various forms of Aeolic, +are regarded as relatively closely akin, and go by the common +name “Achaean.” They formed the common language of Greece +before the Doric invasion. As the scene which Homer depicts +is prae-Dorian Greece, it is reasonable to call his language +Achaean. The historical divergences of Achaean into Aeolian +and Ionic were later than the Migration, and were due to the +well-known effects of change of soil and air.</p> + +<p>To what local variety of Achaean Homeric Greek belonged +it is idle to ask. Thessaly, Boeotia and Mycenae have equal +claims. It seems clearer that when once this local variety of +Achaean had been used by poets of eminence as their vehicle +for national history, it established its right to be considered +the one poetical language of Hellas. As the dialect of the Arno +in Italy, of Castille in Spain, by the virtue of the genius +of the singers who used them, became literary “Italian” and +“Spanish,” so this variety of Achaean elevated itself to the +position of the <i>volgare illustre</i> of Greece.<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a>]</p> +<div class="author">(T. W. A.)</div> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The influence of Homer upon the subsequent course of +Greek literature is a large subject, even if we restrict it to the +centuries which immediately followed the Homeric age. It +will be enough to observe that in the earliest elegiac poets, such +as Archilochus, Tyrtaeus and Theognis, reminiscences of Homeric +language and thought meet us on every page. If the same +cannot be said of the ancient epic poems, that is because of the +extreme scantiness of the existing fragments. Much, however, +is to be gathered from the arguments of the Trojan part of the +Epic Cycle (preserved in the <i>Codex Venetus</i> of the <i>Iliad</i>, a full +discussion of which will be found in the <i>Journal of Hellenic +Studies</i>, 1884, pp. 1-40). An examination of these arguments +throws light on two chief aspects of the relation between Homer +and his “cyclic” successors.</p> + +<p>1. The later poets sought to complete the story of the Trojan +war by supplying the parts which did not fall within the <i>Iliad</i> +and <i>Odyssey</i>—the so-called <i>ante-homerica</i> and <i>post-homerica</i>. +They did so largely from hints and passing references in Homer. +Thus the successive episodes of the siege related at length in +the <i>Little Iliad</i>, and ending with the story of the Wooden Horse, +are nearly all taken from passages in the <i>Odyssey</i>. Much the +same may be said of the <i>Nosti</i>.</p> + +<p>2. With this process of expansion and development (so to speak) +of Homeric themes is combined the addition of new characters. +Such, in the <i>Little Iliad</i> (<i>e.g.</i>), are the story of the Palladium +and of the treachery of Sinon. Such, too, in the <i>Cypria</i> are the +new legendary figures—Palamedes, Iphigenia, Telephus, Laocoon. +These new elements in the narrative are evidently due not only +to the natural growth of legend in a people highly endowed +with imagination, but in a large proportion also to the new +races and countries with which the Greeks came into contact, +as well as to their own rapid advance in wealth and civilization. +It will be observed that the two poems of Arctinus are remarkable +for the proportion of new matter of the latter kind. The +<i>Aethiopis</i> shows us the allies of Troy reinforced by two peoples +that are evidently creations of oriental fancy, the Amazons and +Memnon with his Aethiopians. The <i>Iliu Persis</i>, again, was +the oldest authority for the story of Laocoon and of the consequent +escape of Aeneas—a story which connected a surviving +branch of the house of Priam with the later inhabitants of the +Troad. On the other hand the fate of Creusa (<i>sed me magna +deum genetrix his detinet oris</i>) is a link with the worship of Cybele. +The journey of Calchas to Colophon and his death there, as told +in the <i>Nosti</i>, is another instance of the kind. These facts point +to a familiarity with the Greek colonies in Asia which contrasts +strongly with the silence of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Study of Homer.</i>—<i>The Homeric Question.</i>—The critical study of +Homer began in Greece almost with the beginning of prose writing. +The first name is that of Theagenes of Rhegium, contemporary of +Cambyses (525 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who is said to have founded the “new +grammar” (the older “grammar” being the art of reading and +writing), and to have been the inventor of the allegorical interpretations +by which it was sought to reconcile the Homeric mythology +with the morality and speculative ideas of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +The same attitude in the “ancient quarrel of poetry and philosophy” +was soon afterwards taken by Anaxagoras; and after him by his +pupil Metrodorus of Lampsacus, who explained away all the gods, +and even the heroes, as elementary substances and forces (Agamemnon +as the upper air, &c.).</p> + +<p>The next writers on Homer of the “grammatical” type were +Stesimbrotus of Thasos (contemporary with Cimon) and Antimachus +of Colophon, himself an epic poet of mark. The <i>Thebaid</i> of Antimachus, +however, was not popular, and seems to have been a +great storehouse of mythological learning rather than a poem of the +Homeric school.</p> + +<p>Other names of the pre-Socratic and Socratic times are mentioned +by Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle. These were the “ancient +Homerics” (<span class="grk" title="hoi archaioi Homêrikoi">οἱ ἀρχαῖοι Ὁμηρικοί</span>), who busied themselves much with +the hidden meanings of Homer; of whom Aristotle says, with his +profound insight, that they see the small likenesses and overlook +the great ones (<i>Metaph.</i> xii.).</p> + +<p>The text of Homer must have attracted some attention when +Antimachus came to be known as the “corrector” (<span class="grk" title="diorthôtês">διοθωτής</span>) of a +distinct edition (<span class="grk" title="ekdosis">ἔκδοσις</span>), Aristotle is said himself to have made a +recension for the use of Alexander the Great. This is unlikely. His +remarks on Homer (in the <i>Poetics</i> and elsewhere) show that he had +made a careful study of the structure and leading ideas of the poems, +but do not throw much light on the text.</p> + +<p>The real work of criticism became possible only when great collections +of manuscripts began to be made by the princes of the generation +after Alexander, and when men of learning were employed to +sift and arrange these treasures. In this way the great Alexandrian +school of Homeric criticism began with Zenodotus, the first chief of +the museum, and was continued by Aristophanes and Aristarchus. +In Aristarchus ancient philology culminated, as philosophy had done +in Socrates. All earlier learning either passed into his writings, or +was lost; all subsequent research turned upon his critical and +grammatical work.</p> + +<p>The means of forming a judgment of the Alexandrine criticism +are scanty. The literary form which preserved the works of the +great historians was unfortunately wanting, or was not sufficiently +valued, in the case of the grammarians. Abridgments and newer +treatises soon drove out the writings of Aristarchus and other +founders of the science. Moreover, a recension could not be reproduced +without new errors soon creeping in. Thus we find that +Didymus, writing in the time of Cicero, does not quote the readings +of Aristarchus as we should quote a <i>textus receptus</i>. Indeed, the +object of his work seems to have been to determine what those +readings were. Enough, however, remains to show that Aristarchus +had a clear notion of the chief problems of philology (except perhaps +those concerning etymology). He saw, for example, that it was +not enough to find a meaning for the archaic words (the <span class="grk" title="glôssai">γλῶσσαι</span>, as +they were called), but that common words (such as <span class="grk" title="ponos, phobos">πόνος, φόβος</span>) +had their Homeric uses, which were to be gathered by due induction. +In the same spirit he looked upon the ideas and beliefs of Homer as +a consistent whole, which might be determined from the evidence +of the poems. He noticed especially the difference between the +stories known to Homer and those given by later poets, and made +many comparisons between Homeric and later manners, arts and +institutions. Again, he was sensible of the paramount value of +manuscript authority, and appears to have introduced no readings +from mere conjecture. The frequent mention in the Scholia of +“better” and “inferior” texts may indicate a classification made +by him or by the general opinion of critics. His use of the “obelus” +to distinguish spurious verses, which made so large a part of his fame +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span> +in antiquity, has rather told against him with modern scholars.<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +It is chiefly interesting as a proof of the confusion in which the text +must have been before the Alexandrian times; for it is impossible to +understand the readiness of Aristarchus to suspect the genuineness +of verses unless the state of the copies had pointed to the existence +of numerous interpolations. On this matter, however, we are left +to conjecture.</p> + +<p>Our knowledge of Alexandrian criticism is derived almost wholly +from a single document, the famous <i>Iliad</i> of the library of St Mark +in Venice (<i>Codex Venetus</i> 454, or <i>Ven. A</i>), first published by the +French scholar Villoison in 1788 (<i>Scholia antiquissima ad Homeri +Iliadem</i>). This manuscript, written in the 10th century, contains +(1) the best text of the <i>Iliad</i>, (2) the critical marks of Aristarchus and +(3) Scholia, consisting mainly of extracts from four grammatical +works, viz. Didymus (contemporary of Cicero) on the recension of +Aristarchus, Aristonicus (fl. 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) on the critical marks of Aristarchus, +Herodian (fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 160) on the accentuation, and Nicanor +(fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 127) on the punctuation, of the <i>Iliad</i>.</p> + +<p>These extracts present themselves in two distinct forms. One +series of scholia is written in the usual way, on a margin reserved +for the purpose. The other consists of brief scholia, written in very +small characters (but of the same period) on the narrow space left +vacant round the text. Occasionally a scholium of this kind gives +the substance of one of the longer extracts; but as a rule they are +distinct. It would seem, therefore, that after the manuscript was +finished the “marginal scholia” were discovered to be extremely +defective, and a new series of extracts was added in a form which +interfered as little as possible with the appearance of the book.<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<p>The mention of the Venetian Scholia leads us at once to the +Homeric controversy; for the immortal <i>Prolegomena</i> of F. A. Wolf<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> +appeared a few years after Villoison’s publication, and was founded +in great measure upon the fresh and abundant materials which it +furnished. Not that the “Wolfian theory” of the Homeric poems +is directly supported by anything in the Scholia; the immediate +object of the <i>Prolegomena</i> was not to put forward that theory, but +to elucidate the new and remarkable conditions under which the +text of Homer had to be settled, viz. the discovery of an <i>apparatus +criticus</i> of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The questions regarding the original +structure and early history of the poems were raised (forced upon +him, it may be said) by the critical problem; but they were really +originated by facts and ideas of a wholly different order.</p> + +<p>The 18th century, in which the spirit of classical correctness had +the most absolute dominion, did not come to an end before a powerful +reaction set in, which affected not only literature but also speculation +and politics. In this movement the leading ideas were concentrated +in the word Nature. The natural condition of society, natural law, +natural religion, the poetry of nature, gained a singular hold, first on +the English philosophers from Hume onwards, and then (through +Rousseau chiefly) on the general drift of thought and action in Europe. +In literature the effect of these ideas was to set up a false opposition +between nature and art. As political writers imagined a patriarchal +innocence prior to codes of law, so men of letters sought in popular +unwritten poetry the freshness and simplicity which were wanting +in the prevailing styles. The blind minstrel was the counterpart of +the noble savage. The supposed discovery of the poems of Ossian +fell in with this train of sentiment, and created an enthusiasm for the +study of early popular poetry. Homer was soon drawn into the circle +of inquiry. Blackwell (Professor of Greek at Aberdeen) had insisted, +in a book published in 1735, on the “naturalness” of Homer; and +Wood (<i>Essay on the Original Genius of Homer</i>, London, 1769) was the +first who maintained that Homer composed without the help of +writing, and supported his thesis by ancient authority, and also by +the parallel of Ossian. Both these books were translated into +German, and their ideas passed into the popular philosophy of the +day. Everything in short was ripe for the reception of a book that +brought together, with masterly ease and vigour, the old and the +new Homeric learning, and drew from it the historical proof that +Homer was no single poet, writing according to art and rule, but a +name which stood for a golden age of the true spontaneous poetry +of genius and nature.</p> + +<p>The part of the <i>Prolegomena</i> which deals with the original form +of the Homeric poems occupies pp. xl.-clx. (in the first edition). +Wolf shows how the question of the date of writing meets us on the +threshold of the textual criticism of Homer and accordingly enters +into a full discussion, first of the external evidence, then of the +indications furnished by the poems. Having satisfied himself that +writing was unknown to Homer, he is led to consider the real mode +of transmission, and finds this in the Rhapsodists, of whom the +Homeridae were an hereditary school. And then comes the conclusion +to which all this has been tending: “the die is cast”—the +<i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> cannot have been composed in the form in which +we know them without the aid of writing. They must therefore +have been, as Bentley had said, “a sequel of songs and rhapsodies,” +“loose songs not collected together in the form of an epic poem till +about 500 years after.” This conclusion he then supports by the +character attributed to the “Cyclic” poems (whose want of unity +showed that the structure of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> must be the work +of a later time), by one or two indications of imperfect connexion, +and by the doubts of ancient critics as to the genuineness of certain +parts. These, however, are matters of conjecture. “Historia +loquitur.” The voice of antiquity is unanimous in declaring that +“Peisistratus first committed the poems of Homer to writing, and +reduced them to the order in which we now read them.”</p> + +<p>The appeal of Wolf to the “voice of all antiquity” is by no means +borne out by the different statements on the subject. According to +Heraclides Ponticus (pupil of Plato), the poetry of Homer was first +brought to the Peloponnesus by Lycurgus, who obtained it from the +descendants of Creophylus (<i>Polit.</i> fr. 2). Plutarch in his <i>Life of +Lycurgus</i> (c. 4) repeats this story, with the addition that there was +already a faint report of the poems in Greece, and that certain detached +fragments were in the possession of a few persons. Again, +the Platonic dialogue <i>Hipparchus</i> (which though not genuine is +probably earlier than the Alexandrian times) asserts that Hipparchus, +son of Peisistratus, first brought the poems to Athens, and obliged +the rhapsodists at the Panathenaea to follow the order of the text, +“as they still do,” instead of reciting portions chosen at will. The +earliest authority for attributing any work of the kind to Peisistratus +is the well-known passage of Cicero (<i>De Orat.</i> 3. 34: “Quis doctior +eisdem temporibus illis, aut cujus eloquentia litteris instructior fuisse +traditur quam Pisistrati? qui primus Homeri libros, confusos antea, +sic disposuisse dicitur ut nunc habemus”). To the same effect +Pausanias (vii. p. 594) says that the change of the name Donoessa to +Gonoessa (in <i>Il.</i> ii. 573) was thought to have been made by +“Peisistratus or one of his companions,” when he collected the poems, +which were then in a fragmentary condition. Finally, Diogenes +Laertius (i. 57) says that Solon made a law that the poems should be +recited with the help of a prompter so that each rhapsodist should +begin where the last left off; and he argues from this that Solon did +more than Peisistratus to make Homer known. The argument is +directed against a certain Dieuchidas of Megara, who appears to have +maintained that the verses about Athens in the Catalogue (<i>Il.</i> ii. +546-556) were interpolated by Peisistratus. The passage is unfortunately +corrupt, but it is at least clear that in the time of Solon, +according to Diogenes, there were complete copies of the poems, such +as could be used to control the recitations. Hence the account of +Diogenes is quite irreconcilable with the notices on which Wolf relied.</p> + +<p>It is needless to examine the attempts which have been made to +harmonize these accounts. Such attempts usually start with the +tacit assumption that each of the persons concerned—Lycurgus, +Solon, Peisistratus, Hipparchus—must have done <i>something</i> for the +text of Homer, or for the regulation of the rhapsodists. But we +have first to consider whether any of the accounts come to us on +such evidence that we are bound to consider them as containing a +nucleus of truth.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the statement that Lycurgus obtained the poems +from descendants of Creophylus must be admitted to be purely +mythical. But if we reject it, have we any better reason for believing +the parallel assertion in the Platonic <i>Hipparchus</i>? It is true that +Hipparchus is undoubtedly a real person. On the other hand it is +evident that the Peisistratidae soon became the subject of many +fables. Thucydides notices as a popular mistake the belief that +Hipparchus was the eldest son of Peisistratus, and that consequently +he was the reigning “tyrant” when he was killed by Aristogiton. +The Platonic <i>Hipparchus</i> follows this erroneous version, and may +therefore be regarded as representing (at best) mere local tradition. +We may reasonably go further, and see in this part of the dialogue a +piece of historical romance, designed to put the “tyrant” family +in a favourable light, as patrons of literature and learning.</p> + +<p>Again, the account of the <i>Hipparchus</i> is contradicted by Diogenes +Laërtius, who says that Solon provided for the due recitation of the +Homeric poems. The only good authorities as to this point are the +orators Lycurgus and Isocrates, who mention the law prescribing the +recitation, but do not say when or by whom it was enacted. The +inference seems a fair one, that the author of the law was really +unknown.</p> + +<p>With regard to the statements which attribute some work in connexion +with Homer to Peisistratus, it was noticed by Wolf that Cicero, +Pausanias and the others who mention the matter do so <i>nearly in +the same words</i>, and, therefore, appear to have drawn from a common +source. This source was in all probability an epigram quoted in two +of the short lives of Homer, and there said to have been inscribed +on the statue of Peisistratus at Athens. In it Peisistratus is made to +say of himself that he “collected Homer, who was formerly sung +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span> +in fragments, for the golden poet was a citizen of ours, since we +Athenians founded Smyrna.” The other statements repeat these +words with various minor additions, chiefly intended to explain how +the poems had been reduced to this fragmentary condition, and how +Peisistratus set to work to restore them. Thus all the authority for +the work of Peisistratus “reduces itself to the testimony of a single +anonymous inscription” (Nutzhorn p. 40). Now, what is the value +of that testimony? It is impossible of course to believe that a +statue of Peisistratus was set up at Athens in the time of the free +republic. The epigram is almost certainly a mere literary exercise. +And what exactly does it say? Only that Homer was <i>recited in +fragments</i> by the rhapsodists, and that these partial recitations were +made into a continuous whole by Peisistratus; which does not +necessarily mean more than that Peisistratus did what other authorities +ascribe to Solon and Hipparchus, viz. regulated the recitation.</p> + +<p>Against the theory which sees in Peisistratus the author of the +first complete text of Homer we have to set the absolute silence +of Herodotus, Thucydides, the orators and the Alexandrian +grammarians. And it can hardly be thought that their silence is +accidental. Herodotus and Thucydides seem to tell us all that they +know of Peisistratus. The orators Lycurgus and Isocrates make a +great deal of the recitation of Homer at the Panathenaea, but know +nothing of the poems having been collected and arranged at Athens, +a fact which would have redounded still more to the honour of the +city. Finally, the Scholia of the <i>Ven. A</i> contain no reference or +allusion to the story of Peisistratus. As these Scholia are derived in +substance from the writings of Aristarchus, it seems impossible to +believe that the story was known to him. The circumstance that +it is referred to in the <i>Scholia Townleiana</i> and in Eustathius, gives +additional weight to this argument.</p> + +<p>The result of these considerations seems to be that nothing rests +on good evidence beyond the fact that Homer was recited by law at +the Panathenaic festival. The rest of the story is probably the +result of gradual expansion and accretion. It was inevitable that +later writers should speculate about the authorship of such a law, +and that it should be attributed with more or less confidence to +Solon or Peisistratus or Hipparchus. The choice would be determined +in great measure by political feeling. It is probably not an +accident that Dieuchidas, who attributed so much to Peisistratus, +was a Megarian. The author of the <i>Hipparchus</i> is evidently influenced +by the anti-democratical tendencies in which he only followed +Plato. In the times to which the story of Peisistratus can be traced, +the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the substitution of the “tyrant” for the +legislator was extremely natural. It was equally natural that the +importance of his work as regards the text of Homer should be +exaggerated. The splendid patronage of letters by the successors of +Alexander, and especially the great institutions which had been +founded at Alexandria and Pergamum, had made an impression on +the imagination of learned men which was reflected in the current +notions of the ancient despots. It may even be suspected that anecdotes +in praise of Peisistratus and Hipparchus were a delicate form of +flattery addressed to the reigning Ptolemy. Under these influences +the older stories of Lycurgus bringing Homer to the Peloponnesus, +and Solon providing for the recitation at Athens, were thrown into +the shade.</p> + +<p>In the later Byzantine times it was believed that Peisistratus was +aided by seventy grammarians, of whom Zenedotus and Aristarchus +were the chief. The great Alexandrian grammarians had become +figures in a new mythology. It is true that Tzetzes, one of the +writers from whom we have this story, gives a better version, according +to which Peisistratus employed four men, viz. Onomacritus, +Zopyrus of Heraclea, Orpheus of Croton, and one whose name +is corrupt (written <span class="grk" title="epikogkylos">ἐπικόγκυλος</span>). Many scholars (among them +Ritschl) accept this account as probable. Yet it rests upon no better +evidence than the other.</p> + +<p>The effect of Wolf’s <i>Prolegomena</i> was so overwhelming that, +although a few protests were made at the time, the true Homeric +controversy did not begin till after Wolf’s death (1824). His speculations +were thoroughly in harmony with the ideas and sentiment of +the time, and his historical arguments, especially his long array of +testimonies to the work of Peisistratus, were hardly challenged.</p> + +<p>The first considerable antagonist of the Wolfian school was G. W. +Nitzsch, whose writings cover the years 1828-1862, and deal with +every side of the controversy. In the earlier part of his <i>Meletemata</i> +(1830) he took up the question of written or unwritten literature, +on which Wolf’s whole argument turned, and showed that the art +of writing must be anterior to Peisistratus. In the later part of +the same series of discussions (1837), and in his chief work (<i>Die +Sagenpoesie der Griechen</i>, 1852), he investigated the structure of +the Homeric poems, and their relation to the other epics of the +Trojan cycle. These epics had meanwhile been made the subject +of a work which for exhaustive learning and delicacy of artistic +perception has few rivals in the history of philology, the <i>Epic Cycle</i> +of F. G. Welcker. The confusion which previous scholars had made +between the ancient post-Homeric poets (Arctinus, Lesches, &c.) and +the learned mythological writers (such as the “scriptor cyclicus” of +Horace) was first cleared up by Welcker. Wolf had argued that if +the cyclic writers had known the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> which we possess, +they would have imitated the unity of structure which distinguishes +these two poems. The result of Welcker’s labours was to show that +the Homeric poems had influenced both the form and the substance +of epic poetry.</p> + +<p>In this way there arose a conservative school who admitted more +or less freely the absorption of pre-existing lays in the formation of +the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>, and also the existence of considerable interpolations, +but assigned the main work of formation to prehistoric +times, and to the genius of a great poet. Whether the two epics +were by the same author remained an open question; the tendency +of this group of scholars was decidedly towards separation. Regarding +the use of writing, too, they were not unanimous. K. O. Müller, +for instance, maintained the view of Wolf on this point, while he +strenuously combated the inference which Wolf drew from it.</p> + +<p>The <i>Prolegomena</i> bore on the title-page the words “Volumen I.”; +but no second volume ever appeared, nor was any attempt made by +Wolf himself to carry his theory further. The first important steps +in that direction were taken by Gottfried Hermann, chiefly in two +dissertations, <i>De interpolationibus Homeri</i> (Leipzig, 1832), and <i>De +iteratis Homeri</i> (Leipzig, 1840), called forth by the writings of Nitzsch. +As the word “interpolation” implies, Hermann did not maintain +the hypothesis of a congeries of independent “lays.” Feeling the +difficulty of supposing that all the ancient minstrels sang of the +“wrath of Achilles” or the “return of Ulysses” (leaving out even +the capture of Troy itself), he was led to assume that two poems of no +great compass dealing with these two themes became so famous at an +early period as to throw other parts of the Trojan story into the background, +and were then enlarged by successive generations of rhapsodists. +Some parts of the <i>Iliad</i>, moreover, seemed to him to be +older than the poem on the wrath of Achilles; and thus in addition +to the “Homeric” and “post-Homeric” matter he distinguished a +“pre-Homeric” element.</p> + +<p>The conjectures of Hermann, in which the Wolfian theory found +a modified and tentative application, were presently thrown into +the shade by the more trenchant method of Lachmann, who (in two +papers read to the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841) sought to +show that the <i>Iliad</i> was made up of sixteen independent “lays,” +with various enlargements and interpolations, all finally reduced +to order by Peisistratus. The first book, for instance, consists of a +lay on the anger of Achilles (1-347), and two continuations, the +return of Chryseis (430-492) and the scenes in Olympus (348-429, +493-611). The second book forms a second lay, but several passages, +among them the speech of Ulysses (278-332), are interpolated. In +the third book the scenes in which Helen and Priam take part (including +the making of the truce) are pronounced to be interpolations; +and so on. Regarding the evidence on which these sweeping results +are founded, opinions will vary. The degree of smoothness or consistency +which is to be expected on the hypothesis of a single author +will be determined by taste rather than argument. The dissection +of the first book, for instance, turns partly on a chronological inaccuracy +which might well escape the poet as well as his hearers. +In examining such points we are apt to forget that the contradictions +by which a story is shown to be untrue are quite different from those +by which a confessedly untrue story would be shown to be the work +of different authors.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Structure of the Iliad.</i>—The subject of the Iliad, as the first +line proclaims, is the “anger of Achilles.” The manner in which +this subject is worked out will appear from the following summary +in which we distinguish (1) the plot, <i>i.e.</i> the story of the quarrel, +(2) the main course of the war, which forms a sort of underplot, +and (3) subordinate episodes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl">Quarrel of Achilles with Agamemnon and the Greek army—Agamemnon, +having been compelled to give up his +prize Chryseis, takes Briseïs from Achilles—Thereupon +Achilles appeals to his mother Thetis, who obtains from +Zeus a promise that he will give victory to the Trojans +until the Greeks pay due honour to her son—Meanwhile +Achilles takes no part in the war.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl1">Agamemnon is persuaded by a dream sent from +Zeus to take the field with all his forces.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl2">His attempt to test the temper of the army +nearly leads to their return.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl2">Catalogue of the army (probably a later addition).</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl1">Trojan muster—Trojan catalogue.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl1">Meeting of the Armies—Paris challenges Menelaus—Truce +made.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl2">“Teichoscopy,” Helen pointing out to Priam +the Greek leaders.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl1">The duel—Paris is saved by Aphrodite.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">IV.</td> <td class="tcl1">Truce broken by Pandarus.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl1">Advance of the armies—Battle.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">V.</td> <td class="tcl2">Aristeia of Diomede—his combat with Aphrodite.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">VI.</td> <td class="tcl2">—Meeting with Glaucus—Visit of Hector to the</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">(1-311)</td> <td class="tcl2">city, and offering of a peplus to Athena.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">(312-529)</td> <td class="tcl2">Visit of Hector to Paris—to Andromache.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">VII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Return of Hector and Paris to the field.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl2">Duel of Ajax and Hector.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl1">Truce for burial of dead.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl1">The Greeks build a wall round their camp.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">VIII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Battle—The Trojans encamp on the field.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">IX.</td> <td class="tcl">Agamemnon sends an embassy by night, offering Achilles + restitution and full amends—Achilles refuses.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">X.</td> <td class="tcl2">Doloneia—Night expedition of Odysseus and + Diomede (in all probability added later).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XI.</td> <td class="tcl1">Aristeia of Agamemnon—he is wounded—Wounding + of Diomede and Odysseus.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">Achilles sends Antilochus to inquire about Machaon.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Storming of the wall—the Trojans reach the ships.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XIII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Zeus ceases to watch the field—Poseidon secretly + comes to the aid of the Greeks.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XIV.</td> <td class="tcl1">Sleep of Zeus, by the contrivance of Hera.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XV.</td> <td class="tcl1">Zeus awakened—Restores the advantage to the Trojans—Ajax + alone defends the ships.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XVI.</td> <td class="tcl">Achilles is persuaded to allow Patroclus to take the field.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl1">Patroclus drives back the Trojans—kills Sarpedon—is + himself killed by Hector.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XVII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Battle for the body of Patroclus—Aristeia of Menelaus.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XVIII.</td> <td class="tcl">News of the death of Patroclus is brought to Achilles—Thetis + comes with the Nereids—promises to obtain new + armour for him from Hephaestus.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl1">The shield of Achilles described.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XIX.</td> <td class="tcl">Reconciliation of Achilles—His grief and desire to avenge + Patroclus.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XX.</td> <td class="tcl1">The gods come down to the plain—Combat of Achilles + with Aeneas and Hector, who escape.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XXI.</td> <td class="tcl1">The Scamander is choked with slain—rises against + Achilles, who is saved by Hephaestus.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XXII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Hector alone stands against Achilles—his flight + round the walls—he is slain.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XXIII.</td> <td class="tcl2">Burial of Patroclus—Funeral games.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XXIV.</td> <td class="tcl2">Priam ransoms the body of Hector—his burial.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Such is the “action” (<span class="grk" title="praxis">πρᾶξις</span>) which in Aristotle’s opinion +showed the superiority of Homer to all later epic poets. But the +proof that his scheme was the work of a great poet does not +depend merely upon the artistic unity which excited the wonder +of Aristotle. A number of separate “lays” might conceivably +be arranged and connected by a man of poetical taste in a +manner that would satisfy all requirements. In such a case, +however, the connecting passages would be slight and weak. +Now, in the <i>Iliad</i> these passages are the finest and most characteristic. +The element of connexion and unity is the story of the +“wrath of Achilles”; and we have only to look at the books +which give the story of the wrath to see how essential they are. +Even if the ninth book is rejected (as Grote proposed), there +remain the speeches of the first, sixteenth and nineteenth books. +These speeches form the cardinal points in the action of the <i>Iliad</i>—the +framework into which everything else is set; and they +have also the best title to the name of Homer.</p> + +<p>The further question, however, remains,—What shorter +narrative piece fulfilling the conditions of an independent poem +has Lachmann succeeded in disengaging from the existing +<i>Iliad</i>? It must be admitted that when tried by this test his +“lays” generally fail. The “quarrel of the chiefs,” the “muster +of the army,” the “duel of Paris and Menelaus,” &c., are excellent +beginnings, but have no satisfying conclusion. And the reason +is not far to seek. The <i>Iliad</i> is not a history, nor is it a series +of incidents in the history, of the siege. It turns entirely upon +a single incident, occupying a few days only. The several +episodes of the poem are not so many distinct stories, each with +an interest of its own. They are only parts of a single main +event. Consequently the type of epic poem which would be +produced by an aggregation of shorter lays is not the type +which we have in the <i>Iliad</i>. Rather the <i>Iliad</i> is itself a single +lay which has grown with the growth of poetical art to the +dimensions of an epic.</p> + +<p>But the original nucleus and parts of the incidents may be +the work of a single great poet, and yet other episodes may be +of different authorship, wrought into the structure of the poem +in later times. Various theories have been based on this supposition. +Grote in particular held that the original poem, which +he called the Achilleïs, did not include books ii.-vii., ix., x., xxiii., +xxiv. Such a view may be defended somewhat as follows.</p> + +<p>Of the books which relate the events during the absence of +Achilles from the Greek ranks (ii.-xv.), the last five are directly +related to the main action. They describe the successive steps +by which the Greeks are driven back, first from the plain to +the rampart, then to their ships. Moreover, three of the chief +heroes, Agamemnon, Diomede and Ulysses, are wounded, and +this circumstance, as Lachmann himself admitted, is steadily +kept in mind throughout. It is otherwise with the earlier books +(especially ii.-vii.). The chief incidents in that part of the poem—the +panic rush to the ships, the duels of Paris and Menelaus, and +of Hector and Ajax, the Aristeia of Diomede—stand in no +relation to the mainspring of the poem, the promise made by +Zeus to Thetis. It is true that in the thirteenth and fourteenth +books the purpose of Zeus is thwarted for a time by other gods; +but in books ii.-vii. it is not so much thwarted as ignored. +Further, the events follow without sufficient connexion. The +truce of the third book is broken by Pandarus, and Agamemnon +passes along the Greek ranks with words of encouragement, but +without a hint of the treachery just committed. The Aristeia +of Diomede ends in the middle of the sixth book; he is uppermost +in all thoughts down to ver. 311, but from this point, in the +meetings of Hector with Helen and Andromache, and again in +the seventh book when Hector challenges the Greek chiefs, +his prowess is forgotten. Once more, some of the incidents +seem to belong properly to the beginning of the war. The joy +of Menelaus on seeing Paris, Priam’s ignorance of the Greek +leaders, the speeches of Agamemnon in his review of the ranks +(in book iv.), the building of the wall—all these are in place after +the Greek landing, but hardly in the ninth year of the siege.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, it may be said, the second book opens +with a direct reference to the events of the first, and the mention +of Achilles in the speech of Thersites (ii. 239 sqq.) is sufficient to +keep the main course of events in view. The Catalogue is connected +with its place in the poem by the lines about Achilles +(686-694). When Diomede is at the height of his Aristeia Helenus +says (<i>Il.</i> vi. 99), “We did not so fear even Achilles.” And when +in the third book Priam asks Helen about the Greek captains, or +when in the seventh book nine champions come forward to +contend with Hector, the want of the greatest hero of all is +sufficiently felt. If these passages do not belong to the period +of the wrath of Achilles, how are we to account for his conspicuous +absence?</p> + +<p>Further, the want of smoothness and unity which is visible in +this part of the <i>Iliad</i> may be due to other causes than difference +of date or authorship. A national poet such as the author of +the <i>Iliad</i> cannot always choose or arrange his matter at his own +will. He is bound by the traditions of his art, and by the feelings +and expectations of his hearers. The poet who brought the +exploits of Diomede into the <i>Iliad</i> doubtless had his reasons for +doing so, which were equally strong whether he was the poet of +the Achilleïs or a later Homerid or rhapsodist. And if some of the +incidents (those of the third book in particular) seem to belong +to the beginning of the war, it must be considered that poetically, +and to the hearers of the <i>Iliad</i>, the war opens in the third book, +and the incidents are of the kind that is required in such a place. +The truce makes a pause which heightens the interest of the +impending battle; the duel and the scene on the walls are +effective in bringing some of the leading characters on the stage, +and in making us acquainted with the previous history. The +story of Paris and Helen especially, and the general position of +affairs in Troy, is put before us in a singularly vivid manner. +The book in short forms so good a <i>prologue</i> to the action of the +war that we can hardly be wrong in attributing it to the genius +which devised the rest of the <i>Iliad</i>.</p> + +<p>The case against the remaining books is of a different kind. +The ninth and tenth seem like two independent pictures of the +night before the great battle of xi.-xvii. Either is enough to fill +the space in Homer’s canvas; and the suspicion arises (as when +two Platonic dialogues bear the same name) that if either had +been genuine, the other would not have come into existence. +If one of the two is to be rejected it must be the tenth, which is +certainly the less Homeric. It relates a picturesque adventure, +conceived in a vein more approaching that of comedy than any +other part of the <i>Iliad</i>. Moreover, the language in several places +exhibits traces of post-Homeric date. The ninth book, on the +other hand, was rejected by Grote, chiefly on the grounds that +the embassy to Achilles ought to have put an end to the quarrel, +and that it is ignored in later passages, especially in the speeches +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span> +of Achilles (xi. 609; xvi. 72, 85). His argument, however, +rests on an assumption which we are apt to bring with us to the +reading of the <i>Iliad</i>, but which is not borne out by its language, +viz. that there was some definite atonement demanded by +Achilles, or due to him according to the custom and sentiment +of the time. But in the <i>Iliad</i> the whole stress is laid on the anger +of Achilles, which can only be satisfied by the defeat and extreme +peril of the Greeks.<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a> He is influenced by his own feeling, and +by nothing else. Accordingly, in the ninth book, when they +are still protected by the rampart (see 348 sqq.), he rejects gifts and +fair words alike; in the sixteenth he is moved by the tears and +entreaties of Patroclus, and the sight of the Greek ships on fire; +in the nineteenth his anger is quenched in grief. But he makes +no conditions, either in rejecting the offers of the embassy or in +returning to the Greek army. And this conduct is the result, +not only of his fierce and inexorable character, but also (as the +silence of Homer shows) of the want of any general rules or +principles, any code of morality or of honour, which would have +required him to act in a different way.</p> + +<p>Finally, Grote objected to the two last books that they prolong +the action of the <i>Iliad</i> beyond the exigencies of a coherent +scheme. Of the two, the twenty-third could more easily be +spared. In language, and perhaps in style and manner, it is +akin to the tenth; while the twenty-fourth is in the pathetic +vein of the ninth, and like it serves to bring out new aspects +of the character of Achilles.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dr E. Kammer has given some strong reasons for doubting the +genuineness of the passage in book xx. describing the duel between +Achilles and Aeneas (79-352). The incident is certainly very much +out of keeping with the vehement action of that part of the poem, +and especially with the moment when Achilles returns to the field, +eager to meet Hector and avenge the death of his friend. The +interpolation (if it is one) is probably due to local interests. It +contains the well-known prophecy that the descendants of Aeneas are +to rule over the Trojans,—pointing to the existence of an Aenead +dynasty in the Troad. So, too, the legend of Anchises in the Hymn +to Aphrodite is evidently local; and Aeneas becomes more prominent +in the later epics, especially the <i>Cypria</i> and the <span class="grk" title="Iliou persis">Ἰλίου πέρσις</span> of +Arctinus.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Structure of the Odyssey.</i>—In the <i>Odyssey</i>, as in the <i>Iliad</i>, the +events related fall within a short space of time. The difficulty +of adapting the long wanderings of Ulysses to a plan of this +type is got over by the device—first met with in the <i>Odyssey</i>—of +making the hero tell the story of his own adventures. In +this way the action is made to begin almost immediately before +the actual return of Ulysses. Up to the time when he reaches +Ithaca it moves on three distinct scenes: we follow the fortunes +of Ulysses, of Telemachus on his voyage in the Peloponnesus, +and of Penelope with the suitors. The art with which these +threads are woven together was recognized by Wolf himself, +who admitted the difficulty of applying his theory to the +“admirabilis summa et compages” of the poem. Of the +comparatively few attempts which have been made to dissect +the <i>Odyssey</i>, the most moderate and attractive is that of Professor +A. Kirchhoff of Berlin.<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>According to Kirchhoff, the <i>Odyssey</i> as we have it is the result of +additions made to an original nucleus. There was first of all a +“Return of Odysseus,” relating chiefly the adventures with the +Cyclops, Calypso and the Phaeacians; then a continuation, the +scene of which lay in Ithaca, embracing the bulk of books xiii.-xxiii. +The poem so formed was enlarged at some time between Ol. 30 and +Ol. 50 by the stories of books x.-xii. (Circe, the Sirens, Scylla, &c.), +and the adventures of Telemachus. Lastly, a few passages were +interpolated in the time of Peisistratus.</p> + +<p>The proof that the scenes in Ithaca are by a later hand than the +ancient “Return” is found chiefly in a contradiction discussed by +Kirchhoff in his sixth dissertation (pp. 135 sqq., ed. 1869). Sometimes +Ulysses is represented as aged and worn by toil, so that Penelope, +for instance, cannot recognize him; sometimes he is really in the +prime of heroic vigour, and his appearing as a beggarly old man is +the work of Athena’s wand. The first of these representations is +evidently natural, considering the twenty eventful years that have +passed; but the second, Kirchhoff holds, is the Ulysses of Calypso’s +island and the Phaeacian court. He concludes that the aged Ulysses +belongs to the “continuation” (the change wrought by Athena’s +wand being a device to reconcile the two views), and hence that the +continuation is the work of a different author.</p> + +<p>Ingenious as this is, there is really very slender ground for +Kirchhoff’s thesis. The passages in the second half of the <i>Odyssey</i> +which describe the appearance of Ulysses do not give <i>two</i> well-marked +representations of him. Sometimes Athena disguises him +as a decrepit beggar, sometimes she bestows on him supernatural +beauty and vigour. It must be admitted that we are not told +exactly how long in each case the effect of these changes lasted. +But neither answers to his natural appearance, or to the appearance +which he is imagined to present in the earlier books. In the palace +of Alcinous, for instance, it is noticed that he is vigorous but +“marred by many ills” (<i>Od.</i> viii. 137); and this agrees with the +scenes of recognition in the latter part of the poem.</p> + +<p>The arguments by which Kirchhoff seeks to prove that the stories +of books x.-xii. are much later than those of book ix. are not more +convincing. He points out some resemblances between these three +books and the Argonautic fables, among them the circumstance that +a fountain Artacia occurs in both. In the Argonautic story this +fountain is placed in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus, and answers to +an actual fountain known in historical times. Kirchhoff argues that +the Artacia of the Argonautic story must have been taken from the +real Artacia, and the Artacia of the <i>Odyssey</i> again from that of the +Argonautic story. And as Cyzicus was settled from Miletus, he +infers that both sets of stories must be comparatively late. It is +more probable, surely, that the name Artacia occurred independently +(as most geographical names are found to occur) in more than +one place. Or it may be that the Artacia of the <i>Odyssey</i> suggested +the name to the colonists of Cyzicus, whence it was adopted into +the later versions of the Argonautic story. The further argument +that the <i>Nostoi</i> recognized a son of Calypso by Ulysses but no son +of Circe, consequently that Circe was unknown to the poet of the +<i>Nostoi</i>, rests (in the first place) upon a conjectural alteration of a +passage in Eustathius, and, moreover, has all the weakness of an +argument from silence, in addition to the uncertainty arising from +our very slight knowledge of the author whose silence is in question. +Finally, when Kirchhoff finds traces in books x.-xii. of their having +been originally told by the poet himself instead of being put in the +mouth of his hero, we feel that inaccuracies of this kind are apt to +creep in wherever a fictitious story is thrown into the form of an +autobiography.</p> + +<p>Inquiries conducted with the refinement which characterizes +those of Kirchhoff are always instructive, and his book contains very +many just observations; but it is impossible to admit his main +conclusions. And perhaps we may infer that no similar attempt can +be more successful. It does not indeed follow that the <i>Odyssey</i> is +free from interpolations. The <span class="grk" title="Nekuia">Νεκυία</span> of book xi. may be later (as +Lauer maintained), or it may contain additions, which could easily +be inserted in a description of the kind. And the last book is probably +by a different hand, as the ancient critics believed. But the +unity of the <i>Odyssey</i> as a whole is apparently beyond the reach of +the existing weapons of criticism.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Chorizontes.</i>—When we are satisfied that each of the great +Homeric poems is either wholly or mainly the work of a single +poet, a question remains which has been matter of controversy +in ancient as well as modern times—Are they the work of the +same poet? Two ancient grammarians, Xeno and Hellanicus, +were known as the “separators” (<span class="grk" title="oi chôrizontes">οἱ χωρίζοντες</span>); and Aristarchus +appears to have written a treatise against their heresy. +In modern times some of the greatest names have been on the +side of the “Chorizontes.”</p> + +<p>If, as has been maintained in the preceding pages, the external +evidence regarding Homer is of no value, the problem now +before us may be stated in this form: Given two poems of +which nothing is known except that they are of the same school +of poetry, what is the probability that they are by the same +author? We may find a fair parallel by imagining two plays +drawn at hazard from the works of the great tragic writers. +It is evident that the burden of proof would rest with those +who held them to be by the same hand.</p> + +<p>The arguments used in this discussion have been of very various +calibre. The ancient Chorizontes observed that the messenger +of Zeus is Iris in the <i>Iliad</i>, but Hermes in the <i>Odyssey</i>; that the +wife of Hephaestus is one of the Charites in the <i>Iliad</i>, but +Aphrodite in the <i>Odyssey</i>; that the heroes in the <i>Iliad</i> do not +eat fish; that Crete has a hundred cities according to the +<i>Iliad</i>, and only ninety according to the <i>Odyssey</i>; that <span class="grk" title="proparoithe">προπάροιθε</span> +is used in the <i>Iliad</i> of place, in the <i>Odyssey</i> of time, &c. Modern +scholars have added to the list, especially by making careful +comparisons of the two poems in respect of vocabulary and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span> +grammatical forms. Nothing is more difficult than to assign +the degree of weight to be given to such facts. The difference +of subject between the two poems is so great that it leads to +the most striking differences of detail, especially in the vocabulary. +For instance, the word <span class="grk" title="phobos">φόβος</span>, which in Homer means +“flight in battle” (not “fear”), occurs thirty-nine times in +the <i>Iliad</i>, and only once in the <i>Odyssey</i>; but then there are +no battles in the <i>Odyssey</i>. Again, the verb <span class="grk" title="rhêgnymi">ῥήγνυμι</span>, “to +break,” occurs forty-eight times in the <i>Iliad</i>, and once in +the <i>Odyssey</i>,—the reason being that it is constantly used of +breaking the armour of an enemy, the gate of a city, the hostile +ranks, &c. Once more, the word <span class="grk" title="skotos">σκότος</span>, “darkness,” occurs +fourteen times in the <i>Iliad</i>, once in the <i>Odyssey</i>. But in every +one of the fourteen places it is used of “darkness” coming +over the sight of a fallen warrior. On the other side, if words +such as <span class="grk" title="asaminthos">ἀσάμινθος</span>, “a bath,” <span class="grk" title="chernips">χέρνιψ</span>, “a basin for the hands,” +<span class="grk" title="leschê">λέσχη</span>, “a place to meet and talk,” &c., are peculiar to the +<i>Odyssey</i>, we have only to remember that the scene in the <i>Iliad</i> +is hardly ever laid within any walls except those of a tent. +These examples will show that mere statistics of the occurrence +of words prove little, and that we must begin by looking to the +subject and character of each poem. When we do so, we at +once find ourselves in the presence of differences of the broadest +kind. The <i>Iliad</i> is much more historical in tone and character. +The scene of the poem is a real place, and the poet sings (as +Ulysses says of Demodocus) as though he had been present +himself, or had heard from one who had been. The supernatural +element is confined to an interference of the gods, which to the +common eye hardly disturbs the natural current of affairs. +The <i>Odyssey</i>, on the contrary, is full of the magical and romantic—“speciosa +miracula,” as Horace called them. Moreover, these +marvels—which in their original form are doubtless as old as +anything in the <i>Iliad</i>, since in fact they are part of the vast +stock of popular tales (<i>Märchen</i>) diffused all over the world—are +mixed up in the <i>Odyssey</i> with the heroes of the Trojan war. +This has been especially noticed in the case of the story of +Polyphemus, one that is found in many countries, and in versions +which cannot all be derived from Homer. W. Grimm has pointed +out that the behaviour of Ulysses in that story is senseless and +foolhardy, utterly beneath the wise and much-enduring Ulysses +of the Trojan war. The reason is simple; he is not the Ulysses +of the Trojan war, but a being of the same world as Polyphemus +himself—the world of giants and ogres. The question then is—How long must the name of Ulysses have been familiar in the +legend (<i>Sage</i>) of Troy before it made its way into the tales of +giants and ogres (<i>Märchen</i>), where the poet of the <i>Odyssey</i> +found it?</p> + +<p>Again, the Trojan legend has itself received some extension +between the time of the <i>Iliad</i> and that of the <i>Odyssey</i>. The +story of the Wooden Horse is not only unknown to the <i>Iliad</i>, +but is of a kind which we can hardly imagine the poet of the +<i>Iliad</i> admitting. The part taken by Neoptolemus seems also +to be a later addition. The tendency to amplify and complete +the story shows itself still more in the Cyclic poets. Between +the <i>Iliad</i> and these poets the <i>Odyssey</i> often occupies an intermediate +position.</p> + +<p>This great and significant change in the treatment of the heroic +legends is accompanied by numerous minor differences (such +as the ancients remarked) in belief, in manners and institutions, +and in language. These differences bear out the inference that +the <i>Odyssey</i> is of a later age. The progress of reflection is especially +shown in the higher ideas entertained regarding the gods. The +turbulent Olympian court has almost disappeared. Zeus has +acquired the character of a supreme moral ruler; and although +Athena and Poseidon are adverse influences in the poem, the +notion of a direct contest between them is scrupulously avoided. +The advance of morality is shown in the more frequent use of +terms such as “just” (<span class="grk" title="dikaios">δίκαιος</span>), “piety” (<span class="grk" title="hoshiê">ὁσίη</span>), “insolence” +(<span class="grk" title="hubris">ὕβρις</span>), “god-fearing” (<span class="grk" title="theoudês">θεουδής</span>), “pure” (<span class="grk" title="hagnos">ἁγνός</span>); and also +in the plot of the story, which is distinctly a contest between +right and wrong. In matters bearing upon the arts of life it +is unsafe to press the silence of the <i>Iliad</i>. We may note, however, +the difference between the house of Priam, surrounded by distinct +dwellings for his many sons and daughters, and the houses of +Ulysses and Alcinous, with many chambers under a single roof. +The singer, too, who is so prominent a figure in the <i>Odyssey</i> +can hardly be thought to be absent from the <i>Iliad</i> merely +because the scene is laid in a camp.</p> + +<p><i>Style of Homer.</i>—A few words remain to be said on the style +and general character of the Homeric poems, and on the comparisons +which may be made between Homer and analogous +poetry in other countries.</p> + +<p>The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer have been pointed +out once for all by Matthew Arnold. “The translator of Homer,” +he says, “should above all be penetrated by a sense of four +qualities of his author—that he is eminently rapid; that he +is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought +and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in +his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance +of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, +that he is eminently noble” (<i>On Translating Homer</i>, p. 9).</p> + +<p>The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his +use of the hexameter verse. It is characteristic of early literature +that the evolution of the thought—that is, the grammatical +form of the sentence—is guided by the structure of the verse; +and the correspondence which consequently obtains between the +rhythm and the grammar—the thought being given out in lengths, +as it were, and these again divided by tolerably uniform pauses—produces +a swift flowing movement, such as is rarely found +when the periods have been constructed without direct reference +to the metre. That Homer possesses this rapidity without +falling into the corresponding faults—that is, without becoming +either “jerky” or monotonous—is perhaps the best proof of +his unequalled poetical skill. The plainness and directness, +both of thought and of expression, which characterize Homer +were doubtless qualities of his age; but the author of the <i>Iliad</i> +(like Voltaire, to whom Arnold happily compares him) must +have possessed the national gift in a surpassing degree. The +<i>Odyssey</i> is in this respect perceptibly below the level of the <i>Iliad</i>.</p> + +<p>Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression and +plainness of thought, these are not the distinguishing qualities +of the great epic poets—Virgil, Dante, Milton. On the contrary, +they belong rather to the humbler epico-lyrical school for which +Homer has been so often claimed. The proof that Homer does +not belong to that school—that his poetry is not in any true +sense “ballad-poetry”—is furnished by the higher artistic +structure of his poems (already discussed), and as regards style +by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold—the +quality of <i>nobleness</i>. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained +through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates +Homer from all forms of “ballad-poetry” and “popular epic.”<a name="fa14a" id="fa14a" href="#ft14a"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p> + +<p>But while we are on our guard against a once common error, +we may recognize the historical connexion between the <i>Iliad</i> +and <i>Odyssey</i> and the “ballad” literature which undoubtedly +preceded them in Greece. It may even be admitted that the +swift-flowing movement, and the simplicity of thought and +style, which we admire in the <i>Iliad</i> are an inheritance from the +earlier “lays”—the <span class="grk" title="klea andrôn">κλέα ἀνδρῶν</span> such as Achilles and Patroclus +sang to the lyre in their tent. Even the metre—the hexameter +verse—may be assigned to them. But between these lays and +Homer we must place the cultivation of epic poetry as an art.<a name="fa15a" id="fa15a" href="#ft15a"><span class="sp">15</span></a> +The pre-Homeric lays doubtless furnished the elements of such +a poetry—the alphabet, so to speak, of the art; but they must +have been refined and transmuted before they formed poems +like the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>.</p> + +<p>A single example will illustrate this. In the scene on the +walls of Troy, in the third book of the <i>Iliad</i>, after Helen has +pointed out Agamemnon, Ulysses and Ajax in answer to Priam’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span> +questions, she goes on unasked to name Idomeneus. Lachmann, +whose mind is full of the ballad manner, fastens upon this as an +irregularity. “The unskilful transition from Ajax to Idomeneus, +about whom no question had been asked,” he <span class="correction" title="amended from cannnot">cannot</span> attribute to +the original poet of the lay (<i>Betrachtungen</i>, p. 15, ed. 1865). +But, as was pointed out by A. Römer<a name="fa16a" id="fa16a" href="#ft16a"><span class="sp">16</span></a>, this is exactly the variation +which a <i>poet</i> would introduce to relieve the primitive +<i>ballad-like</i> sameness of question and answer; and moreover it +forms the transition to the lines about the Dioscuri by which the +scene is so touchingly brought to a close.</p> + +<p><i>Analogies.</i>—The development of epic poetry (properly so +called) out of the oral songs or ballads of a country is a process +which in the nature of things can seldom be observed. It seems +clear, however, that the hypothesis of epics such as the <i>Iliad</i> +and <i>Odyssey</i> having been formed by putting together or even +by working up shorter poems finds no support from analogy.</p> + +<p>Narrative poetry of great interest is found in several countries +(such as Spain and Servia), in which it has never attained to +the epic stage. In Scandinavia, in Lithuania, in Russia, according +to Gaston Paris (<i>Histoire poétique de Charlemagne</i>, p. 9), the +national songs have been arrested in a form which may be called +intermediate between contemporary poetry and the epic. The +true epics are those of India, Persia, Greece, Germany, Britain and +France. Most of these, however, fail to afford any useful points of +comparison, either from their utter unlikeness to Homer, or +because there is no evidence of the existence of anterior popular +songs. The most instructive, perhaps the only instructive, +parallel is to be found in the French “chansons de geste,” of +which the <i>Chanson de Roland</i> is the earliest and best example. +These poems are traced back with much probability to the 10th +century. They are epic in character, and were recited by professional +<i>jongleurs</i> (who may be compared to the <span class="grk" title="aoidoi">ἀοιδοί</span> of +Homer). But as early as the 7th century we come upon traces +of short lays (the so-called cantilènes) which were in the mouths +of all and were sung in chorus. It has been held that the +chansons de geste were formed by joining together “bunches” +of these earlier cantilènes, and this was the view taken by +Léon Gautier in the first edition of <i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (1865). +In the second edition, of which the first volume appeared in +1878, he abandoned this theory. He believes that the epics +were generally composed under the influence of earlier songs. +“Our first epic poets,” he says, “did not actually and materially +patch together pre-existent cantilènes. They were only inspired +by these popular songs; they only borrowed from them the +traditional and legendary elements. In short, they took nothing +from them but the ideas, the spirit, the life; they ‘found’ +(ils ont trouvé) all the rest” (p. 80). But he admits that “some +of the old poems may have been borrowed from tradition, without +any intermediary” (<i>ibid.</i>); and when it is considered that the +traces of the “cantilènes” are slight, and that the degree in +which they inspired the later poetry must be a matter of impression +rather than of proof, it does not surprise us to find +other scholars (notably Paul Meyer) attaching less importance +to them, or even doubting their existence.<a name="fa17a" id="fa17a" href="#ft17a"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> + +<p>When Léon Gautier shows how history passes into legend, +and legend again into romance, we are reminded of the difference +noticed above between the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>, and between +Homer and the early Cyclic poems. And the peculiar degradation +of Homeric characters which appears in some poets (especially +Euripides) finds a parallel in the later chansons de geste.<a name="fa18a" id="fa18a" href="#ft18a"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p> + +<p>The comparison of Homer with the great literary epics calls +for more discursive treatment than would be in place here. +Some external differences have been already indicated. Like +the French epics, Homeric poetry is indigenous, and is distinguished +by this fact, and by the ease of movement and the +simplicity which result from it, from poets such as Virgil, Dante +and Milton. It is also distinguished from them by the comparative +absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil’s +poetry a sense of the greatness of Rome and Italy is the leading +motive of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the “chosen +delicacy” of his language. Dante and Milton are still more +faithful exponents of the religion and politics of their time. +Even the French epics are pervaded by the sentiment of fear and +hatred of the Saracens. But in Homer the interest is purely +dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or religion; +the war turns on no political event; the capture of Troy lies +outside the range of the <i>Iliad</i>. Even the heroes are not the chief +national heroes of Greece. The interest lies wholly (so far as we +can see) in the picture of human action and feeling.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—A complete bibliography of Homer would fill +volumes. The following list is intended to include those books +only which are of first-rate importance.</p> + +<p>The <i>editio princeps</i> of Homer, published at Florence in 1488, by +Demetrius Chalcondylas, and the Aldine editions of 1504 and 1517, +have still some value beyond that of curiosity. The chief modern +critical editions are those of Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804-1807), +Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836), Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, +1858), La Roche (<i>Odyssey</i>, 1867-1868; <i>Iliad</i>, 1873-1876, both at +Leipzig); Ludwich (<i>Odyssey</i>, Leipzig, 1889-1891; <i>Iliad</i>, 2 vols., +1901 and 1907): W. Leaf (<i>Iliad</i>, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902); +Merry and Riddell (<i>Odyssey</i> i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886); +Monro (<i>Odyssey</i> xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901); Monro +and Allen (<i>Iliad</i>), and Allen (<i>Odyssey</i>, 1908, Oxford). The commentaries +of Barnes, Clarke and Ernesti are practically superseded; +but Heyne’s <i>Iliad</i> (Leipzig, 1802) and Nitzsch’s commentary +on the <i>Odyssey</i> (books i.-xii., Hanover, 1826-1840) are still useful. +Nägelbach’s <i>Anmerkungen zur Ilias</i> (A, B 1-483, Γ) is of great value, +especially the third edition (by Autenrieth, Nuremberg, 1864). The +unique <i>Scholia Veneta</i> on the <i>Iliad</i> were first made known by Villoison +(<i>Homeri Ilias ad veteris codicis Veneti fidem recensita, Scholia in +eam antiquissima ex eodem codice aliisque nunc primum edidit, cum +Asteriscis, Obeliscis, aliisque signis criticis, Joh. Baptista Caspar +d’Ansse de Villoison</i>, Venice, 1788); reprinted, with many additions +from other MSS., by Bekker (<i>Scholia in Homeri Iliadem</i>, Berlin, +1825-1826). A new edition has been published by the Oxford Press +(<i>Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem</i>, ed. Gul. Dindorfius); six volumes +have appeared (1875-1888), the last two edited by Professor E. +Maass. The vast commentary of Eustathius was first printed at +Rome in 1542; the last edition is that of Stallbaum (Leipzig, 1827). +The Scholia on the <i>Odyssey</i> were published by Buttmann (Berlin, +1821), and with greater approach to completeness by W. Dindorf +(Oxford, 1855). Although Wolf at once perceived the value of the +Venetian Scholia on the <i>Iliad</i>, the first scholar who thoroughly explored +them was C. Lehrs (<i>De Aristarchi studiis Homericis</i>, Königsberg, +1833; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1865). Of the studies in the same +field which have appeared since, the most important are: Aug. +Nauck, <i>Aristophanis Byzantii fragmenta</i> (Halle, 1848); L. Friedländer, +<i>Aristonici</i> <span class="grk" title="peri sêmeiôn ’Iliados">περὶ σημείων Ἰλιαδος </span> <i>reliquiae</i> (Göttingen, 1853); +M. Schmidt, <i>Didymi Chalcenteri fragmenta</i> (Leipzig, 1854); L. +Friedländer, <i>Nicanoris</i> <span class="grk" title="peri Iliakês stigmês">περὶ Ἰλιακῆς στιγμῆς</span> <i>reliquiae</i> (Berlin, 1857); +Aug. Lentz, <i>Herodiani Technici reliquiae</i> (Leipzig, 1867); J. La +Roche, <i>Die homerische Textkritik im Alterthum</i> (Leipzig, 1866) and +<i>Homerische Untersuchungen</i> (Leipzig, 1869); Ad. Römer, <i>Die Werke +der Aristarcheer im Cod. Venet. A.</i> (Munich, 1875); A. Ludwich, +<i>Aristarch’s Homerische Textkritik</i> (2 vols. Leipzig, 1884-1885); and +<i>Die Homervulgata als vor-Alexandrinisch erwiesen</i> (Leipzig, 1898).</p> + +<p>The literature of the “Homeric Question” begins practically with +Wolf’s <i>Prolegomena</i> (Halle, 1795). Of the earlier books Wood’s +<i>Essay on the Original Genius and Writings of Homer</i> is the most +interesting. Wolf’s views were skilfully popularized in W. Müller’s +<i>Homerische Vorschule</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1836). G. Hermann’s +dissertations <i>De interpolationibus Homeri</i> (1832) and <i>De iteratis apuà +Homerum</i> (1840) are reprinted in his <i>Opuscula</i>. Lachmann’s two +papers (<i>Betrachtungen über Homer’s Ilias</i>) were edited together by +M. Haupt (2nd ed., Berlin, 1865). Besides the somewhat voluminous +writings of Nitzsch, and the discussions contained in the histories +of Greek literature by K. O. Müller, Bernhardy, Ulrici and Th. +Bergk, and in Grote’s <i>History of Greece</i>, see Welcker, <i>Der epische</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span> +<i>Cyclus oder die homerischen Dichter</i> (Bonn, 1835-1849); on Proclus +and the Cycle reference may also be made to Wilamowitz-Möllendorf +p. 328 seq.; E. Bethe, <i>Rhein. Mus.</i> (1891), xxvi. p. 593 seq.; O. +Immisch, <i>Festschrift Th. Gomperz dargebracht</i> (1902), p. 237 sq.; +Lauer, <i>Geschichte der homerischen Poesie</i> (Berlin, 1851); Sengebusch, +two dissertations prefixed to the two volumes of W. Dindorf’s <i>Homer</i> +in the Teubner series (1855-1856); Friedländer, <i>Die homerische +Kritik von Wolf bis Grote</i> (Berlin, 1853); Nutzhorn, <i>Die Entstehungsweise +der homerischen Gedichte, mit Vorwort von J. N. Madvig</i> +(Leipzig, 1869); E. Kammer, <i>Zur homerischen Frage</i> (Königsberg, +1870); and <i>Die Einheit der Odyssee</i> (Leipzig, 1873); Ä. Kirchhoff, +<i>Die Composition der Odyssee</i> (Berlin, 1869); Volkmann, <i>Geschichte +und Kritik der Wolf’schen Prolegomena</i> (Leipzig, 1874); K. Sittl, <i>Die +Wiederholungen in der Odyssee</i> (München, 1882); U. v. Wilamowitz-Möllendorf, +<i>Homerische Untersuchungen</i> (Berlin, 1884); O. Seeck, +<i>Die Quellen der Odyssee</i> (Berlin, 1887); F. Blass, <i>Die Interpolationen +in der Odyssee</i> (Leipzig, 1905). The interest taken in the question by +English students is sufficiently shown in the writings of W. E. +Gladstone, F. A. Paley, Henry Hayman (in the Introduction to his +<i>Odyssey</i>), P. Geddes, R. C. Jebb and A. Lang (see especially the +latter’s <i>Homer and his Age</i>, 1907).</p> + +<p>The Homeric dialect must be studied in the books (such as those +of G. Curtius) that deal with Greek on the comparative method. +The best special work is the brief <i>Griechische Formenlehre</i> of H. L. +Ahrens (Göttingen, 1852). Other important works are those of Aug. +Fick: <i>Die homerische Odyssee in der ursprünglichen Sprachform +wiederhergestelt</i> (Göttingen, 1883); <i>Die homerische Ilias</i> (<i>ibid.</i>, +1886); W. Schulze, <i>Quaestiones epicae</i> (Güterslohe, 1892). On +Homeric syntax the chief book is B. Delbrück’s <i>Syntactische Forschungen</i> +(Halle, 1871-1879), especially vols. i. and iv.; on metre, &c., +Hartel’s <i>Homerische Studien</i> (i.-iii., Vienna); Knös, <i>De digammo +Homerico quaestiones</i> (Upsala, 1872-1873-1878); Thumb, <i>Zur +Geschichte des griech. Digamma, Indogermanische Forschungen</i> (1898), +ix. 294 seq. The papers reprinted in Bekker’s <i>Homerische Blätter</i> +(Bonn, 1863-1872) and Cobet’s <i>Miscellanea Crilica</i> (Leiden, 1876) +are of the highest value. Hoffmann’s <i>Quaestiones Homericae</i> (Clausthal, +1842) is a useful collection of facts. Buttmann’s <i>Lexilogus</i>, as +an example of method, is still worth study.</p> + +<p>The antiquities of Homer—using the word in a wide sense—may +be studied in the following books: Völcker, <i>Über homerische +Geographie und Weltkunde</i> (Hanover, 1830); Nägelsbach’s <i>Homerische +Theologie</i> (2nd ed., Nuremberg, 1861); H. Brunn, <i>Die Kunst bei +Homer</i> (Munich, 1868); W. W. Lloyd, <i>On the Homeric Design of +the Shield of Achilles</i> (London, 1854); Buchholz, <i>Die homerischen +Realien</i> (Leipzig, 1871-1873); W. Helbig, <i>Das homerische Epos +aus den Denkmälern erläutert</i> (Leipzig, 1884; 2nd ed., <i>ibid.</i>, 1887); +W. Reichel, <i>Über homerische Waffen</i> (Vienna, 1894); C. Robert, +<i>Studien zur Ilias</i> (Berlin, 1901); W. Ridgeway, <i>The Early Age of +Greece</i> (Cambridge, 1901); V. Bérard, <i>Les Phéniciens et l’Odyssée</i> +(Paris, 1902-1903); C. Robert, “Topographische Probleme der +Ilias,” in <i>Hermes</i>, xlii., 1907, pp. 78-112.</p> + +<p>Among other aids should be mentioned the <i>Index Homericus</i> of +Seber (Oxford, 1780); Prendergast’s <i>Concordance to the Iliad</i> +(London, 1875); Dunbar’s <i>id.</i> to the <i>Odyssey and Hymns</i> (Oxford, +1880); Frohwein, <i>Verbum Homericum</i>, (Leipzig, 1881); Gehring, +<i>Index Homericus</i> (Leipzig, 1891); the <i>Lexicon Homericum</i>, edited +by H. Ebeling (Leipzig, 1880-1885) and the facsimile of the +cod. Ven. A (Sijthoff; Leiden, 1901), with an introduction by +D. Comparetti.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. B. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This article was thoroughly revised by Dr D. B. Monro before his +death in 1905; a few points have since been added by Mr. T. W. +Allen.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See a paper in the <i>Diss. Philol. Halenses</i>, ii. 97-219.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Compare the <i>Popular Rhymes of Scotland</i>, published by Robert +Chambers.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Compare the branch of myrtle at an Athenian feast (Aristoph., +<i>Nub.</i>, 1364).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The <i>Iliad</i> was also recited at the festival of the Brauronia, at +Brauron in Attica (Hesych. <i>s.v.</i> <span class="grk" title="branrôniois">βρανρωνίοις</span>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Contemporary Review</i>, vol. xxiii. p. 218 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The fact that the Phoenician Vau (ϝ) was retained in the Greek +alphabets, and the vowel υ added, shows that when the alphabet was +introduced the sound denoted by ϝ was still in full vigour. Otherwise +ϝ would have been used for the vowel υ, just as the Phoenician +consonant Yod became the vowel ι. But in the Ionic dialect the +sound of ϝ died out soon after Homer’s time, if indeed it was still +pronounced then. It seems probable therefore that the introduction +of the alphabet is not later than the composition of the Homeric +poems.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See D. B. Monro’s <i>Homer’s Odyssey</i>, books xiii.-xxiv. (Oxford, +1901, p. 455 sqq.), and the abstract of his paper on the Homeric +Dialect read to the Congress of Historical Sciences at Rome, 1903: +<i>Atti del Congresso internazionale di scienze storiche</i>, ii. 152, 153, 1905, +“Il Dialetto omerico.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See the chapter in Cobet’s <i>Miscellanea critica</i>, pp. 225-239.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The existence of two groups of the Venetian Scholia was first +noticed by Jacob La Roche, and they were first distinguished in +the edition of W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1875). There is also a group of +Scholia, chiefly exegetical, a collection of which was published by +Villoison from a MS. Ven. 453 (s. xi.) in his edition of 1788, and has +been again edited by W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1877). The most important +collection of this group is contained in the <i>Codex Townleianus</i> +(Burney 86 s. xi.) of the British Museum, edited by E. Maass, +(Oxford, 1887-1888). The vast commentary of Eustathius (of the +12th century) marks a third stage in the progress of ancient Homeric +learning.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Prolegomena ad Homerum, sive de operum Homericorum prisca et +genuina forma variisque mutationibus et probabili ratione emendandi.</i> +scripsit Frid. Aug. Wolfius, volumen i. (1795).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> On this point see a paper by Professor Packard in the <i>Trans. of +the American Philological Association</i> (1876).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Die Composition der Odyssee</i> (Berlin, 1869). A full discussion of +this book is given by Dr E. Kammer, <i>Die Einheit der Odyssee</i> (Leipzig, +1873).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> “As a poet Homer must be acknowledged to excel Shakespeare in +the truth, the harmony, the sustained grandeur, the satisfying completeness +of his images” (Shelley, <i>Essays</i>, &c., i. 51, ed. 1852).</p> + +<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> “The old English balladist may stir Sir Philip Sidney’s heart like +a trumpet, and this is much; but Homer, but the few artists in the +grand style, can do more—they can refine the raw natural man, they +can transmute him” (<i>On Translating Homer</i>, p. 61).</p> + +<p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Die exegetischen Scholien der Ilias</i>, p. vii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> “On comprend que des chants populaires nés d’un événement +éclatant, victoire ou défaite, puissent contribuer à former la tradition, +à en arrêter les traits; ils peuvent aussi devenir le centre de légendes +qui se forment pour les expliquer; et de la sorte leur substance au +moins arrive au poëte épique qui l’introduit dans sa composition. +Voilà ce qui a pu se produire pour de chants très-courts, dont il est +d’ailleurs aussi difficile d’affirmer que de nier l’existence. Mais on +peut expliquer la formation des chansons de geste par une autre hypothèse” +(Meyer, <i>Recherches sur l’épopée française</i>, p. 65). “Ce qui +a fait naître la théorie des chants ‘lyrico-épiques’ ou des cantilènes, +c’est le système de Wolf sur les poëmes homériques, et de Lachmann +sur les <i>Nibelungen</i>. Mais, au moins en ce qui concerne ce dernier +poëme, le système est détruit.... On tire encore argument des +romances espagnoles, qui, dit-on, sont des ‘cantilènes’ non encore +arrivées à l’épopée.... Et c’est le malheur de cette théorie: faute +de preuves directes, elle cherche des analogies au dehors: en Espagne, +elle trouve des ‘cantilènes,’ mais pas d’épopée; en Allemagne, une +épopée, mais pas de cantilènes!” (<i>Ibid.</i> p. 66).</p> + +<p><a name="ft18a" id="ft18a" href="#fa18a"><span class="fn">18</span></a> A. Lang, <i>Contemporary Review</i>, vol. xvii., N.S., p. 588.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMER, WINSLOW<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1836-1910), American painter, was born +in Boston, U.S.A., on the 24th of February 1836. At the age +of nineteen he was apprenticed to a lithographer. Two years +later he opened a studio in Boston, and devoted much of his +time to making drawings for wood-engravers. In 1859 he removed +to New York, where he studied in the night-school of the +National Academy of Design. During the American Civil War +he was with the troops at the front, and contributed sketches to +<i>Harper’s Weekly</i>. The war also furnished him with the subjects +for the first two pictures which he exhibited (1863), one of which +was “Home, Sweet Home.” His “Prisoners from the Front”—perhaps +his most generally popular picture—was exhibited in +New York in 1865, and also in Paris in 1867, where he was spending +the year in study. Among his other paintings in oil are +“Snap the Whip” (which was exhibited at the Philadelphia +Centennial Exhibition of 1876, and, in company with “The +Country Schoolroom,” at the Paris Salon the following year), +“Eating Water-melon,” “The Cotton Pickers,” “Visit from the +Old Mistress, Sunday Morning,” “The Life-Line” and “The +Coming of the Gale.” His genius, however, has perhaps shown +better in his works in water-colour, among which are his marine +studies painted at Gloucester, Mass., and his “Inside the Bar,” +“The Voice from the Cliffs” (pictures of English fisherwomen), +“Tynemouth,” “Wrecking of a Vessel” and “Lost on the +Grand Banks.” His work, which principally consists of <i>genre</i> +pictures, is characterized by strength, rugged directness and +unmistakable freshness and originality, rather than by technical +excellence, grace of line or beauty of colour. He was little +affected by European influences. His types and scenes, apart +from his few English pictures, are distinctly American—soldiers +in blue, New England children, negroes in the land of cotton, +Gloucester fishermen and stormy Atlantic seas. Besides being +a member of the Society of Painters in Water-color, New York, +he was elected in 1864 an associate and the following year a +member of the National Academy of Design.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMESTEAD,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, 8 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. +Pop. (1890) 7911; (1900) 12,554, of whom 3604 were foreign-born +and 640 were negroes; (U.S. census, 1910) 18,713. It is served +by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie railways, +and by the short Union Railroad, which connects with the +Bessemer & Lake Erie and the Wabash railways. The borough +has a Carnegie library and the C.M. Schwab Manual Training +School. Partly in Homestead but chiefly in the adjoining borough +of Munhall (and therefore not reported as in Homestead by the +U.S. Census) is one of the largest plants in the United States for +the manufacture of steel used in the construction of bridges and +steel-frame buildings and of steel armour-plate, and this is +its chief industry; among Homestead’s other manufactures are +glass and fire-bricks. The water-works are owned and operated +by the municipality. Homestead was first settled in 1871, and +it was incorporated in 1880. In 1892 a labour strike lasting +143 days and one of the most serious in the history of the United +States was carried on here by the National Amalgamated +Association of Iron and Steel Workers of the United States +against the Carnegie Steel Company. The arrival (on the 6th +of July) of a force of about 200 Pinkerton detectives from New +York and Chicago resulted in a fight in which about 10 men +were killed, and to restore order two brigades of the state militia +were called out. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strikes and Lockouts</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> laws (principally +in the United States) designed primarily either to aid the head +of a family to acquire title to a place of residence or to protect +the owner against loss of that title through seizure for debt. +These laws have all been enacted in America since about the +middle of the 19th century, and owe their origin to the demand +for a population of the right sort in a new country, to the conviction +that the freeholder rather than the tenant is the natural +supporter of popular government, to the effort to prevent +insolvent debtors from becoming useless members of society, and +to the belief that such laws encourage the stability of the family.</p> + +<p>By the cessions of several of the older states, and by various +treaties with foreign countries, public lands have been acquired +for the United States in every state and territory of the Union +except the original thirteen, and Maine, Vermont, Kentucky, +Tennessee and Texas. For a time they were regarded chiefly +as a source of revenue, but about 1820, as the need of revenue +for the payment of the national debt decreased and the inhabitants +of an increasing number of new states became eager to +have the vacant lands within their bounds occupied, the demand +that the public lands should be disposed of more in the interest +of the settler became increasingly strong, and the homestead +idea originated. Until the advent of railways, however, the +older states of the North were opposed to promoting the development +of the West in this manner, and soon afterwards the +Southern representatives in Congress opposed the general +homestead bills in the interests of slavery, so that except in +isolated cases where settlers were desired to protect some frontier, +as in Florida and Oregon, and to a limited extent in the case of +the Pre-emption Act of 1841 (see below), the homestead principle +was not applied by the national government until the Civil +War had begun. A general homestead bill was passed by Congress +in 1860, but this was vetoed by President James Buchanan; +two years later, however, a similar bill became a law. The act +of 1862 originally provided that any citizen of the United States, +or applicant for citizenship, who was the head of a family, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span> +twenty-one years of age, or, if younger, had served not less than +fourteen days in the army or navy of the United States during an +actual war, might apply for 160 acres or less of unappropriated +public lands, and might acquire title to this amount of land by +residing upon and cultivating it for five years immediately +following, and paying such fees as were necessary to cover the +cost of administration; a homestead acquired in this manner +was exempted from seizure for any debt contracted prior to the +date of issuing the patent. A commutation clause of this act +permitted title to be acquired after only six months of residence +by paying $1.25 per acre, as provided in the Pre-emption Act +of 1841. Act of 1872, amended in 1901, allows any soldier or +seaman, who has served at least ninety days in the army or navy +of the United States during the Civil War, the Spanish-American +War or in the suppression of the insurrection in the Philippines, +and was honourably discharged, to apply for a homestead, and +permits the deduction of the time of such service, or, if discharged +on account of wounds or other disability incurred in the line of +duty, the full term of his enlistment, from the five years otherwise +required for perfecting title, except that in any case he shall +have resided upon and cultivated the land at least one year +before the passing of title. Since 1866 mineral lands have been +for the most part excluded from entry as homesteads.</p> + +<p>In accordance with the provisions of the homestead law, +718,930 homesteads, containing 96,495,414 acres, were established +in forty-two years, and besides this principal act, Congress +has passed several minor ones of a like nature, that is, acts designed +to benefit the actual settler who improves the land. Thus the +Pre-emption Act of 1841 gave to any head of a family or any single +person over twenty-one years of age, who was a citizen of the +United States or had declared his intention to become one, +permission to purchase not to exceed 160 acres of public lands +after he had resided upon and improved the same for six months; +the Timber-Culture Act of 1873 allowed title to 160 acres of +public prairie-land to be given to any one who should plant upon +it 40 acres of timber, and keep the same in good growing condition +for ten years; and the Desert-Land Act of 1877 gave to +any citizen of the United States, or to any person who had +declared his intention to become one, the privilege of acquiring +title to 640 acres of such public land as was not included in +mineral or timber lands, and would not without irrigation produce +an agricultural crop, by paying twenty-five cents an acre and +creating for the tract an artificial water-supply. These several +land acts, however, invited fraud to such an extent that in time +they promoted the establishment of large land holdings by +ranchmen and others quite as much as they encouraged settlement +and cultivation, and so great was this evil that in 1891 the +Timber-Culture and Pre-emption Acts were repealed, the total +amount of land that could be acquired by any one person under +the several land laws was limited to 320 acres, the Desert-Land +Act was so amended as to require an expenditure of at least three +dollars an acre for irrigation, and the original Homestead Act +was so amended as to disqualify any person who was already +proprietor of more than 160 acres in any state or Territory of +the Union for acquiring any more land under its provisions; +and in 1896 a residence of fourteen months was required before +permitting commutation or the purchase of title. But even +these measures were inadequate to prevent fraud. In 1894 +Congress, in what is known as the Carey Act, donated to California, +Oregon, Nevada, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Utah, +Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico and the Dakotas so much of +1,000,000 acres each of desert-lands as each should cause to be +irrigated, reclaimed and occupied within ten years,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> not less than +20 acres of each 160 acres to be cultivated by actual settlers; +and in several of these states and territories irrigating companies +have been formed and land offered to settlers in amounts not +exceeding 160 acres to each, on terms requiring the settler to +purchase ample and perpetual water-rights. In 1902, Congress +appropriated the proceeds of the sales of public lands in these +states and territories to form a reclamation fund to be used for +the construction and maintenance of irrigation works, and lands +reclaimed by this means are open to homestead entries, the entry-man +being required to pay for the cost of reclamation in ten +equal annual instalments without interest. When Texas was +admitted to the Union the disposal of its public lands was +reserved to the state, and under its laws every person who is the +head of a family and without a homestead may acquire title +to 160 acres of land by residing upon and improving it for +three years; every unmarried man eighteen years of age or over +may acquire title to 80 acres in the same way.</p> + +<p>A short time before the National Homestead Act for aiding +citizens to acquire homesteads went into operation, some of +the state legislatures had passed homestead and exemption +laws designed to protect homesteads or a certain amount of property +against loss to the owners in case they should become +insolvent debtors, and by the close of the century the legislature +of nearly every state in the Union had passed a law of this nature. +These laws vary greatly. In most states the exemption of a +homestead or other property from liability for debts can be +claimed only by the head of a family, but in Georgia it may be +claimed by any aged or infirm person, by any trustee of a family +of minor children, or by any person on whom any woman or +girls are dependent for support; and in California, although +the head of a family may claim exemption for a homestead valued +at $5000, any other person may claim exemption for a homestead +valued at $1000. In some states exemptions may be claimed +either for a farm limited to 40, 80, 160 or 200 acres, or for a +house and one or more lots, usually limited in size, in a town, +village or city; in other states the homestead for which exemption +may be claimed is limited in value, and this value varies +from $500 to $5000. With the homestead are usually included +the appurtenances thereto, and the courts invariably interpret +the law liberally; but many states also exempt a specified +amount of personal property, including wearing apparel, furniture, +provisions, tools, libraries and in some cases domestic +animals and stock in trade. A few states exempt no homestead +and only a small amount of personal property; Maryland, +for example, exempts only $100 worth of property besides money +payable in the nature of insurance, or for relief, in the event +of sickness, injury or death. To some debts the exemption +does not usually apply; the most common of these are taxes, +purchase money, a debt secured by mortgage on the homestead +and debts contracted in making improvements upon it; in +Maryland the only exception is a judgment for breach of promise +to marry or in case of seduction. If the homestead belongs to +a married person, the consent of both husband and wife is +usually required to mortgage it. Finally, some states require +that the homestead for which exemption is to be claimed shall +be previously entered upon record, others require only occupancy, +and still others permit the homestead to be designated whenever +a claim is presented.</p> + +<p>Following the example of either the United States Congress +or the state legislatures, the governments of several British +colonial states and provinces have passed homestead laws. In +Quebec every settler on public lands is allowed, after receiving +a patent, an exemption of not to exceed 200 acres from that +of his widow, of his, her or their children and descendants in +the direct line. In Ontario an applicant for a homestead may +have not to exceed 200 acres of unappropriated public land for +farming purposes by building a house thereon, occupying it +for five years, and bringing at least fifteen acres under cultivation; +the exemption of such a homestead from liability to +seizure for debts is, however, limited to twenty years from +the date of application for the land, and does not extend even +during that period to rates or taxes. Manitoba, British Columbia, +Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia, West Australia +and New Zealand also have liberal homestead and exemption +laws.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. B. Sanborn, “Some Political Aspects of Homestead Legislation,” +in <i>The American Historical Review</i> (1900); Edward Manson, +“The Homestead Acts,” in the <i>Journal of the Society of Comparative +Legislation</i> (London, 1899); S. D. Thompson, <i>A Treatise on</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span> +<i>Homesteads and Exemptions</i> (San Francisco, 1886); P. Bureau, +<i>Le Homestead ou l’Insaisissabilité de la petite propriété foncière</i> +(Paris, 1894), and L. Vacher, <i>Le Homestead aux États-Unis</i> (Paris, +1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. D. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In 1901 it was provided that the ten years should date from the +segregation of the lands from the public domain.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1795-1874), German jurist, +was born on the 13th of August 1795 at Wolgast in Pomerania. +After studying law at the universities of Berlin, Göttingen +and Heidelberg (1813-1817), he settled as a <i>Privatdocent</i>, in +1821, at the university of Berlin, where he became ordinary +professor of law in 1827. His principal works are his edition +of the <i>Sachsenspiegel</i> (in 3 vols., 1827, 3rd ed., 1861, containing +also some other important sources of Saxon or Low German +law), which is still unsurpassed in accuracy and sagacity of +research, and his book on <i>Die Haus- und Hofmarken</i> (1870), +in which he has given a history of the use of trade-marks among +all the Teutonic nations of Europe, and which is full of important +elucidations of the history of law and also contains valuable +contributions to the history of art and civilization. In 1850 +Homeyer was elected a member of the Berlin Academy of +Sciences, in the <i>Transactions</i> of which he published various +papers exhibiting profound learning (<i>Über die Heimat</i>, 1852; +<i>Genealogie der Handschriften des Sachsenspiegels</i>, 1859; <i>Die +Stadtbücher des Mittelalters</i>, 1860; <i>Der Dreissigste</i>, 1864, &c.). +He died on the 20th of October 1874.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMICIDE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (Lat. <i>homicidium</i>), the general and neutral term +for the killing of one human being by another. The nature +of the responsibility of the slayer to the state and to the relatives +of the slain has been one of the chief concerns of all systems +of law from the earliest times, and it has been variously considered +from the points of view of the sanctity of human life, +the interests of the sovereign, the injury to the family of the +slain and the moral guilt, <i>i.e.</i> the motives and intentions, of +the slayer.</p> + +<p>The earliest recorded laws (those of Khammurabi) do not +contain any sweeping general provision as to the punishment +of homicide. The death penalty is freely imposed but not +for homicide. “If a man strike a gentleman’s daughter that +she dies, his own daughter is to be put to death, if a poor man’s +the slayer pays ½ mina.” In the Mosaic law the general command +“Thou shalt not kill” of the Decalogue is in terms absolute. +In primitive law homicide, however innocent, subjected the +slayer to the lawful vengeance of the kindred of the slain, unless +he could make some composition with him. This <i>lex talionis</i> +(a life for a life) resulted: (1) in a course of private justice +which still survives in the vendetta of Corsica and Albania, and +the blood feuds arising out of “difficulties” in the southern and +western parts of the United States; (2) in the recognition of +sanctuaries and cities of refuge within which the avenger of +blood might not penetrate to kill an innocent manslayer; and +(3) in the system of wite, bote and wer, by which the life of +every man had its assessed price payable to his chief and his +next of kin.</p> + +<p>It took long to induce the relatives of the slain to appreciate +anything beyond the fact of the death of their kinsman or +to discriminate between intentional and accidental homicide. +By the laws of Khammurabi (206, 208) striking a man in a +quarrel without deadly intent but with fatal effect was treated +as a matter for compensation according to the rank of the slain. +The Pentateuch discriminates between the man “who lieth in +wait for” or “cometh presumptuously” on “his neighbour to +slay him with guile” (Exodus xxi. 13, 14), and the man “who +killeth his neighbour ignorantly whom he hated not in time past” +(Deut. xix. 4). But even killing by misadventure exposed the +slayer to the avenger of blood. “As a man goeth into the +wood with his neighbour to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth +a stroke with the axe to cut down a tree and the head slippeth +from the helve and lighteth upon his neighbour that he die: +he shall flee into one of these cities (of refuge) and live” (Deut. +xix. 5).</p> + +<p>Under the early laws of Teutonic and Celtic communities +the inconveniences of the blood feud were gradually mitigated +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminal Law</a></span>) by the system of wite and wer (or eric), +but the blood feud continued long in Friesland and Lower +Saxony, and in parts of Switzerland until the 16th century. +In England under the Norman system homicide became a plea +of the crown, and the rights of the kindred to private vengeance +and to compensation were gradually superseded in favour of +the right of the king to forfeitures where the homicide amounted +to a crime (felony).</p> + +<p>Though homicide was thus made a public offence and not +a matter for private vengeance, it took long to discriminate +between those forms of homicide which should and those which +should not be punished.</p> + +<p>The terms of act in English law used to describe <i>criminal</i> +homicide are murder (<i>mord</i>, <i>meurtre</i>, <i>murdrum</i>), manslaughter +and <i>felo de se</i> (or suicide by a person of sound mind).</p> + +<p>The original meaning of the word “murder” seems to have +been secret homicide,—“<i>Murdrum proprie dicitur mors alicujus +occulta cujus interfector ignoratur</i>” (<i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i> i, x.); +and Glanville says: <i>Duo sunt genera homicidii, unum est quod +dicitur murdrum quod nullo vidente nullo sciente clam perpetratur, +ita quod non assignatur clamor popularis</i> (hue and cry), <i>est et +aliud homicidium quod diciter simplex homicidium</i>. After the +Conquest, and for the protection of the ruling race, a fine (also +called <i>murdrum</i>) was levied for the king on the hundred or other +district in which a stranger was found dead, if the slayer was not +brought to justice and the blood kin of the slain did not present +Englishry, there being a presumption (in favour of the Exchequer) +that the deceased was a Frenchman. After the assize of Clarendon +(1166) the distinction between the killing of Normans and +Englishmen gradually evaporated and the term murder came to +acquire its present meaning of deliberate as distinct from +secret homicide. In 1267 it was provided that the murder fine +should not be levied in cases of death by “misadventure” +(<i>per infortunium</i>).<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But at that date and for long afterwards +homicide in self-defence or by misadventure or even while of +unsound mind involved at the least a forfeiture of goods, and +required a pardon. These pardons, and restitution of the goods, +became a matter of course, and the judges appear at a later date +to have been in the habit of directing an acquittal in such cases. +But it was not until 1828 that the innocence of excusable homicide +was expressly declared. The rule is now expressed in s. 7 of the +Offences against the Person Act 1861: “No punishment or +forfeiture shall be incurred by any person who shall kill another +by misfortune, or in his own defence, or in any other manner +without felony.”</p> + +<p>The further differentiation between different degrees of +criminal homicide was marked by legislation of Henry VIII. +(1531) taking away benefit of clergy in the case of “wilful +murder with malice prepensed” (aforethought), and that phrase +is still the essential element in the definition of “wilful murder,” +which is committed “when a person of sound memory and +discretion unlawfully killeth any reasonable creature or being +and under the king’s peace with malice aforethought either +express or implied” (3 Co. Inst. 47). The whole development +of the substantive law as to murder rests on judicial rulings as +to the meaning of malice prepense coupled with the extrajudicial +commentaries of Coke, Hale and Foster; for parliament, though +often tempted by bills and codes, has never ventured on a +legislative definition. Much discussion has ranged round the +phrase “malice aforethought,” and it has undoubtedly been +expanded by judicial decision so as to create what is described +as “constructive” murder. According to the view of the +criminal code commissioners of 1879 (<i>Parl. Pap.</i>, 1879, c. 23, 45, +p. 23) the term “malice aforethought” is now a common name +for all the following states of mind:—</p> + +<div class="condensed list"> +<p>1. An intent, preceding the act, to kill or do grievous bodily harm +to the person or to any other person:</p> + +<p>2. Knowledge that the act done is <i>likely</i> to produce such consequences, +whether coupled with an intention to produce them +or not:</p> + +<p>3. An intent to commit any felony: or</p> + +<p>4. An intent to resist an officer of police in the execution of his duty.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span></p> + +<p>The third form of malice aforethought has been much +controverted. When it was first recognized as creating a liability +for wilful murder almost all felonies were capital offences: but +even at the end of the 17th century Lord Holt expressed a view +that it should be limited to felonies involving violence or danger +to life, <i>e.g.</i> assault with intent to rob, or setting fire to a dwelling-house. +And Sir James Stephen’s opinion is that, to justify +conviction of murder by an act done with intent to commit a +felony, the act done must be one dangerous to life or known +to be likely to cause death.</p> + +<p>Starting with the definition above given, English law still +retains so much of its medieval character as to presume all +homicide to be “malicious, and therefore murder, unless it is +either <i>justified</i> by the command or permission of the law, <i>excused</i> +on the ground of accident or self-preservation, or <i>alleviated</i> +into manslaughter by being the involuntary consequence of some +act not strictly lawful or occasioned by some sudden and sufficiently +violent provocation.” The truth of the facts alleged in +justification, excuse or alleviation, is for the jury to determine: +the question whether if true they support the plea for which they +are put forward is for the court.</p> + +<p>In the administration of the English criminal law as to homicide +the consequences of too strict an adherence to the technical +definitions of the offences are avoided (<i>a</i>) by the exercise of the +jury of their powers to convict of manslaughter only even in +cases where they are directed that the offence is murder or +nothing; (<i>b</i>) by the report of the judge as to the particular +circumstances of each case in which a conviction of murder has +been followed by the statutory sentence of death; (<i>c</i>) by the +examination of all the evidence in the case by the Home Office +in order to enable the secretary of state to determine whether the +prerogative of mercy should be exercised.</p> + +<p>Homicide is justifiable and not criminal when the killing is +done in the execution of the law. The most important case of +justifiable homicide is the execution of a criminal in due course +of public justice. This condition is most stringently interpreted. +“To kill the greatest of malefactors deliberately, uncompelled, +and extrajudicially is murder.... And further, if judgment of +death be given by a judge not authorized by lawful commission, +and execution is done accordingly, the judge is guilty of murder” +(Stephen’s <i>Commentaries</i>, book vi. c. iv.). The execution must +be carried out by the proper officer or his deputy: any person +executing the sentence without such authority, were it the judge +himself, would be guilty of murder. And the sentence must be +strictly pursued: to execute a criminal by a kind of death other +than that to which he has been judicially condemned is murder.</p> + +<p>Homicide committed by an officer of justice in the course of +carrying out his duty, as such, is also justifiable; <i>e.g.</i> where a +felon resists a legal arrest and is killed in the effort to arrest him +(see 2 Pollock and Maitland, 476); where officers in dispersing +a riotous assemblage kill any of the mob, &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riot</a></span>). In these +cases the homicide must be shown to have been absolutely +necessary. Again, homicide is justifiable if committed in the +defence of person or property against forcible and heinous crime, +such as murder, violent robbery, rape or burglary. In this connexion +there has been much discussion as to whether the person +attacked is under a duty to retreat: and in substance the +justification depends on the continuous necessity of attack or +defence In order to prevent the commission by the deceased of +the crime threatened.</p> + +<p>Homicide is excusable and not criminal at all when committed +either by misadventure or in self-defence. In the former case +the homicide is excused; where a man in the course of doing some +lawful work, accidentally and without intention kills another, +<i>e.g.</i> shooting at a mark and undesignedly hitting and killing a +man. The act must be strictly lawful, and death by misadventure +in unlawful sports is not a case of excusable homicide. Homicide +in self-defence is excusable when the slayer is himself in immediate +danger of death, and has done all he could to avoid the assault. +Accordingly, if he strikes and kills his assailant after the assault +is over, this is not excusable homicide. But if the assault has +been premeditated, as in the ease of a duel, the death of either +antagonist has under English law always been held to be murder +and not excusable homicide. The excuse of self-defence covers +the case in which a person in defence of others whom it is his +duty to protect—children, wife, master, &c.—kills an assailant. +It has been considered doubtful whether the plea of self-defence +is available to one who has himself provoked a fray, in the course +of which he is so pressed by his antagonist that his only resource +is to kill him.</p> + +<p>In English law the term “manslaughter” is applied to those +forms of homicide which though neither justifiable nor excusable +are attended by alleviating circumstances which bring them +short of wilful murder. The offence is not defined by statute, +but only by judicial rulings. Its punishment is as a maximum +penal servitude for life, and as a minimum a fine or recognizances +to be of good behaviour. The quantum of punishment between +the limits above stated is in the discretion of the court, and not, +as under continental codes, with fixed minima; and the offence +includes acts and omissions of very varying gravity, from acts +which only by the charitable appreciation of a jury fall short +of wilful murder, to acts or omissions which can only technically +be described as criminal, <i>e.g.</i> where one of two persons engaged +in poaching, by pure accident gets caught in a hedge so that +his gun goes off and kills his fellow-poacher. This may be +described as an extreme instance of “constructive crime.”</p> + +<p>There are two main forms of “manslaughter”:—</p> + +<p>1. “Voluntary” homicide under grave and sudden provocation +or on a sudden quarrel in the heat of passion, without the +slayer taking undue advantage or acting in an unusual manner. +The substance of the alleviation of guilt lies in the absence of +time for cool reflection or the formation of a premeditated design +to kill. Under English law the provocation must be by acts +and not by words or gestures, and must be serious and not trivial, +and the killing must be immediately after provocation and +while the slayer has lost his self-control in consequence of the +provocation. The provocation need not be by assault or violence, +and perhaps the best-recognized example is the slaying by a +husband of a man found committing adultery with the slayer’s +wife. In the case of a sudden quarrel it does not matter who +began or provoked the quarrel. This used to be called “chance +medley.”</p> + +<p>2. “Involuntary” homicide as a result of great rashness +or gross negligence in respect of matters involving danger to +human life, <i>e.g.</i> in driving trains or vehicles, or in dealing with +dangerous weapons, or in performing surgical operations, or in +taking care of the helpless.</p> + +<p>The innumerable modes in which criminal liability for killing +others has been adjudged under the English definitions of +murder and manslaughter cannot be here stated, and can only +be studied by reference to the judicial decisions collected and +discussed in <i>Russell on Crimes</i> and other English text-books, and +in the valuable work by Mr J. D. Mayne on the criminal law of +India, in which the English common law rulings are stated +side by side with the terms and interpretations of the Indian +penal code. Much labour has been expended by many jurists +in efforts to create a scientific and acceptable classification of +the various forms of unlawful homicide which shall properly +define the cases which should be punishable by law and the +appropriate punishment. Their efforts have resulted in the +establishment in almost every state except the United Kingdom +of statutory definitions of the crime, beginning with the French +penal code and going down to the criminal code of Japan. In +the case of England, as a result of the labours of Sir James +Stephen, a code bill was submitted to parliament in 1878. In 1879 +a draft code was prepared by Blackburn, Lush and Barry, and was +presented to parliament. It was founded on and prepared with +Sir J. Stephen, and is a revision of his digest of the criminal law.</p> + +<p>After defining homicide and culpable homicide, the draft +code (cl. 174) declares culpable homicide to be murder in the +following cases: (<i>a</i>) if the offender means to cause the death +of the person killed; (<i>b</i>) if the offender means to cause to the +person killed any bodily injury which is known to the offender +to be likely to cause death, and if the offender, whether he does +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span> +or does not mean to cause death, is reckless whether death ensues +or not; (<i>c</i>) if the offender means to cause death or such bodily +injury as aforesaid to one person, so that if that person be killed +the offender would be guilty of murder, and by accident or +mistake the offender kills another person though he does not +mean to hurt the person killed; (<i>d</i>) if the offender for any unlawful +object does an act which he knows or ought to have known +to be likely to cause death, and thereby kills any person, though +he may have desired that his object should be effected without +hurting any one.</p> + +<p>Further (cl. 175), it is murder (whether the offender means +or not death to ensue, or knows or not that death is likely to +ensue) in the following cases:—“(<i>a</i>) if he means to inflict +grievous bodily injury for the purpose of facilitating the commission +of any of the offences hereinafter mentioned, or the +flight of the offender upon the commission or attempted commission +thereof, and death ensues from his violence; (<i>b</i>) if he +administers any stupefying thing for either of the purposes +aforesaid and death ensues from the effects thereof; (<i>c</i>) if he +by any means wilfully stops the breath of any person for either +of the purposes aforesaid and death ensues from such stopping +of the breath.” The following are the offences referred to:—“high +treason and other offences against the king’s authority, +piracy and offences deemed to be piracy, escape or rescue from +prison or lawful custody, resisting lawful apprehension, murder, +rape, forcible abduction, robbery, burglary, arson.” Cl. 176 +reduces culpable homicide to manslaughter if the person who +causes death does so “in the heat of passion caused by sudden +provocation”; and “any <i>wrongful act or insult</i> of such a nature +as to be sufficient to deprive any ordinary person of the power +of self-control may be provocation if the offender acts upon it +on the sudden, and before there has been time for his passion +to cool. Whether any particular wrongful act or insult amounts +to provocation and whether the offender was deprived of self-control +shall be questions of fact; but no one shall be deemed +to give provocation by doing that which he had a legal right to +do, or which the offender incited him to do in order to provide +an excuse for killing him or doing grievous bodily harm to any +person.” Further, “an arrest shall not necessarily reduce the +offence from murder to manslaughter because an arrest was +illegal, but if the illegality was known to the offender it may be +evidence of provocation”; (cl. 177) “culpable homicide not +amounting to murder is manslaughter.”</p> + +<p>The definitions embodied in these clauses though not yet +accepted by the British legislature, have in substance been +embodied in the criminal codes of Canada (1892 ss. 227-230), +New Zealand (1893, ss. 163-166), Queensland (1899, ss. 300-305), +and Western Australia (1901, ss. 275-280).</p> + +<p>From the point of view of civil as distinct from criminal +responsibility homicide does not by the common law give any +cause of action against the person causing the death of another +in favour of the wife or blood relations of the deceased. In +early law this was otherwise; and the wer or eric of the deceased +came historically before the right of chief or state. But under +English law the rights of relations, except by way of appeal for +felony,<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> were swept aside in favour of the crown, on the principle +that every homicide is presumed felonious (murder) unless the +contrary is proved, and that in all cases of homicide not justifiable +by law a forfeiture was incurred. The rights of the relatives +were also defeated by application of the maxim “<i>actio personalis +moritur cum personâ</i>” (“a personal action dies with the person”) +to all proceedings for injury to the person or to reputation. In +Scotland the old theory was preserved in the law as to +assythement.</p> + +<p>In England the law was altered at the instance of Lord +Campbell in 1846 (9 & 10 V. c. 93) so as to give a right of a +claim by the husband, wife, parent or child of a person killed +by a wrongful (or even criminal) act, neglect or default +by another which would have given the deceased if he had survived +a cause of action against the wrongdoer. The compensation +payable is what the surviving relative has lost by +the death, and under the Workmen’s Compensation Act 1906 +(in all cases to which it applies) the employer is liable even +without negligence to compensate the dependants of an employee +killed by an accident arising out of and in the course of the +employment; and in such cases even if the death was due to +serious and wilful misconduct by the employee, compensation is +payable.</p> + +<p>In the Indian penal code the definitions of murder are so +drawn as to limit the offences to cases where it was actually +intended to cause death or bodily injury by the acts or omissions +of the slayer, and the definition of culpable homicide short +of murder is so drawn as to exclude the forms of unintentional +manslaughter due to neglect of duty, <i>e.g.</i> in the conduct of +trains or ships or vehicles. This last omission was supplied +in 1870. The Indian code does not treat as murder either +duelling or helping Hindu widows to commit <i>suttee</i> (s. 301, +exception 5). In most of the British possessions in Asia and +in east Africa the Indian definitions of homicide have been +adopted. In the rest of the colonies, except South Africa, the +law of homicide depends on the English common law as modified +by colonial codes or statutes. In South Africa it rests mainly +on the Roman Dutch law.</p> + +<p><i>Europe.</i>—In European codes distinctions corresponding to +those of the English law are drawn between premeditated +and other forms of criminal homicide; but more elaborate +distinctions are drawn between the degrees of deliberation +or criminality manifested in the slaying, and the minimum or +maximum penalty is varied accordingly.</p> + +<p>In the French penal code voluntary homicide is called murder +(<i>meurtre</i>, art. 295): but if committed with premeditation or +lying in wait is styled <i>assassinat</i> (<i>guet-apens</i>) (296-298). Poisoning +(even if the poison is not fatal), is specially punished, as +is parricide (on the lines of the obsolete English offence of petty +treason), and infanticide, <i>i.e.</i> the killing of newly-born infants. +Assassination, poisoning and parricide are at present capital +offences; but a bill to abolish the death sentence has been +laid before the French parliament.</p> + +<p>The German code distinguishes between voluntary homicide +which is done with deliberation and such homicide committed +without deliberation (ss. 211, 212), and provides for mitigation +of punishment where the slaying was provoked without fault +in the slayer by any wrongful act or serious insult upon the +slayer or his relatives by the slain (213). Parricide and infanticide +are specially punished (214, 215), as is killing another +person at his express and earnest request (216)—an offence +which would in England be murder—and it is a separate offence +to cause the death of another, the penalty being increased +if the offender was peculiarly bound by office, calling or trade +to use a care which he did not use (222).</p> + +<p>The Italian code punishes as homicide those who with intention +to kill cause the death of another (364). The death penalty is +not imposed, but scales of punishment are provided to deal +with aggravated forms of the offence. Thus <i>ergastolo</i> (penal +servitude for life) is the punishment in the case of homicide +of ascendants and descendants, or with premeditation, or under +the sole impulse of brutal ferocity or with gross cruelty (<i>gravi +sevizie</i>), or by means of arson, inundation, drowning and certain +other crimes, or to secure the gains or conceal the commission, +or to secure immunity from the consequences, of another crime +(366). Personal violence resulting in death inflicted without +intention to kill is punishable <i>minore poenâ</i> (368), and it is +criminal to cause the death of another by imprudence, negligence +or lack of skill in an art or profession (<i>imperitia nella propria +arte o professione</i>), or by non-observance of regulations, orders +or instructions.</p> + +<p>The Spanish code has like those of Italy and France special +punishments for parricide (417) and for assassination, in which +are included killing for reward or promise of reward or by +inundation (418), and for aiding another to commit suicide (421). +Both the Italian and the Spanish codes afford a special mitigation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span> +to infanticide committed to avoid dishonour to the mother of +the infant or her family.</p> + +<p><i>America.</i>—The most notable difference between England +and the United States in regard to the law on this subject is +the recognition by state legislation of degrees in murder. English +law treats all unlawful killing not reducible to manslaughter +as of the same degree of guilt in law. American statutes seek +to discriminate for purposes of punishment between the graver +and the less culpable forms of murder. Thus an act of the +legislature of Pennsylvania (22nd of April 1794) declares “all +murder which shall be perpetrated by means of poison or by +lying in wait or by any other kind of wilful, deliberate and +premeditated killing, or which shall be committed in the perpetration +of or attempt to perpetrate any arson, rape, robbery +or burglary shall be deemed murder of the first degree; and all +other kinds of murder shall be deemed murder of the second +degree.” This legislation has been copied or adopted in many +if not most of the other states. There are also statutory degrees +of manslaughter in the legislation of some of the states. The +differences of legislation, coupled with the power of the jury +in some states to determine the sentence, and the limitations on +the right of the judges to comment on the testimony adduced, +lead to very great differences between the administration of the +law as to homicide in the two countries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Stephen, <i>Hist. Cr. Law, Digest Criminal Law</i>; +<i>Russell on Crimes</i> (7th ed., 1909); Archbold, <i>Criminal Pleading</i> (23rd +ed., 1905); Bishop, <i>American Criminal Law</i> (8th ed.); Pollock +and Maitland, <i>Hist. English Law</i>; Pike, <i>History of Crime</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Select Pleas of Crown, 1 (Selden Society Publ.); Pollock and +Maitland, <i>Hist. Eng. Law</i>, ii. 458, 476, 478.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Appeals remained in the law till 1819, but were long before this +disused. In the middle ages they were used as a means of getting +compensation.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMILETICS<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="homilêtikos">ὁμιλητικός</span>, from <span class="grk" title="homilein">ὁμιλεῖν</span>, to assemble +together), in theology the application of the general principles of +rhetoric to the specific department of public preaching. It +may be further defined as the science that treats of the analysis, +classification, preparation, composition and delivery of sermons. +The formation during recent years of such lectureships as the +“Lyman Beecher” course at Yale University has resulted +in increased attention being given to homiletics, and the published +volumes of this series are the best contribution to the subject.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The older literature is cited exhaustively in W. G. Blaikie, <i>For +the Work of the Ministry</i> (1873); and D. P. Kidder, <i>Treatise on +Homiletics</i> (1864).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMILY,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a simple religious address, less elaborate than +a sermon, and confining itself to the practical exposition of +some ethical topic or some passage of Scripture. The word +<span class="grk" title="homilia">ὁμιλία</span> from <span class="grk" title="homilein">ὁμιλεῖν</span> (<span class="grk" title="homou, eilô">ὁμοῦ, εἴλω</span>), meaning communion, intercourse, +and especially interchange of thought and feeling by +means of words (conversation), was early employed in classical +Greek to denote the instruction which a philosopher gave to +his pupils in familiar talk (Xenophon, <i>Memorabilia</i>, I. ii. 6. 15). +This usage of the word was long preserved (Aelian, <i>Varia Historia</i>, +iii. 19); and the <span class="grk" title="homilêsas">ὁμιλήσας</span> of Acts xx. 11 may safely be taken +to assign not only a free and informal but also a didactic character +to the apostle Paul’s discourse in the upper chamber of Troas, +when “he talked a long while, even till break of day.” That +the “talk” on that occasion partook of the nature of the “exposition” +(<span title="drasha">דרשה</span>) of Scripture, which, undertaken by a priest, +elder or other competent person, had become a regular part +of the service of the Jewish synagogue,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> may also with much +probability be assumed. The custom of delivering expositions +or comments more or less extemporaneous on the lessons of the +day at all events passed over soon and readily into the Christian +Church, as may be gathered from the first <i>Apology</i> (c. 67) of +Justin Martyr, where we read that, in connexion with the practice +of reading portions from the collected writings of the prophets +and from the memoirs of the apostles, it had by that time become +usual for the presiding minister to deliver a discourse in which +“he admonishes the people, stirring them up to an imitation +of the good works which have been brought before their notice.” +This discourse, from its explanatory character, and from the +easy conversational manner of its delivery, was for a long time +called <span class="grk" title="homilia">ὁμιλία</span> rather than <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>: it was regarded as part of +the regular duty of the bishop, but he could devolve it, if he +thought fit, on a presbyter or deacon, or even on a layman. +An early and well-known instance of such delegation is that +mentioned by Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vi. 19) in the case of Origen +(216 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In course of time the exposition of the lesson +for the day came more frequently to assume a more elaborate +character, and to pass into the category of a <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span> or even +<span class="grk" title="philosophia">φιλοσοφία</span> or <span class="grk" title="philosophêma">φιλοσόφημα</span>; but when it did so the fact was as +far as possible denoted by a change of name, the word <span class="grk" title="homilia">ὁμιλία</span> +being reserved for the expository or exegetical lecture as distinguished +from the pulpit oration or sermon.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> While the church +of the 3rd and 4th centuries could point to a brilliant succession +of great preachers, whose discourses were wont to be taken +down in shorthand and circulated among the Christian public +as edifying reading, it does not appear that the supply of ordinary +homiletical talent kept pace with the rapidity of church extension +throughout the Roman empire. In the smaller and remoter +communities it not uncommonly happened that the minister +was totally unqualified to undertake the work of preaching; +and though, as is curiously shown by the case of Rome (Sozomen, +<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vii. 19), the regular exposition of the appointed +lessons was by no means regarded as part of the necessary +business of a church, it was generally felt to be advisable that +some provision should be made for the public instruction of +congregations. Even in Jerome’s time (<i>De Vir. Ill.</i> c. 115), +accordingly, it had become usual to read, in the regular meetings +of the churches which were not so fortunate as to possess a competent +preacher, the written discourses of celebrated fathers; +and at a considerably later period we have on record the canon +of at least one provincial council (that of Vaux, probably the +third, held in 529 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), positively enjoining that if the presbyter +through any infirmity is unable himself to preach, “homilies +of the holy fathers” (homiliae sanctorum patrum) are to be +read by the deacons. Thus the finally fixed meaning of the +word homily as an ecclesiastical term came to be a written discourse +(generally possessing the sanction of some great name) +read in church by or for the officiating clergyman when from +any cause he was unable to deliver a sermon of his own. As +the standard of clerical education sank during the dark ages, +the habit of using the sermons of others became almost universal. +Among the authors whose works were found specially serviceable +in this way may be mentioned the Venerable Bede, who is credited +with no fewer than 140 homilies in the Basel and Cologne editions +of his works, and who certainly was the author of many <i>Homiliae +de Tempore</i> which were much in vogue during the 8th and +following centuries. Prior to Charlemagne it is probable that +several other collections of homilies had obtained considerable +popularity, but in the time of that emperor these had suffered +so many mutilations and corruptions that an authoritative +revision was felt to be imperatively necessary. The result was +the well-known <i>Homiliarium</i>, prepared by Paul Warnefrid, +otherwise known as Paulus Diaconus (<i>q.v.</i>).<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It consists of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span> +176 homilies arranged in order for all the Sundays and festivals +of the ecclesiastical year; and probably was completed before +the year 780. Though written in Latin, its discourses were +doubtless intended to be delivered in the vulgar tongue; the +clergy, however, were often too indolent or too ignorant for this, +although by more than one provincial council they were enjoined +to exert themselves so that they might be able to do so.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Hence +an important form of literary activity came to be the translation +of the homilies approved by the church into the vernacular. +Thus we find Alfred the Great translating the homilies of Bede; +and in a similar manner arose Ælfric’s Anglo-Saxon <i>Homilies</i> +and the German <i>Homiliarium</i> of Ottfried of Weissenburg. +Such <i>Homiliaria</i> as were in use in England down to the end of +the 15th century were at the time of the Reformation eagerly +sought for and destroyed, so that they are now extremely rare, +and the few copies which have been preserved are generally +in a mutilated or imperfect form.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p>The <i>Books of Homilies</i> referred to in the 35th article of the +Church of England originated at a convocation in 1542, at +which it was agreed “to make certain homilies for stay of such +errors as were then by ignorant preachers sparkled among +the people.” Certain homilies, accordingly, composed by dignitaries +of the lower house, were in the following year produced +by the prolocutor; and after some delay a volume was published +in 1547 entitled <i>Certain sermons or homilies appointed by the +King’s Majesty to be declared and read by all parsons, vicars, +or curates every Sunday in their churches where they have cure</i>. +In 1563 a second <i>Book of Homilies</i> was submitted along with +the 39 Articles to convocation; it was issued the same year +under the title <i>The second Tome of Homilies of such matters +as were promised and instituted in the former part of Homilies, +set out by the authority of the Queen’s Majesty, and to be read in +every Parish Church agreeably</i>. Of the twelve homilies contained +in the first book, four (the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) are probably +to be attributed to Cranmer, and one (the 12th) possibly to +Latimer; one (the 6th) is by Bonner; another (the 5th) is +by John Harpsfield, archdeacon of London, and another (the +11th) by Thomas Becon, one of Cranmer’s chaplains. The +authorship of the others is unknown. The second book consists +of twenty-one homilies, of which the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 7th, 8th, 9th, +16th and 17th have been assigned to Jewel, the 4th to Grindal, +the 5th and 6th to Pilkington and the 18th to Parker. See the +critical edition by Griffiths, Oxford, 1869. The homilies are not +now read publicly, though they are sometimes appealed to in +controversies affecting the doctrines of the Anglican Church.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Philo, <i>Quod omnis probus liber</i>, sec. 12 (ed. Mangey ii. 458; +cf. ii. 630).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sozomen (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vii. 19) mentions that in Alexandria in his +day the bishop alone was in the custom of preaching; but this, he +implies, was a very exceptional state of matters, dating only from the +time of Arius.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> To the more strictly exegetical lectures the names <span class="grk" title="exêgêseis, +exêgêmata, exêgêtika, ektheseis">ἐξηγήσεις, ἐξηγήματα, ἐξηγητικά, ἐκθέσεις</span>, were sometimes applied. But as no +popular discourse delivered from the pulpit could ever be exclusively +expository and as on the other hand every sermon professing to be +based on Scripture required to be more or less “exegetical” and +“textual,” it would obviously be sometimes very hard to draw the +line of distinction between <span class="grk" title="homilia">ὁμιλία</span> and <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>. It would be difficult to +define very precisely the difference in French between a “conférence” +and a “sermon”; and the same difficulty seems to have been experienced +in Greek by Photius, who says of the eloquent pulpit orations +of Chrysostom, that they were <span class="grk" title="homiliai">ὁμιλίαι</span> rather than <span class="grk" title="logoi">λόγοι</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Manuscript copies are preserved at Heidelberg, Darmstadt, +Frankfort, Giessen, Cassel and other places. It was first printed at +Spires in 1482. In the Cologne edition of 1530 the title runs—<i>Homiliae +seu mavis sermones sive conciones ad populum, praestantissimorum +ecclesiae doctorum Hieronymi, Augustini, Ambrosii, Gregorii, +Origenis, Chrysostomi, Bedae, &c., in hunc ordinem digestae per +Alchuinum levitam, idque injungente ei Carolo M. Rom. Imp. cui a +secretis fuit</i>. Though thus attributed here to Alcuin, who is known +to have revised the Lectionary or <i>Comes Hieronymi</i>, the compilation +of the <i>Homiliarium</i> is in the emperor’s own commission entrusted to +Paul, to whom it is assigned in the earlier printed editions also. A +comparison of different editions shows that the contents increased +with the ever-growing number of saints’ days and festivals, new +discourses by later preachers like Bernard being constantly added.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Neander, <i>Church History</i>, v. 174 (Eng. trans. of 1851).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> An ancient English metrical homiliarium is preserved in the +library of the university of Cambridge. Earlier versions of it have +existed, and a portion of perhaps the earliest copy, dating from about +the middle of the 13th century, was published in 1862 by Mr J. Small, +librarian to the university of Edinburgh.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMOEOPATHY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (from the Greek <span class="grk" title="homoios">ὅμοιος</span>, like, and <span class="grk" title="pathos">πάθος</span>, +feeling). The distinctive system of therapeutics which bears +the name of homoeopathy is based upon the law <i>similia similibus +curentur</i>,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the originator of which was S. C. F. Hahnemann, a +native of Meissen in Germany, who discovered his new principle +while he was experimenting with cinchona bark in 1790, and +announced it in 1796.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The essential tenets of homoeopathy—with +which is contrasted the “allopathy” (<span class="grk" title="allos">ἄλλος</span>, other) of +the “orthodox” therapeutics—are that the cure of disease +is effected by drugs that are capable of producing in a healthy +individual symptoms similar to those of the disease to be treated, +and that to ascertain the curative virtues of any drug it must +be “proved” upon healthy persons—that is, taken by individuals +of both sexes in a state of health in gradually increasing doses. +The manifestations of drug action thus produced are carefully +recorded, and this record of “drug-diseases,” after being verified +by repetition on many “provers,” constitutes the distinguishing +feature of the homoeopathic materia medica, which, while it +embraces the sources, preparation and uses of drugs as known +to the orthodox pharmacopoeia, contains, in addition, the +various “provings” obtained in the manner above described.</p> + +<p>Besides the promulgation of the doctrine of similars, Hahnemann +also enunciated a theory to account for the origin of all +chronic diseases, which he asserted were derived either directly +or remotely from psora (the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or +sycosis (fig-wart disease). This doctrine, although at first +adopted by some of the enthusiastic followers of Hahnemann, +was almost immediately discarded by very many who had a +firm belief in his law of cure. In the light of advancing science +such theories are entirely untenable, and it was unfortunate for +the system of medicine which he founded that Hahnemann +should have promulgated such an hypothesis. It served as a +target for the shafts of ridicule showered upon the system by +those who were its opponents, and even at the present time +there still exists in the minds of many misinformed persons +the conviction that homoeopathy is a system of medicine that +bases the origin of all chronic disease on the itch or on syphilis +or fig-warts.</p> + +<p>Another peculiar feature of homoeopathy is its posology or +theory of dose. It may be asserted that homoeopathic posology +has nothing more to do with the original law of cure than the +psora (itch) theory has, and that it was one of the later creations +of Hahnemann’s mind. Most homoeopathists believe more or +less in the action of minute doses of medicine, but it must not +be considered as an integral part of the system. The dose is +the corollary, not the principle. Yet in the minds of many, +infinitesimal doses of medicine stand for homoeopathy itself, +the real law of cure being completely put into the background. +The question of dose has also divided the members of the homoeopathic +school into bitter factions, and is therefore a matter for +careful consideration. Many employ low potencies,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> mother +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span> +tinctures, first, second, sixth dilutions, &c., while others use +hundred-thousandths and millionths.</p> + +<p>Some homoeopathists of the present day still believe with +Hahnemann that, even after the material medicinal particles +of a drug have been subdivided to the fullest extent, the continuation +of the dynamization or trituration or succussion develops a +spiritual acurative agency, and that the higher the potency, the +more subtle and more powerful is the curative action. Hahnemann +says (<i>Organon</i>, 3rd American edition, p. 101), “It is only +by means of the spiritual influence of a morbific agent that our +spiritual vital power can be diseased, and in like manner only +by the spiritual operation of medicine can health be restored.” +This is absolutely denied by others. Thus there exist two schools +among the adherents of homoeopathy. On the one hand there +are the Hahnemannians, the “Purists” or “High Potency” +men, who still profess to regard the <i>Organon</i> as their Bible, +who believe in all the teachings of Hahnemann, who adhere +in their prescriptions to the single dose, the single medicine, and +the highest possible potency, and regard the doctrine of the +spiritual dynamization acquired by trituration and succussion +as indubitable. On the other side there are the “Rational” +or “Low Potency” men, who believe in the universality of +the law of cure, but think that it cannot always be applied, on +account of an imperfect materia medica and a lack of knowledge +on the part of the physician. They believe that in many +cases of severe and acute pain palliatives are required, and that +they are free to use all the adjuvants at present known to science +for the relief of suffering humanity—massage, balneology, +electricity, hygiene, &c. The American Institute of Homoeopathy, +the national body of the United States, has adopted the +following resolution and ordered it to be published conspicuously +in each number of the <i>Transactions</i> of the society: “A homoeopathic +physician is one who adds to his knowledge of medicine +a special knowledge of homoeopathic therapeutics. All that +pertains to the great field of medical learning is his by tradition, +by inheritance, by right.”</p> + +<p>It is claimed that the effect produced upon both the laity and +the general profession of medicine by the introduction of homoeopathy +was salutary in many ways. It diminished the quantity +of medicine that was formerly considered necessary for the +eradication of disease, and thus revealed the fact that the +<i>vis medicatrix naturae</i> is often sufficient, with occasional and +gentle assistance, to cure many diseases, especially those fevers +that run a definite and regular course. Corroboration of the +law <i>similia similibus curentur</i> is seen, according to homoeopathists, +in the adoption of the serum therapy, which consists in the +treatment of the most malignant diseases (diphtheria, lock-jaw, +typhoid fever, tuberculosis, bubonic plague) by introducing +into the system a modified form (similar) of those poisons that +produce them in the healthy individual. Hahnemann undoubtedly +deserves the credit of being the first to break decidedly +with the old school of medical practice, in which, forgetful of +the teachings of Hippocrates, nature was either overlooked or +rudely opposed by wrong and ungentle methods. We can +scarcely now estimate the force of character and of courage +which was implied in his abandoning the common lines of +medicine. More than this, he and his followers showed results +in the treatment of disease which compared very favourably +with the results of contemporary orthodox practice.</p> + +<p>Homoeopathy has given prominence to the therapeutical +side of medicine, and has done much to stimulate the study +of the physiological action of drugs. It has done service in +directing more special attention to various powerful drugs, +such as aconite, nux vomica, belladonna, and to the advantage +of giving them in simpler forms than were common before the +days of Hahnemann. But in the medical profession homoeopathy +nevertheless remains under the stigma of being a dissenting +sect. It has been publicly announced that if the homoeopathists +would abolish the name “homoeopathy,” and remove it from +their periodicals, colleges, hospitals, dispensaries and asylums, +they would be received within the fold of the regular profession. +These conditions have been accepted by a few homoeopathists +who have become members of the most prominent medical +association in the United States.</p> + +<p>Homoeopathy as it exists to-day can, in the opinion of its +adherents, stand by itself, and its progress for a century in face +of prolonged and determined opposition appears to its upholders +to be evidence of its truth. There are still, indeed, in both +schools of medical thought, men who stand fast by their old +principles. There are homoeopathists who can see nothing +but evil in the practice of their brothers of the orthodox school, +as there are allopathists who still regard homoeopathy as a +humbug and a sham. There are, however, liberal-minded men +in both schools, who look upon the adoption of any safe and +efficient method of curing disease as the birthright of the true +physician, and who allow every man to prescribe for his patients +as his conscience may dictate, and, provided he be educated +in all the collateral branches of medical science, are ready to +exchange views for the good of suffering humanity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Great Britain.</i>—Homoeopathy is not rapidly extending in Great +Britain, and its recognition has been slow. The first notice taken +of the new system of therapeutics was by the Medical Society of +London in 1826. In 1827 the physician of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, +Dr F. H. F. Quin (1799-1878), who had previously studied +homoeopathy in Germany and practised it in Italy, came to England, +and it was through his efforts that the system was introduced. +Three other physicians, Dr Belluomini, Dr Romani and Dr Tagliani, +claimed priority, but careful research established Dr Quin’s title. +Quin was a successful man professionally and socially, and brought +upon himself in a short time the anathema of the Royal College of +Physicians. In 1844 Dr William Henderson, professor of pathology +in the university of Edinburgh, embraced the Hahnemannian system. +A storm of opposition arose, and Professor J. Y. Simpson (the discoverer +of chloroform anaesthesia) published a volume, with the +alliterative title, <i>Homoeopathy, its Tenets and Tendencies, Theoretical, +Theological, and Therapeutical</i>. This brochure was answered by +Professor Henderson, the title of his book being <i>Homoeopathy Fairly +Represented</i>. From 1827 to 1837 there were but a dozen practitioners +of homoeopathy in London, but during 1837 to 1847 the number +increased to between seventy and eighty. In 1857 there were +upwards of two hundred practitioners in the kingdom, with thirty-three +institutions in which the law of similars was used as a basis of +practice. In 1867 the increase was not so rapid, the number being +261. A society was formed about this period for “the protection of +homoeopathic practitioners and students,” which proved of great +value in binding the sect together. In 1870 congresses were established, +and annual meetings held, which have continued to the present +time. In 1901 there were over three hundred homoeopathic physicians +in the British Isles, of whom between seventy and eighty were in +London alone. There were seventy-nine chemists, of whom seventeen +were located in London, and eighty-two towns and cities in the +country contained from one to ten homoeopathic practitioners each, +together with many established chemists for dispensing homoeopathic +medicines. The British Homoeopathic Society was founded by +Quin in 1844, and has numerous members and fellows, besides +corresponding members in all portions of the world, including +Australia, India and Tasmania. The London Homoeopathic Hospital +was founded in 1850, also largely through the efforts of Quin, and a +few years afterwards moved to Great Ormond Street. During the +cholera epidemic of 1854 the statistics of this hospital showed a +mortality of 16.4%, against 51.8% of other metropolitan charities. +The London Homoeopathic Hospital has a convalescent home under +its management at Eastbourne. There are also dispensaries in Ealing +and West Middlesex, Kensington, Notting Hill and Bayswater. +Similar institutions are located in Bath, Birkenhead, Birmingham, +Bootle, Bournemouth, Brighton, Bristol, Bromley, Cheltenham, +Cheshire, Croydon, Dublin, Eastbourne, Edinburgh, Folkestone, +Hastings and St Leonards, Ipswich, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool, +Newcastle, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Plymouth, Torquay, +Tunbridge Wells, Weston-super-Mare. The homoeopathic journals +include the <i>Homoeopathic World</i>, the <i>London Homoeopathic Hospital</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span> +<i>Reports</i>, the <i>Journal of the British Homoeopathic Society</i>, and the +<i>British Homoeopathic Review</i>, the last being issued by the British +Homoeopathic Association, which was founded in 1902 for the purpose +of developing and extending homoeopathy in Great Britain. The +<i>British Journal of Homoeopathy</i> was first published in 1843, and was +edited by Drs Drysdale, Russell and Black. For many years it was +the foremost homoeopathic journal in the world. Its motto was <i>In +certis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus charitas</i>. One reason why +homoeopathy has not advanced as rapidly in the British Isles as in +America is said to be the discrimination exercised against it by the +General Medical Council, and another is want of cohesion amongst +the homoeopaths themselves.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—Homoeopathy was introduced into the United +States by Dr Hans Birch Gram, who was born in Boston. His +father being Danish, Gram in his eighteenth year went to Copenhagen, +where he graduated in 1814. In 1823 he became acquainted +with homoeopathy, and brought a knowledge of it to America in +1825 when he settled in New York. The first homoeopathic association +was formed in 1833 in Philadelphia, the second in New York, +1834, and homoeopathy became known in the different states somewhat +in the following order: New York, 1825; Pennsylvania, +1828; Louisiana, 1836; Connecticut, 1837; Massachusetts, 1837-1838; +Maryland, 1837; Delaware, 1837; Kentucky, 1837; Vermont, +1838; Rhode Island, 1839; Ohio, 1839; New Jersey, 1840; +Maine, 1840; New Hampshire, 1840; Michigan, 1841; Georgia, +1842; Wisconsin, 1842; Alabama, 1843; Illinois, 1843; Tennessee, +1844; Missouri, 1844; Texas, 1848; Minnesota, 1852; Nebraska, +1862; Colorado, 1863; Iowa, 1871. After 1871 the spread of the +system was rapid throughout every state in the Union, and it is in +the United States that homoeopathy principally flourishes. There +are thousands of homoeopathic physicians, and their clients number +several millions. It may be noted that departments of homoeopathy +are connected with the universities of Boston, Michigan, Iowa, +Minnesota and Kansas City.</p> + +<p><i>Canada.</i>—The early history of homoeopathy can be traced back +nearly to 1850 in the province of Quebec. In the Dominion of +Canada the various provinces control the licensing of physicians, +excepting in Quebec, which is the only province having a separate +homoeopathic board of examiners. This is under the control of the +Montreal homoeopathic Association, and is known as the College +of Homoeopathic Physicians and Surgeons of Montreal. Three +examiners are annually appointed by the association. Successful +candidates receive the diploma of the college, and are entitled to +add to their degree the letters M.C.H.P.S. A certificate of successful +examination is forwarded to the lieutenant-governor at Quebec, who, +“if satisfied of the loyalty, integrity and good morals of the applicant, +may grant him a license to practise surgery, physic and midwifery, or +either of them, in the province of Quebec.” The word “loyalty” has +been decided by the provincial secretary to mean a British subject. +This is the only government medical license now issued in the British +empire, the others being by provincial boards or colleges of physicians +and surgeons. In 1894 there was no homoeopathic institution in +the province; at present the Montreal Homoeopathic Hospital is in +active operation. Two homoeopathic papers are published monthly—the +<i>Homoeopathic Record</i> in Montreal, and the <i>Homoeopathic Messenger</i> +in Toronto. In 1870, in the province of Ontario, the three schools, +allopathic, homoeopathic and eclectic, united for examining purposes +into one board called the medical council, seventeen members representing +the old school and five the other two systems. Finally the +eclectics were merged in the old school, the board appointing five of +Hahnemann’s followers for examining purposes. Grace Hospital at +Toronto (erected 1892) was begun as a dispensary in 1887.</p> + +<p><i>Germany.</i>—In 1810 Hahnemann published his <i>Organon</i>, which +was the starting-point of homoeopathy in Germany. In 1811 an +endeavour was made to found an institution in Leipzig in which +practitioners might learn the new method of treatment theoretically +and practically, but it was not a success, as the entire tide of professional +opinion was against the system. In 1829, at the celebration +of the fiftieth anniversary of Hahnemann’s doctorate, the +German Central Society was organized, holding its first meeting in +1830. In the university hospital of Munich some experiments +were made to test the efficacy of homoeopathic medicines, but +these were not successful. In 1831 the government prohibited +homoeopathists from dispensing their own medicines; this was a +severe blow to the system. In 1834 there was a division among the +homoeopathists themselves, which much retarded the progress of +the school. A homoeopathic hospital was established about this +time (January 1833) in Leipzig, but there was such constant wrangling +among the physicians connected with it that its sphere of usefulness +was curtailed, and it was finally converted into a dispensary. +The Baden Homoeopathic Society was established in 1834. The +homoeopathic hospital in Munich was established in 1836, but +suffered a similar fate to that of Leipzig, and was converted into a +dispensary. The rather equivocal success of these hospitals in +Saxony and Bavaria was in direct contrast to the fate of two newly +established hospitals in Austria, one in Vienna and the other in Linz, +which were very successful, and aroused great interest both among +physicians and laymen. During the political confusion of 1846 and +1849 there was complete stagnation of everything medical in Germany. +But during all these years, though the public institutions were few, +the literature on homoeopathic subjects became very extensive, and +exercised a significant influence upon the system in all parts of the +world. Hahnemann died in 1843, and on the 10th of August 1851 a +bronze monument to him was unveiled at Leipzig. The Leipzig +dispensary lived thirty-three years. From 1842 to 1874 there were +treated in this institution 65,106 patients. In 1901 there were about +250 homoeopathic physicians in Germany; they appeared to be +strongest at Berlin, in the province of Brandenburg, in Pomerania +and Westphalia, Saxony, Hessen and in Württemberg.</p> + +<p><i>Austria-Hungary.</i>—Homoeopathy was introduced into Austria +about 1817, and in 1819 its practice was forbidden by law. Shortly +afterwards the physician attending the archduke John became a +homoeopath. In 1825 the doctrine was introduced into Vienna. +To test the efficacy of the system Francis I. ordered that experiments +be made with homoeopathic medicines, and for this purpose a ward +furnished with twelve beds was allotted. The results were satisfactory +to the new system, and it made gigantic strides in Vienna. +During the cholera epidemic of 1836 an increased impetus was given +to the new school by the reported brilliant successes of the treatment. +Societies were founded and journals published. In 1846 a second +hospital was founded. In 1850 a third hospital was opened, and +clinical lectures upon the system were delivered. In 1873 the Society +of Homoeopathic Physicians was formed. Between the years 1873 +and 1893 homoeopathy declined. In 1901, in thirty-seven cities +and towns there were to be found about fifty physicians and two +hospitals, and it was estimated that about seventy-five more were +scattered in Moravia, Bohemia, Tirol, Salzburg and the coast +provinces. There is a professorship of homoeopathy at the University +of Budapest, and homoeopathic clinics are held at the new Rochus +Hospital in Üllöi Street, and also in the homoeopathic department +of the Hospital Bethesda of the Reformed Community. The +Elizabeth Hospital, exclusively homoeopathic, has existed for many +years.</p> + +<p><i>Russia.</i>—The homoeopathic system was introduced into Russia in +1823. In 1825 great impetus was given to the new doctrine by the +conversion of Dr Bigel, physician to the grand duke Constantine. +In 1829 the grand duke ordered a series of experiments to be conducted +to prove the truth or fallacy of homoeopathy, and they +demonstrated the success of the new school. In 1841 a hospital was +established in Moscow, and in 1849 similar institutions were founded +in Nizhniy-Novgorod. Since then homoeopathy has been steadily +practised, and has penetrated to the remotest parts of Russia. In +1881 the civil engineers proposed to commemorate the virtues of the +emperor Alexander II. by the erection of a hospital; a committee for +collecting funds was created, and 58,064 roubles were handed to the +Charity Society of the followers of homoeopathy at St Petersburg for +the erection and founding of a homoeopathic hospital. The foundation +stone of the edifice was laid on 19th June 1893, the emperor +Alexander III. giving 5000 roubles. The inauguration of a new +dispensary and a pharmacy took place on the 19th of April 1898, and +the hospital itself, intended originally for fifty beds, was opened on +the 1st of November 1898. There are sixteen free beds, three of them +being in the name of the emperor Nicholas, the empress Maria +Feodorovna, and the emperor Alexander III. On the 28th of +January 1899 an imperial edict was issued granting the rights of +public service to the doctors of the hospital and dispensaries of the +Charity Society, thus placing them on an equality with the doctors +of the prevailing medical school.</p> + +<p><i>France.</i>—Homoeopathy was first introduced into France in 1830 +by Count de Guidi, doctor of medicine, doctor of science, and +inspector of the university, who practised in Lyons. About the +same year Dr Antoine Petroz, widely known by his <i>Grand dictionnaire +des sciences médicales</i>, began practising homoeopathy in Paris, +and his establishment became the headquarters of the new system +there. In 1835 Hahnemann himself came to the capital. In 1832 +the homoeopathic method of treating disease was introduced into +the Hospice de Choisy, and in 1842 into the hospital of Carentan. +Tessier practised the new doctrine in his wards in the Hospital St +Marguérite, and in the Children’s Hospital up to the year 1862, when +he retired. The first homoeopathic society was established in 1832 +(the Société Gallicain), Hahnemann becoming president in 1835; +in 1845 the Société de Médecine Homéopathique was organized; +and in 1860 the two were united for the better interests of the school. +In 1901 there were at Paris three hospitals—the Hospital St Jacques +with fifty-five beds, the Hahnemann Hospital with thirty-five beds, +and the new Protestant Hospital for Children with twenty-five-beds. +At Lyons there is the Hospital St Luc. The medical journals include +<i>L’Art médical, La Revue homéopathique belge, Journal belge d’homéopathie, +La Thérapeutique Intégrale, La Revue homéopathique française</i>. +In the year 1900 the medical officers of the republic having supervision +over the medical department of the International Exhibition +officially recognized the members of the homoeopathic school, and +arranged for the proper accommodation and reception of the International +Congress of Homoeopathic Physicians held in June. On +the 30th of that month, with appropriate ceremonies, the remains of +Hahnemann were removed from the cemetery of Montmartre and +deposited in Père-la-Chaise, and a monument bearing a suitable +inscription was erected to the memory of the founder of homoeopathy.</p> + +<p><i>Italy.</i>—The Austrians when they entered Naples in 1821 brought +homoeopathy into Italy, the general in command of the army being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span> +a devoted friend of Hahnemann. In 1828 Dr Count Sebastian de +Guidi came from Lyons and assisted in spreading the doctrine. +During the period from 1830 to 1860 many physicians practised +homoeopathy, and the literature on the subject became extensive. +A homoeopathic clinic was established and a ward opened in Trinity +Hospital at Naples, and a homoeopathic physician was appointed +to the count of Syracuse. During the severe cholera epidemics of +1854, 1855, 1865 the success of homoeopathic treatment of that +disease was so marked under the care of Dr Rubini that the attention +of the authorities was directed to the system. In 1860 the homoeopathic +practice was introduced into the Spedale della Cesarea, and +since that period homoeopathy has been recognized with more or less +favour in most of the cities. The Italian Homoeopathic Institute +is recognized by royal warrant as an established institution, and its +regulations are approved by the government. In Turin the legal +seat of the Homoeopathic Institute, there is a hospital under the +management of the State Association. The homoeopathic medical +press consists of the <i>Revista Omiopatica</i>, established in 1855, and +<i>L’Omiopatico in Italia</i>, the organ of the Italian Homoeopathic +Institute, which first appeared in 1884.</p> + +<p><i>Spain.</i>—Homoeopathy was introduced into Spain in 1829 by a +physician to the Royal Commission sent by the king of Naples to +attend the marriage of Maria Christina with Don Ferdinand VII. +Shortly after this, a merchant of Cadiz visited Hahnemann in +Coethen, and was cured of a serious disorder; he returned to Spain +with a supply of homoeopathic literature, and immediately sent a +medical student to Leipzig to study the new system. In 1843 +many cases of cholera were treated homoeopathically in Madrid. +The civil war, which did not terminate until 1840, arrested all +medical investigation in Spain, but in 1843 there still existed in +Madrid five pharmacies and a number of homoeopathic physicians. +About this time Dr Tosi Nuñez returned from an investigation of +the new system with Hahnemann, and owing to his success in the +treatment of disease was created one of the physicians of the bedchamber +to the queen, who soon afterwards conferred upon him the +title of marquis, with the grand crosses of the Charles III. and of the +Civil Order of Beneficiencia. This recognition by high authority +gave an impetus to homoeopathy which has continued ever since.</p> + +<p><i>Denmark.</i>—Homoeopathy was unknown in Denmark until the +year 1821, when Hans Christian Lund, a medical practitioner, +adopted it. Hahnemann, however, had been both before and after +that time consulted by Danes, and consequently homoeopathic +therapeutics was recognized in different parts of the country. +Lund translated many of Hahnemann’s works into Danish, as well +as those of other eminent members of the new school.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. T. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An interesting controversy has been carried on between the +members of the homoeopathic school as to the proper construction of +the Latin motto which constitutes its acknowledged basis. For +many years the verb at the conclusion of the sentence was used in the +indicative mood, <i>curantur</i>, thus making the sentence a positive one. +After extended research it has been discovered that Hahnemann +himself never employed the word <i>curantur</i> as descriptive of his law +of cure, but always wrote <i>curentur</i>, which greatly modifies the meaning +of the phrase. If the subjunctive mood be used, the motto reads, +“Let similars be treated by similars,” or “similars should be treated +by similars.” The reading <i>similia similibus curentur</i> was officially +adopted as the correct reading of the sentence by the American +Institute of Homoeopathy at its session held in Atlantic City, N.J., +on the 20th of June 1899; and the words are so inscribed on the +monument erected to the memory of Hahnemann and unveiled in +Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of June 1900, and also are those +carved upon the tomb of Hahnemann in Père-la-Chaise, Paris.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Some points of Hahnemann’s system were borrowed from +previous writers—as he himself, though imperfectly, admits. Not +to mention others, he was anticipated by Hippocrates, and especially +by Paracelsus (1495-1541). The identical words <i>similia similibus +curantur</i> occur in the Geneva edition (1658) of the works of Paracelsus, +as a marginal heading of one of the paragraphs; and in the “Fragmenta +Medica,” <i>Op. Omnia</i>, i. 168, 169, occurs the following +passage:</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Simile similis cura; non contrarium.</i></p> + +<p>“Quisquis enim cum laude agere Medicum volet, is has nugas +longe valere jubeat. Nec enim ullus unquam morbus calidus per +frigida sanatus fuit, nec frigidus per calida. Simile autem suum +simile frequenter curavit, scilicet Mercurius sulphur, et sulphur +Mercurium; et sal ilia, velut et illa sal. Interdum quidem cum +proprietate junctum frigidum sanavit calidum; sed id non factum +est ratione frigidi, verum ratione naturae alterius, quam a primo illo +omnino diversam facimus.”</p> + +<p>It is very remarkable that in Hahnemann’s enumeration of authors +who anticipated him in regard to the doctrine of <i>Similia</i>, he makes +no mention of the views of Paracelsus, though the very words seem +to be taken from the works of that physician. The other point in +Hahnemann’s doctrine—that medicines should be tried first on +healthy persons—he admits to have been enunciated by Haller. +Roughly it has been acted on by physicians in all ages, but certainly +more systematically since Hahnemann’s time. In the most characteristic +feature of Hahnemann’s practice—“the potentizing,” “dynamizing,” +of medicinal substances—he appears to have been original.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Two methods of preparing medicines are recognized, one on the +decimal, the other on the centesimal scale. The pure tinctures are denominated +“mother tinctures,” and represented by the Greek φ. To +make a first decimal dilution or first decimal trituration, 10 drops of +the mother tincture, or 10 grains of a crude substance, are mixed with +90 drops of alcohol, or 90 grains of <i>saccharum lactis</i> (sugar of milk) +respectively. The liquid is thoroughly shaken, or the powder carefully +triturated, and the bottles containing them marked 1 X, meaning +first decimal dilution or trituration. To make the 2 X potency, +10 drops or 10 grains of this first dilution or trituration are mixed +with 90 drops of pure alcohol, or 90 grains of milk sugar, and are +succussed or triturated as above described, and marked 2 X dilution +or trituration. This subdivision of particles may be continued to an +indefinite degree. On the Hahnemannian or centesimal scale the +medicines are prepared in the same manner, the difference being that +1 drop or grain is mixed with 99 drops or grains, to make the first +centesimal, which is marked 1 c or 1 simply, and so on for the second +and higher dilutions.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMONYM<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="homônomos">ὁμώνομος</span>, having the same name, from +<span class="grk" title="homos">ὅμος</span>, same, alike, and <span class="grk" title="onoma">ὄνομα</span>, name), a term in philology for +those words which differ in sense but are alike either in sound +or spelling or both. Words alike only in spelling but not in sound, +<i>e.g.</i> “bow,” are sometimes called <i>homographs</i>; and words alike +only in sound but not in spelling, <i>e.g.</i> “meat,” “meet,” <i>homophones</i>. +Skeat (<i>Etymol. Dict.</i>) gives a list of English homonyms.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOMS,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hums</span> (anc. <i>Emesa</i> or <i>Emessa</i>, near the Hittite +<i>Kadesh</i>), a town of Syria, on the right bank of the Orontes, +and capital of a sanjak in the vilayet of Syria (Damascus). +Pop. 30,000 (20,000 Moslem, 10,000 Christian). The importance +of the place arises from its command of the great north road +from Egypt, Palestine and Damascus by the Orontes valley. +Invading armies from the south have often been opposed near +Homs, from the time of Rameses II., who had to fight the +battle of Kadesh, to that of Ibrahim Pasha, who broke the first +line of Ottoman defence in 1831 by his victory there. Ancient +Emesa, in the district of Apamea, was a very old Syrian city, +devoted to the worship of Baal, the sun god, of whose great +temple the emperor Heliogabalus was originally a priest (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +218). As a centre of native influences it was overawed by the +Seleucid foundation of Apamea; but it opposed the Roman +advance. There Aurelian crushed, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 272, the Syrian +national movement led by Zenobia. Caracalla made it a Roman +colony, and later it became the Capital of a small province, +<i>Phoenicia Libanesia</i> or <i>ad Libanum</i>. About 630 it was captured +by the Moslem leader, Khalid ibn Walid, who is buried there. +It now became the capital of a <i>jund</i>, or military district, which +under the Omayyad Caliphs extended from Palmyra to the +sea. Under the Arabs it was one of the largest cities in Syria, +with walls and a strong citadel, which stood on a hill, occupying +perhaps the site of the great sun temple. The ruins of this +castle, blown up by Ibrahim Pasha, are still the most conspicuous +feature of Homs, and contain many remains of ancient +buildings. Its men were noted for their courage in war, and its +women for their beauty. The climate was extolled for its +excellence, and the land for its fertility. A succession of gardens +bordered the Orontes, and the vineyards were remarkable for +their abundant yield of grapes. When the place capitulated +the great church of St John was divided between the Christians +and Moslems, an arrangement which apparently lasted until +the arrival of the Turks. At the end of the 11th century it +fell into crusading hands, but was recovered by the Moslems +under Saladin in 1187. Its decay probably dates from the +invasion of the Mongols (1260), who fought two important +battles with the Egyptians (1281 and 1299) in its vicinity. The +construction of a carriage road to Tripoli led to a partial revival +of prosperity and to an export of cereals and fruit, and this +growth has, in turn, been accentuated by the railway, which now +connects it with Aleppo and the Damascus-Beirut line. The +district is well planted with mulberries and produces much silk, +most of which is worked up on the spot.</p> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HO-NAN,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a central province of China, bounded N. partly +by the Hwang-ho (which it crosses to the west of Ho-nan Fu, +forming an arm northwards between the provinces of Shan-si +and Chih-li), on the W. by Shen-si, on the S. by Hu-peh, and +on the E. by Ngan-hui. It occupies an area of 81,000 sq. m., +with a population of about 22,100,000, and contains nine +prefectural cities. Its capital is K’ai-fêng Fu. The prefecture +of Hwai-k’ing, north of the Hwang-ho, consists of a fertile plain, +“rendered park-like by numerous plantations of trees and +shrubs, among which thick bosquets of bamboo contrast with +the gloomy groves of cypress.” All kinds of cereals grow +luxuriantly, and the general productiveness of the district +is indicated by the extreme denseness of the population. The +most noticeable feature in that portion of the province which +is properly called Ho-nan is the Fu-niu Shan range, which runs +east and west across this part of the province. Coal is found on +the south of the Hwang-ho in the districts of Ho-nan Fu, the +ancient capital, Lushan and Ju Chow. The chief products +of the province are, however, agricultural, especially in the +valley of the Tang-ho and Pai-ho, which is an extensive and +densely populated plain running north and south from the +Fu-niu Shan. Cotton is also grown extensively and forms +the principal article of export, and a considerable quantity +of wild silk is produced from the Fu-niu Shan. Three roads +from the east and south unite at Ho-nan Fu, and one from the +west. The southern road leads to Ju Chow, where it forks, +one branch going to Shi-ki-chên, connecting the trade from +Fan-cheng, Han-kow, and the Han river generally, and the other +to Chow-kia-k’ow near the city of Ch’ên-chow Fu, at the confluence +of the three rivers which unite to form the Sha-ho; the +second road runs parallel with the Hwang-ho to K’ai-fêng Fu; +the third crosses the Hwang-ho at Mêngching Hien, and passes +thence in a north-easterly direction to Hwai-k’ing Fu, Sew-wu +Hien and Wei-hui Fu, at which place it joins the high road +from Peking to Fan-cheng; and the western road follows the +southern bank of the Hwang-ho for 250 m. to its great bend +at the fortified pass known as the Tung-kwan, where it joins the +great wagon road leading through Shan-si from Peking to Si-gan +Fu. Ho-nan is now traversed north to south by the Peking-Hankow +railway (completed 1905). The line crosses the Hwang-ho +by Yung-tse and runs east of the Fu-niu Shan. Branch lines +serve Ho-nan Fu and K’ai-fêng Fu.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONAVAR,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Onore</span>, a seaport of British India, in the +North Kanara district of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 6929. It is +mentioned as a place of trade as early as the 16th century, and +is associated with two interesting incidents in Anglo-Indian +history. In 1670, the English factors here had a bull-dog +which unfortunately killed a sacred bull, in revenge for which +they were all murdered, to the number of eighteen persons, +by an enraged mob. In 1784 it was bravely defended for three +months by Captain Torriano and a detachment of sepoys against +the army of Tippoo Sultan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONDA,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> or <span class="sc">San Bartolomeo de Honda</span>, a town of the +department of Tolima, Colombia, on the W. bank of the Magdalena +river, 580 m. above its mouth. In 1906 Mr F. Loraine Petre +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span> +estimated the population at 7000. It is about 650 ft. above +sea-level and stands at the entrance to a narrow valley formed +by spurs of the Central Cordillera, through which a picturesque +little stream, called the Guali, flows into the Magdalena. The +town overlooks the rapids of the Magdalena, and is shut in +closely by spurs of the Eastern and Central Cordilleras. The +climate is hot and damp and the temperature frequently rises +to 102° F. in the shade. Honda dates back to the beginning of +the 17th century, and has been one of the important centres of +traffic in South America for three hundred years. Within the +city there is an iron bridge across the Guali, and there is a suspension +bridge across the Magdalena at the head of the rapids. A +railway 18 m. long connects with the landing place of La Dorada, +or Las Yeguas, where the steamers of the lower Magdalena +discharge and receive their cargoes (the old landing at Carocali +nearer the rapids having been abandoned), and with Arrancaplumas, +1½ m. above, where navigation of the upper river +begins. Up to 1908 the greater part of the traffic for Bogotá +crossed the river at this point, and was carried on mule-back +over the old <i>camino real</i>, which was at best only a rough bridlepath +over which transportation to Bogotá (67 m. distant) was +laborious and highly expensive; now the transshipment is +made to smaller steamboats on the upper river for carriage to +Girardot, 93 m. distant, from which place a railway runs to the +Bogotá plateau. Honda was nearly destroyed by an earthquake +in 1808.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D’<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1636-1695), Dutch +painter, was born at Utrecht, it is said, about 1636, and died +at Amsterdam on the 3rd of April 1695. Old historians say +that, being the grandson of Gillis and son of Gisbert d’Hondecoeter, +as well as nephew of J. B. Weenix, he was brought up +by the last two to the profession of painting. Of Weenix we +know that he married one Josina d’Hondecoeter in 1638. +Melchior was, therefore, related to Weenix, who certainly +influenced his style. As to Gillis and Gisbert some points still +remain obscure, and it is difficult to accept the statement that +they stood towards each other in the relation of father and son, +since both were registered as painters at Utrecht in 1637. Both +it appears had practised art before coming to Utrecht, but where +they resided or what they painted is uncertain. Unhappily +pictures scarcely help us to clear up the mystery. In the Fürstenberg +collection at Donaueschingen there is a “Concert of Birds” +dated 1620, and signed with the monogram G. D. H.; and we +may presume that G. D. H. is the man whose “Hen and Chickens +in a Landscape” in the gallery of Rotterdam is inscribed “G. D. +Hondecoeter, 1652”; but is the first letter of the monogram +to stand for Gillis or Gisbert? In the museums of Dresden and +Cassel landscapes with sportsmen are catalogued under the +name of Gabriel de Heusch (?), one of them dated 1529, and +certified with the monogram G. D. H., challenging attention +by resemblance to a canvas of the same class inscribed G. D. +Hond. in the Berlin Museum. The question here is also whether +G. means Gillis or Gisbert. Obviously there are two artists +to consider, one of whom paints birds, the other landscapes +and sportsmen. Perhaps the first is Gisbert, whose son Melchior +also chose birds as his peculiar subject. Weenix too would +naturally teach his nephew to study the feathered tribe. Melchior, +however, began his career with a different speciality from that +by which he is usually known. Mr de Stuers affirms that he +produced sea-pieces. One of his earliest works is a “Tub with +Fish,” dated 1655, in the gallery of Brunswick. But Melchior +soon abandoned fish or fowl. He acquired celebrity as a painter +of birds only, which he represented not exclusively, like Fyt, +as the gamekeeper’s perquisite after a day’s shooting, or stock +of a poulterer’s shop, but as living beings with passions, joys, +fears and quarrels, to which naturalists will tell us that birds +are subject. Without the brilliant tone and high finish of Fyt, +his Dutch rival’s birds are full of action; and, as Bürger truly +says, Hondecoeter displays the maternity of the hen with as +much tenderness and feeling as Raphael the maternity of +Madonnas. But Fyt was at home in depicting the coat of +deer and dogs us well as plumage. Hondecoeter cultivates a +narrower field, and seldom goes beyond a cock-fight or a display +of mere bird life. Very few of his pictures are dated, though +more are signed. Amongst the former we should note the “Jackdaw +deprived of his Borrowed Plumes” (1671), at the Hague, +of which Earl Cadogan has a variety; or “Game and Poultry” +and “A Spaniel hunting a Partridge” (1672), in the gallery of +Brussels; or “A Park with Poultry” (1686) at the Hermitage of +St Petersburg. Hondecoeter, in great favour with the magnates +of the Netherlands, became a member of the painters’ academy +at the Hague in 1659. William III. employed him to paint his +menagerie at Loo, and the picture, now at the Hague museum, +shows that he could at a pinch overcome the difficulty of +representing India’s cattle, elephants and gazelles. But he +is better in homelier works, with which he adorned the royal +chateaux of Bensberg and Oranienstein at different periods +of his life (Hague and Amsterdam). In 1688 Hondecoeter took +the freedom of the city of Amsterdam, where he resided till his +death. His earliest works are more conscientious, lighter and +more transparent than his later ones. At all times he is bold +Of touch and sure of eye, giving the motion of birds with great +spirit and accuracy. His masterpieces are at the Hague and at +Amsterdam. But there are fine examples in private collections +in England, and in the public galleries of Berlin, Caen, Carlsruhe, +Cassel, Cologne, Copenhagen, Dresden, Dublin, Florence, +Glasgow, Hanover, London, Lyons, Montpellier, Munich, Paris, +Rotterdam, Rouen, St Petersburg, Stuttgart and Vienna.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONDURAS,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a republic of Central America, bounded on the +N. by the Caribbean Sea, E. by Nicaragua, S. by Nicaragua, +the Pacific Ocean and Salvador, and W. by Guatemala. (For +map see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>.) Pop. (1905) 500,136; area, +about 46,500 sq. m. Honduras is said to owe its name, meaning +in Spanish “depths,” to the difficulty experienced by its original +Spanish explorers in finding anchorage off its shores; Cape +Gracias à Dios (Cape “Thanks to God”) is the name bestowed, +for analogous reasons, on its easternmost headland, which +shelters a small harbour, now included in Nicaragua. Modern +navigators are not confronted by the same difficulty; for, +although the north coast is unbroken by any remarkable inlet +except the Carataska Lagoon, a land-locked lake on the east, +with a narrow entrance from the sea, there are many small +bays and estuaries, such as those of Puerto Cortes, Omoa, Ulua, +La Ceiba and Trujillo, which serve as harbours. The broad +basin of the Caribbean Sea, bounded by Honduras, Guatemala +and British Honduras, is known as the bay or gulf of Honduras. +Several islets and the important group of the Bay Islands +(<i>q.v.</i>) belong to the republic. On the Pacific the Hondurian +littoral is short but of great commercial value; for it consists +of a frontage of some 60 m. on the Bay of Fonseca (<i>q.v.</i>), one of +the finest natural harbours in the world. The islands of Tigre, +Sacate Grande and Gueguensi, in the bay, belong to Honduras.</p> + +<p>The frontier which separates the republic from Nicaragua +extends across the continent from E.N.E to W.S.W. It is +defined by the river Segovia, Wanks or Coco, for about one-third +of the distance; it then deflects across the watershed on +the east and south of the river Choluteca, crosses the main +Nicaraguan Cordillera (mountain chain) and follows the river +Negro to the Bay of Fonseca. The line of separation from +Salvador is irregularly drawn, first in a northerly and then in +a westerly direction; beginning at the mouth of the river +Goascoran, in the Bay of Fonseca, it ends 12 m. W. of San +Francisco city. At this point begins the Guatemalan frontier, +the largest section of which is delimited along the crests of the +Sierra de Merendon. On the Caribbean seaboard the estuary +of the Motagua forms the boundary between Honduras and +Guatemala.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The general aspect of the country is mountainous; +its southern half is traversed by a continuation of the main +Nicaraguan Cordillera. The chain does not, in this republic, approach +within 50 or 60 m. of the Pacific; nor does it throughout maintain +its general character of an unbroken range, but sometimes turns +back on itself, forming interior basins or valleys, within which are +collected the headwaters of the streams that traverse the country in +the direction of the Atlantic Ocean. Nevertheless, viewed from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span> +Pacific, it presents the appearance of a great natural wall, with many +volcanic peaks towering above it and with a lower range of mountains +intervening between it and the sea. It would almost seem that at +one time the Pacific broke at the foot of the great mountain barrier, +and that the subordinate coast range was subsequently thrust up by +volcanic forces. At one point the main range is interrupted by a +great transverse valley or plain known as the plain of Comayagua, +which has an extreme length of about 40 m., with a width of from +5 to 15 m. From this plain the valley of the river Humuya extends +north to the Atlantic, and the valley of the Goascoran extends south +to the Pacific. These three depressions collectively constitute a +great transverse valley reaching from sea to sea, which was pointed +out soon after the conquest as an appropriate course for inter-oceanic +communication. The mountains of the northern half of +Honduras are not volcanic in character and are inferior in altitude to +those of the south, which sometimes exceed 10,000 ft. The relief of +all the highlands of the Atlantic watershed is extremely varied; +its culminating points are probably in the mountain mass about the +sources of the Choluteca, Sulaco and Roman, and in the Sierra de +Pija, near the coast. Farther eastward the different ranges are less +clearly marked and the surface of the country resembles a plateau +intersected by numerous watercourses.</p> + +<p>The rivers of the Atlantic slope of Honduras are numerous and +some of them of large size and navigable. The largest is the Ulua, +with its tributary the Humuya. It rises in the plain of Comayagua +and flows north to the Atlantic; it drains a wide expanse of territory, +comprehending nearly one-third of the entire state, and probably +discharges a greater amount of water into the sea than any other +river of Central America, the Segovia excepted. It may be navigated +by steamers of light draught for the greater part of its course. +The Rio Roman or Aguan is a large stream falling into the Atlantic +near Trujillo, with a total length of about 120 m. Its largest tributary +is the Rio Mangualil, celebrated for its gold washings, and it may be +ascended by boats of light draft for 80 m. Rio Tinto, Negro or +Black River, called also Poyer or Poyas, is a considerable stream, +navigable by small vessels for about 60 m. Some English settlements +were made on its banks during the 18th century. The Patuca +rises near the frontier of Nicaragua, and enters the Atlantic east +of the Brus or Brewer lagoon. The Segovia is the longest river +in Central America, rising within 50 m. of the Bay of Fonseca, +and flowing into the Caribbean Sea at Cape Gracias à Dios (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nicaragua</a></span>). Three considerable rivers flow into the Pacific—the +Goascoran, Nacaome and Choluteca, the last named having a length +of about 150 m. The Goascoran, which almost interlocks with +the Humuya, in the plain of Comayagua, has a length of about +80 m. The lake of Yojoa or Taulébe is the only large inland lake in +Honduras, and is about 25 m. in length, by 6 to 8 in breadth. Its +surface is 2050 ft. above the sea. It has two outlets on the south, +the rivers Jaitique and Sacapa, which unite about 15 m. from the +lake; and it is drained on the north by the Rio Blanco, a narrow, +deep stream falling into the Ulua. It has also a feeder on the north, +in the form of a subterranean stream of beautiful clear water, which +here comes to the surface. The Carataska or Caratasca lagoon is a +shallow salt-water lake connected by a narrow channel with the +Atlantic, and near the mouth of the Segovia. It contains several +large sandy islands.</p> + +<p>Honduras resembles the neighbouring countries in the general +character of its geological formations, fauna and flora. Here, as in +other Central American states, there are but two seasons, the wet, +from May to November, and the dry, from November to May. On +the moist lowlands of the Atlantic coast the climate is oppressive, +but on the highlands of the interior it is delightful. At Tegucigalpa, +on the uplands, a year’s observations showed the maximum temperature +to be 90° F. in May, and the minimum to be 50° F. in December, +the range of variation during the whole year being within 40° F.</p> + +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>: <i>Geology</i>, <i>Fauna</i>, <i>Flora</i>, <i>Climate</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The inhabitants of Honduras are in many +cases of the Indian or aboriginal type, and the European element +is very small, although it shares in the social, political and +economic preponderance of the Spanish-speaking half-castes +(<i>Ladinos</i> or <i>Mestizos</i>), who are the most numerous section of +the population. Throughout the country there are many +interesting relics of the native civilization which was destroyed +by the Spanish invaders in the 16th century. In the eastern +portion of the state, between the Rio Roman, Cape Gracias +à Dios, and the Segovia river, the country is almost exclusively +occupied by native Indian tribes, known under the general +names of Xicaques and Poyas. In many districts the Indians +are known as Lencas, a generic name which includes several +tribes akin to the Mayans of Guatemala. Portions of all of these +tribes have accepted the Roman Catholic religion, and live +in peaceful neighbourhood and good understanding with the +white inhabitants. There are, however, considerable numbers, +probably about 90,000 in all, who live among the mountains +and still conform closely to the aboriginal modes of life. They +all cultivate the soil, and are good and industrious labourers. +A small portion of the coast, above Cape Gracias, is occupied +by the Sambos, a mixed race of Indians and negroes, which, +however, is fast disappearing. Spreading along the entire +north coast are the Caribs, a vigorous race, descendants of the +Caribs of St Vincent, one of the Windward Islands. These, +to the number of 5000, were deported in 1796 by the English +and landed on the island of Roatan. They still retain their +native language, although it tends to disappear and be replaced +by Spanish and a bastard dialect of English; they are active, +industrious and provident, forming the chief reliance of the +mahogany cutters on the coast. A portion of them, who have +a mixture of negro blood, are called the Black Caribs. They +profess the Roman Catholic religion, but retain many of their +native rites and superstitions. In the departments of Gracias, +Comayagua and Choluteca are many purely Indian towns.</p> + +<p>The aggregate population, according to an official estimate +made in 1905, is 500,136, but a complete and satisfactory +census cannot be taken throughout the country, since the +ignorant masses of the people, and especially the Indians, avoid +a census as in some way connected with military conscription +or taxation. The bulk of the Spanish population exists on the +Pacific slope of the continent, while on the Atlantic declivity +the country is uninhabited or but sparsely occupied by Indian +tribes, of which the number is wholly unknown. In 1905 there +were fewer than 11 inhabitants per sq. m., but all the available +data tend to show that the population increases rapidly, owing +to the continuous excess of births over deaths. The first census, +taken in 1791, gave the total population as only 95,500. There +is little emigration or immigration.</p> + +<p><i>Chief Towns.</i>—The capital is Tegucigalpa (pop. 1905, about +35,000); other important towns are Jutigalpa (18,000), Comayagua +(8000), and the seaports of Amapala (4000), Trujillo (4000), +and Puerto Cortes (2500). These are described in separate +articles. The towns of Nacaome, La Esperanza, Choluteca +and Santa Rosa have upwards of 10,000 inhabitants.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Means of communication are very defective. +In 1905 the only railway in the country was that from Puerto Cortes +to La Pimienta, a distance of 57 m. This is a section of the proposed +inter-oceanic railway for which the external debt of the republic was +incurred. For the completion of the line concessions, one after +another, were granted, and expired or were revoked. Other railways +are projected, including one along the Atlantic coast, an extension +from La Pimienta to La Brea on the Pacific, and a line from Tegucigalpa +to the port of San Lorenzo. The capital is connected with +other towns by fairly well made roads, which, however, are not kept +in good repair. In the interior generally, all travelling and transport +are by mules and ox-carts over roads which defy description.</p> + +<p>Honduras joined the Postal Union in 1879, The telegraph service +is conducted by the government and is inefficient. Telephones are +in use in Tegucigalpa and a few of the more important towns.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce and Industry.</i>—Although grants of land for mining and +agricultural purposes are readily made by the state to companies +and individual capitalists, the economic development of Honduras +has been a very slow process, impeded as it has been by political +disturbances and in modern times by national bankruptcy, heavy +import and export duties, and the scarcity of both labour and +capital. The natural wealth of the country is great and consists +especially in its vegetable products. The mahogany and cedar of +Honduras are unsurpassed, but reckless destruction of these and of +other valuable cabinet-woods and dye-woods has much reduced the +supply available for export. Rubber-planting, a comparatively +modern industry, has proved successful, and tends to supplement the +almost exhausted stock of wild rubber. Of still greater importance +are the plantations of bananas, especially in the northern maritime +province of Atlantida, where coco-nuts are also grown. Coffee, +tobacco, sugar, oranges, lemons, maize and beans are produced in all +parts, rice, cocoa, indigo and wheat over more limited areas. Cattle +and pigs are bred extensively; cattle are exported to Cuba, and +dairy-farming is carried on with success. Sheep-farming is almost an +unknown industry. Turtle and fish are obtained in large quantities +off the Atlantic seaboard. In its mineral resources Honduras ranks +first among the states of Central America. Silver is worked by a +British company, gold by an American company. Gold-washing +was practised in a primitive manner even before the Spanish conquest, +and in the 18th century immense quantities of gold and silver were +obtained by the Spaniards from mines near Tegucigalpa. Opals, +platinum, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, antimony, iron, lignite and +coal have been found but the causes already enumerated have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span> +prevented the exploitation of any of these minerals on a large scale, +and the total value of the ores exported was only £174,800 in 1904 +and £239,426 in 1905. The total value of the exports in a normal +year ranges from about £500,000 to £600,000, and that of the imports +from £450,000 to £550,000. Apart from minerals the most valuable +commodity exported is bananas (£209,263 in 1905); coco-nuts, +timber, hides, deer-skins, feathers, coffee, sarsaparilla and rubber are +items of minor importance. Nearly 90% of the exports are shipped +to the United States, which also send to Honduras more than half of +its imports. These chiefly consist of cotton goods, hardware and +provisions. The manufacturing industries of Honduras include the +plaiting of straw hats, cigar-making, brick-making and the distillation +of spirits.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—Owing to the greater variety of its products and the +possession of a metallic currency, Honduras is less affected by +fluctuations of exchange than the neighbouring republics, in which +little except paper money circulates. The monetary unit is the silver +<i>peso</i> or dollar of 100 cents, which weighs 25 grammes, .900 fine, and +is worth about 1s. 8d.; the gold dollar is worth about 4s. The +principal coins in circulation arc the 1-cent copper piece, 5, 10, 20, +25 and 50 cents, and 1 peso silver pieces, and 1, 5, 10 and 20 dollar +gold pieces. The metric system of weights and measures, adopted +officially on the 1st of April 1897, has not supplanted the older +Spanish standards in general use. There is only one bank in the +republic, the <i>Banco de Honduras</i>, with its head office at Tegucigalpa. +Its bills are legal tender for all debts due to the state.</p> + +<p>In July 1909 the foreign debt of Honduras, with arrears of interest, +amounted to £22,470,510, of which more than £17,000,000 were for +arrears of interest. The principal was borrowed between 1867 and +1870, chiefly for railway construction; but it was mainly devoted to +other purposes and no interest has been paid since 1872. The +republic is thus practically bankrupt. The revenue, derived chiefly +from customs and from the spirit, gunpowder and tobacco monopolies +reached an average of about £265,000 during the five years 1901-1905; +the expenditure in normal years is about £250,000. The +principal spending departments are those of war, finance, public +works and education.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Constitution and Government.</i>—The constitution of Honduras, +promulgated in 1839 and frequently amended, was to a great +extent recast in 1880. It was again remodelled in 1894, when +a new charter was proclaimed. This instrument gives the +legislative power to a congress of deputies elected for four +years by popular vote, in the ratio of one member for every +10,000 <span class="correction" title="amended from imhabitants">inhabitants</span>. Congress meets on the 1st of January +and sits for sixty consecutive days. The executive is entrusted +to the president, who is nominated and elected for four years +by popular vote, and is re-eligible for a second but not for a third +consecutive term. He is assisted by a council of ministers +representing the departments of the interior, war, finance, +public works, education and justice. For purposes of local +administration the republic is divided into sixteen departments. +The highest judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, which +consists of five popularly elected judges; there are also four +Courts of Appeal, besides subordinate departmental and district +tribunals. The active army consists of about 500 regular soldiers +and 20,000 militia, recruited by conscription from all able-bodied +males between the ages of twenty and thirty. Service +in the reserve is obligatory for a further period of ten years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Religion and Education.</i>—Roman Catholicism is the creed of a very +large majority of the population; but the constitution grants complete +liberty to all religious communities, and no Church is supported +by public funds or receives any other special privilege. Education is +free, secular and compulsory for children between the ages of seven +and fifteen. There are primary schools in every convenient centre, +but the percentage of illiterates is high, especially among the Indians. +The state maintains a central institute and a university at Tegucigalpa, +a school of jurisprudence at Comayagua, and colleges for +secondary education, with special schools for teachers, in each department. +The annual cost of primary education is about £11,000.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—It was at Cape Honduras that Columbus first +landed on the American continent in 1502, and took possession +of the country on behalf of Spain. The first settlement was +made in 1524 by order of Hernando Cortes, who had heard +rumours of rich and populous empires in this region, and sent +his lieutenant Christobal de Olid to found a Spanish colony. +Olid endeavoured to establish an independent principality, and, +in order to resume control of the settlers, Cortes was compelled +to undertake the long and arduous march across the mountains +of southern Mexico and Guatemala. In the spring of 1525 he +reached the colony and founded the city which is now Puerto +Cortes. He entrusted the administration to a new governor, +whose successors were to be nominated by the king, and returned +to Mexico in 1526. By 1539, when Honduras was incorporated +in the captaincy-general of Guatemala, the mines of the province +had proved to be the richest as yet discovered in the New World +and several large cities had come into existence. The system +under which Honduras was administered from 1539 to 1821, +when it repudiated the authority of the Spanish crown, the +effects of that system, the part subsequently played by Honduras +in the protracted struggle for Central American unity, and the +invasion by William Walker and his fellow-adventurers (1856-1860), +are fully described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>.</p> + +<p>War and revolution had stunted the economic growth of +the country and retarded every attempt at social or political +reform; its future was mortgaged by the assumption of an +enormous burden of debt in 1869 and 1870. A renewal of war +with Guatemala in 1871, and a revolution three years later +in the interests of the ex-president Medina, brought about +the intervention of the neighbouring states and the provisional +appointment to the presidency of Marco Aurelio Soto, a nominee +of Guatemala. This appointment proved successful and was +confirmed by popular vote in 1877 and 1880, when a new constitution +was issued and the seat of government fixed at Tegucigalpa. +Fresh outbreaks of civil war occurred frequently between +1883 and 1903; the republic was bankrupt and progress again +at a standstill. In 1903 Manuel Bonilla, an able, popular and +experienced general, gained the presidency and seemed likely +to repeat the success of Soto in maintaining order. As his term +of office drew to a close, and his re-election appeared certain, +the supporters of rival candidates and some of his own dissatisfied +adherents intrigued to secure the co-operation of Nicaragua +for his overthrow. Bonilla welcomed the opportunity of consolidating +his own position which a successful war would offer; +José Santos Zelaya, the president of Nicaragua, was equally +ambitious; and several alleged violations of territory had +embittered popular feeling on both sides. The United States +and Mexican governments endeavoured to secure a peaceful +settlement without intervention, but failed. At the outbreak +of hostilities in February 1907 the Hondurian forces were commanded +by Bonilla in person and by General Sotero Barahona +his minister of war. One of their chief subordinates was Lee +Christmas, an adventurer from Memphis, Tennessee, who +had previously been a locomotive-driver. Honduras received +active support from his ally, Salvador, and was favoured by +public opinion throughout Central America. But from the +outset the Nicaraguans proved victorious, largely owing to +their remarkable mobility. Their superior naval force enabled +them to capture Puerto Cortes and La Ceiba, and to threaten +other cities on the Caribbean coast; on land they were aided +by a body of Hondurian rebels, who also established a provisional +government. Zelaya captured Tegucigalpa after severe +fighting, and besieged Bonilla in Amapala. Lee Christmas +was killed. The surrender of Amapala on the 11th of April +practically ended the war. Bonilla took refuge on board the +United States cruiser “Chicago.” A noteworthy feature +of the war was the attitude of the American naval officers, who +landed marines, arranged the surrender of Amapala, and prevented +Nicaragua prolonging hostilities. Honduras was now +evacuated by the Nicaraguans and her provisional government +was recognized by Zelaya. Miguel R. Davila was president in +1908 and 1909.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Official documents such as the annual presidential +message and the reports of the ministries are published in +Spanish at Tegucigalpa. Other periodical publications which throw +much light on the movement of trade and politics are the British +Foreign Office reports (London, annual), United States consular +reports (Washington, monthly), bulletins of the Bureau of American +Republics (Washington), and reports of the Council of the Corporation +of Foreign Bondholders (London, annual). For a more comprehensive +account of the country and its history, the works of +K. Sapper, E. G. Squier, A. H. Keane and T. Child, cited under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>, are important. See also E. Pelletier, <i>Honduras +et ses ports: documents officiels sur le chemin-de-fer interocéanique</i> +(Paris, 1869); E. G. Squier, <i>Honduras: Descriptive, Historical and +Statistical</i> (London, 1870); C. Charles, <i>Honduras</i> (Chicago, 1890); +<i>Handbook of Honduras</i>, published by the Bureau of American +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span> +Republics (1892); T. R. Lombard, <i>The New Honduras</i> (New York, +1887); H. Jalhay, <i>La République de Honduras</i> (Antwerp, 1898); +Perry, <i>Directorio nacional de Honduras</i> (New York, 1899); H. G. +Bourgeois, <i>Breve noticia sobre Honduras</i> (Tegucigalpa, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONE, NATHANIEL<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1718-1784), British painter, was the +son of a merchant at Dublin, and without any regular training +acquired in his youth much skill as a portrait-painter. Early +in his career he left Dublin for England and worked first in +various provincial towns, but ultimately settled in London, +where he soon made a considerable reputation. His oil-paintings +were decidedly popular, but he gained his chief success by his +miniatures and enamels, which he executed with masterly +capacity. He became a member of the Incorporated Society +of Artists and afterwards a foundation member of the Royal +Academy; but he had several disagreements with his fellow-members +of that institution, and on one occasion they rejected +two of his pictures, one of which was regarded as a satire on +Reynolds and the other on Angelica Kauffman. Most of his +contributions to the Academy exhibitions were portraits. +The quality of his work varied greatly, but the merit of his +miniatures and enamels entitles him to a place among the ablest +artists of the British school. He executed also a few mezzotint +plates of reasonable importance, and some etchings. His +portrait, painted by himself two years before his death, is in +the possession of the Royal Academy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONE, WILLIAM<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1780-1842), English writer and bookseller, +was born at Bath on the 3rd of June 1780. His father brought +up his children with the sectarian narrowness that so frequently +produces reaction. Hone received no systematic education, +and was taught to read from the Bible only. His father having +removed to London in 1783, he was in 1790 placed in an attorney’s +office. After two and a half years spent in the office of a solicitor +at Chatham he returned to London to become clerk to a solicitor +in Gray’s Inn. But he disliked the law, and had already acquired +a taste for free-thought and political agitation. Hone married +in 1800, and started a book and print shop with a circulating +Library in Lambeth Walk. He soon removed to St Martin’s +Churchyard, where he brought out his first publication, Shaw’s +<i>Gardener</i> (1806). It was at this time that he and his friend, +John Bone, tried to realize a plan for the establishment of popular +savings banks, and even had an interview on the subject with +the president of the Board of Trade. This scheme, however, +failed. Bone joined him next in a bookseller’s business; but +Hone’s habits were not those of a tradesman, and bankruptcy +was the result. He was in 1811 chosen by the booksellers as +auctioneer to the trade, and had an office in Ivy Lane. Independent +investigations carried on by him into the condition of +lunatic asylums led again to business difficulties and failure, +but he took a small lodging in the Old Bailey, keeping himself +and his now large family by contributions to magazines and +reviews. He hired a small shop, or rather box, in Fleet Street +but this was on two separate nights broken into, and valuable +books lent for show were stolen. In 1815 he started the <i>Traveller</i> +newspaper, and endeavoured vainly to exculpate Eliza Fenning, +a poor girl, apparently quite guiltless, who was executed on a +charge of poisoning. From February 1 to October 25, 1817, +he published the <i>Reformer’s Register</i>, writing in it as the serious +critic of the state abuses, which he soon after attacked in the +famous political squibs and parodies, illustrated by George +Cruikshank. In April 1817 three <i>ex-officio</i> informations were +filed against him by the attorney-genera, Sir William Garrow. +Three separate trials took place in the Guildhall before special +juries on the 18th, 19th and 20th of December 1817. The first, +for publishing Wilkes’s <i>Catechism of a Ministerial Member</i> +(1817), was before Mr Justice Abbot (afterwards Lord Tenterden); +the second, for parodying the litany and libelling the prince +regent, and the third, for publishing the <i>Sinecurist’s Creed</i> +(1817), a parody on the Athanasian creed, were before Lord +Ellenborough (<i>q.v.</i>). The prosecution took the ground that the +prints were calculated to injure public morals, and to bring the +prayer-book and even religion itself into contempt. But there +can be no doubt that the real motives of the prosecution were +political; Hone had ridiculed the habits and exposed the corruption +of the prince regent and of other persons in power. He +went to the root of the matter when he wished the jury “to +understand that, had he been a publisher of ministerial parodies, +he would not then have been defending himself on the floor of +that court.” In spite of illness and exhaustion Hone displayed +great courage and ability, speaking on each of the three days +for about seven hours. Although his judges were biassed against +him he was acquitted on each count, and the result was received +with enthusiastic cheers by immense crowds within and without +the court. Soon after the trials a subscription was begun which +enabled Hone to get over the difficulties caused by his prosecution. +Among Hone’s most successful political satires were <i>The Political +House that Jack built</i> (1819), <i>The Queen’s Matrimonial Ladder</i> +(1820), in favour of Queen Caroline, <i>The Man in the Moon</i> +(1820), <i>The Political Showman</i> (1821), all illustrated by Cruikshank. +Many of his squibs are directed against a certain “Dr +Slop,” a nickname given by him to Dr (afterwards Sir John) +Stoddart, of <i>The Times</i>. In researches for his defence he had +come upon some curious and at that time little trodden literary +ground, and the results were shown by his publication in 1820 +of his <i>Apocryphal New Testament</i>, and in 1823 of his <i>Ancient +Mysteries Explained</i>. In 1826 he published the <i>Every-day +Book</i>, in 1827-1828 the <i>Table-Book</i>, and in 1829 the <i>Year-Book</i>; +all three were collections of curious information on manners, +antiquities and various other subjects. These are the works +by which Hone is best remembered. In preparing them he had +the approval of Southey and the assistance of Charles Lamb, +but pecuniarily they were not successful, and Hone was lodged +in King’s Bench prison for debt. Friends, however, again came +to his assistance, and he was established in a coffee-house in +Gracechurch Street; but this, like most of his enterprises, ended +in failure. Hone’s attitude of mind had gradually changed to +that of extreme devoutness, and during the latter years of his +life he frequently preached in Weigh House Chapel, Eastcheap. +In 1830 he edited Strutt’s <i>Sports and Pastimes</i>, and he contributed +to the first number of the <i>Penny Magazine</i>. He was also +for some years sub-editor of the <i>Patriot</i>. He died at Tottenham +on the 6th of November 1842.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONE<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>hán</i>, cognate with Swed. <i>hen</i>; the root +appears in Skt. <i>çána</i>, <i>ço</i> to sharpen), a variety of finely siliceous +stone employed for whetting or sharpening edge tools, and for +abrading steel and other hard surfaces. Synonyms are honestone, +whetstone, oilstone and sharpening stone. Hones are +generally prepared in the form of flat slabs or small pencils or +rods, but some are made with the outline of the special instrument +they are designed to sharpen. Their abrading action is +due to the quartz or silica which is always present in predominating +proportion, some kinds consisting of almost pure quartz, +while in others the siliceous element is very intimately mixed +with aluminous or calcareous matter, forming a uniform compact +stone, the extremely fine siliceous particles of which impart a +remarkably keen edge to the instruments for the sharpening +of which they are applied. In some cases the presence of minute +garnets or magnetite assists in the cutting action. Hones +are used either dry, with water, or with oil, and generally the +object to be sharpened is drawn with hand pressure backward +and forward over the surface of the hone; but sometimes the +stone is moved over the cutting edge.</p> + +<p>The coarsest type of stone which can be included among hones +is the bat or scythe stone, a porous fine-grained sandstone used +for sharpening scythes and cutters of mowing machines, and for +other like purposes. Next come the ragstones, which consist of +quartzose mica-schist, and give a finer edge than any sandstone. +Under the head of oilstones or hones proper the most famous +and best-known qualities are the German razor hone, the Turkey +oilstone, and the Arkansas stone. The German razor hone, +used, as its name implies, chiefly for razors, is obtained from +the slate mountains near Ratisbon, where it forms a yellow +vein of from 1 to 18 in. in the blue slate. It is sawn into thin +slabs, and these are cemented to slabs of slate which serve as +a support. Turkey oilstone is a close-grained bluish stone +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span> +containing from 70 to 75% of silica in a state of very fine +division, intimately blended with about 20 to 25% of calcite. +It is obtained only in small pieces, frequently flawed and not +tough, so that the slabs must have a backing of slate or wood. +It is one of the most valuable of all whetstones, abrading the +hardest steel, and possessing sufficient compactness to resist +the pressure required for sharpening gravers. The stone comes +from the interior of Asia Minor, whence it is carried to Smyrna. +Of Arkansas stones there are two varieties, both found in the +same district, Garland and Saline counties, Arkansas, United +States. The finer kind, known as Arkansas hone, is obtained +in small pieces at the Hot Springs, and the second quality, distinguished +as Washita stone, comes from Washita or Ouachita +river. The hones yield on analysis 98% of silica, with small +proportions of alumina, potash and soda, and mere traces of +iron, lime, magnesia and fluorine. They are white in colour, +extremely hard and keen in grit, and not easily worn down +or broken. Geologically the materials are called novaculites, +and are supposed to be metamorphosed sandstone silt, chert +or limestone resulting from the permeation through the mass of +heated alkaline siliceous waters. The finer kind is employed +for fine cutting instruments, and also for polishing steel pivots +of watch-wheels and similar minute work, the second and coarser +quality being used for common tools. Both varieties are largely +exported from the United States in the form of blocks, slips, +pencils, rods and wheels. Other honestones are obtained in +the United States from New York, New Hampshire, Vermont, +Ohio (Deerlick stone) and Indiana (Hindostan or Orange stone). +Among hones of less importance in general use may be noted +the Charley Forest stone—or Whittle Hill honestone—a good +substitute for Turkey oilstone; Water of Ayr stone, Scotch +stone, or snake stone, a pale grey carboniferous shale hardened +by igneous action, used for tools and for polishing marble +and copper-plates; Idwal or Welsh oilstone, used for small +articles; and cutlers’ greenstone from Snowdon, very hard and +close in texture, used for giving the last edge to lancets.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONEY<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Chin. <i>mē</i>; Sansk. <i>madhu</i>, mead, honey; cf. A.S. +<i>medo</i>, <i>medu</i>, mead; Gr. <span class="grk" title="meli">μέλι</span>, in which θ or δ is changed into +λ; Lat. <i>mel</i>; Fr. <i>miel</i>; A.S. <i>hunig</i>; Ger. <i>Honig</i>),<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a sweet +viscid liquid, obtained by bees (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bee</a></span>, <i>Bee-keeping</i>) chiefly +from the nectaries of flowers, <i>i.e.</i> those parts of flowers specially +constructed for the elaboration of honey, and, after transportation +to the hive in the proventriculus or crop of the insects, discharged +by them into the cells prepared for its reception. Whether the +nectar undergoes any alteration within the crop of the bee +is a point on which authors have differed. Some wasps, <i>e.g.</i> +<i>Myrapetra scutellaris</i><a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and the genus <i>Nectarina</i>, collect honey. +A honey-like fluid, which consists of a nearly pure solution of +uncrystallizable sugar having the formula C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">7</span> after drying +in vacuo, and which is used by the Mexicans in the preparation +of a beverage, is yielded by certain inactive individuals of +<i>Myrmecocystus mexicanus</i>, Wesmael, the honey-ants or pouched +ants (<i>hormigas mieleras</i> or <i>mochileras</i>) of Mexico.<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The abdomen +in these insects, owing to the distensibility of the membrane +connecting its segments, becomes converted into a globular +thin-walled sac by the accumulation within it of the nectar +supplied to them by their working comrades (Wesmael, <i>Bull. +de l’Acad. Roy. de Brux.</i> v. 766, 1838). By the Rev. H. C. +M‘Cook, who discovered the insect in the Garden of the Gods, +Colorado, the honey-bearers were found hanging by their feet, +in groups of about thirty, to the roofs of special chambers in +their underground nests, their large globular abdomens causing +them to resemble “bunches of small Delaware grapes” (<i>Proc. +Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i>, 1879, p. 197). A bladder-like formation +on the metathorax of another ant, <i>Crematogaster inflatus</i> (F. +Smith, <i>Cat. of Hymenoptera</i>, pt. vi. pp. 136 and 200, pl. ix. fig. 1), +which has a small circular orifice at each posterior lateral angle, +appears to possess a function similar to that of the abdomen +in the honey-ant.</p> + +<p>It is a popular saying that where is the best honey there +also is the best wool; and a pastoral district, since it affords a +greater profusion of flowers, is superior for the production of +honey to one under tillage.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Dry warm weather is that most +favourable to the secretion of nectar by flowers. This they protect +from rain by various internal structures, such as papillae, +cushions of hairs and spurs, or by virtue of their position (in +the raspberry, drooping), or the arrangement of their constituent +parts. Dr A. W. Bennett (<i>How Flowers are Fertilized</i>, +p. 31, 1873) has remarked that the perfume of flowers is generally +derived from their nectar; the blossoms of some plants, however, +as ivy and holly, though almost scentless, are highly +nectariferous. The exudation of a honey-like or saccharine +fluid, as has frequently been attested, is not a function exclusively +of the flowers in all plants. A sweet material, the manna of +pharmacy, <i>e.g.</i> is produced by the leaves and stems of a species +of ash, <i>Fraxinus Ornus</i>; and honey-secreting glands are to be +met with on the leaves, petioles, phyllodes, stipules (as in <i>Vicia +sativa</i>), or bracteae (as in the <i>Maregraviaceae</i>) of a considerable +number of different vegetable forms. The origin of the honey-yielding +properties manifested specially by flowers among the +several parts of plants has been carefully considered by Darwin, +who regards the saccharine matter in nectar as a waste product +of chemical changes in the sap, which, when it happened to be +excreted within the envelopes of flowers, was utilized for the +important object of cross-fertilization, and subsequently was +much increased in quantity, and stored in various ways (see <i>Cross +and Self Fertilization of Plants</i>, pp. 402 sq., 1876). It has been +noted with respect to the nectar of the fuchsia that it is most +abundant when the anthers are about to dehisce, and absent +in the unexpanded flower.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Pettigrew is of opinion that few bees go more than 2 m. from +home in search of honey. The number of blossoms visited in order +to meet the requirements of a single hive of bees must be very great; +for it has been found by A. S. Wilson (“On the Nectar of Flowers,” +<i>Brit. Assoc. Rep.</i>, 1878, p. 567) that 125 heads of common red clover, +which is a plant comparatively abundant in nectar, yield but one +gramme (15.432 grains) of sugar; and as each head contains about +60 florets, 7,500,000 distinct flower-tubes must on this estimate be +exhausted for each kilogramme (2.204 ℔) of sugar collected. Among +the richer sources of honey are reckoned the apple, asparagus, asters, +barberry, basswood (<i>Tilia americana</i>), and the European lime or +linden (<i>T. europaea</i>), beans, bonesets (<i>Eupatorium</i>), borage, broom, +buckwheat, catnip, or catmint (<i>Nepeta Cataria</i>), cherry, cleome, +clover, cotton, crocus, currant, dandelion, eucalyptus, figwort +(<i>Scrophularia</i>), furze, golden-rod (<i>Solidago</i>), gooseberry, hawthorn, +heather, hepatica, horehound, hyacinth, lucerne, maple, mignonette, +mint, motherwort (<i>Leonurus</i>), mustard, onion, peach, pear, poplar, +quince, rape, raspberry, sage, silver maple, snapdragon, sour-wood +(<i>Oxydendron arboreum</i>, D.C.), strawberry, sycamore, teasel, thyme, +tulip-tree (more especially rich in pollen), turnip, violet and willows, +and the “honey-dew” of the leaves of the whitethorn (Bonner), +oak, linden, beech and some other trees.</p> +</div> + +<p>Honey contains dextroglucose and laevoglucose (the former +practically insoluble, the latter soluble in <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> pt. of cold strong +alcohol), cane-sugar (according to some), mucilage, water, wax, +essential oil, colouring bodies, a minute quantity of mineral +matter and pollen. By a species of fermentation, the cane-sugar +is said to be gradually transformed into inverted sugar +(laevoglucose with dextroglucose). The pollen, as a source of +nitrogen, is of importance to the bees feeding on the honey. +It may be obtained for examination as a sediment from a mixture +of honey and water. Other substances which have been discovered +in honey are mannite (Guibourt), a free acid which +precipitates the salts of silver and of lead, and is soluble in water +and alcohol (Calloux), and an uncrystallizable sugar, nearly +related to inverted sugar (Soubeiran, <i>Compt. Rend.</i> xxviii. +774-775, 1849). Brittany honey contains couvain, a ferment +which determines its active decomposition (Wurtz, <i>Dict. de +Chem.</i> ii. 430). In the honey of <i>Polybia apicipennis</i>, a wasp +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span> +of tropical America, cane-sugar occurs in crystals of large size +(Karsten, <i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, C. 550). Dr J. Campbell Brown (“On +the Composition of Honey,” <i>Analyst</i> iii. 267, 1878) is doubtful +as to the presence of cane-sugar in any one of nine samples, +from various sources, examined by him. The following average +percentage numbers are afforded by his analyses: laevulose, +36.45; dextrose, 36.57; mineral matter, .15; water expelled +at 100° C., 18.5, and at a much higher temperature, with loss, +7.81: the wax, pollen and insoluble matter vary from a trace +to 2.1%. The specific gravity of honey is about 1.41. +The rotation of a polarized ray by a solution of 16.26 grammes +of crude honey in 100 c.c. of water is generally from −3.2° to +−5° at 60° F.; in the case of Greek honey it is nearly −5.5°. +Almost all pure honey, when exposed for some time to light +and cold, becomes more or less granular in consistency. Any +liquid portion can be readily separated by straining through +linen. Honey sold out of the comb is commonly clarified by +heating and skimmimg; but according to Bonner it is always +best in its natural state. The <i>mel depuratum</i> of British pharmacy +is prepared by heating honey in a water-bath, and straining +through flannel previously moistened with warm water.</p> + +<p>The term “virgin-honey” (A.-S., <i>hunigtear</i>) is applied to +the honey of young bees which have never swarmed, or to +that which flows spontaneously from honeycomb with or without +the application of heat. The honey obtained from old hives, +considered inferior to it in quality, is ordinarily darker, thicker +and less pleasant in taste and odour. The yield of honey is less +in proportion to weight in old than in young or virgin combs. +The far-famed honey of Narbonne is white, very granular and +highly aromatic; and still finer honey is that procured from +the Corbières Mountains, 6 to 9 m. to the south-west. The +honey of Gâtinais is usually white, and is less odorous and +granulates less readily than that of Narbonne. Honey from +white clover has a greenish-white, and that from heather a +rich golden-yellow hue. What is made from honey-dew is dark +in colour, and disagreeable to the palate, and does not candy +like good honey. “We have seen aphide honey from sycamores,” +says F. Cheshire (<i>Pract. Bee-keeping</i>, p. 74), “as deep in tone +as walnut liquor, and where much of it is stored the value of +the whole crop is practically nil.” The honey of the stingless +bees (<i>Meliponia</i> and <i>Trigona</i>) of Brazil varies greatly in quality +according to the species of flowers from which it is collected, +some kinds being black and sour, and others excellent (F. Smith, +<i>Trans. Ent. Soc.</i>, 3d ser., i. pt. vi., 1863). That of <i>Apis Peronii</i>, +of India and Timor, is yellow, and of very agreeable flavour +and is more liquid than the British sorts. <i>A. unicolor</i>, a bee +indigenous to Madagascar, and naturalized in Mauritius and +the island of Réunion, furnishes a thick and syrupy, peculiarly +scented green honey, highly esteemed in Western India. A +rose-coloured honey is stated (<i>Gard. Chron.</i>, 1870, p. 1698) +to have been procured by artificial feeding. The fine aroma +of Maltese honey is due to its collection from orange blossoms. +Narbonne honey being harvested chiefly from Labiate plants, +as rosemary, an imitation of it is sometimes prepared by flavouring +ordinary honey with infusion of rosemary flowers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Adulterations of honey are starch, detectable by the microscope, +and by its blue reaction with iodine, also wheaten flour, gelatin, +chalk, gypsum, pipe-clay, added water, cane-sugar and common +syrup, and the different varieties of manufactured glucose. Honey +sophisticated with glucose containing copperas as an impurity is +turned of an inky colour by liquids containing tannin, as tea. Elm +leaves have been used in America for the flavouring of imitation +honey. Stone jars should be employed in preference to common +earthenware for the storage of honey, which acts upon the lead +glaze of the latter.</p> +</div> + +<p>Honey is mildly laxative in properties. Some few kinds +are poisonous, as frequently the reddish honey stored by the +Brazilian wasp <i>Nectarina</i> (<i>Polistes</i>, Latr.<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a>) <i>Lecheguana</i>, Shuck., +the effects of which have been vividly described by Aug. de +Saint-Hilaire,<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the spring honey of the wild bees of East Nepaul, +said to be rendered noxious by collection from rhododendron +flowers (Hooker, <i>Himalayan Journals</i>, i. 190, ed. 1855), and the +honey of Trebizond, which from its source, the blossoms, it is +stated, of <i>Azalea pontica</i> and <i>Rhododendron ponticum</i> (perhaps +to be identified with Pliny’s <i>Aegolethron</i>), acquires the qualities +of an irritant and intoxicant narcotic, as described by Xenophon +(<i>Anab.</i> iv. 8). Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxi. 45) describes as noxious +a livid-coloured honey found in Persia and Gaetulia. Honey +obtained from <i>Kalmia latifolia</i>, L., the calico bush, mountain +laurel or spoon-wood of the northern United States, and allied +species, is reputed deleterious; also that of the sour-wood is +by some good authorities considered to possess undeniable +griping properties; and G. Bidie (<i>Madras Quart. Journ. Med. +Sci.</i>, Oct, 1861, p. 399) mentions urtication, headache, extreme +prostration and nausea, and intense thirst among the symptoms +produced by a small quantity only of a honey from Coorg jungle. +A South African species of <i>Euphorbia</i>, as was experienced +by the missionary Moffat (<i>Miss. Lab.</i> p. 32, 1849), yields a +poisonous honey. The nectar of certain flowers is asserted to +cause even in bees a fatal kind of vertigo. As a demulcent +and flavouring agent, honey is employed in the <i>oxymel</i>, <i>oxymel +scillae</i>, <i>mel boracis</i>, <i>confectio piperis</i>, <i>conf. scammonii</i> and <i>conf. +terebinthinae</i> of the <i>British Pharmacopoeia</i>. To the ancients +honey was of very great importance as an article of diet, being +almost their only available source of sugar. It was valued +by them also for its medicinal virtues; and in recipes of the +Saxon and later periods it is a common ingredient.<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Of the +eight kinds of honey mentioned by the great Indian surgical +writer Susruta, four are not described by recent authors, viz. +<i>argha</i> or wild honey, collected by a sort of yellow bee; <i>chhatra</i>, +made by tawny or yellow wasps; <i>audálaka</i>, a bitter and acrid +honey-like substance found in the nest of white ants; and +<i>dála</i> or unprepared honey occurring on flowers. According to +Hindu medical writers, honey when new is laxative, and when +more than a year old astringent (U. C. Dutt, <i>Mat. Med. of the +Hindus</i>, p. 277, 1877). Ceromel, formed by mixing at a gentle +heat one part by weight of yellow wax with four of clarified +honey, and straining, is used in India and other tropical countries +as a mild stimulant for ulcers in the place of animal fats, which +there rapidly become rancid and unfit for medicinal purposes. +The <i>Koran</i>, in the chapter entitled “The Bee,” remarks with +reference to bees and their honey: “There proceedeth from +their bellies a liquor of various colour, wherein is a medicine +for men” (Sale’s <i>Koran</i>, chap. xvi.). Pills prepared with +honey as an excipient are said to remain unindurated, however +long they may be kept (<i>Med. Times</i>, 1857, i. 269). Mead, of +yore a favourite beverage in England (vol. iv. p. 264), is made +by fermentation of the liquor obtained by boiling in water +combs from which the honey has been drained. In the preparation +of sack-mead, an ounce of hops is added to each gallon +of the liquor, and after the fermentation a small quantity of +brandy. Metheglin, or hydromel, is maufactured by fermenting +with yeast a solution of honey flavoured with boiled hops +(see Cooley, <i>Cyclop.</i>). A kind of mead is largely consumed +in Abyssinia (vol. i. p. 64), where it is carried on journeys in +large horns (Stern, <i>Wanderings</i>, p. 317, 1862). In Russia a +drink termed <i>lipez</i> is made from the delicious honey of the +linden. The <i>mulsum</i> of the ancient Romans consisted of honey, +wine and water boiled together. The <i>clarre</i>, or <i>piment</i>, of Chaucer’s +time was wine mixed with honey and spices, and strained till +clear; a similar drink was <i>bracket</i>, made with wort of ale instead +of wine. L. Maurial (<i>L’Insectologie Agricole</i> for 1868, p. 206) +reports unfavourably as to the use of honey for the production +of alcohol; he recommends it, however, as superior to sugar +for the thickening of liqueurs, and also as a means of sweetening +imperfectly ripened vintages. It is occasionally employed +for giving strength and flavour to ale. In ancient Egypt it +was valued as an embalming material; and in the East, for +the preservation of fruit, and the making of cakes, sweetmeats, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span> +and other articles of food, it is largely consumed. Grafts, seeds +and birds’ eggs, for transmission to great distances, are sometimes +packed in honey. In India a mixture of honey and milk, +or of equal parts of curds, honey and clarified butter (Sansk., +<i>madhu-parka</i>), is a respectful offering to a guest, or to a bridegroom +on his arrival at the door of the bride’s father; and +one of the purificatory ceremonies of the Hindus (Sansk., <i>madhu-prāsana</i>) +is the placing of a little honey in the mouth of a newborn +male infant. Honey is frequently alluded to by the writers +of antiquity as food for children; it is not to this, however, +as already mentioned, that Isa. vii. 15 refers. Cream or fresh +butter together with honey, and with or without bread, is +a favourite dish with the Arabs.</p> + +<p>Among the observances at the Fandròana or New Year’s +Festival, in Madagascar, is the eating of mingled rice and honey +by the queen and her guests; in the same country honey is +placed in the sacred water of sprinkling used at the blessing +of the children previous to circumcision (Sibree, <i>The Great +African Is.</i> pp. 219, 314, 1880). Honey was frequently employed +in the ancient religious ceremonies of the heathen, but +was forbidden as a sacrifice in the Jewish ritual (Lev. ii. 11). +With milk or water it was presented by the Greeks as a libation +to the dead (<i>Odyss.</i> xi. 27; Eurip. <i>Orest.</i> 115). A honey-cake +was the monthly food of the fabled serpent-guardian +of the Acropolis (Herod, viii. 41). By the aborigines of Peru +honey was offered to the sun.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Hebrew word translated “honey” in the authorized version +of the English Bible is <i>debash</i>, practically synonymous with which +are <i>ja’ar</i> or <i>ja’arith had-debash</i> (1 Sam. xix. 25-27; cf. Cant. v. 1) and +nopheth (Ps. xix. 10, &c.), rendered “honey-comb.” <i>Debash</i> denotes +bee-honey (as in Deut. xxxii. 13 and Jud. xiv. 8); the manna +of trees, by some writers considered to have been the “wild honey” +eaten by John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4); the syrup of dates or the +fruits themselves; and probably in some passages (as Gen. xliii. 11 +and Ez. xxvii. 17) the syrupy boiled juice of the grape, resembling +thin molasses, in use in Palestine, especially at Hebron, under the +name of <i>dibs</i> (see Kitto, <i>Cyclop.</i>, and E. Robinson, <i>Bibl. Res.</i> ii. 81). +Josephus (B.J., iv. 8, 3) speaks highly of a honey produced at Jericho, +consisting of the expressed juice of the fruit of palm trees; and +Herodotus (iv. 194) mentions a similar preparation made by the +Gyzantians in North Africa, where it is still in use. The honey +most esteemed by the ancients was that of Mount Hybla in Sicily, +and of Mount Hymettus in Attica (iii. 59). Mahaffy (<i>Rambles in +Greece</i>, p. 148, 2nd ed., 1878) describes the honey of Hymettus as by +no means so good as the produce of other parts of Greece—not to +say of the heather hills of Scotland and Ireland. That of Thebes, +and more especially that of Corinth, which is made in the thymy +hills towards Cleonae, he found much better (cf. xi. 88). Honey +and wax, still largely obtained in Corsica (vi. 440), were in olden +times the chief productions of the island. In England, in the +13th and 14th centuries, honey sold at from about 7d. to 1s. 2d. +a gallon, and occasionally was disposed of by the swarm or hive, or +<i>ruscha</i> (Rogers, <i>Hist. of Agric. and Prices in Eng.</i>, 1. 418). At +Wrexham, Denbigh, Wales, two honey fairs are annually held, one +on the Thursday next after the 1st of September, and the other—the +more recently instituted and by far the larger—on the Thursday +following the first Wednesday in October. In Hungary the amounts +of honey and of wax are in favourable years respectively about +190,000 and 12,000 cwt., and in unfavourable years, as, <i>e.g.</i> 1874, +about 12,000 and 3000 cwt. The hives there in 1870 numbered +617,407 (or 40 per 1000 of the population, against 45 in Austria). +Of these 365,711 were in Hungary Proper, and 91,348 (87 per 1000 +persons) in the Military Frontier (Keleti, <i>Übersicht der Bevölk. +Ungarns</i>, 1871; Schwicker, <i>Statistik d. K. Ungarn</i>, 1877). In Poland +the system of bee-keeping introduced by Dolinowski has been found +to afford an average of 40 ℔ of honey and wax and two new swarms +per hive, the common peasant’s hive yielding, with two swarms, +only 3 ℔ of honey and wax. In forests and places remote from +villages in Podolia and parts of Volhynia, as many as 1000 hives may +be seen in one apiary. In the district of Ostrolenka, in the government +of Plock, and in the woody region of Polesia, in Lithuania, a +method is practised of rearing bees in excavated trunks of trees +(Stanton, “On the Treatment of Bees in Poland,” <i>Technologist</i>, vi. +45, 1866). When, in August, in the loftier valleys of Bormio, Italy, +flowering ceases, the bees in their wooden hives are by means of +spring-carts transported at night to lower regions, where they obtain +from the buckwheat crops the inferior honey which serves them for +winter consumption (<i>Ib.</i> p. 38).</p> + +<p>In Palestine, “the land flowing with milk and honey”<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (Ex. iii. +17; Numb. xiii. 27), wild bees are very numerous, especially in the +wilderness of Judaea, and the selling of their produce, obtained from +crevices in rocks, hollows in trees and elsewhere, is with many of +the inhabitants a means of subsistence. Commenting on 1 Sam. +xiv. 26, J. Roberts (<i>Oriental Illust.</i>) remarks that in the East “the +forests literally flow with honey; large combs may be seen hanging +on the trees, as you pass along, full of honey.” In Galilee, and at +Bethlehem and other places in Palestine, bee-keeping is extensively +carried on. The hives are sun-burnt tubes of mud, about 4 ft. in +length and 8 in. in diameter, and, with the exception of a small +central aperture for the passage of the bees, closed at each end with +mud. These are laid together in long rows, or piled pyramidally, +and are protected from the sun by a covering of mud and of boughs. +The honey is extracted, when the ends have been removed, by means +of an iron hook. (See Tristram, <i>Nat. Hist. of the Bible</i>, pp. 322 sqq., +2nd ed., 1868). Apiculture in Turkey is in a very rude condition. +The Bali-dagh, or “Honey Mount,” in the plain of Troy, is so called +on account of the numerous wild bees tenanting the caves in its +precipitous rocks to the south. In various regions of Africa, as on +the west, near the Gambia, bees abound. Cameron was informed by +his guides that the large quantities of honey at the cliffs by the river +Makanyazi were under the protection of an evil spirit, and not one +of his men could be persuaded to gather any (<i>Across Africa</i>, i. 266). +On the precipitous slopes of the Teesta valley, in India, the procuring +of honey from the pendulous bees’-nests, which are sometimes large +enough to be conspicuous features at a mile’s distance, is the only +means by which the idle poor raise their annual rent (Hooker, <i>Him. +Journ.</i> ii. 41).</p> + +<p>To reach the large combs of <i>Apis dorsata</i> and <i>A. testacea</i>, the +natives of Timor, by whom both the honey and young bees are +esteemed delicacies, ascend the trunks of lofty forest trees by the +use of a loop of creeper. Protected from the myriads of angry insects +by a small torch only, they detach the combs from the under surface +of the branches, and lower them by slender cords to the ground +(Wallace, <i>Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool.</i>, vol. xi.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. H. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The term honey in its various forms is peculiar to the Teutonic +group of languages, and in the Gothic New Testament is wanting, the +Greek word being there translated <i>melith</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See A. White, in <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vii. 315, pl. 4.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Wetherill (<i>Chem. Gaz.</i> xi. 72, 1853) calculates that the average +weight of the honey is 8.2 times that of the body of the ant, or 0.3942 +grammes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Compare Isa. vii. 15, 22, where curdled milk (A.V. “butter”) +and honey as exclusive articles of diet are indicative of foreign invasion, +which turns rich agricultural districts into pasture lands or +uncultivated wastes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Mémoires du Muséum</i>, xi. 313 (1824).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Ib.</i> xii. 293, pl. xii. fig. B (1825). The honey, according to +Lassaigne (<i>ib.</i> ix. 319), is almost entirely soluble in alcohol.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For a list of fifteen treatises concerning honey, dating from 1625 +to 1868, see Waring, <i>Bibl. Therap.</i> ii. 559, New Syd. Soc. (1879). +On sundry ancient uses for honey, see Beckmann, <i>Hist. of Invent.</i> i. +287 (1846).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> In Sanskrit, <i>madhu-kulyā</i>, a stream of honey, is sometimes used +to express an overflowing abundance of good things (Monier Williams, +<i>Sansk.-Eng. Dict.</i>, p. 736, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:281px; height:161px" src="images/img655.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">HONEYCOMB,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a cloth, so called because of the particular +arrangement of the crossing of the warp and weft threads which +form cells somewhat similar to those of the real honeycomb. +They differ from the latter in that they are rectangular instead +of hexagonal. The bottom of the cell is formed by those threads +and picks which weave “plain,” while the ascending sides of +the figure are formed by the gradually increasing length of float +of the warp and weft yarns.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The figure shows two of the commonest designs which are used for +these cloths, design A being what is often termed the “perfect honeycomb”; +in the figure it will +be seen that the highest +number of successive white +squares is seven, while the +corresponding highest number +of successive black +squares is five. Two of +each of these maximum +floats form the top or +highest edges of the cell, +and the number of successive +like squares decreases as the bottom of the cell is reached +when the floats are one of black and one of white (see middle +of design, &c.). The weave produces a reversible cloth, and it is +extensively used for the embellishment of quilts and other fancy +goods. It is also largely used in the manufacture of cotton and linen +towels. B is, for certain purposes, a more suitable weave than A, +but both are very largely used for the latter class of goods.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONEY-EATER,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Honey-sucker</span>, names applied by many +writers in a very loose way to a large number of birds, some of +which, perhaps, have no intimate affinity; here they are used in +a more restricted sense for what, in the opinion of a good many +recent authorities,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> should really be deemed the family <i>Meliphagidae</i>—excluding +therefrom the <i>Nectariniidae</i> or <span class="sc">Sun-birds</span> +(<i>q.v.</i>) as well as the genera <i>Promerops</i> and <i>Zosterops</i> with whatever +allies they may possess. Even with this restriction, the +extent of the family must be regarded as very indefinite, owing +to the absence of materials sufficient for arriving at a satisfactory +conclusion, though the existence of such a family is +probably indisputable. Making allowance, then, for the imperfect +light in which they must at present be viewed, what are here +called <i>Meliphagidae</i> include some of the most characteristic +forms of the ornithology of the great Australian region—members +of the family inhabiting almost every part of it, and a +single species only, <i>Ptilotis limbata</i>, being said to occur outside +its limits. They all possess, or are supposed to possess, a long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span> +protrusible tongue with a brush-like tip, differing, it is believed, +in structure from that found in any other bird—<i>Promerops</i> +perhaps excepted—and capable of being formed into a suctorial +tube, by means of which honey is absorbed from the nectary +of flowers, though it would seem that insects attracted by the +honey furnish the chief nourishment of many species, while +others undoubtedly feed to a greater or less extent on fruits. +The <i>Meliphagidae</i>, as now considered, are for the most part +small birds, never exceeding the size of a missel thrush; and +they have been divided into more than 20 genera, containing +above 200 species, of which only a few can here be particularized. +Most of these species have a very confined range, being found +perhaps only on a single island or group of islands in the region, +but there are a few which are more widely distributed—such +as <i>Glycyphila rufifrons</i>, the white-throated<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> honey-eater, found +over the greater part of Australia and Tasmania. In plumage +they vary much. Most of the species of <i>Ptilotis</i> are characterized +by a tuft of white, or in others of yellow, feathers springing +from behind the ear. In the greater number of the genus +<i>Myzomela</i><a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> the males are recognizable by a gorgeous display +of crimson or scarlet, which has caused one species, <i>M. sanguinolenta</i>, +to be known as the soldier-bird to Australian colonists; +but in others no brilliant colour appears, and those of several +genera have no special ornamentation, while some have a +particularly plain appearance. One of the most curious forms +is <i>Prosthemadera</i>—the tui or parson-bird of New Zealand, so +called from the two tufts of white feathers which hang beneath +its chin in great contrast to its dark silky plumage, and suggest +a likeness to the bands worn by ministers of several religious +denominations when officiating.<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The bell-bird of the same +island, <i>Anthornis melanura</i>—whose melody excited the admiration +of Cook the morning after he had anchored in Queen +Charlotte’s Sound—is another member of this family, and +unfortunately seems to be fast becoming extinct. But it would +be impossible here to enter much further into detail, though +the wattle-birds, <i>Anthochaera</i>, of Australia have at least to be +named. Mention, however, must be made of the friar-birds, +<i>Tropidorhynchus</i>, of which nearly a score of species, five of them +belonging to Australia, have been described. With their stout +bills, mostly surmounted by an excrescence, they seem to be +the most abnormal forms of the family, and most of them are +besides remarkable for the baldness of some part at least of their +head. They assemble in troops, sitting on dead trees, with a +loud call, and are very pugnacious, frequently driving away +hawks and crows. A. R. Wallace (<i>Malay Archipelago</i>, ii. +150-153) discovered the curious fact that two species of this +genus—<i>T. bourensis</i> and <i>T. subcornutus</i>—respectively inhabiting +the islands of Bouru and Ceram, were the object of natural +“mimicry” on the part of two species of oriole of the genus +<i>Mimeta</i>, <i>M. bourouensis</i> and <i>M. forsteni</i>, inhabiting the same +islands, so as to be on a superficial examination identical in +appearance—the honey-eater and the oriole of each island presenting +exactly the same tints—the black patch of bare skin +round the eyes of the former, for instance, being copied in the +latter by a patch of black feathers, and even the protuberance +on the beak of the <i>Tropidorhynchus</i> being imitated by a similar +enlargement of the beak of the <i>Mimeta</i>. The very reasonable +explanation which Wallace offers is that the pugnacity of the +former has led the smaller birds of prey to respect it, and it +is therefore an advantage for the latter, being weaker and less +courageous, to be mistaken for it.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Among them especially A. R. Wallace, <i>Geogr. Distr. Animals</i>, ii +275.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The young of this species has the throat yellow.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> W. A. Forbes published a careful monograph of this genus in +the <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i> for 1879, pp. 256-279.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This bird, according to Sir Walter Buller (<i>Birds of New Zealand</i>, +p. 88), while uttering its wild notes, indulges in much gesticulation, +which adds to the suggested resemblance. It has great power of +mimicry, and is a favourite cage-bird both with the natives and +colonists. On one occasion, says Buller, he had addressed a large +meeting of Maories on a matter of considerable political importance, +when “immediately on the conclusion of my speech, and before the +old chief to whom my arguments were chiefly addressed had time to +reply, a tui, whose netted cage hung to a rafter overhead, responded +in a clear, emphatic way, ‘Tito!’ (false). The circumstance naturally +caused much merriment among my audience, and quite upset the +gravity of the venerable old chief, Nepia Taratoa. ‘Friend,’ said he, +laughing, ‘your arguments are very good; but my <i>mokai</i> is a very +wise bird, and he is not yet convinced!’”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONEY-GUIDE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a bird so called from its habit of pointing +out to man and to the ratel (<i>Mellivora capensis</i>) the nests of +bees. Stories to this effect have been often told, and may be +found in the narratives of many African travellers, from Bruce +to Livingstone. But Layard says (<i>B. South Africa</i>, p. 242) +that the birds will not infrequently lead any one to a leopard +or a snake, and will follow a dog with vociferations, though its +noisy cry and antics unquestionably have in many cases the +effect signified by its English name. If not its first discoverer, +Sparrman, in 1777, was the first who described and figured this +bird, which he met with in the Cape Colony (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, +lxvii. 42-47, pl. i.), giving it the name of <i>Culculus indicator</i>, +its zygodactylous feet with the toes placed in pairs—two before +and two behind—inducing the belief that it must be referred +to that genus. Vicillot in 1816 elevated it to the rank of a genus, +<i>Indicator</i>; but it was still considered to belong to the family +<i>Cuculidae</i> (its asserted parasitical habits lending force to that +belief) by all systematists except Blyth and Jerdon, until it +was shown by Blanford (<i>Obs. Geol. and Zool. Abyssinia</i>, pp. +308, 309) and Sclater (<i>Ibis</i>, 1870, pp. 176-180) that it was more +allied to the barbets, <i>Capitonidae</i>, and, in consequence, was then +made the type of a distinct family, <i>Indicatoridae</i>. In the meanwhile +other species had been discovered, some of them differing +sufficiently to warrant Sundevall’s foundation of a second genus, +<i>Prodotiscus</i>, of the group. The honey-guides are small birds, +the largest hardly exceeding a lark in size, and of plain plumage, +with what appears to be a very sparrow-like bill. Bowdler +Sharpe, in a revision of the family published in 1876 (<i>Orn. +Miscellany</i>, i. 192-209), recognizes ten species of the genus +<i>Indicator</i>, to which another was added by Dr Reichenow (<i>Journ. +für Ornithologie</i>, 1877, p. 110), and two of <i>Prodotiscus</i>. Four +species of the former, including <i>I. sparrmani</i>, which was the +first made known, are found in South Africa, and one of the +latter. The rest inhabit other parts of the same continent, +except <i>I. archipelagicus</i>, which seems to be peculiar to Borneo, +and <i>I. xanthonotus</i>, which occurs on the Himalayas from the +borders of Afghanistan to Bhutan. The interrupted geographical +distribution of this genus is a very curious fact, no species having +been found in the Indian or Malayan peninsula to connect +the outlying forms with those of Africa, which must be regarded +as their metropolis.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONEY LOCUST,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> the popular name of a tree, <i>Gleditsia +triacanthos</i>, a member of the natural order Leguminosae, and +a native of the more eastern United States of North America. +It reaches from 75 to 140 ft. in height with a trunk 2 or 3, or +sometimes 5 or 6 ft. in diameter, and slender spreading branches +which form a broad, flattish crown. The branchlets bear numerous +simple or three-forked (whence the species-name <i>triacanthos</i>) +sharp stiff spines, 3 to 4 in. long, at first red in colour, then +chestnut brown; they are borne above the leaf-axils and +represent undeveloped branchlets; sometimes they are borne +also on the trunk and main branches. The long-stalked leaves +are 7 to 8 in. long with eight to fourteen pairs of narrowly +oblong leaflets. The flowers, which are of two kinds, are borne +in racemes in the leaf-axils; the staminate flowers in larger +numbers. The brown pods are often 12 to 18 in. long, have +thin, tough walls, and contain a quantity of pulp between the +seeds; they contract spirally when drying. The tree was first +cultivated in Europe towards the end of the 17th century +by Bishop Compton in his garden at Fulham, near London, +and is now extensively planted as an ornamental tree. The +name of the genus commemorates Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch +(1714-1786), a friend of Linnaeus, and the author of one of +the earliest works on scientific forestry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONEYMOON,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> the first month after marriage. Lord Avebury +in his <i>Origin of Civilization</i> suggests that the seclusion usually +associated with this period is a survival of marriage by capture, +and answers to the period during which the husband kept his +wife in retirement, to prevent her from appealing to her relatives +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span> +for release. Others suggest that as the moon commences to +wane as soon as it is at its full, so does the mutual affection +of the wedded pair, the “honeymoon” (with this derivation) +not necessarily referring to any definite period of time.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:468px" src="images/img657.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Honeysuckle.—(<i>a</i>) Flowering branch; +(<i>b</i>) Flower, nat. size; (<i>c</i>) fruit, slightly +reduced.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">HONEYSUCKLE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (Mid. Eng., <i>honysocle</i>, <i>i.e.</i> any plant from +which honey may be sucked,—cf. A.-S. <i>huni-suge</i>, privet; Ger. +<i>Geissblatt</i>; Fr. <i>chèvrefeuille</i>), botanical name <i>Lonicera</i>, a genus +of climbing, erect or prostrate shrubs, of the natural order +<i>Caprifoliaceae</i>, so named after the 16th-century German botanist +Adam Lonicer. The British species is <i>L. Periclymenum</i>, the +woodbine; <i>L. Caprifolium</i> and <i>L. Xylosteum</i> are naturalized +in a few counties in the south and east of England. Some of +the garden varieties of the woodbine are very beautiful, and +are held in high esteem for their delicious fragrance, even the +wild plant, with its pale flowers, compensating for its sickly looks +“with never-cloying odours.” The North American sub-evergreen +<i>L. sempervirens</i>, with its fine heads of blossoms, +commonly called the +trumpet honeysuckle, +the most handsome of +all the cultivated honeysuckles, +is a distinct and +beautiful species producing +both scarlet and +yellow flowered varieties, +and the Japanese +<i>L. flexuosa</i> var. <i>aureoreticulata</i> +is esteemed +for its charmingly variegated +leaves netted with +golden yellow. The fly +honeysuckle, <i>L. Xylosteum</i>, +a hardy shrub of +dwarfish, erect habit, +and <i>L. tatarica</i>, of +similar habit, both +European, are amongst +the oldest English garden +shrubs, and bear +axillary flowers of +various colours, occurring +two on a peduncle. +There are numerous +other species, many of +them introduced to our gardens, and well worth cultivating in +shrubberies or as climbers on walls and bowers, either for their +beauty or the fragrance of their blossoms.</p> + +<p>In the western counties of England, and generally by agriculturists, +the name honeysuckle is applied to the meadow clover, +<i>Trifolium pratense</i>. Another plant of the same family (Leguminosae) +<i>Hedysarum coronarium</i>, a very handsome hardy +biennial often seen in old-fashioned collections of garden plants, +is commonly called the French honeysuckle. The name is +moreover applied with various affixes to several other totally +different plants. Thus white honeysuckle and false honeysuckle +are names for the North American <i>Azalea viscosa</i>; Australian +or heath honeysuckle is the Australian <i>Banksia serrata</i>, Jamaica +honeysuckle, <i>Passiflora laurifolia</i>, dwarf honeysuckle the widely +spread <i>Cornus suecica</i>, Virgin Mary’s honeysuckle the European +<i>Pulmonaria officinalis</i>, while West Indian honeysuckle is <i>Tecoma +capensis</i>, and is also a name applied to <i>Desmodium</i>.</p> + +<p>The wood of the fly honeysuckle is extremely hard, and +the clear portions between the joints of the stems, when their +pith has been removed, were stated by Linnaeus to be utilized +in Sweden for making tobacco-pipes. The wood is also employed +to make teeth for rakes; and, like that of <i>L. tatarica</i>, it is a +favourite material for walking-sticks.</p> + +<p>Honeysuckles (<i>Lonicera</i>) flourish in any ordinary garden soil, +but are usually sadly neglected in regard to pruning. This +should be done about March, cutting out some of the old wood, +and shortening back some of the younger growths of the preceding +year.</p> +<div class="author">(J. Ws.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONFLEUR,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a seaport of north-western France, in the +department of Calvados, 57 m. N.E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) +8735. The town is situated at the foot of a semicircle of hills, +on the south shore of the Seine estuary, opposite Havre, with +which it communicates by steamboat. Honfleur, with its dark +narrow lanes and old houses, has the typical aspect of an old-fashioned +seaport. The most noteworthy of its buildings is the +church of St Catherine, constructed entirely of timber work, +with the exception of the façade added in the 18th century, +and consisting of two parallel naves, of which the more ancient +is supposed to date from the end of the 15th century. Within +the church are several antique statues and a painting by J. +Jordaens—“Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane.” The church +tower stands on the other side of a street. St Leonard’s dates +from the 17th century, with the exception of its fine ogival +portal and rose-window belonging to the 16th, and its octagonal +tower erected in the 18th. The ruins of a 16th-century castle +known as the Lieutenance and several houses of the same period +are also of antiquarian interest. The hôtel de ville contains +a library and a museum. On the rising ground above the town +is the chapel of Nôtre-Dame-de-Grâce, a shrine much resorted +to by pilgrim sailors, which is said to have been founded in 1034 +by Robert the Magnificent of Normandy and rebuilt in 1606. +The town has a tribunal and a chamber of commerce and a +communal college. The port, which is protected from the +west winds by the height known as the Côte de Grâce, consists +of the tidal harbour and four floating basins—The West basin, +dating from the 17th century, and the Centre, East and Carnot +basins. A reservoir affords the means of sluicing the channel and +supplying the basins. The surface available for vessels is about 27 +acres. Numerous fishing and coasting vessels frequent the +harbour. In 1907 there entered 375 vessels, of 133,872 tons, +more than half this tonnage being British. The exports go mainly +to England and include poultry, butter, eggs, cheese, chocolate, +vegetables, fruit, seeds and purple ore. There is regular communication +by steamer with Southampton. Timber from +Scandinavia, English coal and artificial manures form the +bulk of the imports. There are important saw-mills, as well +as shipbuilding yards, manufactories of chemical manures and +iron foundries.</p> + +<p>Honfleur dates from the 11th century and is thus four or +five hundred years older than its rival Havre, by which it was +supplanted during the 18th century. During the Hundred +Years’ War it was frequently taken and re-taken, the last occupation +by the English ending in 1440. In 1562 the Protestant +forces got possession of it only after a regular siege of the suburb +of St Leonard; and though Henry IV. effected its capture in +1590 he had again to invest it in 1594 after all the rest of +Normandy had submitted to his arms. In the earlier years of +the 17th century Honfleur colonists founded Quebec, and Honfleur +traders established factories in Java and Sumatra and a +fishing establishment in Newfoundland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONG-KONG<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (properly <span class="sc">Hiang-Kiang</span>, the place of “sweet +lagoons”), an important British island-possession, situated +off the south-east coast of China, opposite the province of +Kwang-tung, on the east side of the estuary of the Si-kiang, +38 m. E. of Macao and 75 S.E. of Canton, between 22° 9′ and +22° 1′ N., and 114° 5′ and 114° 18′ E. It is one of a small cluster +named by the Portuguese “Ladrones” or Thieves, on account +of the notorious habits of their old inhabitants. Extremely +irregular in outline, it has an area of 29 sq. m., measuring 10½ m. +in extreme length from N.E. to S.W., and varying in breadth +from 2 to 5 m. A good military road about 22 m. long encircles +the island. From the mainland it is separated by a narrow +channel, which at Hong-Kong roads, between Victoria, the island +capital), and Kowloon Point, is about 1 m. broad, and which +narrows at Ly-ee-mun Pass to little over a ¼ m. The +southern coast in particular is deeply indented; and there +two bold peninsulas, extending for several miles into the sea, +form two capacious natural harbours, namely, Deep Water +Bay, with the village of Stanley to the east, and Tytam Bay, +which has a safe, well-protected entrance showing a depth of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span> +10 to 16 fathoms. An in-shore island on the west coast, called +Aberdeen, or Taplishan, affords protection to the Shekpywan +or Aberdeen harbour, an inlet provided with a granite graving +dock, the caisson gate of which is 60 ft. wide, and the Hope +dock, opened in 1867, with a length of 425 ft. and a depth of +24 ft. Opposite the same part of the coast, but nearly 2 m. +distant, rises the largest of the surrounding islands, Lamma, +whose conspicuous peak, Mount Stenhouse, attains a height of +1140 ft. and is a landmark for local navigation. On the northern +shore of Hong-Kong there is a patent slip at East or Matheson +Point, which is serviceable during the north-east monsoon, +when sailing vessels frequently approach Victoria through the +Ly-ee-mun Pass. The ordinary course for such vessels is from +the westward, on which side they are sheltered by Green Island +and Kellett Bank. There is good anchorage throughout the +entire channel separating the island from the mainland, except +in the Ly-ee-mun Pass, where the water is deep; the best +anchorage is in Hong-Kong roads, in front of Victoria, where, +over good holding ground, the depth is 5 to 9 fathoms. The +inner anchorage of Victoria Bay, about ½ m. off shore and +out of the strength of the tide, is 6 to 7 fathoms. Victoria, +the seat of government and of trade, is the chief centre of +population, but a tract on the mainland is covered with public +buildings and villa residences. Practically an outlying suburb +of Victoria, Kowloon or (Nine Dragons) is free from the extreme +heat of the capital, being exposed to the south-west monsoon. +Numerous villas have also been erected along the beautiful +western coast of the island, while Stanley, in the south, is +favoured as a watering-place.</p> + +<p>The island is mountainous throughout, the low granite ridges, +parted by bleak, tortuous valleys, leaving in some places a +narrow strip of level coast-land, and in others overhanging the +sea in lofty precipices. From the sea, and especially from the +magnificent harbour which faces the capital, the general aspect +of Hong-Kong is one of singular beauty. Inland the prospect +is wild, dreary and monotonous. The hills have a painfully +bare appearance from the want of trees. The streams, which +are plentiful, are traced through the uplands and glens by a +line of straggling brushwood and rank herbage. Nowhere is +the eye relieved by the evidences of cultivation or fertility. +The hills, which are mainly composed of granite, serpentine +and syenite, rise in irregular masses to considerable heights, +the loftiest point, Victoria Peak, reaching an altitude of 1825 ft. +The Peak lies immediately to the south-west of the capital, in +the extreme north-west corner of the island, and is used as a +station for signalling the approach of vessels. Patches of land, +chiefly around the coast, have been laid under rice, sweet +potatoes and yams, but the island is hardly able to raise a +home-supply of vegetables. The mango, lichen, pear and +orange are indigenous, and several fruits and esculents have been +introduced. One of the chief products is building-stone, which +is quarried by the Chinese. The animals are few, comprising +a land tortoise, the armadillo, a species of boa, several poisonous +snakes and some woodcock. The public works suffer from the +ravages of white ants. Water everywhere abounds, and is +supplied to the shipping by means of tanks.</p> + +<p>Under the Peking Treaty of 1860 the peninsula of Kowloon +(about 5 m. in area) was added to Hong-Kong. The population +is about 27,000. There are several docks and warehouses, +and manufactures are being developed. +<span class="sidenote">Mainland territory.</span> +Granite is quarried in the peninsula. An agreement +was entered into in 1898 whereby China leased to +Great Britain for ninety-nine years the territory behind Kowloon +peninsula up to a line drawn from Mirs Bay to Deep Bay and +the adjoining islands, including Lantao. The new district, +which extends to 376 sq. m. in area, is mountainous, with +extensive cultivated valleys of great fertility, and the coastline +is deeply indented by bays. The alluvial soil of the valleys +yields two crops of rice in the year. Sugar-cane, indigo, hemp, +peanuts, potatoes of different varieties, yam, taro, beans, +sesamum, pumpkins and vegetables of all kinds are also grown. +The mineral resources are as yet unknown. The population +is estimated at about 100,000. It consists of Puntis (or +Cantonese), Hakkas (“strangers”) and Tankas. The Puntis +are agricultural and inhabit the valleys, and they make excellent +traders. The Hakkas are a hardy and frugal race, belonging +mainly to the hill districts. The Tankas are the boat people +or floating population. In the government of the new territory +the existing organization is as far as possible utilized.</p> + +<p>Hong-Kong or Victoria harbour constantly presents an +animated appearance, as many as 240 guns having been fired +as salutes in a single day. Its approaches are strongly +fortified. The steaming distance from Singapore is +<span class="sidenote">Victoria.</span> +1520 m. Victoria, the capital, often spoken of as Hong-Kong +(population over 166,000, of whom about 6000 are European +or American), stretches for about 4 m. along the north coast. +Its breadth varies from ½ m. in the central portions to 200 +or 300 yds. in the eastern and western portions. The town +is built in three layers. The “Praya” or esplanade, 50 ft. +wide, is given up to shipping. The Praya reclamation scheme +provided for the extension of the land frontage of 250 ft. and +a depth of 20 ft. at all states of the tide. A further extension +of the naval dockyard was begun in 1902, and a new commercial +pier was opened in 1900. The main commercial street runs +inland parallel with the Praya. Beyond the commercial portion, +on each side, lie the Chinese quarters, wherein there is a closely +packed population. In 1888, 1600 people were living in the +space of a single acre, and over 100,000 were believed to be +living within an area not exceeding ½ m.; and the overcrowding +does not tend to diminish, for in one district, in 1900, +it was estimated that there were at the rate of 640,000 persons +on the sq. m. The average, however, for the whole of +the city is 126 per acre, or 80,640 per sq. m. The second +stratum of the town lies ten minutes’ climb up the side of the +island. Government house and other public buildings are in +this quarter. There abound “beautifully laid out gardens, +public and private, and solidly constructed roads, some of them +bordered with bamboos and other delicately-fronded trees, +and fringed with the luxuriant growth of semi-tropical vegetation.” +Finally, the third layer, known as “the Peak,” and reached +by a cable tramway, is dotted over with private houses and +bungalows, the summer health resort of those who can afford +them; here a new residence for the governor was begun in 1900. +Excellent water is supplied to the town from the Pokfolum +and Tytam reservoirs, the former containing 68 million gallons, +the latter 390 millions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The temperature has a yearly range of from 45° to 99°, +but it occasionally falls below 40°, and ice occurs on the Peak. In +January 1893 ice was found at sea-level. The wet season begins in +May, after showers in March and April, and continues until the +beginning of August. During this period rain falls almost without +intermission. The rainfall varies greatly, but the mean is about +90 in. In 1898 only 57.025 in. fell, while in 1897 there were 100.03 +in.; in 1899, 72.7 in. and in 1900, 73.7 in. The damp is extremely +penetrating. During the dry season the climate is healthy, but +dysentery and intermittent fever are not uncommon. Bilious +remittent fever occurs in the summer months, and smallpox prevails +from November to March. The annual death-rate per 1000 for the +whole population in 1902 was 21.70.</p> + +<p><i>Population, &c.</i>—The following table shows the increase of +population:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Europe and<br />American<br />Civil.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Chinese Civil.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total (including<br />Military and Naval<br />Establishments and<br />Indians, &c.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,040</td> <td class="tcc rb">148,850</td> <td class="tcc rb">160,402</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,195</td> <td class="tcc rb">208,383</td> <td class="tcc rb">221,441</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,860</td> <td class="tcc rb">274,543</td> <td class="tcc rb">283,978</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12,174</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">306,130</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">326,961</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Education is provided by a few government schools and by a +large number receiving grants-in-aid. The foundation-stone of Hong-Kong +University was laid in March 1910, the buildings being the gift of +Sir Hormusjee Mody, a colonial broker. The Queen’s College provides +secondary education for boys. There are several hospitals, one of +which is a government institution. The Hong-Kong savings bank +has deposits amounting to about $1,100,000. There is a police force +composed of Europeans, Indian Sikhs and Chinese; and a strong +military garrison.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span></p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—Beyond the cultivation of vegetable gardens there +is practically no agricultural industry in the colony. But although +only 400 acres are cultivated on Hong-Kong island, and the same +number of acres in Kowloon, there are 90,000 acres under cultivation +in the new territory, of which over 7000 acres were in 1900 +planted with sugar-cane. Granite quarries are worked. The chief +industries are sugar-refining, the manufacture of cement, paper, +bamboo and rattan ware, carving in wood and ivory, working in +copper and iron, gold-beating and the production of gold, silver +and sandal-wood ware, furniture making, umbrella and jinricksha +making, and industries connected with kerosene oil and matches. +The manufacture of cotton has been introduced. Ship and boat +building, together with subsidiary industries, such as rope and sail +making, appear less subject to periods of depression than other +industries.</p> + +<p><i>Trade.</i>—Hong-Kong being a free port, there are no official figures +as to the amount of trade; but the value of the exports and imports +is estimated as about £50,000,000 in the year. Among the principal +goods dealt with are tea, silk, opium, sugar, flax, salt, earthenware, +oil, amber, cotton and cotton goods, sandal-wood, ivory, betel, +vegetables, live stock and granite. There is an extensive Chinese +passenger trade. The following are the figures of ships cleared and +entered:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Tonnage.</td> <td class="tcc allb">British.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,359,994</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,758,160</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,676,293</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,994,919</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,265,780</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,705,648</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">19,709,451</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,945,976</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Chinese ships rank next to British ships in the amount of +trade. German and Japanese ships follow next.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—The revenue and expenditure are given below:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Revenue.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Expenditure.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">$1,069,948</td> <td class="tcr rb">$948,014</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,995,220</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,915,350</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,918,159</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,841,805</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,901,073</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,752,444</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The main sources of revenue are licences, rent of government +property, the post-office and land sales. The light dues were reduced +in 1898 from 2½ cents to 1 cent per ton. There is a public debt +of about £340,000, borrowed for public works, which is being paid +off by a sinking fund. The only legal tender is the Mexican dollar, +and the British and Hong-Kong dollar, or other silver dollars of +equivalent value duly authorized by the governor. There are +small silver and copper coins, which are legal tenders for amounts +not exceeding two dollars and one dollar respectively. There is +also a large paper currency in the form of notes issued by the +Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, the Hong-Kong +and Shanghai Banking Corporation and the National Bank of +China, Limited. The foundation of new law courts was laid in 1900.</p> + +<p><i>Administration.</i>—Formerly an integral part of China, the island +of Hong-Kong was first ceded to Great Britain in 1841, and the +cession was confirmed by the treaty of Nanking in 1842, the charter +bearing the date 5th of April 1843. The colony is administered by a +governor, executive council and legislative council. The executive +council consists of the holders of certain offices and of such other +members as the crown may nominate. In 1890 there were nine +members. The legislative council consists of the same officials and +of six unofficial members. Of these, three are appointed by the +governor (of whom one must be, and two at present are, members of +the Chinese community); one is elected from the chamber of +commerce, and one from the justices of the peace.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Sir G. W. des Vœux, <i>Report on Blue-book of 1888</i>; +<i>A Handbook to Hong-Kong</i> (Hong-Kong, 1893); <i>The China Sea +Directory</i> (vol. iii., 3rd ed., 1894); Henry Norman, <i>The Peoples and +Politics of the Far East</i> (London, 1895); Sir E. Hertslet, <i>Treaties +between Great Britain and China and China and Foreign Powers</i> +(London, 1896); A. R. Colquhoun, <i>China in Transformation</i> +(London, 1898); <i>Colonial Possessions Report</i>, No. 84; and other +<i>Colonial Annual Reports</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONITON,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the +Honiton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, +pleasantly situated on rising ground on the left bank of the Otter, +16½ m. E.N.E. of Exeter by the London & South-Western +railway. Pop. (1901) 3271. The town consists of one wide +street, down which a stream of water runs, extending for about +1 m., and crossed at right angles by a lesser street. The restored +church of St Michael, formerly a parish church, but standing +on a hill about ½ m. from the town, was built by Courtenay, +bishop of Exeter, about 1482. It retains a curiously carved +screen, and the black marble tomb of Queen Elizabeth’s physician, +Marwood, who attained the age of 105. Allhallows Grammar +School, founded in 1614, was enlarged in 1893; St Margaret’s +hospital, founded as a lazar-house in the 14th century, is converted +into almshouses. Honiton is famous for its lace industry, +established by refugees from Flanders under Queen Elizabeth. +The delicate fabric made by hand on the pillow was long in +demand; its sale was, however, greatly diminished by the +competition of cheaper machine-made goods, and a school of +lace-making was opened to promote its recovery. The town +possesses breweries, tanneries, malthouses, flour-mills, saw-mills, +brick and tile works, potteries and an iron foundry; its trade in +butter is considerable. It is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen +and 18 councillors. Area, 3134 acres.</p> + +<p>Honiton (<i>Honetona</i>, <i>Huneton</i>) is situated on the British +Icknield Street, and was probably the site of an early settlement, +but it does not appear in history before the Domesday Survey, +when it was a considerable manor, held by Drew (Drogo) under +the count of Mortain, who had succeeded Elmer the Saxon, +with a subject population of 33, a flock of 80 sheep, a mill and 2 +salt-workers. The borough was founded before 1217 by William +de Vernon, earl of Devon, whose ancestor Richard de Redvers +had received the manor from Henry I. In the 14th century it +passed to the Courtenays, and in 1698 Sir William Courtenay +was confirmed in the right of holding court leet, view of frank-pledge +and the nomination of a portreeve, these privileges +having been surrendered to James II. The borough was represented +by two members in parliament in 1300 and 1311, and then +not again till 1640, from which date it returned two members +until disfranchised by the act of 1868, the returning officer being +the portreeve, who was also the chief magistrate of the borough +until its incorporation by charter of 1846. In 1221 Falkes de +Breauté, then custodian of the borough, rendered a palfrey for +holding a three days’ fair at the feast of All Saints, transferred +in 1247 to the feast of St Margaret, and still held under that grant. +A great market for corn and other produce is still held on Saturday +by prescription. The wool manufacture flourished at Honiton +in the reign of Henry VII., and it is said to have been the first +town at which serges were made, but the industry entirely +declined during the 19th century. The lace manufacture was +introduced by Flemish refugees, and was flourishing in the reign +of Charles I.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Devonshire</i>; A. Farquharson, <i>History +of Honiton</i> (Exeter, 1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONNEF<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>, a town and climatic health resort of Germany, +beautifully situated on the right bank of the Rhine, at the foot +of the Siebengebirge, 8 m. above Bonn by the railway +Cologne-Königswinter-Horchheim. +Pop. (1905) 6183. It has an Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, a sanatorium for consumptives, +and does a considerable trade in wine. The town is +surrounded by vineyards and orchards, and has annually a large +number of visitors. A mineral spring called the Drachenquelle +is used both for drinking and bathing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONOLULU<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>, a city, port of entry, and the capital of Hawaii, +situated in the “city and county of Honolulu,” on the S. coast +of the island of Oahu, at the mouth of Nuuanu Valley, 2100 m. +S.W. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890) 22,907; (1900) 39,306, +of whom 24,746 were males, 14,560 were females; about 10,000 +were Hawaiians, 15,000 Asiatics, and 5000 Portuguese; +(1910) 52,183. Honolulu is served by the Oahu railway, by +electric lines to the principal suburbs, and by steamship lines +to San Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, Manila, Salina Cruz +(Mexico), Victoria, Sydney, and Chinese and Japanese ports. +The business section and the older residence quarters occupy +low ground, but many of the newer residences are built on the +sides of neighbouring hills and mountains, of which there are +several from 500 to 2000 ft. in height. The Punch Bowl (behind +the city), a hill rising about 500 ft. above the sea, Diamond Head, +a crater about 760 ft. in height, 4 m. to the S.E., and the Nuuanu +Pali, a lofty and picturesque precipice 6 m. up the valley, are +especially known for their commanding views. In front of the +city is the small harbour, well protected from all winds except +those from the S.; in and after 1892 the Hawaiian government +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span> +deepened its entrance from 21 ft. to 30 ft. Six miles to the W. +is the much more spacious Pearl Harbor (a U.S. Naval Station), +the bar at the entrance of which was removed (1903) by the U.S. +government. Pearl Harbor and the harbour of Honolulu are the +only safe ports in the archipelago. The streets of Honolulu are +wide, and are macadamized with crushed or broken lava. The +business houses are mostly of brick or stone, and range from two +to six storeys in height. About most of the residences there are +many tropical trees, flowering shrubs and plants. Wood is +the most common material of which the residences are built; +a large portion of these residences are one-storey cottages; +broad verandahs are common; and of the more pretentious +residences the lanai, a semi-outdoor drawing-room with conservatories +adjoining, is a notable feature. Throughout the city +there is a marked absence of poverty and squalor. There are +good hotels in the city and its suburbs. The government +buildings are extensive and have a pleasing appearance; that +of the executive, in a beautiful park, was formerly the royal +palace and still contains many relics of royalty. Facing the +judiciary building is an heroic statue in bronze of Kamehameha +the Great. About 2 m. W. of the business centre of the city is the +Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, a fine stone building on a commanding +site, and containing a large collection of Hawaiian and +Polynesian relics and curios, especially Hawaiian feather-work, +and notable collections of fish and of Hawaiian land shells and +birds. Four miles S.E. of the business centre, at the foot of +Diamond Head, is Waikiki sea-beach, noted for its surf-riding, +boating and bathing, and Kapiolani Park, a pleasure resort, near +which is a famous aquarium of tropical fishes. Honolulu has +other parks, a fine Botanical Garden, created by the Bureau of +Agriculture, several public squares, several hospitals, a maternity +home, the Lunalilo Home for aged Hawaiians, an asylum for the +insane, several schools of high rank both public and private—notably +Oahu College on the E. edge of the city, first founded as +a school for the children of missionaries in 1841; the Honolulu +High School, founded in 1833 as the Oahu Charity School, to +teach English to the half whites; the Royal School, which was +founded in 1840 for the sons of chiefs; and the Normal School, +housed in what was in 1906 the most expensive building on the +island of Oahu—a library containing about 14,000 volumes and +the collections of the Hawaiian Historical Society, a number of +benevolent, literary, social and political societies, and an art +league, and is the see of both an Anglican and a Roman Catholic +bishop. In 1907 the Pacific Scientific Institution for the +advancement of scientific knowledge of the Pacific, its islands +and their people, was established here. Among the clubs of the +city are the Pacific Club, founded in 1853 as the British Club; +the Scottish Thistle Club (1891), of which Robert Louis Stevenson +was a member; the Hawaii Yacht Club, and the Polo, Country +and University Clubs. There are various journals and periodicals, +five languages being represented. The chief industries are +the manufacture of machinery (especially machinery for sugar-refineries) +and carriages, rice-milling and ship-building. Honolulu’s +total exports for the fiscal year 1908 were valued at +$42,238,455, and its imports at $19,985,724. There is a privately +owned electric street car service in the city. The water-works and +electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the Territorial +government, and to the plentiful water-supply is partly due +the luxuriant vegetation of the city. Honolulu’s safe harbour, +discovered in 1794, made it a place of resort for vessels (especially +whalers) and traders from the beginning of the 19th century. +Kamehameha I. (the Great) lived here from 1803 until 1811. +In 1816 was built a fort which stood until 1857. In 1820 the +city became the principal residence of the sovereign and soon +afterwards of foreign consuls, and thus practically the seat of +government. In 1907 an act was passed by which the former +county of Oahu, including the island of Oahu and the small +islands adjacent, was made a municipal corporation under the +name of the “city and county of Honolulu”; this act came into +effect on the 1st of January 1909.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONORIUS,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> the name of four popes and one antipope +(Honorius II; <i>i.e.</i> 2 below).</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Honorius I.</span>, pope from 625 to 638, was of a noble Roman +family, his father Petronius having been consul. He was very +active in carrying on the work of Gregory the Great, especially +in England; Bede (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> ii. 17) gives a letter of his to King +Edwin of Northumbria, in which he admonishes him diligently +to study Gregory’s writings; and it was at Edwin’s request +that Honorius conferred the pallium on the bishops of Canterbury +and York (ib. ii. 18). He also admonished the Irish for not +following the custom of the Catholic Church in the celebration +of Easter (<i>ib.</i> ii. 19), and commissioned Birinus to preach +Christianity in Wessex (<i>ib.</i> iii. 7). It is, however, in connexion +with the Monothelite heresy that Honorius is most remembered, +his attitude in this matter having acquired fresh importance +during the controversy raised by the promulgation of the dogma +of papal infallibility in 1870. In his efforts to consolidate the +papal power in Italy, Honorius had been hampered by the +schism of “the three chapters” in Istria and Venetia, a schism +that was ended by the deposition in 628 of the schismatic +patriarch Fortunatus of Aquileia-Grado and the elevation of +a Roman sub-deacon to the patriarchate. It is suggested that +help rendered to him in this matter by the emperor Heraclius, +or by the Greek exarch, may have inclined the pope to take the +emperor’s side in the Monothelite controversy, which broke out +shortly afterwards in consequence of the formula proposed by +the emperor with a view to reconciling the Monophysites and +the Catholics. However that may be, he joined the patriarchs +of Constantinople and Alexandria in supporting the doctrine +of “one will” in Christ, and expounded this view forcibly, if +somewhat obscurely, in two letters to the patriarch Sergius +(Epist. 4 and 5 in Migne, <i>Patrologia. Ser. Lat.</i> lxxx. 470, 474). +For this he was, more than forty years after his death (October +638), anathematized by name along with the Monothelite heretics +by the council of Constantinople (First Trullan) in 681; and this +condemnation was subsequently confirmed by more than one +pope, particularly by Leo II. See Hefele, <i>Die Irrlehre des +Honorius u. die vaticanische Lehre der Unfehlbarkeit</i> (1871), +who, however, modified his view in his <i>Conciliengeschichte</i> (1877). +Honorius I. was succeeded by Severinus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the articles by R. Zöpffel and G. Krüger in Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 1900), and by T. Grisar in Wetzer and Welte’s +<i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (Freiburg, 1889). In addition to the bibliographies +there given see also U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist.</i>, &c., +Bio-bibliographie, s. “Honorius I.” (Paris, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Honorius II.</span> (d. 1072), antipope, was the name taken +by Peter Cadalus, who was born at Verona and became bishop +of Parma in 1046. After the death of Pope Nicholas II. in July +1061 he was chosen pope by some German and Lombard bishops +at Basel in opposition to Alexander II., who had been elected +by the party led by Hildebrand, afterwards Pope Gregory VII. +Taking the name of Honorius II., Cadalus was thus the representative +of those who were opposed to reforms in the Church. +Early in 1062 he advanced towards Rome, and though his +supporters defeated the forces of his rival outside the city, he +soon returned to Parma to await the decision of the advisers +of the young German king, Henry IV., whose mother Agnes +had supported his election. About this time, however, Agnes +was deprived of her power, and the chief authority in Germany +passed to Anno, archbishop of Cologne, who was hostile to +Cadalus. Under these circumstances the antipope again marched +towards Rome in 1063 and entered the city, but was soon +forced to take refuge in the castle of St Angelo. The ensuing +war between the rival popes lasted for about a year, and then +Cadalus left Rome as a fugitive. Refusing to attend a council +held at Mantua in May 1064, he was deposed, and he died in +1072, without having abandoned his claim to the papal chair.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the article on Honorius II. in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, +Band viii. (Leipzig, 1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Honorius II.</span> (Lamberto Scannabecchi), pope from the +15th of December 1124 to the 13th of February 1130, a native +of Fagnano near Imola, of considerable learning and great +religious zeal, successively archdeacon at Bologna, cardinal-priest +of Sta Prassede under Urban II., cardinal-bishop of Ostia +and Velletri under Paschal II., shared the exile of Gelasius II. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span> +in France, and helped Calixtus II. to conclude the Concordat +of Worms (1122), which settled the investiture contest. He +owed his election in large measure to force employed by the +Frangipani, but was consecrated with general consent on the +21st of December 1124. By means of a close alliance with that +powerful family, he was enabled to maintain peace at Rome, +and the death of Emperor Henry V. (1125) further strengthened +the papal position. He recognized the Saxon Lothair III. as +king of the Romans and later as emperor, and excommunicated +his rival, Conrad of Hohenstaufen. He sanctioned the Praemonstratensian +order and that of the Knights Templars. He +excommunicated Count William of Normandy for marriage +in prohibited degree; brought to an end, through the influence +of Bernard of Clairvaux, the struggle with Louis VI. of France; +and arranged with Henry I. for the reception of papal legates +in England. He laid claim as feudal overlord to the Norman +possessions in southern Italy (July 1127), and excommunicated +the claimant, Duke Roger of Sicily, but was unable to prevent +the foundation of the Neapolitan monarchy, for Duke Roger +defeated the papal army and forced recognition in August +1128. Honorius appealed to Lothair for assistance, but died +before it arrived. His successor was Innocent II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief sources for the life of Honorius II. are his “Epistolae et +Privilegia,” in J. P. Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> vol. 166, and the <i>Vitae</i> of +Cardinals Pandulf and Boso in J. M. Watterich, <i>Pontif. Roman. +vitae</i>, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862); also “Codice diplomatico e bollario di +Onorio II.” in <i>Fr. Liverani opere</i>, vol. 4 (Macerata, 1859), and +Jaffé-Wattenbach, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman</i>. (1885-1888).</p> + +<p>See J. Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis +Innocenz III.</i> (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle +Ages</i>, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); H. H. +Milman, <i>Latin Christianity</i>, vol. 4 (London, 1899); Fr. Liverani, +“Lamberto da Fiagnano” in <i>Opere</i>, vol. 3 (Macerata, 1859); A. +Wagner, <i>Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum 1086-1150</i> +(Breslau, 1885); E. Bernheim, <i>Zur Geschichte des Wormser +Concordats</i> (Göttingen, 1878); Volkmar, “Das Verhältnis Lothars +III. zur Investiturfrage,” in <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, +vol. 26.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. Ha)</div> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Honorius III.</span> (Cencio Savelli), pope from the 18th of +July 1216 to the 18th of March 1227, a highly-educated and +pious Roman, successively canon of Sta Maria Maggiore, cardinal-deacon +of Sta Lucia in Silice, vice-chancellor, chamberlain +and cardinal-priest of Sti Giovanni e Paolo, was the successor +of Innocent III. He made peace with Frederick II., in accordance +with which the emperor was crowned with his wife Constance +in St Peter’s on the 22nd of November 1220, and swore to accord +full liberty to the church and to undertake a crusade. Honorius +was eager to carry out the decrees of the Lateran Council of 1215 +against the Albigenses and to further the crusade proclaimed +by his predecessor. He crowned Peter of Courtenay emperor +of Byzantium in April 1217; espoused the cause of the young +Henry III. of England against the barons; accepted the Isle +of Man as a perpetual fief; arbitrated differences between +Philip II. of France and James of Aragon; and made special +ecclesiastical regulations for the Scandinavian countries. He +sanctioned the Dominican order (22nd of November 1216), +making St Dominic papal major-domo in 1218; approved the +Franciscan order by bull of the 29th of November 1223; and +authorized many of the tertiary orders. He maintained, on +the whole, a tranquil rule at Rome; but Frederick II.’s refusal +to interrupt his reforms in Sicily in order to go on the crusade +gave the pope much trouble. Honorius died in 1227, before +the emperor had fulfilled his oath, and was succeeded by +Gregory IX.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Honorius III. left many writings which have been collected and +published by Abbé Horoy in the <i>Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica</i>, +vols. i.-ii. (Paris, 1879-1883). Among them are five books of +decretals, compiled about 1226; a continuation of the <i>Liber Pontificalis</i>; +a life of Gregory VII; a coronation form; and a large +number of sermons. His most important work is the <i>Liber censuum +Romanae ecclesiae</i>, written in 1192 and containing a record of the +income of the Roman Church and of its relations with secular +authorities. The last named is admirably edited by P. Fabre in +<i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome</i> (Paris, 1892). +The letters of Honorius are in F. Liverani, <i>Spicilegium Liberianum</i> +(1863). There are good <i>Regesta</i> in Latin and Italian, edited by +P. Pressutti (Rome, 1888, &c.).</p> + +<p>See J. Clausen, <i>Papst Honorius III.</i> (1895); P. T. Masetti, <i>I +Pontefici Onorio III. ed Innocenzo IV. a fronte dell’ Imperatore +Federico II. net secolo XIII.</i> (1884); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the +Middle Ages</i>, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); +K. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, vol. 5, 2nd ed.; +H. H. Milman, <i>Latin Christianity</i>, vol. 5 (London, 1899); T. +Frantz, <i>Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit +des Hohenstaufen Friedrich II.</i> (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, <i>Das +Papsttum u. Byzanz</i> (Berlin, 1903); M. Tangl, <i>Die päpstlichen +Kanzleiordungen von 1200-1500</i> (Innsbruck, 1894); Caillemer, <i>Le +Pape Honorius III. et le droit civil</i> (Lyons, 1881); F. Vernet, <i>Études +sur les sermons d’Honorius III.</i> (Lyons, 1888). There is an excellent +article, with exhaustive bibliography, by H. Schulz in Hauck’s +<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd edition.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> + +<p>5. <span class="sc">Honorius</span> IV. (Jacopo Savelli), pope from the 2nd of +April 1285 to the 3rd of April 1287, a member of a prominent +Roman family and grand-nephew of Honorius III., had studied +at the university of Paris, been made cardinal-deacon of Sta +Maria in Cosmedin, and succeeded Martin IV. Though aged +and so crippled that he could not stand alone he displayed +remarkable energy as pope. He maintained peace in the states +of the Church and friendly relations with Rudolph of Habsburg, +and his policy in the Sicilian question was more liberal than that +of his predecessor. He showed special favours to the mendicant +orders and formally sanctioned the Carmelites and Augustinian +Eremites. He was the first pope to employ the great banking +houses in northern Italy for the collection of papal dues. He +died at Rome and was succeeded by Nicholas IV.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Bouquet, <i>Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France</i>, +new ed., vols. 20-22 (Paris, 1894), for the chief sources; A. +Potthast, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman</i>, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); M. Prou, +“Les registres d’Honorius IV.” in <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises +d Athènes et de Rome</i> (Paris, 1888); B. Pawlicki, <i>Papst Honorius IV.</i> +(Münster, 1896); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. 5, +trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONORIUS, FLAVIUS<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (384-423), son of Theodosius I., +ascended the throne as “emperor of the West” in 395. The +history of the first thirteen years of the reign of Honorius is +inseparably connected with the name of Stilicho (<i>q.v.</i>), his +guardian and father-in-law. During this period the revolt of +the African prince Gildo was suppressed (398); Italy was +successfully defended against Alaric, who was defeated at +Pollentia (402) and Verona (403); and the barbarian hordes +under the Goth Radagaisus were destroyed (406). After the +downfall and murder of Stilicho (408), the result of palace +intrigues, the emperor was under the control of incompetent +favourites. In the same year Rome was besieged, and in 410, +for the second time in its history, taken and sacked by Alaric, +who for a short time set up the city prefect Attalus as a rival +emperor, but soon deposed him as incapable. Alaric died in +the same year, and in 412 Honorius concluded peace with his +brother-in-law and successor, Ataulphus (Adolphus), who married +the emperor’s sister Placidia and removed with his troops to +southern Gaul. A number of usurpers laid claim to the throne, +the most important of whom was Constantine. In 409 Britain +and Armorica declared their independence, which was confirmed +by Honorius himself, and were thus practically lost to the empire. +Honorius was one of the feeblest emperors who ever occupied +the throne, and the dismemberment of the West was only temporarily +averted by the efforts of Stilicho, and, later, of Constantius, +a capable general who overthrew the usurpers and was rewarded +with a share in the government. It was only as a supporter +of the orthodox church and persecutor of the heathen that +Honorius displayed any energy. In 399 the exercise of the +pagan cult was prohibited, and the revenues of the temples, +which were to be appropriated for the use of the public or pulled +down, were confiscated to defray the expenses of the army. +Honorius was equally severe on heretics, such as the Donatists +and Manichaeans. He is also to be credited with the abolition +of the gladiatorial shows in 404 (although there is said to be +evidence of their existence later), a reduction of the taxes, +improvements in criminal law, and the reorganization of the +<i>defensores civitatum</i>, municipal officers whose duty it was to +defend the rights of the people and set forth their grievances. +Honorius at first established his court at Milan, but, on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span> +report of the invasion of Italy, fled to Ravenna, where he resided +till his death on the 27th of August 423.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, chs. 28-33; J. B. Bury, <i>Later +Roman Empire</i>, i. chs. 1-5, ii. chs. 4, 6; E. A. Freeman, “Tyrants of +Britain, Gaul and Spain” in <i>Eng. Hist. Review</i> (January 1886); +T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i> (Oxford, 1892), i. chs. 13, 15-18.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONOUR<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Lat. <i>honos</i> or <i>honor</i>, <i>honoris</i>; in English the +word was spelled with or without the <i>u</i> indifferently until +the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashionable +to spell the word “honor”; Johnson’s and Webster’s +Dictionaries stereotyped the English and American spellings +respectively), a term which may be defined as respect, esteem +or deference paid to, or received by, a person in consideration +of his character, worth or position; also the state or condition +of the person exciting the feeling or expression of such esteem; +particularly a high personal character coupled with conduct +in accordance with or controlled by a nice sense of what is right +and true and due to the position so held. Further, the word is +commonly used of the dignities, distinctions or titles, granted +as a mark of such esteem or as a reward for services or merit, +and quite generally of the credit or renown conferred by a +person or thing on the country, town or particular society to +which he or it belongs. The standard of conduct may be laid +down not only by a scrupulous sense of what is due to lofty +personal character but also by the conventional usages of society, +hence it is that debts which cannot be legally enforced, such +as gambling debts, are called “debts of honour.” Similarly +in the middle ages and later, courts, known as “courts of honour,” +sat to decide questions such as precedence, disputes as to coat +armour &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chivalry</a></span>); such courts, chiefly military, +are found in countries where duelling has not fallen into desuetude +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Duel</a></span>). In the British House of Lords, when the peers +sit to try another peer on a criminal charge or at an impeachment, +on the question being put whether the accused be guilty or not, +each peer, rising in his place in turn, lays his right hand on his +breast and returns his verdict “upon my honour.” As a title +of address, “his honour” or “your honour” is applied in the +United States of America to all judges, in the United Kingdom +only to county court judges; in university or other examinations, +those who have won particular distinction, or have undergone +with success an examination of a standard higher than +that required for a “pass” degree, are said to have passed +“with honours,” or an “honours” examination or to have taken +an “honours degree.” In many games of cards the ace, king, +queen and knave of trumps are the “honours.”</p> + +<p>Funeral or military honours are paid to a dead officer or +soldier. The usual features of such a burial are as follows: +the coffin is carried on a gun-carriage and attended by troops; +it is covered by the national flag, on which rests the soldier’s +head-dress, sword or bayonet; if the deceased had been a +mounted soldier, his charger follows with the boots reversed +in the stirrups; three volleys are fired over the grave after +committal, and “last post” or another call is sounded on +the bugles or a roll on the drums is given.</p> + +<p>A military force is said to be accorded “the honours of war” +when, after a specially honourable defence, it has surrendered +its post, and is permitted, by the terms of capitulation to march +out with colours flying, bands playing, bayonets fixed, &c. +and retaining possession of the field artillery, horses, arms and +baggage. The force remains free to act as combatants for the +remainder of the war, without waiting for exchange or being +considered as prisoners. Usually some point is named to which +the surrendering troops must be conveyed before recommencing +hostilities; thus, during the Peninsular War, at the Convention +of Cintra 1808, the French army under Junot was conveyed +to France by British transports before being free to rejoin +the combatant troops in the Peninsula. By far the most usual +case of the granting of the “honours of war” is in connexion +with the surrender of a fortress. Of historic examples may be +mentioned the surrender of Lille by Marshal Boufflers to Prince +Eugene in 1708, that of Huningen by General Joseph Barbanègre +(1772-1830) to the Austrians in 1815, and that of +Belfort by Colonel P. Denfert Rochereau to the Germans in +1871.</p> + +<p>In English law the term “honour” is used of a seigniory +of several manors held under one baron or lord paramount. The +formation of such lordships dates back to the Anglo-Saxon +period, when jurisdiction of sac and soc was frequently given +in the case of a group of estates lying close together. The +system was encouraged by the Norman lords, as tending to +strengthen the principles of feudal law, but the legislation +of Henry II., which increased the power of the central administration, +undoubtedly tended to discourage the creation +of new honours. Frequently, they escheated to the crown, +retaining their corporate existence and their jurisdictions; +they then either remained in the possession of the king or were +regranted, diminished in extent. Although an honour contained +several manors, one court day was held for all, but the various +manors retained their separate organizations, having their +“quasi several and distinct courts.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONOURABLE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Fr. <i>honorable</i>, from Lat. <i>honorabilis</i>, worthy +of honour), a style or title of honour common to the United +Kingdom, the British colonies and the United States of America. +The terms <i>honorabilis</i> and <i>honorabilitas</i> were in use in the middle +ages rather as a form of politeness than as a stereotyped style; +and though Gibbon assimilates the late Roman title of <i>clarissimus</i> +to “honourable,” as applied to the lowest of the three grades +of rank in the imperial hierarchy, the analogy was good even in +his day only in so far as both styles were applicable to those who +belonged to the less exalted ranks of the titled classes, for the +title “honourable” was not definitely confined to certain classes +until later. As a formal address it is found frequently in the +<i>Paston Letters</i> (15th century), but used loosely and interchangeable +with other styles; thus John, Viscount Beaumont, is +addressed alternately as “my worshipful and reverent Lord” +(ii. 88, ed. 1904) and as “my right honorabull Lord” (ii. 118), +while John Paston, a plain esquire, is “my right honurabyll +maister.” More than two centuries later Selden, in his <i>Titles +of Honor</i> (1672), does not include “honourable” among the +courtesy titles given to the children of peers. The style was, +in fact, used extremely loosely till well on into the 18th century. +Thus we find in the registers of Westminster Abbey records of the +burial (in 1710) of “The Hon. George Churchill, Esq.,” who was +only a son of Sir Winston Churchill, and of “The Hon. Sir +William Godolphin,” who had only been created a baronet; +in 1717 was buried “The Hon. Colonel Henry Cornwall,” who +was only an esquire and the son of one; in 1743 a rear-admiral +was buried as “The Hon. Sir John Jennings, Kt.”; in 1746 +“The Hon. Major-General Lowther,” whose father was only a +Dublin merchant; and finally, in 1747, “The Hon. Lieutenant-General +Guest,” who is said to have begun life as an hostler. +From this time onwards the style of “honourable” tended to +become more narrowly applied; but the whole matter is full +of obscurity and contradictions. The baronets, for instance, +allege that they were usually styled “the honourable” until +the end of the 18th century, and in 1835 they petitioned for the +style as a prefix to their names. The Heralds’ College officially +reported on the petition (31st of October 1835) that the evidence +did not prove the right of baronets to the style, and that its use +“has been no more warranted by authority than when the same +style has been applied to Field Officers in the Army and others.” +They added that “the style of the Honourable is given to the +<i>Judges</i> and to the <i>Barons of the Exchequer</i> with others because by +the Decree of 10 James I., for settling the place and precedence +of the Baronets, the Judges and Barons of the Exchequer were +declared to have place and precedence before the younger sons +of Viscounts and Barons.” This seems to make the style a +consequence of the precedence; yet from the examples above +given it is clear that it was applied, <i>e.g.</i> in the case of field +officers, where no question of precedence arose. It is not, indeed, +until 1874 that we have any evidence of an authoritative limitation +of the title. In this year the wives of lords of appeal, life +peers, were granted style and precedence as baronesses; but +it was provided that their children were not “to assume or use +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span> +the prefix of Honourable, or to be entitled to the style, rank or +precedence of the children of a Baron.” In 1898, however, +this was revoked, and it was ordained “that such children shall +have and enjoy on all occasions the style and title enjoyed by +the children of hereditary Barons together with the rank and +precedence, &c.” By these acts of the Crown the prefix of +“honourable” would seem to have been restricted and stereotyped +as a definite title of honour; yet in legal documents the +sons of peers are still styled merely “esquire,” with the addition +of “commonly called, &c.” This latter fact points to the time +when the prefix “honourable” was a mark of deference paid +by others rather than a style assumed by right, and relics of this +doubtless survive in the United Kingdom in the conventions +by which an “honourable” does not use the title on his visiting +card and is not announced as such.</p> + +<p>As to the actual use and social significance of the style, the +practice in the United Kingdom differs considerably from that +in the colonies or in the United States. In the United Kingdom +marquesses are “most honourable”; earls, viscounts and +barons “right honourable,” a style also borne by all privy +councillors, including the lord mayor of London and lord provost +of Edinburgh during office. The title of “honourable” is in the +United Kingdom, except by special licence of the Crown (<i>e.g.</i> in +the case of retired colonial or Indian officials), mainly confined +to the sons and daughters of peers, and is the common style of +the younger sons of earls and of the children of viscounts, +barons and legal life peers. The eldest sons of dukes, marquesses +and earls bear “by courtesy” their father’s second title, the +younger sons of dukes and marquesses having the courtesy +title Lord prefixed to their Christian name; while the daughters +of dukes, marquesses and earls are styled Lady. The title of +“honourable” is also given to all present or past maids of +honour, and to the judges of the high court being lords +justices or lords of appeal (who are “right honourable”). A county +court judge is, however, “his honour.” The epithet is also +applied to the House of Commons as a body and to individual +members during debate (“the honourable member for X.”). +Certain other corporate bodies have, by tradition or grant, the +right to bear the style; <i>e.g.</i> the Honourable Irish Society, +the Inns of Court (Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, &c.) +and the Honourable Artillery Company; the East India Company +also had the prefix “honourable.” The style may not be +assumed by corporate bodies at will, as was proved, in the case +of the Society of Baronets, whose original style of “Honourable” +Society was dropped by command.</p> + +<p>In the British colonies the title “honourable” is given to +members of the executive and legislative bodies, to judges, &c., +during their term of service. It is sometimes retained by royal +licence after a certain number of years’ service.</p> + +<p>In the United States of America the title is very widespread, +being commonly given to any one who holds or has held any office +of importance in state or nation, more particularly to members +of Congress or of the state legislatures, judges, justices, and +certain other judicial and executive officials. Popular amenity +even sometimes extends the title to holders of quite humble +government appointments, and consoles with it the defeated +candidates for a post. See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Precedence</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1701-1790), German +historian and theologian, was born on the 27th of January 1701 +at Trier. He belonged to a noble family which had been for +many generations connected with the court and diocese of the +archbishop-electors, his father, Kaspar von Hontheim, being +receiver-general of the archdiocese. At the age of twelve young +Hontheim was given by his maternal uncle, Hugo Friedrich +von Anethan, canon of the collegiate church of St Simeon +(which at that time still occupied the Roman Porta Nigra at +Trier), a prebend in his church, and on the 13th of May 1713 he +received the tonsure. He was educated by the Jesuits at Trier +and at the universities of Trier, Louvain and Leiden, taking +his degree of doctor of laws at Trier in 1724. During the following +years he travelled in various European countries, spending +some time at the German College in Rome; in 1728 he was +ordained priest and, formally admitted to the chapter of St +Simeon in 1732, he became a professor at the university of Trier. +In 1738 he went to Coblenz as official to the archbishop-elector. +In this capacity he had plentiful opportunity of studying the +effect of the interference of the Roman Curia in the internal +affairs of the Empire, notably in the negotiations that preceded +the elections of the emperors Charles VII. and Francis I. in which +Hontheim took part as assistant to the electoral ambassador. +It appears that it was the extreme claims of the papal nuncio on +these occasions and his interference in the affairs of the electoral +college that first suggested to Hontheim that critical examination +of the basis of the papal pretensions, the results of which he +afterwards published to the world under the pseudonym of +“Febronius.” In 1747, broken down by overwork, he resigned +his position as official and retired to St Simeon’s, of which he was +elected dean in the following year. In May 1748 he was appointed +by the archbishop-elector Francis George (von Schönborn) as +his suffragan, being consecrated at Mainz, in February 1749, +under the title of bishop of Myriophiri <i>in partibus</i>. The archbishop +of Trier was practically a great secular prince, and upon +Hontheim as suffragan and vicar-general fell the whole spiritual +administration of the diocese; this work, in addition to that of +pro-chancellor of the university, he carried on single-handed until +1778, when Jean Marie Cuohot d’Herbain was appointed his +coadjutor. On the 21st of April 1779 he resigned the deanery +of St Simeon’s on the ground of old age. He died on the 2nd of +September 1790 at his chateau at Montquentin near Orval, +an estate which he had purchased. He was buried at first in St +Simeon’s; but the church was ruined by the French during the +revolutionary wars and never restored, and in 1803 the body +of Hontheim was transferred to that of St Gervasius.</p> + +<p>As a historian Hontheim’s reputation rests on his contributions +to the history of Trier. He had, during the period of his activity +as official at Coblenz, found time to collect a vast mass of printed +and MS. material which he afterwards embodied in three works +on the history of Trier. Of these the <i>Historia Trevirensis +diplomatica et pragmatica</i> was published in 3 vols. folio in 1750, +the <i>Prodromus historiae Trevirensis</i> in 2 vols. in 1757. They give, +besides a history of Trier and its constitution, a large number +of documents and references to published authorities. A third +work, the <i>Historiae scriptorum et monumentarum Trevirensis +amplissima collectio</i>, remains in MS. at the city library of Trier. +These books, the result of an enormous labour in collation and +selection in very unfavourable circumstances, entitle Hontheim +to the fame of a pioneer in modern historical methods. It is, +however, as “Febronius” that Hontheim is best remembered. +The character and effect of his book on “the state of the Church +and the lawful power of the Roman pontiff” is described elsewhere +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Febronianism</a></span>). The author of the book was known +at Rome almost as soon as it was published; but it was not +till some years afterwards (1778) that he was called on to retract. +The terrors of the spiritual power were reinforced by a threat +of the archbishop-elector to deprive not only him but all his +relations of their offices, and Hontheim, after much wavering +and correspondence, signed a submission which was accepted +at Rome as satisfactory, though he still refused to admit, as +demanded, <i>ut proinde merito monarchicum ecclesiae regimen a +catholicis doctoribus appelletur</i>. The removal of the censure +followed (1781) when Hontheim published at Frankfort what +purported to be a proof that his submission had been made of +his own free will (<i>Justini Febronii acti commentarius in suam +retractationem</i>, &c.). This book, however, which carefully +avoided all the most burning questions, rather tended to show—as +indeed his correspondence proves—that Hontheim had +not essentially shifted his standpoint. But Rome left him +thenceforth in peace.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Otto Mejer, <i>Febronius, Weihbischof Johann Nikolaus von +Hontheim und sein Widerruf</i> (Tübingen, 1880), with many original +letters. Of later date is the biography by F. X. Kraus in the <i>Allgemeine +deutsche Biographie</i> (1881), which gives numerous references.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HONTHORST, GERARD VAN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1590-1656), Dutch painter +of Utrecht, was brought up at the school of Bloemart, who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span> +exchanged the style of the Franckens for that of the pseudo-Italians +at the beginning of the 16th century. Infected thus +early with a mania which came to be very general in Holland, +Honthorst went to Italy, where he copied the naturalism and +eccentricities of Michelangelo da Caravaggio. Home again +about 1614, after acquiring a considerable practice in Rome, +he set up a school at Utrecht which flourished exceedingly; +and he soon became so fashionable that Sir Dudley Carleton, +then English envoy at the Hague, recommended his works to +the earl of Arundel and Lord Dorchester. At the same time +the queen of Bohemia, sister of Charles I. and electress palatine, +being an exile in Holland, gave him her countenance and asked +him to teach her children drawing; and Honthorst, thus approved +and courted, became known to Charles I., who invited +him to England. There he painted several portraits, and a vast +allegory, now at Hampton Court, of Charles and his queen as +Diana and Apollo in the clouds receiving the duke of Buckingham +as Mercury and guardian of the king of Bohemia’s children. +Charles I., whose taste was flattered alike by the energy of Rubens +and the elegance of Van Dyck, was thus first captivated by the +fanciful mediocrity of Honthorst, who though a poor executant +had luckily for himself caught, as Lord Arundel said, “much +of the manner of Caravaggio’s colouring, then so much esteemed +at Rome.” It was his habit to transmute every subject into +a night scene, from the Nativity, for which there was warrant +in the example of Correggio, to the penitence of the Magdalen, +for which there was no warrant at all. But unhappily this +caprice, though “sublime in Allegri and Rembrandt,” was but +a phantasm in the hands of Honthorst, whose prosaic pencil +was not capable of more than vulgar utterances, and art gained +little from the repetition of these quaint vagaries. Sandrart +gave the measure of Honthorst’s popularity at this period +when he says that he had as many as twenty apprentices at one +time, each of whom paid him a fee of 100 florins a year. In 1623 +he was president of his gild at Utrecht. After that he went +to England, returning to settle anew at Utrecht, where he married. +His position amongst artists was acknowledged to be important, +and in 1626 he received a visit from Rubens, whom he painted +as the honest man sought for and found by Diogenes Honthorst. +In his home at Utrecht Honthorst succeeded in preserving +the support of the English monarch, for whom he finished in +1631 a large picture of the king and queen of Bohemia “and all +their children.” For Lord Dorchester about the same period +he completed some illustrations of the <i>Odyssey</i>; for the king of +Denmark he composed incidents of Danish history, of which +one example remains in the gallery of Copenhagen. In the +course of a large practice he had painted many likenesses—Charles +I. and his queen, the duke of Buckingham, and the king +and queen of Bohemia. He now became court painter to the +princess of Orange, settled (1637) at the Hague, and painted in +succession at the Castle of Ryswick and the House in the Wood. +The time not consumed in producing pictures was devoted to +portraits. Even now his works are very numerous, and amply +represented in English and Continental galleries. His most +attractive pieces are those in which he cultivates the style of +Caravaggio, those, namely, which represent taverns, with players, +singers and eaters. He shows great skill in reproducing scenes +illuminated by a single candle. But he seems to have studied +too much in dark rooms, where the subtleties of flesh colour +are lost in the dusky smoothness and uniform redness of tints +procurable from farthing dips. Of great interest still, though +rather sharp in outline and hard in modelling, are his portraits +of the Duke of Buckingham and Family (Hampton Court), +the King and Queen of Bohemia (Hanover and Combe Abbey), +Mary de Medici (Amsterdam town-hall), 1628, the Stadtholders +and their Wives (Amsterdam and Hague), Charles Louis and +Rupert, Charles I.’s nephews (Louvre, St Petersburg, Combe +Abbey and Willin), and Lord Craven (National Portrait +Gallery). His early form may be judged by a Lute-player +(1614) at the Louvre, the Martyrdom of St John in S. M. +della Scala at Rome, or the Liberation of Peter in the Berlin +Museum; his latest style is that of the House in the Wood +(1648), where he appears to disadvantage by the side of +Jordaens and others.</p> + +<p>Honthorst was succeeded by his brother William, born +at Utrecht in 1604, who died, it is said, in 1666. He lived +chiefly in his native place, temporarily at Berlin. But he +has left little behind except a portrait at Amsterdam, +and likenesses in the Berlin Museum of William and Mary of +England.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOCH, PIETER DE<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1629-?1678), Dutch painter, was +born in 1629, and died in Amsterdam probably shortly after +1677. He was a native of Rotterdam, and wandered early to +Haarlem and the Hague. In 1654 we find him again at Rotterdam, +where in that year he married a girl of Delft, Jannetje +van der Burch. From 1655 to 1657 he was a member of the +painter’s gild of Delft, but after that date we have no traces +of his doings until about 1668, when his presence is recorded +in Amsterdam. His dated pictures prove that he was still +alive in 1677, but his death followed probably soon after this +year. De Hooch is one of the kindliest and most charming +painters of homely subjects that Holland has produced. He +seems to have been born at the same time and taught in the +same school as van der Meer and Maes. All three are disciples +of the school of Rembrandt. Houbraken mentions Nicolas +Berchem as De Hooch’s teacher. De Hooch only once painted +a canvas of large size, and that unfortunately perished in a fire +at Rotterdam in 1864. But his small pieces display perfect +finish and dexterity of hand, combined with great power of +discrimination. Though he sometimes paints open-air scenes, +these are not his favourite subjects. He is most at home in +interiors illuminated by different lights, with the radiance of the +day, in different intensities, seen through doors and windows. +He thus brings together the most delicate varieties of tone, +and produces chords that vibrate with harmony. The themes +which he illustrates are thoroughly suited to his purpose. Sometimes +he chooses the drawing-room where dames and cavaliers +dance, or dine, or sing; sometimes—mostly indeed—he prefers +cottages or courtyards, where the housewives tend their children +or superintend the labours of the cook. Satin and gold are as +familiar to him as camlet and fur; and there is no article of +furniture in a Dutch house of the middle class that he does +not paint with pleasure. What distinguishes him most besides +subtle suggestiveness is the serenity of his pictures. One of his +most charming was the canvas formerly in the Ashburton +collection, now burnt, where an old lady with a dish of apples +walks with a child along a street bounded by a high wall, +above which gables and a church steeple are seen, while the +sun radiates joyfully over the whole. Fine in another way is +the “Mug of Beer” in the Amsterdam Museum, an interior +with a woman coming out of a pantry and giving a measure +of beer to a little girl. The light flows in here from a small +closed window; but through the door to the right we look into +a drawing-room, and through the open sash of that room we +see the open air. The three lights are managed with supreme +cunning. Beautiful for its illumination again is the “Music +Party,” with its contending indoor and outdoor lights, a gem in +the late A. Thieme collection at Leipzig. More subtly suggestive, +in the museum of Berlin, is the “Mother seated near a Cradle.” +“A Card Party,” dated 1658, at Buckingham Palace, is a good +example of De Hooch’s drawing-room scenes, counterpart as +to date and value of a “Woman and Child” in the National +Gallery, and the “Smoking Party,” formerly in Lord Enfield’s +collection. Another very fine example is the “Interior” with +two women, bought by Sir Julius Wernher. Other pictures +later in the master’s career are—the “Lady and Child in a +Courtyard,” of 1665, in the National Gallery, and the “Lady +receiving a Letter,” of 1670, in the Amsterdam Museum (Van +der Hoop collection).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is possible to bring together over 250 examples of De Hooch. +There are three at St Petersburg, three in Buckingham Palace, three +in the National Gallery, two in the Wallace Collection, six in the Amsterdam +Museum, some in the Louvre and at Munich and Darmstadt; +many others are in private galleries in England. For England was +the first country to recognize the merit of De Hooch who only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span> +began to be valued in Holland in the middle of the 18th century. A +celebrated picture at Amsterdam, sold for 450 florins in 1765, fetched +4000 in 1817, and in 1876 the Berlin Museum gave £5400 for a De +Hooch at the Schneider sale—“A Dutch Dwelling-room” (820 B).</p> + +<p>See Hofstede de Groot’s <i>Catalogue raisonné</i>, vol. i., London, 1907.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOD, JOHN BELL<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1831-1879), American soldier, lieut.-general +of the Confederate army, was born at Owingsville, +Kentucky, in 1831, and graduated from West Point military +academy in 1853. As an officer of the 2nd U.S. cavalry (Colonel +Sidney Johnston) he saw service against Indians, and later he +was cavalry instructor at West Point. He resigned from the +U.S. service in 1861, and became a colonel in the Confederate +army. He was soon promoted brigadier-general, and at the +battle of Gaines’s Mill, where he was wounded, won the +brevet of major-general for his gallant conduct. With the +famous, “Texas brigade” of the Army of Northern Virginia +he served throughout the campaign of 1862. At Gettysburg +he commanded one of the divisions of Longstreet’s corps, +receiving a wound which disabled his arm. With Longstreet +he was transferred in the autumn of 1863 to the Army of +Tennessee. At the battle of Chickamauga (September 19th, +20th) Hood was severely wounded again and his leg was amputated, +but after six months he returned to duty undaunted. +He remained with the Army of Tennessee as a corps commander, +and when the general dissatisfaction with the Fabian policy of +General J. E. Johnston brought about the removal of that officer, +Hood was put in his place with the temporary rank of general. +He had won a great reputation as a fighting general, and it was +with the distinct understanding that battles were to be fought +that he was placed at the head of the Army of Tennessee. But +in spite of skill and courage he was uniformly unsuccessful in +the battles around Atlanta. In the end he had to abandon the +place, but he forthwith sought to attack Sherman in another +direction, and finally invaded Tennessee. His march was pushed +with the greatest energy, but he failed to draw the main body +of the enemy after him, and, while Sherman with a picked force +made his “March to the Sea,” Thomas collected an army to +oppose Hood. A severe battle was fought at Franklin on the +30th of November, and finally Hood was defeated and his army +almost annihilated in the battle of Nashville. He was then +relieved at his own request (January 23rd, 1865). After the war +he was engaged in business in New Orleans, where he died of +yellow fever on the 30th of August 1879. His experiences in +the Civil War are narrated in his <i>Advance and Retreat</i> (New +Orleans, 1880). Hood’s reputation as a bold and energetic +leader was well deserved, though his reckless vigour proved +but a poor substitute for Johnston’s careful husbanding of his +strength at this declining stage of the Confederacy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (1724-1816), British +admiral, was the son of Samuel Hood, vicar of Butleigh in +Somerset, and prebendary of Wells. He was born on the 12th +of December 1724, and entered the navy on the 6th of May +1741. He served part of his time as midshipman with Rodney +in the “Ludlow,” and became lieutenant in 1746. He was +fortunate in serving under active officers, and had opportunities +of seeing service in the North Sea. In 1753 he was made commander +of the “Jamaica” sloop, and served in her on the +North American station. In 1756, while still on the North +American station, he attained to post rank. In 1757, while in +temporary command of the “Antelope” (50), he drove a French +ship ashore in Audierne Bay, and captured two privateers. +His zeal attracted the favourable notice of the Admiralty and +he was appointed to a ship of his own. In 1759, when captain +of the “Vestal” (32), he captured the French “Bellona” +(32) after a sharp action. During the war his services were wholly +in the Channel, and he was engaged under Rodney in 1759 +in destroying the vessels collected by the French to serve as +transports in the proposed invasion of England. In 1778 he +accepted a command which in the ordinary course would have +terminated his active career. He became commissioner of the +dockyard at Portsmouth and governor of the Naval Academy. +These posts were generally given to officers who were retiring +from the sea. In 1780, on the occasion of the king’s visit to +Portsmouth, he was made a baronet. The circumstances of +the time were not ordinary. Many admirals declined to serve +under Lord Sandwich, and Rodney, who then commanded +in the West Indies, had complained of want of proper support +from his subordinates, whom he accused of disaffection. The +Admiralty was naturally anxious to secure the services of +trustworthy flag officers, and having confidence in Hood promoted +him rear-admiral out of the usual course on the 26th of +September 1780, and sent him to the West Indies to act as +second in command under Rodney, to whom he was personally +known. He joined Rodney in January 1781, and remained +in the West Indies or on the coast of North America till the +close of the War of American Independence. The calculation +that he would work harmoniously with Rodney was not altogether +justified by the results. The correspondence of the two shows +that they were far from being on cordial personal terms with +one another, but Hood always discharged his duty punctually, +and his capacity was so great, and so signally proved, that no +question of removing him from the station ever arose. The +unfortunate turn taken by the campaign of 1781 was largely +due to Rodney’s neglect of his advice. If he had been allowed +to choose his own position there can be no doubt that he could +have prevented the comte de Grasse (1722-1788) from reaching +Fort Royal with the reinforcements from France in April (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodney, Lord</a></span>). When the fleet went on to the coast of North +America during the hurricane months of 1781 he was sent to +serve with Admiral Graves (1725?-1802) in the unsuccessful +effort to relieve the army at Yorktown. But his subordinate +rank gave him no chance to impart a greater measure of energy +to the naval operations. When, however, he returned to the +West Indies he was for a time in independent command owing +to Rodney’s absence in England for the sake of his health. The +French admiral, the comte de Grasse, attacked the British islands +of St Kitts and Nevis with a much superior force to the squadron +under Hood’s command. The attempt Hood made in January +1782 to save them from capture, with 22 ships to 29, was not +successful, but the series of bold movements by which he first +turned the French out of their anchorage at the Basse Terre +of St Kitts, and then beat off the attacks of the enemy, were +the most brilliant things done by any British admiral during the +war. He was made an Irish peer for his share in the defeat of +the comte de Grasse on the 9th and 12th of April near Dominica. +During the peace he entered parliament as member for Westminster +in the fiercely contested election of 1784, was promoted +vice-admiral in 1787, and in July of 1788 was appointed to +the Board of Admiralty under the second earl of Chatham. On +the outbreak of the revolutionary war he was sent to the Mediterranean +as commander-in-chief. His period of command, +which lasted from May 1793 to October 1794, was very busy. +In August he occupied Toulon on the invitation of the French +royalists, and in co-operation with the Spaniards. In December +of the same year the allies, who did not work harmoniously +together, were driven out, mainly by the generalship of Napoleon. +Hood now turned to the occupation of Corsica, which he had +been invited to take in the name of the king of England by +Paoli. The island was for a short time added to the dominions +of George III., chiefly by the exertions of the fleet and the +co-operation of Paoli. While the occupation of Corsica was being +effected, the French at Toulon had so far recovered that they +were able to send a fleet to sea. In June Hood sailed in the +hope of bringing it to action. The plan which he laid to attack +it in the Golfe Jouan in June may possibly have served to some +extent as an inspiration, if not as a model, to Nelson for the +battle of the Nile, but the wind was unfavourable, and the attack +could not be carried out. In October he was recalled to England +in consequence of some misunderstanding with the admiralty, +or the ministry, which has never been explained. He had +attained the rank of full admiral in April of 1794. He held no +further command at sea, but in 1796 he was named governor +of Greenwich Hospital, a post which he held till his death +on the 27th of January 1816. A peerage of Great Britain was +conferred on his wife as Baroness Hood of Catherington in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span> +1795, and he was himself created Viscount Hood of Whitley in +1796. The titles descended to his son, Henry (1753-1836), +the ancestor of the present Viscount Hood. There are several +portraits of Lord Hood by Abbot in the Guildhall and in the +National Portrait Gallery. He was also painted by Reynolds +and Gainsborough.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is no good life of Lord Hood, but a biographical notice of him +by M‘Arthur, his secretary during the Mediterranean command, is in +the <i>Naval Chronicle</i>, vol. ii. Charnock’s <i>Biogr. Nav.</i> vi., Ralfe, <i>Nav. +Biog.</i> i., may also be consulted. His correspondence during his +command in America has been published by the Navy Record +Society. The history of his campaigns will be found in the historians +of the wars in which he served: for the earlier years, Beatson’s +<i>Naval and Military Memoirs</i>; for the later, James’s <i>Naval History</i>, +vol. i., for the English side, and for the French, Troudes, <i>Batailles +navales de la France</i>, ii. and iii., and Chevalier’s <i>Histoire de la marine +française pendant la guerre de l’indépendance américaine and Pendant +la République</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOD, SIR SAMUEL<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1762-1814), British vice-admiral, +cousin of Lord Hood and of Lord Bridport, entered the Royal +Navy in 1776. His first engagement was the battle off Ushant +in 1778, and, soon afterwards transferred to the West Indies, +he was present, under the command of his cousin Sir Samuel +Hood, at all the actions which culminated in Rodney’s victory +of April 12th, 1782. After the peace, like many other British +naval officers, he spent some time in France, and on his return +to England was given the command of a sloop, from which he +proceeded in succession to various frigates. In the “Juno” +his gallant rescue of some shipwrecked seamen won him a +vote of thanks and a sword of honour from the Jamaica assembly. +Early in 1793 the “Juno” went to the Mediterranean under +Lord Hood, and her captain distinguished himself by an audacious +feat of coolness and seamanship in extricating his vessel from +the harbour of Toulon, which he had entered in ignorance of +Lord Hood’s withdrawal. Soon afterwards he was put in command +of a frigate squadron for the protection of Levantine +commerce, and in 1797 he was given the “Zealous” (74), in which +he was present at Nelson’s unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz. +It was Captain Hood who conducted the negotiations which +relieved the squadron from the consequences of its failure. +The part played by the “Zealous” at the battle of the Nile +was brilliant. Her first opponent she put out of action in twelve +minutes, and, passing on, Hood immediately engaged other +ships, the “Guerrier” being left powerless to fire a shot. When +Nelson left the coast of Egypt, Hood commanded the blockading +force off Alexandria and Rosetta. Later he rejoined Nelson +on the coast of the two Sicilies, receiving for his services the +order of St Ferdinand.</p> + +<p>In the “Venerable” Hood was present at the action of +Algesiras and the battle in the Straits of Gibraltar (1801). In +the Straits his ship suffered heavily, losing 130 officers and men. +A year later Captain Hood was employed in Trinidad as a commissioner, +and, upon the death of the flag officer commanding +the Leeward station, he succeeded him as Commodore. Island +after island fell to him, and soon, outside Martinique, the French +had scarcely a foothold in the West Indies. Amongst other +measures taken by Hood may be mentioned the garrisoning +of Diamond Rock, which he commissioned as a sloop-of-war +to blockade the approaches of Martinique (see James, <i>Naval +History</i>, iii, 245). For these successes he received, amongst +other rewards, the K.B. In command next of the squadron +blockading Rochefort, Sir Samuel Hood had a sharp fight, on +25th September 1805, with a small French squadron which was +trying to escape. Amongst the few casualties on this occasion +was the Commodore, who lost an arm. Promoted rear-admiral +a few days after this action, Hood was in 1807 entrusted with the +operations against Madeira, which he brought to a successful +conclusion, and a year later went to the Baltic, with his flag +in the “Centaur,” to take part in the war between Russia and +Sweden. In one of the actions of this war the “Centaur” +and “Implacable,” unsupported by the Swedish ships (which +lay to leeward), cut out the Russian 80-gun ship “Sevolod” +from the enemy’s line and, after a desperate fight, forced her +to strike. The king of Sweden rewarded the admiral with the +Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword. Present in the roads of +Corunna at the re-embarkation of the army of Sir John Moore, +Hood thence returned to the Mediterranean, where for two +years he commanded a division of the British fleet. In 1811 +he became vice-admiral. In his last command, that of the +East Indies station, he carried out many salutary reforms, +especially in matters of discipline and victualling. He died +at Madras, 24th December 1814. A lofty column was raised +to his memory on a hill near Butleigh, Somersetshire, and in +Butleigh Church is another memorial, with an inscription +written by Southey.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Naval Chronicle</i>, xvii. 1 (the material was furnished by Hood +himself; it does not go beyond 1806).</p> +</div> + +<p>His elder brother, Captain <span class="sc">Alexander Hood</span> (1758-1798), +entered the Royal Navy in 1767, and accompanied Captain +Cook in his second voyage round the world. Under Howe and +Rodney he distinguished himself in the West Indies, and at the +victory of April 12th, 1782, he was in command of one of Rodney’s +frigates. Under Sir Samuel Hood he then proceeded to the +Mona passage, where he captured the French corvette “Cérès.” +With the commander of his prize, the Baron de Peroy, Hood +became very intimate, and during the peace he paid a long +visit to France as his late prisoner’s guest. In the early part of +the Revolutionary war, ill health kept him at home, and it was +not until 1797 that he went afloat again. His first experience +was bitter; his ship, the “Mars,” was unenviably prominent +in the mutiny at Spithead. On April 21st, 1798, occurred the +famous duel of the “Mars” with the “Hercule,” fought in +the dusk near the Bec du Raz. The two ships were of equal force, +but the “Hercule” was newly commissioned, and after over +an hour’s fighting at close quarters she struck her flag, having +lost over three hundred men. The captain of the “Mars” +was mortally wounded early in the fight, and died as the sword +of the French captain was being put in his hand. The latter, +L’Heritier, also died of his wounds.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Naval Chronicle</i>, vi. 175; Ralfe, <i>Naval Biographies</i>, iv. 48; +James, <i>Naval History</i>, and Chevalier, <i>Hist. de la marine française +sous la première république</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1799-1845), British humorist and poet, +the son of Thomas Hood, bookseller, was born in London on +the 23rd of May 1799. “Next to being a citizen of the world,” +writes Thomas Hood in his <i>Literary Reminiscences</i>, “it must +be the best thing to be born a citizen of the world’s greatest +city.” On the death of her husband in 1811 Mrs Hood removed +to Islington, where Thomas Hood had a schoolmaster who +appreciated his talents, and, as he says, “made him feel it impossible +not to take an interest in learning while he seemed so +interested in teaching.” Under the care of this “decayed +dominie,” whom he has so affectionately recorded, he earned a +few guineas—his first literary fee—by revising for the press a +new edition of <i>Paul and Virginia</i>. Admitted soon after into +the counting-house of a friend of his family, he “turned his +stool into a Pegasus on three legs, every foot, of course, being +a dactyl or a spondee”; but the uncongenial profession affected +his health, which was never strong, and he was transferred to +the care of his father’s relations at Dundee. There he led a +healthy outdoor life, and also became a large and indiscriminate +reader, and before long contributed humorous and poetical +articles to the provincial newspapers and magazines. As a proof +of the seriousness with which he regarded the literary vocation, +it may be mentioned that he used to write out his poems in printed +characters, believing that that process best enabled him to understand +his own peculiarities and faults, and probably unconscious +that Coleridge had recommended some such method of criticism +when he said he thought “print settles it.” On his return to +London in 1818 he applied himself assiduously to the art of +engraving, in which he acquired a skill that in after years became +a most valuable assistant to his literary labours, and enabled +him to illustrate his various humours and fancies by a profusion +of quaint devices, which not only repeated to the eye +the impressions of the text, but, by suggesting amusing analogies +and contrasts, added considerably to the sense and effect of +the work.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span></p> + +<p>In 1821 Mr John Scott, the editor of the <i>London Magazine</i>, +was killed in a duel, and that periodical passed into the hands +of some friends of Hood, who proposed to make him sub-editor. +His installation into this congenial post at once introduced him +to the best literary society of the time; and in becoming the +associate of Charles Lamb, Cary, de Quincey, Allan Cunningham, +Proctor, Talfourd, Hartley Coleridge, the peasant-poet Clare +and other contributors to the magazine, he gradually developed +his own intellectual powers, and enjoyed that happy intercourse +with superior minds for which his cordial and genial character +was so well adapted, and which he has described in his best +manner in several chapters of <i>Hood’s Own</i>. He had married +in 1825, and <i>Odes and Addresses</i>—his first work—was written +in conjunction with his brother-in-law Mr J. H. Reynolds, the +friend of Keats. S. T. Coleridge wrote to Charles Lamb averring +that the book must be his work. <i>The Plea of the Midsummer +Fairies</i> (1827) and a dramatic romance, Lamia, published +later, belong to this time. <i>The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies</i> +was a volume of serious verse, in which Hood showed himself +a by no means despicable follower of Keats. But he was known +as a humorist, and the public, which had learned to expect +jokes from him, rejected this little book almost entirely. There +was much true poetry in the verse, and much sound sense and +keen observation in the prose of these works; but the poetical +feeling and lyrical facility of the one, and the more solid qualities +of the other, seemed best employed when they were subservient +to his rapid wit, and to the ingenious coruscations of his fancy. +This impression was confirmed by the series of the <i>Comic Annual</i>, +dating from 1830, a kind of publication at that time popular, +which Hood undertook and continued, almost unassisted, for +several years. Under that somewhat frivolous title he treated +all the leading events of the day in a fine spirit of caricature, +entirely free from grossness and vulgarity, without a trait +of personal malice, and with an under-current of true sympathy +and honest purpose that will preserve these papers, like the +sketches of Hogarth, long after the events and manners they +illustrate have passed from the minds of men. But just as the +agreeable jester rose into the earnest satirist, one of the most +striking peculiarities of his style became a more manifest defect. +The attention of the reader was distracted, and his good taste +annoyed, by the incessant use of puns, of which Hood had written +in his own vindication:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“However critics may take offence,</p> +<p class="i05">A double meaning has double sense.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Now it is true that the critic must be unconscious of some +of the subtlest charms and nicest delicacies of language who +would exclude from humorous writing all those impressions +and surprises which depend on the use of the diverse sense +of words. The history, indeed, of many a word lies hid in +its equivocal uses; and it in no way derogates from the dignity +of the highest poetry to gain strength and variety from the +ingenious application of the same sounds to different senses, +any more than from the contrivances of rhythm or the accompaniment +of imitative sounds. But when this habit becomes +the characteristic of any wit, it is impossible to prevent it +from degenerating into occasional buffoonery, and from supplying +a cheap and ready resource, whenever the true vein of humour +becomes thin or rare. Artists have been known to use the +left hand in the hope of checking the fatal facility which practice +had conferred on the right; and if Hood had been able to +place under some restraint the curious and complex machinery +of words and syllables which his fancy was incessantly producing, +his style would have been a great gainer, and much real +earnestness of object, which now lies confused by the brilliant +kaleidoscope of language, would have remained definite and clear. +He was probably not unconscious of this danger; for, as he gained +experience as a writer, his diction became more simple, and his +ludicrous illustrations less frequent. In another annual called +the <i>Gem</i> appeared the poem on the story of “Eugene Aram,” +which first manifested the full extent of that poetical vigour +which seemed to advance just in proportion as his physical +health declined. He started a magazine in his own name, +for which he secured the assistance of many literary men of +reputation and authority, but which was mainly sustained +by his own intellectual activity. From a sick-bed, from which +he never rose, he conducted this work with surprising energy, +and there composed those poems, too few in number, but immortal +in the English language, such as the “Song of the Shirt” +(which appeared anonymously in the Christmas number of +<i>Punch</i>, 1843), the “Bridge of Sighs” and the “Song of the +Labourer,” which seized the deep human interests of the time, +and transported them from the ground of social philosophy +into the loftier domain of the imagination. They are no clamorous +expressions of anger at the discrepancies and contrasts +of humanity, but plain, solemn pictures of conditions of life, +which neither the politician nor the moralist can deny to exist, +and which they are imperatively called upon to remedy. Woman, +in her wasted life, in her hurried death, here stands appealing +to the society that degrades her, with a combination of eloquence +and poetry, of forms of art at once instantaneous and permanent, +and with great metrical energy and variety.</p> + +<p>Hood was associated with the <i>Athenaeum</i>, started in 1828 +by J. Silk Buckingham, and he was a regular contributor for +the rest of his life. Prolonged illness brought on straitened +circumstances; and application was made to Sir Robert Peel +to place Hood’s name on the pension list with which the British +state so moderately rewards the national services of literary +men. This was done without delay, and the pension was continued +to his wife and family after his death, which occurred +on the 3rd of May 1845. Nine years after a monument, raised +by public subscription, in the cemetery of Kensal Green, was +inaugurated by Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) with a +concourse of spectators that showed how well the memory +of the poet stood the test of time. Artisans came from a great +distance to view and honour the image of the popular writer +whose best efforts had been dedicated to the cause and the +sufferings of the workers of the world; and literary men of all +opinions gathered round the grave of one of their brethren +whose writings were at once the delight of every boy and the +instruction of every man who read them. Happy the humorist +whose works and life are an illustration of the great moral truth +that the sense of humour is the just balance of all the faculties +of man, the best security against the pride of knowledge and +the conceits of the imagination, the strongest inducement +to submit with a wise and pious patience to the vicissitudes of +human existence. This was the lesson that Thomas Hood left +behind him. (H.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The list of Hood’s separately published works is +as follows: <i>Odes and Addresses to Great People</i> (1825); <i>Whims and +Oddities</i> (two series, 1826 and 1827); <i>The Plea of the Midsummer +Fairies, Hero and Leander, Lycus the Centaur and other Poems</i> (1827), +his only collection of serious verse; <i>The Dream of Eugene Aram, the +Murderer</i> (1831); <i>Tylney Hall</i>, a novel (3 vols., 1834); <i>The Comic +Annual</i> (1830-1842); <i>Hood’s Own; or, Laughter from Year to Year</i> +(1838, second series, 1861); <i>Up the Rhine</i> (1840); <i>Hood’s Magazine +and Comic Miscellany</i> (1844-1848); <i>National Tales</i> (2 vols., 1837), a +collection of short novelettes; <i>Whimsicalities</i> (1844), with illustrations +from Leech’s designs; and many contributions to contemporary +periodicals.</p> + +<p>The chief sources of his biography are: <i>Memorials of Thomas +Hood, collected, arranged and edited by his daughter</i> (1860); his +“Literary Reminiscences” in <i>Hood’s Own</i>; Alexander Elliot, <i>Hood +in Scotland</i> (1885). See also the memoir of Hood’s friend C. W. Dilke, +by his grandson Sir Charles Dilke, prefixed to <i>Papers of a Critic</i>; and +M. H. Spielmann’s <i>History of Punch</i>. There is an excellent edition of +the <i>Poems of Thomas Hood</i> (2 vols., 1897), with a biographical introduction +of great interest by Canon Alfred Ainger.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOD, TOM<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1835-1874), English humorist, son of the poet +Thomas Hood, was born at Lake House, Wanstead, Essex, +on the 19th of January 1835. After attending University College +School and Louth Grammar School he entered Pembroke College, +Oxford, in 1853, where he passed all the examinations for the +degree of B.A., but did not graduate. At Oxford he wrote his +<i>Farewell to the Swallows</i> (1853) and <i>Pen and Pencil Pictures</i> +(1857). He began to write for the <i>Liskeard Gazette</i> in 1856, and +edited that paper in 1858-1859. He then obtained a position in +the War Office, which he filled for five years, leaving in 1865 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span> +to become editor of <i>Fun</i>, the comic paper, which became very +popular under his direction. In 1867 he first issued <i>Tom Hood’s +Comic Annual</i>. In 1861 had appeared <i>The Daughters of King +Daker, and other Poems</i>, after which he published in conjunction +with his sister, Frances Freeling Broderip, a number of amusing +books for children. His serious novels, of which <i>Captain Masters’s +Children</i> (1865) is the best, were not so successful. Hood drew +with considerable facility, among his illustrations being those +of several of his father’s comic verses. In private life his geniality +and sincere friendliness secured him the affection and esteem of a +wide circle of acquaintance. He died on the 20th of November +1874.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A memoir by his sister, F. F. Broderip, is prefixed to the edition +of his poems published in 1877.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR WILLIAM ACLAND HOOD,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Baron</span> (1824-1901), English admiral, born on the 14th of July +1824, was the younger son of Sir Alexander Hood of St Andries, +Somerset, 2nd baronet, and grandson of Captain Alexander +Hood, R.N., who, when in command of the “Mars,” fell in +action with the French 74-gun ship “Hercule,” 21st of April +1798. At the age of twelve Hood entered the navy, and whilst +still a boy saw active service on the north coast of Spain, and +afterwards on the coast of Syria. After passing through the +established course of gunnery on board the “Excellent” in +1844-1845, he went out to the Cape of Good Hope as gunnery +mate of the “President,” the flagship of Rear-Admiral Dacres, +by whom, on the 9th of January 1846, he was promoted to be +lieutenant. As gunnery lieutenant he continued in the “President” +till 1849; and in the following year he was appointed +to the “Arethusa” frigate, then commissioned for the Mediterranean +by Captain Symonds, afterwards the well-known +admiral of the fleet. The outbreak of the Russian war made +the commission a very long one; and on the 27th of November +1854 Hood was promoted to be commander in recognition +of his service with the naval brigade before Sebastopol. In +1855 he married Fanny Henrietta, daughter of Sir C. F. Maclean. +In 1856 he commissioned the “Acorn” brig for the China +station, and arrived in time to take part in the destruction +of the junks in Fatshan creek on the 1st of June 1857, and +in the capture of Canton in the following December, for which, +in February 1858, he received a post-captain’s commission. +From 1862 to 1866 he commanded, the “Pylades” on the +North American station, and was then appointed to the command +of the “Excellent” and the government of the Royal Naval +College at Portsmouth. This was essentially a gunnery appointment, +and on the expiration of three years Hood was made +Director of Naval Ordnance. He was thoroughly acquainted +with the routine work of the office and the established armament +of the navy, but he had not the power of adapting himself +to the changes which were being called for, and still less of +initiating them; so that during his period of office the armament +of the ships remained sadly behind the general advance. In +June 1874 he was appointed to the command of the “Monarch” +in the Channel Fleet, from which he was relieved in March +1876 by his promotion to flag rank. From 1877 to 1879 he was +a junior lord of the Admiralty, and from 1880 to 1882 he commanded +the Channel Fleet, becoming vice-admiral on 23rd +July 1880. In June 1885 he was appointed first sea lord of the +Admiralty. The intense conservatism of his character, however, +and his antagonistic attitude towards every change, regardless +of whether it was necessary or not, had much to do with the +alarming state of the navy towards 1889. In that year, on +attaining the age of sixty-five, he was placed on the retired +list and resigned his post at the Admiralty. After two years +of continued ill-health, he died on the 15th of November 1901, +and was buried at Butleigh on the 23rd. He had been promoted +to the rank of admiral on the 18th of January 1886; was made +K.C.B, in December 1885; G.C.B. in September 1889; and in +February 1892 was raised to the peerage as Lord Hood of +Avalon, but on his death the title became extinct.</p> +<div class="author">(J. K. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOD,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a covering for the head. The word is in O. Eng. <i>hod</i>, +cognate with Dutch <i>hoed</i> and Ger. <i>Hut</i>, hat, both masculine; +“hood” and “hat” are distantly related; they may be connected +with the feminine <i>hoed</i> or <i>Hut</i>, meaning charge, care, +Eng. “heed.” Some form of hood as a loose covering easily +drawn on or off the head has formed a natural part of outdoor +costume both for men and women at all times and in all quarters +of the globe where climatic conditions called for it. In the +middle ages and later both men and women are found wearing +it, but with men it tended to be superseded by the hat before +it became merely an occasional and additional head-covering +in time of bad weather or in particularly rigorous climates. +For illustrations and examples of the hood as worn by men and +women in medieval and later times see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>; +for the hood or cowl as part of the dress of a religious see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cowl</a></span>, +and as forming a distinctive mark of degree in academic costume +see Robes. The word is applied to many objects resembling +a hood in function or shape, such as a folding cover for a carriage +to protect the occupants from rain or wind, the belled covering +for the head of a hawk trained for falconry, the endmost planks +in a ship’s bottom at bow or stern, and, in botany and zoology, +certain parts of a flower or of the neck of an animal which in +arrangement of structure or of colour recall this article of dress.</p> + +<p>In architecture a “hood-mould” is a projecting moulding +carried outside the arch of a door or window; it is weathered +underneath, and when continued horizontally is better known +as a dripstone. The ends of the hood-mould are generally stopped +on a corbel, plain or carved with heads in European churches, +but in those of central Syria terminating in scrolls. Although +in its origin the object of the projecting and weathered hood-mould +was to protect the face of the wall below from rain, +it gives more importance to, and emphasizes, the arch-moulds, +so that it is often employed decoratively inside churches.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The suffix “-hood,” like the cognate “-head,” was originally a +substantive meaning rank, status or quality, and was constantly used +in combination with other substantives; cf. in O. Eng. <i>cild-hod</i>, child-hood; +later it ceased to be used separately and became a mere suffix +denoting condition added to adjectives; cf. “falsehood,” as well as +to substantives.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1581-1647), Dutch poet +and historian, was born at Amsterdam on the 16th of March +1581. His father was one of the leading citizens of Holland, +both in politics and in the patronage of letters, and for some +time burgomaster of Amsterdam. As early as 1598 the young +man was made a member of the chamber of rhetoric <i>In Liefde +bloeiende</i>, and produced before that body his tragedy of <i>Achilles +and Polyxena</i>, not printed until 1614. In June 1598 he left +Holland and proceeded to Paris, where on the 10th of April +1599 he saw the body of Gabrielle d’Estrées lying in state. He +went a few months later to Venice, Florence and Rome, and in +1600 to Naples. During his Italian sojourn he made a deep +and fruitful study of the best literature of Italy. In July 1600 +he sent home to the <i>In Liefde bloeiende</i> a very fine letter in verse, +expressing his aspirations for the development of Dutch poetry. +He returned through Germany, and after an absence of three +years and a half found himself in Amsterdam again on the 8th +of May 1601. In 1602 he brought out his second tragedy, +<i>Theseus and Ariadne</i>, printed at Amsterdam in 1614. In 1605 +he completed his beautiful pastoral drama <i>Granida</i>, not published +until 1615. He studied law and history at Leiden from 1606 +to 1609, and in June of the latter year received from Prince +Maurice of Orange the appointment of steward of Muiden, +bailiff of Gooiland, and lord of Weesp, a joint office of great +emolument. He occupied himself with repairing and adorning +the decayed castle of Muiden, which was his residence during +the remainder of his life. There he entertained the poet Vondel, +the scholar Barlaeus,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Constantin Huygens, Vossius, Laurens +Reael and others. Hooft had been a suitor for the hand of +Anna Roemer Visscher, and after the death of Roemer Visscher +both the sisters visited Muiden. Anna’s sympathies were in +time diverted to the school of Jacob Cats, but Marie Tesselschade +maintained close ties with Hooft, who revised her translation +of Tasso. In August 1610 he married Christina van Erp, an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span> +accomplished lady who died in 1623, and four years later he +married Eleonora Hellemans. In 1612 Hooft produced his +national tragedy of <i>Geeraerdt van Velzen</i> (pr. 1613), a story of +the reign of Count Floris V. In 1614 was performed at Coster’s +academy Hooft’s comedy of <i>Ware-nar</i>, an adaptation of the +<i>Aulularia</i> of Plautus, first printed in 1617. In 1616 he wrote +another tragedy, <i>Baeto, or the Origin of the Dutch</i>, not printed +until 1626. It was in 1618 that he abandoned poetry for history, +and in 1626 he published the first of his great prose works, the +<i>History of Henry the Great</i> (Henry IV. of France). His next +production was his <i>Miseries of the Princes of the House of Medici</i> +(Amsterdam, 1638). In 1642 he published at Amsterdam a +folio comprising the first twenty books of his <i>Dutch History</i>, +embracing the period from 1555 to 1585, a magnificent performance, +to the perfecting of which he had given fifteen years +of labour. The seven concluding books were published posthumously +in 1654. His idea of history was gained from Tacitus, +whose works he translated. Hooft died on a visit to the Hague, +whither he had gone to attend the funeral of Prince Frederick +Henry, on the 21st of May 1647, and was buried in the New +Church at Amsterdam.</p> + +<p>Hooft is one of the most brilliant figures that adorn Dutch +literature at its best period. He was the first writer to introduce +a modern and European tone into belles lettres, and the first +to refresh the sources of native thought from the springs of +antique and Renaissance poetry. His lyrics and his pastoral +of <i>Granida</i> are strongly marked by the influence of Tasso and +Sannazaro; his later tragedies belong more exactly to the +familiar tone of his native country. But high as Hooft stands +among the Dutch poets, he stands higher—he holds perhaps the +highest place—among writers of Dutch prose. His historical +style has won the warmest eulogy from so temperate a critic +as Motley, and his letters are the most charming ever published +in the Dutch language. After Vondel, he may on the whole +be considered the most considerable author that Holland has +produced.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hooft’s poetical and dramatic works were collected in two volumes +(1871, 1875) by P. Leendertz. His letters were edited by B. Huydecoper +(Leiden, 1738) and by van Vloten (Leiden, 4 vols., 1855). The +best original account of Hooft is given by G. Bradt in his <i>Leven van +P. C. Hooft</i> (1677), and his funeral address (1647), edited together by +J. C. Matthes (Groningen, 1874). There is an account of the Muiden +circle in Edmund Gosse’s <i>Literatures of Northern Europe</i>. Many +editions exist of his prose works.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Kaspar van Baerle (1584-1648), professor of rhetoric at +Amsterdam, and famous as a Latin poet.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> Dutch painter, +was born, it is said, in 1627 at the Hague, and died at Dort +on the 19th of October 1678. This artist, who was first a pupil +of his father, lived at the Hague and at Dort till about 1640, +when on the death of Dirk Hoogstraten he changed his residence +to Amsterdam and entered the school of Rembrandt. A short +time afterwards he started as a master and painter of portraits, +set out on a round of travels which took him (1651) to Vienna, +Rome and London, and finally retired to Dort, where he married +in 1656, and held an appointment as “provost of the mint.” +Hoogstraten’s works are scarce; but a sufficient number of +them has been preserved to show that he strove to imitate +different styles at different times. In a portrait dated 1645 +in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna he imitates Rembrandt; +and he continues in this vein as late as 1653, when he produced +that wonderful figure of a Jew looking out of a casement, which +is one of the most characteristic examples of his manner in the +Belvedere at Vienna. A view of the Vienna Hofburg, dated +1652, in the same gallery displays his skill as a painter of architecture, +whilst in a piece at the Hague representing a Lady +Reading a Letter as she crosses a Courtyard, or a Lady Consulting +a Doctor, in the Van der Hoop Museum at Amsterdam, he +imitates de Hooch. One of his latest works is a portrait of +Mathys van den Brouck, dated 1670, in the gallery of Amsterdam. +The scarcity of Hoogstraten’s pictures is probably due to his +versatility. Besides directing a mint, he devoted some time +to literary labours, wrote a book on the theory of painting +(1678) and composed sonnets and a tragedy. We are indebted +to him for some of the familiar sayings of Rembrandt. He +was an etcher too, and some of his plates are still preserved. +His portrait, engraved by himself at the age of fifty, +still exists.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOK, JAMES CLARKE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1819-1907), English painter, was +born in London on the 21st of November 1819. His father, +James Hook, a Northumbrian by descent, Judge Arbitrator +of Sierra Leone, married the second daughter of Dr Adam +Clarke, the commentator on the Bible, who gave to the painter +his second name. Young Hook’s first taste of the sea was on +board the Berwick smacks which took him on his way to Wooler. +He drew with rare facility, and determined to become an artist; +and accordingly, without any supervision, he set to work for +more than a year in the sculpture galleries of the British Museum. +In 1836 he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy, +where he worked for three years, and elsewhere learned a good +deal of the scientific technique of painting from a nephew of +Opie. His first picture, called “The Hard Task,” was exhibited +in 1837, and represented a girl helping her sister with a lesson. +Unusual facility in portraiture and a desire to earn his own +living took the student into Ireland to paint likenesses of the +Waterford family and others; here he produced landscapes of +the Vale of Avoca, and much developed his taste for pastoral +art; later, he was similarly engaged in Kent and Somersetshire. +In 1842 his second exhibited work was a portrait of “Master +J. Finch Smith”: in this year he gained silver medals at the +Royal Academy, and in 1843 he was one of the competitors +in the exhibition of cartoons in Westminster Hall, with a 10 +by 7 ft. design of “Satan in Paradise.” In 1844 the Academy +contained a picture of a kind with which his name was long +associated, an illustration of the <i>Decameron</i>, called “Pamphilius +relating his Story,” a meadow scene in bright light, with +sumptuous ladies, richly clad, reclining on the grass. The British +Institution, 1844 and 1845, set forth two of Hook’s idylls, subjects +taken from Shakespeare and Burns, which, with the above, +showed him to be cultivating those veins of romantic sentiment +and the picturesque which were then in vogue, but in a characteristically +fresh and vigorous manner. “The Song of Olden +Times” (Royal Academy, 1845) marked the artist’s future path +distinctly in most technical respects. It was in this year Hook +won the Academy gold medal for an oil picture of “The Finding +the Body of Harold.” The travelling studentship in painting +was awarded to him for “Rizpah watching the Dead Sons of +Saul” in 1846; and he went for three years to Italy, having +married Miss Rosalie Burton before he left England. Hook +passed through Paris, worked diligently for some time in the +Louvre, traversed Switzerland, and, though he stayed only +part of three years in Italy, gained much from studies of Titian, +Tintoret, Carpaccio, Mansueti and other Venetians. Their +influence thenceforth dominated the coloration of his pictures, +and enabled him to apply the principles to which they had +attained to the representation (as Bonington before him had +done) of romantic subjects and to those English themes of the +land and sea with which the name of the artist is inseparably +associated. “A Dream of Ancient Venice” (R.A., 1848)—the +first fruit of these Italian studies—“Bayard of Brescia” +(R.A., 1849), “Venice” (B.I., 1849) and other works assured +for Hook the Associateship of the Royal Academy in 1851. +Soon afterwards an incomparable series of English subjects was +begun, in many pastorals and fine brilliant idylls of the sea +and rocks. “A Rest by the Wayside” and “A Few Minutes +to Wait before Twelve o’clock” proved his title to appear, +in 1854, as a new and original painter. After these came +“A Signal on the Horizon” (1857), “A Widow’s Son going to +Sea,” “The Ship-boy’s Letter,” “Children’s Children are the +Crown of Old Men,” “A Coast-boy gathering Eggs,” a scene +at Lundy; the perfect “Luff, Boy!” (1859), about which +Ruskin broke into a dithyrambic chant, “The Brook,” “Stand +Clear!” “O Well for the Fisherman’s Boy!” (1860), “Leaving +Cornwall for the Whitby Fishing,” “Sea Urchins,” and a score +more as fine as these. The artist was elected a full Academician +on the 6th of March 1860, in the place of James Ward. He died +on the 14th of April 1907.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. H. Palmer, “J. C. Hook, R.A.,” <i>Portfolio</i> (1888); F. G. +Stephens, “J. C. Hook, Royal Academician: His Life and Work,” +<i>Art Annual</i> (London, 1888); P. G. Hamerton, <i>Etching and Etchers</i> +(London, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1788-1841), English author, +was born in London on the 22nd of September 1788. He spent +a year at Harrow, and subsequently matriculated at Oxford, +but he never actually resided at the university. His father, +James Hook (1746-1827), the composer of numerous popular +songs, took great delight in exhibiting the boy’s extraordinary +musical and metrical gifts, and the precocious Theodore became +“the little pet lion of the green room.” At the age of sixteen, +in conjunction with his father, he scored a dramatic success +with <i>The Soldier’s Return</i>, a comic opera, and this he rapidly +followed up with a series of over a dozen sparkling ventures, +the instant popularity of which was hardly dependent on the +inimitable acting of John Liston and Charles Mathews. But Hook +gave himself up for some ten of the best years of his life to the +pleasures of the town, winning a foremost place in the world of +fashion by his matchless powers of improvisation and mimicry, +and startling the public by the audacity of his practical jokes. +His unique gift of improvising the words and the music of songs +eventually charmed the prince Regent into a declaration that +“something must be done for Hook.” The prince was as good +as his word, and Hook, in spite of a total ignorance of accounts, +was appointed accountant-general and treasurer of the Mauritius +with a salary of £2000 a year. For five delightful years he +was the life and soul of the island, but in 1817, a serious deficiency +having been discovered in the treasury accounts, he was arrested +and brought to England on a criminal charge. A sum of about +£12,000 had been abstracted by a deputy official, and for this +amount Hook was held responsible.</p> + +<p>During the tardy scrutiny of the audit board he lived obscurely +and maintained himself by writing for magazines and newspapers. +In 1820 he launched the newspaper <i>John Bull</i>, the champion of +high Toryism and the virulent detractor of Queen Caroline. +Witty, incisive criticism and pitiless invective secured it a large +circulation, and from this source alone Hook derived, for the +first year at least, an income of £2000. He was, however, +arrested for the second time on account of his debt to the state, +which he made no effort to defray. In a sponging-house, where +he was confined for two years, he wrote the nine volumes of stories +afterwards collected under the title of <i>Sayings and Doings</i> +(1826-1829). In the remaining twenty-three years of his life +he poured forth no fewer than thirty-eight volumes, besides +numberless articles, squibs and sketches. His novels are not +works of enduring interest, but they are saved from mediocrity +by frequent passages of racy narrative and vivid portraiture. +The best are <i>Maxwell</i> (1830), <i>Love and Pride</i> (1833), the autobiographic +<i>Gilbert Gurney</i> (1836), <i>Jack Brag</i> (1837), <i>Gurney Married</i> +(1838), and <i>Peregrine Bunce</i> (1842). Incessant work had already +begun to tell on his health, when Hook returned to his old social +habits, and a prolonged attempt to combine industry and dissipation +resulted in the confession that he was “done up in purse, +in mind and in body too at last.” He died on the 24th of August +1841. His writings in great part are of a purely ephemeral +character; and the greatest triumphs of the improvisatore +may be said to have been writ in wine. Putting aside, however, +his claim to literary greatness, Hook will be remembered as one +of the most brilliant, genial and original figures of Georgian +times.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the Rev. R. H. D. Barham’s <i>Life and Remains of Hook</i> (3rd ed., +1877); and an article by J. G. Lockhart in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> +(May 1843).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1798-1875), English divine, +nephew of the witty Theodore, was born in London on the 13th +of March 1798. Educated at Tiverton and Winchester, he +graduated at Oxford (Christ Church) in 1821, and after holding +an incumbency in Coventry, 1829-1837, and in Leeds, 1837-1859, +was nominated dean of Chichester by Lord Derby. He +received the degree of D.D. in 1837. His friendship towards +the Tractarians exposed him to considerable persecution, but +his simple manly character and zealous devotion to parochial +work gained him the support of widely divergent classes. His +stay in Leeds was marked by vigorous and far-reaching church +extension, and his views on education were far in advance of +his time. Among his many writings are <i>An Ecclesiastical +Biography, containing the Lives of Ancient Fathers and Modern +Divines</i> (8 vols., 1845-1852), <i>A Church Dictionary, The Means +of Rendering more Effectual the Education of the People, +The Cross of Christ</i> (1873), <i>The Church and its Ordinances</i> +(sermons, 4 vols., 1876), and <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i> +(12 vols., 1860-1876). He died on the 20th of October +1875.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Letters of Dean Hook</i>, by his son-in-law, W. R. W. +Stephens (2 vols., 1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOKAH<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (the English spelling of the Persian and Hindustani +<i>huqqu</i>, an adaptation of the Arabic <i>huqqah</i>, a vase or casket, +and by transference a pipe for smoking, probably derived from +the Arabie <i>huqq</i>, a hollow place), a pipe with a long flexible +tube attached to a large bowl containing water, often scented, +and resting upon a tripod or stand. The smoke of the tobacco +is made to pass through the water in the bowl, and is thus cooled +before reaching the smoker. The <i>narghile</i> of India is in principle +the same as that of the hookah; the word is derived from <i>nargil</i>, +an Indian name for the coco-nut tree, as when the <i>narghile</i> +was first made the water was placed in a coco-nut. This receptacle +is now often made of porcelain, glass or metal. In +the <i>hubble-bubble</i> the pipe is so contrived that the water in +the bowl makes a bubbling noise while the pipe is being +smoked. This pipe is common in India, Egypt and the East +generally.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOKE, ROBERT<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1635-1703), English experimental +philosopher, was born on the 18th of July 1635 at Freshwater, +in the Isle of Wight, where his father, John Hooke, was minister +of the parish. After working for a short time with Sir Peter +Lely, he went to Westminster school; and in 1653 he entered +Christ Church, Oxford, as servitor. After 1655 he was employed +and patronized by the Hon. Robert Boyle, who turned his skill +to account in the construction of his air-pump. On the 12th +of November 1662 he was appointed curator of experiments +to the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1663, +and filled the office during the remainder of his life. In 1664 +Sir John Cutler instituted for his benefit a mechanical lectureship +of £50 a year, and in the following year he was nominated +professor of geometry in Gresham College, where he subsequently +resided. After the Great Fire of 1666 he constructed a model +for the rebuilding of this city, which was highly approved, although +the design of Sir C. Wren was preferred. During the progress +of the works, however, he acted as surveyor, and accumulated +in that lucrative employment a sum of several thousand pounds, +discovered after his death in an old iron chest, which had +evidently lain unopened for above thirty years. He fulfilled +the duties of secretary to the Royal Society during five years +after the death of Henry Oldenburg in 1677, publishing in 1681-1682 +the papers read before that body under the title of <i>Philosophical +Collections</i>. A protracted controversy with Johann +Hevelius, in which Hooke urged the advantages of telescopic +over plain sights, brought him little but discredit. His reasons +were good; but his offensive style of argument rendered them +unpalatable and himself unpopular. Many circumstances +concurred to embitter the latter years of his life. The death, +in 1687, of his niece, Mrs Grace Hooke, who had lived with him +for many years, caused him deep affliction; a law-suit with Sir +John Cutler about his salary (decided, however, in his favour +in 1696) occasioned him prolonged anxiety; and the repeated +anticipation of his discoveries inspired him with a morbid +jealousy. Marks of public respect were not indeed wanting to +him. A degree of M.D. was conferred on him at Doctors’ +Commons in 1691, and the Royal Society made him, in 1696, +a grant to enable him to complete his philosophical inventions. +While engaged on this task he died, worn out with disease, +on the 3rd of March 1703 in London, and was buried in St +Helen’s Church, Bishopsgate Street.</p> + +<p>In personal appearance Hooke made but a sorry show. His +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span> +figure was crooked, his limbs shrunken; his hair hung in dishevelled +locks over his haggard countenance. His temper was +irritable, his habits penurious and solitary. He was, however, +blameless in morals and reverent in religion. His scientific +achievements would probably have been more striking if they +had been less varied. He originated much, but perfected +little. His optical investigations led him to adopt in an imperfect +form the undulatory theory of light, to anticipate the doctrine +of interference, and to observe, independently of though subsequently +to F. M. Grimaldi (1618-1663), the phenomenon of +diffraction. He was the first to state clearly that the motions +of the heavenly bodies must be regarded as a mechanical problem, +and he approached in a remarkable manner the discovery of +universal gravitation. He invented the wheel barometer, +discussed the application of barometrical indications to meteorological +forecasting, suggested a system of optical telegraphy, +anticipated E. F. F. Chladni’s experiment of strewing a vibrating +bell with flour, investigated the nature of sound and the function +of the air in respiration and combustion, and originated the +idea of using the pendulum as a measure of gravity. He is +credited with the invention of the anchor escapement for clocks, +and also with the application of spiral springs to the balances +of watches, together with the explanation of their action by +the principle <i>Ut tensio sic vis</i> (1676).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal writings are <i>Micrographia</i> (1664); <i>Lectiones Cutlerianae</i> +(1674-1679); and <i>Posthumous Works</i>, containing a sketch +of his “Philosophical Algebra,” published by R. Waller in 1705.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, JOSEPH<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1814-1879), American general, was born +in Hadley, Massachusetts, on the 13th of November 1814. +He was educated at the military academy at West Point (1833-1837), +and on graduating entered the 1st U.S. Artillery. In the +war with Mexico (1846-48) he served as a staff officer, and rose +by successive brevets for meritorious services to the rank of +lieutenant-colonel. In 1853 he left the service and bought a large +farm near Sonoma, Cal., which he managed successfully till +1858, when he was made superintendent of military roads in +Oregon. Upon the opening of hostilities in the Civil War of +1861-65, he sacrificed his fine estate and offered his sword to the +Federal Government. He was commissioned brigadier-general +of volunteers on the 17th of May 1861 and major-general +on the 5th of May 1862. The engagement of Williamsburg +(May 5th) brought him and his subordinate Hancock into +prominence, and Hooker received the soubriquet of “Fighting +Joe.” He was engaged at the battle of Fair Oaks, and did +splendid service to the Union army during the “Seven Days.” +In the campaign of Northern Virginia, under General Pope +(August 1862), he led his division with fiery energy at Bristoe +Station, Manassas and Chantilly. In the Maryland campaign +(September) he was at the head of the I. corps, Army of the +Potomac, forced the defile of South Mountain and opened the +way for the advance of the army. The I. corps opened the great +battle of the Antietam, and sustained a sanguinary fight with the +Confederates under Stonewall Jackson. Hooker himself was +severely wounded. He was commissioned brigadier-general +in the United States army on the 20th of September 1862, and +in the battle of Fredericksburg (<i>q.v.</i>), under Burnside, he commanded +the centre grand division (III. and V. corps). He had +protested against the useless slaughter of his men on that +disastrous field, and when Burnside resigned the command +Hooker succeeded him. The new leader effected a much-needed +re-organization in the army, which had fought many battles +without success. In this task, as in subordinate commands +in battle, Hooker was excelled by few. But his grave defects +as a commander-in-chief were soon to be obvious. By a well-planned +and well-executed flanking movement, he placed himself +on the enemy’s flank, but at the decisive moment he checked +the advance of his troops. Lee turned upon him, Jackson +surprised and destroyed a whole army corps, and the battle of +Chancellorsville (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness</a></span>), in which Hooker was himself +disabled, ended in a retreat to the old position. Yet Hooker +had not entirely forfeited the confidence of his men, to whom +he was still “Fighting Joe.” The second advance of Lee into +Union territory, which led to the battle of Gettysburg, was +strenuously resisted by Hooker, who would have inflicted a +heavy blow on Lee’s scattered forces had he not been condemned +to inaction by orders from Washington. Even then Hooker +followed the Confederates a day only behind them, until, finding +himself distrusted and forbidden to control the movements of +troops within the sphere of operations, he resigned the command +on the eve of the battle (June 28, 1863). Faults of temper +and an excessive sense of responsibility made his continued +occupation of the command impossible, but when after a signal +defeat Rosecrans was besieged in Chattanooga, and Grant +with all the forces of the West was hurried to the rescue, two +corps of the Army of the Potomac were sent over by rail, and +Hooker, who was at least one of the finest fighting generals +of the service, went with them in command. He fought and won +the “Battle above the Clouds” on Lookout Mountain which +cleared the way for the crowning victory of the army of the +Cumberland on Missionary Ridge (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chattanooga</a></span>). And in +command of the same corps (consolidated as the XX. corps) +he took part in all the battles and combats of the Atlanta +campaign of 1864. When General McPherson was killed before +Atlanta, the command of Grant’s old Army of the Tennessee +fell vacant. Hooker, who, though only a corps commander, +was senior to the other army commanders, Thomas and Schofield, +was normally entitled to receive it, but General Sherman feared +to commit a whole army to the guidance of a man of Hooker’s +peculiar temperament, and the place was given to Howard. +Hooker thereupon left the army. He was commissioned brevet-major-general +in the United States army on the 13th of March +1865, and retired from active service with the full rank of major-general +on the 15th of October 1868, in consequence of a +paralytic seizure. The last years of his life were passed in the +neighbourhood of New York. He died at Garden City, Long +Island, on the 31st of October 1879.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1817-  ), English +botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir +W. J. Hooker, was born on the 30th of June 1817, at Halesworth, +Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost +immediately after taking his M.D. degree there in 1839 joined +Sir James Ross’s Antarctic expedition, receiving a commission +as assistant-surgeon on the “Erebus.” The botanical fruits of the +three years he thus spent in the Southern Seas were the <i>Flora +Antarctica</i>, <i>Flora Novae Zelandiae</i> and <i>Flora Tasmanica</i>, which +he published on his return. His next expedition was to the +northern frontiers of India (1847-1851), and the expenses in +this case also were partially defrayed by the government. The +party had its full share of adventure. Hooker and his friend +Dr Campbell were detained in prison for some time by the raja of +Sikkim, but nevertheless they were able to bring back important +results, both geographical and botanical. Their survey of +hitherto unexplored regions was published by the Calcutta +Trigonometrical Survey Office, and their botanical observations +formed the basis of elaborate works on the rhododendrons +of the Sikkim Himalaya and on the flora of India. Among +other journeys undertaken by Hooker may be mentioned those +to Palestine (1860), Morocco (1871), and the United States +(1877), all yielding valuable scientific information. In the midst +of all this travelling in foreign countries he quickly built up for +himself a high scientific reputation at home. In 1855 he was +appointed assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and in 1865 he +succeeded his father as full director, holding the post for twenty +years. At the early age of thirty he was elected a fellow of the +Royal Society, and in 1873 he was chosen its president; he +received three of its medals—a Royal in 1854, the Copley in +1887 and the Darwin in 1892. He acted as president of the +British Association at its Norwich meeting of 1868, when his +address was remarkable for its championship of Darwinian +theories. Of Darwin, indeed, he was an early friend and supporter: +it was he who, with Lyell, first induced Darwin to +make his views public, and the author of <i>The Origin of Species</i> +has recorded his indebtedness to Hooker’s wide knowledge and +balanced judgment. Sir Joseph Hooker is the author of numerous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span> +scientific papers and monographs, and his larger books include, +in addition to those already mentioned, a standard <i>Student’s +Flora of the British Isles</i> and a monumental work, the <i>Genera +plantarum</i>, based on the collections at Kew, in which he had the +assistance of Bentham. On the publication of the last part of +his <i>Flora of British India</i> in 1897 he was created G.C.S.I., of +which order he had been made a knight commander twenty +years before; and twenty years later, on attaining the age of +ninety, he was awarded the Order of Merit.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, RICHARD<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1553-1600), English writer, author of +the <i>Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity</i>, son of Richard Vowell or Hooker, +was born at Heavitree, near the city of Exeter, about the end of +1553 or beginning of 1554. Vowell was the original name of +the family, but was gradually dropped, and in the 15th century +its members were known as Vowell <i>alias</i> Hooker. At school, +not only his facility in mastering his tasks, but his intellectual +inquisitiveness and his fine moral qualities, attracted the special +notice of his teacher, who strongly recommended his parents +to educate him for the church. Though well connected, they +were, however, somewhat straitened in their worldly circumstances, +and Hooker was indebted for admission to the university +to his uncle, John Hooker <i>alias</i> Vowell, chamberlain of Exeter, +and in his day a man of some literary repute, who induced +Bishop Jewel to become his patron and to bestow on him a +clerk’s place in Corpus Christi College, Oxford. To this Hooker +was admitted in 1568. Bishop Jewel died in September 1571, +but Dr William Cole, president of the college, from the strong +interest he felt in the young man, on account at once of his +character and his abilities, spontaneously offered to take the +bishop’s place as his patron; and shortly afterwards Hooker, +by his own labours as a tutor, became independent of gratuitous +aid. Two of his pupils, and these his favourite ones, were Edwin +Sandys, afterwards author of <i>Europae speculum</i>, and George +Cranmer, grand-nephew of the archbishop. Hooker’s reputation +as a tutor soon became very high, for he had employed his +five years at the university to such good purpose as not only to +have acquired great proficiency in the learned languages, but +to have joined to this a wide and varied culture which had +delivered him from the bondage of learned pedantry; in addition +to which he is said to have possessed a remarkable talent for +communicating knowledge in a clear and interesting manner, +and to have exercised a special influence over his pupils’ intellectual +and moral tendencies. In December 1573 he was +elected scholar of his college; in July 1577 he proceeded to M.A., +and in September of the same year he was admitted a fellow. +In 1579 he was appointed by the chancellor of the university +to read the public Hebrew lecture, a duty which he continued +to discharge till he left Oxford. Not long after his admission +into holy orders, about 1581, he was appointed to preach at +St Paul’s Cross; and, according to Walton, he was so kindly +entertained by Mrs Churchman, who kept the Shunamite’s +house where the preachers were boarded, that he permitted +her to choose him a wife, “promising upon a fair summons to +return to London and accept of her choice.” The lady selected +by her was “her daughter Joan,” who, says the same authority, +“found him neither beauty nor portion; and for her conditions +they were too like that wife’s which is by Solomon compared to +a dripping house.” It is probable that Walton has exaggerated +the simplicity and passiveness of Hooker in the matter, but +though, as Keble observes with justice, his writings betray +uncommon shrewdness and quickness of observation, as well as +a vein of keenest humour, it would appear that either gratitude +or some other impulse had on this occasion led his judgment +astray. After his marriage he was, about the end of 1584, presented +to the living of Drayton Beauchamp in Buckinghamshire. +In the following year he received a visit from his two pupils, +Edwin Sandys and George Cranmer, who found him with the +<i>Odes</i> of Horace in his hand, tending the sheep while the servant +was at dinner, after which, when they on the return of the +servant accompanied him to his house, “Richard was called +to rock the cradle.” Finding him so engrossed by worldly +and domestic cares, “they stayed but till the next morning,” +and, greatly grieved at his narrow circumstances and unhappy +domestic condition, “left him to the company of his wife Joan.”</p> + +<p>The visit had, however, results of the highest moment, not +only in regard to the career of Hooker, but in regard to English +literature and English philosophical thought. Sandys prevailed +on his father, the archbishop of York, to recommend Hooker +for presentation to the mastership of the Temple, and Hooker, +though his “wish was rather to gain a better country living,” +having agreed after some hesitation to become a candidate, the +patent conferring upon him the mastership was granted on the +17th of March 1584/5. The rival candidate was Walter Travers, +a Presbyterian and evening lecturer in the same church. Being +continued in the lectureship after the appointment of Hooker, +Travers was in the habit of attempting a refutation in the evening +of what Hooker had spoken in the morning, Hooker again +replying on the following Sunday; so it was said “the forenoon +sermon spake Canterbury, the afternoon Geneva.” On account +of the keen feeling displayed by the partisans of both, Archbishop +Whitgift deemed it prudent to prohibit the preaching of Travers, +whereupon he presented a petition to the council to have the +prohibition recalled. Hooker published an <i>Answer to the Petition +of Mr Travers</i>, and also printed several sermons bearing on special +points of the controversy; but, feeling strongly the unsatisfactory +nature of such an isolated and fragmentary discussion of separate +points, he resolved to compose an elaborate and exhaustive +treatise, exhibiting the fundamental principles by which the +question in dispute must be decided. It is probable that the +work was begun in the latter half of 1586, and he had made +considerable progress with it before, with a view to its completion, +he petitioned Whitgift to be removed to a country parsonage, +in order that, as he said, “I may keep myself in peace and +privacy, and behold God’s blessing spring out of my mother +earth, and eat my own bread without oppositions.” His desire +was granted in 1591 by a presentation to the rectory of Boscombe +near Salisbury. There he completed the volume containing the +first four of the proposed <i>Eight Books of the Laws of Ecclesiastical +Polity</i>. It was entered at Stationers’ Hall on the 9th of March +1592, but was not published till 1593 or 1594. In July 1595 he +was promoted by the crown to the rectory of Bishopsbourne near +Canterbury, where he lived to see the completion of the fifth +book in 1597. In the passage from London to Gravesend some +time in 1600 he caught a severe cold from which he never +recovered; but, notwithstanding great weakness and constant +suffering, he “was solicitous in his study,” his one desire being +“to live to finish the three remaining books of <i>Polity</i>.” His death +took place on the 2nd of November of the same year. A volume +professing to contain the sixth and eighth books of the <i>Polity</i> +was published at London in 1648, but the bulk of the sixth +book, as has been shown by Keble, is an entire deviation from +the subject on which Hooker proposed to treat, and doubtless +the genuine copy, known to have been completed, has been +lost. The seventh book, which was published in a new edition +of the work by Gauden in 1662, and the eighth book, may be +regarded as in substance the composition of Hooker; but, as, +in addition to wanting his final revision, they have been very +unskilfully edited, if they have not been manipulated for theological +purposes, their statements in regard to doubtful matters +must be received with due reserve, and no reliance can be placed +on their testimony where their meaning contradicts that of +other portions of the <i>Polity</i>.</p> + +<p>The conception of Hooker in his later years, which we form +from the various accessible sources, is that of a person of low +stature and not immediately impressive appearance, much bent +by the influence of sedentary and meditative habits, of quiet +and retiring manners, and discoloured in complexion and worn +and marked in feature from the hard mental toil which he had +expended on his great work. There seems, however, exaggeration +in Walton’s statement as to the meanness of his dress; +and Walton certainly misreads his character when he portrays +him as a kind of ascetic mystic. Though he was unworldly +and simple in his desires, and engrossed in the purpose to which +he had devoted his life—the “completion of the <i>Polity</i>”—his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span> +writings indicate that he possessed a cheerful and healthy +disposition, and that he was capable of discovering enjoyment +in everyday pleasures, and of appreciating human life and character +in a wide variety of aspects. He seems to have had a special +delight in outward nature—as he expressed it, he loved “to see +God’s blessing spring out of his mother earth”; and he spent +much of his spare time in visiting his parishioners, his deference +towards them, if excessive, being yet mingled with a grave +dignity which rendered unwarrantable liberties impossible. As +a preacher, though singularly devoid of the qualities which win +the applause of the multitude, he always excited the interest +of the more intelligent, the breadth and finely balanced wisdom +of his thoughts and the fascination of his composition greatly +modifying the impression produced by his weak voice and +ineffective manner. Partly, doubtless, on account of his dim-sightedness, +he never removed his eye from his manuscript, +and, according to Fuller, “he may be said to have made good +music with his fiddle and stick alone, having neither pronunciation +nor gesture to grace his matter.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>To accede without explanation to the claim put forth for the +<i>Ecclesiastical Polity</i> of Hooker, that it marks an epoch in English +prose literature and English thought, would both be to do some +injustice to writers previous to him, and, if not to overestimate his +influence, to misinterpret its character. By no means can his excursions +in English prose be regarded as chiefly those of a pioneer; +and not only is his intellectual position inferior to that of Shakespeare, +Spenser and Bacon,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> who alone can be properly reckoned +as the master spirits of the age, but in reality what effect he may +have had upon the thought of his contemporaries was soon disregarded +and swept out of sight in the hand-to-hand struggle with +Puritanism, and his influence, so far from being immediate and +confined to one particular era, has since the reaction against Puritanism +been slowly and imperceptibly permeating and colouring English +thought. His work is, however, the earliest in English prose with +enough of the preserving salt of excellence to adapt it to the mental +palate of modern readers. Attempts more elaborate than those of +the old chroniclers had been made two centuries previously to employ +English prose both for narrative and for discussion; and, a few years +before him, Roger Ascham, Sir Thomas More, Latimer, Sir Philip +Sidney, the compilers of the prayer book, and various translators of +the Bible, had in widely different departments of literature brought +to light many samples of the rich wealth of expression that was +latent in the language; but Hooker’s is the first independent work +in English prose of notable power and genius, and the vigour and +grasp of its thought are not more remarkable than the felicity of its +literary style. Its more usual and obvious excellences are clearness +of expression, notwithstanding occasionally complicated methods; +great aptness and conciseness in the formation of individual clauses, +and such a fine sense of proportion and rhythm in their arrangement +as almost conceals the difficulties of syntax by which he was +hampered; finished simplicity, notwithstanding a stateliness too +uniform and unbroken; a nice discrimination in the choice of words +and phrases, so as both to portray the exact shade of his meaning, +and to express each of his thoughts with that degree of emphasis +appropriate to its place in his composition. In regard to qualities +more relating to the matter than the manner we may note the subtle +and partly hidden humour; the strong enthusiasm underlying that +seemingly calm and passionless exposition of principles which continually +led him away from the minutiae of temporary disputes, and has +earned for him the somewhat misleading epithet of “judicious;” +the solidity of learning, not ostentatiously displayed, but indicated +in the character and variety of his illustrations and his comprehensive +mastery of all that relates to his subject; the breadth of his +conceptions, and the sweep and ease of his movements in the highest +regions of thought; the fine poetical descriptions occasionally introduced, +in which his eloquence attains a grave, rich and massive +harmony that compares not unfavourably with the finest prose of +Milton. His manner is, of course, defective in the flexibility and +variety characteristic of the best models of English prose literature +after the language had been enriched and perfected by long use, and +his sentences, constructed too much according to Latin usages, are +often tautological and too protracted into long concatenations of +clauses; but if, when regarded superficially, his style presents in +some respects a stiff and antiquated aspect, it yet possesses an +original and innate charm that has retained its freshness after the +lapse of nearly three centuries.</p> + +<p>The direct interest in the <i>Ecclesiastical Polity</i> is now philosophical +and political rather than theological, for what theological importance +it possessed was rather in regard to the spirit and method in which +theology should be discussed than in regard to the decision of strictly +theological points. Hooker bases his reasoning on principles which +he discovered in Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, but the intellectual +atmosphere of his age was different from that which surrounded +them; he was acted upon by new and more various impulses enabling +him to imbibe more thoroughly the spirit of Greek thought which +was the source of their inspiration, and thus to reach a higher and +freer region than scholasticism, and in a sense to inaugurate modern +philosophy in England. It may be admitted that his principles are +only partially and in some degree capriciously wrought out—that if +he is not under the dominion of intellectual tendencies leading to +opposite results there are occasional blanks and gaps in his argument +where he seems sometimes to be groping after a meaning which he +cannot fully grasp; but he is often charged with obscurity simply +because readers of various theological schools, beholding in his +principles what seem the outline and justification of their own ideas, +are disappointed when they find that these outlines instead of acquiring +as they narrowly examine them the full and definite form of +their anticipations, widen out into a region beyond their notions and +sympathies, and therefore from their point of view enveloped in mist +and shade. It is the exposition of philosophical principles in the first +and second books of the <i>Polity</i>, and not the application of these +principles in the remaining books that gives the work its standard +place in English literature. It was intended to be an answer to the +attacks of the Presbyterians on the Episcopalian polity and customs, +but no attempt is made directly to oust Presbyterianism from the +place it then held in the Church of England. The work must rather +be regarded as a remonstrance against the narrow ground chosen by +the Presbyterians for their basis of attack, Hooker’s exact position +being that “a necessity of polity and regiment may be held in all +churches without holding any form to be necessary.”</p> + +<p>The general purpose of his reasoning is to vindicate Episcopacy +from objections that had been urged against it, but he attains a result +which has other and wider consequences than this. The fundamental +principle on which he bases his reasoning is the unity and all-embracing +character of law—law “whose seat,” he beautifully says, +“is the bosom of God, whose voice the harmony of the world.” Law—as +operative in nature, as regulating each man’s individual character +and actions, as seen in the formations of societies and governments—is +equally a manifestation and development of the divine order +according to which God Himself acts, is the expression in various +forms of the divine reason. He makes a distinction between natural +and positive laws, the one being eternal and immutable, the other +varying according to external necessity and expediency; and he +includes all the forms of government under laws that are positive and +therefore alterable according to circumstances. Their application is +to be determined by reason, reason enlightened and strengthened by +every variety of knowledge, discipline and experience. The leading +feature in his system is the high place assigned to reason, for, though +affirming that certain truths necessary to salvation could be made +known only by special divine revelation, he yet elevates reason into +the criterion by which these truths are to be judged, and the standard +to determine what in revelation is temporal and what eternal. “It +is not the word of God itself,” he says, “which doth or possibly can +assure us that we do well to think it His word.” At the same time he +saves himself from the dangers of abstract and rash theorizing by a +deep and absolute regard for facts, the diligent and accurate study of +which he makes of the first importance to the proper use of reason. +“The general and perpetual voice of men is,” he says, “as the +sentence of God Himself. For that which all men have at all times +learned, nature herself must needs have taught; and, God being the +author of nature, her voice is but His instrument.” Applying his +principles to man individually, the foundation of morality is, according +to Hooker, immutable, and rests “on that law which God from +the beginning hath set Himself to do all things by”; this law is to be +discovered by reason; and the perfection which reason teaches us to +strive after is stated, with characteristic breadth of conception and +regard to the facts of human nature, to be “a triple perfection: first +a sensual, consisting in those things which very life itself requireth, +either as necessary supplements, or as beauties or ornaments thereof; +then an intellectual, consisting in those things which none +underneath man is either capable of or acquainted with; lastly, a +spiritual or divine, consisting in those things whereunto we tend by +supernatural means here, but cannot here attain unto them.” +Applying his principles to man as a member of a community, he +assigns practically the same origin and sanctions to ecclesiastical as +to civil government. His theory of government forms the basis of the +<i>Treatise on Civil Government</i> by Locke, although Locke developed +the theory in a way that Hooker would not have sanctioned. The +force and justification of government Hooker derives from public +approbation, either given directly by the parties immediately +concerned, or indirectly through inheritance from their ancestors. +“Sith men,” he says, “naturally have no full and perfect power to +command whole politic multitudes of men, therefore utterly without +our consent we could in such sort be at no man’s commandment +living. And to be commanded we do consent, when that society +whereof we are part hath at any time before consented, without +revoking the same after, by the like universal agreement.” His +theory as he stated it is in various of its aspects and applications +liable to objection; but taken as a whole it is the first philosophical +statement of the principles which, though disregarded in the succeeding +age, have since regulated political progress in England +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span> +and gradually modified its constitution. One of the corollaries of his +principles is his theory of the relation of church and state, according +to which, with the qualifications implied in his theory of government, +he asserts the royal supremacy in matters of religion, and +identifies the church and commonwealth as but different aspects of +the same government.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—A life of Hooker by Dr Gauden was published in +his edition of Hooker’s works (London, 1662). To correct the errors +in this life Walton wrote another, which was published in the 2nd +edition of Hooker’s works in 1666. The standard modern edition +of Hooker’s works is that by Keble, which first appeared in 1836, and +has since been several times reprinted (1888 edition, revised by Dean +Church and Bishop Paget). The first book of the <i>Laws of Ecclesiastical +Polity</i> was edited for the Clarendon Press by Dean R. W. +Church (1868-1876).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> If Bacon was the author of <i>The Christian Paradoxes</i>, his philosophical +standpoint in reference to religion was not only less advanced +than that of Hooker, but in a sense directly opposed to it.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, THOMAS<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1586-1647), New England theologian, +was born, probably on the 7th of July 1586, at Marfield, in the +parish of Tilton, County of Leicester, England. He graduated +B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611 at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, +the intellectual centre of Puritanism, remained there as a fellow +for a few years, and then preached in the parish of Esher in +Surrey. About 1626 he became lecturer to the church of St +Mary at Chelmsford, Essex, delivering on market days and +Sunday afternoons evangelical addresses which were notable +for their moral fervour. In 1629 Archbishop Laud took measures +to suppress church lectureships, which were an innovation of +Puritanism. Hooker was placed under bond and retired to +Little Baddow, 4 m. from Chelmsford. In 1630 he was cited +to appear before the Court of High Commission, but he forfeited +his bond and fled to Holland, whence in 1633 he emigrated +to the Colony of Massachusetts Bay in America, and became +pastor at Newtowne (now Cambridge), Mass., of a company +of Puritans who had arrived from England in the previous year +and in expectation of his joining them were called “Mr Hooker’s +Company.” Hooker seems to have been a leader in the formation +of that sentiment of discontent with the Massachusetts government +which resulted in the founding of Connecticut. He publicly +criticized the limitation of suffrage to church members, and, +according to a contemporary historian, William Hubbard +(<i>General History of New England</i>), “after Mr Hooker’s coming +over it was observed that many of the freemen grew to be very +jealous of their liberties.” He was a leader of the emigrants +who in 1636 founded Hartford, Connecticut. In a sermon before +the Connecticut General Court of 1638, he declared that “the +choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God’s +own allowance” and that “they who have the power to appoint +officers and magistrates, it is in their power, also, to set the +bounds and limitations of the power and place unto which they +call them.” Though this theory was in advance of the age, +Hooker had no idea of the separation of church and state—“the +privilege of election, which belongs to the people,” he said, +must be exercised “according to the blessed will and law of God.” +He also defended the right of magistrates to convene synods, +and in the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639), which +he probably framed, the union of church and state is presupposed. +Hooker was pastor of the Hartford church until his death on +the 7th of July 1647. He was active in the negotiations which +preceded the formation of the New England Confederation +in 1643. In the same year he attended the meeting of Puritan +ministers at Boston, whose object was to defend Congregationalism, +and he wrote a <i>Survey of the Summe of Church +Discipline</i> (1648) in justification of the New England church +system. His other works deal chiefly with the experimental +phases of religion, especially the experience precedent to conversion. +In <i>The Soule’s Humiliation</i> (1637), he assigns as a test +of conversion a willingness of the convert to be damned if +that be God’s will, thus anticipating the doctrine of Samuel +Hopkins in the following century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See George L. Walker’s <i>Thomas Hooker</i> (New York, 1891); the +appendix of which contains a bibliography of Hooker’s published +works.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1785-1865), English +botanist, was born at Norwich on the 6th of July 1785. His +father, Joseph Hooker of Exeter, a member of the same family +as the celebrated Richard Hooker, devoted much of his time +to the study of German literature and the cultivation of curious +plants. The son was educated at the high school of Norwich, +on leaving which his independent means enabled him to travel +and to take up as a recreation the study of natural history, +especially ornithology and entomology. He subsequently confined +his attention to botany, on the recommendation of +Sir James E. Smith, whom he had consulted respecting a rare +moss. His first botanical expedition was made in Iceland, in +the summer of 1809, at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks; +but the natural history specimens which he collected, with +his notes and drawings, were lost on the homeward voyage +through the burning of the ship, and the young botanist himself +had a narrow escape with his life. A good memory, however, +aided him to publish an account of the island, and of its inhabitants +and flora (<i>Tour in Iceland</i>, 1809), privately circulated +in 1811, and reprinted in 1813. In 1810-1811 he made extensive +preparations, and sacrifices which proved financially serious, +with a view to accompany Sir R. Brownrigg to Ceylon, but the +disturbed state of the island led to the abandonment of the +projected expedition. In 1814 he spent nine months in botanizing +excursions in France, Switzerland and northern Italy, and in +the following year he married the eldest daughter of Mr Dawson +Turner, banker, of Yarmouth. Settling at Halesworth, Suffolk, +he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which +became of world-wide renown among botanists. In 1816 +appeared the <i>British Jungermanniae</i>, his first scientific work, +which was succeeded by a new edition of William Curtis’s +<i>Flora Londinensis</i>, for which he wrote the descriptions (1817-1828); +by a description of the <i>Plantae cryptogamicae</i> of A. von +Humboldt and A. Bonpland; by the <i>Muscologia Britannica</i>, +a very complete account of the mosses of Great Britain and +Ireland, prepared in conjunction with Dr T. Taylor (1818); +and by his <i>Musci exotici</i> (2 vols., 1818-1820), devoted to new +foreign mosses and other cryptogamic plants. In 1820 he +accepted the regius professorship of botany in Glasgow University +where he soon became popular as a lecturer, his style being both +clear and ready. The following year he brought out the <i>Flora +Scotica</i>, in which the natural method of arrangement of British +plants was given with the artificial. Subsequently he prepared +or edited many works, the more important being the +following:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Botanical Illustrations</i> (1822); <i>Exotic Flora</i>, indicating such of the +specimens as are deserving cultivation (3 vols., 1822-1827); <i>Account +of Sabine’s Arctic Plants</i> (1824); <i>Catalogue of Plants in the Glasgow +Botanic Garden</i> (1825); the <i>Botany of Parry’s Third Voyage</i> (1826); +<i>The Botanical Magazine</i> (38 vols., 1827-1865); <i>Icones Filicum</i>, in +concert with Dr R. K. Greville (2 vols., 1829-1831); <i>British Flora</i>, +of which several editions appeared, undertaken with Dr G. A. W. +Arnott, &c. (1830); <i>British Flora Cryptogamia</i> (1833); <i>Characters of +Genera from the British Flora</i> (1830); <i>Flora Boreali-Americana</i> (2 +vols., 1840), being the botany of British North America collected in +Sir J. Franklin’s voyage; <i>The Journal of Botany</i> (4 vols., 1830-1842); +<i>Companion to the Botanical Magazine</i> (2 vols., 1835-1836); <i>Icones +plantarum</i> (10 vols., 1837-1854); the <i>Botany of Beechey’s Voyage to +the Pacific and Behring’s Straits</i> (with Dr Arnott, 1841); the <i>Genera +Filicum</i> (1842), from the original coloured drawings of F. Bauer, with +additions and descriptive letterpress; <i>The London Journal of Botany</i> +(7 vols., 1842-1848); <i>Notes on the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of +the Erebus and Terror</i> (1843); <i>Species filicum</i> (5 vols., 1846-1864), +the standard work on this subject; <i>A Century of Orchideae</i> (1846); +<i>Journal of Botany and Kew Garden Miscellany</i> (9 vols., 1849-1857); +<i>Niger Flora</i> (1849); <i>Victoria Regia</i> (1851); <i>Museums of Economic +Botany at Kew</i> (1855); <i>Filices exoticae</i> (1857-1859); <i>The British +Ferns</i> (1861-1862); <i>A Century of Ferns</i> (1854); <i>A Second Century +of Ferns</i> (1860-1861).</p> +</div> + +<p>It was mainly by Hooker’s exertions that botanists were +appointed to the government expeditions. While his works +were in progress his herbarium received large and valuable +additions from all parts of the globe, and his position as a botanist +was thus vastly improved. He was made a knight of Hanover +in 1836 and in 1841 he was appointed director of the Royal +Botanical Gardens at Kew, on the resignation of W. T. Aiton. +Under his direction the gardens expanded from 11 to 75 acres, +with an arboretum of 270 acres, many new glass-houses were +erected, and a museum of economic botany was established. +He was engaged on the <i>Synopsis filicum</i> with J. G. Baker +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span> +when he was attacked by a throat disease then epidemic at +Kew, where he died on the 12th of August 1865.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOLE, JOHN<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1727-1803), English translator and dramatist, +son of a watchmaker and machinist, Samuel Hoole, was born at +Moorfields, London, in December 1727. He was educated at +a private school at Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, kept by James +Bennet, who edited Ascham’s English works. At the age of +seventeen he became a clerk in the accountants’ department +of the East India House, and before 1767 became one of the +auditors of Indian accounts. His leisure hours he devoted to +the study of Latin and especially Italian, and began writing +translations of the chief works of the Italian poets. He published +translations of the <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i> of Tasso in 1763, +the <i>Orlando Furioso</i> of Ariosto in 1773-1783, the <i>Dramas</i> of +Metastasio in 1767, and <i>Rinaldo</i>, an early work of Tasso, in +1792. Among his plays are: <i>Cyrus</i> (1768), <i>Timanthes</i> (1770) +and <i>Cleonice, Princess of Bithynia</i> (1775), none of which achieved +success. The verses of Hoole were praised by Johnson, with +whom he was on terms of intimacy, but, though correct, smooth +and flowing, they cannot be commended for any other merit. +His translation of the <i>Orlando Furioso</i> was superseded by the +version (1823-1831) of W. S. Rose. Hoole was also the friend +of the Quaker poet John Scott of Amwell (1730-1783), whose +life he wrote; it was prefixed to Scott’s <i>Critical Essays</i> (1785). +In 1773 he was promoted to be chief auditor of Indian accounts, +an office which he resigned in 1785. In 1786 he retired to the +parsonage of Abinger, Surrey; and afterwards lived at Tenterden, +Kent, dying at Dorking on the 2nd of April 1803.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Anecdotes of the Life of the late Mr John Hoole</i>, by his surviving +brother, Samuel Hoole (London, 1803). Some of his plays are reprinted +in J. Bell’s <i>British Theatre</i> (1797).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOLIGAN,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> the generally accepted modern term for a young +street ruffian or rowdy. It seems to have been first applied to +the young street ruffians of the South-East of London about +1890, but though popular in the district, did not attract general +attention till later, when authentic information of its origin +was lost, but it appears that the most probable source was a +comic song which was popular in the lower-class music-hall +in the late ’eighties or early ’nineties, which described the doings +of a rowdy family named Hooligan (<i>i.e.</i> Irish Houlihan). A +comic character with the same name also appears to have been +the central figure in a series of adventures running through +an obscure English comic paper of about the same date, and +also in a similar New York paper, where his confrère in the +adventures is a German named Schneider (see <i>Notes and Queries</i>, +9th series, vol. ii. pp. 227 and 316, 1898, and 10th series, vol. vii. p. +115, 1901). In other countries the “hooligan” finds his counterpart. +The Parisian <i>Apache</i>, so self-styled after the North +American Indian tribe, is a much more dangerous character; +mere rowdyism, the characteristic of the English “hooligan,” +is replaced by murder, robbery and outrage. An equally +dangerous class of young street ruffian is the “hoodlum” of +the United States of America; this term arose in San Francisco +in 1870, and thence spread. Many fanciful origins of the name +have been given, for some of which see <i>Manchester</i> (<i>N.H.</i>) +<i>Notes and Queries</i>, September 1883 (cited in the <i>New English +Dictionary</i>). The “plug-ugly” of Baltimore is another name +for the same class. More familiar is the Australian “larrikin,” +which apparently came into use about 1870 in Melbourne. +The story that the word represents an Irish policeman’s pronunciation +of “larking” is a mere invention. It is probably +only an adaptation of the Irish “Larry,” short for Lawrence. +Others suggest that it is a corruption of the slang <i>Leary Kinchen</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> knowing, wide-awake child.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOPER, JOHN<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (d. 1555), bishop of Gloucester and Worcester +and martyr, was born in Somerset about the end of the 15th +century and graduated B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He is said to +have then entered the Cistercian monastery at Gloucester; +but in 1538 a John Hooper appears among the names of the +Black friars at Gloucester and also among the White friars at +Bristol who surrendered their houses to the king. A John Hooper +was likewise canon of Wormesley priory in Herefordshire; +but identification of any of these with the future bishop is doubtful. +The <i>Greyfriars’ Chronicle</i> says that Hooper was “sometime +a white monk”; and in the sentence pronounced against him +by Gardiner he is described as “<i>olim monachus de Cliva Ordinis +Cisterciensis</i>,” <i>i.e.</i> of the Cistercian house at Cleeve in Somerset. +On the other hand, at his deprivation he was not accused, like +the other married bishops who had been monks or friars, of +infidelity to the vow of chastity; and his own letters to Bullinger +are curiously reticent on this part of his history. He there +speaks of himself as being the only son and heir of his father +and as fearing to be deprived of his inheritance if he adopted +the reformed religion. Before 1546 he had secured employment +in the household of Sir Thomas Arundell, a man of influential +connexions. Hooper speaks of himself at this period as being +“a courtier and living too much of a court life in the palace +of our king.” But he chanced upon some of Zwingli’s works +and Bullinger’s commentaries on St Paul’s epistles; and after +some molestation in England and some correspondence with +Bullinger on the lawfulness of complying against his conscience +with the established religion, he determined to secure what +property he could and take refuge on the continent. He had +an adventurous journey, being twice imprisoned, driven about +for three months on the sea, and reaching Strassburg in the +midst of the Schmalkaldic war. There he married Anne de +Tserclaes, and later on he proceeded by way of Basle to Zürich, +where his Zwinglian convictions were confirmed by constant +intercourse with Zwingli’s successor, Bullinger.</p> + +<p>It was not until May 1549, after he had published various +works at Zürich, that Hooper again arrived in England. He +at once became the principal champion of Swiss Protestantism +against the Lutherans as well as the Catholics, and was appointed +chaplain to Protector Somerset. Somerset’s fall in the following +October endangered Hooper’s position, and for a time he was +in hourly dread of imprisonment and martyrdom, more especially +as he had taken a prominent part against Gardiner and Bonner, +whose restoration to their sees was now anticipated. Warwick, +afterwards duke of Northumberland, however, overcame the +reactionaries in the Council, and early in 1550 the Reformation +resumed its course. Hooper became Warwick’s chaplain, and +after a course of Lent lectures before the king he was offered +the bishopric of Gloucester. This led to a prolonged controversy; +Hooper had already denounced the “Aaronic vestments” +and the oath by the saints prescribed in the new Ordinal; and +he refused to be consecrated according to its rites. Cranmer, +Ridley, Bucer and others urged him to submit in vain; confinement +to his house by order of the Council proved equally ineffectual; +and it was not until he had spent some weeks in the +Fleet prison that the “father of nonconformity” consented +to conform, and Hooper submitted to consecration with the +legal ceremonies (March 8, 1551).</p> + +<p>Once seated in his bishopric Hooper set about his episcopal +duties with exemplary vigour. His visitation of his diocese +(printed in <i>English Hist. Rev.</i> Jan. 1904, pp. 98-121) revealed +a condition of almost incredible ignorance among his clergy. +Fewer than half could say the Ten Commandments; some could +not even repeat the Lord’s Prayer in English. Hooper did his +best in the time at his disposal; but in less than a year the +bishopric of Gloucester was reduced to an archdeaconry and +added to Worcester, of which Hooper was made bishop in succession +to Nicholas Heath (<i>q.v.</i>). He was opposed to Northumberland’s +plot for the exclusion of Mary from the throne; but this +did not save him from speedy imprisonment. He was sent to the +Fleet on the 1st of September 1553 on a doubtful charge of +debt to the queen; but the real cause was his stanchness to a religion +which was still by law established. Edward VI.’s legislation +was, however, repealed in the following month, and in March +1554 Hooper was deprived of his bishopric as a married man. +There was still no statute by which he could be condemned to +the stake, but Hooper was kept in prison; and the revival of +the heresy acts in December 1554 was swiftly followed by +execution. On the 29th of January 1555, Hooper, Rogers, +Rowland Taylor and others were condemned by Gardiner and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span> +degraded by Bonner. Hooper was sent down to suffer at +Gloucester, where he was burnt on the 9th of February, meeting +his fate with steadfast courage and unshaken conviction.</p> + +<p>Hooper was the first of the bishops to suffer because his +Zwinglian views placed him further beyond the pale than +Cranmer, Ridley and Latimer. He represented the extreme +reforming party in England. While he expressed dissatisfaction +with some of Calvin’s earlier writings, he approved of the <i>Consensus +Tigurinus</i> negotiated in 1549 between the Zwinglians +and Calvinists of Switzerland; and it was this form of religion +that he laboured to spread in England against the wishes of +Cranmer, Ridley, Bucer, Peter Martyr and other more conservative +theologians. He would have reduced episcopacy to +narrow limits; and his views had considerable influence on +the Puritans of Elizabeth’s reign, when many editions of Hooper’s +various works were published.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Two volumes of Hooper’s writings are included in the Parker +Society’s publications and another edition appeared at Oxford in +1855. See also Gough’s General Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Strype’s +<i>Works</i> (General Index); Foxe’s <i>Acts and Monuments</i>, ed. Townsend; +<i>Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. State Papers</i>, “Domestic” Series; +Nichols’s <i>Lit. Remains of Edward VI.</i>; Burner, Collier, Dixon, +Froude and Gairdner’s histories; Pollard’s <i>Cranmer; Dict. Nat. +Biogr.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOPOE<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Huppe</i>, Lat. <i>Upupa</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="epops">ἔποψ</span>—all names +bestowed apparently from its cry), a bird long celebrated in +literature, and conspicuous by its variegated plumage and its +large erectile crest,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the <i>Upupa epops</i> of naturalists, which is +the type of the very peculiar family <i>Upupidae</i>, placed by Huxley +in his group <i>Coccygomorphae</i>, but considered by Dr Murie (<i>Ibis</i>, +1873, p. 208) to deserve separate rank as <i>Epopomorphae</i>. This +species has an exceedingly wide range in the Old World, being +a regular summer-visitant to the whole of Europe, in some parts +of which it is abundant, as well as to Siberia, mostly retiring +southwards in autumn to winter in equatorial Africa and India, +though it would seem to be resident throughout the year in +north-eastern Africa and in China. Its power of wing ordinarily +seems to be feeble; but it is capable of very extended flight, as +is testified by its wandering habits (for it occasionally makes +its appearance in places very far removed from its usual haunts), +and also by the fact that when pursued by a falcon it will rapidly +mount to an extreme height and frequently effect its escape from +the enemy. About the size of a thrush, with a long, pointed +and slightly arched bill, its head and neck are of a golden-buff—the +former adorned by the crest already mentioned, which begins +to rise from the forehead and consists of broad feathers, gradually +increasing in length, tipped with black and having a subterminal +bar of yellowish-white. The upper part of the back is of a vinous-grey, +and the scapulars and flight-feathers are black, broadly +barred with white tinged in the former with buff. The tail is +black with a white chevron, marking off about the distal third +part of its length. The legs and feet are as well adapted for +running or walking as for perching, and the scutellations are +continued round the whole of the tarsi. Chiefly on account +of this character, which is also possessed by the larks, Sundevall +(<i>Tentamen</i>, pp. 53-55) united the <i>Upupidae</i> and <i>Alaudidae</i> in +the same “cohors” <i>Holaspideae</i>. Comparative anatomy, however, +forbids its being taken to signify any real affinity between +these groups, and the resemblance on this point, which is by no +means so striking as that displayed by the form of the bill and the +coloration in certain larks (of the genus <i>Certhilauda</i>, for instance), +must be ascribed to analogy merely.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:467px; height:428px" src="images/img676.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Hoopoe.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Pleasing as is the appearance of the hoopoe as it fearlessly +parades its showy plumage, some of its habits are much the +reverse. All observers agree in stating that it delights to find +its food among filth of the most abominable description, and this +especially in its winter-quarters. But where it breeds, its nest, +usually in the hole of a tree or of a wall, is not only partly composed +of the foulest material, but its condition becomes worse as +incubation proceeds, for the hen scarcely ever leaves her eggs, +being assiduously fed by the cock as she sits; and when the +young are hatched, their faeces are not removed by their parents,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +as is the case with most birds, but are discharged in the immediate +neighbourhood of the nest, the unsanitary condition of which +can readily be imagined. Worms, grubs, and insects generally +form the hoopoes’ food, and upon it they get so fat in autumn +that they are esteemed a delicate morsel in some of the countries +of southern Europe, and especially by the Christian population +of Constantinople.<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>Not a year passes but the hoopoe makes its appearance in +some part or other of the British Islands, most often in spring, +and if unmolested would doubtless stop to breed in them, and +a few instances are known in which it has done so. But its +remarkable plumage always attracts attention, and it is generally +shot down so soon as it is seen, and before it has time to begin a +nest. Eight or nine so-called species of the genus have been +described, but of them the existence of five only has been recognized +by Sharpe and Dresser (<i>Birds of Europe</i>, pt. vii.). Besides +the <i>Upupa epops</i> above treated, these are <i>U. indica</i>, resident +in India and Ceylon; <i>U. longirostris</i>, which seems to be the form +of the Indo-Chinese countries; <i>U. marginata</i>, peculiar to Madagascar; +and <i>U. africana</i> or <i>U. minor</i> of some writers, which +inhabits South Africa to the Zambesi on the east and Benguela on +the west coast. In habits and appearance they all resemble +the best-known and most widely-spread species.<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hence the secondary meaning of the French word <i>huppe</i>—a crest +or tuft (cf. Littré, <i>Dict. français</i>, i. 2067).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This indeed is denied by Naumann, but by him alone, and the +statement in the text is confirmed by many eye-witnesses.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Under the name of <i>Dukipath</i>, in the authorized version of the +Bible translated “lapwing” (Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18), the hoopoe +was accounted unclean by the Jewish law. Arabs have a great +reverence for the bird, imparting to it marvellous medicinal and other +qualities, and making use of its head in all their charms (cf. Tristram, +<i>Nat. Hist. of the Bible</i>, pp. 208, 209).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The genera <i>Rhinopomastus</i> and <i>Irrisor</i> are generally placed in the +Family <i>Upupidae</i>, but Dr Murie, after an exhaustive examination +of their osteology, regards them as forming a group of equal value.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOORN,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a seaport in the province of North Holland, Holland, +on a bay of the Zuider Zee called the Hoornerhop, and a junction +station 23½ m. by rail N. by E. of Amsterdam, on the railway +to Enkhuizen, with which it is also connected by steam tramway. +Pop. (1900) 10,647. Hoorn is distinguished by its old-world +air and the beauty and interest of its numerous gabled houses +of the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these are decorated +with inscriptions and bas-reliefs, some of which commemorate +the battle on the Zuider Zee in 1573, in which the Beggars +defeated the Spaniards under Count Bossu. Walks and gardens +now surround the town in the place of the old city walls, but a few +towers and gateways adorned with various old coats of arms +are still standing. The fine Gothic bastion tower overlooking +the harbour was built in 1532; the East gate not later than +1578. Among the public buildings of special interest are the +picturesque St John’s hospital (1563), now used for military +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span> +purposes; the old mint; the hospital for aged men and women +(beginning of 17th century); the weigh-house (1609); the town +hall, in which the states of West Friesland formerly met; and +the old court-house, which dates from the beginning of the +17th century, though parts of it are older, containing a modern +museum and some early portraits. There are also various +charitable and educational institutions, Protestant and Roman +Catholic churches and a synagogue. The extensive foreign +commerce which Hoorn carried on in the 16th and 17th centuries +has almost entirely vanished, but there is still a considerable +trade with other parts of the Netherlands, especially in cheese +and cattle. The chief industries include gold and silver work, +and there are also tobacco factories, saw-mills and some small +boat-building yards, a considerable number of vessels being +engaged in the Zuider Zee fisheries.</p> + +<p>Hoorn, latinized as <i>Horna</i> or <i>Hornum</i>, has existed at least +from the first part of the 14th century, as it is mentioned in a +document of the year 1311, five years earlier than the date +usually assigned for its foundation. In 1356 it received municipal +privileges from Count William V. of Holland, and in 1426 it was +surrounded with walls. It was at Hoorn in 1416 that the first +great net was made for the herring fishery, an industry which +long proved an abundant source of wealth to the town. During +the 15th century Hoorn shared in the troubles occasioned by +the different contending factions; in 1569 the Spanish forces +entered the town; but in 1572 it cast in its lot with the states +of the Netherlands. In the 16th century it was a commercial +centre, important for its trade, fisheries and breweries. A +company of commerce and navigation was formed at Hoorn in +1720, and the admiralty offices and storehouses remained here +until their removal to Medemblik in 1795. The English under +Sir Ralph Abercromby took possession of the town in 1799, +and in 1811 it suffered severely from the French. Among the +celebrities of Hoorn are William Schouten, who discovered in +1616 the passage round Cape Horn, or Hoorn, as he named it in +honour of his birthplace; Abel Janszoon Tasman, whose fame +is associated with Tasmania; and Jan Pietersz Coen, governor-general +of the Dutch East Indies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOOSICK FALLS,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a village of Rensselaer county, New York, +U.S.A., in the township of Hoosick, 27 m. N.E. of Troy, on the +Hoosick river. Pop. of the village (1890) 7014; (1900) 5671, of +whom 1092 were foreign-born; (1905) 5251; (1910) 5532; of the +township (1900) 8631; (1910) 8315. Hoosick Falls is served by +the Boston & Maine Railroad, and is connected by electric +railway with Bennington, Vermont, about 8 m. E. The falls of +the Hoosick river furnish water-power for the manufacture of +agricultural machinery by the Walter A. Wood Mowing and +Reaping Machine Co., which dates from 1866, the business having +been started in 1852 by Walter Abbott Wood (1815-1892), +who was a Republican representative in Congress in 1879-1883. +Other manufactures are knit goods, shirts and collars and paper-making +machinery. Hoosick Falls was settled about 1688 by +Dutch settlers—settlers from Connecticut and Massachusetts +came after 1763—and it was first incorporated in 1827. Three +miles N.E. of the village, at Walloomsac, in the township of +Hoosick, the battle of Bennington was fought, on the 16th of +August 1777.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOP<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Hopfen</i>, Fr. <i>houblon</i>), <i>Humulus Lupulus</i>, L., an +herbaceous twining plant, belonging to the natural order Cannabinaceae, +which is by some botanists included in the larger +group called Urticaceae by Endlicher. It is of common occurrence +in hedges and thickets in the southern counties of England, +but is believed not to be native in Scotland. On the European +continent it is distributed from Greece to Scandinavia, and +extends through the Caucasus and Central Asia to the Altai +Mountains. It is common, but doubtfully indigenous, in the +northern and western states of North America, and has been +introduced into Brazil, Australia and the Himalayas.</p> + +<p>It is a perennial plant, producing annually several long +twining roughish striated stems, which twist from left to right, +are often 15 to 20 ft. long and climb freely over hedges and +bushes. The roughness of stem and leaves is due to lines of +strong hooked hairs, which help the plant to cling to its support. +The leaves are stalked, opposite, 3-5 lobed, and coarsely serrate, +and bear a general resemblance to those of the vine, but are, as +well as the whole plant, rough to the touch; the upper leaves are +sometimes scarcely divided, or quite entire. The stipules are +between the leaf-stalks, each consisting of two lateral ones united, +or rarely with the tips free. The male and female flowers are +produced on distinct plants. The male inflorescence (fig. 1, A) +forms a panicle; the flowers consist of a small greenish five-parted +perianth (<i>a</i>) enclosing five stamens, whose anthers (<i>b</i>) open by +terminal slits. The female inflorescence (fig. 1, B) is less conspicuous +in the young state. The catkin or strobile consists of a +number of small acute bracts, with two sessile ovaries at their +base, each subtended by a rounded bractlet (<i>c</i>). Both the bracts +and bractlets enlarge greatly during the development of the +ovary, and form, when fully grown, the membranous scales of the +strobile (fig. 2, <i>a</i>); they are known as “petals” by hop-growers. +The bracts can then only be distinguished from the bractlets +by being rather more acute and more strongly veined. The +perianth (fig. 1, <i>d</i>) is short, cup-shaped, undivided and closely +applied to the ovary, which it ultimately encloses. In the young +strobile the two purple hairy styles (<i>e</i>) of each ovary project +beyond the bracts. The ovary contains a single ovule (fig. 1. <i>f</i>) +which becomes in the fruit an exalbuminous seed, containing +a spirally-coiled embryo (fig. 2, <i>b</i>). The light dusty pollen is +carried by the wind from the male to the female flowers.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:442px; height:580px" src="images/img677.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"> <span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Male (A) and Female (B) Inflorescence of the Hop.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The ovary and the base of the bracts are covered with a +yellowish powder, consisting of minute sessile grains, called +lupulin or lupulinic glands. These glands (fig. 2, <i>c</i>) are from +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">260</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">140</span> in. in diameter, like flattened subovate little saucers in +shape, and attached to a short pedicel. The upper or hemispherical +portion bears a delicate continuous membrane, the cuticle, +which becomes raised by the secretion beneath it of the yellowish +lupulin. The stalk is not perceptible in the gland as found in +commerce. When fresh the gland is seen to be filled with a +yellowish or dark brown liquid; this on drying contracts in bulk +and forms a central mass. It is to these lupulinic glands that +the medicinal properties of the hop are chiefly due. By careful +sifting about 1 oz. may be obtained from 1 ℔ of hops, but the +East Kent variety is said to yield more than the Sussex hops.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span></p> + +<p>In hop gardens a few male plants, usually three or four to an +acre, are sometimes planted, that number being deemed sufficient +to fertilize the female flowers. The blossoms are produced in +August, and the strobiles are fit for gathering from the beginning +of September to the middle of October, according to the weather.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:483px; height:677px" src="images/img678.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Fruit of Hop.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The cultivation of hops for use in the manufacture of beer +dates from an early period. In the 8th and 9th centuries hop +gardens, called “humularia” or “humuleta,” existed in France +and Germany. Until the 16th century, however, hops appear +to have been grown in a very fitful manner, and to a limited +extent, generally only for private consumption; but after +the beginning of the 17th century the cultivation increased +rapidly. The plant was introduced into England from Flanders +in 1525; and in America its cultivation was encouraged by +legislative enactments in 1657. Formerly several plants were +used as well as hops to season ale, hence the name “alehoof” +for <i>Nepeta Glechoma</i>, and “alecost” for <i>Balsamita vulgaris</i>. +The sweet gale, <i>Myrica Gale</i>, and the sage, <i>Salvia officinalis</i>, +were also similarly employed. Various hop substitutes, in the +form of powder, have been offered in commerce of late years, +most of which appear to have quassia as a chief ingredient. +The young tender tops of the hop are in Belgium cut off in spring +and eaten like asparagus, and are forced from December to +February.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Medical Use.</i>—The principal constituents of the strobiles are +<i>lupulin</i>, one of the few liquid alkaloids; <i>lupulinic acid</i>, a bitter +crystalline body, soluble in ether, which is without any other pharmacological +action than that common to bitter substances; <i>Valerol</i>, +a volatile oil which in old hops undergoes a change to the malodorous +body valerianic acid; resin; trimethylamine; a peculiar modification +of tannin known as <i>humulotannic acid</i>; and a sesqui-terpene. +The British pharmacopoeia contains two preparations of the strobiles,—an +infusion (dose, 1-2 oz.) and a tincture (dose, ½-1 drachm). The +glands obtained from the strobiles are known in pharmacy as lupulin, +a name which tends to confusion with that of the alkaloid. They +occur in commerce as a bright yellow-brown powder, seen under a +lens to consist of minute glandular particles. The dose of this so-called +lupulin is 2-5 grains. From it there is prepared the Tinctura +Lupulinae of the United States pharmacopoeia, which is given in +doses of 10-60 minims. Furthermore, there are prepared hop pillows, +designed to procure sleep; but these act, when at all, mainly by +suggestion. The pharmacological action of hops is determined first +by the volatile oil they contain, which has the actions of its class. +Similarly the lupulinic acid may act as a bitter tonic. The preparations +of hops, when taken internally, are frequently hypnotic, though +unfortunately different specimens vary considerably in composition, +none of the preparations being standardized. It is by no means +certain whether the hypnotic action of hops is due to the alkaloid +lupulin or possibly to the volatile oil which they contain. Medical +practice, however, is acquainted with many more trustworthy and +equally safe hypnotics. The bitter acid of hops may endow beer +containing it with a certain value in cases of impaired gastric +digestion, and to the hypnotic principle of hops may partly be +ascribed—as well as to the alcohol—the soporific action of beer +in the case of some individuals.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Hop Production in England</span><a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The cultivation of hops in the British Isles is restricted to +England, where it is practically confined to half-a-dozen counties—four +in the south-eastern and two in the west-midland districts. +In 1901 the English crop was reported by the Board of Agriculture +to occupy 51,127 acres. The official returns as to +acreage do not extend back beyond 1868, in which year the total +area was reported to be 64,488 acres. The largest area recorded +since then was 71,789 acres in 1878; the smallest was 44,938 +acres in 1907. The extent to which the areas of hops in the +chief hop-growing counties vary from year to year is sufficiently +indicated in Table I., which shows the annual acreages over a +period of thirteen years, 1895 to 1907. The proportions in +which the acres of hops are distributed amongst the counties +concerned vary but little year by year, and as a rule over 60% +belongs to Kent.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span>—<i>Hop Areas of England 1895 to 1907. Acres.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc lb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Kent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hereford.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sussex.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Worcester.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hants.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Surrey.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">35,018</td> <td class="tcc rb">7553</td> <td class="tcc rb">7489</td> <td class="tcc rb">4024</td> <td class="tcc rb">2875</td> <td class="tcc rb">1783</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">33,300</td> <td class="tcc rb">6895</td> <td class="tcc rb">5908</td> <td class="tcc rb">3800</td> <td class="tcc rb">2494</td> <td class="tcc rb">1623</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,661</td> <td class="tcc rb">6542</td> <td class="tcc rb">5174</td> <td class="tcc rb">3591</td> <td class="tcc rb">2306</td> <td class="tcc rb">1416</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">30,941</td> <td class="tcc rb">6651</td> <td class="tcc rb">4829</td> <td class="tcc rb">3567</td> <td class="tcc rb">2263</td> <td class="tcc rb">1313</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,988</td> <td class="tcc rb">7227</td> <td class="tcc rb">4949</td> <td class="tcc rb">3788</td> <td class="tcc rb">2319</td> <td class="tcc rb">1388</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,514</td> <td class="tcc rb">7287</td> <td class="tcc rb">4823</td> <td class="tcc rb">3964</td> <td class="tcc rb">2231</td> <td class="tcc rb">1300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,242</td> <td class="tcc rb">7497</td> <td class="tcc rb">4800</td> <td class="tcc rb">4029</td> <td class="tcc rb">2133</td> <td class="tcc rb">1232</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,649</td> <td class="tcc rb">6915</td> <td class="tcc rb">4541</td> <td class="tcc rb">3779</td> <td class="tcc rb">2003</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 969</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,933</td> <td class="tcc rb">6851</td> <td class="tcc rb">4454</td> <td class="tcc rb">3697</td> <td class="tcc rb">1920</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 901</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,841</td> <td class="tcc rb">6767</td> <td class="tcc rb">4474</td> <td class="tcc rb">3752</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 877</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">30,655</td> <td class="tcc rb">6851</td> <td class="tcc rb">4647</td> <td class="tcc rb">3807</td> <td class="tcc rb">1978</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 843</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,296</td> <td class="tcc rb">6481</td> <td class="tcc rb">4379</td> <td class="tcc rb">3672</td> <td class="tcc rb">1939</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 777</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28,169</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6143</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4243</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3622</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1842</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 744</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Less than 200 acres in all are annually grown in the other hop-growing +counties of England, these being Shropshire, Gloucestershire +and Suffolk.</p> + +<p>The average yield per acre in cwt. in the six counties during +the decade 1897 to 1906 was as follows:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Table II.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Kent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hereford.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sussex.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Worcester.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hants.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Surrey.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">9.31</td> <td class="tcc allb">7.14</td> <td class="tcc allb">9.41</td> <td class="tcc allb">7.79</td> <td class="tcc allb">8.78</td> <td class="tcc allb">7.23</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Table III. shows the average acreage, yield and total home +produce of England during the decades 1888-1897 and 1898-1907.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Table III.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Periods.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average Annual<br />Acreage.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average Annual<br />Yield per acre<br />(cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average Annual<br />Home Produce<br />(cwt.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888-1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">56,370</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.76</td> <td class="tcc rb">438,215</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1898-1907</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48,841</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8.84</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">434,567</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The wide fluctuations in the home production of hops are worthy +of note, as they exercise a powerful influence upon market +prices. The largest crop between 1885, the first year in which +figures relating to production were collected, and 1907 was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span> +that of 776,144 cwt. in 1886, and the smallest that of 281,291 +cwt. in 1888, the former being more than 2½ times the size of +the latter. The crop of 1899, estimated at 661,373 cwt., was so +large that prices receded to an extent such as to leave no margin +of profit to the great body of growers, whilst some planters were +able to market the crop only at a loss. The calculated annual +average yields per acre over the years 1885 to 1907 ranged between +12.76 cwt. in 1899 and 4.81 cwt. in 1888. No other staple crop +of British agriculture undergoes such wide fluctuations in yield +as are here indicated, the size of the crop produced bearing no +relation to the acreage under cultivation. For example, the +71,327 acres in 1885 produced only 509,170 cwt., whereas the +51,843 acres in 1899 produced 661,373 cwt.—19,484 acres less +under crop yielded 152,203 cwt. more produce.</p> + +<p>Comparing the quantities of home-grown hops with those of +imported hops, of the total available for consumption about +70% on the average is home produce and about 30% is imported +produce. The imports, however, do not vary so much as the +home produce. Table IV. shows the average quantity of +imports to and exports (home-grown) from Great Britain during +the decades 1877-1886, 1887-1896 and 1897-1906.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Table IV.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Periods.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual Average<br />Imports (cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual Average<br />Exports (cwt.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1877-1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">215,219</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,805</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887-1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">194,966</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9,437</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1897-1906</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">186,362</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14,808</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The highest and lowest imports were 266,952 cwt. in 1885 and +145,122 cwt. in 1887, the latter in the year following the biggest +home-grown crop on record. On a series of years the largest +proportion of imports is from the United States.</p> + +<p>During the twenty-five years 1881-1905 the annual values of +the hops imported into England fluctuated between the wide +limits of £2,962,631 in 1882 and £427,753 in 1887. In five other +years besides 1882 the value exceeded a million sterling. The +annual average value over the whole period was £921,000, +whilst the annual average import was 194,000 cwt., consequently +the average value per cwt. was nearly £4, 15s., which is approximately +the same as that of the exported product. The quantities +and values of the imported hops that are again exported are +almost insignificant.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Hop Production in the United States</p> + +<p>The distribution of the area of hop-cultivation in the United +States showed great changes during the last decades of the 19th +and the first decade of the 20th century. During the earlier +portion of that period New York was the chief hop-growing +state of the Union, but toward the end of it a great extension +of hop-growing took place on the Pacific coast (in the states of +Oregon, California and Washington), where the richness of the +soil and mildness of the climate are favourable to the bines.</p> + +<p>The average annual produce of hops in the United States +from 1900 to 1906 was 423,471 cwt.; of this quantity 80% was +raised in the three states of the Pacific coast, where the yield +per acre is much larger than in New York. In the latter state +the yield does not appear to exceed 5 or 6 cwt. per acre, whereas +in Oregon it is 9 or 10 cwt., and in Washington and California +from 12 to 14 cwt. The average annual export (chiefly to Great +Britain) in the years from 1899 to 1905 was 108,400 cwt.; the +average import (chiefly from Germany) is about 50,000 cwt.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Hop Cultivation</p> + +<p>As the county of Kent has always taken the lead in hop-growing +in England, and as it includes about two-thirds of the +hop acreage of the British Isles, the recent developments in +hop cultivation cannot be better studied than in that county. +They were well summarized by Mr Charles Whitehead in his +sketch of the agriculture of Kent,<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> wherein he states that the +hop grounds—or hop gardens, as they are called in Kent—of +poor character and least suitable for hop production have been +gradually grubbed since 1894, on account of large crops, the +importation of hops and low prices. At the beginning of the +19th century there were 290 parishes in Kent in which hops +were cultivated. A century later, out of the 413 parishes in +the county, as many as 331 included hop plantations. The hops +grown in Kent are classified in the markets as “East Kents,” +“Bastard East Kents,” “Mid Kents” and “Wealds,” according +to the district of the county in which they are produced. The +relative values of these four divisions follow in the same order, +East Kents making the highest and Wealds the lowest rates. +These divisions agree in the main with those defined by geological +formations. Thus, “East Kents” are grown upon the +Chalk, and especially on the outcrop of the soils of the London +Tertiaries upon the Chalk. “Bastard East Kents” are produced +on alluvial soil and soils formed by admixtures of loam, clay-loams, +chalk, marl and clay from the Gault, Greensand and +Chalk formations. “Mid Kents” are derived principally from +the Greensand soils and outcrops of the London Tertiaries in +the upper part of the district. “Wealds” come from soils +on the Weald Clay, Hastings Sand and Tunbridge Wells Sand. +As each “pocket” of hops must be marked with the owner’s +name and the parish in which they were grown, buyers of hops +can, without much trouble, ascertain from which of the four +divisions hops come, especially if they have the map of the +hop-growing parishes of England, which gives the name of each +parish. There has been a considerable rearrangement of the +hop plantations in Kent within recent years. Common varieties +as Colegate’s, Jones’s, Grapes and Prolifics have been grubbed, +and Goldings, Bramlings and other choice kinds planted in their +places. The variety known as Fuggle’s, a heavy-cropping +though slightly coarse hop, has been much planted in the Weald +of Kent, and in parts of Mid Kent where the soil is suitable. +In very old hop gardens, where there has been no change of +plant for fifty or even one hundred years in some instances, +except from the gradual process of filling up the places of plants +that have died, there has been replanting with better varieties +and varieties ripening in more convenient succession; and, +generally speaking, the plantations have been levelled up in +this respect to suit the demand for bright hops of fine quality. +A recent classification<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> of the varieties of English hops arranges +them in three groups: (1) early varieties (<i>e.g.</i> Prolific, Bramling, +Amos’s Early Bird); (2) mid-season or main-crop varieties +(<i>e.g.</i> Farnham Whitebine, Fuggle’s, Old Jones’s, Golding); +(3) late varieties (<i>e.g.</i> Grapes, Colgate’s).</p> + +<p>The cost of cultivating and preparing the produce of an acre +of hop land tends to increase, on account of the advancing rates +of wages, the intense cultivation more and more essential, and +the necessity of freeing the plants from the persistent attacks of +insects and fungi. In 1893 Mr Whitehead estimated the average +annual cost of an acre of hop land to be £35, 10s., the following +being the items:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Manure (winter and summer)</td> <td class="tcr">£6</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Digging</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dressing (or cutting)</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Poling, tying, earthing, ladder-tying, stringing, lewing</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Shimming, nidgeting, digging round and hoeing hills</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Stacking, stripping, making; bines, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Annual renewal of poles</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Expense of picking, drying, packing, carriage, sampling,</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> selling, &c., on average crop of, say, 7 cwt. per acre</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rent, rates, taxes, repairs of oast and tacks, interest on capital</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuring</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Washing (often two, three or four times)</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr" colspan="3">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">£35</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Seven years later the average cost per acre in Kent had risen to +quite £37.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span></p> + +<p>The hops in Kent are usually planted in October +or November, the plants being 6 ft. apart each +way, thus giving 1210 hills or plant-centres per +acre. Some planters still grow potatoes or +mangels between the rows the first year, as the +plants do not bear much until the second year; +but this is considered to be a mistake, as it +encourages wire-worm and exhausts the ground. +Many planters pole hop plants the first year with +a single short pole, and stretch coco-nut-fibre +string from pole to pole, and grow many hops in +the first season. Much of the hop land is ploughed +between the rows, as labour is scarce, and the +spaces between are dug afterwards. It is far better +to dig hop land if possible, the tool used being the +Kent spud. The cost of digging an acre ranges +from 18s. to 21s. Hop land is ploughed or dug +between November and March. After this the plants are +“dressed,” which means that all the old bine ends are cut off +with a sharp curved hop-knife, and the plant centres kept level +with the ground.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Manuring.</i>—Manure is applied in the winter, and dug or ploughed +in. London manure from stables is used to an enormous extent. +It comes by barge or rail, and is brought from the wharves and +stations by traction engines; it costs from 7s. 6d. to 9s. per load. +Rags, fur waste, sprats, wool waste and shoddy are also put on +in the winter. In the summer, rape dust, guano, nitrate of soda +and various patent hop manures are chopped in with the Canterbury +hoe. Fish guano or desiccated fish is largely used; it is +very stimulating and more lasting than some of the other forcing +manures.</p> + +<p>The recent investigations into the subject of hop-manuring made +by Dr Bernard Dyer and Mr F. W. E. Shrivell, at Golden Green, near +Tonbridge, Kent, are of interest. In the 1901 report<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> it was stated +that the object in view was to ascertain how far nitrate of soda, in +the presence of an abundant supply of phosphates and potash, is +capable of being advantageously used as a source of nitrogenous food +for hops. An idea long persisted among hop-growers that nitrate of +soda was an unsafe manure for hops, being likely to produce rank +growth of bine at the expense of quality and even quantity of hops. +During recent years, however, owing very largely to the results of +these experiments, and of corresponding experiments based upon +these, which have been carried out abroad, hop farmers have much +more freely availed themselves of the aid of this useful manure; and +there is little doubt that the distrust of nitrate of soda as a hop +manure which has existed in the past has been largely due to the fact +that nitrate of soda, like many other nitrogenous manures, has often +been misused (1) by being applied without a sufficient quantity of +phosphates and potash, or (2) by being applied too abundantly, or +(3) by being applied too late in the season, with the result of unduly +delaying the ripening period. On most of the experimental plots +nitrate of soda (in conjunction with phosphates and potash) has been +used as the sole source of nitrogen; but it is, of course, not be to +supposed that any hop-grower would use year after year, as is the +case on some of the plots, nothing but phosphates, potash and nitrate +of soda. Miscellaneous feeding is probably good for plants as well as +for animals, and there is a large variety of nitrogenous manures at the +disposal of the hop-farmer, to say nothing of what, in its place, is one +of the most valuable of all manures, namely, home-made dung. +These experiments were begun in 1894 with a new garden of young +Fuggle’s hops. A series of experimental plots was marked out, each +plot being one-sixth of an acre in area. The plots run parallel with +one another, there being four rows of hills in each. The climate of the +district is very dry.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Weight of Kiln-dried Fuggle’s Hops per Acre.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Plot.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual Manuring per Acre.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1896</td> <td class="tccm allb">1897</td> <td class="tccm allb">1898</td> <td class="tccm allb">1899</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />of 5<br />Years.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">A</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates and potash</td> <td class="tcc rb">13½</td> <td class="tcc rb">7½</td> <td class="tcc rb">8¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">20¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">11½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">B</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 2 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">16½</td> <td class="tcc rb">9¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">10¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">22¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">9¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">13½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">C</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 4 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">16½</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">12½</td> <td class="tcc rb">23</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 6 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">15¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">22½</td> <td class="tcc rb">10½</td> <td class="tcc rb">14¾</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">E</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 8 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">13½</td> <td class="tcc rb">15¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">23½</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">15½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">F</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 10 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">24½</td> <td class="tcc rb">10½</td> <td class="tcc rb">15¾</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">X</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">30 loads (about 15 tons) London dung</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9¾</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">24½</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10¾</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">13¾</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The table given above shows the annual yield of hops per acre +on each plot, and also the average for each plot over the five years +1896-1900.</p> + +<p>The general results seem to show that the purchase of town dung +for hops is not economical, unless under specially favourable terms +as to cost of conveyance, and that it should certainly not be relied +upon as a sufficient manure. Home-made dung is in quite a different +position, as not only is it richer, but it costs nothing for railway +carriage. As a source of nitrogenous manure, purchased dung is on +the whole too expensive. There is a large variety of other nitrogenous +manures in the market besides nitrate of soda, such, for instance +as Peruvian and Damaraland guano, sulphate of ammonia, fish guano, +dried blood, rape dust, furriers’ refuse, horn shavings, hoof parings, +wool dust, shoddy, &c. All of these may in turn be used for helping +to maintain a stock of nitrogen in the soil; and the degree to which +manures of this kind have been recently applied in any hop garden +will influence the grower in deciding as to the quantity of nitrate of +soda he should use in conjunction with them, and also to some extent +in fixing the date of its application.</p> + +<p>Dressings of 8 or 10 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre, such as are +applied annually to plots E and F, would be larger than would be put +on where the land has been already dressed with dung or with other +nitrogenous manures; and even, in the circumstances under notice, +although these plots have on the average beaten the others in weight, +the hops in some seasons have been distinctly coarser than those more +moderately manured—though in the dry season of 1899 the most +heavily dressed plot gave actually the best quality as well as the +greatest quantity of produce.</p> + +<p>With regard to the application of nitrate of soda in case the season +should turn out to be wet, present experience indicates that, on a +soil otherwise liberally manured, 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span> +applied not too late, would be a thoroughly safe dressing. In the case +of neither dung nor any other nitrogenous fertilizers having been +recently applied, there seems no reason for supposing that, even in +a wet season, 6 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre applied early would be +otherwise than a safe dressing, considering both quantity and quality +of produce. In conjunction with dung, or with the early use of other +nitrogenous manures, such as fish, guano, rape dust, &c. it would +probably be wise not to exceed 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre.</p> + +<p>As to the date of application, April or May is the latest time at +which nitrate of soda should, in most circumstances, be applied, and +probably April is preferable to May. The quantity used should be +applied in separate dressings of not more than 2 cwt. per acre each, +put on at intervals of a month. Where the quantity of nitrate of soda +used is large, and constitutes the whole of the nitrogenous manure +employed, the first dressing may, on fairly deep and retentive soils, +be given as early as January; or, if the quantity used is smaller, say +in February; while February will, in most cases, probably be early +enough for the first dressing in the case of lighter soils. The condition +of the soil and the degree and distribution of rainfall during both the +previous autumn and the winter, as well as in the spring itself, +produce such varying conditions that it is almost impossible to frame +general rules.</p> + +<p>The commonly accepted notion that nitrate of soda is a manure +which should be reserved for use during the later period of the growth +of the bine appears to be erroneous. The summer months, when the +growth of the bine is most active, are the months in which natural +nitrification is going on in the soil, converting soil nitrogen and the +nitrogen of dung, guano, fish, rape dust, shoddy or other fertilizers +into nitrates, and placing this nitrogen at the disposal of the plants; +and it appears reasonable, therefore, to suppose that nitrate of soda +will be most useful to the hops at the earlier stages of their growth, +before the products of that nitrification become abundant. This +would especially be so in a season immediately following a wet +autumn and winter, which have the effect of washing away into the +drains the residual nitrates not utilized by the previous crop.</p> + +<p>The necessity, whether dung is used or not, and whatever form of +nitrogenous manure is employed, of also supplying the hops with an +abundance of phosphates, cannot be too strongly urged. The use of +phosphates for hops was long neglected by hop-planters, and even +now there are many growers who do not realize the full importance of +heavy phosphatic manuring. On soils containing an abundance of +lime no better or cheaper phosphatic manure can be used than +ordinary superphosphate, of which as much as 10 cwt. per acre may be +applied without the slightest fear of harm. But if the soil is not decidedly +calcareous—that is to say, if it does not effervesce when it is +stirred up with some diluted hydrochloric (muriatic) acid—bone dust, +phosphatic guano or basic slag should be used as a source of phosphates, +at the rate of not less than 10 cwt. per acre. On medium +soils, which, without being distinctly calcareous, nevertheless +contain a just appreciable quantity of carbonate of lime, it is probably +a good plan to use the latter class of manures, alternately with superphosphate, +year and year about; but it is wise policy to use phosphates +<i>in some form or other</i> every year in every hop garden. They +are inexpensive, and without them neither dung, nitrate of soda, +ammonia salts nor organic manures can be expected to produce both +a full vigorous growth of bine and at the same time a well-matured +crop of full-weighted, well-conditioned hops.</p> + +<p>The use of potash salts, on most soils, is probably not needed when +good dung is freely used; but where this is not the case it is safer in +most seasons and on most soils to give a dressing of potash salts. +On some soils their aid should on no account be dispensed with.</p> + +<p>Experiments in hop-manuring have also been conducted in connexion +with the South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. +The main results have been to demonstrate the necessity of a liberal +supply of phosphates, if the full benefit is to be reaped from applications +of nitrogenous manure.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Tying, Poling and Picking.</i>—Tying the bines to the poles or +strings is essentially women’s work. It was formerly always +piecework, each woman taking so many acres to tie, but it is +found better to pay the women 1s. 8d. to 2s. per day, that they +may all work together, and tie the plants in those grounds where +they want tying at once. The new modes of poling and training +hop plants have also altered the conditions of tying.</p> + +<p>Many improvements have been made in the methods of poling +and training hops. Formerly two or three poles were placed to +each hop-hill or plant-centre in the spring, and removed in the +winter, and this was the only mode of training. Recently systems +of training on wires and strings fastened to permanent upright +poles have been introduced. One arrangement of wires and +strings much adopted consists of stout posts set at the end of +every row of hop-hills and fastened with stays to keep them in +place. At intervals in each row a thick pole is fixed. From post +to post in the rows a wire is stretched at a height of ½ ft. +from the ground, another about 6 ft. from the ground, and another +along the tops of the posts, so that there are three wires. Hooks +are clipped on these wires at regular intervals, and coco-nut-fibre +strings are threaded on them and fastened from wire to +wire, and from post to post, to receive the hop bines. The string +is threaded on the hooks continuously, and is put on those of the +top wire with a machine called a stringer. There are several +methods of training hops with posts or stout poles, wire and +string, whose first cost varies from £20 to £40 per acre. The +system is cheaper in the long run than that of taking down the +poles every year, and the wind does not blow down the poles +or injure the hops by banging the poles together. In another +method, extensively made use of in Kent and Sussex, stout posts +are placed at the ends of each row of plants, and, at intervals +where requisite, wires are fastened from top to top only of these +posts, whilst coco-nut-fibre strings are fixed by pegs to the +ground, close to each hop-stock, whence they radiate upwards for +attachment to the wires stretching between the tops of the posts. +This method is more simple and less expensive than the system +first described, its cost being from £24 to £28 per acre. In this +case the plants require to be well “lewed,” or sheltered, as the +strings being so light are blown about by the wind. These +methods are being largely adopted, and, together with the practice +of putting coco-nut-fibre strings from pole to pole in grounds +poled in the old-fashioned manner, are important improvements +in hop culture, which have tended to increase the production +of hops. Where the old system of poling with two or three +poles is still adhered to they are always creosoted, most growers +having tanks for the purpose; and, in the new methods of poling, +the posts and poles are creosoted, dipped or kyanized.</p> + +<p>At Wye College, Kent, different systems of planting and +training have been tried, the alleys varying in width from 10 ft. +down to 5 ft., and the distance between the hills varying quite +as widely, so that the number of hills to the acre has ranged from +1210 down to 660. The biggest crop was secured on the plot +where hills were 8 ft. apart each way. As a rule, indeed, a +wide alley and abundant space between the plants, thus allowing +the hops plenty of air and light, produced the best results, besides +effecting some saving in the cost of cultivation, as there were only +660 or 680 hills per acre. Of the various methods of training, +the umbrella system gave the biggest crop in each of the three +years, 1899, 1900, 1901; and it seemed to be the best method, +except in seasons when washing was required early, in which +case the plants were not so readily cleared of vermin.</p> + +<p>Much attention is required to keep the bines in their places +on the poles, strings or wire, during the summer. This gives +employment to many women, for whose service in this and fruit-picking +there is considerable demand, and a woman has no +trouble in earning from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 10d. per day from April +till September at pleasant and not very arduous labour. The +hop-picking follows, and at this women sometimes get 4s. +and even 5s. per day. This is the real Kent harvest, which +formerly lasted a month or five weeks. Now it rarely extends +beyond eighteen days, as it is important to secure the hops +before the weather and the aphides, which almost invariably +swarm within the bracts of the cones, discolour them and spoil +their sale, as brewers insist upon having bright, “coloury” +hops. Picking is better done than was formerly the case. +The hops are picked more singly, and with comparatively few +leaves, and the pickers are of a somewhat better type than the +rough hordes who formerly went into Kent for “hopping.” +Kent planters engage their pickers beforehand, and write to +them, arranging the numbers required and the date of picking. +Many families go into Kent for pea- and fruit-picking and remain +for hop-picking. Without this great immigration of persons, +variously estimated at between 45,000 and 65,000, the crops +of hops could not be picked; and fruit-farmers also would be +unable to get their soft fruit gathered in time without the help +of immigrant hands. The fruit-growers and hop-planters of +Kent have greatly improved the accommodation for these +immigrants.</p> + +<p>Concerning the general question as to the advisability or +otherwise of cutting the hop bine at the time of picking, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span> +Hall has ascertained experimentally that if the bine is cut close +to the ground at a time when the whole plant is unripe there +are removed in the bine and leaves considerable quantities +of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which would have +returned to the roots if the bine had not been cut until ripe. +The plant, therefore, would retain a substantial store of these +constituents for the following year’s growth if the bine were +left. Chemical analyses have shown that about 30 ℔ of nitrogen +per acre may be saved by allowing the bines to remain uncut, +this representing practically one-third of the total amount of +nitrogen in the hops, leaf and bine together. There are also +from 25 ℔ to 30 ℔ of potash in the growth, of which nine-tenths +would return to the roots, with about half the phosphoric acid +and a very small proportion of the lime. It has been demonstrated +that by the practice of cutting the bines when the hops +are picked the succeeding crop is lessened to the extent of about +one-tenth. As to stripping off the leaves and lower branches +of the plant, it was found that this operation once reduced +the crop 10% and once 20%, but that in the year 1899 it did +not affect the crop at all. The inference appears to be that +when there is a good crop it is not reduced by stripping, but +that when there is less vigour in the plant it suffers the more. +Hence, it would seem advisable to study the plant itself in +connexion with this matter, and to strip a little later, or +somewhat less, than usual when the bine is not healthy.</p> + +<p><i>Drying.</i>—After being picked, the hops are taken in pokes—long +sacks holding ten bushels—to the oasts to be dried. The +oasts are circular or square kilns, or groups of kilns, wherein +the green hops are laid upon floors covered with horsehair, +under which are enclosed or open stoves or furnaces. The +heat from these is evenly distributed among the hops above +by draughts below and round them. This is the usual simple +arrangement, but patent processes are adopted here and there, +though they are by no means general. The hops are from nine +to ten hours drying, after which they are taken off the kiln +and allowed to cool somewhat, and are then packed tightly +into “pockets” 6 ft. long and 2 ft. wide, weighing 1½ cwt., +by means of a hop-pressing machine, which has cogs and +wheels worked by hand. Of late years more care has been +bestowed by some of the leading growers upon the drying of +hops, so as to preserve their qualities and volatile essences, and +to meet the altered requirements of brewers, who must have +bright, well-managed hops for the production of light clear +beers for quick draught. The use, for example, of exhaust +fans, recently introduced, greatly facilitates drying by drawing +a large volume of air through the hops; and as the temperature +may at the same time be kept low, the risk of getting overfired +samples is considerably reduced, though not entirely obviated. +The adoption of the roller floor is another great advance +in the process of hop-drying, for this, used in conjunction with +a raised platform for the men to stand on when turning, prevents +any damage from the feet of the workmen, and reduces +the loss of resin to a minimum. The best results are obtained +when exhaust fans and the roller floor are associated together. +In such cases the roller floor, which empties its load automatically, +pours the hop cones into the receiving sheets in usually as +whole and unbroken a condition as that in which they went +on to the kiln.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Pests of the Hop Crop.</i>—In recent years the difficulties attendant +upon hop cultivation have been aggravated, and the expenses increased, +by regularly recurring attacks of aphis blight—due to the +insect <i>Aphis</i> (<i>Phorodon</i>) <i>humuli</i>—which render it necessary to spray +or syringe every hop plant, every branch and leaf, with insecticidal +solutions three or four times, and sometimes more often, in each +season. Quassia and soft-soap solutions are usually employed; +they contain from 4 ℔ to 8 ℔ of soft soap, and the extract of from +8 ℔ to 10 ℔ of quassia chips to 100 gallons of water. The soft soap +serves as a vehicle to retain the bitterness of the quassia upon the +bines and leaves, making them repulsive to the aphides, which are +thus starved out. Another pest, the red spider, <i>Tetranychus telarius</i>—really +one of the “spinning mites”—is most destructive in very +hot summers. Congregating on the under surfaces of the leaves, the +red spiders exhaust the sap and cause the leaves to fall, producing +the effect known in Germany as “fire-blast.” The hop-wash of soft +soap and quassia, so effective against aphis attack, is of little avail +in the case of red spider. Some success, however, has attended the +use of a solution containing 8 ℔ to 10 ℔ of soft soap to 100 gallons of +water, with three pints of paraffin added. It is necessary to apply the +washes with great force, in order to break through the webs with +which the spiders protect themselves. Hop-washing is done by +means of large garden engines worked by hand, but more frequently +with horse engines. Resort is sometimes had to steam engines, +which force the spraying solution along pipes laid between the rows +of hops.</p> + +<p>Mould or mildew is frequently the source of much loss to hop-planters. +It is due to the action of the fungus <i>Podosphaera castagnei</i>, +and the mischief is more especially that done to the cones. The only +trustworthy remedy is sulphur, employed usually in the form of +flowers of sulphur, from 40 ℔ to 60 ℔ per acre being applied at each +sulphuring. The powder is distributed by means of a machine +drawn by a horse between the rows. The sulphur is fed from a +hopper into a blast-pipe, whence it is driven by a fan actuated by +the travelling wheels, and falls as a dense, wide-spreading cloud upon +the hop-bines. The first sulphuring takes place when the plants are +fairly up the poles, and is repeated three or four weeks later; and +even again if indications of mildew are present. It may be added +that sulphur is also successfully employed in the form of an alkaline +sulphide, such as solution of “liver of sulphur,” a variety of +potassium sulphide.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Fr.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Report from the Select Committee on the Hop Industry</i> +(London, 1908).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc</i>., 1899.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> J. Percival, “The Hop and its English Varieties,” <i>Jour. Roy. +Agric. Soc.</i>, 1901.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Six Years’ Experiments on Hop Manuring</i> (London, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPE, ANTHONY,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> the pen-name of <span class="sc">Anthony Hope +Hawkins</span> (1863-  ), British novelist, who was born on the +9th of February 1863, the second son of the Rev. E. C. Hawkins, +Vicar of St Bride’s, Fleet Street, London. He was educated at +Marlborough and Balliol College, Oxford, where he was president +of the Union Society, and graduated with first classes in Moderations +and Final Schools. He was called to the bar at the Middle +Temple in 1877. He soon began contributing stories and sketches +to the <i>St James’s Gazette</i>, and in 1890 published his first novel, +<i>A Man of Mark</i>. This was followed by <i>Father Stafford</i> (1891), +<i>Mr Witt’s Widow</i> (1892), <i>Change of Air</i> and <i>Sport Royal and +Other Stories</i> (1893). By this time he had attracted by his +vivacious talent the attention of editors and readers; but it +was not till the following year that he attained a great popular +success with the publication (May 1894) of <i>The Prisoner of +Zenda</i>. This was followed a few weeks later by <i>The Dolly Dialogues</i> +(previously published in separate instalments in the +<i>Westminster Gazette</i>). Both books became parents of a numerous +progeny. <i>The Prisoner of Zenda</i>, owing something to the <i>Prince +Otto</i> of R. L. Stevenson, established a fashion for what was +christened, after its fictitious locality, “Ruritanian romance”; +while the <i>Dolly Dialogues</i>, inspired possibly by “Gyp” and other +French dialogue writers, was the forerunner of a whole school +of epigrammatic drawing-room comedy. <i>The Prisoner of Zenda</i>, +with Mr Alexander as “Rupert Rassendyll,” enjoyed a further +success in a dramatized form at the St James’s Theatre, which +did still more to popularize the author’s fame. In 1894 also +appeared <i>The God in the Car</i>, a novel suggested by the +ambiguous influence on English society of Cecil Rhodes’s career; +and <i>Half a Hero</i>, a complementary study of Australian politics. +The same year saw further the publication of <i>The Indiscretion +of the Duchess</i>, in the style of the <i>Dolly Dialogues</i>, and of another +collection of stories named (after the first) <i>The Secret of Wardale +Court</i>. In 1895 Mr Hawkins published <i>Count Antonio</i>, and +contributed to <i>Dialogues of the Day</i>, edited by Mr Oswald Crawfurd. +<i>Comedies of Courtship</i> and <i>The Heart of the Princess +Osra</i> followed in 1896; <i>Phroso</i> in 1897; <i>Simon Dale</i> and +<i>Rupert of Hentzau</i> (sequel of the <i>Prisoner of Zenda</i>) 1898; and +<i>The King’s Mirror</i>, a Ruritanian romance with an infusion of +serious psychological interest, 1899. The author was advancing +from his light comedy and gallant romantic inventions to the +graver kind of fiction of which <i>The God in the Car</i> had been an +earlier essay. <i>Quisante</i>, published in 1900, was a study of +English society face to face with a political genius of an alien +type. <i>Tristram of Blent</i> (1901) embodied an ethical study of +family pride. <i>The Intrusions of Peggy</i> reflected the effects on +society of recent financial fashions. In 1904 he published +<i>Double Harness</i>, and in 1905 <i>A Servant of the Public</i>, two novels +of modern society, containing somewhat cynical pictures of the +condition of marriage. With increasing gravity the novelist +sacrificed some of the charm of his earlier irresponsible gaiety +and buoyancy; but his art retained its wit and urbanity while +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span> +it gained in grip of the social conditions of contemporary life. +He wrote two plays, <i>The Adventure of Lady Ursula</i> (1898) and +<i>Pilkerton’s Peerage</i> (1902), and his later novels include <i>The Great +Miss Driver</i> (1908) and <i>Second String</i> (1909). Mr Hawkins’s +attractive and cultured style and command of plot give him a +high place among the modern writers of English fiction. In 1903 +he married Miss Elizabeth Somerville Sheldon of New York.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPE, THOMAS<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1770-1831), English art-collector, and +author of <i>Anastasius</i>, born in London about 1770, was the eldest +son of John Hope of Amsterdam, and was descended from a +branch of an old Scottish family who for several generations +were extensive merchants in London and Amsterdam. About +the age of eighteen he started on a tour through various parts +of Europe, Asia and Africa, where he interested himself especially +in architecture and sculpture, making a large collection of +the principal objects which attracted his attention. On his +return to London about 1796 he purchased a house in Duchess +Street, Cavendish Square, which he fitted up in a very elaborate +style, from drawings made by himself. In 1807 he published +sketches of his furniture, accompanied by letterpress, in a folio +volume, entitled <i>Household Furniture and Interior Decoration</i>, +which had considerable influence in effecting a change in the +upholstery and interior decoration of houses, notwithstanding +that Byron had referred scornfully to him as “House-furnisher +withal, one Thomas hight.” Hope’s furniture designs were in +that pseudo-classical manner which is generally called “English +Empire.” It was sometimes extravagant, and often heavy, +but was much more restrained than the wilder and later flights +of Sheraton in this style. At the best, however, it was a not +very inspiring mixture of Egyptian and Roman motives. In +1809 he published the <i>Costumes of the Ancients</i>, and in 1812 +<i>Designs of Modern Costumes</i>, works which display a large amount +of antiquarian research. He was also, as his father had been—the +elder Hope’s country house near Haarlem was crowded with +fine pictures—a munificent patron of the highest forms of art, +and both at his London house and his country seat at Deepdene +near Dorking he formed large collections of paintings, sculpture +and antiques. Deepdene in his day became a famous resort +of men of letters as well as of people of fashion, and among the +luxuries suggested by his fine taste was a miniature library +in several languages in each bedroom. Thorvaldsen, the Danish +sculptor, was indebted to him for the early recognition of his +talents, and he also gave frequent employment to Chantrey and +Flaxman—it was to his order that the latter illustrated Dante. +In 1819 he published anonymously his novel <i>Anastasius, or +Memoirs of a Modern Greek, written at the close of the 18th century</i>, +a work which, chiefly on account of the novel character of its +subject, caused a great sensation. It was at first generally +attributed to Lord Byron, who told Lady Blessington that he +wept bitterly on reading it because he had not written it and +Hope had. But, though remarkable for the acquaintance it +displays with Eastern life, and distinguished by considerable +imaginative vigour and much graphic and picturesque description, +its paradoxes are not so striking as those of Lord Byron; +and, notwithstanding some eloquent and forcible passages, +the only reason which warranted its ascription to him was the +general type of character to which its hero belonged. Hope +died on the 3rd of February 1831. He was the author of two +works published posthumously—the <i>Origin and Prospects +of Man</i> (1831), in which his speculations diverged widely from +the usual orthodox opinions, and an <i>Historical Essay on Architecture</i> +(1835), an elaborate description of the architecture of +the middle ages, illustrated by drawings made by himself in +Italy and Germany. He is commonly known in literature as +“Anastasius” Hope. He married (1806) Louisa de la Poer +Beresford, daughter of Lord Decies, archbishop of Tuam.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPEDALE,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A.; pop. (1905; state census) 2048; (1910) 2188. It is +served by the Milford & Uxbridge (electric) street railway, and +(for freight) by the Grafton & Upton railway. The town lies +in the “dale” between Milford and Mendon, and is cut from +N.W. to S.E. by the Mill river, which furnishes good water +power at its falls. The principal manufactures are textiles, +boots and shoes, and, of most importance, cotton machinery. +The great cotton machinery factories here are owned by the +Draper Company. Hopedale has a public park on the site of +the Ballou homestead, with a bronze statue of Adin Ballou; +a memorial church erected by George A. and Eben S. Draper; +the Bancroft Memorial Library, given by Joseph B. Bancroft in +memory of his wife; and a marble drinking fountain with +statuary by Waldo Story, the gift of Susan Preston Draper, +General W. F. Draper’s wife. The village is remarkable for the +comfortable cottages of the workers.</p> + +<p>The history of Hopedale centres round the Rev. Adin Ballou +(1803-1890), a distant relative of Hosea Ballou;<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> he left, in +succession, the ministry of the Christian Connexion (1823) +and that of the Universalist Church (1831), because of his +restorationist views. In 1831 he became pastor of an independent +church in Mendon. An ardent exponent of temperance, the +anti-slavery movement, woman’s rights, the peace cause and +Christian non-resistance (even through the Civil War), and of +“Practical Christian Socialism,” it was in the interests of the +last cause that he founded Hopedale, or “Fraternal Community +No. 1,” in Milford, in April 1842, the first compact of the community +having been drawn up in January 1841. Thirty persons +joined with him, and lived in a single house on a poor farm of +258 acres, purchased in June 1841. Ballou was for several years +the president of the community, which was run on the plan that +all should have an equal voice as to the use of property, in spite of +the fact that there was individual holding of property. The +community, however, owned the instruments of production, with +the single exception of the important patent rights held by +Ebenezer D. Draper. The result was bickerings between those +who were joint stockholders and those whose only profit came +from their manual labour. In a short time the control of the +community came into the hands of its richest members, E. D. +Draper and his brother, George Draper (1817-1887), who owned +three-fourths of the joint stock. In 1856 there was a total deficit +of about $12,000. The Draper brothers bought up the joint +stock of the community at par and paid its debts, and the community +soon ceased to exist save as a religious society. After +George Draper’s death the control of the mills passed to his sons. +These included General William Franklin Draper (1842-1910), +a Republican representative in Congress in 1892-1897 and U.S. +ambassador to Italy in 1897-1900, and Eben Sumner Draper +(b. 1858), lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1906-1908 and +governor in 1909-1911. In 1867 the community was merged +with Hopedale parish, a Unitarian organization. Hopedale was +separated from Milford and incorporated as a township in 1886.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Adin Ballou’s <i>History of Milford</i> (Boston, 1882), his <i>History of +the Hopedale Community</i>, edited by William S. Heywood (Lowell, +1897), his <i>Biography</i> by the same editor (Lowell, 1896) and his +<i>Practical and Christian Socialism</i> (Hopedale, 1854); George L. Carey, +“Adin Ballou and the Hopedale Community” (in the <i>New World</i>, +vol. vii., 1898); Lewis G. Wilson, “Hopedale and Its Founder” (in +<i>The New England Magazine</i>, vol. x., 1891); and William F. Draper, +<i>Recollections of a Varied Career</i> (Boston, 1908).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Adin Ballou wrote <i>An Elaborate History and Genealogy of the +Ballous in America</i> (Providence, R.I., 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1812-1873), English barrister +and Tractarian, was born on the 15th of July 1812, at Great +Marlow, Berkshire, the third Son of Sir Alexander Hope, and +grandson of the second earl of Hopetoun. He was educated +at Eton and Oxford, where he was a contemporary and friend +of Gladstone and J. H. Newman, and in 1838 was called to the +bar. Between 1840 and 1843 he helped to found Trinity College, +Glenalmond. He was one of the leaders of the Tractarian +movement and entirely in Newman’s confidence. In 1851 he was +received with Manning into the Roman Catholic church. At +this time he was making a very large income at the Parliamentary +bar. He only commenced serious practice in this branch of +his profession in 1843, but by the end of 1845 he stood at the head +of it and in 1849 was made a Queen’s Counsel. In 1847 he +married Miss Lockhart, granddaughter of Sir Walter Scott, and +on her coming into possession of Abbotsford six years later, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span> +assumed the surname of Hope-Scott. He retired from the bar +in 1870 and died on the 29th of April 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPFEN, HANS VON<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1835-1904), German poet and novelist, +was born on the 3rd of January 1835, at Munich. He studied +law, and in 1858, having shown marked poetical promise, he +was received into the circle of young poets whom King Maximilian +II. had gathered round him, and thereafter devoted +himself to literature. In 1862 he made his debut as an author, +with <i>Lieder und Balladen</i>, which were published in the <i>Münchener +Dichterbuch</i>, edited by E. Geibel. After travelling in Italy (1862), +France (1863) and Austria (1864), he was appointed, in 1865, +general secretary of the “Schillerstiftung,” and in this capacity +settled at Vienna. The following year, however, he removed to +Berlin, in a suburb of which, Lichterfelde, he died on the 19th of +November 1904. Of Hopfen’s lyric poems, <i>Gedichte</i> (4th ed., +Berlin, 1883), many are of considerable talent and originality; +but it is as a novelist that he is best known. The novels <i>Peregretta</i> +(1864); <i>Verdorben zu Paris</i> (1868, new ed. 1892); <i>Arge +Sitten</i> (1869); <i>Der graue Freund</i> (1874, 2nd ed., 1876); and +<i>Verfehlte Liebe</i> (1876, 2nd ed., 1879) are attractive, while +of his shorter stories <i>Tiroler Geschichten</i> (1884-1885) command +most favour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An autobiographical sketch of Hopfen is contained in K. E. +Franzos, <i>Geschichte des Erstlingswerkes</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPI,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Moki</span> (<i>Moquis</i>), a tribe of North American Indians +of Shoshonean stock. They are Pueblo or town-building Indians +and occupy seven villages on three lofty plateaus of northern +Arizona. The first accounts of them date from the expedition +of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in 1540. With the town-building +Indians of New Mexico they were then subdued. +They shared in the successful revolt of 1542, but again suffered +defeat in 1586. In 1680, however, they made a successful +revolt against the Spaniards. They weave very fine blankets, +make baskets and are expert potters and wood-carvers. Their +houses are built of stone set in mortar. Their ceremonies are +of an elaborate nature, and in the famous “snake-dance” the +performers carry live rattlesnakes in their mouths. They +number some 1600. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pueblo Indians</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Hopi festivals, see <i>21st Ann. Report Bureau of Amer. Ethnology</i> +(1899-1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÖPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1712-1789), +Swedish statesman, was the son of Daniel Niklas Höpken, one of +Arvid Horn’s most determined opponents and a founder of the +Hat party. When in 1738 the Hats came into power the younger +Höpken obtained a seat in the secret committee of the diet, and +during the Finnish war of 1741-42 was one of the two commissioners +appointed to negotiate with Russia. During the +diet of 1746-1747 Höpken’s influence was of the greatest importance. +It was chiefly through his efforts that the estates issued +a “national declaration” protesting against the arrogant +attitude of the Russian ambassador, who attempted to dominate +the crown prince Adolphus Frederick and the government. +This spirited policy restored the waning prestige of the Hat +party and firmly established their anti-Muscovite system. In +1746 Höpken was created a senator. In 1751 he succeeded +Gustaf Tessin as prime minister, and controlled the foreign policy +of Sweden for the next nine years. On the outbreak of the +Seven Years’ War, he contracted an armed neutrality treaty with +Denmark (1756); but in the following year acceded to the +league against Frederick II. of Prussia. During the crisis of +1760-1762, when the Hats were at last compelled to give an +account of their stewardship, Höpken was sacrificed to party +exigencies and retired from the senate as well as from the premiership. +On the 22nd of June 1762, however, he was created a +count. After the revolution of 1772 he re-entered the senate +at the particular request of Gustavus III., but no longer exercised +any political influence. His caustic criticism of many of the +royal measures, moreover, gave great offence, and in 1780 he +retired into private life. Höpken was a distinguished author. +The noble style of his biographies and orations has earned +for him the title of the Swedish Tacitus. He helped to found +the <i>Vetenskaps Akademi</i>, and when Gustavus III. in 1786 +established the Swedish Academy, he gave Höpken the first +place in it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. G. de Geer, <i>Minne af Grefve A. J. von Höpken</i> (Stockholm, +1882); Carl Silfverstolpe, <i>Grefve Höpkens Skrifter</i> (Stockholm, +1890-1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1857-  ), American +Sanskrit scholar, was born in Northampton, Massachusetts, +on the 8th of September 1857. He graduated at Columbia +University in 1878, studied at Leipzig, where he received the +degree of Ph.D. in 1881, was an instructor at Columbia in 1881-1885, +and professor at Bryn Mawr in 1885-1895, and became +professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology in Yale University +in 1895. He became secretary of the American Oriental +Society and editor of its <i>Journal</i>, to which he contributed many +valuable papers, especially on numerical and temporal categories +in early Sanskrit literature. He wrote <i>Caste in Ancient India</i> +(1881); <i>Manu’s Lawbook</i> (1884); <i>Religions of India</i> (1895); +<i>The Great Epic of India</i> (1901); and <i>India Old and New</i> +(1901).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, ESEK<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1718-1802), the first admiral of the +United States navy, was born at Scituate, Rhode Island, in +1718. He belonged to one of the most prominent Puritan +families of New England. At the age of twenty he went to sea, +and rapidly came to the front as a good sailor and skilful trader. +Marrying, three years later, into a prosperous family of Newport, +and thus increasing his influence in Rhode Island, he became +commodore of a fleet of seventeen merchantmen, the movements +of which he directed with skill and energy. In war as well as +peace, Hopkins was establishing his reputation as one of the +leading colonial seamen, for as captain of a privateer he made +more than one brilliant and successful venture during the Seven +Years’ War. In the interval between voyages, moreover, he +was engaged in Rhode Island politics, and rendered efficient +support to his brother Stephen against the Ward faction. At +the outbreak of the War of Independence, Hopkins was appointed +brigadier-general by Rhode Island, was commissioned, December +1775, by the Continental Congress, commander-in-chief of the +navy, and in January 1776 hoisted his flag as admiral of the eight +converted merchantmen which then constituted the navy of the +United States. His first cruise resulted in a great acquisition of +material of war and an indecisive fight with H.M.S. “Glasgow.” +At first this created great enthusiasm, but criticism soon made +itself heard. Hopkins and two of his captains were tried for +breach of orders, and, though ably defended by John Adams, were +censured by Congress. The commands, nevertheless, were not +interfered with, and a prize was soon afterwards named after the +admiral by their orders. But the difficulties and mutual distrust +continually increased, and in 1777 Congress summarily dismissed +Hopkins from his command, on the complaint of some of his +officers. Before the order arrived, the admiral had detected +the conspiracy against him, and had had the ringleaders tried +and degraded by court-martial. But the Congress followed +up its order by dismissing him from the navy. For the rest of +his life he lived in Rhode Island, playing a prominent part in +state politics, and he died at Providence in 1802.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Edward Field, <i>Life of Esek Hopkins</i> (Providence, 1898); also an +article by R. Grieve in the <i>New England Magazine</i> of November +1897.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, MARK<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1802-1887), American educationist, +great-nephew of the theologian Samuel Hopkins, was born in +Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on the 4th of February 1802. +He graduated in 1824 at Williams College, where he was a tutor +in 1825-1827, and where in 1830, after having graduated in the +previous year at the Berkshire Medical College at Pittsfield, +he became professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric. In +1833 he was licensed to preach in Congregational churches. +He was president of Williams College from 1836 until 1872. +He was one of the ablest and most successful of the old type +of college president. His volume of lectures on <i>Evidences of +Christianity</i> (1846) was long a favourite text-book. Of his other +writings, the chief were <i>Lectures on Moral Science</i> (1862), <i>The +Law of Love and Love as a Law</i> (1869), <i>An Outline Study of Man</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span> +(1873), <i>The Scriptural Idea of Man</i> (1883), and <i>Teachings and +Counsels</i> (1884). Dr Hopkins took a lifelong interest in Christian +missions, and from 1857 until his death was president of the +American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (the +American Congregational Mission Board). He died at Williamstown, +on the 17th of June 1887. His son, <span class="sc">Henry Hopkins</span> +(1837-1908), was also from 1903 till his death president of +Williams College.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Franklin Carter’s <i>Mark Hopkins</i> (Boston, 1892), in the +“American Religious Leaders” series, and Leverett W. Spring’s +<i>Mark Hopkins, Teacher</i> (New York, 1888), being No. 4, vol. i., of +the “Monographs of the Industrial Educational Association.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Mark Hopkins’s brother, <span class="sc">Albert Hopkins</span> (1807-1872), was long +associated with him at Williams College, where he graduated in +1826 and was successively a tutor (1827-1829), professor of +mathematics and natural philosophy (1829-1838), professor of +natural philosophy and astronomy (1838-1868) and professor +of astronomy (1868-1872). In 1835 he organized and conducted +a Natural History Expedition to Nova Scotia, said to have been +the first expedition of the kind sent out from any American +college, and in 1837, at his suggestion and under his direction, +was built at Williams College an astronomical observatory, said +to have been the first in the United States built at a college +exclusively for purposes of instruction. He died at Williamstown +on the 24th of May 1872.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Albert C. Sewall’s <i>Life of Professor Albert Hopkins</i> (1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, SAMUEL<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1721-1803), American theologian, +from whom the Hopkinsian theology takes its name, was born +at Waterbury, Connecticut, on the 17th of September 1721. +He graduated at Yale College in 1741; studied divinity at +Northampton, Massachusetts, with Jonathan Edwards; was +licensed to preach in 1742, and in December 1743 was ordained +pastor of the church in the North Parish of Sheffield, or Housatonick +(now Great Barrington), Massachusetts, at that time a +small settlement of only thirty families. There he laboured—preaching, +studying and writing—until 1769, for part of the +time (1751-1758) in intimate association with his old teacher, +Edwards, whose call to Stockbridge he had been instrumental +in procuring. His theological views having met with much +opposition, however, he was finally dismissed from the pastorate +on the pretext of want of funds for his support. From April +1770 until his death on the 20th of December 1803, he was +the pastor of the First Church in Newport, Rhode Island, though +during 1776-1780, while Newport was occupied by the British, +he preached at Newburyport, Mass., and at Canterbury and +Stamford, Conn. In 1799 he had an attack of paralysis, from +which he never wholly recovered. Hopkins’s theological views +have had a powerful influence in America. Personally he was +remarkable for force and energy of character, and for the utter +fearlessness with which he followed premises to their conclusions. +In vigour of intellect and in strength and purity of moral tone +he was hardly inferior to Edwards himself. Though he was +originally a slave-holder, to him belongs the honour of having +been the first among the Congregational ministers of New +England to denounce slavery both by voice and pen; and to his +persistent though bitterly opposed efforts are probably chiefly +to be attributed the law of 1774, which forbade the importation +of negro slaves into Rhode Island, as also that of 1784, which +declared that all children of slaves born in Rhode Island after +the following March should be free. His training school for negro +missionaries to Africa was broken up by the confusion of the +American War of Independence. Among his publications are a +valuable <i>Life and Character of Jonathan Edwards</i> (1799), and +numerous pamphlets, addresses and sermons, including <i>A +Dialogue concerning the Slavery of the Africans, showing it to be +the Duty and Interest of the American States to emancipate all their +African Slaves</i> (1776), and <i>A Discourse upon the Slave Trade and +the History of the Africans</i> (1793). His distinctive theological +tenets are to be found in his important work, <i>A System +of Doctrines Contained in Divine Revelation, Explained and +Defended</i> (1793), which has had an influence hardly inferior +to that exercised by the writings of Edwards himself. They may +be summed up as follows: God so rules the universe as to produce +its highest happiness, considered as a whole. Since God’s +sovereignty is absolute, sin must be, by divine permission, a +means by which this happiness of the whole is secured, though +that this is its consequence, renders it no less heinous in the +sinner. Virtue consists in preference for the good of the whole +to any private advantage; hence the really virtuous man must +willingly accept any disposition of himself that God may deem +wise—a doctrine often called “willingness to be damned.” All +have natural power to choose the right, and are therefore responsible +for their acts; but all men lack inclination to choose +the right unless the existing “bias” of their wills is transformed +by the power of God from self-seeking into an effective inclination +towards virtue. Hence preaching should demand instant submission +to God and disinterested goodwill, and should teach the +worthlessness of all religious acts or dispositions which are less +than these, while recognizing that God can grant or withhold +the regenerative change at his pleasure.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of Hopkins’s <i>Works</i> is that published in three +volumes at Boston in 1852, containing an excellent biographical +sketch by Professor Edwards A. Park. In 1854 was published +separately Hopkins’s <i>Treatise on the Millennium</i>, which originally +appeared in his <i>System of Doctrines</i> and in which he deduced from +prophecies in <i>Daniel</i> and <i>Revelation</i> that the millennium would come +“not far from the end of the twentieth century.” See also Stephen +West’s <i>Sketches of the Life of the Late Reverend Samuel Hopkins</i> +(Hartford, Conn., 1805), Franklin B. Dexter’s <i>Biographical Sketches +of the Graduates of Yale College</i> and Williston Walker’s <i>Ten New +England Leaders</i> (New York, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Wr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, WILLIAM<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1793-1866), English mathematician +and geologist, was born at Kingston-on-Soar, in Nottinghamshire, +on the 2nd of February 1793. In his youth he learned +practical agriculture in Norfolk and afterwards took an extensive +farm in Suffolk. In this he was unsuccessful. At the age of +thirty he entered St Peter’s College, Cambridge, taking his +degree of B.A. in 1827 as seventh wrangler and M.A. in 1830. +In 1833 he published <i>Elements of Trigonometry</i>. He was distinguished +for his mathematical knowledge, and became eminently +successful as a private tutor, many of his pupils attaining +high distinction. About 1833, through meeting Sedgwick at +Barmouth and joining him in several excursions, he became +intensely interested in geology. Thereafter, in papers published +by the Cambridge Philosophical Society and the Geological +Society of London, he entered largely into mathematical inquiries +connected with geology, dealing with the effects which +an elevatory force acting from below would produce on a portion +of the earth’s crust, in fissures, faults, &c. In this way he discussed +the elevation and denudation of the Lake district, the +Wealden area, and the Bas Boulonnais. He wrote also on the +motion of glaciers and the transport of erratic blocks. So ably +had he grappled with many difficult problems that in 1850 the +Wollaston medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society +of London; and in the following year he was elected president. +In his second address (1853) he criticized Élie de Beaumont’s +theory of the elevation of mountain-chains and showed the +imperfect evidence on which it rested. He brought before the +Geological Society in 1851 an important paper <i>On the Causes +which may have produced changes in the Earth’s superficial Temperature</i>. +He was president of the British Association for 1853. +His later researches included observations on the conductivity +of various substances for heat, and on the effect of pressure +on the temperature of fusion of different bodies. He died at +Cambridge on the 13th of October 1866.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Obituary by W. W. Smyth, in <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> (1867), +p. xxix.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPKINSON, FRANCIS<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1737-1791), American author and +statesman, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, +was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of October +1737. He was a son of Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751), a +prominent lawyer of Philadelphia, one of the first trustees of +the College of Philadelphia, now the University of Pennsylvania, +and first president of the American Philosophical Society. +Francis was the first student to enter the College of Philadelphia. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span> +from which he received his bachelor’s degree in 1757 and his +master’s degree in 1760. He then studied law in the office in +Philadelphia of Benjamin Chew, and was admitted to the bar +in 1761. Removing after 1768 to Bordentown, New Jersey, +he became a member of the council of that colony in 1774. +On the approach of the War of Independence he identified +himself with the patriot or whig element in the colony, and in +1776 and 1777 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress. +He served on the committee appointed to frame the Articles of +Confederation, executed, with John Nixon (1733-1808) and John +Wharton, the “business of the navy” under the direction of +the marine committee, and acted for a time as treasurer of the +Continental loan office. From 1779 to 1789 he was judge of +the court of admiralty in Pennsylvania, and from 1790 until +his death was United States district judge for that state. He +was famous for his versatility, and besides being a distinguished +lawyer, jurist and political leader, was “a mathematician, a +chemist, a physicist, a mechanician, an inventor, a musician +and a composer of music, a man of literary knowledge and +practice, a writer of airy and dainty songs, a clever artist with +pencil and brush and a humorist of unmistakeable power” +(Tyler, <i>Literary History of the American Revolution</i>). It is as +a writer, however, that he will be remembered. He ranks as +one of the three leading satirists on the patriot side during the +War of Independence. His ballad, <i>The Battle of the Kegs</i> (1778), +was long exceedingly popular. To alarm the British force at +Philadelphia the Americans floated kegs charged with gunpowder +down the Delaware river towards that city, and the +British, alarmed for the safety of their shipping, fired with cannon +and small arms at everything they saw floating in the river. +Hopkinson’s ballad is an imaginative expansion of the actual +facts. To the cause of the revolution this ballad, says Professor +Tyler, “was perhaps worth as much just then as the winning +of a considerable battle.” Hopkinson’s principal writings are +<i>The Pretty Story</i> (1774), <i>A Prophecy</i> (1776) and <i>The Political +Catechism</i> (1777). Among his songs may be mentioned +<i>The Treaty</i> and <i>The New Roof, a Song for Federal Mechanics</i>; +and the best known of his satirical pieces are <i>Typographical +Method of conducting a Quarrel</i>, <i>Essay on White Washing</i> and +<i>Modern Learning</i>. His <i>Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional +Writings</i> were published at Philadelphia in 3 vols., 1792.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Joseph Hopkinson</span> (1770-1842), graduated at the +University of Pennsylvania in 1786, studied law, and was a +Federalist member of the national House of Representatives in +1815-1819, Federal judge of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania +from 1828 until his death, and a member of the state constitutional +convention of 1837. He is better known, however, +as the author of the patriotic anthem “Hail Columbia” (1798).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPKINSON, JOHN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1849-1898), English engineer and +physicist, was born in Manchester on the 27th of July 1849. +Before he was sixteen he attended lectures at Owens College, +and at eighteen he gained a mathematical scholarship at Trinity +College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1871 as senior wrangler +and first Smith’s prizeman, having previously taken the degree +of D.Sc. at London University and won a Whitworth scholarship. +Although elected a fellow and tutor of his college, he stayed +up at Cambridge only for a very short time, preferring to learn +practical engineering as a pupil in the works in which his father +was a partner. But there his stay was equally short, for in 1872 +he undertook the duties of engineering manager in the glass +manufactories of Messrs Chance Brothers and Company at +Birmingham. Six years later he removed to London, and +while continuing to act as scientific adviser to Messrs Chance, +established a most successful practice as a consulting engineer. +His work was mainly, though not exclusively, electrical, and +his services were in great demand as an expert witness in patent +cases. In 1890 he was appointed director of the Siemens laboratory +at King’s College, London, with the title of professor of +electrical engineering. His death occurred prematurely on the +27th of August 1898, when he was killed, together with one son +and two daughters, by an accident the nature of which was +never precisely ascertained, while climbing the Petite Dent +de Veisivi, above Evolena. Dr Hopkinson presented a rare +combination of practical with theoretical ability, and his achievements +in pure scientific research are not less intrinsically notable +than the skill with which he applied their results to the solution +of concrete engineering problems. His original work is contained +in more than sixty papers, all written with a complete mastery +both of style and of subject-matter. His name is best known +in connexion with electricity and magnetism. On the one hand +he worked out the general theory of the magnetic circuit in +the dynamo (in conjunction with his brother Edward), and +the theory of alternating currents, and conducted a long series +of observations on the phenomena attending magnetization in +iron, nickel and the curious alloys of the two which can exist +both in a magnetic and non-magnetic state at the same temperature. +On the other hand, by the application of the principles +he thus elucidated he furthered to an immense extent the employment +of electricity for the purposes of daily life. As regards +the generation of electric energy, by pointing out defects of +design in the dynamo as it existed about 1878, and showing +how important improvements were to be effected in its construction, +he was largely instrumental in converting it from +a clumsy and wasteful appliance into one of the most efficient +known to the engineer. Again, as regards the distribution +of the current, he took a leading part in the development of the +three-wire system and the closed-circuit transformer, while +electric traction had to thank him for the series-parallel method +of working motors. During his residence in Birmingham, +Messrs Chance being makers of glass for use in lighthouse lamps, +his attention was naturally turned to problems of lighthouse +illumination, and he was able to devise improvements in both +the catoptric and dioptric methods for concentrating and +directing the beam. He was a strong advocate of the group-flashing +system as a means of differentiating lights, and invented +an arrangement for carrying it into effect optically, +his plan being first adopted for the catoptric light of the <i>Royal +Sovereign</i> lightship, in the English Channel off Beachy Head. +Moreover, his association with glass manufacture led him to +study the refractive indices of different kinds of glass; he +further undertook abstruse researches on electrostatic capacity, +the phenomena of the residual charge, and other problems +arising out of Clerk Maxwell’s electro-magnetic theory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His original papers were collected and published, with a memoir +by his son, in 1901.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPKINSVILLE,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Christian +county, Kentucky, U.S.A., about 150 m. S.W. of Louisville. +Pop. (1890) 5833; (1900) 7280 (3243 negroes); (1910) 9419. +The city is served by the Illinois Central and the Louisville +& Nashville railways. It is the seat of Bethel Female College +(Baptist, founded 1854), of South Kentucky College (Christian; +co-educational; chartered 1849) and of the Western Kentucky +Asylum for the Insane. The city’s chief interest is in the tobacco +industry; it has also considerable trade in other agricultural +products and in coal; and its manufactures include carriages +and wagons, bricks, lime, flour and dressed lumber. When +Christian county was formed from Logan county in 1797, +Hopkinsville, formerly called Elizabethtown, became the county-seat, +and was renamed in honour of Samuel Hopkins (<i>c.</i> 1750-1819), +an officer of the Continental Army in the War of Independence, +a pioneer settler in Kentucky, and a representative in +Congress from Kentucky in 1813-1815. In 1798 Hopkinsville +was incorporated.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPPNER, JOHN<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1758-1810), English portrait-painter, was +born, it is said, on the 4th of April 1758 at Whitechapel. +His father was of German extraction, and his mother was one +of the German attendants at the royal palace. Hoppner was +consequently brought early under the notice and received +the patronage of George III., whose regard for him gave rise +to unfounded scandal. As a boy he was a chorister at the royal +chapel, but showing strong inclination for art, he in 1775 entered +as a student at the Royal Academy. In 1778 he took a silver +medal for drawing from the life, and in 1782 the Academy’s +highest award, the gold medal for historical painting, his subject +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span> +being King Lear. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy +in 1780. His earliest love was for landscape, but necessity +obliged him to turn to the more lucrative business of portrait-painting. +At once successful, he had, throughout life, the most +fashionable and wealthy sitters, and was the greatest rival of the +growing attraction of Lawrence. Ideal subjects were very rarely +attempted by Hoppner, though a “Sleeping Venus,” “Belisarius,” +“Jupiter and Io,” a “Bacchante” and “Cupid and Psyche” are +mentioned among his works. The prince of Wales especially +patronized him, and many of his finest portraits are in the state +apartments at St James’s Palace, the best perhaps being those of +the prince, the duke and duchess of York, of Lord Rodney and +of Lord Nelson. Among his other sitters were Sir Walter Scott, +Wellington, Frere and Sir George Beaumont. Competent judges +have deemed his most successful works to be his portraits of +women and children. A <i>Series of Portraits of Ladies</i> was published +by him in 1803, and a volume of translations of Eastern tales into +English verse in 1805. The verse is of but mediocre quality. +In his later years Hoppner suffered from a chronic disease of +the liver; he died on the 23rd of January 1810. He was confessedly +an imitator of Reynolds. When first painted, his +works were much admired for the brilliancy and harmony of +their colouring, but the injury due to destructive mediums +and lapse of time which many of them suffered caused a great +depreciation in his reputation. The appearance, however, +of some of his pictures in good condition has shown that his +fame as a brilliant colourist was well founded. His drawing +is faulty, but his touch has qualities of breadth and freedom +that give to his paintings a faint reflection of the charm of +Reynolds. Hoppner was a man of great social power, and had +the knowledge and accomplishments of a man of the world.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best account of Hoppner’s life and paintings is the exhaustive +work by William McKay and W. Roberts (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOP-SCOTCH<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (“scotch,” to score), an old English children’s +game in which a small object, like a flat stone, is kicked by the +player, while hopping, from one division to another of an oblong +space marked upon the ground and divided into a number of +divisions, usually 10 or 12. These divisions are numbered, and +the stone must rest successively in each. Should it rest upon +a line or go out of the division aimed for, the player loses. In +order to win a player must drive the stone into each division +and back to the starting-point.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1598-1652), Royalist +commander in the English Civil War, was the son of Robert +Hopton of Witham, Somerset. He appears to have been educated +at Lincoln College, Oxford, and to have served in the army +of the Elector Palatine in the early campaigns of the Thirty +Years’ War, and in 1624 he was lieutenant-colonel of a regiment +raised in England to serve in Mansfeld’s army. Charles I., +at his coronation, made Hopton a Knight of the Bath. In the +political troubles which preceded the outbreak of the Civil +War, Hopton, as member of parliament successively for Bath, +Somerset and Wells, at first opposed the royal policy, but after +Stratford’s attainder (for which he voted) he gradually became +an ardent supporter of Charles, and at the beginning of the +Great Rebellion (<i>q.v.</i>) he was made lieutenant-general under +the marquess of Hertford in the west. His first achievement +was the rallying of Cornwall to the royal cause, his next to +carry the war from that county into Devonshire. In May 1643 +he won the brilliant victory of Stratton, in June he overran +Devonshire, and on the 5th of July he inflicted a severe defeat +on Sir William Waller at Lansdown. In the last action he was +severely wounded by the explosion of a powder-wagon and he +was soon after shut up in Devizes by Waller, where he defended +himself until relieved by the victory of Roundway Down on the +13th of July. He was soon afterwards created Baron Hopton +of Stratton. But his successes in the west were cut short by +the defeat of Cheriton or Alresford in March 1644. After this +he served in the western campaign under Charles’s own command, +and towards the end of the war, after Lord Goring had +left England, he succeeded to the command of the royal army, +which his predecessor had allowed to waste away in indiscipline. +It was no longer possible to stem the tide of the parliament’s +victory, and Hopton, defeated in his last stand at Torrington +on the 16th of February 1646, surrendered to Fairfax. Subsequently +he accompanied the prince of Wales in his attempts +to prolong the war in the Scilly and Channel Islands. But his +downright loyalty was incompatible with the spirit of concession +and compromise which prevailed in the prince’s council +in 1640-1650, and he withdrew from active participation in the +cause of royalism. He died, still in exile, at Bruges in September +1652. The peerage became extinct at his death. The king, +Prince Charles and the governing circle appreciated the merits +of their faithful lieutenant less than did his enemies Waller +and Fairfax, the former of whom wrote, “hostility itself cannot +violate my friendship to your person,” while the latter spoke +of him as “one whom we honour and esteem above any other of +your party.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOR, MOUNT<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (<span title="hor">הור</span>), the scene in the Bible of Aaron’s death, +situated “in the edge of the land of Edom” (Num. xxxiii. 37). +Since the time of Josephus it has been identified with the <i>Jebel +Nebi Ḥarūn</i> (“Mountain of the Prophet Aaron”), a twin-peaked +mountain 4780 ft. above the sea-level (6072 ft. above the Dead +Sea) in the Edomite Mountains on the east side of the Jordan-Arabah +valley. On the summit is a shrine said to cover the +grave of Aaron. Some modern investigators dissent from this +identification: H. Clay Trumbull prefers the Jebel Madāra, +a peak north-west of ’Ain Kadis. Another Mount Hor is mentioned +in Num. xxxiv. 7, 8, as on the northern boundary of +the prospective conquests of the Israelites. It is perhaps to be +identified with Hermon. It has been doubtfully suggested that +for <i>Hor</i> we should here read <i>Hadrach</i>, the name of a northern +country near Damascus, mentioned only once in the Bible +(Zech. ix. 1).</p> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORACE<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Quintus Horatius Flaccus</span>] (65-8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the +famous Roman poet, was born on the 8th of December 65 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> at +Venusia, on the borders of Lucania and Apulia (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 1. 34). +The town, originally a colony of veterans, appears to have long +maintained its military traditions, and Horace was early imbued +with a profound respect for the indomitable valour and industry +of the Italian soldier. It would seem, however, that the poet +was not brought up in the town itself, at least he did not attend +the town school (<i>Sat.</i> i. 6. 72) and was much in the neighbouring +country, of which, though he was but a child when he left it, +he retained always a vivid and affectionate memory. The +mountains near and far, the little villages on the hillsides, the +woods, the roaring Aufidus, the mossy spring of Bandusia, +after which he named another spring on his Sabine farm—these +scenes were always dear to him and are frequently mentioned +in his poetry (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Carm.</i> iii. 4 and 30, iv. 9). We may thus +trace some of the germs of his poetical inspiration, as well as +of his moral sympathies, to the early years which he spent near +Venusia. But the most important moral influence of his youth +was the training and example of his father, of whose worth, +affectionate solicitude and homely wisdom Horace has given +a most pleasing and life-like picture (<i>Sat.</i> i. 6. 70, &c.). He was +a freedman by position; and it is supposed that he had been +originally a slave of the town of Venusia, and on his emancipation +had received the gentile name of Horatius from the Horatian +tribe in which the inhabitants of Venusia were enrolled. After +his emancipation he acquired by the occupation of “coactor” +(a collector of the payments made at public auctions, or, according +to another interpretation, a collector of taxes) sufficient means +to enable him to buy a small farm, to make sufficient provision +for the future of his son (<i>Sat.</i> i. 4. 108), and to take him to Rome +to give him the advantage of the best education there. To his +care Horace attributes, not only the intellectual training which +enabled him in later life to take his place among the best men of +Rome, but also his immunity from the baser forms of moral +evil (<i>Sat.</i> i. 6. 68. &c.). To his practical teaching he attributes +also his tendency to moralize and to observe character (<i>Sat.</i> i. +4. 105, &c.)—the tendency which enabled him to become the +most truthful painter of social life and manners which the ancient +world produced.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span></p> + +<p>In one of his latest writings (<i>Epist.</i> ii. 2. 42, &c.) Horace gives +a further account of his education; but we hear no more of his +father, nor is there any allusion in his writings to the existence +of any other member of his family or any other relative. After +the ordinary grammatical and literary training at Rome, he +went (45 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) to Athens, the most famous school of philosophy, +as Rhodes was of oratory; and he describes himself while there +as “searching after truth among the groves of Academus” as +well as advancing in literary accomplishment. His pleasant +residence there was interrupted by the breaking out of the civil +war. Following the example of his young associates, he attached +himself to the cause of Brutus, whom he seems to have accompanied +to Asia, probably as a member of his staff; and he +served at the battle of Philippi in the post of military tribune. +He shared in the rout which followed the battle, and henceforth, +though he was not less firm in his conviction that some causes +were worth fighting for and dying for, he had but a poor opinion +of his own soldierly qualities.</p> + +<p>He returned to Rome shortly after the battle, stripped of his +property, which formed part of the land confiscated for the +benefit of the soldiers of Octavianus and Antony. It may have +been at this time that he encountered the danger of shipwreck, +which he mentions among the perils from which his life had been +protected by supernatural aid (<i>Carm.</i> iii. 4. 28). He procured +in some way the post of a clerkship in the quaestor’s office, and +about three years after the battle of Philippi, he was introduced +by Virgil and Varius to Maecenas. This was the turning-point +of his fortunes. He owed his friendship with the greatest of +literary patrons to his personal merits rather than to his poetic +fame; for he was on intimate terms with Maecenas before the +first book of the <i>Satires</i> (his first published work) appeared. +He tells us in one of his <i>Satires</i> (i. 10. 31) that his earliest ambition +was to write Greek verses. In giving this direction to his +ambition, he was probably influenced by his admiration of the +old iambic and lyrical poets whom he has made the models +of his own <i>Epodes</i> and <i>Odes</i>. His common sense as well as his +national feeling fortunately saved him from becoming a second-rate +Greek versifier in an age when poetic inspiration had passed +from Greece to Italy, and the living language of Rome was a +more fitting vehicle for the new feelings and interests of men +than the echoes of the old Ionian or Aeolian melodies. His +earliest Latin compositions were, as he tells us, written under +the instigation of poverty; and they alone betray any trace of +the bitterness of spirit which the defeat of his hopes and the +hardships which he had to encounter on his first return to Rome +may have temporarily produced on him. Some of the <i>Epodes</i>, +of the nature of personal and licentious lampoons, and the second +<i>Satire</i> of book i., in which there is some trace of an angry republican +feeling, belong to these early compositions. But by the time +the first book of <i>Satires</i> was completed and published (35 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +his temper had recovered its natural serenity, and, though he +had not yet attained to the height of his fortunes, his personal +position was one of comfort and security, and his intimate +relation with the leading men in literature and social rank was +firmly established.</p> + +<p>About a year after the publication of this first book of <i>Satires</i> +Maecenas presented him with a farm among the Sabine hills, +near the modern Tivoli. This secured him pecuniary independence; +it satisfied the love of nature which had been implanted +in him during the early years spent on the Venusian farm; and +it afforded him a welcome escape from the distractions of city +life and the dangers of a Roman autumn. Many passages in the +<i>Satires</i>, <i>Odes</i> and <i>Epistles</i> express the happiness and pride +with which the thought of his own valley filled him, and the +interest which he took in the simple and homely ways of his +country neighbours. The inspiration of the <i>Satires</i> came from +the heart of Rome; the feeling of many of the <i>Odes</i> comes direct +from the Sabine hills; and even the meditative spirit of the +later <i>Epistles</i> tells of the leisure and peace of quiet days spent +among books, or in the open air, at a distance from “the smoke, +wealth and tumult” of the great metropolis.</p> + +<p>The second book of <i>Satires</i> was published in 29 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; the +<i>Epodes</i> (spoken of by himself as <i>iambi</i>) apparently about a year +earlier, though many of them are, as regards the date of their +composition, to be ranked among the earliest extant writings +of Horace. In one of his <i>Epistles</i> (i. 19. 25) he rests his first +claim to originality on his having introduced into Latium the +metres and spirit of Archilochus of Paros. He may have naturalized +some special form of metre employed by that poet, and it +may be (as Th. Plüsz has suggested) that we should see in the +<i>Epodes</i> a tone of mockery and parody. But his personal lampoons +are the least successful of his works; while those <i>Epodes</i> which +treat of other subjects in a poetical spirit are inferior in metrical +effect, and in truth and freshness of feeling, both to the lighter +lyrics of Catullus and to his own later and more carefully +meditated <i>Odes</i>. The <i>Epodes</i>, if they are serious at all, are +chiefly interesting as a record of the personal feelings of Horace +during the years which immediately followed his return to Rome, +and as a prelude to the higher art and inspiration of the first +three books of the <i>Odes</i>, which were published together about the +end of 24 or the beginning of 23 <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The composition of these +<i>Odes</i> extended over several years, but all the most important +among them belong to the years between the battle of Actium +and 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His lyrical poetry is thus, not, like that of Catullus, +the ardent utterance of his youth, but the mature and finished +workmanship of his manhood. The state of public affairs was +more favourable than it had been since the outbreak of the civil +war between Caesar and Pompey for the appearance of lyrical +poetry. Peace, order and national unity had been secured by +the triumph of Augustus, and the enthusiasm in favour of the +new government had not yet been chilled by experience of its +repressing influence. The poet’s circumstances were, at the +same time, most favourable for the exercise of his lyrical gift +during these years. He lived partly at Rome, partly at his +Sabine farm, varying his residence occasionally by visits to +Tibur, Praeneste or Baiae. His intimacy with Maecenas was +strengthened and he had become the familiar friend of the great +minister. He was treated with distinction by Augustus, and by +the foremost men in Roman society. He complains occasionally +that the pleasures of his youth are passing from him, but he +does so in the spirit of a temperate Epicurean, who found new +enjoyments in life as the zest for the old enjoyments decayed, +and who considered the wisdom and meditative spirit—“the +philosophic mind that years had brought”—an ample compensation +for the extinct fires of his youth.</p> + +<p>About four years after the publication of the three books +of <i>Odes</i>, the first book of the <i>Epistles</i> appeared, introduced, +as his <i>Epodes</i>, <i>Satires</i> and <i>Odes</i> had been, by a special address +to Maecenas. From these <i>Epistles</i>, as compared with the <i>Satires</i>, +we gather that he had gradually adopted a more retired and +meditative life, and had become fonder of the country and of +study, and that, while owing allegiance to no school or sect of +philosophy, he was framing for himself a scheme of life, was +endeavouring to conform to it, and was bent on inculcating it on +others. He maintained his old friendships, and continued to +form new intimacies, especially with younger men engaged +in public affairs or animated by literary ambition. After the +death of Virgil he was recognized as pre-eminently the greatest +living poet, and was accordingly called upon by Augustus to +compose the sacred hymn for the celebration of the secular +games in 17 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> About four years later he published the fourth +book of <i>Odes</i> (about 13 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) having been called upon to do so +by the emperor, in order that the victories of his stepsons +Drusus and Tiberius over the Rhaeti and Vindelici might be +worthily celebrated. He lived about five years longer, and +during these years published the second book of <i>Epistles</i>, and the +<i>Epistle to the Pisos</i>, more generally known as the “<i>Ars poetica</i>.” +These later <i>Epistles</i> are mainly devoted to literary criticism, +with the especial object of vindicating the poetic claims of his +own age over those of the age of Ennius and the other early +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span> +poets of Rome. He might have been expected, as a great critic +and lawgiver on literature, to have exercised a beneficial influence +on the future poetry of his country, and to have applied as much +wisdom to the theory of his own art as to that of a right life. +But his critical <i>Epistles</i> are chiefly devoted to a controversial +attack on the older writers and to the exposition of the laws of +dramatic poetry, on which his own powers had never been +exercised, and for which either the genius or circumstances +of the Romans were unsuited. The same subordination of +imagination and enthusiasm to good sense and sober judgment +characterizes his opinions on poetry as on morals.</p> + +<p>He died somewhat suddenly on the 17th of November of the +year 8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He left Augustus to see after his affairs, and was +buried on the Esquiline Hill, near Maecenas.</p> + +<p>Horace is one of the few writers, ancient or modern, who +have written a great deal about themselves without laying +themselves open to the charge of weakness or egotism. His +chief claim to literary originality is not that on which he himself +rested his hopes of immortality—that of being the first to adapt +certain lyrical metres to the Latin tongue—but rather that of +being the first of those whose works have reached us who +establishes a personal relation with his reader, speaks to him +as a familiar friend, gives him good advice, tells him the story +of his life, and shares with him his private tastes and pleasures—and +all this without any loss of self-respect, any want of modesty +or breach of good manners, and in a style so lively and natural +that each new generation of readers might fancy that he was +addressing them personally and speaking to them on subjects +of every day modern interest. In his self-portraiture, far from +wishing to make himself out better or greater than he was, he +seems to write under the influence of an ironical restraint which +checks him in the utterance of his highest moral teaching and of +his poetical enthusiasm. He affords us some indications of his +personal appearance, as where he speaks of the “nigros angusta +fronte capillos” of his youth, and describes himself after +he had completed his forty-fourth December as of small +stature, prematurely grey and fond of basking in the sun +(<i>Epist.</i> i. 20. 24).</p> + +<p>In his later years his health became weaker or more uncertain, +and this caused a considerable change in his habits, tastes and +places of residence. It inclined him more to a life of retirement +and simplicity, and also it stimulated his tendency to self-introspection +and self-culture. In his more vigorous years, when +he lived much in Roman society, he claims to have acted in all +his relations to others in accordance with the standard recognized +among men of honour in every age, to have been charitably +indulgent to the weakness of his friends, and to have been +exempt from petty jealousies and the spirit of detraction. +If ever he deviates from his ordinary vein of irony and quiet +sense into earnest indignation, it is in denouncing conduct +involving treachery or malice in the relations of friends (<i>Sat.</i> +i. 4. 81, &c.).</p> + +<p>He claims to be and evidently aims at being independent +of fortune, superior to luxury, exempt both from the sordid +cares of avarice and the coarser forms of profligacy. At the +same time he makes a frank confession of indolence and of +occasional failure in the pursuit of his ideal self-mastery. He +admits his irascibility, his love of pleasure, his sensitiveness +to opinion, and some touch of vanity or at least of gratified +ambition arising out of the favour which through all his life +he had enjoyed from those much above him in social station +(<i>Epist.</i> i. 20. 23). Yet there appears no trace of any unworthy +deference in Horace’s feelings towards the great. Even towards +Augustus he maintained his attitude of independence, by +declining the office of private secretary which the emperor +wished to force upon him; and he did so with such tact as +neither to give offence nor to forfeit the regard of his superior. +His feeling towards Maecenas is more like that of Pope towards +Bolingbroke than that which a client in ancient or modern +times entertains towards his patron. He felt pride in his protection +and in the intellectual sympathy which united him with one +whose personal qualities had enabled him to play so prominent +and beneficent a part in public affairs. Their friendship was +slowly formed, but when once established continued unshaken +through their lives.</p> + +<p>There is indeed nothing more remarkable in Horace than +the independence, or rather the self-dependence, of his character. +The enjoyment which he drew from his Sabine farm consisted +partly in the refreshment to his spirit from the familiar beauty +of the place, partly in the “otia liberrima” from the claims +of business and society which it afforded him. His love poems, +when compared with those of Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius, +show that he never, in his mature years at least, allowed his +peace of mind to be at the mercy of any one. They are the +expressions of a fine and subtle and often a humorous observation +rather than of ardent feeling. There is perhaps a touch of +pathos in his reference in the <i>Odes</i> to the early death of Cinara, +but the epithet he applies to her in the <i>Epistles</i>,</p> + +<p class="center f90">“Quem scis immunem Cinarae placuisse rapaci,”</p> + +<p class="noind">shows that the pain of thinking of her could not have been very +heartfelt. Even when the <i>Odes</i> addressed to real or imaginary +beauties are most genuine in feeling, they are more the artistic +rekindling of extinct fires than the utterance of recent passion. +In his friendships he had not the self-forgetful devotion which +is the most attractive side of the character of Catullus; but he +studied how to gain and keep the regard of those whose society +he valued, and he repaid this regard by a fine courtesy and by a +delicate appreciation of their higher gifts and qualities, whether +proved in literature, or war, or affairs of state or the ordinary +dealings of men. He enjoyed the great world, and it treated +him well; but he resolutely maintained his personal independence +and the equipoise of his feelings and judgment. If it is thought +that in attributing a divine function to Augustus he has gone +beyond the bounds of a sincere and temperate admiration, +a comparison of the <i>Odes</i> in which this occurs with the first +<i>Epistle</i> of the second book shows that he certainly recognized in +the emperor a great and successful administrator and that his +language is to be regarded rather as the artistic expression of +the prevailing national sentiment than as the tribute of an +insincere adulation.</p> + +<p>The aim of Horace’s philosophy was to “be master of oneself,” +to retain the “mens aequa” in all circumstances, to use the +gifts of fortune while they remained, and to be prepared to part +with them with equanimity; to make the most of life, and to +contemplate its inevitable end without anxiety. Self-reliance +and resignation are the lessons which he constantly inculcates. +His philosophy is thus a mode of practical Epicureanism combined +with other elements which have more affinity with Stoicism. +In his early life he professed his adherence to the former system, +and several expressions in his first published work show the +influences of the study of Lucretius. At the time when the first +book of the <i>Epistles</i> was published he professes to assume the +position of an eclectic rather than that of an adherent of either +school (<i>Epist.</i> i. 1. 13-19). We note in the passage here referred +to, as in other passages, that he mentions Aristippus of Cyrene, +rather than Epicurus himself, as the master under whose influence +he from time to time insensibly lapsed. Yet the dominant tone +of his teaching is that of a refined Epicureanism, not so elevated +or purely contemplative as that preached by Lucretius, but yet +more within the reach of a society which, though luxurious +and pleasure-loving, had not yet become thoroughly frivolous +and enervated. His advice is to subdue all violent emotion of +fear or desire; to estimate all things calmly—“nil admirari”; +to choose the mean between a high and low estate; and to find +one’s happiness in plain living rather than in luxurious indulgence. +Still there was in Horace a robuster fibre, inherited from the +old Italian race, which moved him to value the dignity and +nobleness of life more highly than its ease and enjoyment. +In some of the stronger utterances of his <i>Odes</i>, where he expresses +sympathy with the manlier qualities of character, we recognize +the resistent attitude of Stoicism rather than the passive acquiescence +of Epicureanism. The concluding stanzas of the address +to Lollius (<i>Ode</i> iv. 9) exhibit the Epicurean and Stoical view +of life so combined as to be more worthy of human dignity than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span> +the genial worldly wisdom of the former school, more in harmony +with human experience than the formal precepts of the +latter.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to trace the growth of Horace in elevation +of sentiment and serious conviction from his first ridicule of +the paradoxes of Stoicism in the two books of the <i>Satires</i> to the +appeal which he makes in some of the <i>Odes</i> of the third book +to the strongest Roman instincts of fortitude and self-sacrifice. +A similar modification of his religious and political attitude +may be noticed between his early declaration of Epicurean +unbelief and the sympathy which he shows with the religious +reaction fostered by Augustus; and again between the Epicurean +indifference to national affairs and the strong support which +he gives to the national policy of the emperor in the first six <i>Odes</i> +of the third book, and in the fifth and fifteenth of the fourth +book. In his whole religious attitude he seems to stand midway +between the consistent denial of Lucretius and Virgil’s pious +endeavour to reconcile ancient faith with the conclusions of +philosophy. His introduction into some of his <i>Odes</i> of the gods +of mythology must be regarded as merely artistic or symbolical. +Yet in some cases we recognize the expression of a natural piety, +thankful for the blessing bestowed on purity and simplicity +of life, and acknowledging a higher and more majestic law +governing nations through their voluntary obedience. On the +other hand, his allusions to a future life, as in the “domus exilis +Plutonia,” and the “furvae regna Proserpinae,” are shadowy +and artificial. The image of death is constantly obtruded in his +poems to enhance the sense of present enjoyment. In the true +spirit of paganism he associates all thoughts of love and wine, +of the meeting of friends, or of the changes of the seasons with +the recollection of the transitoriness of our pleasures—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + + <p class="center">“Nos, ubi decidimus<br /> + Quo pius Aeneas, quo dives Tullus et Ancus,<br /> + Pulvis et umbra sumus.”</p> + + +<p>Horace is so much of a moralist in all his writings that, in order to +enter into the spirit both of his familiar and of his lyrical poetry, it is +essential to realize what were his views of life and the influences under +which they were formed. He is, though in a different sense from +Lucretius, eminently a philosophical and reflective poet. He is also, +like all the other poets of the Augustan age, a poet in whose composition +culture and criticism were as conspicuous elements as +spontaneous inspiration. In the judgment he passes on the older +poetry of Rome and on that of his contemporaries, he seems to +attach more importance to the critical and artistic than to the +creative and inventive functions of genius. It is on the labour and +judgment with which he has cultivated his gift that he rests his hopes +of fame. The whole poetry of the Augustan age was based on the +works of older poets, Roman as well as Greek. Its aim was to +perfect the more immature workmanship of the former, and to adapt +the forms, manners and metres of the latter to subjects of immediate +and national interest. As Virgil performed for his generation the +same kind of office which Ennius performed for an older generation, +so Horace in his <i>Satires</i>, and to a more limited extent in his <i>Epistles</i>, +brought to perfection for the amusement and instruction of his +contemporaries the rude but vigorous designs of Lucilius.</p> + +<p>It was the example of Lucilius which induced Horace to commit +all his private thoughts, feelings and experience “to his books as to +trusty companions,” and also to comment freely on the characters +and lives of other men. Many of the subjects of particular satires of +Horace were immediately suggested by those treated by Lucilius. +Thus the “Journey to Brundusium” (<i>Sat.</i> i. 5) reproduced the +outlines of Lucilius’s “Journey to the Sicilian Straits.” The discourse +of Ofella on luxury (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 2) was founded on a similar discourse +of Laelius on gluttony, and the “Banquet of Nasidienus” +(<i>Sat.</i> ii. 8) may have been suggested by the description by the older +poet of a rustic entertainment. There was more of moral censure and +personal aggressiveness in the satire of the older poet. The ironical +temper of Horace induced him to treat the follies of society in the +spirit of a humorist and man of the world, rather than to assail vice +with the severity of a censor; and the greater urbanity of his age or +of his disposition restrained in him the direct personality of satire. +The names introduced by him to mark types of character such as +Nomentanus, Maenius, Pantolabus, &c., are reproduced from the +writings of the older poet. Horace also followed Lucilius in the +variety of forms which his satire assumes, and especially in the +frequent adoption of the form of dialogue, derived from the +“dramatic medley” which was the original character of the Roman +<i>Satura</i>. This form suited the spirit in which Horace regarded the +world, and also the dramatic quality of his genius, just as the direct +denunciation and elaborate painting of character suited the “saeva +indignatio” and the oratorical genius of Juvenal.</p> + +<p>Horace’s satire is accordingly to a great extent a reproduction in +form, manner, substance and tone of the satire of Lucilius; or rather +it is a casting in the mould of Lucilius of his own observation and +experience. But a comparison of the fragments of Lucilius with the +finished compositions of Horace brings out in the strongest light the +artistic originality and skill of the latter poet in his management of +metre and style. Nothing can be rougher and harsher than the +hexameters of Lucilius, or cruder than his expression. In his +management of the more natural trochaic metre, he has shown much +greater ease and simplicity. It is one great triumph of Horace’s +genius that he was the first and indeed the only Latin writer who +could bend the stately hexameter to the uses of natural and easy, +and at the same time terse and happy, conversational style. +Catullus, in his hendecasyllabics, had shown the vivacity with which +that light and graceful metre could be employed in telling some short +story or describing some trivial situation dramatically. But no one +before Horace had succeeded in applying the metre of heroic verse +to the uses of common life. But he had one great native model in the +mastery of a terse, refined, ironical and natural conversational style, +Terence; and the <i>Satires</i> show, not only in allusions to incidents and +personages, but in many happy turns of expression very frequent +traces of Horace’s familiarity with the works of the Roman Menander.</p> + +<p>The <i>Epistles</i> are more original in form, more philosophic in spirit, +more finished and charming in style than the <i>Satires</i>. The form of +composition may have been suggested by that of some of the satires +of Lucilius, which were composed as letters to his personal friends. +But letter-writing in prose, and occasionally also in verse, had been +common among the Romans from the time of the siege of Corinth; +and a practice originating in the wants and <span class="correction" title="amended from covenience">convenience</span> of friends +temporarily separated from one another by the public service was +ultimately cultivated as a literary accomplishment. It was a happy +idea of Horace to adopt this form for his didactic writings on life and +literature. It suited him as an eclectic and not a systematic thinker, +and as a friendly counsellor rather than a formal teacher of his age. +It suited his circumstances in the latter years of his life, when his +tastes inclined him more to retirement and study, while he yet +wished to retain his hold on society and to extend his relations with +younger men who were rising into eminence. It suited the class who +cared for literature—a limited circle of educated men, intimate with +one another, and sharing the same tastes and pursuits. While giving +expression to lessons applicable to all men, he in this way seems to +address each reader individually, with the urbanity of a friend rather +than the solemnity of a preacher. In spirit the <i>Epistles</i> are more +ethical and meditative than the <i>Satires</i>. Like the <i>Odes</i> they exhibit +the twofold aspects of his philosophy, that of temperate Epicureanism +and that of more serious and elevated conviction. In the actual +maxims which he lays down, in his apparent belief in the efficacy of +addressing philosophical texts to the mind, he exemplifies the triteness +and limitation of all Roman thought. But the spirit and sentiment +of his practical philosophy is quite genuine and original. The +individuality of the great Roman moralists, such as Lucretius and +Horace, appears not in any difference in the results at which they +have arrived, but in the difference of spirit with which they regard +the spectacle of human life. In reading Lucretius we are impressed +by his earnestness, his pathos, his elevation of feeling; in Horace we +are charmed by the serenity of his temper and the flavour of a delicate +and subtle wisdom. We note also in the <i>Epistles</i> the presence of a +more philosophic spirit, not only in the expression of his personal +convictions and aims, but also in his comments on society. In the +<i>Satires</i> he paints the outward effects of the passions of the age. He +shows us prominent types of character—the miser, the parasite, the +legacy-hunter, the parvenu, &c., but he does not try to trace these +different manifestations of life to their source. In the <i>Epistles</i> he +finds the secret spring of the social vices of the age in the desire, as +marked in other times as in those of Horace, to become rich too fast, +and in the tendency to value men according to their wealth, and to +sacrifice the ends of life to a superfluous care for the means of living. +The cause of all this aimless restlessness and unreasonable desire is +summed up in the words “Strenua nos exercet inertia.”</p> + +<p>In his <i>Satires</i> and <i>Epistles</i> Horace shows himself a genuine moralist, +a subtle observer and true painter of life, and an admirable writer. +But for both of these works he himself disclaims the title of poetry. +He rests his claims as a poet on his <i>Odes</i>. They reveal an entirely +different aspect of his genius, his spirit and his culture. He is one +among the few great writers of the world who have attained high +excellence in two widely separated provinces of literature. Through +all his life he was probably conscious of the “ingeni benigna vena,” +which in his youth made him the sympathetic student and imitator of +the older lyrical poetry of Greece, and directed his latest efforts to +poetic criticism. But it was in the years that intervened between +the publication of his <i>Satires</i> and <i>Epistles</i> that his lyrical genius +asserted itself as his predominant faculty. At that time he had +outlived the coarser pleasures and risen <span class="correction" title="amended from bove">above</span> the harassing cares of +his earlier career; a fresh source of happiness and inspiration had +been opened up to him in his beautiful Sabine retreat; he had +become not only reconciled to the rule of Augustus, but a thoroughly +convinced and, so far as his temperament admitted to enthusiasm, +an enthusiastic believer in its beneficence. But it was only after +much labour that his original vein of genius obtained a free and +abundant outlet. He lays no claim to the “profuse strains of unpremeditated +art,” with which other great lyrical poets of ancient +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span> +and modern times have charmed the world. His first efforts were +apparently imitative, and were directed to the attainment of perfect +mastery over form, metre and rhythm. The first nine <i>Odes</i> of the +first book are experiments in different kinds of metre. They and all +the other metres employed by him are based on those employed by +the older poets of Greece—Alcaeus, Sappho, Archilochus, Alcman, +&c. He has built the structure of his lighter <i>Odes</i> also on their model, +while in some of those in which the matter is more weighty, as in +that in which he calls on Calliope “to dictate a long continuous +strain,” he has endeavoured to reproduce something of the intricate +movement, the abrupt transitions, the interpenetration of narrative +and reflection, which characterize the art of Pindar. He frequently +reproduces the language and some of the thoughts of his masters, but +he gives them new application, or stamps them with the impress of +his own experience. He brought the metres which he has employed +to such perfection that the art perished with him. A great proof of +his mastery over rhythm is the skill with which he has varied his +metres according to the sentiment which he wishes to express. +Thus his great metre, the Alcaic, has a character of stateliness and +majesty in addition to the energy and impetus originally imparted +to it by Alcaeus. The Sapphic metre he employs with a peculiar +lightness and vivacity which harmonize admirably with his gayer +moods.</p> + +<p>Again in regard to his diction, if Horace has learned his subtlety +and moderation from his Greek masters, he has tempered those +qualities with the masculine characteristics of his race. No writer is +more Roman in the stateliness and dignity, the terseness, occasionally +even in the sobriety and bare literalness, of his diction.</p> + +<p>While it is mainly owing to the extreme care which Horace gave +to form, rhythm and diction that his own prophecy</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p class="i3">“Usque ego postera</p> +<p>Crescam laude recens”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">has been so amply fulfilled, yet no greater injustice could be done to +him than to rank him either as poet or critic with those who consider +form everything in literature. With Horace the mastery over the +vehicle of expression was merely an essential preliminary to making +a worthy and serious use of that vehicle. The poet, from Horace’s +point of view, was intended not merely to give refined pleasure to a +few, but above all things, to be “utilis urbi.” Yet he is saved, in his +practice, from the abuse of this theory by his admirable sense, his +ironical humour, his intolerance of pretension and pedantry. +Opinions will differ as to whether he or Catullus is to be regarded as +the greater lyrical poet. Those who assign the palm to Horace will +do so, certainly not because they recognize in him richer or equally +rich gifts of feeling, conception and expression, but because the +subjects to which his art has been devoted have a fuller, more varied, +more mature and permanent interest for the world.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For the life of Horace the chief authorities are his +own works and a short ancient biography which is attributed to +Suetonius. The <i>apparatus criticus</i> is most fully described in O. +Keller’s preface to vol. i. of the 2nd ed. (1899) of Keller and Holder’s +recension of Horace’s works. This edition also gives by far the largest +collection of variants and emendations to the text and of the <i>testimonia</i> +of ancient writers.</p> + +<p>What might have proved the most important manuscript of +Horace, the so-called <i>vetustissimus Blandinius</i>, is now lost, and we +know it only from the account of J. Cruquius who saw it in 1565. +The relations of the extant MSS. to each other and the presumed +archetype present an intricate problem; and Keller’s solution has +not proved generally acceptable. See a <i>résumé</i> of the controversy +<i>Horazkritik seit 1880</i> by J. Bick (Leipzig, 1906) and F. Vollmer in +<i>Philologus</i>. Supp. x. 2, pp. 261-322. Many MSS. of Horace contain +ancient scholia which are copied or taken with abridgment from the +commentaries of Porphyrio, who lived about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200, and Helenius +Aero, a still earlier grammarian. These scholia also have been +collected and edited—the Porphyrio scholia by A. Holder (1902) +and the “Acronian” (or pseudo-Acronian) by O. Keller (1902-1904). +R. Bentley’s epoch-making edition (1711) has been reprinted with an +index by Zangemeister (1869). Of the modern commentaries the +most useful are those of J. C. Orelli (4th ed., revised by O. Hirschfelder +and J. Mewes, 1886-1890, with <i>index verborum</i>), and of A. +Kiessling (revised by R. Heinze, <i>Odes</i>, 1901, 1908, <i>Satires</i>, 1906, +<i>Epistles</i>, 1898). The best complete English commentary is that of +E. C. Wickham (2 vols., 1874-1896). Other editions with English +notes are those of T. E. Page (<i>Odes</i>, 1883), A. Palmer (<i>Satires</i>, 1883), +A. S. Wilkins (<i>Epistles</i>, 1885), J. Gow (<i>Odes</i> and <i>Epodes</i>, 1896, +<i>Satires</i>, i., 1901), P. Shorey (<i>Odes</i> and <i>Epodes</i>, 1898, Boston, U.S.A.). +L. Müller’s elaborate edition of the <i>Odes</i> and <i>Epodes</i> was published +posthumously (1900). Of the critical editions Keller and Holder’s +still holds the field: to this Keller’s <i>Epilegomena zu Horaz</i> (1879) +is a necessary adjunct. F. Vollmer’s text (1907) uses Keller’s +materials on a new principle. Of illustrated editions H. H. Milman’s +(1867) and C. W. King’s (1869, with text revised by H. A. J. Munro) +deserve mention. The best verse translation is that of J. Conington +lately reprinted with the Latin text from the recension in Postgate’s +new <i>Corpus poetarum</i>. For further information see Teuffel’s +<i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i> (Eng. trans. by G. C. Warr), +§§ 234-240, and M. Schanz’s excellent account in his <i>Geschichte der +römischen Litteratur</i>, vol. ii. §§ 251-266.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Y. S.; J. G*.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The date is determined by the poem on the death of Quintilius +Varus (who died 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and by the reference in <i>Ode</i> i. 12 to the +young Marcellus (died in autumn 23 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) as still alive. Cf. Wickham’s +Introduction to the <i>Odes</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORAE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hora</i>, hour), the Hours, in Greek mythology +<span class="grk" title="Hôrai">Ὡραι</span>, originally the personification of a series of natural phenomena. +In the <i>Iliad</i> (v. 749) they are the custodians of the gates +of Olympus, which they open or shut by scattering or condensing +the clouds; that is, they are weather goddesses, who send down +or withhold the fertilizing dews and rain. In the <i>Odyssey</i>, +where they are represented as bringing round the seasons in +regular order, they are an abstraction rather than a concrete +personification. The brief notice in Hesiod (<i>Theog.</i> 901), +where they are called the children of Zeus and Themis, who +superintend the operations of agriculture, indicates by the +names assigned to them (Eunomia, Dikē, Eirenē, <i>i.e.</i> Good +Order, Justice, Peace) the extension of their functions as goddesses +of order from nature to the events of human life, and at the same +time invests them with moral attributes. Like the Moerae +(Fates), they regulate the destinies of man, watch over the newly +born, secure good laws and the administration of justice. The +selection of three as their number has been supposed to refer +to the most ancient division of the year into spring, summer and +winter, but it is probably only another instance of the Greek +liking for that particular number or its multiples in such +connexions (three Moerae, Charites, Gorgons, nine Muses). +Order and regularity being indispensable conditions of beauty, +it was easy to conceive of the Horae as the goddesses of youthful +bloom and grace, inseparably associated with the idea of springtime. +As such they are companions of the Nymphs and Graces, +with whom they are often confounded, and of other superior +deities connected with the spring growth of vegetation (Demeter, +Dionysus). At Athens they were two (or three) in number: +Thallo and Carpo, the goddesses of the flowers of spring and of +the fruits of summer, to whom Auxo, the goddess of the growth +of plants, may be added, although some authorities make her +only one of the Graces. In honour of the Horae a yearly festival +(Horaea) was celebrated, at which protection was sought against +the scorching heat and drought, and offerings were made of +boiled meat as less insipid and more nutritious than roast. +In later mythology, under Alexandrian influence, the Horae +become the four seasons, daughters of Helios and Selene, each +represented with the conventional attributes. Subsequently, +when the day was divided into twelve equal parts, each of them +took the name of Hora. Ovid (<i>Metam.</i> ii. 26) describes them as +placed at equal intervals on the throne of Phoebus, with whom +are also associated the four seasons. Nonnus (5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) +in the <i>Dionysiaca</i> also unites the twelve Horae as representing +the day and the four Horae as the seasons in the palace of Helios.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Lehrs, <i>Populäre Aufsätze</i> (1856); J. H. Krause, <i>Die Musen, +Grazien, Horen, und Nymphen</i> (1871); and the articles in Daremberg +and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, J. A. Hild; and in Roscher’s +<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, W. Rapp.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORAPOLLON,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> of Phaenebythis in the nome of Panopolis +in Egypt, Greek grammarian, flourished in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +during the reign of Theodosius I. According to Suidas, he +wrote commentaries on Sophocles, Alcaeus and Homer, and a +work (<span class="grk" title="Temenika">Τεμενικά</span>) on places consecrated to the gods. Photius +(cod. 279), who calls him a dramatist as well as a grammarian, +ascribes to him a history of the foundation and antiquities of +Alexandria (unless this is by an Egyptian of the same name, +who lived In the reign of Zeno, 474-491). Under the name of +Horapollon two books on <i>Hieroglyphics</i> are extant, which profess +to be a translation from an Egyptian original into Greek by +a certain Philippus, of whom nothing is known. The inferior +Greek of the translation, and the character of the additions in +the second book point to its being of late date; some have +even assigned it to the 15th century. Though a very large +proportion of the statements seem absurd and cannot be +accounted for by anything known in the latest and most fanciful +usage, yet there is ample evidence in both the books, in individual +cases, that the tradition of the values of the hieroglyphic signs +was not yet extinct in the days of their author.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Editions by C. Leemans (1835) and A. T. Cory +(1840) with English translation and notes; see also G. Rathgeber in +Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>; H. Schäfer, <i>Zeitschrift +für ägyptische Sprache</i> (1905), p. 72.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORATII<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> and <b>CURIATII</b>, in Roman legend, two sets of three +brothers born at one birth on the same day—the former Roman, +the latter Alban—the mothers being twin sisters. During the +war between Rome and Alba Longa it was agreed that the issue +should depend on a combat between the two families. Two of +the Horatii were soon slain; the third brother feigned flight, +and when the Curiatii, who were all wounded, pursued him +without concert he slew them one by one. When he entered +Rome in triumph, his sister recognized a cloak which he was +wearing as a trophy as one she had herself made for her lover, +one of the Curiatii. She thereupon invoked a curse upon her +brother, who slew her on the spot. Horatius was condemned +to be scourged to death, but on his appealing to the people +his life was spared (Livy i. 25, 26; Dion. Halic. iii. 13-22). +Monuments of the tragic story were shown by the Romans +in the time of Livy (the altar of Janus Curiatius near the <i>sororium +tigillum</i>, the “sister’s beam,” or yoke under which Horatius had +to pass; and the altar of Juno Sororia). The legend was +probably invented to account for the origin of the <i>provocatio</i> +(right of appeal to the people), while at the same time it points +to the close connexion and final struggle for supremacy between +the older city on the mountain and the younger city on the +plain. Their relationship and origin from three tribes are +symbolically represented by the twin sisters and the two sets of +three brothers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a critical examination of the story, see Schwegler, <i>Römische +Geschichte</i>, bk. xii. 11. 14; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, <i>Credibility of +Early Roman History</i>, ch. xi. 15; W. Ihne, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, i.; E. Pais, +<i>Storia di Roma</i>, i. ch. 3 (1898), and <i>Ancient Legends of Roman +History</i> (Eng. trans., 1906), where the story is connected with the +ceremonies performed in honour of Jupiter Tigillus and Juno +Sororia; C. Pascal, <i>Fatti e legende di Roma antica</i> (Florence, 1903); +O. Gilbert, <i>Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum</i> +(1883-1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORATIUS COCLES,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a legendary hero of ancient Rome. +With two companions he defended the Sublician bridge against +Lars Porsena and the whole army of the Etruscans, while the +Romans cut down the bridge behind. Then Horatius threw +himself into the Tiber and swam in safety to the shore. A +statue was erected in his honour in the temple of Vulcan, and +he received as much land as he could plough round in a single +day. According to another version, Horatius alone defended +the bridge, and was drowned in the Tiber.</p> + +<p>There is an obvious resemblance between the legend of Horatius +Codes and that of the Horatii and Curiatii. In both cases +three Romans come forward as the champions of Rome at a +critical moment of her fortunes, and only one successfully holds +his ground. In the one case, the locality is the land frontier, +in the other, the boundary stream of Roman territory. E. Pais +finds the origin of the story in the worship of Vulcan, and +identifies Cocles (the “one-eyed”) with one of the Cyclopes, +who in mythology were connected with Hephaestus, and later +with Vulcan. He concludes that the supposed statue of Cocles +was really that of Vulcan, who, as one of the most ancient +Roman divinities and, in fact, the protecting deity of the state, +would naturally be confounded with the hero who saved it by +holding the bridge against the invaders. He suggests that the +legend arose from some religious ceremony, possibly the practice +of throwing the stuffed figures called Argei into the Tiber from +the Pons Sublicius on the ides of May. The conspicuous part +played in Roman history by members of the Horatian family, +who were connected with the worship of Jupiter Vulcanus, will +explain the attribution of the name Horatius to Vulcan-Cocles.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Livy ii. 10; Dion. Halic. v. 23-25; Polybius vi. 55; Plutarch, +<i>Poplicola</i>, 16. For a critical examination of the legend, see Schwegler, +<i>Römische Geschichte</i>, bk. xxi. 18; W. Ihne, <i>History of Rome</i>, i.; +E. Pais, <i>Storia di Roma</i>, i. ch. 4 (1898), and <i>Ancient Legends of +Roman History</i> (Eng. trans., 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORDE,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a manufacturing town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Westphalia, is 2 m. S.E. from Dortmund on the +railway to Soest. Pop. (1905) 28,461. It has a Roman Catholic +and an Evangelical church, a synagogue and an old castle dating +from about 1300. There are large smelting-works, foundries, +puddling-works, rolling-mills and manufactures of iron and +plated wares. In the neighbourhood there are large iron and +coal mines. A tramway connects the town with Dortmund.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOREB,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> the ancient seat of Yahweh, the tribal god of the +Kenites, adopted by His covenant by Israel. This is the name +preferred by the Elohistic writer (E) whose work is interwoven +into the Old Testament narrative, and he is followed by the +Deuteronomist school (D). The Yahwistic writer (J), on the +other hand, prefers to call the mountain Sinai (<i>q.v.</i>), and so +do the priestly writers (P). This latter form became the more +usual. There is no ground for distinguishing between Horeb +as the range and Sinai as the single mountain, or between Horeb +and Sinai as respectively the N. and S. parts of the range.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:237px; height:365px" src="images/img692.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Horehound.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">HOREHOUND<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>harhune</i>, Ger. <i>Andorn</i>, Fr. <i>marrube</i>). +Common or white horehound, <i>Marrubium vulgare</i>, of the natural +order <i>Labiatae</i>, is a perennial herb with a short stout rootstock, +and thick stems, about 1 ft. in height, which, as well as their +numerous branches, are coated with a white or hoary felt—whence +the popular name of the plant. The leaves have long petioles, +and are roundish or rhombic-ovate, with a bluntly toothed +margin, much wrinkled, white and woolly below and pale green +and downy above; the flowers +are sessile, in dense whorls or +clusters, small and dull-white, +with a 10-toothed calyx and the +upper lobe of the corolla long +and bifid. The plant occurs in +Europe, North Africa and West +Asia to North-West India, and +has been naturalized in parts +of America. In Britain, where +it is found generally on sandy +or dry chalky ground, it is far +from common. White horehound +contains a volatile oil, resin, a +crystallizable bitter principle +termed <i>marrubiin</i> and other +substances, and has a not unpleasant +aromatic odour, and +a persistent bitter taste. Formerly +it was official in British +pharmacopoeias; and the infusion, syrup or confection of +horehound has long been in popular repute for the treatment +of a host of dissimilar affections. Black horehound, <i>Ballota +nigra</i>, is a hairy perennial herb, belonging to the same order, of +foetid odour, is 2 to 3 ft. in height, and has stalked, roundish-ovate, +toothed leaves and numerous flowers, in dense axillary +clusters, with a green or purplish calyx, and a pale red-purple +corolla. It occurs in Europe, North Africa and West Asia, and +in Britain south of the Forth and Clyde, and has been introduced +into North America.</p> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORGEN,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> a small town in the Swiss canton of Zürich, situated +on the left or west shore of the Lake of Zürich, and by rail +10½ m. S.E. of the town of Zürich. Pop. (1900) 6883, mostly +German-speaking and Protestants. It possesses many industrial +establishments of various kinds, and is a centre of the Zürich +silk manufacture. It came in 1406 into the possession of +Zürich, with which it communicates by means of steamers on +the lake, as well as by rail.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORIZON<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="horizôn">ὁρίζων</span>, dividing), the apparent circle around +which the sky and earth seem to meet. At sea this circle is +well defined, the line being called the sea horizon, which divides +the visible surface of the ocean from the sky. In astronomy +the horizon is that great circle of the sphere the plane of which +is at right angles to the direction of the plumb line. Sometimes +a distinction is made between the rational and the apparent +horizon, the former being the horizon as determined by a plane +through the centre of the earth, parallel to that through the +station of an observer. But on the celestial sphere the great +circles of these two planes are coincident, so that this distinction +is not necessary (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>: <i>Spherical</i>). The <i>Dip</i> of the +horizon at sea is the angular depression of the apparent sea +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span> +horizon, or circle bounding the visible ocean, below the apparent +celestial horizon as above defined. It is due to the rotundity +of the earth, and the height of the observer’s eye above the water. +The dip of the horizon and its distance in sea-miles when the +height of the observer’s eye above the sea-level is <i>h</i> feet, are +approximately given by the formulae: Dip = 0′.97 √<i>h</i>; Distance += 1<span class="sp">m</span>·17 √<i>h</i>. The difference between the coefficients 0.97 and +1.17 arises from the refraction of the ray, but for which they +would be equal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORMAYR, JOSEPH,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span> (1782-1848), German +statesman and historian, was born at Innsbruck on the 20th +of January 1782. After studying law in his native town, and +attaining the rank of captain in the Tirolese Landwehr, the +young man, who had the advantage of being the grandson of +Joseph von Hormayr (1705-1778), chancellor of Tirol, obtained +a post in the foreign office at Vienna (1801), from which he rose +in 1803 to be court secretary and, being a near friend of the +Archduke John, director of the secret archives of the state and +court for thirteen months. In 1803 he married Therese Anderler +von Hohenwald. During the insurrection of 1809, by which +the Tirolese sought to throw off the Bavarian supremacy confirmed +by the treaty of Pressburg, Hormayr was the mainstay +of the Austrian party, and assumed the administration of +everything (especially the composition of proclamations and +pamphlets); but, returning home without the prestige of success, +he fell, in spite of the help of the Archduke John, into disfavour +both with the emperor Francis I. and with Prince Metternich, +and at length, when in 1813 he tried to stir up a new insurrection +in Tirol, he was arrested and imprisoned at Munkatt. In 1816 +some amends were made to him by his appointment as imperial +historiographer; but so little was he satisfied with the general +policy and conduct of the Austrian court that in 1828 he accepted +an invitation of King Louis I. to the Bavarian capital, where he +became ministerial councillor in the department of foreign +affairs. In 1832 he was appointed Bavarian minister-resident at +Hanover, and from 1837 to 1846 he held the same position at +Bremen. Together with Count Johann Friedrich von der +Decken (1769-1840) he founded the Historical Society of Lower +Saxony (Historischer Verein für Niedersachsen). The last two +years of his life were spent at Munich as superintendent of the +national archives. He died on the 5th of October 1848.</p> + +<p>Hormayr’s literary activity was closely conditioned by the +circumstances of his political career and by the fact that Johannes +von Müller (d. 1611) was his teacher: while his access to original +documents gave value to his treatment of the past, his record +or criticism of contemporary events received authority and +interest from his personal experience. But his history of the +Tirolese rebellion is far from being impartial; for he always +liked to put himself into the first place, and the merits of Andreas +Hofer and of other leaders are not sufficiently acknowledged. +In his later writings he appears as a keen opponent of the policy +of the court of Vienna.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following are among Hormayr’s more important works: +<i>Geschichte des Grafen von Andechs</i> (1796); <i>Lexikon für Reisenden in +Tirol</i> (1796); <i>Kritisch-diplomatische Beiträge zur Geschichte Tirols im +Mittelalter</i> (2 vols., Innsbruck, 1802-1803, new ed., 1805); <i>Gesch. der +gefürst. Grafschaft Tirol</i> (2 vols., Tübingen, 1806-1808); <i>Österreichischer +Plutarch</i>, 20 vols., collection of portraits and biographies +of the most celebrated administrators, commanders and statesmen of +Austria (Vienna, 1807); an edition of Beauchamp’s <i>Histoire de la +guerre en Vendée</i> (1809); <i>Geschichte Hofers</i> (1817, 2nd ed., 2 vols., +1845) and other pamphlets; <i>Archiv für Gesch., Stat., Lit. und +Kunst</i> (20 vols., 1809-1828); <i>Allgemeine Geschichte der neuesten Zeit +vom Tod Friedricks des Grossen bis zum zweiten Pariser Frieden</i> (3 +vols., Vienna, 1814-1819, 2nd ed., 1891); <i>Wien, seine Gesch. und +Denkwürdigkeiten</i> (5 vols., Vienna, 1823-1824); together with +<i>Fragmente über Deutschland, in Sonderheit Bayerns Welthandel; +Lebensbilder aus dem Befreiungskriege</i> (3 vols., Jena, 1841-1844, 2nd +ed., 1845); <i>Die goldene Chronik von Hohenschwangau</i> (Munich, 1842); +<i>Anemonen aus dem Tagebuch eines alten Pilgersmanns</i> (4 vols., Jena, +1845-1847). Together with Mednyanski (1784-1844) he founded the +<i>Taschenbuch für die Vaterland. Gesch.</i> (Vienna, 1811-1848).</p> + +<p>See T. H. Merdau, <i>Biographische Züge aus dem Leben deutscher +Männer</i> (Leipzig, 1815); Gräffer, <i>Österreichische National-Encyclopädie</i>, +ii. (1835); <i>Taschenbuch für vaterländische Geschichte</i> (1836 and +1847); <i>Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen</i> (1848); <i>Blätter für literarische +Unterhaltung</i> (1849); Wurzbach, <i>Österreichisches biographisches +Lexikon</i>, ix. (1863); K. Th. von Heigel in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche +Biographie</i> (1881) and F. X. Wegele, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Historiographie</i> +(Munich and Leipzig, 1885); F. v. Krones, <i>Aus Österreichs +stillen und bewegten Jahren 1810-1815</i>; <i>Biographie und Briefe an Erzhz. +Johann</i> (Innsbruck, 1892); Hirn, <i>Tiroler Aufstand</i> (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORMISDAS,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> pope from 514 to 523 in succession to +Symmachus, was a native of Campania. He is known as having +succeeded in obtaining the reunion of the Eastern and Western +Churches, which had been separated since the excommunication +of Acacius in 484. After two unsuccessful attempts under the +emperor Anastasius I., Hormisdas had no difficulty in coming +to an understanding in 518 with his successor Justin. Legates +were despatched to Constantinople; the memorial of the +schismatic patriarchs was condemned; and union was resumed +with the Holy See.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Details of this transaction have come down to us in the <i>Collectio +Avellana</i> (<i>Corpus script. eccl. Vindobon.</i>, vol. xxv., Nos. 105-203; +cf. Andreas Thiel, <i>Epp. Rom. Pont.</i> i. 741 seq.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORMIZD,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hormizdas</span>, the name of five kings of the +Sassanid dynasty (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>). The name +is another form of Ahuramazda or Ormuzd (Ormazd), which +under the Sassanids became a common personal name and was +borne not only by many generals and officials of their time (it +therefore occurs very often on Persian seals), but even by the +pope of Rome noticed above. It is strictly an abbreviation of +Hormuzd-dad, “given by Ormuzd,” which form is preserved +by Agathias iv. 24-25 as name of King Hormizd I. and II. +(<span class="grk" title="Hormisdatês">Ὁρμισδάτης</span>).</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Hormizd I.</span> (272-273) was the son of Shapur I., under +whom he was governor of Khorasan, and appears in his wars +against Rome (Trebellius Pollio, <i>Trig. Tyr.</i> 2, where Nöldeke has +corrected the name Odomastes into Oromastes, <i>i.e.</i> Hormizd). +In the Persian tradition of the history of Ardashir I., preserved +in a Pahlavi text (Nöldeke, <i>Geschichte des Artachsir I. Pāpakān</i>), +he is made the son of a daughter of Mithrak, a Persian dynast, +whose family Ardashir had extirpated because the magians had +predicted that from his blood would come the restorer of the +empire of Iran. Only this daughter is preserved by a peasant; +Shapur sees her and makes her his wife, and her son Hormizd +is afterwards recognized and acknowledged by Ardashir. In this +legend, which has been partially preserved also in Tabari, the +great conquests of Shapur are transferred to Hormizd. In +reality he reigned only one year and ten days.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Hormizd II.</span>, son of Narseh, reigned for seven years five +months, 302-309. Of his reign nothing is known. After his +death his son Adarnases was killed by the grandees after a very +short reign, as he showed a cruel disposition; another son, +Hormizd, was kept a prisoner, and the throne reserved for the +child with which a concubine of Hormizd II. was pregnant and +which received the name Shapur II. Hormizd escaped from +prison by the help of his wife in 323, and found refuge at the +court of Constantine the Great (Zosim. ii. 27; John of Antioch, +fr. 178; Zonar. 13.5), In 363 Hormizd served in the army of +Julian against Persia; his son, with the same name, became +consul in 366 (Ammian. Marc. 26. 8. 12).</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Hormizd III.</span>, son of Yazdegerd I., succeeded his father in +457. He had continually to fight with his brothers and with the +Ephthalites in Bactria, and was killed by Peroz in 459.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Hormizd IV.</span>, son of Chosroes I., reigned 578-590. He +seems to have been imperious and violent, but not without some +kindness of heart. Some very characteristic stories are told +of him by Ṭabari (Nöldeke, <i>Geschichte d. Perser und Araber unter +den Sasaniden</i>, 264 ff.). His father’s sympathies had been with +the nobles and the priests. Hormizd protected the common +people and introduced a severe discipline in his army and court. +When the priests demanded a persecution of the Christians, he +declined on the ground that the throne and the government +could only be safe if it gained the goodwill of both concurring +religions. The consequence was that he raised a strong opposition +in the ruling classes, which led to many executions and +confiscations. When he came to the throne he killed his brothers, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span> +according to the oriental fashion. From his father he had +inherited a war against the Byzantine empire and against the +Turks in the east, and negotiations of peace had just begun +with the emperor Tiberius, but Hormizd haughtily declined +to cede anything of the conquests of his father. Therefore the +accounts given of him by the Byzantine authors, Theophylact, +Simocatta (iii. 16 ff.), Menander Protector and John of Ephesus +(vi. 22), who give a full account of these negotiations, are far +from favourable. In 588 his general, Bahram Chobin, defeated +the Turks, but in the next year was beaten by the Romans; +and when the king superseded him he rebelled with his army. +This was the signal for a general insurrection. The magnates +deposed and blinded Hormizd and proclaimed his son Chosroes II. +king. In the war which now followed between Bahram Chobin +and Chosroes II. Hormizd was killed by some partisans of his +son (590).</p> + +<p>5. <span class="sc">Hormizd V.</span> was one of the many pretenders who rose +after the murder of Chosroes II. (628). He maintained himself +about two years (631, 632) in the district of Nisibis.</p> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORMUZ<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (<i>Hurmuz</i>, <i>Ormuz</i>, <i>Ormus</i>), a famous city on the +shores of the Persian Gulf, which occupied more than one position +in the course of history, and has now long practically ceased to +exist. The earliest mention of the name occurs in the voyage +of Nearchus (325 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). When that admiral beached his fleet +at the mouth of the river Anamis on the shore of Harmozia, a +coast district of Carmania, he found the country to be kindly, +rich in every product except the olive. The Anamis appears +to be the river now known as the Minab, discharging into the +Persian Gulf near the entrance of the latter. The name Hormuz +is derived by some from that of the Persian god Hormuzd +(Ormazd), but it is more likely that the original etymology was +connected with <i>khurma</i>, “a date”; for the meaning of Moghistan +the modern name of the territory Harmozia is “the region of +date-palms.” The foundation of the city of Hormuz in this +territory is ascribed by one Persian writer to the Sassanian +Ardashir Babegan (<i>c.</i> 230 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>). But it must have existed +at an earlier date, for Ptolemy takes note of <span class="grk" title="Harmonza polis">Ἅρμονζα πόλις</span> +(vi. 8).</p> + +<p>Hormuz is mentioned by Idrisi, who wrote <i>c.</i> 1150, under +the title of Hormuz-al-sāhilīah, “Hormuz of the shore” (to +distinguish it from inland cities of the same name then existing), +as a large and well-built city, the chief mart of Kirman. Siraf +and Kish (Ḳais), farther up the gulf, had preceded it as ports of +trade with India, but in the 13th century Hormuz had become +the chief seat of this traffic. It was at this time the seat also of +a petty dynasty of kings, of which there is a history by one of +their number (Turan Shah); an abstract of it is given by the +Jesuit Teixeira. According to this history the founder of the +dynasty was Shah Mohammed Dirhem-Kub (“the Drachma-coiner”), +an Arab chief who crossed the gulf and established +himself here. The date is not given, but it must have been +before 1100 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, as Ruḳnuddīn Mahmūd, who succeeded in 1246, +was the twelfth of the line. These princes appear to have been +at times in dependence necessarily on the atabegs of Fars and +on the princes of Kirman. About the year 1300 Hormuz was so +severely and repeatedly harassed by raids of Tatar horsemen +that the king and his people abandoned their city on the mainland +and transferred themselves to the island of Jerun (Organa of +Nearchus), about 12 m. westward and 4 m. from the nearest +shore.</p> + +<p>The site of the continental or ancient Hormuz was first traced +in modern times by Colonel (Sir Lewis) Pelly when resident at +Bushire. It stands in the present district of Minab, several miles +from the sea, and on a creek which communicates with the +Minab river, but is partially silted up and not now accessible +for vessels. There remain traces of a long wharf and extensive +ruins. The new city occupied a triangular plain forming the +northern part of the island, the southern wall, as its remains +still show, being about 2 m. in extent from east to west. A +suburb with a wharf or pier, called Turan Bagh (garden of Turan) +after one of the kings, a name now corrupted to Trumpak, stood +about 3 m. from the town to the south-east.</p> + +<p>Odoric gives the earliest notice we have of the new city +(<i>c.</i> 1320). He calls it Ormes, a city strongly fortified and abounding +in costly wares, situated on an island 5 m. distant from the +main, having no trees and no fresh water, unhealthy and (as +all evidence confirms) incredibly hot. Some years later it was +visited more than once by Ibn Batuta, who seems to speak of +the old city as likewise still standing. The new Hormuz, called +also Jerun (<i>i.e.</i> still retaining the original name of the island), +was a great and fine city rising out of the sea, and serving as a +mart for all the products of India, which were distributed hence +over all Persia. The hills on the island were of rock-salt, from +which vases and pedestals for lamps were carved. Near the gate +of the chief mosque stood an enormous skull, apparently that of a +sperm-whale. The king at this time was Kutbuddīn Tahamtan, +and the traveller gives a curious description of him, seated on +the throne, in patched and dirty raiment, holding a rosary of +enormous pearls, procured from the Bahrein fisheries, which +at one time or another belonged, with other islands in the gulf +and on the Oman shores from Rās-el-had (C. Rosalgat of the +Portuguese) on the ocean round to Julfar on the gulf, to the +princes of Hormuz. Abdurazzāk, the envoy of Shah Rukh on +his way to the Hindu court of Vijayanagar, was in Hormuz in +1442, and speaks of it as a mart which had no equal, frequented +by the merchants of all the countries of Asia, among which +he enumerates China, Java, Bengal, Tenasserim, Shahr-ī-nao +(<i>i.e.</i> Siam) and the Maldives. Nikitin, the Russian (<i>c.</i> 1470), +gives a similar account; he calls it “a vast emporium of all the +world.”</p> + +<p>In September 1507 the king of Hormuz, after for some time +hearing of the terrible foe who was carrying fire and sword along +the shores of Arabia, saw the squadron of Alphonso d’Albuquerque +appear before his city, an appearance speedily followed by +extravagant demands, by refusal of these from the ministers +of the young king, and by deeds of matchless daring and cruelty +on the part of the Portuguese, which speedily broke down +resistance. The king acknowledged himself tributary to Portugal, +and gave leave to the Portuguese to build a castle, which was at +once commenced on the northern part of the island, commanding +the city and the anchorage on both sides. But the mutinous +conduct and desertion of several of Albuquerque’s captains +compelled him suddenly to abandon the enterprise; and it was +not till 1514, after the great leader had captured Goa and +Malacca, and had for five years been viceroy, that he returned +to Hormuz (or Ormuz, as the Portuguese called it), and without +encountering resistance to a name now so terrible, laid his grasp +again on the island and completed his castle. For more than a +century Hormuz remained practically in the dominions of +Portugal, though the hereditary prince, paying from his revenues +a tribute to Portugal (in lieu of which eventually the latter took +the whole of the customs collections), continued to be the +instrument of government. The position of things during the +Portuguese rule may be understood from the description of +Cesare de’ Federici, a Venetian merchant who was at Hormuz +about 1565. After speaking of the great trade in spices, drugs, +silk and silk stuffs, and pearls of Bahrein, and in horses for export +to India, he says the king was a Moor (<i>i.e.</i> Mahommedan), chosen +by and subordinate to the Portuguese. “At the election of the +king I was there and saw the ceremonies that they use.... The +old king being dead, the captain of the Portugals chooseth +another of the blood-royal, and makes this election in the castle +with great ceremony. And when he is elected the captain +sweareth him to be true ... to the K. of Portugal as his lord and +governor, and then he giveth him the sceptre regal. After this ... with +great pomp ... he is brought into the royal palace in the +city. The king keeps a good train and hath sufficient revenues, ... because +the captain of the castle doth maintain and defend +his right ... he is honoured as a king, yet he cannot ride abroad +with his train, without the consent of the captain first had” +(in Hakluyt).<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span></p> + +<p>The rise of the English trade and factories in the Indian +seas in the beginning of the 17th century led to constant jealousies +and broils with the Portuguese, and the successful efforts of the +English company to open traffic with Persia especially embittered +their rivals, to whom the possession of Hormuz had long given +a monopoly of that trade. The officers of Shāh Abbās, who +looked with a covetous and resentful eye on the Portuguese +occupation of such a position, were strongly desirous of the aid +of English ships in attacking Hormuz. During 1620 and 1621 +the ships of Portugal and of the English company had more than +once come to action in the Indian seas, and in November of the +latter year the council at Surat had resolved on what was +practically maritime war with the Portuguese flag. There was +hardly a step between this and the decision come to in the +following month to join with “the duke of Shirāz” (Imām Kūlī +Khān, the governor of Fars) in the desired expedition against +Hormuz. There was some pretext of being forced into the +alliance by a Persian threat to lay embargo on the English goods +at Jashk; but this seems to have been only brought forward +by the English agents when, at a later date, their proceedings +were called in question. The English crews were at first unwilling +to take part in what they justly said was “no merchandizing +business, nor were they engaged for the like,” but they were +persuaded, and five English vessels aided, first, in the attack +of Kishm, where (at the east end of the large island so called) +the Portuguese had lately built a fort,<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and afterwards in that +of Hormuz itself. The latter siege was opened on the 18th of +February 1622, and continued to the 1st of May, when the +Portuguese, after a gallant defence of ten weeks, surrendered. +It is to be recollected that Portugal was at this time subject to +the crown of Spain, with which England was at peace; indeed, it +was but a year later that the prince of Wales went on his wooing +adventure to the Spanish court. The irritation there was +naturally great, though it is surprising how little came of it. +The company were supposed (apparently without foundation) +to have profited largely by the Hormuz booty; and both the +duke of Buckingham and the king claimed to be “sweetened,” +as the record phrases it, from this supposed treasure. The +former certainly received a large bribe (£10,000). The conclusion +of the transaction with the king was formerly considered doubtful; +but entries in the calendar of East India papers seem to show +that James received an equal sum.<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>Hormuz never recovered from this blow. The Persians +transferred their establishments to Gombroon on the mainland, +about 12 m. to the north-west, which the king had lately set up +as a royal port under the name of Bander Abbāsi. The English +stipulations for aid had embraced an equal division of the +customs duties. This division was apparently recognized by the +Persians as applying to the new Bander, and, though the trade +with Persia was constantly decaying and precarious, the company +held to their factory at Gombroon for the sake of this claim to +revenue, which of course was most irregularly paid. In 1683-1684 +the amount of debt due to the company in Persia, including +their proportion of customs duties, was reckoned at a million +sterling. As late as 1690-1691 their right seems to have been +admitted, and a payment of 3495 sequins was received by them +on this account. The factory at Gombroon lingered on till 1759, +when it was seized by two French ships of war under Comte +d’Estaing. It was re-established, but at the time of Niebuhr’s +visit to the gulf a few years later no European remained. Niebuhr +mentions that in his time (<i>c.</i> 1765) Mulla ’Ali Shāh, formerly +admiral of Nādir Shāh, was established on the island of Hormuz +and part of Kishm as an independent chief.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Barros, <i>Asia</i>; <i>Commentaries of Albuquerque</i>, trans. by +Birch (Hak. Society); <i>Relaciones de Pedro Teixeira</i> (Antwerp, 1610); +Narratives in Hakluyt’s <i>Collection</i> (reprint in 1809, vol. ii.) and in +Purchas’s <i>Pilgrims</i>, vol. ii.; Pietro della Valle, <i>Persia</i>, lett. xii.-xvii.; +<i>Calendar of E. I. Papers</i>, by Sainsbury, vol. iii.; Ritter, +<i>Erdkunde</i>, xii.; <i>Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i>, Kempthorne in vol. v., White-locke +in vol. viii., Pelly in vol. xxxiv.; Fraser, <i>Narrative of a Journey +into Khorasan</i> (1825); Constable and Stifle, <i>Persian Gulf Pilot</i> +(1864); Bruce, <i>Annals of the E. I. Company</i>, &c. (1810).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Y.)</div> + +<p>The island has a circumference of 16 m. and its longest axis +measures 4½ m. The village is in 27° 6′ N., 56° 29′ E. The +Portuguese fort still stands, but is sadly out of repair and much +of its western wall has been undermined and washed away by +the action of the sea. It is a bastioned fort with orillons and +loopholed casemates under the ramparts and was separated +from the town by a deep moat, now silted up, cut E.-W. across +the isthmus and crossed by a bridge. It has three cisterns for +collecting rainwater; two are 17-18 ft. deep, have a capacity +of about 60,000 gallons and are covered by arched roofs supported +on six stone pillars. The third cistern is smaller and has no +roof. Five rusty old iron guns are lying prone on the roof; +six others on the strand before the village are used for fastening +boats, another serves as a socket for a flagstaff before the representative +of the government. The island is under the jurisdiction +of the governor of the Persian Gulf ports who resides at Bushire. +Of the old city hardly anything stands except a minaret, 70 ft. +high, with a winding staircase inside and much worn away at the +base, part of a former mosque used by the Portuguese as a +lighthouse, but the traces of buildings, massive foundations +constructed of stone quarried in the hills on the island, of many +cisterns (some say 300), &c., are numerous and extensive. The +modern settlement, situated south of the fort on the eastern shore, +has a population of about 1000 during the cool season, but less +in the hot season, when many people go over to Minab on the +mainland to the east. Most of the people live in huts constructed +of the branches and leaves of the date palm. They own about +sixty small sailing vessels trading to Muscat and other ports and +also do some pearl-fishing. At Turan Bagh on the east coast +4½ m. S.E. of the fort are some considerable ruins, irrigation +canals, an extensive burial ground and some huts occupied by +a few families who cultivate a small garden on a terrace supported +by old retaining walls. On a hill near the shore 1½ m. S.E. of +the fort is the ruin of a small chapel called “Santa Lucia” +on an old map in Astley’s <i>Collection of Voyages</i>, and on the +summit of a salt hill 1½ m. south of the fort are the remains of +another chapel called “N.S. de la Pena” on the same map, +and a “Monastery” in a sketch of Hormuz made by David +Davies, a mate on board the East India Company’s ship +“Discovery” in 1627. With the exception of the northern +part, where the old city stood, and the little patch at Turan +Bagh, the island is covered with reddish brown hills with sharp +serrated ridges composed of gypsum, rock-salt and clay. These +hills, which do not exceed 300 ft. in height, are broken through +in four places by conical, whitish peaks of volcanic rocks (greenstone, +trachyte); the highest of these peaks with an altitude of +690 ft. is situated almost in the centre of the island.</p> + +<p>The island has extensive beds of red ochre in which nodules +of very pure hematite are often found. The ochre, here called +<i>gīlek</i>, has been an important article of export for centuries<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +and great quantities of it are exported at the present time to +England (in 1906-1907, 10,000 tons; local price 27s. the ton). +The climate of Hormuz, although hot, is, according to medical +experts, the best in the Persian Gulf. Rain falls in January, +February and March, and the annual rainfall is said to be about +the same as that of Bushire, 12 to 13 in.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Capt. A. W. Stiffe in <i>Geogr. Mag.</i> (April 1874); William Foster in +<i>Geogr. Journal</i> (Aug. 1894); writer’s notes taken on island.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. H.-S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Barros, <i>Dec. II.</i> book x. c. 7, there is a curious detail of +the revenue and expenditure of the kingdom of Ormuz, which would +seem to exhibit the former as not more than £100,000.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The attack on Kishm was notable in that one of the two Englishmen +killed there was the great navigator Baffin.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Colonial Series, E. Indies</i>, by Sainsbury, vol. iii. <i>passim</i>, especially +see pp. 296 and 329.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> “Reddle or Red Ochre from the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire +is very little inferior to the Sort brought from the Island of +Ormuz in the Persian Gulph and so much valued and used by our +Painters under the name of Indian Red” (Sir John Hill, <i>Theophrastus’s +History of Stones</i>, London, 1774).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORN, ARVID BERNHARD,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1664-1742), Swedish +statesman, was born at Vuorentaka in Finland on the 6th of +April 1664, of a noble but indigent family. After completing +his studies at Åbo, he entered the army and served for several +years in the Netherlands, in Hungary under Prince Eugene, +and in Flanders under Waldeck (1690-1695). He stood high +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span> +in the favour of the young Charles XII. and was one of his foremost +generals in the earlier part of the great Northern War. +In 1704 he was entrusted with his first diplomatic mission, +the deposition of Augustus II. of Poland and the election of +Stanislaus I., a mission which he accomplished with distinguished +ability but absolute unscrupulousness. Shortly afterwards he +was besieged by Augustus in Warsaw and compelled to surrender. +In 1705 he was made a senator, in 1706 a count and in 1707 +governor of Charles XII.’s nephew, the young duke Charles +Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp. In 1710 he succeeded Nils +Gyldenstolpe as prime minister. Transferred to the central +point of the administration, he had ample opportunity of +regarding with other eyes the situation of the kingdom, and in +consequence of his remonstrances he fell rapidly in the favour +of Charles XII. Both in 1710 and 1713 Horn was in favour +of summoning the estates, but when in 1714 the diet adopted +an anti-monarchical attitude, he gravely warned and ultimately +dissolved it. In Charles XII.’s later years Horn had little to do +with the administration. After the death of Charles XII. (1718) +it was Horn who persuaded the princess Ulrica Leonora to +relinquish her hereditary claims and submit to be <i>elected</i> queen +of Sweden. He protested against the queen’s autocratic +behaviour, and resigned both the premiership and his senatorship. +He was elected <i>landtmarskalk</i> at the diet of 1720, and contributed, +on the resignation of Ulrica Leonora, to the election of Frederick +of Hesse as king of Sweden, whose first act was to restore to him +the office of prime minister. For the next eighteen years he so +absolutely controlled both the foreign and the domestic affairs +of Sweden that the period between 1720 and 1738 has well been +called the Horn period. His services to his country were indeed +inestimable. His strong hand kept the inevitable strife of the +parliamentary factions within due limits, and it was entirely +owing to his provident care that Sweden so rapidly recovered +from the wretched condition in which the wars of Charles XII. +had plunged her. In his foreign policy Horn was extremely wary +and cautious, yet without compromising either the independence +or the self-respect of his country. He was, however, the promoter +of a new principle of administration which in later days proved +very dangerous to Sweden under ministers less capable than he +was. This was to increase the influence of the diet and its +secret committees in the solution of purely diplomatic questions, +which should have been left entirely to the executive, thus +weakening the central government and at the same time facilitating +the interference of foreign Powers in Sweden’s domestic +affairs. Not till 1731 was there any appearance of opposition +in the diet to Horn’s “system”; but Horn, piqued by the +growing coolness of the king, the same year offered his resignation, +which was not accepted. In 1734, however, the opposition was +bold enough to denounce his neutrality on the occasion of the +war of the Polish Succession, when Stanislaus I. again appeared +upon the scene as a candidate for the Polish throne; but Horn +was still strong enough to prevent a rupture with Russia. Henceforth +he was bitterly but unjustly accused of want of patriotism, +and in 1738 was compelled at last to retire before the impetuous +onslaught of the triumphant young Hat party. For the rest +of his life he lived in retirement at his estate at Ekebyholm, where +he died on the 17th of April 1742. Horn in many respects +greatly resembled his contemporary Walpole. The peculiar +situation of Sweden, and the circumstances of his time, made +his policy necessarily opportunist, but it was an opportunism +based on excellent common sense.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See V. E. Svedelius, <i>Arvid Bernard Horn</i> (Stockholm, 1879); R. N. +Bain, <i>Gustavus III.</i>, vol. i. (London, 1894), and <i>Charles XII.</i> (1895); +C. F. Horn, <i>A. B. Horn: hans lefnad</i> (Stockholm, 1852).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of</span> (1518-1568), +a man of illustrious descent and great possessions in the Netherlands, +became in succession under Charles V. and Philip II. +stadtholder of Gelderland, admiral of Flanders and knight of +the Golden Fleece. In 1559 he commanded the stately fleet +which conveyed Philip II. from the Netherlands to Spain, and +he remained at the Spanish court till 1563. On his return he +placed himself with the prince of Orange and Count Egmont +at the head of the party which opposed the policy of Cardinal +Granvella. When Granvella retired the three great nobles +continued to resist the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition +and of Spanish despotic rule into the Netherlands. But though +Philip appeared for a time to give way, he had made up his mind +to visit the opponents of his policy with ruthless punishment. +The regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma, was replaced by the +duke of Alva, who entered the Netherlands at the head of a +veteran army and at once began to crush all opposition with a +merciless hand. Orange fled from the country, but Egmont +and Horn, despite his warning, decided to remain and face the +storm. They were both seized, tried and condemned as traitors, +and were executed on the 5th of June 1568 in the great square +before the town hall at Brussels.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See biographical notices in A. J. van der Aa, <i>Biographisch Woordenboek +der Nederlanden</i> (Haarlem, 1851-1879); J. Kok, <i>Vaderlandsch +Woordenboek</i> (Amsterdam, 1785-1799); also bibliography to chaps. +vi. vii. and xix. in <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. iii. pp. 798-809 +(1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORN,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> English hero of romance. <i>King Horn</i> is a heroic +poem or gest of 1546 lines dating from the 13th century. Murry +(or Allof), king of Sudenne<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Surrey and Sussex?) is slain by +Saracen pirates who turn his son Horn adrift with twelve other +children. The boat drifts to Westernesse<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (Cornwall?), where +the children are received by King Aylmer (Aethelmaer). +Presently Horn is denounced by one of his companions as the +lover of the king’s daughter Rymenhild (Rimel) and is banished, +taking with him a ring, the gift of his bride and a talisman against +danger. In Ireland, under the name of Godmod, he serves +for seven years, and slays in battle the Saracens who had killed +his father. Learning that Rymenhild is to be married against +her will to King Mody, he returns to Westernesse disguised +as a palmer, and makes himself known to the bride by dropping +the ring into the cup she offers him, with the words “Drink to +Horn of Horn.” He then reconquers his father’s kingdom and +marries Rymenhild.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The other versions of the story, which are founded on a common +tradition, but are not immediately dependent on one another, are: +(1) the longer French romance of <i>Horn et Rimenhild</i> by “mestre +Thomas,” describing more complex social conditions than those of +the English poem; (2) a slightly shorter Middle English poem, +<i>Horn Childe and Maiden Rimnild</i>; (3) the Scottish ballad of “Hind +Horn;” (4) a prose romance founded on the French <i>Horn</i>, entitled +<i>Pontus et Sidoine</i> (Lyons, 1480, Eng. trans. pr. by Wynkyn de Worde, +1511; German trans. Augsburg, 1483).</p> +</div> + +<p>There is a marked resemblance between the story of Horn +and the legend of Havelok the Dane, and it is interesting to +note how closely Richard of Ely followed the Horn tradition +in the 12th century <i>De gestis Herewardi Saxonis</i>. Hereward +also loves an Irish princess, flees to Ireland, and returns in time +for the bridal feast, where he is presented with a cup by the +princess. The orphaned prince who recovers his father’s kingdom +and avenges his murder, and the maid or wife who waits years for +an absent lover or husband, and is rescued on the eve of a +forced marriage, are common characters in romance. The +second of these motives, with almost identical incidents, occurs +in the legend of Henry the Lion, duke of Brunswick; it is +the subject of ballads in Swedish, Danish, German, Bohemian, +&c., and of a <i>Historia</i> by Hans Sachs, though some magic +elements are added; it also occurs in the ballad of <i>Der edle +Moringer</i> (14th century), well known in Sir Walter Scott’s +translation; in the story of Torello in the <i>Decameron</i> of Boccaccio +(10th day, 9th tale); and with some variation in the Russian +tale of Dobrynya and Nastasya.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>King Horn</i> was re-edited for the Early English Text Soc. by +G. H. McKnight in 1901; <i>Horn et Rimenhild</i> was edited with the +English versions for the Bannatyne Club by F. Michel (Paris, 1845); +<i>Horn Childe and Maiden Rimnild</i> in J. Ritson’s <i>Metrical Romances</i>, +vol. iii.; and “Hind Horn” in F. J. Child’s <i>English and Scottish</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span> +<i>Popular Ballads</i> (vol. i., 1882), with an introductory note on similar +legends. See also H. L. Ward, <i>Catalogue of Romances</i>, vol. i., where +the relation between Havelok and Horn is discussed; <i>Hist. litt. de la +France</i> (vol. xxii., 1852); W. Söderhjelm, <i>Sur l’identité du Thomas +auteur de Tristan et du Thomas auteur de Horn</i> (<i>Romania</i>, xv., 1886); +T. Wissmann, “King Horn” (1876) and “Das Lied von King Horn” +(1881) in Nos. 16 and 45 of <i>Quellen und Forschungen zur Spr. und +Culturgesch. d. german. Völker</i> (Strassburg and London); <i>Reinfrid +von Braunschweig</i>, a version of the legend of Henry the Lion, edited +by K. Bartsch (Stuttgart, 1871); and a further bibliography in +O. Hartenstein, <i>Studien zur Hornsage</i> (Heidelberg, 1902).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There was a barrow in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, called +Hornesbeorh; and there are other indications which point to a +possible connexion between <i>Horn</i> and Dorset (see H. L. Ward, <i>Cat. +of Romances</i>, i. 451).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sudenne and Westernesse are tentatively identified also with +Isle of Man and Wirral (<i>Cambridge Hist. of Eng Lit.</i>, i. 304).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORN<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. <i>cornu</i>; +cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="keras">κέρας</span>). The weapons which project from the heads of +various species of animals, constituting what are known as horns, +embrace substances which are, in their anatomical structure +and chemical composition, quite distinct from each other; and +although in commerce also they are known indiscriminately as +horn, their uses are altogether dissimilar. These differences in +structure and properties were thus indicated by Sir R. Owen:—“The +weapons to which the term horn is properly or technically +applied consist of very different substances, and belong to two +organic systems, as distinct from each other as both are from the +teeth. Thus the horns of deer consist of bone, and are processes +of the frontal bone; those of the giraffe are independent bones +or ‘epiphyses’ covered by hairy skin; those of oxen, sheep +and antelopes are ‘apophyses’ of the frontal bone, covered +by the corium and by a sheath of true horny material; those +of the prong-horned antelope consist at their basis of bony +processes covered by hairy skin, and are covered by horny +sheaths in the rest of their extent. They thus combine the +character of those of the giraffe and ordinary antelope, together +with the expanded and branched form of the antlers of deer. +Only the horns of the rhinoceros are composed wholly of horny +matter, and this is disposed in longitudinal fibres, so that the +horns seem rather to consist of coarse bristles compactly matted +together in the form of a more or less elongated sub-compressed +cone.” True horny matter is really a modified form of epidermic +tissue, and consists of the albuminoid “keratin.” It forms, not +only the horns of the ox tribe, but also the hoofs, claws or nails +of animals generally, the carapace of the tortoises and the +armadilloes, the scales of the pangolin, porcupine quills, and +birds’ feathers, &c.</p> + +<p>Horn is employed in the manufacture of combs, buttons, the +handles of walking-sticks, umbrellas, and knives, drinking-cups, +spoons of various kinds, snuff-boxes, &c. In former times it was +applied to several uses for which it is no longer required, although +such applications have left their traces in the language. Thus +the musical instruments and fog signals known as horns indicate +their descent from earlier and simpler forms of apparatus made +from horn. In the same way powder-horns were spoken of long +after they ceased to be made of that substance; to a small +extent lanterns still continue to be “glazed” with thin transparent +plates of horn.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORN<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cornu</i>; corresponding terms being Fr. <i>cor</i>, +<i>trompe</i>; Ger. <i>Horn</i>; Ital. <i>corno</i>), a class of wind instruments +primarily derived from natural animal horns (see above), and +having the common characteristics of a conical bore and the +absence of lateral holes. The word “horn” when used by +modern English musicians always refers to the French horn.</p> + +<p>Modern horns may be divided into three classes: (1) the +short horns with wide bore, such as the bugles (<i>q.v.</i>) and the +post-horn. (2) The saxhorns (<i>q.v.</i>), a family of hybrid instruments +designed by Adolphe Sax, and resulting from the adaptation +of valves and of a cup-shaped mouthpiece to instruments +of the calibre of the bugle. The Flügelhorn family is the German +equivalent of the saxhorns. The natural scale of instruments +of this class comprises the harmonics from the second to the +eighth only. (3) The French horn (Fr. <i>cor de chasse</i> or <i>trompe +de chasse</i>, <i>cor à pistons</i>; Ger. <i>Waldhorn</i>, <i>Ventilhorn</i>; Ital. +<i>corno</i> or <i>corno di caccia</i>), one of the most valuable and difficult +wind instruments of the orchestra, having a very slender +conical tube wound round in coils upon itself. It consists of +four principal parts—the body, the crooks, the slide and the +mouthpiece.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) The <i>body</i> is the main tube, having a bore of the form known as +trunco-conical, measuring approximately 7 ft. 4 in. in length, in which +the increase in the diameter of the bore is very gradual in proportion +to the length, the cone becoming accentuated only near the bell. +In the valve horn the bore is only theoretically conical, the extra +lengths of tubing attached to the valves being practically cylindrical. +The body is coiled spirally, and has at one end a wide-mouthed bell +from 11 to 12 in. in diameter having a parabolic curve, and at the +other a conical ferrule into which fit the crooks.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The <i>crooks</i> (Fr. <i>corps</i> or <i>tons de rechange</i>; Ger. <i>Krummbogen</i>, +<i>Stimmbogen</i>, <i>Einsetzbogen</i>) are interchangeable, spiral tubes, tapering +to a diameter of a quarter of an inch at the mouthpiece end and varying +in length from 16 in. for the B♭ alto crook to 125 in. for the B♭ +basso. Each crook is named according to the fundamental tone +which it produces on being added to the body. By lengthening the +tube at will the crook lowers the pitch of the instrument, and consequently +changes the key in which it stands. Although the harmonic +series remains the same for all the crooks, the actual sounds produced +by overblowing are lower, the tube being longer, and they now +belong to the key of the crook. The principle of the crook was +known early in the 17th century; it had been applied to the trumpet, +trombone and Jägertrummet<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> before being adapted to the horn. +Crooks are merely transposing agents; they are powerless to fill up +the gaps in the scale of the horn in order to make it a chromatic or +even a diatonic instrument, for they require time for adjustment. +The principle of the crook doubtless suggested to Stölzel the system +of valves, which is but an instantaneous application of the general +principle to the individual notes of the harmonic series, each of which +is thereby lowered a semitone, a tone or a tone and a half, as long +as the valve remains in operation. The body of the horn without +crooks is of the length to produce 8 ft. C., and forms the standard, +being known as the alto horn in C, which is the highest key in which +the horn is pitched. The notes are sounded as written.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The <i>mouthpiece</i> of the horn differs substantially from that of +the trumpet.<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> There is, strictly speaking, no cup, the inside of the +mouthpiece being, like the bore of the instrument itself, in the form +of a truncated cone or funnel. Like the other parts of this difficult +and complex instrument, the proportions of the mouthpiece must bear +a certain undefined relation to the length and diameter of the column +of air. The choice of a suitable mouthpiece is in fact a test of skill; +the shape of the lip of the performer and the more special use he may +wish to make of either the higher or the lower harmonics have to be +taken into consideration. In orchestral music the part for first horns +naturally calls for the use of the higher harmonics, which are more +easily obtained by means of a somewhat smaller and shallower +mouthpiece<a name="fa3p" id="fa3p" href="#ft3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a> than that used upon the second horn, which is called +upon to dwell more on the lower harmonics.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) The <i>tuning slides</i> (Fr. <i>coulisses</i>; Ger. <i>Stimmbogen</i>) consist of a +pair of sliding <b>U</b>-shaped tubes fitting tightly into each other, by +means of which the instrument can be brought strictly into tune, and +which also act as compensators with the crooks. On these tuning +slides, placed across the ring formed by the coils of the valve-horn, +are fixed the pistons with their extra lengths of tubing; as the connexion +of the pistons with the body of the horn is made through the +slides, the value of the latter as compensators will be readily understood. +Those accustomed to deal with instruments having fixed +notes, such as the piano and harp, hardly realize the extreme difficulties +which confront both maker and performer in intricate wind +instruments such as the horn, on which no sounds can be produced +without conscious adjustment of lips and breath, and but few without +the additional use of some such contrivance as slide, crook, piston of +of the hand in the bell, in the case of the natural or hand horn.</p> +</div> + +<p>The production of sound in wind instruments has a fourfold +object: (1) pitch; (2) range or scale of available notes; (3) +quality of tone or <i>timbre</i>; (4) dynamic variation, or +crescendo and diminuendo. The pitch of the horn, +<span class="sidenote">Acoustics.</span> +as of other wind instruments, depends almost exclusively on +the length of the air-column set in vibration, and remains +practically uninfluenced by the diameter of the bore. In the +case of conical tubes in which the difference in diameter at the +two extremities, mouthpiece and bell, is very great, as in the +horn, the pitch of the tube will be slightly higher than its theoretical +length would warrant.<a name="fa4p" id="fa4p" href="#ft4p"><span class="sp">4</span></a> When, for instance, three tubes +of the same length are sounded—No. 1, conical diverging; No. 2, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span> +conical converging in the direction from mouthpiece to bell; +No. 3, cylindrical—No. 1 gives a fundamental tone somewhat +higher, No. 2 somewhat lower, than No. 3. Victor Mahillon<a name="fa5p" id="fa5p" href="#ft5p"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +adds that the rate of vibration in such conical tubes as the horn +is slightly less than the rate of vibration in ambient air; therefore, +as the rate of vibration (<i>i.e.</i> the number of vibrations per second) +varies in the inverse ratio with the length of the tube, it follows +that the practical length of the horn is slightly less than the +theoretical, the difference for the horn in B♭ normal pitch +amounting to 13.9 cm. (approximately 5½ in.).</p> + +<p>The tube of the horn behaves as an open pipe. E. F. F. +Chladni<a name="fa6p" id="fa6p" href="#ft6p"><span class="sp">6</span></a> states that the mouthpiece end is to be considered +as open in all wind instruments (excepting reed instruments), +even when, as in horns and trumpets, it would seem to be closed +by the lips. Victor Mahillon, although apparently holding the +opposite view, and considering as closed the tubes of all wind +instruments played by means of reeds, whether single or double, +or by the lips acting as reeds, gives a new and practical explanation +of the phenomenon.<a name="fa7p" id="fa7p" href="#ft7p"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The result is the same in both cases, +for the closed pipe of trunco-conical bore, whose diameter at the +bell is at least four times greater than the diameter at the +mouthpiece, behaves in the same manner, when set in vibration +by a reed, as an open pipe, and gives the consecutive scale of +harmonics.<a name="fa8p" id="fa8p" href="#ft8p"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In order to produce sound from the horn, the performer, stretching +his lips across the funnel-shaped mouthpiece from rim to rim, blows +into the cavity. The lips, vibrating as the breath passes through the +aperture between them, communicate pulsations or series of intermittent +shocks to the thin stream of air, known as the exciting +current, which, issuing from them, strikes the column of air in the +tube, already in a state of stationary vibration.<a name="fa9p" id="fa9p" href="#ft9p"><span class="sp">9</span></a> The effect of this +series of shocks, without which there can be no sound, upon the +column of air confined within the walls of the tube is to produce +sound-waves, travelling longitudinally through the tube. Each +sound-wave consists of two half-lengths, one in which the air has been +compressed or condensed by the impulse or push, the second in +which, the push being spent, the air again dilates or becomes rarefied. +In an open pipe, the wave-length is theoretically equal to the +length of the tube. The pitch of the note depends on the frequency +per second with which each vibration or complete sound-wave +reaches the drum of the ear. The longer the wave the lower the +frequency. The velocity of the wave is independent of its length, +being solely conditioned by the rate of vibration of the particles +composing the conveying medium: while one individual particle +performs one complete vibration, the wave advances one wave-length.<a name="fa10p" id="fa10p" href="#ft10p"><span class="sp">10</span></a> +The rate of particle vibration or frequency is therefore +inversely proportional to the corresponding wave-length.<a name="fa11p" id="fa11p" href="#ft11p"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Sound-waves +generated by the same exciting current travel with the same +velocity whatever their length, the difference being the frequency +number and therefore the pitch of the note. As long as the performer +blows with normal force, the same length of tube produces the +same wave-length and therefore the same frequency and pitch. By +“blowing with normal force” is understood the proper relative +proportions to be maintained between the wind-pressure and the +lip-tension—a ratio which is found instinctively by the performer +but was only suspected by the older writers.<a name="fa12p" id="fa12p" href="#ft12p"><span class="sp">12</span></a> If the shocks or +vibrations initiated by the lips through the medium of the exciting +current be sharper owing to the increased tension of the lips, and at +the same time succeed each other with greater velocity, the wave-length +breaks up, and two, three or more proportionally shorter +complete waves form instead of one, and traverse the pipe within the +same space of time, producing sounds proportionally higher by an +octave, a twelfth, &c., according to the character of the initiatory +disturbance. We may therefore add this proposition: the rate of +vibration of a tube varies as the number of segments into which the +vibrating column of air within it is divided. In order to obtain the +fundamental, the performer’s lips must be loose and the wind-pressure +gentle but steady, so that the exciting current may issue +forth in a broad, slow stream. To set in vibration a column of air +some 16 or 17 ft. long is a feat of extreme difficulty; that is why it is +quite exceptional to find a horn-player who can sound the fundamental +on the low C or B♭ <i>basso</i> horns. In the organ, where even a +32 ft. tone is obtained, the wind-pressure and the lip-opening controlling +the exciting current are mechanically regulated for each +length of pipe—only one note being required from each. In order, +therefore, to induce the column of air within the tube to break up +and vibrate in aliquot parts, the exciting current must be compressed +into an ever finer, tenser and more incisive stream. There is in fact +a certain minimum pressure for each degree of tension of the lips +below which no harmonic can be produced.</p> + +<p>It is often stated that the harmonics are obtained by increasing the +tension of the lips and a crescendo by increasing the pressure of the +breath.<a name="fa13p" id="fa13p" href="#ft13p"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Victor Mahillon<a name="fa14p" id="fa14p" href="#ft14p"><span class="sp">14</span></a> accounts for the harmonics by increased +wind-pressure only. It is evident that the greater the tension of the +lips, the greater the force of wind required to set them vibrating; +therefore the force and velocity of the air must vary with the tension +of the lips in order to produce a steady or musical sound. D. J. +Blaikley considers that the ratio of increase in lips and breath follows +that of the harmonic series. The tension of the lips has the effect +of reducing the width of the slit or aperture between them and the +width of the exciting current. While increasing its density the +energy of the wind must, therefore, either expend itself in increasing +the rate of vibration, or frequency of the pulses, which influences the +pitch of the note; or else in increasing the extent of excursion or +amplitude of the vibrations, which influences the dynamic force of +the sound or loudness.<a name="fa15p" id="fa15p" href="#ft15p"><span class="sp">15</span></a> If the aperture be narrowed without providing +a proportional increase of wind-pressure, the harmonic overtone +may be heard, but either the intonation will suffer or the intensity +of the tone will be reduced, because the force required, to set +the tenser membrane in vibration is insufficient to give the vibrations +the requisite amplitude as well as the frequency. If the force expended +be excessive, <i>i.e.</i> more than the maximum required to ensure +the increased frequency proportional to the increased tension, the +superfluous energy must expend itself in increasing the amplitude of +the vibrations so that a note of a greater degree of loudness as well as +of higher pitch will be produced. The converse is equally true; the +lower the pitch of the note the slower the pulses or vibrations and +therefore the looser the lip and the gentler the force of current +required to set them vibrating. To draw a parallel from organ-pipes: +as long as even wind-pressure is maintained, the mouthpiece +being fixed proportional to the length of tube, the pipe gives out +one note of unvarying dynamic intensity; increase the pressure of +the wind and harmonics are heard, but it is impossible to obtain a +crescendo unless the mouthpiece be dispensed with and a free reed +(<i>q.v.</i>) adapted.</p> + +<p>Reference has already been made above to the difficulty of obtaining +the fundamental on tubes of great length and narrow bore like +the horn. The useful compass of the horn, therefore, begins with the +note that an open pipe half its length would give; the Germans term +instruments of such small calibre <i>half instruments</i>, and those of wide +calibre, such as bugles and tubas, <i>whole instruments</i>,<a name="fa16p" id="fa16p" href="#ft16p"><span class="sp">16</span></a> since in them +the whole of the length of the tube is available in practice.</p> + +<p>The harmonic series of the horn, or the open notes obtainable +without using valves or crooks, is written as for the alto horn in C +of 8 ft. tone, which forms the standard of notation. Notes written +in the bass clef are generally, for some unexplained reason, placed an +octave lower than the real sounds.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:531px; height:131px" src="images/img698.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span></p> + +<p>All the crooks, a list of the principal of which is appended, therefore +necessarily give real sounds <i>lower</i> than the above series according to +their individual length.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Table of Principal Crooks now in Use.</i><a name="fa17p" id="fa17p" href="#ft17p"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Key of<br />Crook.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Actual Sounds of Range of Useful Harmonics.</td> <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Length of<br />Crook in<br />Inches.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Transposes to</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">B♭ alto</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:297px; height:61px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699a.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 10th</td> <td class="tccm rb">16</td> <td class="tclm rb">major 2nd lower</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">A♮</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:295px; height:62px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699b.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 10th</td> <td class="tccm rb">22½</td> <td class="tclm rb">minor 3rd lower</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">A♭</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:294px; height:59px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699c.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 10th</td> <td class="tccm rb">29½</td> <td class="tclm rb">major 3rd lower</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">G</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:348px; height:57px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699d.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 12th</td> <td class="tccm rb">36¾</td> <td class="tclm rb">perfect 4th lower</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">F</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:442px; height:61px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699e.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">52½</td> <td class="tclm rb">perfect 5th lower</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">E</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:442px; height:57px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699f.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">61</td> <td class="tclm rb">minor 6th lower</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">E♭</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:441px; height:63px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699g.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">70¼</td> <td class="tclm rb">major 6th lower</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">D</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:442px; height:62px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699h.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">80</td> <td class="tclm rb">minor 7th lower</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">C basso</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:418px; height:64px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699i.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">3rd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">101</td> <td class="tclm rb">8<span class="sp">ve</span> lower</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb bb">B♭ basso</td> <td class="tclm rb bb"><img style="width:418px; height:66px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699j.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb bb">3rd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">125</td> <td class="tclm rb bb">major 9th lower</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The practical aggregate compass of the natural horns from B♭ +basso at the service of composers therefore ranges (actual sounds) +from <img style="width:155px; height:65px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699k.jpg" alt="" /> or with 3 valves from <img style="width:152px; height:77px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699l.jpg" alt="" /> +By means of hand-stopping, <i>i.e.</i> the practice of thrusting the hand +into the bell in order to lower the sound by a tone or a semitone, or +by the adaptation of valves to the horn, this compass may be +rendered chromatic almost throughout the range.</p> + +<p>The principle of the valve as applied to wind instruments differs +entirely from that of keys. The latter necessitate lateral holes bored +through the tube, and when the keys are raised the vibrating column +of air within the tube and the ambient air without are set in communication, +with the result that the vibrating column is shortened +and the pitch of the note raised. The valve system consists of valves +or pistons attached to additional lengths of tubing, the effect of +which is invariably to lower the pitch, except in the case of valve +systems specified as “ascending” tried by John Shaw and Adolphe +Sax. Insuperable practical difficulties led to the abandonment of +these systems, which in any case were the exception and not the rule. +The valves, placed upon the <b>U</b>-shaped slides in the centre of the horn, +are worked by means of pistons or levers, opening or closing the wind-ways +at will, so that when they are in operation the vibrating +column of air no longer takes its normal course along the main tube +and directly through the slides, but makes a détour through the extra +length of tubing before completing its course. Thus the valves, +unlike the keys, do not open any communication with the ambient +air. Even authoritative writers<a name="fa18p" id="fa18p" href="#ft18p"><span class="sp">18</span></a> have confused the two principles, +believing them to be one and the same.</p> + +<p>French horns are made with either two or three valves. To the +first valve is attached sufficient length of tubing to lower the pitch +of the instrument a tone, so that any note played upon the horn in F +while the first valve is depressed takes effect a tone lower, or as +though the horn were in E♭. The second valve opens a passage into +a shorter length of tubing sufficient to lower the pitch of the instrument +a semitone, as though the instrument were for the time being +in E. The third valve similarly lowers the pitch a tone and a half. +It will thus be seen that the principle applied in the crook and the +valve is in the main the same, but the practical value of the valve is +immeasurably superior. Thanks to the valve system the performer +is able to have the extra lengths of tubing necessary to give the horn +a chromatic compass permanently incorporated with the instrument, +and at will to connect one or a combination of these lengths with the +main tube of the instrument during any interval of time, however +short. The three devices, crooks, valves and slides, are in fact all +based upon the same principle, that of providing additional length +of tubing in order to deepen the pitch of the whole instrument at +will and to transpose it into a different key. Valves and slides, being +instantaneous in operation, give to the instrument a chromatic +compass, whereas crooks merely enable the performer to play in +many keys upon one instrument instead of requiring a different +instrument for each key. The slide is the oldest of these devices, and +probably suggested the crook as a substitute on instruments of +conical bore such as the horn.</p> + +<p>The invention of the valve, although a substantial improvement, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span> +was found to fall short of perfection in its operation on the tubes of +wind instruments so soon as the possibility of using the three valves +in combination to produce six different positions or series of +harmonics was realized, and for the following reason. In order to +deepen the pitch one tone by means of valve 1, a length of tubing +exactly proportional to the length of the main tube must be thrown +into communication with the latter. If, in addition to valve 1, +valve 3 be depressed, a further drop in pitch of 1½ tone should be +effected; but as the length of tubing added by depressing valve 3 +is calculated in proportion to the main tube, and the latter has +already been lengthened by depressing valve 1, therefore the additional +length supplied by opening valve 3 is now too short to produce +a drop of a minor third strictly in tune, and all notes played while +valves 1 and 3 are depressed will be too sharp. Means of compensating +slight errors in intonation are provided in the <b>U</b>-shaped slides +mentioned above.</p> + +<p>The <i>timbre</i> of the natural horn is mellow, sonorous and rich in +harmonics; it is quite distinctive and bears but little resemblance to +that of the other members of the brass wind. In listening to its +sustained notes one receives the impression of the tone being breathed +out as by a voice, whereas the trumpet and trombone produce the +effect of a rapid series of concussions, and in the tuba and cornet the +concussions, although still striking, are softened as by padding. +The timbre of the hand-stopped notes is veiled and suggestive of +mystery; so characteristic is the timbre that passages in the <i>Rheingold</i> +heard when the magic power of the Tarnhelm reveals itself +sound meaningless if the weird chords are played by means of the +valves instead of by hand-stopping. The timbre of the piston +notes is more resonant than that of the open notes, partaking +a little of the character of the trombone, which is probably due to +the fact that the strictly conical bore of the natural horn has +been replaced by a mixed cylindrical and conical as in trumpet and +trombone.</p> + +<p>The form of the mouthpiece (<i>q.v.</i>) at the point where it joins the +main bore of the tube must also exercise a certain influence on the +form of vibration, which it helps to modify in conjunction with the +conformation of each individual horn-player’s lip. In the horn the +cup of the mouthpiece is shaped like a funnel, the bore converging +insensibly into the narrow end of the main conical bore without +break or sharp edges as in the mouthpieces, more properly known as +cup-shaped, of trumpet and bombardon.</p> + +<p>The brilliant sonorousness and roundness of the timbre of the horn +are due to the strength and predominance of the partial tones up to +the 7th or 8th. The prevalence of the higher harmonics from the +10th to the 16th, in which the partial tones lie very close together, +determines the harsh quality of the trumpet timbre, which may be +easily imitated on the horn by forcing the sound production and +using a trumpet mouthpiece, and by raising the bell, an effect which +is indicated by composers by the words “Raise the Bells.”<a name="fa19p" id="fa19p" href="#ft19p"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>The origin of the horn must be sought in remote prehistoric +times, when, by breaking off the tip of a short animal horn, one +or at best two notes, powerful, rough, unsteady, only +barely approximating to definite musical sounds, +<span class="sidenote">History.</span> +were obtained. This was undoubtedly the archetype of the +modern families of brass wind instruments, and from it evolved +the trumpet, the bugle and the tuba no less than the horn. +The common characteristics which link together these widely +different modern families of instruments are: (1) the more +or less pronounced conical bore, and (2) the property possessed +in a greater or lesser degree of producing the natural sounds by +what has been termed overblowing the harmonic overtones. +If we follow the evolution of the animal horn throughout the +centuries, the ultimate development leads us not to the French +horn but to the bugle and tuba.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Before civilization had dawned in classic Greece, Egypt, Assyria +and the Semitic races were using wind instruments of wood and metal +which had left the primitive ram or bugle horn far behind. Even in +northern Europe, during the Bronze age (<i>c.</i> 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), prehistoric +man had evolved for himself the prototype of the Roman <i>cornu</i>, a +bronze horn of wide conical bore, bent in the shape of a <b>G</b>. One of +these instruments, known among the modern Scandinavian races as +<i>luurs</i> or <i>lurs</i>, found in the peat beds of Denmark and now preserved +in the Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, has a length +of 1.91 m. (about 6 ft. 4 in.). The <b>U</b>-shaped mouthpiece joint is +neatly joined to the remainder of the crescent-tube by means of a +bronze ring; the bell, which must have rested on the shoulder, +consists merely of a flat rim set round the end of the tube. There +is therefore no graceful curve in the bell as in the French horn. An +exact facsimile of this prehistoric horn has been made by Victor +Mahillon of Brussels, who finds that it was in the key of E♭ and easily +produces the first eight harmonics of that key. It stands, therefore, +an octave higher than the modern horn in E♭ (which measures some +13 ft.), but on the <i>lur</i> the fundamental E♭ can be reached owing to +the wider calibre of the bore.<a name="fa20p" id="fa20p" href="#ft20p"><span class="sp">20</span></a></p> + +<p>Among the Romans the wind instruments derived from the horn +were well represented, and included well-developed types which do +not differ materially from the natural instruments of modern times. +The buccina developed directly into the trumpet and trombone +during the middle ages, losing no characteristic of importance but the +bent form, which was perforce abandoned when the art of bending +hollow tubes was lost after the fall of the Roman Empire. The name +clung through all the changes in form and locality to the one type, +and still remains at the present day in the German <i>Posaune</i> (trombone). +There were four instruments known by the name of <i>cornu</i> +among the Romans: (1) the short animal horn used by shepherds; +(2) the longer, semicircular horn, used for signals; and (3) the still +longer <i>cornu</i>, bent and carried like the buccina, which had the wide +bore of the modern tuba. But whereas on the buccina the higher +harmonics were easily obtained, on the cornu the natural scale consisted +of the first eight harmonics only. The cornu, although shorter +than the buccina, had a deeper pitch and more sonorous tone, for, +owing to the wider calibre of the bore, the fundamental was easily +reached. In the reliefs on Trajan’s Column, where the two instruments +may be compared, the wider curve of the buccina forms a +ready means of identification. In addition to these was (4) the small +instrument like the medieval hunting-horn or post-horn, with the +single spiral turn similar to one which figures as service badge in +many British infantry regiments,<a name="fa21p" id="fa21p" href="#ft21p"><span class="sp">21</span></a> such as the first battalion of the +King’s Own Light Infantry. A terra-cotta model, slightly broken, +but with the spiral intact, was excavated at Ventoux in France and +is at present preserved in the department of Greek and Roman +antiquities at the British Museum, having been acquired from the +collection of M. Morel.</p> + +<p>The <i>lituus</i>, or cavalry trumpet of the Romans, consisted of a +cylindrical tube, to which was attached a bent horn or conical bell, +the whole in the shape of a <b>J</b>. The long, straight Roman tuba was +similar to the large, bent cornu so far as bore and capabilities were +concerned, but more unwieldy. All these wind instruments seem to +have been used during the classic Greek and Roman periods merely +to sound fanfares, and therefore, in spite of the high degree of +perfection to which they attained as instruments, they scarcely +possess any claim to be considered within the domain of music. +They were signalling instruments, mainly used in war, in hunting +and in state or civic ceremonial. Vegetius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 386) describes these +instruments, and gives detailed instructions for the special traditional +uses of tuba, buccina and cornu in the military camp: “Semivocalia +sunt, quae per tubam, aut cornua, aut buccinam dantur. Tuba quae +directa est appellatur buccina, quae in semet ipsam aereo circulo +flectitur. Cornu quod ex uris agrestibus, argento nexum, temperatum +arte, et spiritu, quem canentis flatus emittit auditur.”<a name="fa22p" id="fa22p" href="#ft22p"><span class="sp">22</span></a> It will be +seen that Vegetius demands a skilled horn-player. These service +instruments may all be identified in the celebrated bas-reliefs of +Trajan’s Column<a name="fa23p" id="fa23p" href="#ft23p"><span class="sp">23</span></a> (fig. 1) and of the Triumphal arch of Augustus at +Susa.<a name="fa24p" id="fa24p" href="#ft24p"><span class="sp">24</span></a></p> + +<p>Interesting evidence of a collegium cornicinum (gild of horn-players) +is furnished by an altar stone in the Roman catacombs, +erected to the memory of one “M. Julius victor ex Collegio Liticinum +Cornicinum,” on which are carved a lituus, a cornu and a pan’s pipe, +the cornu being similar to those on Trajan’s Column.</p> + +<p>All three Roman instruments, the tuba, the buccina and the +cornu, had well-formed mouthpieces, differing but little from the +modern cup-shaped form in use on the trumpet, the trombone, the +tubas, &c.<a name="fa25p" id="fa25p" href="#ft25p"><span class="sp">25</span></a> It would seem that even the short horn in the 4th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span> +century was provided with a mouthpiece,<a name="fa26p" id="fa26p" href="#ft26p"><span class="sp">26</span></a> judging from a carved +specimen on an ivory <i>capsa</i> or <i>pyxis</i> dating from the period immediately +preceding the fall of the Roman Empire, preserved among +the precious relics at Xanten.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:327px" src="images/img701a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Conrad Cichorius, <i>Die Reliefs der Traiansäule</i>, by permission of Georg Reimer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Roman Cornu and Buccina.</td></tr></table> + +<p>After the fall of the Roman Empire, when instrumental music had +fallen into disrepute and had been placed under a ban by the church, +the art of playing upon such highly-developed instruments gradually +died out in western Europe. With the disappearance of the civilization +and culture of the Romans, the skilled crafts also gradually +vanished, and the art of making metal pipes of delicate calibre and +of bending them was completely forgotten, and had to be reacquired +step by step during the middle ages from the more enlightened East. +The names of the instruments and representations of them survived +in MSS. and monuments of art, and as long as the West was content +to turn to late Roman and Romano-Christian art for its models, no +difficulties were created for the future archaeologist. By the time +the Western races had begun to express themselves and to develop +their own characteristics, in the 11th century, the arts of Persia, +Arabia and the Byzantine Empire had laid their mark upon the +West, and confusion of models, and more especially of names, +ensued. The greatest confusion of all was created by the numerous +translations and glosses of the Bible and by the attempts of miniaturists +to illustrate the principal scenes. In Revelation, for instance +(ch. viii.), the seven angels with their trumpets are diversely represented +with long tubas, with curved horns of various lengths, and +with the buisine, busaun or posaune, the descendant of the buccina.</p> + +<p>We know from the colouring used in illuminated MSS., gold and +pale blue, that horns were made of metal early in the middle ages. +The metal was not cast in moulds but hammered into shape. +Viollet-le-Duc<a name="fa27p" id="fa27p" href="#ft27p"><span class="sp">27</span></a> reproduces a miniature from a MS. of the end of +the 13th century (Paris, Bibliothèque du corps législatif), in which +two metal-workers are shown hammering two large horns.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:368px; height:256px" src="images/img701b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Medieval Hunting Horn with the +Tablature in use in the 14th Century.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The early medieval horns had no mouthpieces, the narrow end +being merely finished with a rim on which the lips rested. The tone +suffered in consequence, +being uncertain, +rough and +tremulous, wherefore +it was indicated +by the neume +known as <i>quilisma</i>: +“Est vox tremula; +sicut est sonus +flatus tubae vel +cornu et designatur +per neumam, quae +vocatur <i>quilisma</i>.”<a name="fa28p" id="fa28p" href="#ft28p"><span class="sp">28</span></a></p> + +<p>During the +middle ages the +bugle-horn or bull’s +horn was extensively +used as a +signal instrument +on land and sea (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bugle</a></span>), by the night-watchmen in cities, +in the watch tower of the feudal castle and by foresters and +huntsmen. The hunting-horn was generally represented as small +in the hunting scenes which abound in illuminated MSS. and +early printed books; it was crescent-shaped and was worn +slung by a leather strap over one shoulder and resting on the +opposite hip. When played it was held with the wide end +curving upwards in front of the huntsman’s head. A kind of +tablature for the horn was in use in France in the 14th century; +an example of it is here reproduced (fig. 2) from a 14th-century +French MS. treatise on venery.<a name="fa29p" id="fa29p" href="#ft29p"><span class="sp">29</span></a> Only one note is indicated, the +various calls and signals being based chiefly on rhythm, and the +notes being left to the taste and skill of the huntsman. The interpretation<a name="fa30p" id="fa30p" href="#ft30p"><span class="sp">30</span></a> +of the <i>Cornure de chasse de veue</i> seen in the figure is as +follows:</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:342px; height:86px" src="images/img701c.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind">In the first poem is given a list of these signs with the names by +which they were known in venery.</p> + +<p>In the 16th century in England the hunting-horn sometimes had +a spiral turn in the centre, half-way between mouthpiece and bell +end; the extra length was apparently added solely in order to +lower the pitch, the higher harmonics not being used for the hunting +calls. In George Turbevile’s <i>Noble Arte of Venerie</i> (1576, facsimile +reprint, Oxford, 1908) the “measures of blowing according to the +order which is observed at these dayes in this Realme of Englande” +are given for the horn in D. One of these, given in fig. 3, is the +English 16th-century hunting call, corresponding to the 14th-century +French <i>Cornure de chasse de veue</i> given above.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:195px" src="images/img701d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Turbevile’s <i>Noble Art of Venerie</i> (1576), by permission of the Clarendon Press.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Hunting Call.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The hunting-horn, whether in its simplest form or with the +one spiral, was held with the bell upwards on a level with the huntsman’s +head or just above it.<a name="fa31p" id="fa31p" href="#ft31p"><span class="sp">31</span></a></p> + +<p>A horn of the same fine calibre as the French horn, 3 or 4 ft. in +length, slightly bent to take the curve of the body, was in use in +Italy, it would seem, in the 15th century.<a name="fa32p" id="fa32p" href="#ft32p"><span class="sp">32</span></a> It was held slanting +across the body with the bell already slightly parabolic, at arm’s +length to the left side.</p> + +<p>The hunting- and post-horns were favourite emblems on medieval +coats of arms, more especially in Germany<a name="fa33p" id="fa33p" href="#ft33p"><span class="sp">33</span></a> and Bohemia.</p> + +<p>It is necessary at this point to draw attention to the fact that +the French horn is a hybrid having affinities with both trumpet +and primitive animal horn, or with <i>buccina</i> and <i>cornu</i>, and that +both types, although frequently misnamed and confused by medieval +writers and miniaturists, subsisted side by side, evolving independently +until they merged in the so-called French horn. Both buccina and +cornu after the fall of the Roman Empire, while Western arts and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span> +crafts were in their infancy, were made straight, being then known +as the busine or straight trumpet (busaun or posaun in Germany), +and the long horn, <i>Herhorn</i>, slightly curved.<a name="fa34p" id="fa34p" href="#ft34p"><span class="sp">34</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:320px; height:197px" src="images/img702a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Medieval<br /> +Circular Horn.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Medieval<br /> +Circular Horn, 1589.</td></tr></table> + +<p>From two medieval representations of instruments like the +Roman cornu one might be led to conclude that the instrument +had been revived and was in use from the 14th century. A wooden +bas-relief on the under part of the seats of the choir of Worcester +cathedral,<a name="fa35p" id="fa35p" href="#ft35p"><span class="sp">35</span></a> said to date from the 14th century, shows a musician in +a robe with long sleeves of fur playing the horn (fig. 4). The tube +winds from the mouth +in a circle reaching +to his waist, passes +under the right arm +across the shoulders +with the bell stretching +out horizontally +over his left shoulder. +The tube, of strictly +conical bore, is made +in three pieces, the +joints being strengthened +by means of +two rings. The other +example is German, +and figures in the +arms of the city of Frankfort-on-Main.<a name="fa36p" id="fa36p" href="#ft36p"><span class="sp">36</span></a> Here in the two opposite +corners are two cherubs playing immense cornua. The bore of the +instruments (fig. 5) is of a calibre suggestive of the contrabass tuba; +the circle formed is of a diameter sufficiently large to accommodate +the youthful performer in a sitting posture; the bell is the forerunner +of that of the modern saxophone, shaped like a gloxinea; +the mouthpiece is cup-shaped. It is possible, of course, that these +two examples are attempts to reproduce the classic instrument, +but the figures of the musicians and the feeling of the whole scheme +of ornamentation seem to render such an explanation improbable. +Moreover, Sebastian Virdung,<a name="fa37p" id="fa37p" href="#ft37p"><span class="sp">37</span></a> writing on musical instruments at +the beginning of the 16th century, gives a drawing of a cornu coiled +round tightly, the tubing being probably soldered together at certain +points. Virdung calls this instrument a <i>Jegerhorn</i>, and the short +hunting-horn <i>Acherhorn</i> (Ackerhorn—the synonym of the +modern Waldhorn). The scale of the former could have consisted +only of the first eight harmonics, including the fundamental, +which would be easily obtained on an instrument of such a large +calibre. Mersenne,<a name="fa38p" id="fa38p" href="#ft38p"><span class="sp">38</span></a> a century and a quarter later, gives a drawing +of the same kind of horn among his <i>cors de chasse</i>, but does not in +his description display his customary intimate knowledge of his +subject; it may be that he was dealing at second-hand with an +instrument of which he had had little practical experience. +Praetorius<a name="fa39p" id="fa39p" href="#ft39p"><span class="sp">39</span></a> gives as Jägerhorn only the simple forms of crescent-shaped +horns with a single spiral; the spirally-wound horn of +Virdung is replaced by a new instrument—the <i>Jägertrummet</i> (huntsman’s +trumpet)—of the same form, but less cumbersome, of cylindrical +bore excepting at the bell end and having a crook inserted +between the mouthpiece and the main coils. The tube, which could +not have been less than 8 ft. long, produced the harmonic series of +the cavalry trumpet from the 3rd to the 12th. The restrictions +placed upon the use of the cavalry trumpet would have rendered +it unavailable for use in the hunting-field, but the snake-shaped +model, as Praetorius describes it, was a decided improvement on +the horn, although inferior in resonance to the cavalry model. +Here then are the materials for the fusion of the trumpet and hunting-horn +into the natural or hand-horn of the 17th and 18th centuries. +There is evidence, however, that a century earlier, <i>i.e.</i> at the end +of the 15th century, the art of bending a brass tube of the delicate +proportions of the French horn, which is still a test of fine workmanship, +had been successfully practised. In an illustrated edition +of Virgil’s works published in Strassburg in 1502 and emanating +from Grüninger’s office, Brant being responsible for the illustrations, +the lines (<i>Aen.</i> viii. 1-2) “Ut belli signum Laurenti Turnus ab arce +Extulit: et rauco strepuerunt cornua cantu” are illustrated by two +soldiers, one with the sackbut (posaune, the descendant of the +buccina), the other with a horn wound spirally round his body in +three coils, which appear to have a conical bore from the funnel-shaped +mouthpiece to the bell which extends at the back of the head +horizontally over the left shoulder (fig. 6). There is ample room for +the performer’s head and shoulders to pass through the circle: +the length of the tube could not therefore have been much less +than 16 ft. long, equivalent to the horn in C or +B♭ basso. In the same book (pl. ccci.) is +another horn, smaller, differing slightly in the +disposition of the coils and held like the modern +horn in front.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:311px" src="images/img702b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Spirally +Coiled Horn from +Virgil’s Works +(1502), folio cccviii. +versa.</td></tr></table> + +<p>These horns were not used for hunting but +for war in conjunction with the draw-trumpet. +Brant could not have imagined these instruments, +and must have seen the originals or at +least drawings of them; the instruments probably +emanated from the famed workshops of +Nuremberg, being intended mainly for use in +Italy, and had not been generally adopted in +Germany. The significance of these drawings +of natural horns in a German work of the dawn +of the 16th century will not be lost. It disposes +once and for all of the oft-repeated fable +that the hunting-horn first assumed its present +form in France about 1680, a statement accepted +without question by authorities of all +countries, but without reference to any <i>pièce +justificative</i> other than the story of the Bohemian +Count Spörken first quoted by Gerber,<a name="fa40p" id="fa40p" href="#ft40p"><span class="sp">40</span></a> and +repeated in most musical works without the +context. The account which gave rise to +this statement had been published in 1782 +in a book by Faustinus Prochaska:<a name="fa41p" id="fa41p" href="#ft41p"><span class="sp">41</span></a> “Vix +Parisiis inflandi cornua venatoria inventa ars quum delectatus +suavitate cantus duos ex hominibus sibi obnoxiis ea instituendos +curavit. Id principium apud nos artis, qua hodie Bohemi excellere +putantur.” In a preceding passage after the count’s name, Franz +Anton, Graf von Spörken, are the words “anno saeculi superioris +octogesimo quum iter in externas provincias suscepisset,” &c. +There is no reference here to the invention of the horn in Paris or +to the folding of the tube spirally, but only to the manner of eliciting +sound from the instrument. Count Spörken, accustomed to the +medieval hunting fanfares in which the tone of the horn approximated +to the blare of the trumpet, was merely struck by the musical +quality of the true horn tone elicited in Paris, and gave France +the credit of the so-called invention, which probably more properly +belonged to Italy. The account published by Prochaska a hundred +years after, without reference to the source from which it was +obtained, finds no corroboration from French sources. Had the +French really made any substantial improvement in the hunting-horn +at the end of the 17th century, transforming it from the primitive +instrument into an orchestral instrument, it would only be +reasonable to expect to find some evidence of this, considering the +importance attached to the art of music at the court of Louis XIV., +whose musical establishments, la Chapelle Musique,<a name="fa42p" id="fa42p" href="#ft42p"><span class="sp">42</span></a> la Musique de +la Chambre du Roi and la Musique de la Grande Écurie, included +the most brilliant French artists. One would expect to find horns of +that period by French makers among the relics of musical instruments +in the museums of Europe. This does not seem to be the case. +Moreover, in Diderot and d’Alembert’s <i>Encyclopédie</i> (1767) the +information given under the heading <i>trompe ou cor de chasse grand +et petit</i> is very vague, and contains no hint of any special merit due +to France for any improvement in construction. Among the plates +(vol. v., pl. vii.) is given an illustration of a horn very similar to the +instruments made in England and Germany nearly a century +earlier, but with a funnel-shaped mouthpiece. Dr Julius Rühlmann +states that there are two horns by Raoux, bearing the date 1703,<a name="fa43p" id="fa43p" href="#ft43p"><span class="sp">43</span></a> +in the Bavarian National Museum in Munich,<a name="fa44p" id="fa44p" href="#ft44p"><span class="sp">44</span></a> but although fine +examples, one in silver, the other in brass (fig. 6) by Raoux, they +turn out on inquiry<a name="fa45p" id="fa45p" href="#ft45p"><span class="sp">45</span></a> to bear no date whatever. Rühlmann’s +statement in the same article, that in the arms of the family of +Wartenberg-Kolb (now extinct), which goes back to 1169, there is +a hunting-horn coiled round in a complete circle is also misleading. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span> +The horn (a post-horn) did not appear in the arms of the family +in question until 1699, when the first peer Casimir Johann Friedrich +was created hereditary Post-Master. The influence of such erroneous +statements in the work of noted writers is far-reaching. Inquiries +at the department of +National Archives in +Paris concerning Raoux, +the founder of the afterwards +famous firm of +horn-makers whose model +with pistons is used in +the British military bands +and at Kneller Hall, +proved fruitless. Fétis +states that he worked +during the second half of +the 18th century. Albert +Chouquet<a name="fa46p" id="fa46p" href="#ft46p"><span class="sp">46</span></a> states that +he has seen a trumpet by +Raoux, “seul ordinaire +du Roy, Place du Louvre” +dated 1695. The inscriptions +on the horns in question +are: For No. 105, a +silver horn of the simplest +form of construction in D, +“Fait à Paris par Raoux”; +for No. 106, a brass horn +engraved with a crown on +an ermine mantle with +the initials C. A. (Carl +Albert), “Fait à Paris +par Raoux, seul ordinaire +du Roy, Place du Louvre.” +Both horns measure across the coils 56 cm. and across the bell +27½. They are practically the same as the <i>cors de chasse</i> now in +use in French and Belgian military bands, the large diameter of +the coil enabling the performer to carry it over his shoulder. The +orchestral horn was given a narrower diameter in order to facilitate +its being held in front of the performer in a convenient position for +stopping the bell with the right hand. No. 107 in the same collection, +a horn of German construction, bears the inscription “Macht Jacob +Schmid in Nürnberg” and the trademark “J. S.” with a bird. +A horn in E♭] of French make, having fleur-de-lys stamped on the +rim of the bell, and measuring only 15 in. across the coils to the +exterior edge of the bell—therefore a very small horn—is preserved +in the Grand Ducal Museum at Darmstadt.<a name="fa47p" id="fa47p" href="#ft47p"><span class="sp">47</span></a> A horn in F♯ (probably +F in modern high pitch), having the rim ornamented as above and +the inscription “Fait à Paris, Carlin, ordinaire du Roy,” readily +gives the harmonics from the 3rd to the 12th.<a name="fa48p" id="fa48p" href="#ft48p"><span class="sp">48</span></a> The extreme width +is 20 in.<a name="fa49p" id="fa49p" href="#ft49p"><span class="sp">49</span></a> Carlin, who lived at rue Croix des Petits Champs, died +about 1780. The earliest dated horn extant is believed to be the +one preserved in the Hohenzollern Museum in Sigmaringen, “Machts +Wilhelm Haas, Nürnberg, 1688.”<a name="fa50p" id="fa50p" href="#ft50p"><span class="sp">50</span></a> Another early German horn +engraved “Machts Heinr. Rich. Pfeiffer in Leipzig, 1697,”<a name="fa51p" id="fa51p" href="#ft51p"><span class="sp">51</span></a> formerly +in Paul de Wit’s museum in Leipzig and now transferred with the +rest of the collection to Cologne, is of similar construction.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:279px; height:391px" src="images/img703a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From a Photo by K. Teufel.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Early Raoux Horn (Munich).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The horn must have been well known at this time in England, +for there are 17th-century horns of English manufacture still extant, +one, for instance, in the collection of the Rev. F. W. Galpin by +William Bull, dated 1699.<a name="fa52p" id="fa52p" href="#ft52p"><span class="sp">52</span></a> In 1701 Clagget<a name="fa53p" id="fa53p" href="#ft53p"><span class="sp">53</span></a> invented a contrivance +by means of which two horns in different keys could be coupled and +played by means of one mouthpiece, a valve or key opening the +passage into the airways of one or the other of these horns at the +will of the performer. Another horn of English manufacture about +1700 was exhibited at the South Kensington Museum in 1872, +bearing No. 337 in the catalogue, in which unfortunately no details +are given. Enough examples have been quoted to show that, +judging from the specimens extant, Germany was not behind +France, if not actually ahead, in the manufacture of early natural +horns. Data are wanting concerning the instruments of Italy; +they would probably prove to be the earliest of all, and as brass +wind instruments are perishable are perhaps for that very reason +unrepresented at the present day.</p> + +<p>The horn at the present stage in its evolution was also well +represented among the illustrations of the musical literature in +Germany<a name="fa54p" id="fa54p" href="#ft54p"><span class="sp">54</span></a> during the first half of the 18th century, and references +to it are frequent.</p> + +<p>The earliest orchestral music for the horn occurs in the operas +of Cavalli and Cesti, leaders of the Venetian Opera in the 17th +century. Already in 1639 Cavalli in his opera <i>Le Nozze +de Tito e Pelei</i> (act i. sc. 1) introduced a short scena, +<span class="sidenote">Music.</span> +“Chiamata alla Caccia”<a name="fa55p" id="fa55p" href="#ft55p"><span class="sp">55</span></a> in C major for four horns on a basso +continuo. An examination of the scoring in C clefs on the first, +second, third and fourth lines shows, by the use of the note +<img style="width:169px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703b.jpg" alt="" /> in the bass part and in the second tenor of +<img style="width:126px; height:39px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703c.jpg" alt="" /> the 5th harmonic of the series, that the fundamental +could have been no other than the 16-ft. C; the highest +note in the treble part is <img style="width:77px; height:43px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703d.jpg" alt="" />, the 12th harmonic of the 8-ft. +alto horn in C, now obsolete. It is clear therefore that horns with +tubing respectively 8 ft. and 16 ft. long, which must have been +disposed in coils as in the present day, were in use in Italy before +the middle of the 17th century, fifty years before the date of their +reputed invention in Paris.</p> + +<p>In the same opera, act i. sc. 4, “Coro di Cavalieri” is a stirring +call to arms of elemental grandeur, in which occur the words: +“all’ armi, ò la guerrieri corni e tamburi e trombe, ogni campo +ogni canto, armi rimbombe.” There are above the voice parts four +staves with treble and C clef signatures above the bass, and, although +no instruments are indicated, the music written thereon, +which alternates with the voices but does not accompany them, +can have been intended for no instruments but trumpets and horns, +thus carrying out the indications in the text. The horn is here once +again put to the same use as the Roman cornu, and associated in +like manner with the descendant of the buccina in a call to arms. +It may be purely a coincidence that the early illustration of a horn +with the tubing wound in coils round the body in the Strassburg +Virgil mentioned above was put to the same use and associated +with the same instrument.</p> + +<p>Cesti’s operas likewise contain many passages evidently intended +for the horn, although the instruments are not specified in the +score, which was nothing unusual at the time. Lulli composed the +incidental music for a ballet, <i>La Princesse d’Elide</i>, which formed +part of Molière’s divertissement, “Les plaisirs de l’île enchantée,” +written for a great festival at Versailles on the 7th of May 1664. +A copy of the music for this ballet, made about 1680, is preserved in +the library of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The music +contains a piece entitled “Les violons et les cors de chasse,” written +in the same style as Cavalli’s scena; there are but two staves, +and on both the music is characteristic of the horn, with which the +violins would play in unison. The piece finishes on B♭ <img style="width:78px; height:50px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703e.jpg" alt="" /> +and to play this note as the second of the harmonic series, the +fundamental not being obtainable, the tube of the horn must have +been over 17 ft. long. Among Philidor’s copies of Lulli’s ballets +preserved in the library of the Paris Conservatoire of Music (vol. +xlvii., p. 61) is a more complete copy of the above. The second +number is an “Air des valets de chiens et des chasseurs avec les +cors de chasse,” which is substantially the same as the one in the +Fitzwilliam Museum, but set for five horns in B♭. Here again the +use of D, the fifth note of the harmonic series, indicates that the +fundamental was <img style="width:77px; height:67px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703f.jpg" alt="" /> a tone lower than the C horn +scored for by Cavalli, and known as B♭ basso. Victor Mahillon<a name="fa56p" id="fa56p" href="#ft56p"><span class="sp">56</span></a> +considers that the music reveals the fact that it was written for +horns in B♭, 35 degrees (chromatic semitones) above 32-ft. C, or +<img style="width:74px; height:33px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703g.jpg" alt="" /> having a wave-length of 1.475 m. To this statement +it is not possible to subscribe. The quintette required four horns in +B♭ over 8 ft. long and one B♭ basso about 17 ft. long. It is obvious +that the present custom of placing the bass notes of the horn on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span> +F clef an octave too low, as is now customary, had not yet been +adopted, for in that case the bass horn would in several bars be +playing above the tenor.</p> + +<p>In 1647 Cardinal Mazarin, wishing to create in France a taste +for Italian opera, had procured from Italy an orchestra, singers and +mise-en-scène. That he was not entirely successful in making +Paris appreciate Italian music is beside the mark; he developed +instead a demand for French opera, to which Lulli proved equal. +The great similarity in the style of the horn <i>scène</i> by Cavalli and +Lulli may perhaps provide a clue to the mysterious and sudden +apparition of the natural horn in France, where nothing was known +of the hybrid instrument thirty years before, when Mersenne<a name="fa57p" id="fa57p" href="#ft57p"><span class="sp">57</span></a> +wrote his careful treatise on musical instruments.</p> + +<p>The orchestral horn had been introduced from Italy. It is not +difficult to understand how the horn came to be called the <i>French</i> +horn in England; the term only appears after Gerber and other +writers had repeated the story of Count Spörken introducing the +musical horn into Bohemia.<a name="fa58p" id="fa58p" href="#ft58p"><span class="sp">58</span></a> By this time the firm of Raoux, +established in Paris a hundred years, had won for itself full recognition +of its high standard of workmanship in the making of horns.</p> + +<p>This use of the horn by Lulli in the one ballet seems to be an +isolated instance; no other has yet been quoted. The introduction +of the natural horn into the orchestra of the French opera did +not occur until much later in 1735 in André Campra’s <i>Achille et +Deidamie</i>, and then only in a fanfare. In the meantime the horn +had already won a place in most of the rising opera houses and ducal +orchestras<a name="fa59p" id="fa59p" href="#ft59p"><span class="sp">59</span></a> of Germany, and had been introduced by Handel into +the orchestra in London in his <i>Water-music</i> composed in honour +of George I.</p> + +<p>Although the Italians were undoubtedly the first to introduce +the horn into the orchestra, it figured at first only as the characteristic +instrument of the chase, suggesting and accompanying hunting +scenes or calls to arms. For a more independent use of the horn in +the orchestra we must turn to Germany. Reinhard Keiser, the +founder of German opera, at the end of the 17th century in Hamburg, +introduced two horns in C into the opening chorus of his opera +<i>Octavia</i> in 1705, where the horns are added to the string quartette +and the oboes; they play again in act i. sc. 3, and in act ii. sc. 6 +and 9. The compass used by the composer for the horns in C +alto is the following:—</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:362px; height:67px" src="images/img704.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind">Wilhelm Kleefeld draws attention to the characterization, which +differed in the three acts. In <i>Henrico</i> (1711), in <i>Diana</i> (1712) and +in <i>L’Inganno Fedele</i> (1714) F horns were used. This called forth +from Mattheson<a name="fa60p" id="fa60p" href="#ft60p"><span class="sp">60</span></a> his much-quoted eulogium, the earliest description +of the orchestral horn: “Die lieblich pompeusen Waldhörner sind +bei itziger Zeit sehr <i>en vogue</i> kommen, weil sie theils nicht so rude +von Natur sind als die Trompeten, teils auch weil sie mit mehr +<i>Facilité</i> können tractiret werden. Die brauchbarsten haben F +und mit den Trompeten aus dem C gleichen <i>Ambitum</i>. Sie klingen +auch dicker und füllen besser aus als die übertäubende und schreyende +Clarinen, weil sie um eine ganze quinte tiefer stehen.”</p> + +<p>Lotti in his <i>Giove in Argo</i>, given in Dresden, 1717, scored for +two horns in C, writing for them soli in the aria for tenor<a name="fa61p" id="fa61p" href="#ft61p"><span class="sp">61</span></a> (act iii. +sc. 1). Examples of C. H. Graun’s<a name="fa62p" id="fa62p" href="#ft62p"><span class="sp">62</span></a> scoring for horns in F and G +respectively in <i>Polydorus</i> (1708-1729) and in <i>Iphigenia</i> (1731) show +the complete emancipation of the instrument from its original +limitations; it serves not only as melody instrument but also to +enrich the harmony and emphasize the rhythm. A comparison of +the early scores of Cavalli and Lulli with those of Handel’s <i>Wasserfahrtmusik</i><a name="fa63p" id="fa63p" href="#ft63p"><span class="sp">63</span></a> +(1717) and of <i>Radamisto</i>, performed in London in 1720, +shows the rapid progress made by the horn, even at a time when its +technique was still necessarily imperfect.</p> + +<p>While Bach was conductor of the prince of Anhalt-Cöthen’s +orchestra (1717-1723), it is probable that horns in several keys +were used. In Dresden two Bohemian horn-players, Johann +Adalbert Fischer and Franz Adam Samm, were added to the court +orchestra in 1711.<a name="fa64p" id="fa64p" href="#ft64p"><span class="sp">64</span></a> In Vienna the addition is stated to have taken +place in 1712 at the opera.<a name="fa65p" id="fa65p" href="#ft65p"><span class="sp">65</span></a> It is probable that as in Paris so in +Vienna there were solitary instances in which the horn was heard +in opera without attracting the attention of musicians long before +1712, for instance in Cesti’s <i>Il Pomo d’Oro</i>, printed in Vienna in +1667 and 1668 and performed for the wedding ceremonies of Kaiser +Leopold and Margareta, infanta of Spain. A horn in E (former F +pitch) in the museum of the Brussels conservatoire bears the inscription +“Machts Michael Leicham Schneider in Wien, 1713.”<a name="fa66p" id="fa66p" href="#ft66p"><span class="sp">66</span></a> +Fürstenau<a name="fa67p" id="fa67p" href="#ft67p"><span class="sp">67</span></a> gives a further list of operas in Vienna during the first +two decades of the 18th century.</p> + +<p>It will be well before the next stage in the evolution is approached +to consider the compass of the natural horn. The pedal octave +from the fundamental to the 2nd harmonic was altogether wanting; +the next octave contained only the 2nd and 3rd harmonics or the +octave and its fifth; in the third octave, the 8ve, its major 3rd, +5th and minor 7th; in the fourth octave, a diatonic scale with a few +accidentals was possible. It will be seen that the compass was very +limited on any individual horn, but by grouping horns in different +keys, or by changing the crooks, command was gained by the +composer over a larger number of open notes.</p> + +<p>An important period in the development of the horn has now +been reached. Anton Joseph Hampel is generally credited<a name="fa68p" id="fa68p" href="#ft68p"><span class="sp">68</span></a> with +the innovation of adapting the crooks to the middle of the body of +the horn instead of near the mouthpiece, which greatly improved +the quality of the notes obtained by means of the crooks. The +crooks fitted into the two branches of <b>U</b>-shaped tubes, thus forming +slides which acted as compensators. Hampel’s <i>Inventionshorn</i>, as +it is called in Germany (Fr. <i>cor harmonique</i>), is said to date from +1753,<a name="fa69p" id="fa69p" href="#ft69p"><span class="sp">69</span></a> the first instrument having been made for him by Johann +Werner, a brass instrument-maker of Dresden. The same invention +is also attributed to Haltenhof of Hanau.<a name="fa70p" id="fa70p" href="#ft70p"><span class="sp">70</span></a> Others again mention +Michael Wögel<a name="fa71p" id="fa71p" href="#ft71p"><span class="sp">71</span></a> of Carlsruhe and Rastadt, probably confusing his +adaptation of the <i>Invention</i> or <i>Maschine</i>, as the slide contrivance +was called in Germany, to the trumpet in 1780. The Inventionshorn, +although embodying an important principle which has also +found its application in all brass wind instruments with valves as +a means of correcting defective intonation, did not add to the +compass of the horn. At some date before 1762 it would seem that +Hampel<a name="fa72p" id="fa72p" href="#ft72p"><span class="sp">72</span></a> also discovered the principle on which hand-stopping is +founded.</p> + +<p>By hand-stopping (Fr. <i>sons bouchés</i>, Ger. <i>gestöpfte Töne</i>) is understood +the practice of inserting the hand with palm outstretched and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span> +fingers drawn together, forming a long, shallow cup, into the bell of +the horn; the effect is similar to that produced in wood wind +instruments, termed <i>d’amore</i>, by the pear-shaped bell with a narrow +opening, <i>i.e.</i> a veiled mysterious quality, and, according to the +arrangement of the hand and fingers (which cannot be taught +theoretically, being inter-dependent on other acoustic conditions), +a drop in pitch which enables the performer merely to correct the +faulty intonation of difficult harmonics or to lower the pitch exactly +a semitone or even a full tone by inserting the hand well up the +bore of the bell. J. Fröhlich<a name="fa73p" id="fa73p" href="#ft73p"><span class="sp">73</span></a> gives drawings of the two principal +positions of the hand in the horn. The same phenomenon may be +observed in the flute by closing all the holes, so that the fundamental +note of the pipe speaks, and then gradually bringing the palm of +the hand nearer the open end of the flute. As a probable explanation +may be offered the following suggestion. The partial closing of the +opening of the bell removes the boundary of ambient air, which +determines the ventral segment of the half wave-length some +distance beyond the normal length; this boundary always lies +<i>beyond</i> the end of the tube, thus accounting for the discrepancy +between the theoretical length of the air-column and the practical +length actually given to the tube.<a name="fa74p" id="fa74p" href="#ft74p"><span class="sp">74</span></a> Hampel is also said to have +been the first to apply the <i>sordini</i><a name="fa75p" id="fa75p" href="#ft75p"><span class="sp">75</span></a> (Fr. <i>sourdine</i>) or mute, already +in use in the 17th century for the trumpet,<a name="fa76p" id="fa76p" href="#ft76p"><span class="sp">76</span></a> to the horn. The +original mute did not affect the pitch of the instrument, but only +the tone, and when properly constructed may be used with the valve +horn to produce the mysterious veiled quality of the hand-stopped +notes. No satisfactory scientific explanation of the modifications +in the pitch effected by the partial obstruction of the bell, whether +by the hand or by means of certain mechanical devices, has as yet +been offered. D. J. Blaikley suggests that in cases when the effect +of hand-stopping appears to be to raise the pitch of the notes of +the harmonic series, the real result of any contraction of the bell +mouth (as by the insertion of the hand) is always a flattening of +pitch accompanied by the introduction of a distorted or inharmonic +scale, of such a character that for instance, the <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, or 8th, 9th +and 10th notes of the original harmonic scale become not the c♯ +d♯ e♯ of a fundamental raised a semitone, but D♭, E♭, and f due +to the 9th, 10th and 11th notes of a disturbed or distorted scale +having a fundamental lower than that of the normal horn.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:522px; height:158px" src="images/img705a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>With regard to the discovery of this method of obtaining a +chromatic compass for the horn, which rendered the instrument +very popular with composers, instrumentalists and the public, and +procured for it a generally accredited position in the orchestra, the +following is the sum of evidence at present available. In the Kgl. +öffentliche Bibliothek, Dresden, is preserved, amongst the musical +MSS., an autograph volume of 152 pages, entitled <i>Lection pro +Cornui</i>, bearing the signature A. J. H[ampel], the name being filled +in in pencil by a different hand. There is no introduction, no letterpress +of any description belonging to the MS. method for the horn, +nor is any book or pamphlet explaining the Inventionshorn or the +method of hand-stopping by Hampel extant or known to have +existed. He has apparently left no record of his accomplishment. +A few typical extracts copied and selected from the original MS., +courteously communicated by the director of the Royal Library, +Hofrath, P. E. Richter (a practical musician and performer on horn +and trumpet), do not prove conclusively that they were intended +to be played on hand-stopped horns, with the exception, perhaps, +of the A, 13th harmonic from C, which could not easily be obtained +except by hand-stopping on the hand-horn. On the blank sheet +preceding the exercises is an inscription in the hand of Moritz +Fürstenau, former custodian of the Royal Private Musical Collection +(incorporated with the public library in 1896): “Anton Joseph +Hampel, by whom these exercises for the horn were written, was a +celebrated horn-player, a member of the Orchestra of the Electoral +Prince of Saxony. He invented the so-called Inventionshorn. +Cf. <i>Neues biog.-hist. Lexicon der Tonkünstler</i> by Gerber, pt. i. col. +493; also <i>Zur Gesch. der Musik u. des Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden</i>, +by M. Fürstenau, Bd. ii.” It will be seen that Fürstenau gives +Gerber as his authority for the attribution of the invention to Hampel, +although he searched the archives, to which he had free access, for +material for his book.</p> + +<p>The first possessor of the MS., Franz Schubert (1768-1824), +musical director of the Italian opera in Dresden, wrote the following +note in pencil on the last page of the cover: “Franz Schubert. +The complete school of horn-playing by the Kgl. Polnischen u. +Kursächs. Cammermusicus Anton Joseph Hampel, a celebrated +virtuoso, invented by himself in 1762.” Judging from the standard +of modern technique, there are many passages in the “Lection” +which could not be played without artificially humouring the production +of harmonics with the lips, and it is an open question to +what extent this method of correcting intonation and of altering the +pitch was practised in the 18th century. When, therefore, Franz +Schubert states that the method was <i>invented</i> by Hampel, we may +take this as indirectly confirming Gerber’s statements. Further +confirmation is obtained from the text of a work on the horn written +by Heinrich Domnich<a name="fa77p" id="fa77p" href="#ft77p"><span class="sp">77</span></a> (b. 1760), the son of a celebrated horn-player +of Würtzburg contemporary with Hampel. Domnich junior settled +eventually in Paris, where he was appointed first professor of the +horn at the Conservatoire. According to him the mute (sourdine) +of metal, wood or cardboard in the form of a hollow cone, having +a hole in the base, was used to soften the tone of the horn without +altering the pitch. But Hampel, substituting for this the pad of +cotton wool used for a similar purpose with the oboe, found with +surprise that its effect in the bell of the horn was to <i>raise</i> the pitch +a semitone (see D. J. Blaikley’s explanation above). By this means, +says Domnich, a diatonic and chromatic scale was obtained. Later +Hampel substituted the hand for the pad. Domnich duly ascribes +to Hampel the credit of the Inventionshorn, but erroneously states +that it was Haltenhoff of Hanau who made the first instrument. +Domnich further explains that Hampel, who had not practised the +<i>bouché</i> notes in his youth, only made use of them in slow music, and +that the credit of making practical use of the discovery was due to +his pupil Giovanni Punto (Joh. Stich) the celebrated horn virtuoso, +who was a friend of Domnich’s.</p> + +<p>It may be well to draw attention to the fact that hand-stopping +was not possible so long as the tube of horn was folded in a circle +wide enough to be worn round the body. The reduction of the +diameter of the orchestral horn in order to allow the performer to +hold the instrument in front of him, thus bringing the bell in front +of the right arm in a convenient position for hand-stopping, must +have preceded the discovery of hand-stopping. In the absence of +contrary evidence we may suppose that the change was effected for +the more convenient arrangement and manipulation of the slides or +<i>Inventions</i>. So radical a change in the compass of the horn could not +occur and be adopted generally without leaving its mark on the +horn music of the period; this change does not occur, as far as we +know, before the last decades of the 18th century. The rapid +acceptance in other countries of Hampel’s discovery of hand-stopping +is evidenced by a passage from a little English work on music, +published in London in 1772 but bearing at the end of the preface +the date June 1766:<a name="fa78p" id="fa78p" href="#ft78p"><span class="sp">78</span></a> “Some eminent Proficients have been so +dexterous as very nearly to perform all the defective notes of the +scale on the Horn by management of Breath and by a little stopping +the bell with their hands.”</p> + +<p>Hampel’s success gave a general impetus to the inventive faculty +of musical instrument makers in Europe. At first the result was +negative. Kölbel’s attempt must, however, be mentioned, if only +to correct a misconception. Kölbel, a Bohemian horn virtuoso at +the imperial Russian court from 1754, spent many years in vain +endeavours to improve his instrument. At last, in 1760, he applied +keys to the horn or the bugle, calling it Klappenhorn (the bugle is +known in Germany as <i>Signal</i> or <i>Buglehorn</i>). Kölbel’s experiment +did not become widely known or adopted during his lifetime, but +Anton Weidinger, court trumpeter at Vienna, made a keyed trumpet<a name="fa79p" id="fa79p" href="#ft79p"><span class="sp">79</span></a> +in 1801, which attracted attention in musical circles and gave a +fresh impetus in experimenting with keys upon brass instruments. +In 1813 Joseph Weidinger, the twelve-year-old son of the above, +gave a concert in Vienna on the <i>Klappenwaldhorn</i><a name="fa80p" id="fa80p" href="#ft80p"><span class="sp">80</span></a> (or keyed French +horn), about which little seems to be known. Victor Mahillon<a name="fa81p" id="fa81p" href="#ft81p"><span class="sp">81</span></a> +describes such an instrument, but ascribes the invention to Kölbel; +there was but one key placed on the bell, which on being opened +had the effect of raising the pitch of the instrument a whole tone. +By alternately using the harmonic open notes on the normal length +of the tube, and then by the action of the key shortening the air +column, the following diatonic scale was obtained in the third +octave:</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:473px; height:60px" src="images/img705b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:265px; height:377px" src="images/img706.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Modern Horn (Boosey & Co.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">In 1812 Dikhuth,<a name="fa82p" id="fa82p" href="#ft82p"><span class="sp">82</span></a> horn-player in the orchestra of the grand-duke +of Baden at Mannheim, constructed a horn in which a slide on the +principle of that of the trombone +was intended to replace +hand-stopping and to lower +the pitch at will a semitone.</p> + +<p>The most felicitous, far-reaching +and important of all +improvements was the invention +of valves (<i>q.v.</i>), pistons +or cylinders (the principle of +which has already been explained), +by Heinrich Stölzel,<a name="fa83p" id="fa83p" href="#ft83p"><span class="sp">83</span></a> +who applied them first of all +to the horn, the trumpet +and the trombone,<a name="fa84p" id="fa84p" href="#ft84p"><span class="sp">84</span></a> thus +endowing the brass wind with +a chromatic compass obtained +with perfect ease throughout +the compass. The inherent +defect of valve instruments +already explained, which +causes faulty intonation needing +correction when the pistons +are used in combination, +has now been practically +overcome. The numerous +attempts to solve the difficulty, +made with varying success +by makers of brass instruments, are described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valve</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bombarden</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cornet</a></span>.<a name="fa85p" id="fa85p" href="#ft85p"><span class="sp">85</span></a></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" style="clear: both;" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Michael Praetorius, <i>De organographia</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), +tab. viii., where crooks for lowering the key by one tone on trumpet +and trombone are pictured.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, <i>Les Éléments d’acoustique musicale et instrumentale</i> +(Brussels, 1874), pp. 96, 97, &c.; Friedrich Zamminer, <i>Die +Musik und die musikalischen Instrumente</i> (Giessen, 1855), p. 310, +where diagrams of the mouthpieces are given.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3p" id="ft3p" href="#fa3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Joseph Fröhlich, <i>Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Musikschule</i> +(Bonn, 1811), iii. 7, where diagrams of the two mouthpieces +for first and second horn are given.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4p" id="ft4p" href="#fa4p"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Gottfried Weber, “Zur Akustik der Blasinstrumente,” in +<i>Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung</i> (Leipzig, 1816), p. 38.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5p" id="ft5p" href="#fa5p"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Les Instruments de musique au musée du Conservatoire royal de +musique de Bruxelles</i>, “Instruments à vent,” ii., “Le Cor, son histoire, +sa théorie, sa construction” (Brussels and London, 1907), p. 28.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6p" id="ft6p" href="#fa6p"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Die Akustik</i> (Leipzig, 1802), p. 86, § 72.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7p" id="ft7p" href="#fa7p"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> p. 13, § 20, and p. 15, §§ 24 and 25. This apparent discrepancy +between an early and a modern authority on the acoustics +of wind instruments is easily explained. Chladni, when speaking of +open and closed pipes, refers to the standard cylindrical and rectangular +organ-pipes. Mahillon, on the other hand, draws a distinction +in favour of the conical pipe, demonstrating in a practical manner +how, given a certain calibre, the conical pipe must overblow the +harmonics of the open pipe, whatever the method of producing the +sound.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8p" id="ft8p" href="#fa8p"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See Gottfried Weber, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft9p" id="ft9p" href="#fa9p"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, <i>Wellenlehre</i> (Leipzig, +1825), p. 519, § 281, and <i>A Text-Book of Physics</i>, part. ii., “Sound,” +by J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson (London, 1906), pp. 104 +and 105.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10p" id="ft10p" href="#fa10p"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See Sedley Taylor, <i>Sound and Music</i> (1896), p. 21.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11p" id="ft11p" href="#fa11p"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Id.</i> pp. 23-25.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12p" id="ft12p" href="#fa12p"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See Gottfried Weber, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 39-41, and Ernst H. and +Wilhelm Weber, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 522, end of § 285.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13p" id="ft13p" href="#fa13p"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See A. Ganot, <i>Elementary Treatise on Physics</i>, translated by +E. Atkinson (16th ed., London, 1902), p. 266, § 282, “In the horn +different notes are produced by altering the distance of the lips.” +Such a vague and misleading statement is worse than useless. +See also Poynting and Thomson, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 113.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14p" id="ft14p" href="#fa14p"><span class="fn">14</span></a> “Le Cor,” p. 22; p. 11, § 18; pp. 6 and 7, § 8.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15p" id="ft15p" href="#fa15p"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The phraseology alone is here borrowed from Sedley Taylor, +(<i>op. cit.</i> p. 55), who does not enter into the practical application of +the theory he expounds so clearly.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16p" id="ft16p" href="#fa16p"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See Dr Emil Schafhäutl’s article on musical instruments, +§ iv. of <i>Bericht der Beurtheilungs Commission bei der Allg. Deutschen +Industrie Ausstellung, 1854</i> (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-170; also F. +Zamminer, <i>op. cit.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft17p" id="ft17p" href="#fa17p"><span class="fn">17</span></a> The measurements are for the high philharmonic pitch a’=452.4. +V. Mahillon, “Le cor” (p. 32), gives a table of the lengths of crooks +in metres.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18p" id="ft18p" href="#fa18p"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Robert Eitner, editor of the Monatshefte für Musikwissenschaft, +published therein an article in 1881, p. 41 seq., “Wer hat die Ventiltrompete +erfunden,” in which, after referring to the <i>Klappenwaldhorn</i> +and <i>Trompete</i> (keyed horn and trumpet) made by Weidinger +and played in public in 1802 and 1813 respectively, he goes on to +state that Schilling in his Lexicon makes the comical mistake of +looking upon the Klappentrompete (keyed trumpet) and <i>Ventiltrompete</i> +(valve trumpet) as different instruments. He accordingly +sets matters right, as he thinks, by according to Weidinger the +honour of the invention of valves, hitherto wrongfully attributed to +Stölzel; and in the <i>Quellenlexikon</i> (1904) he leaves out Stölzel’s +name, and names Weidinger as the inventor of the <i>Klappen</i> or +<i>Ventil</i>, referring readers for further particulars to his article, just +quoted, in the <i>Monatshefte</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19p" id="ft19p" href="#fa19p"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See Hector Berlioz, <i>A Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and +Orchestration</i>, translated by Mary Cowden Clarke, new edition revised +by Joseph Bennett (1882), p. 141.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20p" id="ft20p" href="#fa20p"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, <i>Catal. descriptif des instruments de musique</i>, +&c., vol. ii. p. 388, No. 1156, where an illustration is given. See also +Dr August Hammerich (French translation by E. Beauvais), “Über +altnordische Luren” in <i>Vierteljährschrift für Musik-Wissenschaft</i> +x. (1894).</p> + +<p><a name="ft21p" id="ft21p" href="#fa21p"><span class="fn">21</span></a> See Major J. H. L. Archer, <i>The British Army Records</i> (London, +1888), pp. 402, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22p" id="ft22p" href="#fa22p"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>De re militari</i>, iii. 5 (Basel, 1532). The successive editions and +translations of this classic, both manuscript and printed, throughout +the middle ages afford useful evidence of the evolution of these three +wind instruments.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23p" id="ft23p" href="#fa23p"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See Wilhelm Froehner, <i>La Colonne Trajane d’après le surmoulage +exécuté à Rome en 1861-1862</i> (Paris, 1872-1874). On pl. +51 is a cornu framing the head of a cornicen or horn-player. See also +the fine plates in Conrad Cichorius, <i>Die Reliefs der Traiansäule</i> +(Berlin, 1896, &c.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft24p" id="ft24p" href="#fa24p"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Ermanno Ferrero, <i>L’Arc d’Auguste à Suse</i> (Segusio, 9-8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +(Turin, 1901).</p> + +<p><a name="ft25p" id="ft25p" href="#fa25p"><span class="fn">25</span></a> See the mouthpiece on the Pompeian buccinas preserved in the +museum at Naples, reproduced in the article Buccina. The museums +of the conservatoires of Paris and Brussels and the Collection Kraus +in Florence possess facsimiles of these instruments; see Victor +Mahillon, <i>Catalogue</i>, vol. ii. p. 30. Cf. also the pair of bronze +Etruscan cornua, No. 2734 in the department of Creek and Roman +antiquities at the British Museum, which possess well-preserved +cup-shaped mouthpieces.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26p" id="ft26p" href="#fa26p"><span class="fn">26</span></a> See Bock, “Gebrauch der Hörner im Mittelalter,” in Gustav +Heider’s <i>Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmäler Österreichs</i> (Stuttgart, +1858-1860).</p> + +<p><a name="ft27p" id="ft27p" href="#fa27p"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français</i> (Paris, 1889), ii. p. 246.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28p" id="ft28p" href="#fa28p"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Engelbertus Admontensis in <i>De Musica Scriptores</i>, by Martin +Gerbert, Bd. ii. lib. ii. cap. 29; and Edward Buhle, <i>Die Musikalischen +Instrumente in den Miniaturen des frühen Mittelalters</i>, pt. i., +“Die Blasinstrumente” (Leipzig, 1903), p. 16.</p> + +<p><a name="ft29p" id="ft29p" href="#fa29p"><span class="fn">29</span></a> <i>Le Trésor de vénerie par Hardouin, seigneur de Fontaines-Guérin</i> +(edited by H. Michelant, Metz, 1856); the first part was edited by +Jérome Pichon (Paris, 1855), with an historical introduction by +Bottée de Toulmon.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30p" id="ft30p" href="#fa30p"><span class="fn">30</span></a> As worked out by Edward Buhle, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 23.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31p" id="ft31p" href="#fa31p"><span class="fn">31</span></a> See Turbevile, <i>op. cit.</i>, also J. du Fouilloux, <i>La Vénerie</i> (Paris, +1628), p. 70; cf. also editions of 1650 and of 1562, where the horn +is called <i>trompe</i>, used with the verb <i>corner</i>; Juliana Bernes, <i>Boke +of St Albans</i> (1496), the frontispiece of which is a hunting scene +showing a horn of very wide bore, without bell. Only half the +instrument is visible.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32p" id="ft32p" href="#fa32p"><span class="fn">32</span></a> See “Reliure italienne du xv<span class="sp">e</span> siècle en argent niellé. Collection +du Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild, Vienne,” in <i>Gazette archéologique</i> +(Paris, 1880), xiii. p. 295, pl. 38, where other instruments are also +represented.</p> + +<p><a name="ft33p" id="ft33p" href="#fa33p"><span class="fn">33</span></a> See Jost Amman, <i>Wappen und Stammbuch</i> (1589). A reprint in +facsimile has been published by Georg Hirth as vol. iii. of <i>Liebhaber +Bibliothek</i> (Munich, 1881). See arms of Sultzberger aus Tirol +(p. 52), “Ein Jägerhörnlin,” and of the Herzog von Wirtenberg; +cf. the latter with the arms of Wurthemberch in pl. xxii. vol. ii. +of Gelre’s <i>Wappenboek ou armorial de 1334 à 1372</i> (miniatures of +coats of arms in facsimile), edited by Victor Bouton (Paris, 1883).</p> + +<p><a name="ft34p" id="ft34p" href="#fa34p"><span class="fn">34</span></a> For illustrations see autotype facsimile of Utrecht Psalter, +9th century; British Museum, Add. MS. 10,546, Ps. 150, 9th century; +Add. MS. 24,199, 10th century; Eadwine Psalter, Trin. Coll. Camb., +11th century, and Cotton MS., Nero, D. IV., 8th century; also Edward +Buhle, <i>op. cit.</i>, pl. ii. and pp. 12-24.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35p" id="ft35p" href="#fa35p"><span class="fn">35</span></a> See John Carter, <i>Specimens of Ancient Sculpture and Paintings</i> +(London, 1780-1794), i. p. 53 (plates unnumbered); also reproduced +in H. Lavoix, <i>Histoire de la musique</i> (Paris, 1884).</p> + +<p><a name="ft36p" id="ft36p" href="#fa36p"><span class="fn">36</span></a> See Jost Amman, <i>op. cit.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft37p" id="ft37p" href="#fa37p"><span class="fn">37</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und ausgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511), p. 30. The +names are not given under the drawings, but the above is the order +in which they occur, which is probably reversed.</p> + +<p><a name="ft38p" id="ft38p" href="#fa38p"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), p. 245.</p> + +<p><a name="ft39p" id="ft39p" href="#fa39p"><span class="fn">39</span></a> <i>Syntagma Musicum</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pl. vii. No. 11, p. 39.</p> + +<p><a name="ft40p" id="ft40p" href="#fa40p"><span class="fn">40</span></a> <i>Historisch-biographisches Lexicon der <span class="correction" title="amended from Tonkünslter">Tonkünstler</span></i> (Leipzig, 1790-1792 +and 1812-1814).</p> + +<p><a name="ft41p" id="ft41p" href="#fa41p"><span class="fn">41</span></a> <i>De saecularibus Liberalium Artium in Bohemia et Moravia fatis +commentarius</i> (Prague, 1784), p. 401.</p> + +<p><a name="ft42p" id="ft42p" href="#fa42p"><span class="fn">42</span></a> See Ernest Thoinan, <i>Les Origines de la chapelle musique des +souverains de France</i> (Paris, 1864); F. J. Fétis, “Recherches sur la +musique des rois de France, et de quelques princes depuis Philippe +le Bel jusqu’à la fin du règne de Louis XIV.,” <i>Revue musicale</i> (Paris, +1832), xii. pp. 193, 217, 233, 241, 257; Castil-Blaze, <i>La Chapelle +musique des rois de France</i> (Paris, 1882); Michel Brenet, “Deux +comptes de la chapelle musique des rois de France,” <i>Intern. Mus. +Ges.</i>, Smbd. vi., i. pp. 1-32; J. Ecorcheville, “Quelques documents +sur la musique de la grande écurie du roi,” <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i>, +Smbd. ii. 4 (Leipzig, 1901), pp. 608-642.</p> + +<p><a name="ft43p" id="ft43p" href="#fa43p"><span class="fn">43</span></a> <i>Neue Zeitschrift f. Musik</i> (Leipzig, 1870), p. 309.</p> + +<p><a name="ft44p" id="ft44p" href="#fa44p"><span class="fn">44</span></a> See <i>Die Sammlung der Musikinstrumente des baierischen Nat. +Museum</i> by K. A. Bierdimpfl (Munich, 1883), Nos. 105 and 106.</p> + +<p><a name="ft45p" id="ft45p" href="#fa45p"><span class="fn">45</span></a> Communication from Dr Georg Hagen, assistant director.</p> + +<p><a name="ft46p" id="ft46p" href="#fa46p"><span class="fn">46</span></a> See Musée du Conservatoire National de Musique. <i>Catalogue +des instruments de musique</i> (Paris, 1884), p. 147.</p> + +<p><a name="ft47p" id="ft47p" href="#fa47p"><span class="fn">47</span></a> See Captain C. R. Day, <i>Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical +Instruments exhibited at the Military Exhibition</i> (London, 1890), +p. 147, No. 307.</p> + +<p><a name="ft48p" id="ft48p" href="#fa48p"><span class="fn">48</span></a> See V. Mahillon, <i>Catal.</i> vol. i. No. 468.</p> + +<p><a name="ft49p" id="ft49p" href="#fa49p"><span class="fn">49</span></a> See Captain C. R. Day, <i>Catal.</i> No. 309, p. 148.</p> + +<p><a name="ft50p" id="ft50p" href="#fa50p"><span class="fn">50</span></a> For an illustration see <i>Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of +Ancient Musical Instruments at South Kensington Museum 1872</i> +(London, 1873), p. 25, No. 332.</p> + +<p><a name="ft51p" id="ft51p" href="#fa51p"><span class="fn">51</span></a> See <i>Katalog des musikhistorischen Museums von Paul de Wit</i> +(Leipzig, 1904), p. 142, No. 564, where it is classified as a Jägertrompete +after Praetorius; it has a trumpet mouthpiece.</p> + +<p><a name="ft52p" id="ft52p" href="#fa52p"><span class="fn">52</span></a> For an illustration see F. J. Crowest, <i>English Music</i>, p. 449, +No. 12.</p> + +<p><a name="ft53p" id="ft53p" href="#fa53p"><span class="fn">53</span></a> See Ignatz and Anton Böck in <i>Baierisches Musik-Lexikon</i> by +Felix J. Lipowski (Munich, 1811), p. 26, note.</p> + +<p><a name="ft54p" id="ft54p" href="#fa54p"><span class="fn">54</span></a> See, for instance, frontispiece of Walther’s <i>Musikalisches Lexikon</i> +(Leipzig, 1732); J. F. B. C. Majer’s <i>Musik-Saal</i> (Nuremberg, 1741, +2nd ed.), p. 54; Joh. Christ. Kolb, <i>Pinacotheca Davidica</i> (Augsburg, +1711); Ps. xci.; “Componimenti Musicali per il cembalo Dr Theofilo +Muffat, organista di sua Sacra Maesta Carlo VI. Imp.” (1690), +title-page in <i>Denkmäler d. Tonkunst in Oesterreich</i>, Bd. iii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft55p" id="ft55p" href="#fa55p"><span class="fn">55</span></a> See Hugo Goldschmidt, “Das Orchester der italienischen Oper +im 17 Jahrhundert,” <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i>, Smbd. ii. 1, p. 73.</p> + +<p><a name="ft56p" id="ft56p" href="#fa56p"><span class="fn">56</span></a> See “Le Cor,” pp. 23 and 24, and <i>Dictionnaire de l’acad. des +beaux arts</i>, vol. iv., art. “Cor.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft57p" id="ft57p" href="#fa57p"><span class="fn">57</span></a> Mersenne’s drawings of <i>cors de chasse</i> are very crude; they +have no bell and are all of the large calibre suggestive of the primitive +animal horn. He mentions nevertheless that they were not only +used for signals and fanfares but also for little concerted pieces in +four parts for horns alone, or with oboes, at the conclusion of the +hunt.</p> + +<p><a name="ft58p" id="ft58p" href="#fa58p"><span class="fn">58</span></a> See William Tans’ur Senior, <i>The Elements of Musick</i> (London, +1772); Br. V. Dictionary under “Horn.” Also Scale of Horn +in the hand of Samuel Wesley; in Add. MS. 35011, fol. 166, Brit. +Mus.</p> + +<p><a name="ft59p" id="ft59p" href="#fa59p"><span class="fn">59</span></a> A horn-player, Johann Theodor Zeddelmayer, was engaged in +1706 at the Saxon court at Weissenfels; see <i>Neue-Mitteilungen +aus dem Gebiete histor. antiqu. Forschungen</i>, Bd. xv. (2) (Halle, +1882), p. 503; also Wilhelm Kleefeld, “Das Orchester der Hamburger +Oper, 1678-1738,” <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i>, Smbd. i. 2, p. 280, +where the appearance of the horn in the orchestras of Germany is +traced.</p> + +<p><a name="ft60p" id="ft60p" href="#fa60p"><span class="fn">60</span></a> <i>Das neu-eröffnete Orchester</i>, i. 267.</p> + +<p><a name="ft61p" id="ft61p" href="#fa61p"><span class="fn">61</span></a> See Moritz Fürstenau, <i>Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters +zu Dresden</i> (Dresden, 1861-1862), vol. ii. p. 60.</p> + +<p><a name="ft62p" id="ft62p" href="#fa62p"><span class="fn">62</span></a> See “Carl Heinrich Graun als Opernkomponist,” by Albert +Mayer-Reinach, <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i>, Smbd. i. 3 (Leipzig, 1900), +pp. 516-517 and 523-524, where musical examples are given.</p> + +<p><a name="ft63p" id="ft63p" href="#fa63p"><span class="fn">63</span></a> Cf. Chrysander, <i>Haendel</i>, ii. 146.</p> + +<p><a name="ft64p" id="ft64p" href="#fa64p"><span class="fn">64</span></a> See Moritz Fürstenau, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 58.</p> + +<p><a name="ft65p" id="ft65p" href="#fa65p"><span class="fn">65</span></a> See Ludwig von Köchel, <i>Die kaiserliche Hofkappelle in Wien</i> +(Vienna, 1869), p. 80.</p> + +<p><a name="ft66p" id="ft66p" href="#fa66p"><span class="fn">66</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, <i>Catalogue descriptif</i>, vol. ii. No. 1160, +p. 389.</p> + +<p><a name="ft67p" id="ft67p" href="#fa67p"><span class="fn">67</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> ii. 60.</p> + +<p><a name="ft68p" id="ft68p" href="#fa68p"><span class="fn">68</span></a> The Department of State Archives for Saxony in Dresden +possesses no documents which can throw any light upon this point, +but, through the courtesy of the director, the following facts have +been communicated. Two documents concerning Anton Joseph +Hampel are extant: (1) An application by his son, Johann Michael +Hampel, to the elector Friedrich August III. of Saxony, dated +Dresden, April 3, 1771, in which he prays that the post of his father +as horn-player in the court orchestra—in which he had already +served as deputy for his invalid father—may be awarded to him. +(2) A petition from the widow, Aloisia Ludevica Hampelin, to the +elector, bearing the same date (April 3, 1771), wherein she announces +the death of her husband on the 30th of March 1771, who had been +in the service of the house of Saxony thirty-four years as horn-player, +and prays for the grant of a monthly pension for herself and +her three delicate daughters, as she finds herself in the most unfortunate +circumstances. There is no allusion in either letter to any +musical merit of the deceased.</p> + +<p><a name="ft69p" id="ft69p" href="#fa69p"><span class="fn">69</span></a> There is an instrument of this early type, supposed to date +from the middle of the 18th century, in Paul de Wit’s fine collection +of musical instruments formerly in Leipzig and now transferred to +Cologne; see <i>Katalog</i>, No. 645, p. 148.</p> + +<p><a name="ft70p" id="ft70p" href="#fa70p"><span class="fn">70</span></a> See <i>Dictionnaire de l’acad. des beaux arts</i>, vol. iv. (Paris), article +“Cor.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft71p" id="ft71p" href="#fa71p"><span class="fn">71</span></a> See Dr Gustav Schilling, <i>Universal Lexikon der Tonkunst</i> +(Stuttgart, 1840), Bd. vi., “Trompete”; also Capt. C. R. Day, +pp. 139 and 151, where the term <i>Invention</i> is quite misunderstood +and misapplied. See Gottfried Weber in <i>Caecilia</i> (Mainz, 1835), +Bd. xvii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft72p" id="ft72p" href="#fa72p"><span class="fn">72</span></a> Gerber in the first edition of his <i>Lexikon</i> does not mention +Hampel or award him a separate biographical article; we may +therefore conclude that he was not personally acquainted with him, +although Hampel was still a member of the electoral orchestra in +Dresden during Gerber’s short career in Leipzig. In the edition of +1812 Gerber renders him full justice.</p> + +<p><a name="ft73p" id="ft73p" href="#fa73p"><span class="fn">73</span></a> <i>Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Musikschule</i> (Bonn, 1811), +pt. iii. p. 7.</p> + +<p><a name="ft74p" id="ft74p" href="#fa74p"><span class="fn">74</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, “Le Cor,” p. 28; Chladni, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 87.</p> + +<p><a name="ft75p" id="ft75p" href="#fa75p"><span class="fn">75</span></a> See Fröhlich, <i>op. cit.</i> 7; and Gerber, <i>Lexikon</i> (ed. 1812), p. 493; +“Le Cor,” pp. 34 and 53.</p> + +<p><a name="ft76p" id="ft76p" href="#fa76p"><span class="fn">76</span></a> See Praetorius and Mersenne, <i>op. cit.</i>; the latter gives an +illustration of the trumpet mute.</p> + +<p><a name="ft77p" id="ft77p" href="#fa77p"><span class="fn">77</span></a> <i>Methode de premier et de second cor</i> (Paris, c. 1807). The passage +in question was discovered and courteously communicated by Hofrat +P. E. Richter of the Royal Library, Dresden. There is no copy of +Domnich’s work in the British Museum.</p> + +<p><a name="ft78p" id="ft78p" href="#fa78p"><span class="fn">78</span></a> See William Tans’ur Senior, <i>op. et loc. cit.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft79p" id="ft79p" href="#fa79p"><span class="fn">79</span></a> See <i>Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung</i> (Leipzig), Nov. 1802, p. +158, and Jan. 1803, p. 245; and E. Hanslick, <i>Geschichte des Concertwesens +in Wien</i> (Vienna, 1869), p. 119.</p> + +<p><a name="ft80p" id="ft80p" href="#fa80p"><span class="fn">80</span></a> See <i>Allgem. mus. Ztg.</i>, 1815, p. 844.</p> + +<p><a name="ft81p" id="ft81p" href="#fa81p"><span class="fn">81</span></a> “Le Cor,” pp. 34-35.</p> + +<p><a name="ft82p" id="ft82p" href="#fa82p"><span class="fn">82</span></a> See the description of the instrument and of other attempts +to obtain the same result by Gottfried Weber, “Wichtige Verbesserung +des Horns” in <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> (Leipzig, 1812), pp. 758, +&c.; also 1815, pp. 637 and 638 (the regent or keyed bugle).</p> + +<p><a name="ft83p" id="ft83p" href="#fa83p"><span class="fn">83</span></a> See <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i>, 1815, May, p. 309, the first announcement +of the invention in a paragraph by Captain G. B. Bierey.</p> + +<p><a name="ft84p" id="ft84p" href="#fa84p"><span class="fn">84</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 1817, p. 814, by F. Schneider, and Dec. p. 558; 1818, +p. 531. An announcement of the invention and of a patent granted +for the same for ten years, in which Blümel is for the first time +associated with Stölzel as co-inventor. See also <i>Caecilia</i> (Mainz, +1835), Bd. xvii. pp. 73 seq., with illustrations, an excellent article +by Gottfried Weber on the valve horn and valve trumpet.</p> + +<p><a name="ft85p" id="ft85p" href="#fa85p"><span class="fn">85</span></a> For a very complete exposition of the operation of valves in +the horn, and of the mathematical proportions to be observed in +construction, see Victor Mahillon’s “Le Cor,” also the article by +Gottfried Weber in <i>Caecilia</i> (1835), to which reference was made +above. A list of horn-players of note during the 18th century is +given by C. Gottlieb Murr in <i>Journal f. Kunstgeschichte</i> (Nuremberg, +1776), vol. ii. p. 27. See also a good description of the style of +playing of the virtuoso J. Nisle in 1767 in Schubart, <i>Aesthetik d. +Tonkunst</i>, p. 161, and <i>Leben u. Gesinnungen</i> (1791), Bd. ii. p. 92; +or in L. Schiedermair, “Die Blütezeit d. Ottingen-Wallensteinschen +Hofkapelle,” <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i> Smbd. ix. (1), 1907, pp. 83-130.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNBEAM<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (<i>Carpinus betulus</i>), a member of a small genus of +trees of the natural order Corylaceae. The Latin name <i>Carpinus</i> +has been thought to be derived from the Celtic <i>car</i>, wood, and +<i>pin</i> or <i>pen</i>, head, the wood of hornbeams having been used for +yokes of cattle (see Loudon, <i>Ency. of Pl.</i> p. 792, new ed. 1855, +and Littré, Dict. ii. 556). The common hornbeam, or yoke-elm, +<i>Carpinus betulus</i> (Ger. <i>Hornbaum</i> and <i>Hornbuche</i>, Fr. <i>charme</i>), +is indigenous in the temperate parts of western Asia and of +Asia Minor, and in Europe, where it ranges as high as 55° and +56° N. lat. It is common in woods and hedges in parts of Wales +and of the south of England. The trunk is usually flattened, +and twisted as though composed of several stems united; the +bark is smooth and light grey; and the leaves are in two rows, +2 to 3 in. long, elliptic-ovate, doubly toothed, pointed, numerously +ribbed, hairy below and opaque, and not glossy as in the beech, +have short stalks and when young are plaited. The stipules +of the leaves act as protecting scale-leaves in the winter-bud +and fall when the bud opens in spring. The flowers appear with +the leaves in April and May. The male catkins are about 1½ in. +long, and have pale-yellow anthers, bearing tufts of hairs at +the apex; the female attain a length in the fruiting stage of 2 to +4 in., with bracts 1 to 1½ in. long. The green and angular fruit +or “nut” ripens in October; it is about ¼ in. in length, is in +shape like a small chestnut, and is enclosed in leafy, 3-lobed +bracts. The hornbeam thrives well on stiff, clayey, moist soils, +into which its roots penetrate deeply; on chalk or gravel it +does not flourish. Raised from seed it may become a tree 40 to +as much as 70 ft. in height, greatly resembling the beech, except +in its rounder and closer head. It is, however, rarely grown +as a timber-tree, its chief employment being for hedges. “In +the single row,” says Evelyn (<i>Sylva</i>, p. 29, 1664), “it makes the +noblest and the stateliest <i>hedges</i> for long Walks in Gardens or +<i>Parks</i>, of any Tree whatsoever whose leaves are <i>deciduous</i>.” +As it bears clipping well, it was formerly much used in geometric +gardening. The branches should not be lopped in spring, on +account of their tendency to bleed at that season. The wood +of the hornbeam is white and close-grained, and polishes ill, +is of considerable tenacity and little flexibility, and is extremely +tough and hard to work—whence, according to Gerard, the name +of the tree. It has been found to lose about 8% of its weight +by drying. As a fuel it is excellent; and its charcoal is much +esteemed for making gunpowder. The inner part of the bark +of the hornbeam is stated by Linnaeus to afford a yellow dye. +In France the leaves serve as fodder. The tree is a favourite +with hares and rabbits, and the seedlings are apt to be destroyed +by mice. Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxvi. 26), who describes its wood as +red and easily split, classes the hornbeam with maples.</p> + +<p>The American hornbeam, blue or water beech, is <i>Carpinus +americana</i> (also known as <i>C. caroliniana</i>); the common hop-hornbeam, +a native of the south of Europe, is a member of a +closely allied genus, <i>Ostrya vulgaris</i>, the allied American species, +<i>O. virginiana</i>, is also known as ironwood from its very hard, +tight, close-grained wood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNBILL,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> the English name long generally given to all the +birds of the family <i>Bucerotidae</i> of modern ornithologists, from +the extraordinary horn-like excrescence (<i>epithema</i>) developed +on the bill of most of the species, though to which of them it +was first applied seems doubtful. Among classical authors +Pliny had heard of such animals, and mentions them (<i>Hist. +Nat.</i> lib. x. cap. lxx.) under the name of <i>Tragopan</i>; but he +deemed their existence fabulous, comparing them with <i>Pegasi</i> +and <i>Gryphones</i>—in the words of Holland, his translator (vol. i. +p. 296)—“I thinke the same of the Tragopanades, which many +men affirme to bee greater than the Ægle; having crooked +hornes like a Ram on either side of the head, of the colour of +yron, and the head onely red.” Yet this is but an exaggerated +description of some of the species with which doubtless his +informants had an imperfect acquaintance. Medieval writers +found Pliny’s bird to be no fable, for specimens of the beak +of one species or another seem occasionally to have been brought +to Europe, where they were preserved in the cabinets of the +curious, and thus Aldrovandus was able to describe pretty +fairly and to figure (<i>Ornithologia</i>, lib. xii. cap. xx. tab. x. fig. 7) +one of them under the name of “<i>Rhinoceros Avis</i>,” though the +rest of the bird was wholly unknown to him. When the exploration +of the East Indies had extended farther, more examples +reached Europe, and the “<i>Corvus Indicus cornutus</i>” of Bontius +became fully recognized by Willughby and Ray, under the +title of the “Horned Indian Raven or <i>Topau</i> called the Rhinocerot +Bird.” Since the time of those excellent ornithologists +our knowledge of the hornbills has been steadily increasing, but +up to the third quarter of the 19th century there was a great +lack of precise information, and the publication of D. G. Elliot’s +“<i>Monograph of the Bucerotidae</i>,” then supplied a great want. +He divides the family into two sections, the <i>Bucerotinae</i> and the +<i>Bucorvinae</i>. The former group contains most of the species, +which are divided into many genera. Of these, the most remarkable +is <i>Rhinoplax</i>, which seems properly to contain but one +species, the <i>Buceros vigil</i>, <i>B. scutatus</i> or <i>B. geleatus</i> of authors, +commonly known as the helmet-hornbill, a native of Sumatra +and Borneo. This is easily distinguished by having the front +of its nearly vertical and slightly convex <i>epithema</i> composed +of a solid mass of horn<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> instead of a thin coating of the light +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span> +and cellular structure found in the others. So dense and hard +is this portion of the “helmet” that Chinese and Malay artists +carve figures on its surface, or cut it transversely into plates, +which from their agreeable colouring, bright yellow with a scarlet +rim, are worn as brooches or other ornaments. This bird, which +is larger than a raven, is also remarkable for its long graduated +tail, having the middle two feathers nearly twice the length +of the rest. Nothing is known of its habits. Its head was +figured by George Edwards in the 18th century, but little else +had been seen of it until 1801, when John Latham described +the plumage from a specimen in the British Museum, and the +first figure of the whole bird, from an example in the Museum +at Calcutta, was published by General Hardwicke in 1823 +(<i>Trans. Linn. Society</i>, xiv. pl. 23). Yet more than twenty +years elapsed before French naturalists became acquainted +with it.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:576px" src="images/img707a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Great Indian Hornbill (<i>B. bicornis</i>). (After Tickell’s drawing in +the Zoological Society’s Library.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the <i>Bucorvinae</i> we have only the genus <i>Bucorvus</i>, or +<i>Bucorax</i> as some call it, confined to Africa, and containing at +least two and perhaps more species, distinguishable by their +longer legs and shorter toes, the ground-hornbills of English +writers, in contrast to the <i>Bucerotinae</i> which are chiefly arboreal +in their habits, and when not flying move by short leaps or hops, +while the members of this group walk and run with facility. +From the days of James Bruce at least there are few African +travellers who have not met with and in their narratives +more or less fully described one or other of these birds, +whose large size and fearless habits render them conspicuous +objects.</p> + +<p>As a whole the hornbills, of which more than 50 species have +been described, form a very natural and in some respects an +isolated group, placed by Huxley among his <i>Coccygomorphae</i>. +It has been suggested that they have some affinity with the +hoopoes (<i>Upupidae</i>), and this view is now generally accepted. +Their supposed alliance to the toucans (<i>Rhamphastidae</i>) rests +only on the apparent similarity presented by the enormous +beak, and is contradicted by important structural characters. +In many of their habits, so far as these are known, all hornbills +seem to be much alike, and though the modification in the form +of the beak, and the presence or absence of the extraordinary +excrescence,<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> whence their name is derived, causes great diversity +of aspect among them, the possession of prominent eyelashes +(not a common feature in birds) produces a uniformity of expression +which makes it impossible to mistake any member of the +family. Hornbills are social birds, keeping in companies, not to +say flocks, and living chiefly on fruits and seeds; but the bigger +species also capture and devour a large number of snakes, while +the smaller are great destroyers of insects. The older writers +say that they eat carrion, but further evidence to that effect +is required before the statement can be believed. Almost every +morsel of food that is picked up is tossed into the air, and then +caught in the bill before it is swallowed. They breed in holes +of trees, laying large white eggs, and when the hen begins to +sit the cock plasters up the entrance with mud or clay, leaving +only a small window through which she receives the food he +brings her during her incarceration.</p> + +<p>This remarkable habit, almost simultaneously noticed by +Dr Mason in Burma, S. R. Tickell in India, and Livingstone in +Africa, and since confirmed by other observers, especially +A. R. Wallace<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a> in the Malay Archipelago, has been connected +by A. D. Bartlett (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1869, p. 142) with a +peculiarity as remarkable, which he was the first to notice. +This is the fact that hornbills at intervals of time, whether +periodical or irregular is not yet known, cast the epithelial +layer of their gizzard, that layer being formed by a secretion +derived from the glands of the proventriculus or some other +upper part of the alimentary canal. The epithelium is ejected +in the form of a sack or bag, the mouth of which is closely folded, +and is filled with the fruit that the bird has been eating. The +announcement of a circumstance so extraordinary naturally +caused some hesitation in its acceptance, but the essential +truth of Bartlett’s observations was abundantly confirmed by +Sir W. H. Flower and especially by Dr J. Murie. These castings +form the hen bird’s food during her confinement.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Apparently correlated with this structure is the curious thickening +of the “prosencephalic median septum” of the cranium as also of +that which divides the “prosencephalic” from the “mesencephalic +chamber,” noticed by Sir R. Owen (<i>Cat. Osteol. Ser. Mus. Roy. Coll. +Surg. England</i>, i. 287); while the solid horny mass is further strengthened +by a backing of bony props, directed forwards and meeting its +base at right angles. This last singular arrangement is not perceptible +in the skull of any other species examined by the present writer.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Buffon, as was his manner, enlarges on the cruel injustice done to +these birds by Nature in encumbering them with this deformity, +which he declares must hinder them from getting their food with +ease. The only corroboration his perverted view receives is afforded +by the observed fact that hornbills, in captivity at any rate, never +have any fat about them.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In <i>The Malay Archipelago</i> (i. 213), Wallace describes a nestling +hornbill (<i>B. bicornis</i>) which he obtained as “a most curious object, +as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage on any part of +it. It was exceedingly plump and soft, and with a semi-transparent +skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet +stuck on, than like a real bird.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:129px; height:241px" src="images/img707b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">HORNBLENDE,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> an important member of the amphibole +group of rock-forming minerals. The name is an old one of +German origin, and was used for any dark-coloured prismatic +crystals from which metals could not be extracted. It is now +applied to the dark-coloured aluminous members of the monoclinic +amphiboles, occupying in this group the same position +that augite occupies in the pyroxene group. The monoclinic +crystals are prismatic in habit with a six-sided +cross-section; the angle between the prism-faces +(<i>M</i>), parallel to which there are perfect +cleavages, is 55° 49′. The colour (green, brown +or black) and the specific gravity (3.0-3.3) vary +with the amount of iron present. The pleochroism +is always strong, and the angle of +optical extinction on the plane of symmetry +(x in the figure) varies from 0° to 37°. The +chemical composition is expressed by mixtures +in varying proportions of the molecules +Ca(Mg, Fe)<span class="su">3</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">4</span>, (Mg, Fe)(Al, Fe)<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">6</span> and +NaAl(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>. Numerous varieties have been +distinguished by special names: edenite, from Edenville in New +York, is a pale-coloured aluminous amphibole containing little +iron; pargasite, from Pargas near Abo in Finland, a green +or bluish-green variety; common hornblende includes the +greenish-black and black kinds containing more iron. The +dark-coloured porphyritic crystals of basalts are known as +basaltic hornblende.</p> + +<p>Hornblende occurs as an essential constituent of many kinds +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span> +of igneous rocks, such as hornblende-granite, syenite, diorite, +hornblende-andesite, basalt, &c.; and in many crystalline +schists, for example, amphibolite and hornblende-schist which +are composed almost entirely of this mineral. Well-crystallized +specimens are met with at many localities, for example: brilliant +black crystals (syntagmatite) with augite and mica in the sanidine +bombs of Monte Somma, Vesuvius; large crystals at Arendal +in Norway, and at several places in the state of New York; +isolated crystals from the basalts of Bohemia.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORN-BOOK,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a name originally applied to a sheet containing +the letters of the alphabet, which formed a primer for the use +of children. It was mounted on wood and protected with +transparent horn. Sometimes the leaf was simply pasted against +the slice of horn. The wooden frame had a handle, and it was +usually hung at the child’s girdle. The sheet, which in ancient +times was of vellum and latterly of paper, contained first a large +cross—the criss-crosse—from which the horn-book was called +the Christ Cross Row, or criss-cross-row. The alphabet in +large and small letters followed. The vowels then formed a line, +and their combinations with the consonants were given in a +tabular form. The usual exorcism—“in the name of the Father +and of the Sonne and of the Holy Ghost, Amen”—followed, then +the Lord’s Prayer, the whole concluding with the Roman +numerals. The horn-book is mentioned in Shakespeare’s +<i>Love’s Labour’s Lost</i>, v. 1, where the <i>ba</i>, the <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>, and the +horn, are alluded to by Moth. It is also described by Ben +Jonson—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“The letters may be read, through the horn,</p> +<p class="i05">That make the story perfect.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1825-1895), +British admiral of the fleet, son of Admiral Sir Phipps Hornby, +the first cousin and brother-in-law of the 13th earl of Derby, +by a daughter of Lieut.-General Burgoyne, commonly +distinguished as “Saratoga” Burgoyne, was born on the 20th +of February 1825. At the age of twelve he was sent to sea in the +flagship of Sir Robert Stopford, with whom he saw the capture +of Acre in November 1840. He afterwards served in the flagship +of Rear-Admiral Josceline Percy at the Cape of Good Hope, +was flag-lieutenant to his father in the Pacific, and came home +as a commander. When the Derby ministry fell in December +1852 young Hornby was promoted to be captain. Early in +1853 he married, and as the Derby connexion put him out of +favour with the Aberdeen ministry, and especially with Sir +James Graham, the first lord of the Admiralty, he settled down +in Sussex as manager of his father’s property. He had no +appointment in the navy till 1858, when he was sent out to +China to take command of the “Tribune” frigate and convey +a body of marines to Vancouver Island, where the dispute with +the United States about the island of San Juan was threatening +to become very bitter. As senior naval officer there Hornby’s +moderation, temper and tact did much to smooth over matters, +and a temporary arrangement for joint occupation of the island +was concluded. He afterwards commanded the “Neptune” +in the Mediterranean under Sir William Fanshawe Martin, was +flag-captain to Rear-Admiral Dacres in the Channel, was commodore +of the squadron on the west coast of Africa, and, being +promoted to rear-admiral in January 1869, commanded the +training squadron for a couple of years. He then commanded +the Channel Fleet, and was for two years a junior lord of the +Admiralty. It was early in 1877 that he went out as commander-in-chief +in the <span class="correction" title="amended from Mediterraean">Mediterranean</span>, where his skill in manœuvring +the fleet, his power as a disciplinarian, and the tact and determination +with which he conducted the foreign relations at the +time of the Russian advance on Constantinople, won for him +the K. C. B. He returned home in 1880 with the character of +being perhaps the most able commander on the active list of the +navy. His later appointments were to the Royal Naval College +as president, and afterwards to Portsmouth as commander-in-chief. +On hauling down his flag he was appointed G. C. B., +and in May 1888 was promoted to be admiral of the fleet. From +1886 he was principal naval aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria, +and in that capacity, and as an admiral of the fleet, was appointed +on the staff of the German emperor during his visits to England +in 1889 and 1890. He died, after a short illness, on the 3rd of +March 1895. By his wife, who predeceased him, he left several +children, daughters and sons, one of whom, a major in the +artillery, won the Victoria Cross in South Africa in 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life was written by his daughter, Mrs Fred. Egerton, (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNCASTLE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a market-town in the S. Lindsey or Horncastle +parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, at the foot of a +line of low hills called the Wolds, at the confluence of the Bain +and Waring streams; the terminus of a branch line of the Great +Northern railway, 130 m. N. from London. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 4038. The church of St Mary is principally +Decorated and Perpendicular, with some Early English remains +and an embattled western tower. Queen Elizabeth’s grammar +school was founded in 1562. Other buildings are an exchange, +a court-house and a dispensary founded in 1789. The prosperity +of the town is chiefly dependent on agriculture and its well-known +horse fairs. Brewing and malting are carried on, and there is +some trade in coal and iron.</p> + +<p>Remains have been found here which may indicate the existence +of a Roman village. The manor of Horncastle (Hornecastre) +belonged to Queen Edith in Saxon times and was royal demesne +in 1086 and the head of a large soke. In the reign of Stephen +it apparently belonged to Alice de Cundi, a partisan of the +empress Maud, and passing to the crown on her death it was +granted by Henry III. to Gerbald de Escald, from whom it +descended to Ralph de Rhodes, who sold it to Walter Mauclerc, +bishop of Carlisle in 1230. The see of Carlisle retained it till the +reign of Edward VI. when it was granted to Edward, Lord Clinton, +but was recovered in the following reign. In 1230 Henry III. +directed the men of Horncastle to render a reasonable aid to +the bishop, who obtained the right to try felons, hold a court +leet and have free warren. An inquisition of 1275 shows that +the bishop had then, besides the return of writs, the assize of +bread and ale and waifs and strays in the soke. Horncastle was +a centre of the Lincolnshire rebellion of 1536. Royalist troops +occupied the town in 1643, and were pursued through its streets +after the battle fought at Winceby. It was never a municipal +or parliamentary borough, but during the middle ages it was +frequently the residence of the bishops of Carlisle. Its prosperity +has always depended largely on its fairs, the great horse fair +described by George Borrow in <i>Romany Rye</i> being granted +to the bishop in 1230 for the octave of St Lawrence, together +with the fair on the feast of St Barnabas. The three other fairs +are apparently of later date.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See George Weir, <i>Historical and Descriptive Sketches of the Town +and Soke of Horncastle in the County of Lincoln and of Several Places +adjacent</i> (London, 1820).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORN DANCE,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a medieval dance, still celebrated during the +September “wakes” at Abbots Bromley, a village on the borders +of Needwood Forest, Staffordshire. Six or seven men, each +wearing a deer’s skull with antlers, dance through the streets, +pursued by a comrade who bestrides a mimic horse, and whips +the dancers to keep them on the move. The horn-dance usually +takes place on the Monday after Wakes Sunday, which is the +Sunday next after the 4th of September. Originally the dance +took place on a Sunday.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Strand Magazine</i> for November 1896; also <i>Folk-lore</i>, vol. vii. +(1896), p. 381.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNE, GEORGE<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1730-1792), English divine, was born on +the 1st of November 1730, at Otham near Maidstone, and +received his education at Maidstone school and University +College, Oxford. In 1749 he became a fellow of Magdalen, +of which college he was elected president in 1768. As a preacher +he early attained great popularity, and was, albeit unjustly, +accused of Methodism. His reputation was helped by several +clever if somewhat wrong-headed publications, including a +satirical pamphlet entitled <i>The Theology and Philosophy of +Cicero’s Somnium Scipionis</i> (1751), a defence of the Hutchinsonians +in <i>A Fair, Candid and Impartial State of the Case +between Sir Isaac Newton and Mr Hutchinson</i> (1753), and critiques +upon William Law (1758) and Benjamin Kennicott (1760). +In 1771 he published his well-known <i>Commentary on the Psalms</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span> +a series of expositions based on the Messianic idea. In 1776 he +was chosen vice-chancellor of his university; in 1781 he was +made dean of Canterbury, and in 1790 was raised to the see of +Norwich. He died at Bath on the 17th of January 1792.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His collected <i>Works</i> were published with a Memoir by William +Jones in 1799.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNE, RICHARD HENRY,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> or <b>HENGIST</b> (1803-1884), +English poet and critic, was born in London on New Year’s +Day 1803. He was intended for the army, and entered at +Sandhurst, but receiving no commission, he left his country +and joined the Mexican navy. He served in the war against +Spain, and underwent many adventures. Returning to England, +he became a journalist, and in 1836-1837 edited <i>The Monthly +Repository</i>. In 1837 he published two tragedies, <i>Cosmo de +Medici</i> and <i>The Death of Marlowe</i>, and in 1841 a <i>History of +Napoleon</i>. The book, however, by which he lives is his epic of +<i>Orion</i>, which appeared in 1843. It was published originally at +a farthing, was widely read, and passed through many editions. +In the next year he set forth a volume of critical essays called +<i>A New Spirit of the Age</i>, in which he was assisted by Elizabeth +Barrett (Mrs Browning), with whom, from 1839 to her marriage +in 1846, he conducted a voluminous correspondence. In 1852 +he went to Australia in company with William Howitt, and +did not return to England until 1869. He received a Civil List +pension in 1874, and died at Margate on the 13th of March 1884. +Horne possessed extraordinary versatility, but, except in the +case of <i>Orion</i>, he never attained to a very high degree of distinction. +That poem, indeed, has much of the quality of fine poetry; +it is earnest, vivid and alive with spirit. But Horne early +drove his talent too hard, and continued to write when he had +little left to say. In criticism he had insight and quickness. +He was one of the first to appreciate Keats and Tennyson, and +he gave valuable encouragement to Mrs Browning when she was +still Miss Elizabeth Barrett.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1780-1862), English theologian +and bibliographer, was born in London on the 20th of +October 1780, and was educated at Christ’s Hospital, with +S. T. Coleridge as an elder contemporary. On leaving school he +became clerk to a barrister, but showed a keen taste for authorship. +As early as 1800 he published <i>A Brief View of the Necessity +and Truth of the Christian Revelation</i>, which was followed by +several minor works on very varied subjects. In 1814, having +been appointed librarian of the Surrey Institution, he issued +his <i>Introduction to the Study of Bibliography</i>. This was followed +in 1818 by his long matured work, the <i>Introduction to the Critical +Study of the Holy Scriptures</i>, which rapidly attained popularity, +and secured for its author widespread fame and an honorary M.A. +degree from Aberdeen. In 1819 he received ordination from +William Howley, bishop of London, and after holding two +smaller livings was appointed rector of the united parishes +of St Edmund the King and Martyr, and St Nicolas Acons in +London. On the breaking up of the Surrey Institution in 1823, +he was appointed (1824) senior assistant librarian in the department +of printed books in the British Museum. After the project +of making a classified catalogue had been abandoned, he took +part in the preparation of the alphabetical one, and his connexion +with the museum continued until within a few months of his +death on the 27th of January 1862.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Horne’s works exceed forty in number. The <i>Introduction</i>, edited +by John Ayre and S. P. Tregelles, reached a 12th edition in 1869; +but, owing to subsequent advances in biblical scholarship, it fell into +disuse.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNELL,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city of Steuben county, New York, U.S.A., +on the Canisteo river, 90 m. S.E. of Buffalo. Pop. (1890) 10,996; +(1900) 11,918, of whom 1230 were foreign-born; (1910 census) +13,617. Hornell is served by the Erie and the Pittsburg, Shawmut +& Northern railways; the latter connects at Wayland (20 m. +distant by rail) with the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western +railroad. In the city are St Ann’s Academy, the St James +Mercy Hospital, the Steuben Sanitarium, a public library, and +a county court-house—terms of the county court being held here +as well as in Bath (pop. in 1905, 3695), the county-seat, and in +Corning. Hornell has extensive car shops of the Erie railroad, +and among its manufactures are silk goods (silk gloves being a +specially important product), sash, doors and blinds, leather, +furniture, shoes, white-goods, wire-fences, foundry and machine +shop products, electric motors, and brick and tile. The value +of the factory product in 1905 was $3,162,677, an increase of +30.1% since 1900. The first settlement here was made in 1790, +within the district of Erwin (then in Ontario county); after +1796 it was a part of Canisteo township, and the settlement itself +was known as Upper Canisteo until 1820, when a new township +was formed and named Hornellsville in honour of Judge George +Hornell (d. 1813). The village of Hornellsville was incorporated +in 1852, and in 1888 was chartered as a city; and by act of the +state legislature the name was changed to Hornell in 1906.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. H. McMaster, <i>History of the Settlement of Steuben County</i> +(Bath, New York, 1849).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNEMANN, FREDERICK<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (fl. 1796-1800), German traveller +in Africa, was born at Hildesheim. He was a young man when, +early in 1796, he offered his services to the African Association +of London as an explorer in Africa. By the association he was +sent to Göttingen University to study Arabic and otherwise +prepare for an expedition into the unknown regions of North +Africa from the east. In September 1797 he arrived in Egypt, +where he continued his studies. On the invasion of the country +by the French he was confined in the citadel of Cairo, to preserve +him from the fanaticism of the populace. Liberated by the +French, he received the patronage of Bonaparte. On the 5th +of September 1798 he joined a caravan returning to the Maghrib +from Mecca, attaching himself to a party of Fezzan merchants +who accompanied the pilgrims. As an avowed Christian would +not have been permitted to join the caravan Hornemann assumed +the character of a young mameluke trading to Fezzan. He then +spoke, but indifferently, both Arabic and Turkish, and he was +accompanied as servant and interpreter by Joseph Freudenburg, +a German convert to Islam, who had thrice made the pilgrimage +to Mecca. Travelling by way of the oases of Siwa and Aujila, +a “black rocky desert” was traversed to Temissa in Fezzan. +Murzuk was reached on the 17th of November 1798. Here +Hornemann lived till June 1799, going thence to the city of +Tripoli, whence in August of the same year he despatched his +journals to London. He then returned to Murzuk. Nothing +further is known with certainty concerning him or his companion. +In Murzuk Hornemann had collected a great deal of trustworthy +information concerning the peoples and countries of the western +Sahara and central Sudan, and when he left Tripoli it was his +intention to go direct to the Hausa country, which region he +was the first European definitely to locate. “If I do not perish +in my undertaking,” he wrote in his journal, “I hope in five +years I shall be able to make the Society better acquainted with +the people of whom I have given this short description.” The +British consul at Tripoli heard from a source believed to be +trustworthy that about June 1803 Jusef (Hornemann’s Mahommedan +name) was at Caśna, <i>i.e.</i> Katsena, in Northern Nigeria, +“in good health and highly respected as a marabout.” A report +reached Murzuk in 1819 that the traveller had gone to “Noofy” +(Nupe), and had died there. Hornemann was the first European +in modern times to traverse the north-eastern Sahara, and up to +1910 no other explorer had followed his route across the Jebel-es-Suda +from Aujila to Temissa.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The original text of Hornemann’s journal, which was written in +German, was printed at Weimar in 1801; an English translation, +<i>Travels from Cairo to Mourzouk</i>, &c., with maps and dissertations +by Major James Rennell, appeared in London in 1802. A French +translation of the English work, made by order of the First Consul, +and augmented with notes and a memoir on the Egyptian oases by +L. Langlès, was published in Paris in the following year. The French +version is the most valuable of the three. Consult also the <i>Proceedings +of the African Association</i> (1810), and the Geog. Jnl. Nov. 1906.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNER, FRANCIS<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1778-1817), British economist, was +born at Edinburgh on the 12th of August 1778. After passing +through the usual courses at the high school and university +of his native city, he devoted five years, the first two in England, +to comprehensive but desultory study, and in 1800 was called +to the Scottish bar. Desirous, however, of a wider sphere, +Horner removed to London in 1802, and occupied the interval +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span> +that elapsed before his admission to the English bar in 1807 +with researches in law, philosophy and political economy. +In February 1806 he became one of the commissioners for +adjusting the claims against the nawab of Arcot, and in November +entered parliament as member for St Ives. Next year he sat. +for Wendover, and in 1812 for St Mawes, in the patronage +of the marquis of Buckingham. In 1811, when Lord Grenville +was organizing a prospective ministry, Horner had the offer, +which he refused, of a treasury secretaryship. He had resolved +not to accept office till he could afford to live out of office; and +his professional income, on which he depended, was at no time +proportionate to his abilities. His labours at last began to tell +upon a constitution never robust, and in October 1816 his +physicians ordered him to Italy, where, however, he sank under +his malady. He died at Pisa, on the 8th of February 1817. +He was buried at Leghorn, and a marble statue by Chantrey +was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<p>Without the advantages of rank, or wealth, or even of genius, +Francis Horner rose to a high position of public influence and +private esteem. His special field was political economy. Master +of that subject, and exercising a sort of moral as well as intellectual +influence over the House of Commons he, by his nervous and +earnest rather than eloquent style of speaking, could fix its +attention for hours on such dry topics as finance, and coinage, +and currency. As chairman of the parliamentary committee +for investigating the depreciation of bank-notes, for which he +moved in 1810, he extended and confirmed his fame as a political +economist by his share in the famous <i>Bullion Report</i>. It was +chiefly through his efforts that the paper-issue of the English +banks was checked, and gold and silver reinstated in their true +position as circulating media; and his views on free trade and +commerce have been generally accepted at their really high +value. Horner was one of the promoters of the <i>Edinburgh +Review</i> in 1802. His articles in the early numbers of that +publication, chiefly on political economy, form his only literary +legacy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoirs and Correspondence of Francis Horner, M.P.</i>, published +by his brother (see below) in 1843. Also the <i>Edinburgh</i> and +<i>Quarterly Reviews</i> for the same year; and <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i>, +vol. i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNER, LEONARD<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1785-1864), Scottish geologist, brother +of Francis Horner (above), was born in Edinburgh on the 17th +of January 1785. His father, John Horner, was a linen merchant +in Edinburgh, and Leonard, the third and youngest son, entered +the university of Edinburgh in 1799. There in the course of the +next four years he studied chemistry and mineralogy, and +gained a love of geology from Playfair’s <i>Illustrations of the +Huttonian Theory</i>. At the age of nineteen he became a partner +in a branch of his father’s business, and went to London. In +1808 he joined the newly formed Geological Society and two +years later was elected one of the secretaries. Throughout his +long life he was ardently devoted to the welfare of the society; +he was elected president in 1846 and again in 1860. In 1811 +he read his first paper “On the Mineralogy of the Malvern Hills” +(<i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> vol. i.) and subsequently communicated other +papers on the “Brine-springs at Droitwich,” and the “Geology +of the S.W. part of Somersetshire.” He was elected F.R.S. +in 1813. In 1815 he returned to Edinburgh to take personal +superintendence of his business, and while there (1821) he was +instrumental in founding the Edinburgh School of Arts for +the instruction of mechanics, and he was one of the founders +of the Edinburgh Academy. In 1827 he was invited to London +to become warden of the London University, an office which he +held for four years; he then resided at Bonn for two years and +pursued the study of minerals and rocks, communicating to the +Geological Society on his return a paper on the “Geology of the +Environs of Bonn,” and another “On the Quantity of Solid +Matter suspended in the Water of the Rhine.” In 1833 he was +appointed one of the commissioners to inquire into the employment +of children in the factories of Great Britain, and he was +subsequently selected as one of the inspectors. In later years +he devoted much attention to the geological history of the +alluvial lands of Egypt; and in 1843 he published his <i>Life</i> of +his brother Francis. He died in London on the 5th of March +1864.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoir of Leonard Horner</i>, by Katherine M. Lyell (1890) +(privately printed).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÖRNES, MORITZ<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1815-1868), Austrian palaeontologist, +was born in Vienna on the 14th of July 1815. He was educated +in the university and graduated Ph.D. He then became assistant +in the Vienna mineralogical museum. He was distinguished +for his researches on the Tertiary mollusca of the Vienna Basin, +and on the Triassic mollusca of Alpine regions. Most of his +memoirs were published in the <i>Jahrbuch der K. K. geol. Reichsanstalt</i>. +In 1864 he introduced the term Neogene to include +Miocene and Pliocene, as these formations are not always to +be clearly separated: the fauna of the lower division being +subtropical and gradually giving place in the upper division to +Mediterranean forms. He died in Vienna on the 4th of November +1868. His son Dr Rudolf Hörnes (b. 1850), professor of geology +and palaeontology in the university of Graz, has also carried on +researches among the Tertiary mollusca, and is author of <i>Elemente +der Palaeontologie</i> (1884).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNFELS<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (a German word meaning hornstone), the group +designation for a series of rocks which have been baked and +indurated by the heat of intrusive granitic masses and have +been rendered massive, hard, splintery, and in some cases +exceedingly tough and durable. Most hornfelses are fine-grained, +and while the original rocks (such as sandstone, shale and slate, +limestone and diabase) may have been more or less fissile owing +to the presence of bedding or cleavage planes, this structure is +effaced or rendered inoperative in the hornfels. Though they +may show banding, due to bedding, &c., they break across this +as readily as along it; in fact they tend to separate into cubical +fragments rather than into thin plates. The commonest hornfelses +(the “biotite hornfelses”) are dark-brown to black with a +somewhat velvety lustre owing to the abundance of small crystals +of shining black mica. The “lime hornfelses” are often white, +yellow, pale-green, brown and other colours. Green and dark-green +are the prevalent tints of the hornfelses produced by the +alteration of igneous rocks. Although for the most part the +constituent grains are too small to be determined by the unaided +eye, there are often larger crystals of garnet or andalusite +scattered through the fine matrix, and these may become very +prominent on the weathered faces of the rock.</p> + +<p>The structure of the hornfelses is very characteristic. Very +rarely do any of the minerals show crystalline form, but the +small grains fit closely together like the fragments of a mosaic; +they are usually of nearly equal dimensions and from the resemblance +to rough pavement work this has been called <i>pflaster</i> +structure or pavement structure. Each mineral may also +enclose particles of the others; in the quartz, for example, +small crystals of graphite, biotite, iron oxides, sillimanite or +felspar may appear in great numbers. Often the whole of the +grains are rendered semi-opaque in this way. The minutest +crystals may show traces of crystalline outlines; undoubtedly +they are of new formation and have originated <i>in situ</i>. This +leads us to believe that the whole rock has been recrystallized +at a high temperature and in the solid state, so that there was +little freedom for the mineral molecules to build up well-individualized +crystals. The regeneration of the rock has been +sufficient to efface most of the original structures and to replace +the former minerals more or less completely by new ones. But +crystallization has been hampered by the solid condition of the +mass and the new minerals are formless and have been unable +to reject impurities, but have grown around them.</p> + +<p>Slates, shales and clays yield biotite hornfelses in which +the most conspicuous mineral is black mica, in small scales which +under the microscope are transparent and have a dark reddish-brown +colour and strong dichroism. There is also quartz, and +often a considerable amount of felspar, while graphite, tourmaline +and iron oxides frequently occur in lesser quantity. In these +biotite hornfelses the minerals, which consist of aluminium +silicates, are commonly found; they are usually andalusite and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span> +sillimanite, but kyanite appears also in hornfelses, especially in +those which have a schistose character. The andalusite may be +pink and is then often pleochroic in thin sections, or it may +be white with the cross-shaped dark enclosures of the matrix +which are characteristic of chiastolite. Sillimanite usually forms +exceedingly minute needles embedded in quartz. In the rocks +of this group cordierite also occurs, not rarely, and may have +the outlines of imperfect hexagonal prisms which are divided +up into six sectors when seen in polarized light. In biotite +hornfelses a faint striping may indicate the original bedding +of the unaltered rock and corresponds to small changes in the +nature of the sediment deposited. More commonly there is a +distinct spotting, visible on the surfaces of the hand specimens. +The spots are round or elliptical, and may be paler or darker +than the rest of the rock. In some cases they are rich in graphite +or carbonaceous matters; in others they are full of brown mica; +some spots consist of rather coarser grains of quartz than occur +in the matrix. The frequency with which this feature reappears +in the less altered slates and hornfelses is rather remarkable, +especially as it seems certain that the spots are not always of +the same nature or origin. “Tourmaline hornfelses” are found +sometimes near the margins of tourmaline granites; they are +black with small needles of schorl which under the microscope +are dark brown and richly pleochroic. As the tourmaline contains +boron there must have been some permeation of vapours +from the granite into the sediments. Rocks of this group are +often seen in the Cornish tin-mining districts, especially near +the lodes.</p> + +<p>A second great group of hornfelses are the calc-silicate-hornfelses +which arise from the thermal alteration of impure limestones. +The purer beds recrystallize as marbles, but where there +has been originally an admixture of sand or clay lime-bearing +silicates are formed, such as diopside, epidote, garnet, sphene, +vesuvianite, scapolite; with these phlogopite, various felspars, +pyrites, quartz and actinolite often occur. These rocks are fine-grained, +and though often banded are tough and much harder +than the original limestones. They are excessively variable +in their mineralogical composition, and very often alternate +in thin seams with biotite hornfels and indurated quartzites. +When perfused with boric and fluoric vapours from the granite +they may contain much axinite, fluorite and datolite, but the +aluminous silicates (andalusite, &c.) are absent from these rocks.</p> + +<p>From diabases, basalts, andesites and other igneous rocks +a third type of hornfels is produced. They consist essentially +of felspar with hornblende (generally of brown colour) and +pale pyroxene. Sphene, biotite and iron oxides are the other +common constituents, but these rocks show much variety of +composition and structure. Where the original mass was decomposed +and contained calcite, zeolites, chlorite and other secondary +minerals either in veins or in cavities, there are usually rounded +areas or irregular streaks containing a suite of new minerals, +which may resemble those of the calc silicate hornfelses above +described. The original porphyritic, fluidal, vesicular or fragmental +structures of the igneous rock are clearly visible in the +less advanced stages of hornfelsing, but become less evident +as the alteration progresses.</p> + +<p>In some districts hornfelsed rocks occur which have acquired +a schistose structure through shearing, and these form transitions +to schists and gneisses which contain the same minerals as the +hornfelses, but have a schistose instead of a hornfels structure. +Among these may be mentioned cordierite and sillimanite +gneisses, andalusite and kyanite mica schists, and those schistose +calc silicate rocks which are known as cipolins. That these are +sediments which have undergone thermal alteration is generally +admitted, but the exact conditions under which they were formed +is not always clear. The essential features of hornfelsing are +ascribed to the action of heat, pressure and permeating vapours, +regenerating a rock mass without the production of fusion (at +least on a large scale). It has been argued, however, that often +there is extensive chemical change owing to the introduction +of matter from the granite into the rocks surrounding it. The +formation of new felspar in the hornfelses is pointed out as +evidence of this. While this “felspathization” may have occurred +in a few localities, it seems conspicuously absent from others. +Most authorities at the present time regard the changes as being +purely of a physical and not of a chemical nature.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNING, LETTERS OF,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a term in Scots law. Originally +in Scotland imprisonment for debt was enforceable only in +certain cases, but a custom gradually grew up of taking the +debtor’s oath to pay. If the debtor broke his oath, he became +liable to the discipline of the Church. The civil power, further, +stepped in to aid the ecclesiastical, and denounced him as a +rebel, imprisoning his person and confiscating his goods. The +method declaring a person a rebel was by giving three blasts +on a horn and publicly proclaiming the fact; hence the expression, +“put to the horn.” The subsequent process, the warrant +directing a messenger-at-arms to charge the debtor to pay or +perform in terms of the letters, was called “letters of horning.” +This system of execution was simplified by an act of 1837 +(Personal Diligence Act), and execution is now usually by +diligence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Execution</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNPIPE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> originally the name of an instrument no longer +in existence, and now the name of an English national dance. +The sailors’ hornpipe, although the most common, is by no +means the only form of the dance, for there is a pretty tune +known as the “College Hornpipe,” and other specimens of a +similar kind might be cited. The composition of hornpipes +flourished chiefly in the 18th century, and even Handel did not +disdain to use the characteristic rhythm. The hornpipe may +be written in <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span> or in common time, and is always of a lively +nature.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORNSEY,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a municipal borough in the Hornsey parliamentary +division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 6 m. N. +of St Paul’s Cathedral, on the Great Northern railway. Pop. +(1891) 44,523; (1901) 72,056. It is chiefly occupied by small +residences of the working classes. The manor, called in the +13th century <i>Haringee</i> (a name which survives as Harringay), +belonged from an early date to the see of London, the bishops +having a seat here. In 1387 the duke of Gloucester, uncle of +Richard II., assembled in Hornsey Park the forces by the +display of which he compelled the king to dismiss his minister +de la Pole, earl of Suffolk; and in 1483 the park was the scene of +the ceremonious reception of Edward V., under the charge of +Richard, duke of Gloucester, by Edmund Shaw, lord mayor of +London. The parish church of St Mary, Hornsey, retains its +Perpendicular tower (<i>c.</i> 1500) and a number of interesting +monuments. Finsbury Park, of 120 acres, and other smaller +public grounds, are within the borough. Hornsey was incorporated +in 1903 under a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. +Area, 2875 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOROWITZ, ISAIAH<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1555-<i>c.</i> 1630), Jewish rabbi and +mystic, was born at Prague, and died at Safed, then the home +of Jewish Kabbala. His largest work is called <i>Shelah</i> (abbreviated +from the initials of the full title <i>Shene luhoth ha-berit</i>, +“Two Tables of the Covenant”). This is a compilation of +ritual, ethics and mysticism, and had a profound influence +on Jewish life. It has been often reprinted, especially in an +abbreviated form.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an account of the Jewish mystics at Safed see S. Schecter, +<i>Studies in Judaism</i>, series ii. (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORREUM,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> the Latin word for a magazine or storehouse for +the storage of grain and other produce of the earth, and occasionally +for that of agricultural implements. The storehouses of +Rome were of the most extensive character, there being no +fewer than 290 public horrea at the time of Constantine. They +were used for the storage of food and merchandize of all kinds, +being part of the great Roman system of providing food for the +population, and they were supplied constantly with corn and +other provisions from Africa, Spain and elsewhere.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORROCKS, JEREMIAH<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1619-1641), English astronomer, +was born in 1619 at Toxteth Park, near Liverpool. His family +was poor, and the register of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, +testifies to his entry as sizar on the 18th of May 1632. Isolated +in his scientific tastes, and painfully straitened in means, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span> +pursued amid innumerable difficulties his purpose of self-education. +His university career lasted three years, and on its +termination he became a tutor at Toxteth, devoting to astronomical +observations his brief intervals of leisure. In 1636 he met +with a congenial spirit in William Crabtree, a draper of Broughton, +near Manchester; and encouraged by his advice he exchanged +the guidance of Philipp von Lansberg, a pretentious but inaccurate +Belgian astronomer, for that of Kepler. He now set +himself to the revision of the Rudolphine Tables (published by +Kepler in 1627), and in the progress of his task became convinced +that a transit of Venus overlooked by Kepler would nevertheless +occur on the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639. He was at this time +curate of Hoole, near Preston, having recently taken orders +in the Church of England, although, according to the received +accounts, he had not attained the canonical age. The 24th +of November falling on a Sunday, his clerical duties threatened +fatally to clash with his astronomical observations; he was, +however, released just in time to witness the punctual verification +of his forecast, and carefully noted the progress of the phenomenon +during half an hour before sunset (3.15 to 3.45). This transit of +Venus is remarkable as the first ever observed, that of 1631 +predicted by Kepler having been invisible in western Europe. +Notwithstanding the rude character of the apparatus at his +disposal, Horrocks was enabled by his observation of it to +introduce some important corrections into the elements of the +planet’s orbit, and to reduce to its exact value the received +estimate of its apparent diameter.</p> + +<p>After a year spent at Hoole, he returned to Toxteth, and +there, on the eve of a long-promised visit to his friend Crabtree, +he died, on the 3rd of January 1641, when only in his twenty-second +year. To the inventive activity of the discoverer he had +already united the patient skill of the observer and the practical +sagacity of the experimentalist. Before he was twenty he had +afforded a specimen of his powers by an important contribution +to the lunar theory. He first brought the revolutions of our +satellite within the domain of Kepler’s laws, pointing out that +her apparent irregularities could be completely accounted for +by supposing her to move in an ellipse with a variable eccentricity +and directly rotatory major axis, of which the earth +occupied one focus. These precise conditions were afterwards +demonstrated by Newton to follow necessarily from the law +of gravitation.</p> + +<p>In his speculations as to the physical cause of the celestial +motions, his mind, though not wholly emancipated from the +tyranny of gratuitous assumptions, was working steadily towards +the light. He clearly perceived the significant analogy between +terrestrial gravity and the force exerted in the solar system, and +by the ingenious device of a circular pendulum illustrated the +composite character of the planetary movements. He also +reduced the solar parallax to 14″ (less than a quarter of Kepler’s +estimate), corrected the sun’s semi-diameter to 15′ 45″, recommended +decimal notation, and was the first to make tidal +observations.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Only a remnant of the papers left by Horrocks was preserved by +the care of William Crabtree. After his death (which occurred soon +after that of his friend) these were purchased by Dr Worthington, +of Cambridge; and from his hands the treatise <i>Venus in sole visa</i> +passed into those of Hevelius, and was published by him in 1662 +with his own observations on a transit of Mercury. The remaining +fragments were, under the directions of the Royal Society, reduced +by Dr Wallis to a compact form, with the heading <i>Astronomia +Kepleriana defensa et promota</i>, and published with numerous extracts +from the letters of Horrocks to Crabtree, and a sketch of the author’s +life, in a volume entitled <i>Jeremiae Horroccii opera posthuma</i> (London, +1672). A memoir of his life by the Rev. Arundell Blount Whatton, +prefixed to a translation of the <i>Venus in sole visa</i>, appeared at London +in 1859.</p> + +<p>For additional particulars, see J. E. Bailey’s <i>Palatine Note-Book</i>, +ii. 253, iii. 17; Bailey’s “Writings of Horrocks and Crabtree” +(from <i>Notes and Queries</i>, Dec. 2, 1882); <i>Notes and Queries</i>, +3rd series, vol. v., 5th series, vols. ii., iv.; Martin’s <i>Biographia +philosophica</i>, p. 271 (1764); R. Brickel, <i>Transits of Venus, 1639-1874</i> +(Preston, 1874); <i>Astronomical Register</i>, xii. 293; Hevelii, +<i>Mercurius in sole visus</i>, pp. 116-140; S. Rigaud’s <i>Correspondence +of Scientific Men</i>; Th. Birch, <i>History of the Royal Society</i>, i. 386, +395, 470; Sir E. Sherburne’s <i>Sphere of M. Manilius</i>, p. 92 (1675); +Sir J. A. Picton’s <i>Memorials of Liverpool</i>, ii. 561; M. Gregson’s +<i>Fragments relative to the Duchy of Lancaster</i>, p. 166 (1817); <i>Liverpool +Repository</i>, i. 570 (1826); <i>Phil. Trans. Abridged</i>, ii. 12 (1809); +C. Hutton’s <i>Phil. and Math. Dictionary</i> (1815); <i>Penny Cyclopaedia</i> +(De Morgan); <i>Nature</i>, viii. 117, 137; J. B. J. Delambre, <i>Hist. de +l’astronomie moderne</i>, ii. 495; <i>Hist. de l’astronomie au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, +pp. 28, 61, 74; W. Whewell, <i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>, i. 331; +R. Grant, <i>Hist. of Physical Astronomy</i>, pp. 420, 545; J. Mädler, +<i>Geschichte der Himmelskunde</i>, i. 275; M. Marie, <i>Hist. des Sciences</i>, +iv. 168, vi. 90; J. C. Houzeau, <i>Bibl. Astr.</i> ii. 167.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORROCKS, JOHN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1768-1804), British cotton manufacturer, +was born at Edgeworth, near Bolton, in 1768. His father was +the owner of a small quarry, and John Horrocks spent his +early days in dressing and polishing millstones. The Lancashire +cotton industry was then in its infancy, but Horrocks was +greatly impressed with its future possibilities, and he managed +to obtain a few spinning-frames which he erected in a corner +of his father’s offices. For a time he combined cotton-spinning +on a very small scale with stone-working, but finally devoted +himself entirely to cotton-spinning, working the frames with his +own hands, and travelling through the Lancashire manufacturing +districts to sell the yarn. His goods obtained a reputation +for quality, and his customers increased so rapidly that in 1791 +he removed to Preston, where he began to manufacture cotton +shirtings and long-cloths in addition to spinning the cotton yarn. +By taking full advantage of the machinery invented for manufacturing +textiles, and by rigidly maintaining the quality of his +goods, Horrocks rapidly developed his business, and with the +aid of the capital of a local banker, whom he took into partnership, +erected within a year of his arrival in Preston his first large mill, +securing shortly afterwards from the East India Company a +monopoly of the manufacture of cottons and muslins for the +Indian market. The demand for Horrocks’s goods continued to +increase, and to cope with the additional work he took first +an elder brother and in 1801 a Mr Whitehead and a Mr Miller +into partnership, the title of the firm being altered to Horrockses, +Miller & Co. In 1802 he entered parliament as tory member +for Preston. He died in London in 1804 of brain-fever resulting +from over-work.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSE<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms +as <i>hors</i>, <i>hros</i>, <i>ros</i>; cf. the Ger. <i>ross</i>), a name properly restricted +to the domesticated horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>) and its wild or half-wild +representatives, but in a zoological sense used as a general +term for all the members of the family Equidae.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Species</p> + +<p>The distinctive characteristics of the family, and its position +in the zoological system, are given in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equidae</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Perissodactyla</a></span>. Here attention is concentrated on the leading +features of the horse as contrasted with the other members +of the same family, and subsequently on the anatomical structure +of the former animal. The evolution of the existing representatives +of the family from primitive extinct animals is summarized +in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equidae</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Horse</i>, <i>Wild Horse</i>, <i>Pony</i>.—The horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>) is +distinguished from the others by the long hairs of the tail being +more abundant and growing quite or nearly from the base as +well as the end and sides, and also by possessing a small bare +callosity on the inner side of the hind leg, just below the “hock” +or heel joint, in addition to the one on the inner side of the +fore-arm above the carpus or “knee,” common to all the genus. +The mane is also longer and more flowing, and the ears are shorter, +the limbs longer, and the head smaller.</p> + +<p>Though existing horses are usually not marked in any definite +manner, or only irregularly dappled, or spotted with light +surrounded by a darker ring, many examples are met with +showing a dark median dorsal streak like that found in all the +other members of the genus, and even with dark stripes on the +shoulders and legs.</p> + +<p>Two distinct types of horse, in many instances largely modified +by interbreeding, appear to exist. (1) The northern, or dun type, +represented by the dun ponies of Norway (<i>Equus caballus +typicus</i>), the closely allied Celtic pony (<i>E. c. celticus</i>) of Iceland, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span> +Hebrides, &c., and the wild pony of Mongolia (<i>E. c. przewalskii</i>), +with which the now extinct tarpan of the Russian steppes +appears to have been identical. The prevalent colour is yellow-dun, +with dark brown or black mane, tail and legs; in the wild +forms the muzzle is often white and the root of the tail short-haired; +while the head is relatively large and heavy. No +depression exists in the skull in front of the eye. Most of the +ordinary horses of N.W. Europe are descended from the dun +type, with more or less admixture of Barb blood. (2) The +southern, or Barb type, represented by Barbs, Arabs, thoroughbreds, +&c. (<i>E. c. asiaticus</i> or <i>libycus</i>), in which the typical colour +is bay with black “points” and often a white star on the forehead, +and the mane and tail are long and full. The skull generally +shows a slight depression in front of the socket of the eye, which, +although now serving as the attachment for the muscle running +to the nostril, may represent the face-gland of the extinct +<i>Hipparion</i>. Many of the dark-coloured horses of Europe have +Barb or Arab blood in their veins, this being markedly the case +with the Old English black or Shire horse, the skull of which +shows a distinct depression in front of the eye-socket. This +depression is still more marked in the extinct Indian <i>E. sivalensis</i>, +which may have been the ancestral form.</p> + +<p>In Europe wild horses were abundant in the prehistoric +Neolithic or polished-stone period. Judging from the quantity +of their remains found associated with those of the men of that +time, the chase of these animals must have been among man’s +chief occupations, and horses must have furnished him with +one of his most important food-supplies. The characters of the +bones preserved, and certain rude but graphic representations +carved on bones or reindeers’ antlers, enable us to know that +they were rather small in size and heavy in build, with large +heads and rough shaggy manes and tails, much like, in fact, the +recently extinct tarpans or wild horses of the steppes of the +south of Russia, and the still-surviving Mongolian wild pony +or “Przewalski’s horse.” These horses were domesticated +by the inhabitants of Europe before the dawn of history. Horses +are now diffused by the agency of man throughout almost the +whole of the inhabited parts of the globe, and the great modifications +they have undergone in consequence of domestication, +crossing, and selective breeding are well exemplified by comparing +such extreme forms as the Shetland pony, dwarfed by uncongenial +climate, the thoroughbred racer, and the London dray-horse. +In Australia, as in America, horses imported by European +settlers have escaped into unreclaimed lands and multiplied +to a prodigious extent, roaming in vast herds over the wide +and uncultivated plains.</p> + +<p><i>Ass</i>, <i>Zebra</i>, <i>Quagga</i>.—The next group is formed by the Asiatic +wild asses, or kiangs and onagers, as they might well be called, +in order to distinguish them from the wild asses of Africa. These +asses have moderate ears, the tail rather long, and the back-stripe +dark brown and running from head to tail. On the neck and +withers this stripe is formed by the mane. There are two +species of Asiatic wild ass, with several varieties. The first and +largest has two races, the chigetai (<i>Equus hemionus</i>) of Mongolia, +and the kiang (<i>E. h. kiang</i>) of Tibet, which is a redder animal. +The onager (<i>E. onager</i>), of which there are several races, is +smaller, with a broader dorsal stripe, bordered with white; +the colour varying from sandy to greyish. This species ranges +from Baluchistan and N.W. India to Persia, Syria and Arabia. +These asses inhabit desert plains or open table-land; the kiang +dwelling at elevations of about 14,000 ft. They are generally +found in herds of from twenty to forty, although occasionally +in larger numbers. All are fleet, and traverse rough ground +with speed. On the lowlands they feed on dry grasses, and in +Tibet on small woody plants. In India and Persia they are +difficult to approach, although this is not the case in Tibet. +Their sandy or chestnut colouring assimilates them to the horse, +and separates them widely from the African wild asses, which +are grey. The kiang has also larger and more horse-like hoofs, +and the tail is haired higher up, thus approximating to <i>Equus +caballus przewalskii</i>.</p> + +<p>Among the striped species, or zebras and quaggas of Africa, +the large Grévy’s zebra (<i>Equus grevyi</i>) of Somaliland and +Abyssinia stands apart from the rest by the number and narrowness +of its stripes, which have an altogether peculiar arrangement +on the hind-quarters, the small size of the callosities on the +fore-legs, the mane extending on to the withers and enormous +rounded ears, thickly haired internally. The large size of the +ears and the narrow stripes are in some degree at any rate +adaptations to a life on scrub-clad plains.</p> + +<p>Next comes the closely allied species with small pointed ears, +of which the true quagga (<i>E. quagga</i>) of South Africa is now +extinct. This animal has the dark stripes limited to the head, +neck and shoulders, upon a brown ground. In the typical +form, now also extinct, of the bonte-quagga, dauw, or Burchell’s +zebra (<i>E. burchelli</i>), the ground-colour is white, and the stripes +cover the body and upper part of the limbs. This was the +commonest species in the great plains of South Africa, where +it roamed in large herds, often in company with the quagga and +numerous antelopes. The species ranges from the Orange river +to the confines of Abyssinia, but its more northern representatives +show a gradual increase in the striping of the legs, culminating +in the north-east African <i>E. burchelli granti</i>, in which the stripes +extend to the hoofs. The markings, too, are alternately black +and white, in place of brown and creamy, with intermediate +“shadow stripes,” as in the southern races.</p> + +<p>Lastly, there is the true or mountain zebra (<i>E. zebra</i>), typically +from the mountain ranges of Cape Colony, where it is now +specially protected, but represented by <i>E. zebra penricei</i> in +south-west Africa. In its relatively long ears and general build +it approaches the African wild asses, from which it chiefly differs +by the striping (which is markedly different from that of the +quagga-group) and the reversal of the direction of the hairs along +the spine.</p> + +<p>The African wild ass (<i>E. asinus</i>) is the parent of the domesticated +breed, and is a long-eared grey animal, with no forelock, +and either a shoulder-stripe or dark barrings on the legs. There +are two races, of which the Nubian <i>E. a. africanus</i> is the smaller, +and has a continuous dorsal stripe and a shoulder-stripe but no +bars on the legs. The Somali race (<i>E. a somaliensis</i>), on the other +hand, is a larger and greyer animal, with an interrupted dorsal +and no shoulder-stripe, but distinct leg-barrings.</p> + +<p><i>Hybrids.</i>—There are thus eight modifications of the horse-type +at present existing, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species +by most zoologists, and easily recognizable by their external +characters. They are, however, all so closely allied that each +will, at least in a state of domestication or captivity, breed with +any of the others. Cases of fertile union are recorded between +the horse and the quagga, the horse and the bonte-quagga or +Burchell’s zebra, the horse and the onager and kiang or Asiatic +wild asses, the common ass and the zebra, the ass and bonte-quagga, +the ass and the onager, the onager and the zebra, and +the onager and the bonte-quagga. The two species which are +farthest removed in structure, the horse and the ass, produce, as +is well known, hybrids or mules, which in certain qualities useful +to man excel both their progenitors, and in some countries and +for certain kinds of work are in greater requisition than either. +Although occasional more or less doubtful instances have been +recorded of female mules breeding with the males of one or other +of the pure species, it is more than doubtful if any case has +occurred of their breeding <i>inter se</i>, although the opportunities +of doing so must have been great, as mules have been reared in +immense numbers for at least several thousands of years. We +may therefore consider it settled that the different species of the +group are now in that degree of physiological differentiation +which enables them to produce offspring with each other, but +does not permit of the progeny continuing the race, at all events +unless reinforced by the aid of one of the pure forms.</p> + +<p>The several members of the group show mental differences +quite as striking as those exhibited by their external form, and +more than perhaps might be expected from the similarity of their +brains. The patience of the ass, the high spirit of the horse, +the obstinacy of the mule, have long been proverbial. It is very +remarkable that, out of so many species, two only should have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span> +shown any aptitude for domestication, and that these should +have been from time immemorial the universal and most useful +companions and servants of man, while all the others remain in +their native freedom to this day. It is, however, still a question +whether this really arises from a different mental constitution +causing a natural capacity for entering into relations with man, +or whether it may not be owing to their having been brought +gradually into this condition by long-continued and persevering +efforts when the need of their services was felt. It is possible +that one reason why most of the attempts to add new species +to the list of our domestic animals in modern times have ended in +failure is that it does not answer to do so in cases in which existing +species supply all the principal purposes to which the new ones +might be put. It can hardly be expected that zebras and bonte-quaggas +fresh from their native mountains and plains can be +brought into competition as beasts of burden and draught with +horses and asses, whose useful qualities have been augmented +by the training of thousands of generations of progenitors.</p> + +<p>Not infrequently instances occur of domestic horses being +produced with a small additional toe with complete hoof, usually +on the inside of the principal toe, and, though far more rarely, +three or more toes may be present. These malformations are +often cited as instances of reversion to the condition of some of +the earlier forms of equine animals previously mentioned. In +some instances, however, the feet of such polydactyle horses +bear little resemblance to those of the extinct <i>Hipparion</i> or +<i>Anchitherium</i>, but look rather as if due to that tendency to +reduplication of parts which occurs so frequently as a monstrous +condition, especially among domesticated animals, and which, +whatever its origin, certainly cannot in many instances, as the +cases of entire limbs superadded, or of six digits in man, be +attributed to reversion.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Anatomy</p> + +<p>The anatomical structure of the horse has been described +in detail in several works mentioned in the bibliography at the +end of this section, though these have generally been written +from the point of view of the veterinarian rather than of the +comparative anatomist. The limits of the present article +will only admit of the most salient points being indicated, +particularly those in which the horse differs from other Ungulata. +Unless otherwise specified, it must be understood that all that +is stated here, although mostly derived from observation upon +the horse, applies equally well to the other existing members +of the group.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Skeleton.</i>—The skull as a whole is greatly elongated, chiefly in +consequence of the immense size of the face as compared with the +hinder or true cranial portion. The basal line of the cranium from +the lower border of the foramen magnum to the incisor border of the +palate is nearly straight. The orbit, of nearly circular form, though +small in proportion to the size of the whole skull, is distinctly marked, +being completely surrounded by a strong ring of bone with prominent +edges. Behind it, and freely communicating with it beneath the +osseous bridge (the post-orbital process of the frontal) forming the +boundary between them, is the small temporal fossa occupying the +whole of the side of the cranium proper, and in front is the great +flattened expanse of the “cheek,” formed chiefly by the maxilla, giving +support to the long row of cheek-teeth, and having a prominent ridge +running forward from below the orbit for the attachment of the +masseter muscle. The lachrymal occupies a considerable space on the +flat surface of the cheek in front of the orbit, and below it the jugal +does the same. The latter sends a horizontal or slightly ascending +process backwards below the orbit to join the under surface of the +zygomatic process of the squamosal, which is remarkably large, and +instead of ending as usual behind the orbit, runs forwards to join +the greatly developed post-orbital process of the frontal, and even +forms part of the posterior and inferior boundary of the orbit, an +arrangement not met with in other mammals. The closure of the +orbit behind distinguishes the skull of the horse from that of its allies +the rhinoceros and tapir, and also from all of the perissodactyles of +the Eocene period. In front of the brain cavity, the great tubular +nasal cavities are provided with well-developed turbinal bones, and +are roofed over by large nasals, broad behind, and ending in front +in a narrow decurved point. The opening of the anterior nostrils +is prolonged backwards on each side of the face between the nasals +and the elongated slender premaxillae. The latter expand in front, +and are curved downwards to form the semicircular alveolar border +which supports the large incisor teeth. The palate is narrow in the +interval between the incisor and molar teeth, in which are situated +the large anterior palatine foramina. Between the molar teeth it is +broader, and it ends posteriorly in a rounded excavated border +opposite the hinder border of the penultimate molar tooth. It is +mainly formed by the maxillae, as the palatines are very narrow. +The pterygoids are delicate slender slips of bone attached to the +hinder border of the palatines, and supported externally by, and +generally welded with, the rough pterygoid plates of the alisphenoid, +with no pterygoid fossa between. They slope obliquely forwards, and +end in curved, compressed, hamular processes. There is a distinct +alisphenoid canal for the passage of the internal maxillary artery. +The base of the cranium is long and narrow; the alisphenoid is very +obliquely perforated by the foramen rotundum, but the foramen +ovale is confluent with the large foramen lacerum medium behind. +The glenoid surface for the articulation of the mandible is greatly +extended transversely, concave from side to side, convex from +before backwards in front, and hollow behind, and is bounded +posteriorly at its inner part by a prominent post-glenoid process. +The squamosal enters considerably into the formation of the temporal +fossa, and, besides sending the zygomatic process forwards, it sends +down behind the meatus auditorius a post-tympanic process which +aids to hold in place the otherwise loose tympano-periotic bone. +Behind this the exoccipital gives off a long paroccipital process. +The periotic and tympanic are welded together, but not with the +squamosal. The former has a wide but shallow floccular fossa on +its inner side, and sends backwards a considerable “pars mastoidea,” +which appears on the outer surface of the skull between the post-tympanic +process of the squamosal and the exoccipital. The +tympanic forms a tubular meatus auditorius externus directed outwards +and slightly backwards. It is not dilated into a distinct bulla, +but ends in front in a pointed rod-like process. It completely +embraces the truncated cylindrical tympanohyal, which is of great +size, corresponding with the large development of the whole anterior +arch of the hyoid. This consists mainly of a long and compressed +stylohyal, expanded at the upper end, where it sends off a triangular +posterior process. The basi-hyal is remarkable for the long, median, +pointed, compressed “glossohyal” process, which it sends forward +from its anterior border into the base of the tongue. A similar but +less developed process is found in the rhinoceros and tapir. The +lower jaw is large, especially the region of the angle, which is expanded +and flattened, giving great surface for the attachment of +the masseter muscle. The condyle is greatly elevated above the +alveolar border; its articular surface is very wide transversely, and +narrow and convex from before backwards. The coronoid process +is slender, straight, and inclined backwards. The horizontal ramus, +long, straight, and compressed, gradually narrows towards the symphysis, +where it expands laterally to form with the ankylosed +opposite ramus the wide, semicircular, shallow alveolar border for +the incisor teeth.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:443px; height:428px" src="images/img714.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Side view of Skull of Horse, with the bone removed +so as to expose the whole of the teeth.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla.</p> +<p><i>Mx</i>, Maxilla.</p> +<p><i>Na</i>, Nasal bone.</p> +<p><i>Ma</i>, Jugal or malar bone.</p> +<p><i>L</i>, Lacrymal bone.</p> +<p><i>Fr</i>, Frontal bone.</p> +<p><i>Sq</i>, Squamosal bone.</p> +<p><i>Pa</i>, Parietal bone.</p> +<p><i>oc</i>, Occipital condyle.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>pp</i>, Paroccipital process.</p> +<p><i>i</i>¹, <i>i</i>², and <i>i</i>³, The three incisor teeth.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, The canine tooth.</p> +<p><i>pm</i>¹, The situation of the rudimentary first premolar, + which has been lost in the lower, but is present in the upper jaw.</p> +<p><i>pm</i>², <i>pm</i>³, and pm<span class="sp">4</span>, The three fully developed premolar teeth.</p> +<p><i>m</i>¹, <i>m</i>², and <i>m</i>³, The three true molar teeth.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal, +six lumbar, five sacral, and fifteen to eighteen caudal vertebrae +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span> +There may be nineteen rib-bearing vertebrae, in which case five +only will be reckoned as belonging to the lumbar series. The +odontoid process of the axis is wide, flat, and hollowed above, as in the +ruminants. The bodies of the cervical vertebrae are elongated, +strongly keeled, and markedly opisthocoelous, or concave behind +and convex in front. The neural laminae are broad, the spines +almost obsolete, except in the seventh, and the transverse processes +not largely developed. In the trunk vertebrae the opisthocoelous +character of the centrum gradually diminishes. The spinous processes +of the anterior thoracic region are high and compressed. To +these is attached the powerful elastic ligament (<i>ligamentum nuchae</i>, +or “paxwax”) which, passing forwards in the middle line of the +neck above the neural arches of the cervical vertebrae—to which it +is also connected—is attached to the occiput and supports the weight +of the head. The transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae are +long, flattened, and project horizontally outwards or slightly forward +from the arch. The metapophyses are moderately developed, and +there are no anapophyses. The caudal vertebrae, except those +quite at the base, are slender and cylindrical, without processes and +without chevron bones beneath. The ribs are eighteen or nineteen +in number on each side, flattened, and united to the sternum by +short, stout, tolerably well ossified sternal ribs. The sternum consists +of six pieces; the anterior or presternum is compressed and +projects forwards like the prow of a boat. The segments which +follow gradually widen, and the hinder part of the sternum is broad +and flat.</p> + +<p>As in all other ungulates, there are no clavicles. The scapula is +long and slender, the supra-scapular border being rounded, and +slowly and imperfectly ossified. The spine is very slightly developed; +rather above the middle its edge is thickened and somewhat turned +backwards, but it gradually subsides at the lower extremity without +forming any acromial process. The coracoid is a prominent rounded +nodule. The humerus is stout and rather short. The ulna is rudimentary, +being represented by little more than the olecranon. +The shaft gradually tapers below and is firmly welded to the radius. +The latter bone is of nearly equal width throughout. The three +bones of the first row of the carpus (scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform) +are subequal in size. The second row consists of a broad and flat +magnum, supporting the great third metacarpal, having to its +radial side the trapezoid, and to its ulnar side the unciform, which +are both small, and articulate inferiorally with the rudimentary +second and fourth metacarpals. The pisiform is large and prominent, +flattened and curved; it articulates partly with the cuneiform and +partly with the lower end of the radius. The large metacarpal is +called in veterinary anatomy “cannon bone”; the small lateral +metacarpals, which gradually taper towards their lower extremities, +and lie in close contact with the large one, are called “splint bones.” +The single digit consists of a moderate-sized proximal (<i>os suffraginis</i>, +or large pastern), a short middle (<i>os coronae</i>, or small pastern), and +a wide, semi-lunar, ungual phalanx (<i>os pedis</i>, or coffin bone). There +is a pair of large nodular sesamoids behind the metacarpo-phalangeal +articulation, and a single large transversely-extended sesamoid +behind the joint between the second and third phalanx, called the +“navicular bone.”</p> + +<p>The carpal joint, corresponding to the wrist of man, is commonly +called the “knee” of the horse, the joint between the metacarpal +and the first phalanx the “fetlock,” that between the first and +second phalanges the “pastern,” and that between the second and +third phalanges the “coffin joint.”</p> + +<p>In the hinder limb the femur is marked, as in other perissodactyles, +by the presence of a “third trochanter,” a flattened process, curving +forwards and arising from the outer side of the bone, about one-third +of the distance from the upper end. The fibula is reduced to a +mere rod-like rudiment of the upper end. The lower part is absent +or completely fused with the tibia. The calcaneum has a long and +compressed calcaneal process. The astragalus has a large flat +articular surface in front for the navicular, and a small one for the +cuboid. The navicular and the external cuneiform bones are broad +and flat. The cuboid is small, and the internal and middle cuneiform +bones are small and united together. The metapodals and phalanges +resemble very closely those of the fore limb, but the principal +metatarsal is more laterally compressed at its upper end than is the +corresponding metacarpal. The joint between the femur and tibia, +corresponding to the knee of man, is called the “stifle-joint”; that +between the tibia and tarsus, corresponding to the ankle of man, +the “hock.” The bones and joints of the foot have the same names +as in the fore limb. The horse is eminently “digitigrade,” standing +on the extremity of the single digit of each foot, which is kept habitually +in a position approaching to vertical.</p> + +<p>The muscles of the limbs are modified from those of the ordinary +mammalian type in accordance with the reduced condition of the +bones and the simple requirements of flexion and extension of the +joints, no such actions as pronation and supination, or opposition of +digits, being possible or needed. The muscles therefore which perform +these functions in other quadrupeds are absent or rudimentary.</p> + +<p>Below the carpal and tarsal joints, the fore and hind limbs correspond +almost exactly in structure as well as function. On the +anterior or extensor surface of the limb a powerful tendon (7 in fig. 2), +that of the anterior extensor of the phalanges (corresponding to the +<i>extensor communis digitorum</i> of the arm and <i>extensor longus digitorum</i> +of the foot of man) passes down over the metacarpal bone and +phalanges, to be inserted mainly into the upper edge of the anterior +surface of the last phalanx or pedal bone. There is also a much +smaller second extensor on the outer side of this in each limb, the +lateral extensor of the phalanges. In the fore-leg the tendon of this +muscle (which corresponds with the <i>extensor minimi digiti</i> of man) +receives a slip from that of the principal extensor, and is inserted +into the first phalanx. In the hind-leg (where it is the homologue +apparently of the <i>peroneus brevis</i> of man) the tendon becomes +blended with that of the large extensor.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:415px; height:363px" src="images/img715.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Section of Foot of Horse.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1, Metacarpal bone.</p> +<p>2, First phalanx (<i>os suffraginis</i>).</p> +<p>3, Second phalanx (<i>os coronae</i>).</p> +<p>4, Third or ungual phalanx (<i>os pedis</i>, or coffin bone).</p> +<p>5, One of the upper sesamoid bones.</p> +<p>6, Lower sesamoid or navicular bone.</p> +<p>7, Tendon of anterior extensor of the phalanges.</p> +<p>8, Tendon of superficial flexor (<i>fl. perforatus</i>).</p> +<p>9, Tendon of deep flexor (<i>fl. perforans</i>).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>10, Suspensory ligament of fetlock.</p> +<p>11, Inferior or short sesamoid ligament.</p> +<p>12, Derma or skin of the foot, covered with hair, and continued into</p> +<p>13, The coronary cushion,</p> +<p>14, The podophyllous or laminar membrane, and</p> +<p>15, The keratogenous membrane of the sole.</p> +<p>16, Plantar cushion.</p> +<p>17, Hoof.</p> +<p>18, Fatty cushion of fetlock.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">A strong ligamentous band behind the metapodium, arising from +near the upper extremity of its posterior surface, divides into two +at its lower end, and each division, being first connected with one +of the paired upper sesamoid bones, passes by the side of the first +phalanx to join the extensor tendon of the phalanges. This is +called in veterinary anatomy the “suspensory ligament of the +sesamoids,” or of the “fetlock” (10 in fig. 2); but its attachments +and relations, as well as the occasional presence of muscular fibres +in its substance, show that it is the homologue of the interosseous +muscles of other mammals, modified in structure and function, to +suit the requirements of the horse’s foot. Behind or superficial to +this are placed the two strong tendons of the flexor muscles, the +most superficial, or <i>flexor perforatus</i> (8) dividing to allow the other +to pass through, and then inserted into the middle phalanx. The +<i>flexor perforans</i> (9) is as usual inserted into the terminal phalange. +In the fore-leg these muscles correspond with those similarly named +in man. In the hind-leg, the perforated tendon is a continuation of +that of the plantaris, passing pulley-wise over the tuberosity of the +calcaneum. The perforating tendon is derived from the muscle +corresponding with the long flexor of man, and the smaller tendon +of the oblique flexor (<i>tibialis porticus</i> of man) is united with it.</p> + +<p>The hoof of the horse corresponds to the nail or claw of other +mammals, but is so constructed as to form a complete and solid +case to the expanded termination of the toe, giving a firm basis of +support formed of a non-sensitive substance, which is continually +renewed by the addition of material from within, as its surface +wears away by friction. The terminal phalange of the toe is greatly +enlarged and modified in form to support this hoof, and the size of +the internal framework of the foot is increased by a pair of lateral +fibro-cartilaginous masses attached on each side to the hinder edges +of the bone, and by a fibro-cellular and fatty plantar cushion in the +median part. These structures are all enclosed in the middle subcorneous +integument, a continuation of the ordinary skin of the +limb, but extremely vascular, and having its superficial extent +greatly increased by being developed into papillae or laminae. +From this the horny material which constitutes the hoof is exuded. +A thickened ring encircling the upper part, called coronary cushion +(13) and the sole (15), are covered with numerous thickly-set +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span> +papillae or villi, and take the greatest share in the formation of the +hoof; the intermediate part constituting the front and side of the +foot (14), corresponding with the wall of the hoof, is covered with +parallel, fine longitudinal laminae, which fit into corresponding +depressions in the inner side of the horny hoof.</p> + +<p>The horny hoof is divided into a wall or crust consisting of the +front and sides, the flattened or concave sole, and the frog, a +triangular median prominence, notched posteriorly, with the apex +turned forwards, situated in the hinder part of the sole. It is formed +of pavement epithelial cells, mainly grouped in a concentric manner +around the vascular papillae of the subcorneous integument, so that +a section near the base of the hoof, cut transversely to the long axis +of these papillae, shows a number of small circular or oval orifices, +with cells arranged concentrically round them. The nearer the +surface of the hoof, or farther removed from the seat of growth, the +more indistinct the structure becomes.</p> + +<p>Small round or oval plates of horny epithelium called “chestnuts,” +callosities growing like the hoof from enlarged papillae of the skin, +are found on the inner face of the fore-arm, above the carpal joint +in all species of Equidae, and in the horse (<i>E. caballus</i>) similar +structures occur near the upper extremity of the inner face of the +metatarsus. They are evidently rudimentary structures which it +is suggested may represent glands (Lydekker, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. +London</i>, 1903, vol. i.).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:399px" src="images/img716.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Longitudinal and Transverse Section +of Upper Incisor of Horse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>p</i>, Pulp cavity.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Dentine or ivory.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Enamel.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Outer layer of cementum or crusta petrosa.</p> +<p><i>c</i>′, Inner layer of cementum, lining <i>a</i>, the pit or cavity of the crown of the tooth.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Dentition.</i>—The dentition of the horse, when all the teeth are in +place, is expressed by the formula <i>i.</i> <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, <i>c.</i> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span>, <i>p.</i> <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> <i>m.</i> <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> = 44. The +incisors of each jaw are placed in close contact, forming a semicircle. +The crowns are broad, somewhat awl-shaped, and of nearly +equal size. They have all the great peculiarity, not found in the +teeth of any other mammal, and only in the Equidae of comparatively +recent geological periods (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeontology</a></span>), of an involution +of the external surface of the tooth (see fig. 3), by which what should +properly be the apex +is carried deeply into +the interior of the +crown, forming a pit, +the bottom of which +becomes partially +filled with cement. +As the tooth wears, +the surface, besides +the external enamel +layer as in an ordinary +simple tooth, shows +in addition a second +inner ring of the same +hard substance surrounding +the pit, +which adds greatly to +the efficiency of the +tooth as an organ for +biting tough, fibrous +substances. This pit, +generally filled in the +living animal with +particles of food, is +conspicuous from its +dark colour, and constitutes +the “mark” +by which the age of +the horse is judged, +as in consequence of +its only extending to +a certain depth in +the crown it becomes +obliterated as the latter wears away, and then the tooth assumes +the character of that of an ordinary incisor, consisting only of +a core of dentine, surrounded by the external enamel layer. +It is not quite so deep in the lower as in the upper teeth. +The canines are either rudimentary or absent in the female. +In the male they are compressed, pointed, and smaller than the +incisors, from which they are separated by a slight interval. The +teeth of the cheek series are all in contact with each other, but +separated from the canines by a considerable toothless space. The +anterior premolars are quite rudimentary, sometimes not developed +at all, and generally fall by the time the animal attains maturity, +so that there are but six functional cheek teeth,—three that have +predecessors in the milk-dentition, and hence are considered as +premolars, and three molars, but otherwise, except the first and last +of the series, not distinguishable in form or structure. These teeth +in both upper and lower jaws are extremely long-crowned or hypsodont, +successive portions being pushed out as the surface wears +away, a process which continues until the animal becomes advanced +in age. The enamelled surface is infolded in a complex manner (a +modification of that found in other perissodactyles), the folds extending +quite to the base of the crown, and the interstices being +filled and the surface covered with a considerable mass of cement, +which binds together and strengthens the whole tooth. As the teeth +wear, the folded enamel, being harder than the other constituents, +the dentine and cement, forms projecting ridges on the surface +arranged in a definite pattern, which give it great efficiency as a +grinding instrument (see fig. 2, in article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equidae</a></span>). The free +surfaces of the upper teeth are quadrate, except the first and last, +which are nearly triangular. The lower teeth are much narrower +than the upper.</p> + +<p>The milk-dentition consists of i. <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, c. <span class="spp">0</span>⁄<span class="suu">0</span>, m. <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> = 24,—the canines +and first or rudimentary premolars having apparently no predecessors. +In form and structure the milk-teeth much resemble the +permanent ones, having the same characteristic enamel-foldings. +Their eruption commences a few days after birth, and is complete +before the end of the first year, the upper teeth usually appearing +somewhat earlier than the lower. The first teeth which appear are +the first and second milk-molars (about five days), then the central +incisor (from seven to ten days); this is followed by the second +incisor (at one month), then the third molar, and finally the third +incisor. Of the permanent teeth the first molar appears a little +after the end of the first year, followed by the second molar before +the end of the second year. At about two and a half years the first +premolar replaces its predecessor. Between two and a half and +three years the first incisor appears. At three years the second and +third premolars, and the third molar have appeared, at from three +and a half to four years the second incisor, at four to four and a +half years the canine, and, finally, at five years, the third incisor, +completing the permanent dentition. Up to this period the age of +the horse is clearly shown by the condition of dentition, and for +some time longer indications can be obtained from the wear of the +incisors, though this depends to a certain extent upon the hardness +of the food or other circumstances. As a general rule, the depression +caused by the infolding of the surface of the incisor (the “mark”) +is obliterated in the first or central incisor at six years, in the second +at seven years, and in the third at eight years. In the upper teeth, +as the depressions are deeper, this obliteration does not take place +until about two years later. After this period no certain indications +can be obtained of the age of the horse from the teeth.</p> + +<p><i>Digestive Organs.</i>—The lips are flexible and prehensile; and the +membrane that lines them and the cheeks smooth. The palate is +long and narrow; its mucous surface has seventeen pairs of not very +sharply defined oblique ridges, extending as far back as the last +molar tooth, beyond which the <i>velum palati</i> extends for about 3 in., +having a soft corrugated surface, and ending posteriorly in an arched +border without a uvula. This embraces the base of the epiglottis, +and, except while swallowing food, shuts off all communication +between the cavity of the mouth and the pharynx, respiration being, +under ordinary circumstances, exclusively through the nostrils. +Between the mucous membrane and the bone of the hard palate is +a dense vascular and nervous plexus. The membrane lining the +jaws is soft and corrugated. An elongated raised glandular mass, +3 in. long and 1 in. from above downwards, extending backwards +from the root of the tongue along the side of the jaws, with openings +on the surface leading into crypts with glandular walls, represents +the tonsil. The tongue, corresponding to the form of the mouth, +is long and narrow. It consists of a compressed intermolar portion +with a flat upper surface, broad behind and becoming narrower in +front, and of a depressed anterior part rather shorter than the +former, which is narrow behind and widens towards the evenly +rounded apex. The dorsal surface generally is soft and smooth. +There are two large circumvallate papillae near the base, rather +irregular in form, about a quarter of an inch in diameter and half an +inch apart. The conical papillae are small and close set, though +longer and more filamentous on the intermolar portion. There are +no fungiform papillae on the dorsum, but a few inconspicuous ones +scattered along the sides of the organ.</p> + +<p>Of the salivary glands the parotid is by far the largest, elongated +in the vertical direction, and narrower in the middle than at either +end. Its upper extremity embraces the lower surface of the cartilaginous +ear-conch; its lower end reaches the level of the inferior +margin of the mandible, along the posterior margin of which it is +placed. Its duct leaves the inferior anterior angle, at first descends +a little, and runs forward under cover of the rounded inferior border +of the lower jaw, then curves up along the anterior margin of the +masseter muscle, becoming superficial, pierces the buccinator, and +enters the mouth by a simple aperture opposite the middle of the +crown of the third premolar tooth. It is not quite so thick as a goose-quill +when distended, and nearly a foot in length.</p> + +<p>The submaxillary gland is of very similar texture to the last, +but much smaller; it is placed deeper, and lies with its main axis +horizontal. It is elongated and slender, and flattened from within +outwards. Its posterior end rests against the anterior surface of +the transverse process of the atlas, from which it extends forwards +and downwards, slightly curved, to beneath the ramus of the jaw. +The duct which runs along its upper and internal border passes +forwards in the usual course, lying in the inner side of the sublingual +gland, to open on the outer surface of a distinct papilla, situated on +the floor of the mouth, half an inch from the middle line, and midway +between the lower incisor teeth and the attachment of the fraenum +linguae. The sublingual is represented by a mass of glands lying +just beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth on +the side of the tongue, causing a distinct ridge, extending from the +fraenum backwards, the numerous ducts opening separately along +the summit of the ridge. The buccal glands are arranged in two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span> +rows parallel with the molar teeth. The upper ones are the largest, +and are continuous anteriorly with the labial glands, the ducts of +which open on the mucous membrane of the upper lip.</p> + +<p>The stomach of the horse is simple in its external form, with a +largely developed right <i>cul de sac</i>, and is a good deal curved on +itself, so that the cardiac and pyloric orifices are brought near +together. The <i>antrum pyloricum</i> is small and not very distinctly +marked. The interior is divided by the character of the lining +membrane into two distinct portions, right and left. Over the +latter the dense white smooth epithelial lining of the œsophagus is +continued, terminating abruptly by a raised crenulated border. +Over the right part the mucous membrane has a greyish-red colour +and a velvety appearance, and contains numerous peptic glands, +which are wanting in the cardiac portion. The œsophageal orifice +is small, and guarded by a strong crescentic or horseshoe-like band +of muscular fibres, supposed to be the cause of the difficulty of +vomiting in the horse. The small intestine is of great length (80 to +90 ft.), its mucous membrane being covered with numerous fine +villi. The caecum is of conical form, about 2 ft. long and nearly +a foot in diameter; its walls are sacculated, especially near the base, +having four longitudinal muscular bands; and its capacity is about +twice that of the stomach. It lies with its base near the lower part +of the abdomen, and its apex directed towards the thorax. The +colon is about one-third the length of the small intestine, and very +capacious in the greater part of its course. As usual it may be +divided into an ascending, transverse, and descending portion; but +the middle or transverse portion is folded into a great loop, which +descends as low as the pubis; so that the colon forms altogether +four folds, generally parallel to the long axis of the body. The +descending colon is much narrower than the rest, and not sacculated, +and, being considerably longer than the distance it has to traverse, +is thrown into numerous folds.</p> + +<p>The liver is tolerably symmetrical in general arrangement, being +divided nearly equally into segments by a well-marked umbilical +fissure. Each segment is again divided by lateral fissures, which +do not extend quite to the posterior border of the organ; of the +central lobes thus cut off, the right is rather the larger, and has two +fissures in its free border dividing it into lobules. The extent of these +varies, however, in different individuals. The two lateral lobes are +subtriangular in form. The Spigelian lobe is represented by a flat +surface between the postal fissure and the posterior border, not +distinctly marked off from the left lateral by a fissure of the ductus +venosus, as this vessel is buried deep in the hepatic substance, but +the caudate lobe is distinct and tongue-shaped, its free apex reaching +nearly to the border of the right lateral lobe. There is no gall-bladder, +and the biliary duct enters the duodenum about 6 in. +from the pylorus. The pancreas has two lobes or branches, a +long one passing to the left and reaching the spleen, and a shorter +right lobe. The principal duct enters the duedenum with the bile-duct, +and there is often a second small duct opening separately.</p> + +<p><i>Circulatory and Respiratory Organs.</i>—The heart has the form of a +rather elongated and pointed cone. There is one anterior vena cava, +formed by the union of the two jugular and two axillary veins. The +aorta gives off a large branch (the anterior aorta) very near its +origin, from which arise—first, the left axillary, and afterwards the +right axillary and the two carotid arteries.</p> + +<p>Under ordinary circumstances the horse breathes entirely by the +nasal passages, the communication between the larynx and the +mouth being closed by the velum palati. The nostrils are placed +laterally, near the termination of the muzzle, and are large and +dilatable, being bordered by cartilages upon which several muscles +act. Immediately within the opening of the nostril, the respiratory +canal sends off on its upper and outer side a blind pouch (“false +nostril”) of conical form, and curved, 2 to 3 in. in depth, lying in +the notch formed between the nasal and premaxillary bones. It is +lined by mucous membrane continuous with that of the nasal +passage; its use is not apparent. It is longer in the ass than in the +horse. Here may be mentioned the guttural pouches, large air-sacs +from the Eustachian tubes, and lying behind the upper part +of the pharynx, the function of which is also not understood. The +larynx has the lateral sacculi well developed, though entirely concealed +within the alae of the thyroid cartilage. The trachea divides +into two bronchi.</p> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—The brain differs little, except in details of +arrangement of convolutions, from that of other ungulates. The +hemispheres are rather elongated and subcylindrical, the olfactory +lobes are large and project freely in front of the hemispheres, and +the greater part of the cerebellum is uncovered. The eye is provided +with a nictitating membrane or third eyelid, at the base of which +open the ducts of the Harderian gland.</p> + +<p><i>Reproductive System.</i>—The testes are situated in a distinct sessile +or slightly pedunculated scrotum, into which they descend from the +sixth to the tenth month after birth. The accessory generative +glands are the two vesiculae seminales, with the median third +vesicle, or <i>uterus masculinus</i>, lying between them, the single bilobed +prostate, and a pair of globular Cowper’s glands. The penis is very +large, cylindrical, with a truncated, expanded, flattened termination. +When in a state of repose it is retracted, by a muscle arising from +the sacrum, within the prepuce, a cutaneous fold attached below +the symphysis pubis.</p> + +<p>The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina is often partially divided +by a membraneous septum or hymen. The teats are two, inguinally +placed. The surface of the chorion is covered evenly with minute +villi, constituting a diffuse non-deciduate placenta. The period of +gestation is eleven months.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—R. I. Pocock, “The Species and Subspecies of +Zebras,” <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 6, vol. xx., 1897, and “A New +Arrangement of the Existing Species of Equidae,” <i>Op. cit.</i> ser. 7, +vol. x., 1902; R. Lydekker, “Notes on the specimens of Wild +Asses in English Collections,” <i>Novitates Zoologicae</i>, vol. xi., 1904; +B. Salensky, “On Equus przewalskii,” <i>Mém. Acad. St Pétersburg</i>, +1902; M. S. Arloing, “Organisation du pied chez le cheval,” +<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i>, 1867, viii. 55-81; H. Burmeister, <i>Los caballos +fosiles de la Pampa Argentina</i> (Buenos Aires, 1875); Chauveau and +Arloing, <i>Traité d’anatomie comparée des animaux domestiques</i> (Paris, +1871), and English edition by G. Fleming (1873); A. Ecker, “Das +Europäische Wildpferd und dessen Beziehungen zum domesticirten +Pferd,” <i>Globus</i>, Bd. xxxiv. (Brunswick, 1878); Major Forsyth, +“Beiträge zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde besonders Italiens,” +<i>Abh. Schw. Pal. Ges.</i> iv. 1-16, pt. iv.; George, “Études zool. sur +les Hémiones et quelques autres espèces chevalines,” <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i>, +1869, xii. 5; E. F. Gurlt, <i>Anatomische Abbildungen der Haussäugethiere</i> +(1824), and <i>Hand. der vergleich. Anat. der Haussäugethiere</i> +(2 vols., 1822); Huet, “Croisement des diverses espèces du genre +cheval,” <i>Nouv. Archives du Muséum</i>, 2nd ser., tom. ii. p. 46, 1879; +Leisering, <i>Atlas der Anatomie des Pferdes</i> (Leipzig, 1861); O. C. +Marsh, “Notice of New Equine Mammals from the Tertiary Formation,” +<i>Am. Journ. of Science and Arts</i>, vol. vii., March 1874; <i>Id.</i>, +“Fossil Horses in America,” <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, vol. viii., May 1874; +<i>Id.</i>, “Polydactyle Horses,” <i>Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts</i>, vol. xvii., +June 1879; Franz Müller, <i>Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Pferdes</i> +(Vienna, 1853); R. Owen, “Equine Remains in Cavern of Bruniquel,” +<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. clix., 1870, p. 535; W. Percivall, <i>The +Anatomy of the Horse</i> (1832); G. Stubbs, <i>Anatomy of the Horse</i> +(1766); W. H. Flower, <i>The Horse</i> (London, 1891); Ridgeway, +<i>Origin of the Thoroughbred Horse</i> (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. H. F; R. L.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p>From the evidence of philology it appears that the horse was +already known to the Aryans before the period of their dispersion.<a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The first mention of the British horse occurs in the well-known +passages in Caesar (<i>B.G.</i> iv. 24. 33, v. 15. 16; cf. Pomp. Mela +iii. 6), in which he mentions the native “essedarii” and the skill +with which they handled their war chariots. We are left quite +in the dark as to the character of the animal thus employed; +but there would appear to be much probability in the surmise of +W. Youatt, who conjectures the horse to have been, “then as +ever, the creature of the country in which he lived. With short +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span> +fare, and exposed to the rigour of the seasons, he was probably +the little hardy thing we yet see him; but in the marshes of +the Nen and the Witham, and on the borders of the Tees and the +Clyde, there would be as much proportionate development of +frame and strength as we find at the present day.” After the +occupation of the country by the Romans, it appears that the +horses of their cavalry were crossed with the native mares, and +thus there was infused into the breed new blood, consisting +probably of strains from every quarter from which Roman +remounts were procured. As to the effect of this cross we are +not, however, in a position to judge. We are also quite uncertain +as to the extent to which the Jutes and Saxons may in their +turn have again introduced a new breed of horses into England; +and even to the close of the Anglo-Saxon period of English +history allusions to the horse are still very infrequent. The +<i>horsthegn</i> we know, however, was from an early period a high +court official; and from such a law as that of Athelstan prohibiting +the exportation of horses except as presents, it may be +inferred that the English breed was not only much valued at +home but also in great request abroad.<a name="fa2r" id="fa2r" href="#ft2r"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>The period of the Norman Conquest marks an important +stage in the history of the British horse. William the Conqueror’s +own horse was of the Spanish breed, and others of the same kind +were introduced by the barons on their estates. But the Norman +horses included many varieties, and there is no doubt that to the +Conquest the inhabitants of Britain were indebted for a decided +improvement in the native horse, as well as for the introduction +of several varieties previously unknown. According to Giraldus +Cambrensis, Roger de Bellesme, a follower of William I., afterwards +created earl of Shrewsbury, imported some stallions from +Spain into England; their produce was celebrated by Drayton +the poet. It is curious to notice that agriculture seems to be the +last use to which the horse has been put. The earliest suggestion +that horses were used in agriculture is derived from a piece of +the Bayeux tapestry, where a horse is represented as drawing +a harrow. This, however, must have been an exceptional case, +for we know that oxen were used until a comparatively late time, +and that in Wales a law existed forbidding horses to be used for +ploughing.</p> + +<p>In 1121 two Eastern horses are said to have been imported,—one +of them remaining in England, and the other being sent as a +present by King Alexander I. to the church of St Andrews, in +Scotland. It has been alleged that these horses were Barbs +from Morocco, but a still more likely theory is that they existed +only in name, and never reached either England or Scotland. +The crusades were probably the means of introducing fresh +strains of blood into England, and of giving opportunity for +fresh crossings. The Spanish jennet was brought over about +1182. King John gave great encouragement to horse-breeding: +one of his earliest efforts was to import a hundred Flemish +stallions, and, having thus paved the way for improving the +breed of agricultural horses, he set about acquiring a valuable +stud for his own use.</p> + +<p>Edward III. was likewise an admirer of the horse; he procured +fifty Spanish horses, probably jennets. At this time there was +evidently a tendency to breed a somewhat lighter and speedier +horse; but, while the introduction of a more active animal +would soon have led to the displacement of the ponderous but +powerful cavalry horse then in use, the substituted variety +would have been unable to carry the weight of armour with +which horse and rider were alike protected; and so in the end +the old breed was kept up for a time. With the object of preserving +to England whatever advantages might accrue from +her care and skill in breeding an improved stamp of horses, +Edward III. forbade their exportation; they consequently +improved so rapidly in value that Richard II. compelled dealers +to limit their prices to a fixed maximum. In the ninth year of +his reign, Edward received from the king of Navarre a present +of two running horses, supposed to have been valuable. The +wars of 1346 checked the improvement of horses, and undid +much of what had been previously accomplished, for we read that +the cavalry taken into France by Edward III. were but indifferently +mounted, and that in consequence he had to purchase +large numbers of foreign horses from Hainault and elsewhere +for remounts. The reign of Richard III. does not seem to have +been remarkable for the furtherance of horse-breeding; but it +was then that post-horses and stages were introduced.</p> + +<p>Our information on the whole subject is but scanty down to +the reign of Henry VII., who continued the enactment against +the exportation of stallions, but relaxed it in the case of mares +above two years old. His object was to retain the best horses +in the country, and to keep the price of them down by limiting +the demand and encouraging the supply. In his reign gelding is +believed to have had its origin, on account of numerous herds +of horses belonging to different proprietors grazing together, +especially in time of harvest. Henry VIII. was particularly +careful that horse-breeding should be conducted on right principles, +and his enactments, if somewhat arbitrary, were singularly +to the point. In the thirty-second year of this reign, the “bill +for the breed of horses” was passed, the preamble of which runs +thus:—“Forasmuch as the generation and breed of good and +strong horses within this realm extendeth not only to a great +help and defence of the same, but also is a great commodity +and profit to the inhabitants thereof, which is now much decayed +and diminished, by reason that, in forests, chases, moors and +waste grounds within this realm, little stoned horses and nags +of small stature and of little value be not only suffered to pasture +thereupon, but also to cover mares feeding there, whereof +cometh in manner no profit or commodity.” Section 2 of the +act provides that no entire horse being above the age of two +years, and not being of the height of 15 “handfulls,” shall be +put to graze on any common or waste land in certain counties; +any one was to be at liberty to seize a horse of unlawful +height, and those whose duty it was to measure horses, but who +refused to do so, were to be fined 40s. By section 6 all forests, +chases, commons, &c., were to be “driven” within fifteen days of +Michaelmas day, and all horses, mares and colts not giving +promise of growing into serviceable animals, or of producing +them, were to be killed. The aim of the act was to prevent +breeding from animals not calculated to produce the class of +horse suited to the needs of the country. By another act +(27 Henry VIII. chapter 6), after stating that the “breed of good +strong horses” was likely to diminish, it was ordered that the +owners of all parks and enclosed grounds of the extent of one +mile should keep two mares 13 hands high for breeding purposes, +or, if the extent of the ground was 4 m., four mares. The +statute was not to extend to the counties of Westmorland, +Cumberland, Northumberland or the bishopric of Durham. +Henry took great pains to improve the royal stud: according +to Sir Thomas Chaloner—a writer in the reign of Elizabeth—he +imported horses from Turkey, Naples and Spain.</p> + +<p>Queen Elizabeth is reputed to have been an accomplished +horsewoman, and to have indulged in riding late in life. In the +first year of her reign she revived an act passed by Henry VIII. +making it felony “to sell, exchange or deliver within Scotland, +or to the use of any Scottishman, any horse”; this, however, +was very naturally repealed by James I. Carriages were soon +after introduced, and the use of them speedily became so fashionable +that a bill was brought in “to restrain the excessive and +superfluous use of coaches.” Prior to the introduction of carriages +horseback was the means of locomotion, and Queen Elizabeth +rode in state to St Paul’s on a pillion; but even after carriages +were used, horseback was held to be more dignified, for James I. +and his judges rode on horseback to Westminster Hall. One +advantage of the introduction of carriages was that it created +a demand for a lighter and quicker sort of horse, instead of the +ponderous animal which, despite all attempts to banish him, +was still the horse of England—the age of chivalry having been +the first epoch of the British horse.</p> + +<p>Gunpowder, too, was invented; and now that the weight +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span> +of the cavalry soldier was diminished by the substitution of +lighter armour, a quicker and better bred horse was thought +desirable for military service. The introduction of carriages +and the invention of gunpowder thus opened out a new industry +in breeding; and a decided change was gradually creeping +on by the time that James I. came to the throne (1603), which +commences the second epoch. James was a thorough sportsman, +and his taste for racing, in which he freely indulged, caused +him to think but little of the speed of even the best English +horses. With the laudable motive, therefore, of effecting improvement +in horses, he gave the then large sum of 500 guineas for +an Arab stallion which had been procured from Constantinople +by a Mr Markham, since known as the “Markham Arabian.” +This is the first authentic account we have of the importation +of Arab blood, and the <i>Stud-Book</i> says he was the first of that +breed ever seen in England. The people having to do with +horses at that time were as conservative in their notions as most +of the grooms are now, and the “Markham Arabian” was not +at all approved of. The duke of Newcastle, in his treatise on +horsemanship, said that he had seen the above Arabian, and +described him as a small bay horse and not of very excellent +shape. In this instance, however, prejudice (and it is difficult +to believe that it was anything else) was right, for King James’s +first venture does not appear to have been a success either as a +race-horse or as a sire, and thus Arabian blood was brought +into disrepute. The king, however, resolved to give Eastern +blood another trial, and bought a horse known as Place’s White +Turk from a Mr Place, who subsequently held some office in +connexion with the stable under Cromwell. Charles I. followed +in the footsteps of James, and lent such patronage to the breeding +of a better kind of horse that a memorial was presented to him, +asking that some measures might be taken to prevent the old +stamp of horse “fit for the defence of the country” from dying +out.</p> + +<p>We now come to a very important period in the history +of the British horse, for Charles II. warmly espoused the introduction +of Eastern blood into England. He sent his master of the +horse abroad to purchase a number of foreign horses and mares +for breeding, and the mares brought over by him (as also many +of their produce) were called “royal mares”; they form a +conspicuous feature in the annals of breeding. The <i>Stud-Book</i> +shows of what breed the royal mares really were: one of them, +the dam of Dodsworth (who, though foaled in England, was a +natural Barb), was a Barb mare; she was sold by the stud-master, +after Charles II.’s death, for forty guineas, at twenty years old, +when in foal by the Helmsley Turk.</p> + +<p>James II. was a good horseman, and had circumstances +been more propitious he might have left his mark in the sporting +annals of the country. In his reign, according to the <i>Stud-Book</i>, +the Stradling or Lister Turk was brought into England by the +duke of Berwick from the siege of Buda.</p> + +<p>The reign of William III. is noteworthy as the era in which, +among other importations, there appeared the first of three +Eastern horses to which the modern thoroughbred race-horse +traces back as the founders of his lineage. This was the Byerly +Turk, of whom nothing more is known than that—to use the +words of the first volume of the <i>Stud-Book</i>—he was Captain +Byerly’s charger in Ireland in King William’s wars. The second +of the three horses above alluded to was the Darley Arabian, +who was a genuine Arab, and was imported from Aleppo by a +brother of Mr Darley of Aldby Park, Yorkshire, about the end +of the reign of William III. or the beginning of that of Anne. +The third horse of the famous trio, the Godolphin Arabian +or Barb, brought to England about five-and-twenty years after +the Darley Arabian, will be more particularly referred to further +on. All the horses now on the turf or at the stud trace their +ancestry in the direct male line to one or other of these three—the +Byerly Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the Godolphin Arabian +or Barb. In the female line their pedigrees can be traced to +other sources, but for all practical purposes it suffices to regard +one or other of these three animals as the <i>ultima Thule</i> of racing +pedigree. Of course there is a large interfusion of the blood of +each of the trio through the dams of horses of the present day; +indeed, it is impossible to find an English race-horse which does +not combine the blood of all three.</p> + +<p><i>The Race-horse.</i>—The third and last epoch of the British +horse, viz. that of the thoroughbred racer, may be taken to date +from the beginning of the 18th century. By thoroughbred is +meant a horse or mare whose pedigree is registered in the <i>Stud-Book</i> +kept by Messrs Weatherby, the official agents of the +Jockey Club—originally termed the keepers of the match-book—as +well as publishers of the <i>Racing Calendar</i>. The first attempt +to evolve order out of the chaos which had long reigned supreme +was made in 1791, for we find in the preface of the first volume of +the Stud-Book, published in 1808, that “with a view to correct +the then increasing evil of false and inaccurate pedigrees, the +author was in the year 1791 prevailed upon to publish an <i>Introduction +to a General Stud-Book</i>, consisting of a small collection +of pedigrees which he had extracted from racing calendars and +sale papers and arranged on a new plan.” It will be seen that +the compiler of the volume on which so much depends had to +go back fully a century, with little else to guide him but odds +and ends in the way of publications and tradition. Mistakes +under such circumstances are pardonable. The <i>Stud-Book</i> then +(vol. i.), which is the oldest authority we have, contains the names +and in most cases the pedigrees, obscure though they may be, +of a very large number of horses and mares of note from the +earliest accounts, but with two exceptions no dates prior to the +18th century are specified in it. These exceptions are the +Byerly Turk, who was “Captain Byerly’s charger in Ireland +in King William’s wars (1689, &c.),” and a horse called Counsellor, +bred by Mr Egerton in 1694, by Lord D’Arcy’s Counsellor by +Lord Lonsdale’s Counsellor by the Shaftesbury Turk out of +sister to Spanker—all the dams in Counsellor’s pedigree tracing +back to Eastern mares. There is not the least doubt that many +of the animals named in the <i>Stud-Book</i> were foaled much earlier +than the above dates, but we have no particulars as to time; +and after all it is not of much consequence.</p> + +<p>The <i>Stud-Book</i> goes on to say of the Byerly Turk that he did +not cover many bred mares, but was the sire of the duke of +Devonshire’s Basto, Halloway’s Jigg, and others. Jigg, or Jig, +is a very important factor, as will be seen hereafter. The <i>Stud-Book</i>, +although silent as to the date of his birth, says he was a +common country stallion in Lincolnshire until Partner was six +years old—and we know from the same authority that Partner +was foaled in 1718; we may therefore conclude that Jigg was +a later foal than Basto, who, according to Whyte’s <i>History of +the Turf</i>, was a brown horse foaled in 1703.</p> + +<p>The reign of Queen Anne, however (1702-1714), is that +which will ever be inseparably connected with the thoroughbred +race-horse on account of the fame during that period of the +Darley Arabian, a bay stallion, from whom our very best horses +are descended. According to the <i>Stud-Book</i>, “Darley’s Arabian +was brought over by a brother of Mr Darley of Yorkshire, who, +being an agent in merchandise abroad, became member of a +hunting club, by which means he acquired interest to procure +this horse.” The <i>Stud-Book</i> is silent, and other authorities +differ, as to the date of the importation of this celebrated Arab, +some saying he came over in the year 1700, others that he +arrived somewhat later; but we know from the <i>Stud-Book</i> +that Manica (foaled in 1707), Aleppo (1711), Almanzor (1713), +and Flying Childers (1715) were got by him, as also was Bartlett’s +Childers, a younger brother of Flying Childers. It is generally +believed that he was imported in Anne’s reign, but the exact +date is immaterial, for, assuming that he was brought over as +early as 1700 from Aleppo, he could scarcely have had a foal +living before 1701, the first year of the 18th century. The +Darley Arabian did much to remove the prejudice against +Eastern blood which had been instilled into the public mind +by the duke of Newcastle’s denunciation of the Markham +Arabian. Prince George of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne, +was himself a large horse-owner; and it was in a great measure +owing to his intervention that so many valuable stallions were +imported during her reign.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span></p> + +<p>At this period we find, among a mass of horses and mares +in the <i>Stud-Book</i> without any dates against their names, many +animals of note with the earliest chronology extant, from Grey +Ramsden (1704) and Bay Bolton (1705) down to a mare who +exercised a most important influence on the English blood-horse. +This was Roxana (1718) by the Bald Galloway, her dam sister +to Chanter by the Akaster Turk, from a daughter of Leedes’s +Arabian and a mare by Spanker. Roxana threw in 1732 the +bay colt Lath by the Godolphin Arabian, the sorrel colt Roundhead +by Childers in 1733, and the bay colt Cade by the Godolphin +Arabian in 1734, in which year she died within a fortnight after +foaling, the produce—Cade—being reared on cow’s milk. The +Godolphin Barb or Arabian, as he was commonly called, was a +brown bay about 15 hands in stature, with an unnaturally high +crest, and with some white on his off hind heel. He is said to +have been imported into England from France by Mr Coke, +where, as the editor of the <i>Stud-Book</i> was informed by a French +gentlemen, he was so little thought of that he had actually +drawn a cart in the streets of Paris. Mr Coke gave him to a +Mr. Williams, who in his turn presented him to the earl of +Godolphin. Although called an Arabian, there is little doubt +he was a Barb pure and simple. In 1731, being then the property +of Mr. Coke, he was teazer to Hobgoblin, and on the latter +refusing his services to Roxana, the mare was put to the +Godolphin, and the produce was Lath (1732), the first of his get, +and the most celebrated race-horse of his day after Flying +Childers. He was also the sire of Cade, own brother to Lath, +and of Regulus the maternal grandsire of Eclipse. He died +at Gogmagog in Cambridgeshire, in the possession of Lord +Godolphin, in 1753, being then, as is supposed, in his twenty-ninth +year. He is believed to have been foaled in Barbary +about 1724, and to have been imported during the reign of +George II.</p> + +<p>In regard to the mares generally, we have a record of the royal +mares already alluded to, and likewise of three Turk mares +brought over from the siege of Vienna in 1684, as well as of other +importations; but it is unquestionable that there was a very +large number of native mares in England, improved probably +from time to time by racing, however much they may have been +crossed at various periods with foreign horses, and that from +this original stock were to some extent derived the size and +stride which characterized the English race-horse, while his +powers of endurance and elegant shape were no doubt inherited +from the Eastern horses, most of which were of a low stature, +14 hands or thereabouts. It is only necessary to trace carefully +back the pedigree of most of the famous horses of early times +to discover faults on the side of the dam—that is to say, the +expression “dam’s pedigree unknown,” which evidently means +of original or native blood. Whatever therefore may be owing +to Eastern blood, of which from the middle of the 17th to the +beginning of the 18th century a complete wave swept over the +British Isles, some credit is unquestionably due to the native +mares (which Blaine says were mostly Cleveland bays) upon +which the Arabian, Barb, or Turk blood was grafted, and which +laid the foundation of the modern thoroughbred. Other nations +may have furnished the blood, but England has made the +race-horse.</p> + +<p>Without prosecuting this subject further, it may be enough +here to follow out the lines of the Darley Arabian, the Byerly +Turk, and the Godolphin Arabian or Barb, the main ancestors +of the British thoroughbred of the 18th and 19th centuries, +through several famous race-horses, each and all brilliant +winners,—Flying Childers, Eclipse, Herod and Matchem,—to +whom it is considered sufficient to look as the great progenitors +of the race-horse of to-day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. The Darley Arabian’s line is represented in a twofold degree—first, +through his son Flying Childers, his grandsons Blaze and +Snip, and his great-grandson Snap, and, secondly, through his +other son Bartlett’s Childers and his great-great-grandson Eclipse. +Flying or Devonshire Childers, so called to distinguish him from +other horses of the same name, was a bay horse of entirely Eastern +blood, with a blaze in his face and four white feet, foaled in 1715. +He was bred by Mr Leonard Childers of Carr House near Doncaster, +and was purchased when young by the duke of Devonshire. He +was got by the Darley Arabian from Betty Leedes, by Careless from +sister to Leedes, by Leedes’s Arabian from a mare by Spanker out +of a Barb mare, who was Spanker’s own mother. Spanker himself +was by D’Arcy’s Yellow Turk from a daughter of the Morocco Barb +and Old Bald Peg, by an Arab horse from a Barb mare. Careless +was by Spanker from a Barb mare, so that Childers’s dam was closely +in-bred to Spanker. Flying Childers—the wonder of his time—was +never beaten, and died in the duke of Devonshire’s stud in +1741, aged twenty-six years. He was the sire of, among other +horses, Blaze (1733) and Snip (1736). Snip too had a celebrated son +called Snap (1750), and it is chiefly in the female line through the +mares by these horses, of which there are fully thirty in the <i>Stud-Book</i>, +that the blood of Flying Childers is handed down to us.</p> + +<p>The other representative line of the Darley Arabian is through +Bartlett’s Childers, also bred by Mr Leonard Childers, and sold to +Mr Bartlett of Masham, in Yorkshire. He was for several years +called Young Childers,—it being generally supposed that he was a +younger brother of his Flying namesake, but his date of birth is not +on record,—and subsequently Bartlett’s Childers. This horse, who +was never trained, was the sire of Squirt (1732), whose son Marske +(1750) begat Eclipse and Young Marske (1762), sire of Shuttle (1793). +This at least is the generally accepted theory, although Eclipse’s +dam is said to have been covered by Shakespeare as well as by +Marske. Shakespeare was the son of Hobgoblin by Aleppo, and +consequently the male line of the Darley Arabian would come +through these horses instead of through Bartlett’s Childers, Squirt, +and Marske; the <i>Stud-Book</i>, however, says that Marske was the sire +of Eclipse. This last-named celebrated horse—perhaps the most +celebrated in the annals of the turf—was foaled on the 1st of April +1764, the day on which a remarkable eclipse of the sun occurred, +and he was named after it. He was bred by the duke of Cumberland, +after whose decease he was purchased by a Mr Wildman, and subsequently +sold to Mr D. O’Kelly, with whom he will ever be identified. +His dam Spiletta was by Regulus, son of the Godolphin Barb, from +Mother Western, by a son of Snake from a mare by Old Montague +out of a mare by Hautboy, from a daughter of Brimmer and a mare +whose pedigree was unknown. In Eclipse’s pedigree there are upwards +of a dozen mares whose pedigrees are not known, but who are +supposed to be of native blood. Eclipse was a chestnut horse with +a white blaze down his face; his off hind leg was white from the +hock downwards, and he had black spots upon his rump—this +peculiarity coming down to the present day in direct male descent. +His racing career commenced at five years of age, viz. on the 3rd +May 1769, at Epsom, and terminated on the 4th October 1770, at +Newmarket. He ran or walked over for eighteen races, and was +never beaten. It was in his first race that Mr O’Kelly took the +odds to a large amount before the start for the second heat, that he +would place the horses. When called upon to declare, he uttered +the exclamation, which the event justified, “Eclipse first, and the +rest nowhere.”</p> + +<p>Eclipse commenced his stud career in 1771, and had an enormous +number of foals, of which four only in the direct male line have +come down to us, viz. Potoooooooo, or, as he is commonly called, +Pot-8-os (1773), his most celebrated son, King Fergus (1775), Joe +Andrews (1778), and Mercury (1778), though several others are +represented in the female line. Pot-8-os was the sire of Waxy +(1790) out of Maria (1777) by Herod out of Lisette (1772) by Snap. +Waxy, who has been not inaptly termed the ace of trumps in the +<i>Stud-Book</i>, begat Whalebone (1807), Web (1808), Woful (1809), +Wire (1811), Whisker (1812), and Waxy Pope (1806), all but the +last being out of Penelope (1798) by Trumpator (1782) from Prunella +(1788) by Highflyer out of Promise by Snap, while Waxy Pope was +out of Prunella, dam of Parasol (1800) by Pot-8-os. Trumpator +was a son of Conductor, who was by Matchem out of a mare by +Snap.</p> + +<p>Whalebone’s best sons were Camel (1822) and Sir Hercules (1826). +Camel was the sire of Defence (1824) and Touchstone (1831), while +Sir Hercules was the sire of Birdcatcher (1833) and Faugh-a-Ballagh +(1841), own brothers, and of Gemma di Vergy (1854). Touchstone +was the sire of Newminster (1848), who begat Lord Clifden, Adventurer, +and the Hermit, as well as of Orlando (1841), sire of Teddington +(1848). Whalebone’s blood also descends through Waverley +(1817) and his son the Saddler (1828), while Whisker is represented +by the Colonel (1825) and by Economist (1825) and his son Harkaway +(1834), sire of King Tom (1851). Birdcatcher begat, besides Saunterer +(1854), the Baron (1842), sire of Stockwell (1849) and of Rataplan +(1850). Stockwell, who was a chestnut with black spots, was the +sire of Blair Athol (1861), a chestnut, and also of Doncaster (1870), +another chestnut, but with the characteristic black spots of his +grandsire; and Doncaster was the sire of the chestnut Bend Or +(1877).</p> + +<p>To turn to Eclipse’s other sons. King Fergus (1775) was the +sire of Beningbrough (1791), whose son was Orville (1799), whence +comes some of the stoutest blood on the turf, including Emilius +(1820) and his son Priam (1827), Plenipotentiary (1831), Muley +(1810), Chesterfield (1834), and the Hero (1843). Joe Andrews +(1778) was the sire of Dick Andrews (1797), and from him descend +Tramp (1810), Lottery (1820), Liverpool (1828), Sheet Anchor +(1832), Lanercost (1835), Weatherbit (1842), Beadsman (1855), and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span> +Blue Gown (1865). Mercury was sire of Gohanna (1790), who was +foaled in the same year as Waxy, and the two, who were both +grandsons of Eclipse and both out of Herod mares, had several +contests, Waxy generally getting the better of his cousin. Gohanna’s +descendants come down through Golumpus (1802), Catton (1809), +Mulatto (1823), Royal Oak (1823), and Slane (1833).</p> + +<p>2. The Byerly Turk’s line is represented by Herod, the Turk being +the sire of Jigg, who was the sire of Partner (1718), whose son Tartar +(1743) begat King Herod, or Herod as he was commonly called, +foaled in 1758. Herod’s dam was Cypron (1750) by Blaze (1733), +son of Flying Childers. Cypron’s dam was Selima by Bethel’s +Arabian from a mare by Graham’s Champion from a daughter of +the Darley Arabian and a mare who claims Merlin for her sire, but +whose mother’s pedigree is unknown. In Herod’s pedigree there +are fully a dozen dams whose pedigree is unknown. Herod was +a bay horse about 15 hands 3 inches high, possessed both of substance +and length,—those grand requisites in a race-horse,—combined +with uncommon power and stamina or lasting qualities. He was +bred by William, duke of Cumberland, uncle of King George III. +He commenced his racing career in October 1763, when he was +five years old, and ended it on the 16th of May 1767. He ran ten +times, winning six and losing four races. He died in 1780, and +among other progeny left two famous sons, Woodpecker (1773), +whose dam was Miss Ramsden (1760) by Cade, son of the Godolphin +Barb, but descended also on the dam’s side from the Darley Arabian +and the Byerly Turk, and Highflyer (1774), whose dam was Rachel +(1763) by Blank, son of the Godolphin Barb from a daughter of +Regulus, also son of the Godolphin. These two horses have transmitted +Herod’s qualities down to the present day in the direct +male line, although in the female line he is represented through some +of his other sons and his daughters as well. Woodpecker was the +sire of Buzzard (1787), who in his turn became the father of three +celebrated sons, Castrel (1801), Selim (1802), and Rubens (1803), +all three chestnuts, and all out of an Alexander mare (1790), who +thereby became famous. This mare was by Eclipse’s son Alexander +(1782) out of a mare by Highflyer (son of Herod) out of a daughter +of Alfred, by Matchem out of a daughter of Snap. Bustard (1813), +whose dam was a daughter of Shuttle, and his son Heron (1833), +Sultan (1816) and his sons Glencoe (1831) and Bay Middleton (1833) +and Middleton’s sons Cowl (1842) and the Flying Dutchman (1846), +Pantaloon (1824) and his son Windhound (1847), Langar (1817) +and his son Epirus (1834) and grandson Pyrrhus the First (1843), +are representatives of Castrel and Selim.</p> + +<p>Highflyer is represented through his greatly esteemed son Sir +Peter Teazle, commonly called Sir Peter (1784), whose dam was +Papillon by Snap. Sir Peter had five sons at the stud, Walton +(1790), Stamford (1794), and Sir Paul (1802) being the chief. +Paulowitz (1813), Cain (1822), Ion (1835), Wild Dayrell (1852), +and his son Buccaneer (1857) bring down Sir Paul’s blood; whilst +Walton is represented through Phantom (1806), Partisan (1811) +and his sons Glaucus (1829) and Venison (1833) and Gladiator (1833), +Venison’s sons Alarm (1842) and Kingston (1849), Gladiator’s son +Sweetmeat (1842), Sweetmeat’s sons Macaroni (1860) and Parmesan +(1857), and Parmesan’s sons Favonius (1868) and Cremorne (1869). +It may be added that in the first volume of the <i>Stud-Book</i> there are +nearly a hundred Herod and Highflyer mares registered.</p> + +<p>3. The Godolphin Barb is represented by Matchem, as the former +was the sire of Cade (1734), and Cade begat Matchem, who was +foaled in 1748. He was thus ten years the senior of Herod, representing +the Byerly Turk, and sixteen years before Eclipse, though +long subsequent to Flying Childers, who represent the Darley +Arabian. Matchem was a brown bay horse with some white on his +off hind heel, about 15 hands high, bred by Sir John Holme of +Carlisle, and sold to Mr W. Fenwick of Bywell, Northumberland. +His dam was sister to Miss Partner (1735) by Partner out of Brown +Farewell by Makeless (son of the Oglethorpe Arabian) from a +daughter of Brimmer out of Trumpet’s dam, by Place’s White Turk +from a daughter of the Barb Dodsworth and a Layton Barb mare; +while Brimmer was by D’Arcy’s Yellow Turk from a royal mare. +Matchem commenced his racing career on the 2nd of August 1753, +and terminated it on 1st September 1758. Out of thirteen engagements +he won eleven and lost two. He died in 1781, aged thirty-three +years. His best son was Conductor (1767) out of a mare by +Snap; Conductor was the sire of Trumpator (1782), whose two sons, +Sorcerer (1790) and Paynator (1791), transmit the blood of the +Godolphin down to modern times. Sorcerer was the sire of Soothsayer +(1808), Comus (1809), and Smolensko (1810). Comus was +the sire of Humphrey Clinker (1822), whose son was Melbourne +(1834), sire of West Australian (1850) and of many valuable mares, +including Canezou (1845) and Blink Bonny (1854), dam of Blair +Athol. Paynator was the sire of Dr Syntax (1811), who had a +celebrated daughter called Beeswing (1833), dam of Newminster by +Touchstone.</p> + +<p>The gems of the three lines may be briefly enumerated thus: +(1) of the Darley Arab’s line—Snap, Shuttle, Waxy, and Orville—the +stoutest blood on the turf; (2) of the Byerly Turk’s line—Buzzard +and Sir Peter—speedy blood, the latter the stouter of the +two; (3) of the Godolphin Barb’s line—Sorcerer—often producing +large-sized animals, but showing a tendency to die out, and becoming +rare.</p> +</div> + +<p>On the principle that as a rule like begets like, it has been the +practice to select as sires the best public performers on the turf, +and of two horses of like blood it is sound sense to choose the +better as against the inferior public performer. But there can +be little doubt that the mating of mares with horses has been +often pursued on a haphazard plan, or on no system at all; +to this the <i>Stud-Book</i> testifies too plainly. In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse-Racing</a></span> +mention is made of some of the great horses of recent +years; but the following list of the principal sires of earlier +days indicates also how their progeny found a place among the +winners of the three great races, the Derby (D), Oaks (O), and +St Leger (L):—</p> + +<div class="condensed list"> +<p><i>Eclipse</i>: Young Eclipse (D), Saltram (D), Sergeant (D), Annette +(O).</p> + +<p><i>Herod</i>: Bridget (O), Faith (O), Maid of the Oaks (O), Phenomenon +(L).</p> + +<p><i>Matchem</i>: Teetotum (O), Hollandaise (L).</p> + +<p><i>Florizel</i> (son of Herod): Diomed (D), Eager (D), Tartar (L), +Ninety-three +(L).</p> + +<p><i>Highflyer</i>: Noble (D), Sir Peter Teazle (D), Skyscraper (D), Violante +(O), Omphale (L), Cowslip (L), Spadille (L), Young Flora (L).</p> + +<p><i>Pot-8-os</i>: Waxy (D), Champion (D, L), Tyrant (D), Nightshade (O).</p> + +<p><i>Sir Peter</i> (D): Sir Harry (D), Archduke (D), Ditto (D), Paris (D), +Hermione (O), Parasite (O), Ambrosio (L), Fyldener (L), +Paulina (L), Petronius (L).</p> + +<p><i>Waxy</i> (D): Pope (D), Whalebone (D), Blucher (D), Whisker (D), +Music (O), Minuet (O), Corinne (O).</p> + +<p><i>Whalebone</i> (D): Moses (D), Lapdog (D), Spaniel (D), Caroline (O).</p> + +<p><i>Woful</i>: Augusta (O), Zinc (O), Theodore (L).</p> + +<p><i>Whisker</i> (D): Memnon (L), The Colonel (L).</p> + +<p><i>Phantom</i>: Cedric (D), Middleton (D), Cobweb (O).</p> + +<p><i>Orville</i> (L): Octavius (D), Emilius (D), Ebor (L).</p> + +<p><i>Tramp</i>: St Giles (D), Dangerous (D), Barefoot (L).</p> + +<p><i>Emilius</i> (D): Priam (D), Plenipotentiary (D), Oxygen (O), Mango +(L).</p> + +<p><i>Priam</i> (D): Miss Seltz (O), Industry (O), Crucifix (O).</p> + +<p><i>Sir Hercules</i>: Coronation (D), Faugh-a-Ballagh (L), Birdcatcher (L).</p> + +<p><i>Touchstone</i> (L): Cotherstone (D), Orlando (D), Surplice (D, L), +Mendicant (O), Blue Bonnet (L), Newminster (L).</p> + +<p><i>Birdcatcher</i> (L): Daniel O’Rourke (D), Songstress (O), Knight of +St George (L), Warlock (L), The Baron (L).</p> + +<p><i>The Baron</i> (L): Stockwell (L).</p> + +<p><i>Melbourne</i>: West Australian (D, L), Blink Bonny (D, O), Sir Tatton +Sykes (L).</p> + +<p><i>Newminster</i> (L): Musjid (D), Hermit (D), Lord Clifden (L).</p> + +<p><i>Sweetmeat</i>: Macaroni (D), Mincemeat (O), Mincepie (O).</p> + +<p><i>Stockwell</i> (L): Blair Athol (D, L), Lord Lyon (D, L), Doncaster (D), +Regalia (O), St Albans (L), Caller Ou (L), The Marquis (L), +Achievement (L).</p> + +<p><i>King Tom</i>: Kingcraft (D), Tormentor (O), Hippia (O), Hannah +(O, L).</p> + +<p><i>Rataplan</i> (son of the Baron): Kettledrum (D).</p> + +<p><i>Monarque</i>: Gladiateur (D, L).</p> + +<p><i>Parmesan</i> (son of Sweetmeat): Favonius (D), Cremorne (D).</p> + +<p><i>Buccaneer</i>: Kisber (D), Formosa (O, L), Brigantine (O).</p> + +<p><i>Lord Clifden</i> (L): Jannette (O, L), Hawthornden (L), Wenlock (L), +Petrarch (L).</p> + +<p><i>Adventurer</i>: Pretender (D), Apology (O, L), Wheel of Fortune (O).</p> + +<p><i>Blair Athol</i> (D, L): Silvio (D, L), Craig Millar (L).</p> +</div> + +<p>In regard to mares it has very frequently turned out that +animals which were brilliant public performers have been far +less successful as dams than others which were comparatively +valueless as runners. Beeswing, a brilliant public performer, +gave birth to a good horse in Newminster; the same may be said +of Alice Hawthorn, dam of Thormanby, of Canezou, dam of +Fazzoletto, of Crucifix, dam of Surplice, and of Blink Bonny, +dam of Blair Athol; but many of the greatest winners have +dropped nothing worth training. On the other hand, there are +mares of little or no value as racers who have become the mothers +of some of the most celebrated horses on the turf; among them +we may cite Queen Mary, Pocahontas and Paradigm. Queen +Mary, who was by Gladiator out of a daughter of Plenipotentiary +and Myrrha by Whalebone, when mated with Melbourne produced +Blink Bonny (winner of the Derby and Oaks); when +mated with Mango and Lanercost she produced Haricot, dam +of Caller Ou (winner of the St Leger). Pocahontas, perhaps the +most remarkable mare in the <i>Stud-Book</i>, never won a race on +the turf, but threw Stockwell and Rataplan to the Baron, son of +Birdcatcher, King Tom to Harkaway, Knight of St Patrick to +Knight of St George, and Knight of Kars to Nutwith—all these +horses being 16 hands high and upwards, while Pocahontas was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span> +a long low mare of about 15 hands or a trifle more. She also +gave birth to Ayacanora by Birdcatcher, and to Araucaria by +Ambrose, both very valuable brood mares, Araucaria being the +dam of Chamant by Mortemer, and of Rayon d’Or by Flageolet, +son of Plutus by Touchstone. Paradigm again produced, among +several winners of more or less celebrity, Lord Lyon (winner of +the Two Thousand Guineas, Derby and St Leger) and Achievement +(winner of the St Leger), both being by Stockwell. Another +famous mare was Manganese (1853) by Birdcatcher from Moonbeam +by Tomboy from Lunatic by the Prime Minister from +Maniac by Shuttle. Manganese when mated with Rataplan +threw Mandragora, dam of Apology, winner of the Oaks and St +Leger, whose sire was Adventurer, son of Newminster. She +also threw Mineral, who, when mated with Lord Clifden, produced +Wenlock, winner of the St Leger, and after being sold to +go to Hungary, was there mated with Buccaneer, the produce +being Kisber, winner of the Derby.</p> + +<p>We append the pedigree of Blair Athol, winner of the Derby +and St Leger in 1864, who, when subsequently sold by auction, +fetched the then unprecedented sum of 12,000 guineas, as it +contains, not only Stockwell (the emperor of stallions, as he has +been termed), but Blink Bonny and Eleanor—in which latter +animal are combined the blood of Eclipse, Herod, Matchem and +Snap,—the mares that won the Derby in 1801 and 1857 respectively, +as well as those queens of the stud, Eleanor’s great-granddaughter +Pocahontas and Blink Bonny’s dam Queen Mary. +Both Eleanor and Blink Bonny won the Oaks as well as the +Derby.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:900px; height:821px" src="images/img722.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>The shape of a race-horse is of considerable importance, +although it is said with some degree of truth that they win in +all shapes. There are the neat and elegant animals, like the +descendants of Saunterer and Sweetmeat; the large-framed, +plain-looking, and heavy-headed Melbournes, often with lop +ears; the descendants of Birdcatcher, full of quality, and of +more than average stature, though sometimes disfigured with +curby hocks; and the medium-sized but withal speedy descendants +of Touchstone, though in some cases characterized by +somewhat loaded shoulders. In height it will be found that the +most successful racers average from 15 to 16½ hands, the former +being considered somewhat small, while the latter is unquestionably +very large; the mean may be taken as between 15½ and 16 +hands (the hand = 4 in.). The head should be light and lean, +and well set on; the ears small and pricked, but not too short; +the eyes full; the forehead broad and flat; the nostrils large and +dilating; the muzzle fine; the neck moderate in length, wide, +muscular, and yet light; the throat clean; the windpipe +spacious and loosely attached to the neck; the crest thin, not +coarse and arched. The withers may be moderately high and +thin; the chest well developed, but not too wide or deep; the +shoulder should lie well on the chest, and be oblique and well +covered with muscle, so as to reduce concussion in galloping; +the upper and lower arms should be long and muscular; the +knees broad and strong; legs short, flat and broad; fetlock +joints large; pasterns strong and of moderate length; the feet +should be moderately large, with the heels open and frogs sound—with no signs of contraction. The body or barrel should be +moderately deep, long and straight, the length being really in +the shoulders and in the quarters; the back should be strong +and muscular, with +the shoulders and +loins running well +in at each end; +the loins themselves +should have +great breadth and +substance, this +being a vital necessity +for weight-carrying +and propelling power +uphill. The hips +should be long and +wide, with the stifle +and thigh strong, +long and proportionately +developed, +and the +hind quarters well +let down. The +hock should have +plenty of bone, and +be strongly affixed +to the leg, and +show no signs of +curb; the bones +below the hock +should be flat, and +free from adhesions; +the ligaments +and tendons +well developed, and +standing out from +the bone; the joints +well formed and +wide, yet without +undue enlargement; +the pasterns +and feet similar to +those of the forehand. +The tail +should be high set on, the croup being continued in a +straight line to the tail, and not falling away and drooping +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span> +to a low-set tail. Fine action is the best criterion of everything +fitting properly, and all a horse’s points ought to +harmonize or be in proportion to one another, no one point +being more prominent than another, such as good shoulders, +fine loins or excellent quarters. If the observer is struck +with the remarkable prominence of any one feature, it is +probable that the remaining parts are deficient. A well-made +horse wants dissecting in detail, and then if a good judge can +discover no fault with any part, but finds each of good proportions, +and the whole to harmonize without defect, deformity +or deficiency, he has before him a well-shaped horse; and of two +equally well-made and equitably proportioned horses the best +bred one will be the best. As regards hue, the favourite colour +of the ancients, according to Xenophon, was bay, and for a long +time it was the fashionable colour in England; but for some +time chestnut thoroughbreds have been the most conspicuous +figure on English race-courses, so far as the more important +events are concerned. Eclipse was a chestnut; Castrel, Selim +and Rubens were chestnuts; so also were Glencoe and Pantaloon, +of whom the latter had black spots on his hind quarters like +Eclipse; and also Stockwell and Doncaster. Birdcatcher was +a chestnut, so also were Stockwell and his brother Rataplan, +Manganese, Mandragora, Thormanby, Kettledrum, St Albans, +Blair Athol, Regalia, Formosa, Hermit, Marie Stuart, Doncaster, +George Frederick, Apology, Craig Millar, Prince Charlie, Rayon +d’Or and Bend Or. The dark browns or black browns, such as +the Sweetmeat tribe, are not so common as the bays, and black +or grey horses are almost as unusual as roans. The skin and +hair of the throughbred are finer, and the veins which underlie +the skin are larger and more prominent than in other horses. +The mane and tail should be silky and devoid of curl, which is a +sign of impurity.</p> + +<p>Whether the race-horse of to-day is as good as the stock to +which he traces back has often been disputed, chiefly no doubt +because he is brought to more early maturity, commencing to +win races at two years instead of at five years of age, as in the +days of Childers and Eclipse; but the highest authorities, and +none more emphatically than the late Admiral Rous, have +insisted that he can not only stay quite as long as his ancestors, +but also go a good deal faster. In size and shape the modern +race-horse is unquestionably superior, being on an average fully +a hand higher than the Eastern horses from which he is descended; +and in elegance of shape and beauty of outline he has certainly +never been surpassed. That experiments, founded on the study +of his nature and properties, which have from time to time been +made to improve the breed, and bring the different varieties +to the perfection in which we now find them, have succeeded, +is best confirmed by the high estimation in which the horses of +Great Britain are held in all parts of the civilized world; and it is +not too much to assert that, although the cold, humid and +variable nature of their climate is by no means favourable to +the production of these animals in their very best form, Englishmen +have by great care, and by sedulous attention to breeding, +high feeding and good grooming, with consequent development +of muscle, brought them to the highest state of perfection of +which their nature is capable.</p> +<div class="author">(E. D. B.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:539px; height:394px" src="images/img722a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">SHIRE STALLION.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:554px; height:387px" src="images/img722b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">SUFFOLK STALLION.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:534px; height:391px" src="images/img722c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">CLYDESDALE STALLION.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:552px; height:387px" src="images/img722d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">HACKNEY STALLION.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">BREEDS OF HORSES. (<i>From Photographs by F. Babbage.</i>)<br /> +The comparative sizes of the horses are shown.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:558px; height:391px" src="images/img722e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">THOROUGHBRED STALLION.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:557px; height:390px" src="images/img722f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">SHETLAND PONY STALLION.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:557px; height:391px" src="images/img722g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">COACHING STALLION.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:551px; height:391px" src="images/img722h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">POLO PONY STALLION.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">BREEDS OF HORSES. (<i>From Photographs by F. Babbage.</i>)<br /> +The comparative sizes of the horses are shown.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Breeds of Horses</p> + +<p>The British breeds of <i>light</i> horses include the Thoroughbred, +the Yorkshire Coach-horse, the Cleveland Bay, the Hackney and +the Pony; of <i>heavy</i> horses, the Shire, the Clydesdale and the +Suffolk.</p> + +<p>The <i>Thoroughbred</i> is probably the oldest of the breeds, and +it is known as the “blood-horse” on account of the length of +time through which its purity of descent can be traced. The +frame is light, slender and graceful. The points of chief importance +are a fine, clean, lean head, set on free from collar heaviness; +a long and strongly muscular neck, shoulders oblique and covered +with muscle; high, long withers, chest of good depth and narrow +but not extremely so; body round in type; back rib well down; +depth at withers a little under half the height; length equal +to the height at withers and croup; loins level and muscular; +croup long, rather level; tail set on high and carried gracefully; +the hind quarters long, strongly developed, and full of muscle +and driving power; the limbs clean-cut and sinewy, possessing +abundance of good bone, especially desired in the cannons, which +are short, broad and flat; comparatively little space between +the fore legs; pastern joints smooth and true; pasterns strong, +clean and springy, sloping when at rest at an angle of 45°; +feet medium size, wide and high at the heels, concave below and +set on straight. The action in trotting is generally low, but the +bending of the knee and the flexing of the hock is smooth, free +and true. The thoroughbred is apt to be nervous and excitable, +and impatient of common work, but its speed, resolution and +endurance, as tested on the race-course, are beyond praise.</p> + +<p>Many of the best hunters in the United Kingdom are thoroughbreds, +but of the substantial weight-carrying type. The Hunters +Improvement Society, established in 1885, did not restrict +entries to the <i>Hunters’ Stud-Book</i> to entirely clean-bred animals, +but admitted those with breeding enough to pass strict inspection. +This society acts in consort with two other powerful +organizations (the Royal Commission on Horse-breeding, +which began its work in 1888, and the Brood Mare Society, +established in 1903), with the desirable object of improving the +standard of light horse breeding. The initial efforts began by +securing the services of thoroughbred stallions for specified +districts, by offering a limited number of “Queen’s Premiums,” +of £200 each, to selected animals of four years old and upwards. +Since the formation of the Brood Mare Society mares have +come within the sphere of influence of the three bodies, and +well-conceived inducements are offered to breeders to retain +their young mares at home. The efforts have met with gratifying +success, and they were much needed, for while in 1904 the Dutch +government took away 350 of the best young Irish mares, Great +Britain was paying the foreigner over £2,000,000 a year for +horses which the old system of management did not supply at +home. The Royal Dublin Society also keeps a <i>Register of +Thoroughbred Stallions</i> under the horse-breeding scheme of 1892, +which, like the British efforts, is now bearing fruit.</p> + +<p>The <i>Yorkshire Coach-horse</i> is extensively bred in the North +and East Ridings of Yorkshire, and the thoroughbred has taken +a share in its development. The colour is usually bay, with +black or brown points. A fine head, sloping shoulders, strong +loins, lengthy quarters, high-stepping action, flat bone and +sound feet are characteristic. The height varies from 16 hands +to 16 hands 2 in.</p> + +<p>The <i>Cleveland Bay</i> is an ancestor of the Yorkshire Coach-horse +and is bred in parts of Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland. +He is adapted alike for the plough, for heavy draught, and for +slow saddle work. Some specimens make imposing-looking +carriage horses, but they have low action and are lacking in +quality. The colour is light or dark bay, with black legs. Though +rather coarse-headed, the Cleveland Bay has a well-set shoulder +and neck, a deep chest and round barrel. The height is from +16 to 17 hands.</p> + +<p>The <i>Hackney</i> has come prominently to the front in recent +years. The term <i>Nag</i>, applied to the active riding or trotting +horse, is derived from the A.S. <i>hnegan</i>, to neigh. The +Normans brought with them their own word <i>haquenée</i>, or +<i>hacquenée</i>, a French derivative from the Latin <i>equus</i>, a horse, +whence the name hackney. Both nag and hackney continue +to be used as synonymous terms. Frequent mention is made of +hackneys and trotters in old farm accounts of the 14th century. +The first noteworthy trotting hackney stallion, of the modern +type, was a horse foaled about 1755, and known as the Schales, +Shields or Shales horse, and most of the recognized hackneys +of to-day trace back to him. The breeding of hackneys is +extensively pursued in the counties of Norfolk, Cambridge, +Huntingdon, Lincoln and York, and in the showyard competitions +a keen but friendly rivalry is usually to be noticed between +the hackney-breeding farmers of Norfolk and Yorkshire. The +high hackney action is uncomfortable in a riding horse. Excellent +results have sometimes followed the use of hackney sires +upon half-bred mares, <i>i.e.</i> by thoroughbred stallions and trotting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span> +mares, but it is not always so. As regards the movement, or +“action,” of the hackney, he should go light in hand, and the +knee should be well elevated and advanced during the trot, and, +before the foot is put down, the leg should be well extended. +The hackney should also possess good hock action, as distinguished +from mere fetlock action, the propelling power +depending upon the efficiency of the former. The hackney +type of the day is “a powerfully built, short-legged, big horse, +with an intelligent head, neat neck, strong, level back, powerful +loins, and as perfect shoulders as can be obtained, good feet, +flat-boned legs, and a height of from 15 hands 2 in. to 15 hands +3½ in.” Carriage-horses hackney-bred have been produced over +17 hands high.</p> + +<p>The <i>Pony</i> differs essentially from the hackney in height, the +former not exceeding 14 hands. There is one exception, which +is made clear in the following extract from Sir Walter Gilbey’s +<i>Ponies Past and Present</i> (1900):—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Before the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1883 +the dividing line between the horse and the pony in England was +vague and undefined. It was then found necessary to distinguish +clearly between horses and ponies, and, accordingly, all animals +measuring 14 hands or under were designated “ponies,” and registered +in a separate part of the (Hackney) Stud-Book. This record +of height, with other particulars as to breeding, &c., serves to direct +breeders in their choice of sires and dams. The standard of height +established by the Hackney Horse Society was accepted and officially +recognized by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1889, when the +prize-list for the Windsor show contained pony classes for animals +not exceeding 14 hands. The altered polo-rule, which fixes the +limit of height at 14 hands 2 in., may be productive of some little +confusion; but for all other purposes 14 hands is the recognized +<i>maximum</i> height of a pony. Prior to 1883 small horses were called +indifferently Galloways, hobbies, cobs or ponies, irrespective of +their height.</p> +</div> + +<p>Native ponies include those variously known as Welsh, New +Forest, Exmoor, Dartmoor, Cumberland and Westmorland, +Fell, Highland, Highland Garron, Celtic, Shetland and Connemara. +Ponies range in height from 14 hands down to 8 hands, +Shetland ponies eligible for the Stud-Book not exceeding the +latter. As in the case of the hackney, so with the pony, +thoroughbred blood has been used, and with good results, +except in the case of those animals which have to remain to breed +in their native haunts on the hills and moorlands. There the +only possible way of improvement is by selecting the best native +specimens, especially the sires, to breed from. The thin-skinned +progeny of thoroughbred or Arab stock is too delicate to live +unless when hand-fed—and hand-feeding is not according to +custom. Excellent polo ponies are bred as first or second crosses +by thoroughbred stallions on the mares of nearly all the varieties +of ponies named. The defective formation of the pony, the +perpendicular shoulder and the drooping hind quarters, are +modified; but neither the latter, nor bent hocks, which place +the hind legs under the body as in the zebra, are objected to, +as the conformation is favourable to rapid turning. One object +of the pony breeder, while maintaining hardiness of constitution, +is to control size—to compress the most valuable qualities +into small compass. He endeavours to breed an animal +possessing a small head, good shoulders, true action and perfect +manners. A combination of the best points of the hunter with +the style and finish of the hackney produces a class of weight-carrying +pony which is always saleable.</p> + +<p>The <i>Shire</i> horse owes its happily-chosen name to Arthur +Young’s remarks, in the description of his agricultural tours +during the closing years of the 18th century, concerning the +large Old English Black Horse, “the produce principally of the +<i>Shire</i> counties in the heart of England.” Long previous to this, +however, the word Shire, in connexion with horses, was used in +the statutes of Henry VIII. Under the various names of the War +Horse, the Great Horse, the Old English Black Horse and the +Shire Horse, the breed has for centuries been cultivated in the +rich fen-lands of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and in many +counties to the west. The Shire is the largest of draught horses, +the stallion commonly attaining a height of 17 to 17.3 hands. +Though the black colour is still frequently met with, bay and +brown are more usually seen. With their immense size and +weight—1800 ℔ to 2200 ℔—the Shires combine great strength, +and they are withal docile and intelligent. They stand on short +stout legs, with a plentiful covering—sometimes too abundant—of +long hair extending chiefly down the back but also round the +front of the limbs from knees and hocks, and when in full feather +obscuring nearly the whole of the hoofs. The head is a good +size, and broad between the eyes; the neck fairly long, with the +crest well arched on to the shoulders, which are deep and strong, +and moderately oblique. The chest is wide, full and deep, the +back short and straight, the ribs are round and deep, the hind +quarters long, level and well let down into the muscular thighs. +The cannon-bones should be flat, heavy and clean, and the feet +wide, tough, and prominent at the heels. A good type of Shire +horse combines symmetrical outlines and bold, free action. +There is a good and remunerative demand for Shire geldings +for use as draught horses in towns.</p> + +<p>The <i>Clydesdale</i>, the Scottish breed named from the valley of +the Clyde, is not quite so large as the Shire, the average height +of stallions being about 16 hands 2 in. The popular colour is +bay, particularly if of a dark shade, or dappled. Black is not +uncommon, but grey is not encouraged. White markings on +one or more of the legs, with a white star or stripe on the face, +are characteristic. The long hair on the legs is not so abundant +as in the Shires, and it is finer in texture. It is regarded as an +indication of good bone. The bones of the legs should be short, +flat, clean and hard; the feet large, with hoofs deep and concave +below. With its symmetry, activity, strength and endurance +the Clydesdale is easily broken to harness, and makes an excellent +draught horse. This breed is growing rapidly in favour in +Canada, but in the United States the <i>Percheron</i>, with its round +bone and short pasterns, holds the field. A blend of the Shire +and Clydesdale strains of the British rough-legged draught horse +(virtually sections of the same breed) is a better animal than +either of the parents. It is an improvement upon the Shire due +to the quality contributed by the Clydesdale, and it surpasses +the Clydesdale in strength and substance, as a result of the Shire +connexion. To secure success the two Stud-Books will require +to be opened to animals eligible to be entered in either record. +The blend is being established in U.S.A. as a National breed.</p> + +<p>The <i>Suffolk</i> is a horse quite distinct from the Shire and the +Clydesdale. Its body looks too heavy for its limbs, which are +free from the “feather” so much admired in the two other +heavy breeds; it possesses a characteristic chestnut colour. +How long the Suffolks have been associated with the county +after which they are named is unknown, but they are mentioned +in 1586 in Camden’s <i>Britannia</i>. With an average height of about +16 hands they often have a weight of as much as 2000 ℔., and +this may explain the appearance which has given rise to the name +of the Suffolk Punch, by which the breed is known. The Suffolk +is a resolute and unwearying worker, and is richly endowed with +many of the best qualities of a horse. The <i>Suffolk Stud-Book +and History of the Breed</i>, published in 1880, is the most exhaustive +record of its kind in England.</p> +<div class="author">(W. Fr.; R. W.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Management</p> + +<p><i>Breeding.</i>—Animals to breed from should be of good blood, +sound and compactly built, with good pluck and free from +nervous excitability and vicious tendency. A mare used to be +put to the horse at three years old, but latterly two has become +the common age. Young sires begin to serve in moderation at +two. May is considered the best month for a mare to foal, as +there is abundance of natural food and the weather is mild enough +for the mare to lie out. Show specimens generally profit by +being born earlier. The period of gestation in the mare is about +eleven months. No nursing mare should go to work, if this can +possibly be avoided. A brood mare requires plenty of exercise +at a slow pace and may work, except between shafts or on a road, +till the day of foaling.</p> + +<p>To avoid colic an animal has to be gradually prepared by +giving small quantities of green food for a few days before going +to grass. Shelter against severe storms is needed. Succulent +food encourages the flow of milk, and the success of the foal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span> +greatly depends on its milk supply. Mares most readily conceive +when served at the “foal heat” eleven days after foaling. A +mature stallion can serve from eighty to one hundred mares per +annum.</p> + +<p>Foals are weaned when five or six months old, often in October, +and require to be housed to save the foal-flesh, and liberally but +not overfed; but from the time they are a month old they +require to be “gentled” by handling and kindly treatment, +and the elementary training of leading from time to time by +a halter adjusted permanently to the head. When they are hand-reared +on cow’s milk foals require firm treatment and must have +no fooling to teach them tricks. Young horses that are too highly +fed are apt to become weak-limbed and top-heavy.</p> + +<p><i>Breaking.</i>—Systematic breaking begins at about the age of two +years, and the method of subduing a colt by “galvayning” is as +good as any. It is a more humane system than “rareying,” +which overcame by exhaustion under circumstances which were +not fruitful of permanent results. Galvayning is accomplished +by bending the horse’s neck round at an angle of thirty-five to +forty degrees and tieing the halter to the tail, so that when he +attempts to walk forward he holds himself and turns “round and +round, almost upon his own ground.” The more strenuous his +resistance the sooner he yields to the inevitable force applied +by himself. A wooden pole, the “third hand,” is then gently +applied to all parts of the body until kicking or any form of +resistance ceases. “Bitting” or “mouthing,” or the familiarizing +of an animal to the bit in his mouth, and to answer to the +rein without bending his neck, is still a necessity with the +galvayning method of breaking. Experience can only be gained +by a horse continuing during a considerable time to practise +what he has been taught.</p> + +<p>Three main characteristics of a successful horse-breaker are +firmness, good temper and incessant vigilance. Carelessness in +trusting too much to a young colt that begins its training by +being docile is a fruitful source of untrustworthy habits which +need never have developed. Driving with long reins in the field +should precede the fastening of ropes to the collar, as it accustoms +the animal to the pressure on the shoulders of the draught, later +to be experienced in the yoke. If a young horse be well handled +and accustomed to the dummy jockey, mounting it is not +attended with much risk of resistance, although this should +invariably be anticipated. An animal ought to be in good condition +when being broken in, else it is liable to break out in +unpleasant ways when it becomes high-spirited as a result of +improved condition. It should be well but not overfed, and +while young not overworked, as an overtired animal is liable to +refuse to pull, and thus contract a bad habit. Most bad habits +and stable tricks are the result of defective management and +avoidable accidents.</p> + +<p><i>Feeding.</i>—Horses have small stomachs relatively to ruminating +animals, and require small quantities of food frequently. While +grazing they feed almost continually, preferring short pasture. +No stable food for quick work surpasses a superior sample of +fine-hulled whole oats like “Garton’s Abundance” (120 ℔ per +week), and Timothy hay harvested in dry weather. The unbruised +oats develop a spirit and courage in either a saddle or +harness horse that no other food can. A double handful of +clean chaff, or of bran mixed with the oats in the manger, prevents +a greedy horse from swallowing a considerable proportion whole. +Unchewed oats pass out in the faeces uninjured, so that they +are capable of germination, and are of less than no value to a +horse. Horses doing slow or other than “upper ten” work +may have oats crushed, not ground, and a variety of additions +made to the oats which are usually the basis of the feed—for +example, a few old crushed beans, a little linseed meal, ground +linseed cake or about a wine-glassful of unboiled linseed oil. +Indian pulses are to be avoided on account of the danger of +Lathyrus poisoning. A seasoning of ground fenugreek or spice is +sometimes given to shy feeders to encourage them to eat. A +little sugar or molascuit added to the food will sometimes serve +the same purpose. Newly crushed barley or cracked maize, +even in considerable proportion to the rest of the food, gives good +results with draught, coach, ’bus and light harness horses generally. +Boiled food of any kind is unnatural to a horse, and is +risky to give, being liable to produce colic, especially if the +animal bolts its food when hungry, although it generally produces +a glossy coat. Too much linseed, often used in preparing +horses for market, gives a similar appearance, but is liable to +induce fatty degeneration of the liver; given in moderation it +regulates the bowels and stimulates the more perfect digestion +of other foods. In England red-clover hay, or, better still, +crimson-clover or lucerne hay, is liberally fed to farm horses +with about 10 ℔ per day of oats, while they usually run in open +yards with shelter sheds. Bean straw is sometimes given as part +of the roughage in Scotland, but not in England. In England +hunters and carriage horses are generally fed on natural hay, in +Scotland on Timothy, largely imported from Canada, or ryegrass +hay that has not been grown with nitrate of soda. Heavily +nitrated hay is reputed to produce excessive urination and +irritation of the bladder. Pease straw, if not sandy, and good +bright oat straw are good fodder for horses; but with barley +and wheat straw, in the case of a horse, more energy is consumed +during its passage through the alimentary canal than the digested +straw yields. Three or four Swedish turnips or an equivalent +of carrots is an excellent cooling food for a horse at hard work. +The greater number of horses in the country should have green +forage given them during summer, when the work they do will +permit of it, as it is their natural food, and they thrive better +on it than on any dry food.</p> + +<p>When a horse has been overstrained by work the best remedy +is a long rest at pasture, and, if it be lame or weak in the limbs, +the winter season is most conducive to recovery. The horse +becomes low in condition and moves about quietly, and the frost +tends to brace up the limbs. In autumn all horses that have +been grazing should be dosed with some vermifuge to destroy +the worms that are invariably present, and thus prevent colic +or an unthrifty or anaemic state. On a long journey a horse +should have occasional short drinks, and near the end a long +drink with a slower rate of progression with the object of cooling +off. In the stable a horse should always be provided with rock +salt, and water to drink at will by means of some such stall +fixture as the Mundt hygienic water-supply fittings. Overhead +hay-racks are unnatural and are liable to drop seeds into a +horse’s eye.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—For riding, &c. see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riding</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Driving</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horsemanship</a></span>, +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse-racing</a></span>. For diseases of the horse see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Veterinary +Science</a></span>. The literature about the horse and its history and uses +is voluminous, and is collected up to 1887 in Huth’s <i>Works on +Horses, &c.</i>, a bibliographical record of hippology. See also, besides +the works already mentioned, various books by Capt. M. Horace +Hayes, <i>Points of the Horse</i> (1893, 2nd ed., 1897); <i>Stable Management +and Exercise</i> (1900); <i>Illustrated Horse-breaking</i> (1889, 2nd ed., +1896); and <i>The Horsewoman</i> (1893) (with Mrs Hayes); E. L. +Anderson, <i>Modern Horsemanship</i> (1884); W. Day, <i>The Horse: +How to Breed and Rear Him</i> (1888); W. Ridgeway, <i>Origin and +Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse</i> (1905); Major-General Tweedie, +<i>The Arab Horse</i> (1894); J. Wortley Axe, <i>The Horse; its Treatment +in Health and Disease</i> (1906); R. Wallace, <i>Farm Live Stock of Great +Britain</i> (1885, 4th ed., 1907); Sydney Galvayne, <i>The Twentieth +Century Book of the Horse</i> (1905); C. Bruce Low, <i>Breeding Racehorses +by the Figure System</i> (1895); J. H. Wallace, <i>The Horse of +America in his Derivation, &c.</i> (1897); Weatherly’s <i>Celebrated Racehorses</i> +(1887); Ruff’s <i>Guide to the Turf</i>; T. A. Cook, <i>History of the +English Turf</i> (1903); <i>The General Stud-Book</i> (issued quinquennially); +and the <i>Stud-Books</i> of the various breed societies.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare Sans, <i>açva</i>, Zendish and Old Persian <i>açpa</i>, Lithuanian +<i>aszva</i> (mare), Prussian <i>asvinan</i> (mare’s milk), O.H. Ger. <i>ehu</i>, +A.S. <i>eoh</i>, Icel. <i>iör</i>, Gothic <i>aihos</i>, <i>aihous</i> (?), Old Irish <i>ech</i>, Old +Cambrian and Gaelic <i>ep</i> (as in <i>Epona</i>, the horse goddess), Lat. +<i>equus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippos">ἴππος</span> or <span class="grk" title="ikkos">ἴκκος</span>. The word seems, however, to have +disappeared from the Slavonic languages. The root is probably +<i>ak</i>, with the idea of sharpness or swiftness (<span class="grk" title="akros, ôkus">ἄκρος, ὠκύς</span>, <i>acus</i>, +<i>ocior</i>). See Pott, <i>Etym. Forsch</i>, ii. 256, and Hehn, <i>Kulturpflanzen +u. Hausthiere in ihrem Ueber gang aus Asien nach +Griechenland u. Italien sowie in das übrige Europa</i> (3rd ed., 1877), +p. 38. The last-named author, who points out the absence of +the horse from the Egyptian monuments prior to the beginning +of the 18th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the fact that the earliest references +to this animal in Hebrew literature (Judges v. 22, 28; cf. Josh, +xi. 4) do not carry us any farther back, is of opinion that the +Semitic peoples as a whole were indebted for the horse to the +lands of Iran. He also shows that literature affords no trace of the +horse as indigenous to Arabia prior to about the beginning of the +5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, although references abound in the pre-Islamitic +poetry. Horses were not numerous even in Mahomet’s time +(Sprenger, <i>Leb. Moh.</i> iii. 139, 140). Compare Ignazio Guidi’s paper +“Della sede primitiva dei popoli Semitici” in the <i>Transactions</i> of the +Accademia dei Lincei (1878-1879), Professor W. Ridgeway, in his +<i>Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse</i> (1905), reinvestigated +the historical mystery as to the Arab breed, and its connexion with +the English thoroughbred stock, but his conclusions have been hotly +controverted; archaeology and biology are in fact still in the dark +on the subject, but see the section on “Species” above. According +to Ridgeway, the original source of the finest equine blood is Africa, +still the home of the largest variety of wild Equidae; he concludes +that thence it passed into Europe at an early time, to be blended with +that of the indigenous Celtic species, and thence into western Asia +into the veins of an indigenous Mongolian species, still represented +by “Przewalski’s horse”; not till a comparatively late period did +it reach Arabia, though the “Arab” now represents the purest form +of the Libyan blood. The controversy depends upon the consideration +of a wealth of detail, which should be studied in Ridgeway’s +book; but zoological authorities are sceptical as to the suggested +species, <i>Equus caballus libycus</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2r" id="ft2r" href="#fa2r"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Some fragments of legislation relating to the horse about this +period may be gleaned from <i>Ancient Laws and Institutes of England</i> +(fol., London, 1840), and <i>Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales</i> +(fol., London, 1841).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSE LATITUDES,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> the belts of calms and variable breezes +at the polar edge of the N.E. and S.E. trades. According to the +<i>New English Dictionary</i> two explanations have been given of +the origin of the name: one that the calm kills horses on a +sailing ship, the other that the name signifies the unruly and +boisterous nature of these winds compared with the pleasant +trades. The name is commonly applied to the permanent belt +of high atmospheric pressure which encircles the globe in 30° to +35° from the equator.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSE-MACKEREL,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the name applied to a genus of fishes +(<i>Caranx</i>) found in abundance in almost all temperate and +especially in tropical seas. The designation “cavalli,” given to +them by the early Portuguese navigators, and often met with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span> +in the accounts of the adventures of the buccaneers, is still in +frequent use among the sailors of all nations. Some ninety +different kinds are known—the majority being wholesome food, +and some of the species attaining a length of 3 ft. and more. +The fish to which the name horse-mackerel is applied in Great +Britain is <i>Caranx trachurus</i>, distinguished by having the lateral +line in its whole length armed with large but narrow bony plates. +Horse-mackerel are found singly on the coast all the year round, +but sometimes they congregate in shoals of many thousands. +Although well-flavoured, they are much more frequently used +for bait than for food. This species has a most extraordinary +range, being found almost everywhere within the temperate and +tropical zones of the northern and southern hemispheres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSEMANSHIP,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> the art of managing the horse from his +back and controlling his paces and the direction and speed of +his movement. The ordinary procedure is dealt with in the +articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riding</a></span> and cognate subjects (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse</a></span>: section +<i>Management</i>). A special kind of skill is, however, needed in +breaking, training, bitting and schooling horses for a game like +polo, or for the evolutions of what is known as the <i>haute école</i>. +It is with the latter, or “school” riding, that we deal here. The +middle ages had seen chivalry developed into a social distinction, +and horsemanship into a form of knightly prowess. The Renaissance +introduced the cultivation of horsemanship as an art, +with regular conditions and rules, instead of merely its skilful +practice for utility and exercise. In Italy in the 16th century +schools of horsemanship were established at Naples, Rome and +other chief cities; thither flocked the nobility of France, Spain +and Germany; and Henry VIII. of England and other monarchs +of his time had Italians for their masters of the horse. The +academy of Pignatelli at Naples was the most famous of the +schools in the middle of the 16th century, but a score of other +less renowned masters devoted themselves to teaching the +riders and training the horses. Trappings of all sorts multiplied; +the prescribed tricks, feats and postures involved considerable +dexterity; they were fatiguing to both man and beast, and +were really useless except for show. This elaborate art, enthusiastically +followed among the Romance nations, was the +parent of later developments of the <i>haute école</i>, and of the circus-performances +of modern days. In England, however, the +continental style did not find favour for long. The duke of +Newcastle’s <i>Méthode nouvelle de dresser les chevaux</i> (1648) was +the leading text-book of the day, and in 1761 the earl of Pembroke +published his <i>Manual of Cavalry Horsemanship</i>. In France +a simplification was introduced in the early part of the 18th +century by La Guérinière (<i>École de cavalerie</i>) and others. The +French military school thus became the model for Europe, +though the English style remained in opposition, forming a +sort of compromise with the ordinary method of riding across +country. In more modern times France again came to the front +in regard to the <i>haute école</i>, through the innovations of the +vicomte d’Aure (1798-1863) and François Baucher (1796-1873). +Baucher was a circus-rider who became the greatest master of +his art, and who had an elaborate theory of the principles involved +in training a horse. His system was carried on, with +modifications, by masters and theorists like Captain Raabe, +M. Barroil and M. Fillis. In more recent times the style of the +<i>haute école</i> has also been cultivated by various masters in the +United States, such as H. L. de Bussigny at Boston.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See d’Aure, <i>Traité d’équitation</i> (1847); Hundersdorf, <i>Équitation +allemande</i> (Bruxelles, 1843); Baucher, <i>Passe-temps équestres</i> (1840), +<i>Méthode d’équitation</i> (1867); Raabe, <i>Méthode de haute école d’équitation</i> +(1863); Barroil, <i>Art équestre</i>; Fillis, <i>Principes de dressage</i>; Hayes, +<i>Riding on the flat, &c.</i> (1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSENS,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a market town of Denmark, at the head of Horsens +Fjord, on the east side of Jutland, 32 m. by rail S.W. of Aarhus, +in the <i>amt</i> (county) of that name. Pop. (1901) 22,243. It is the +junction of branch railways to Bryrup and to Törring inland, +and to Juelsminde on the coast. The exports are chiefly bacon +and butter; the imports, iron, yarn, coal and timber. The +town is ancient; there is a disused convent church with tombs +of the 17th century, and the Vor-Frelsers-Kirke has a carved +pulpit of the same period. Horsens is the birthplace of the +navigator Vitus Bering or Behring (1680), the Arctic explorer. +To the north lies the picturesque lake district between Skanderborg +and Silkeborg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aarhus</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSE-POWER.<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> The device, frequently seen in farmyards, +by which the power of a horse is utilized to drive threshing or +other machinery, is sometimes described as a “horse-power,” +but this term usually denotes the unit in which the performance +of steam and other engines is expressed, and which is defined as +the rate at which work is done when 33,000 ℔ are raised one +foot in one minute. This value was adopted by James Watt +as the result of experiments with strong dray-horses, but, as he +was aware, it is in excess of what can be done by an average +horse over a full day’s work. It is equal to 746 watts. On the +metric system it is reckoned as 4500 kilogram-metres a minute, +and the French <i>cheval-vapeur</i> is thus equal to 32,549 foot-pounds +a minute, or 0.9863 of an English horse-power, or 736 watts. +The “nominal horse-power” by which engines are sometimes +rated is an arbitrary and obsolescent term of indefinite significance. +An ordinary formula for obtaining it is <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">15.6</span>D<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="sp">3</span>√S for high-pressure +engines, and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">47</span>D<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="sp">3</span>√S for condensing engines, where +D is the diameter of the piston in inches and S the length of the +stroke in feet, though varying numbers are used for the divisor. +The “indicated horse-power” of a reciprocating engine is +given by ASPN/33,000, where A is the area of the piston in +square inches, S the length of the stroke in feet, P the mean +pressure on the piston in ℔ per sq. in., and N the number of +effective strokes per minute, namely, one for each revolution of +the crank shaft if the engine is single-acting, but twice as many +if it is double-acting. The mean pressure P is ascertained from +the diagram or “card” given by an indicator (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steam-Engine</a></span>). +In turbine engines this method is inapplicable. +A statement of indicated horse-power supplies a measure of the +force acting in the cylinder of an engine, but the power available +for doing external work off the crank-shaft is less than this by +the amount absorbed in driving the engine itself. The useful +residue, known as the “actual,” “effective” or “brake” +horse-power, can be directly measured by a dynamometer (<i>q.v.</i>); +it amounts to about 80% of the indicated horse-power for good +condensing engines and about 85% for non-condensing engines, +or perhaps a little more when the engines are of the largest sizes. +When turbines, as often happens in land practice, are directly +coupled to electrical generators, their horse-power can be +deduced from the electrical output. When they are used for the +propulsion of ships recourse is had to “torsion meters” which +measure the amount of twist undergone by the propeller shafts +while transmitting power. Two points are selected on the surface +of the shaft at different positions along it, and the relative displacement +which occurs between them round the shaft when +power is being transmitted is determined either by electrical +means, as in the Denny-Johnson torsion-meter, or optically, +as in the Hopkinson-Thring and Bevis-Gibson instruments. +The twist or surface-shear being proportional to the torque, the +horse-power can be calculated if the modulus of rigidity of the +steel employed is known or if the amount of twist corresponding +to a given power has previously been ascertained by direct +experiment on the shaft before it has been put in place.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSE-RACING.<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> Probably the earliest instance of the use +of horses in racing recorded in literature occurs in <i>Il.</i> xxiii. +212-650, where the various incidents of the chariot-race at the +funeral games held in honour of Patroclus are detailed with +much vividness. According to the ancient authorities the +four-horse chariot-race was introduced into the Olympic games +as early as the 23rd Olympiad; to this the race with mounted +horses was added in the 33rd; while other variations (such +as two-horse chariot-races, mule races, loose-horse races, special +races for under-aged horses) were admitted at a still later period. +Of the training and management of the Olympic race-horse we +are left in ignorance; but it is known that the equestrian +candidates were required to enter their names and send their +horses to Elis at least thirty days before the celebration of the +games commenced, and that the charioteers and riders, whether +owners or proxies, went through a prescribed course of exercise +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span> +during the intervening month. At all the other national games +of Greece (Pythian, Isthmian, Nemean), as well as at many of +the local festivals (the Athenian Olympia and Panathenaea), +similar contests had a prominent place. Some indication of +the extent to which the passion for horse-racing was indulged +in at Athens, for example, about the time of Aristophanes may +be obtained from the scene with which <i>The Clouds</i> opens; +while it is a significant fact that the Boeotians termed one of the +months of their year, corresponding to the Athenian Hecatombaeon, +Hippodromius (“Horse-race month”; see Plutarch, +<i>Cam.</i> 15). For the chariot-races and horse-races of the Greeks +and Romans, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Circus</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Games</a></span>.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Great Britain</p> + +<p>There is no direct historical evidence to show that the ancient +Britons addicted themselves to any form of this amusement; but +there are indications that among some at least of the Germanic +tribes, from a very early period, horse-racing was an accompaniment +of their religious cultus. There can be no doubt that the +Romans encouraged the pursuit in Britain, if they did not introduce +it; traces of race-courses belonging to the period of their +occupation have been frequently discovered. The influence of the +Christian Church was everywhere at first strongly against the +practice. The opinion of Augustine and other fathers of the +church with regard to attendance at the spectacles, whether of +theatre or of circus, is well known; those who performed in +them were rigidly excluded from church fellowship, and sometimes +even those who merely frequented them. Thus the first +council of Arles, in its fourth canon, declared that those members +of the church who drove chariots at the public games should, +so long as they continued in that employment, be denied communion. +(Compare the rule in the <i>Ap. Const.</i> viii. 32; ap. +Bingham. <i>Ant. Chr. Church</i>, xvi. 4, 10.) In many cases, however, +the weight of ecclesiastical authority proved insufficient to cope +with the force of old custom, or with the fascination of a sport +the unchristian character of which was not very easily demonstrable; +and ultimately in Germany and elsewhere the old local +races appear to have been admitted to a recognized place among +the ceremonies peculiar to certain Christian festivals.</p> + +<p>The first distinct indication which contemporary history +affords of horse-racing as a sport occurs in the <i>Description of +the City of London</i> of William Fitzstephen (<i>c.</i> 1174). He says +that in a certain “plane field without one of the gates (quidam +planus campus re et nomine—<i>Smithfield</i>, quasi Smoothfield) +every Friday, unless it be one of the more solemn festivals, is a +noted show of well-bred (<i>nobilium</i>) horses exposed for sale. +The earls, barons and knights who are resident in the city, as +well as a multitude of citizens, flock thither either to look on +or buy.” After describing the different varieties of horses +brought into the market, especially the more valuable chargers +(<i>dextrarios preciosos</i>), he says: “When a race is to be run by +such horses as these, and perhaps by others which, in like manner, +according to their breed are strong for carriage and vigorous for +the course, the people raise a shout and order the common horses +to be withdrawn to another part of the field. The jockeys, who +are boys expert in the management of horses, which they regulate +by means of curb bridles, sometimes by threes and sometimes +by twos, as the match is made, prepare themselves for the contest. +Their chief aim is to prevent a competitor from getting +before them. The horses too, after their manner, are eager for +the race: their limbs tremble, and impatient of delay they +cannot stand still; upon the signal being given they stretch out +their limbs, hurry on the course, and are borne along with unremitting +speed. The riders, inspired with the love of praise and +the hope of victory, clap spurs to their flying horses, lashing them +with whips, and inciting them by their shouts” (see Stow’s +Translation).</p> + +<p>In the reign of Richard I. knights rode at Whitsuntide on +steeds and palfreys over a three-mile course for “forty pounds +of ready gold,” according to the old romance of Sir Bevys of +Hampton. The feats of the tilt-yard, however, seem to have +surpassed horse-racing in popular estimation at the period of the +crusades. That the sport was to some extent indulged in by +King John is quite possible, as running horses are frequently +mentioned in the register of royal expenditure; and we know +that Edward III. had a number of running horses, but it is probable +they were chiefly used for field sports.</p> + +<p>An evidence of the growing favour in which horse-racing was +held as a popular amusement is furnished by the fact that public +races were established at Chester in 1512. Randle Holme of that +city tells us that towards the latter part of Henry VIII.’s reign, +on Shrove Tuesday, the company of saddlers of Chester presented +to “the drapers a wooden ball embellished with flowers, and +placed upon the point of a lance. This ceremony was performed +in the presence of the mayor at the cross of the Roody or Roodee, +an open place near the city; but this year (1540) the ball was +changed into a silver bell, valued at three shillings and sixpence +or more, to be given to him who shall run best and furthest on +horseback before them on the same day, Shrove Tuesday; these +bells were denominated St George’s bells.” In the reign of +Elizabeth there is evidence from the poems of Bishop Hall +(1597) that racing was in vogue, though apparently not patronized +by the queen, or it would no doubt have formed part of the +pastimes at Kenilworth; indeed, it seems then to have gone +much out of fashion.</p> + +<p>The accession of the Stuarts opened up an era of prosperity +for the sport, for James I., who, according to Youatt, had +encouraged if not established horse-racing in Scotland, greatly +patronized it in England when he came to the throne. Not only +did he run races at Croydon and Enfield, but he endeavoured to +improve the breed of horses by the purchase for a high figure of +the Arab stallion known as Markham’s Arabian, which little +horse, however, was beaten in every race he ran.</p> + +<p>In 1607, according to Camden’s <i>Britannia</i>, races were run near +York, the prize being a little golden bell. Camden also mentions +as the prize for running horses in Gatherley Forest a little golden +ball, which was apparently anterior to the bell. In 1609 Mr +Robert Ambrye, sometime sheriff of the city of Chester, caused +three silver bells to be made of good value, which bells he +appointed to be run for with horses on St George’s day upon the +Roodee, the first horse to have the best bell and the money put +in by the horses that ran—in other words, a sweepstake—the +bells to be returned that day twelvemonth as challenge cups +are now; towards the expenses he had an allowance from the +city. In 1613 subscription purses are first mentioned. Nicholls, +in his <i>Progress of James I.</i>, makes mention of racing in the years +1617 and 1619. Challenge bells appear to have continued to +be the prizes at Chester, according to Randle Holme the younger, +and Ormerod’s <i>History of Chester</i>, until 1623 or 1624, when Mr +John Brereton, mayor of Chester, altered the course and caused +the horses to run five times round the Roodee, the bell to be of +good value, £8 or £10, and to be a free bell to be held for ever—in +other words, a presentation and not a challenge prize.</p> + +<p>During James’s reign public race meetings were established at +Gatherley or Garterley, near Richmond in Yorkshire, at Croydon +in Surrey, and at Enfield Chase, the last two being patronized +by the king, who not only had races at Epsom during his residence +at Nonsuch, but also built a house at Newmarket for the purpose +of enjoying hunting, and no doubt racing too, as we find a note +of there having been horse-races at this place as early as 1605. +Races are also recorded as having taken place at Linton near +Cambridge, but they were probably merely casual meetings. +The prizes were for the most part silver or gold bells, whence +the phrase “bearing away the bell.” The turf indeed appears +to have attracted a great deal of notice, and the systematic +preparation of running horses was studied, attention being +paid to their feeding and training, to the instruction of jockeys—although +private matches between gentlemen who rode their +own horses were very common,—and to the adjustment of +weights, which were usually about 10 stone. The sport also +seems to have taken firm hold of the people, and to have become +very popular.</p> + +<p>The reign of Charles I., which commenced in 1625, saw still +more marked strides made, for the king not only patronized the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span> +racing at Newmarket, which we know was current In 1640, but +thoroughly established it there, and built a stand house in 1667, +since which year the races have been annual. Mention is likewise +made in the comedy of the <i>Merry Beggars</i>, played in 1641, of +races, both horse and foot, in Hyde Park, which were patronized +by Charles I., who gave a silver cup, value 100 guineas, to be +run for instead of bells. Butcher, in his survey of the town of +Stamford (1646), also says that a race was annually run in that +town for a silver and gilt cup and cover, of the value of £7 or £8, +provided by the care of the aldermen for the time being out of +the interest of a stock formerly made by the nobility and gentry +of the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>In 1648 Clarendon tells us that a meeting of Royalists was +held at Banstead Downs, as Epsom Downs were then called, +“under the pretence of a horse-race,” so that horse-racing at +Epsom was not unknown early in the 17th century; Pepys, +too, in his <i>Diary</i> of 1663, mentions his having intended to go to +Banstead Downs to see a famous horse-race. Cromwell is said +to have kept running horses in the year 1653, but in 1654 he +appears to have gone so far as to forbid racing for six and +eight months respectively. After the Reformation in 1660, a new +impetus was given to horse-racing, which had languished during +the civil wars, and the races at Newmarket, which had been +suspended, were restored and attended by the king; and as an +additional spur to emulation, according to Youatt, royal plates +were given at each of the principal courses, and royal mares, +as they were called, were imported from abroad. Charles II. +rebuilt the house originally erected at Newmarket by James I., +which had fallen into decay. The Round course was made in +1666, and racing at the headquarters of the turf was regulated +in the most systematic way, as to the course, weights and other +conditions. Charles II. was the first monarch who entered and +ran horses in his own name; and, besides being a frequent +visitor at the races on Newmarket Heath, and on Burford +Downs, near Stockbridge, where the Bibury Club meeting was +held, he established races at Datchet. In the reign of James II. +nothing specially noteworthy occurred, but William III. continued +former crown donations and even added to them.</p> + +<p>Anne was much devoted to horse-racing, and not only gave +royal plates to be competed for, but ran horses for them in her +own name. In 1703 Doncaster races were established, when +4 guineas a year were voted by the corporation towards a plate, +and in 1716 the Town Plate was established by the same authority +to be run on Doncaster Moor. Nearly a century, however, +elapsed before the St Leger was instituted. Matches at Newmarket +had become common, for we find that Basto, one of the +earliest race-horses of whom we have any authentic account, +won several matches there in 1708 and 1709. In the latter +year, according to Camden, York races were established, the +course at first being on Clifton Ings, but it was subsequently +removed to Knavesmire, on which the races are now run. In +1710 the first gold cup said to have been given by the queen, +of 60 guineas value, was run for by six-year-old horses carrying +12 stone each, the best of three 4-mile heats, and was won by +Bay Bolton. In 1711 it was increased to 100 guineas. In 1712 +Queen Anne’s gelding Pepper ran for the Royal Cup of £100 at +York, and her Mustard, a nutmeg-grey horse, ran for the same +prize in 1713. Again in 1714 her Majesty’s bay horse Star won +a sweepstake of 10 guineas added to a plate of £40 at the same +place, in four heats, carrying 11 stone. In 1716 the Ladies’ +Plate at York for five-year-olds was won by Aleppo, son of the +Darley Arabian. Racing and match-making continued to be a +regular sport at Newmarket, and at York and Hambleton, and +we also find a record of a race at Lincoln in August 1717 for +a silver tea-board, won by Brocklesby Betty, as was the Queen’s +Plate at Black Hambleton in the year before.</p> + +<p>Between 1714 and 1720 there were races at Pontefract in +Yorkshire for plates or money. The best of two out of three +heats was to be the winner, provided the said horse was not +distanced in the third heat—the distance post being 1 furlong +from the winning post; and this appears to have been a usual +condition. In or about the year 1721 Flying Childers is said to +have run a trial against Almanzor and Brown Betty over the +Round course at Newmarket (3 m. 4 f. 93 y.) in 6 m. 40 s., and +another trial over the Beacon course (4 m. 1 f. 138 y.) in 7 m. 30 s.—which +is fast even for a six-year old; but it is just possible that +in those days the art of time-taking was anything but perfect. +In 1721 George I. gave 100 guineas in specie in lieu of the gold +cup at York presented by Anne, and the king’s or queen’s +plates have been given in cash ever since. In 1725 a ladies’ +plate was run for on the 14th of September by female riders on +Ripon Heath in Yorkshire. In 1727 Mr John Cheney established +the <i>Racing Calendar</i>—an historical list of all the horse matches +run, and of all plates and prizes run for in England and Wales +of the value of £10 or upwards in 1727, &c. No systematic +records had till then been preserved of the running of the race-horses +of the day, and it is only through the performances of +certain celebrated horses and mares that we have any information +of what actually took place, and even that is more or less +of a fragmentary kind. At this time racing was thoroughly +established as a national and popular sport, for there were +upwards of a hundred meetings in England and Wales; but the +plates or sweepstakes run for were for the most part of small +value, as £10, £20, £30, £40, and sometimes £50. In 1727, +according to Whyte, there were only a dozen royal plates run for +in England: one at Newmarket in April for six-year-old horses +at 12 stone each, in heats over the Round course—first called +the King’s Plate course; one for five-year-old mares at 10 stone +each, in one heat, and another in October for six-year-old horses +at 12 stone, in heats over the same course; one at York (which +commenced in 1711) for six-year-old horses, 12 stone each, +4-m. heats; one at Black Hambleton, Yorkshire (of which no +regular account was kept until 1715), for five-year-old mares, +10 stone, 4 m.; one at each of the following places, Nottingham, +Lincoln, Guildford, Winchester, Salisbury and Lewes, for six-year-old +horses, 12 stone each, 4-m. heats; and one at Ipswich +for five-year-old horses, 10 stone each. A royal plate was also +run for at Edinburgh in 1728 or 1729, and one at the Curragh +of Kildare in 1741.</p> + +<p>In 1739 an act was passed to prevent racing by ponies and +weak horses, 13 Geo. II. cap. 10, which also prohibited prizes +or plates of less value than £50. At this period the best horses +seldom ran more than five or six times, and some not so often, +there being scarcely any plates of note except royal ones, and +very few sweepstakes or matches of value except at Newmarket +until after 1750; moreover, as the races were run in heats, +best three out of four, over a course of several miles in length, the +task set the horses before winning a plate was very severe, and +by no means commensurate with the value of the prize. In +1751 the great subscription races commenced at York, the city +also giving £50 added money to each day’s racing. At Newmarket +there were only two meetings, one in April and the +other in October, but in 1753 a second spring meeting was +established, and in that year the Jockey Club, which was founded +in 1750, established the present racing ground. In 1762 a +second October meeting was added, in 1765 the July meeting, +in 1770 the Houghton meeting, and in 1771 the Craven meeting. +In 1766 Tattersall’s was established at Hyde Park Corner by +Richard Tattersall for the sale of horses; it remained the great +emporium of horses, and the rendezvous for betting on horse +races, until 1865, when, the lease of the premises at the Corner +having run out, it was removed to Knightsbridge.</p> + +<p>We now come to a very important period—that at which the +great three-year-old races were instituted.</p> + +<p>The St Leger was established in 1776 by Colonel St Leger, who +resided at Parkhill, near Doncaster. On the 24th of September, +during the Doncaster races, which took place annually +in the autumn, at his suggestion a sweepstake of +<span class="sidenote">The St Leger.</span> +25 guineas each for three-year-old colts and fillies +was run over a 2-m. course; there were six competitors, the +property of as many subscribers,—a very small beginning, it +must be owned. The race was won by a filly by Sampson, +belonging to Lord Rockingham, which was afterwards named +Allabaculia. In the following year the same stake had twelve +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span> +subscribers and ten starters, and was won by Mr Sotheron’s +Bourbon. It was not, however, until the succeeding year, 1778, +that it was named the St Leger, in compliment to the founder, +at the suggestion of the marquis of Rockingham. The stakes +were increased in 1832 to 50 sovs. each, and the weights have +been raised from time to time to keep pace with modern requirements. +The Doncaster Cup, a weight for age race for three-year-olds +and upwards, was established in 1801. The course is +nearly flat, of an oval or kite shape, about 1¾ m. round the +town-moor.</p> + +<p>The Epsom Derby and Oaks were established in 1779 and +1780, the Oaks in the former and the Derby in the latter year. +It is true that in 1730 Epsom races became annual, but +the prizes were nothing more than the usual plates +<span class="sidenote">The Derby and Oaks.</span> +run for in heats, the money required being raised by +voluntary subscriptions, as well by the owners of booths on +the downs as by the parties more immediately interested, +whence arose the custom of charges being made by the lord of +the manor for permission to erect booths, &c. during the race-meetings. +On the 14th of May 1779 the twelfth earl of Derby +originated the Oaks stakes (named after his seat or hunting-box +“The Oaks” at Woodmansterne), a sweepstake for three-year-old +fillies run on a course 1½ m. long. The race was won by +Lord Derby’s bay filly Bridget, bred by himself—her sire +being Herod and her dam Jemima. In the following year the +earl established a sweepstake of 50 sovs. each, half forfeit, for +three-year-old colts. This, the first Derby, was won by Sir C. +Bunbury’s chestnut colt Diomed by Florizel, son of Herod, who +beat eight opponents, including the duke of Bolton’s Bay +Bolton and Lord Grosvenor’s Diadem. These two races have +since been run for regularly every year, the Derby, which before +1839 was run on the Thursday, now taking place on the Wednesday, +and the Oaks on the Friday, in the same week at the end +of May.</p> + +<p>Ascot races, which are held on Ascot Heath, were established +by the duke of Cumberland, uncle of George III., and are +patronized by royalty in state or semi-state. They are +mentioned in the first <i>Racing Calendar</i>, published in +<span class="sidenote">Ascot Races.</span> +1727, but the races were for the most part plates and +other prizes of small importance, though a royal plate for hunters +appears to have been given in 1785. The Gold Cup was first given +in 1807, and has been regularly competed for ever since, though +from 1845 to 1853 inclusive it went by the designation of the +Emperor’s Plate, the prize being offered by the emperor of Russia. +In 1854, during the Crimean War, the cup was again called the +Ascot Gold Cup, and was given from the race fund. The Queen’s +Vase was first given in 1838, and the Royal Hunt Cup in 1843, +while in 1865 a new long-distance race for four-year-olds and +upwards was established, and named the Alexandra Plate, after +the Princess of Wales.</p> + +<p>Goodwood races were established by the duke of Richmond +on the downs at the northern edge of Goodwood Park in 1802, +upon the earl of Egremont discontinuing races in his +<span class="sidenote">Goodwood.</span> +park at Petworth. The races take place at the end +of July, on the close of the London season. The Goodwood +Cup, the chief prize of the meeting, was first given in 1812; +but from 1815 to 1824 inclusive there was no race for it, with +the single exception of 1816.</p> + +<p>During the latter half of the 18th century horse-racing declined +very much in England, and numbers of meetings were +discontinued, the wars which took place necessarily +causing the change. From the beginning of the 19th +<span class="sidenote">Two Thousand, &c.</span> +century, and especially after the conclusion of the +French war in 1815, racing rapidly revived, and many +new meetings were either founded or renewed after a period of +suspension, and new races were from time to time established. +Among others the Two Thousand Guineas at Newmarket for +three-year-old colts and fillies, and the One Thousand Guineas +for fillies, were established in 1809 and 1814 respectively, the +Goodwood Stakes in 1823, the Chester Cup and Brighton Stakes +in 1824, the Liverpool Summer Cup in 1828, the Northumberland +Plate in 1833, the Manchester Cup in 1834, the Ascot Stakes +and the Cesarewitch and Cambridgeshire Handicaps at Newmarket +in 1839, the Stewards’ and Chesterfield Cups at Goodwood +in 1840, the Great Ebor Handicap at York in 1843, and, to omit +others, the City and Suburban Handicap at Epsom in 1851, +and the Lincoln Handicap in 1853.</p> + +<p>Two-year-old racing was established very shortly after the +great three-year-old races, and on a similar footing, that is to +say, the competitors carried the same weights, with the exception +of a slight allowance for sex,—the July Stakes at the Newmarket +Midsummer Meeting having been founded as early as 1786. The +Woodcote Stakes at Epsom succeeded in 1807, the Champagne +Stakes at Doncaster in 1823, the Criterion Stakes at the Houghton +Meeting in 1829, the Chesterfield Stakes at the Newmarket +July meeting in 1834, the New Stakes at Ascot in 1843, the +Middle Park Plate (or two-year-old Derby, as it is sometimes +called) at the Newmarket Second October Meeting in 1866, the +Dewhurst Plate at the Houghton Meeting in 1875, and the Richmond +Stakes at Goodwood in 1877.</p> +<div class="author">(E. D. B.)</div> + +<p><i>Present Conditions.</i>—Horse-racing, usually described as “the +national sport,” has greatly advanced in general popularity +in the British Isles. There is no doubt that the best +specimens of the English thoroughbred horse are the +<span class="sidenote">Classic Races in England.</span> +finest animals of their kind in existence; the value of an +infusion of the blood for chargers, hunters, hacks, and +other varieties is scarcely to be overestimated; and the only way +of ascertaining what animals may be most judiciously employed +for breeding purposes is to submit them to the tests of preparation +for and performance on the turf. Racing is therefore a practical +necessity. On some accepted authority, the origin of which is +not to be traced, five races run each season by three-year-olds +are distinguished as “classic.” Of these the chief, by universal +consent, is the Derby, which takes place at Epsom during the +week which includes the 31st May. The Epsom course, on which +the Derby has been run since its origin in 1780, is by no means +a good one, in consequence of the abrupt turn at Tattenham +Corner; and the severe descent after this turn is made is also +held to be a disadvantage, though a really good horse should be +able to act on ascents, descents and level ground with equal +relative facility. In many respects the St Leger, run at Doncaster +about the middle of September, is a better test, as here +colts and fillies meet when both are presumably able to do +themselves the fullest justice. September, indeed, has been +called “the Mares’ Month,” for though fillies are eligible to run +in the Derby, they are very frequently out of sorts and always +more or less uncertain in their performances during the summer—only +four have been successful in 129 contests for the stake—whereas +in the autumn their numerous victories in the St Leger +prove them to be at their best. It was the recognition of this +fact which induced an alteration of the weights in the year 1882, +previously to which fillies had carried 5 ℔ less than colts; the +weights, formerly 8 st. 10 ℔ and 8 st. 5 ℔, are now 9 st. and +8 st. 11 ℔. The Doncaster course is superior for racing purposes +to that at Epsom, where the Oaks, another of the “classic +races,” is run on the Friday following the Derby; the other +two contests which come into this category being the Two +Thousand Guineas for colts and fillies, and the One Thousand +Guineas for fillies only. These races take place at Newmarket +during the First Spring Meeting, the former always on a +Wednesday, the latter on Friday. The expression “a Derby +horse” is common, but has no precise significance, as the three-year-olds +vary much in capacity from year to year. It is +generally understood, for instance, that Ormonde, who won +the Derby in 1886, must have been at least 21 ℔ superior to +Sir Visto or Jeddah, who were successful in 1895 and 1898. By +their ability to carry weight the value of horses is estimated +on the turf. Thus one horse who beats another by a length +over a distance of a mile would be described as a 5-℔ better +animal.</p> + +<p>The term “handicap horse” once had an adverse significance +which it does not now possess. In handicaps horses carry +weight according to their presumed capacity, as calculated +by handicappers who are licensed by the Jockey Club and +<span class="sidenote">Handicap Horses.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span> +employed by the directors of different meetings. The idea of a +handicap is to afford chances of success to animals who would +have no prospect of winning if they met their rivals on +equal terms; but of late years the value of handicaps +has been so greatly increased that few owners resist +the temptation of taking part in them. Horses nowadays who +do not run in this kind of contest are very rare, though a few, +such as Ormonde, Isinglass, and Persimmon, never condescended +to this class of sport. The duke of Westminster did not hesitate +to put his Derby winner Bend Or into some of the chief handicaps; +and it is, of course, a great test of merit when horses carrying +heavy weights show marked superiority in these contests to +rivals of good reputation more lightly burdened. St Gatien, +who dead-heated with Harvester in the Derby of 1884; Robert +the Devil, who won the St Leger in 1880 and on several occasions +beat the Derby winner Bend Or; and La Flèche, who won the +Oaks and the St Leger in 1892, added to the esteem in which they +were held by their successes under heavy weights, the colts in the +Cesarewitch, the filly in the Cambridgeshire. Of the chief handicaps +of the year, special mention may be made of the City and +Suburban, run at the Epsom Spring Meeting over 1¼ m.; the +Kempton Park Jubilee, over 1 m.; the Ascot Stakes, 2 m., and +the Royal Hunt Cup, 1 m.; the Stewards’ Cup at Goodwood, +six furlongs; the Cesarewitch Stakes and the Cambridgeshire +Stakes at Newmarket, the former 2¼ m., the latter now a mile and +a furlong—till lately it was “a mile and a distance”—“a +distance” on the Turf being a fixed limit of 240 yds. The cups at +Manchester, Newbury, and Liverpool are also handicaps of some +note, though it may be remarked that the expression “a cup +horse” is understood to imply an animal capable of distinguishing +himself over a long distance at even weights against the +best opponents. There are many other valuable stakes of +almost equal importance, diminishing to what are known as +“selling handicaps,” the winners of which are always put up for +sale by auction immediately after the race, in the lowest class +of them the condition being that the winner is to be offered for +£50. No stake of less than £100 can be run for under Jockey +Club rules, which govern all reputable flat racing in England, +nor is any horse ever entered to be sold for less than £50. As +horses mature they are naturally able to carry heavier weights.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Scale of Weight for Age.</i></p> + +<p>The following scale of weight for age is published under the sanction +of the Stewards of the Jockey Club as a guide to managers +of race meetings, but is not intended to be imperative, especially +as regards the weights of two-and three-year olds relatively to the +old horses in selling races early in the year. It is founded on the +scale published by Admiral Rous, and revised by him in 1873, but +has been modified in accordance with suggestions from the principal +trainers and practical authorities.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Age.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Mar. and<br />April.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">May.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">June.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">July.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Aug.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Sept.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Oct. and<br />Nov.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Five Furlongs</i>—</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">℔</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">℔</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">℔</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">℔</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">℔</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">℔</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Two years</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Three years</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Six Furlongs</i>—</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Two years</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Three years</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>One Mile</i>—</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Two years</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Three years</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>One Mile and a Half</i>—</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Two years</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Three years</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Two Miles</i>—</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Two years</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Three years</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Three Miles</i>—</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Three years</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Five years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">   Six and aged</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In the year 1884 the managers of Sandown Park formulated +the scheme of a race for a prize of £10,000, to be called the +Eclipse Stakes, and to be run over a distance of 1¼ m. +In order to secure a large entry, horses were to be +<span class="sidenote">£10,000 Races.</span> +nominated soon after their birth; owners who perceived +the hopelessness of their nominations could withdraw +at stated intervals by the payment of increasing forfeits; if +their animals finally went to the post a stake amounting in +all to £115 would have to be paid for them; and thus it will be +seen that owners were really running for their own money, though +if there were an insufficient number of entries the funds of the +club might be taxed to supply the deficiency. The scheme was +found to be attractive, and the example was followed at Leicester +and at Manchester, at both of which places, however, it lapsed. +At Newmarket, under the immediate auspices of the Jockey Club, +the £10,000 races succeeded, and there were two of them each +year. The Princess of Wales’s Stakes was run for the first time in +1894 at the First July Meeting, and the Jockey Club Stakes at +the First October. The former has, however, now been reduced +to £2000 added to a sweepstake of £30 each with a minor forfeit. +In the year 1900 a fourth race of similar character, the Century +Stakes, was originated at Sandown, but the experiment proved +a failure, and the contest was discontinued.</p> + +<p>The age of the thoroughbred horse is always dated from the +1st January. Foals are generally born in February, March or +April, though not a few good horses have been born in +May; they become yearlings, therefore, on the 1st +<span class="sidenote">Two-year-old Races.</span> +January following, two-year-olds twelve months later, +and many of them begin to race in the following March, for flat +racing always starts during the week which contains the 25th, +except when Easter falls unusually early. In France no two-year-olds +run until the 1st August, and discussion is frequently +raised as to the respective wisdom of the English and French +systems. It happens, however, that some young horses “come +to hand” soon, and deteriorate with equal rapidity. They are, +in fact, able to win races at the beginning of the season, and fail +to hold their own later in the year against bigger and more +powerful animals of their own age who have taken longer to +mature; so that there is some argument in favour of the earlier +date. The first noteworthy two-year-old race is the +Brocklesby Stakes, run at Lincoln during the first +week of the season. Sometimes the winner of the +Brocklesby is really a good animal, as was the case +with The Bard in 1885 and Donovan in 1888, but as +a general rule when the autumn comes he is found to +be far inferior to the winners of subsequent two-year-old +races of good class. It is seldom that a first-class +two-year-old appears before the Ascot Meeting about +the middle of June, though horses of character sometimes +run for the Woodcote Stakes at Epsom and in +other contests elsewhere. The names of many of the +most famous horses on the turf are found in the list +of winners of the New Stakes at Ascot, which was first +run in 1843 and maintains its character. In 1890 the +Coventry Stakes was originated, and is regarded as a +race of practically equal importance. The July Stakes +at Newmarket is the oldest of existing two-year-old +races, having been first run in 1786. The list of +winners is a brilliant one. The Chesterfield Stakes +ranks with it. The best two-year-olds are usually +seen out at Goodwood, and as a general rule those +that have chiefly distinguished themselves during the +year, and are to make names for themselves later in +life, are found contesting the Middle Park Plate at +the Newmarket Second October Meeting and the +Dewhurst Plate at the Newmarket Houghton. The +Middle Park Plate is generally worth over £2000, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span> +other races named are between £1000 and £2000 in value; +but these are not the richest two-year-old prizes of the +year, the value of the National Breeders’ Produce Stakes at +Sandown, run on the day following the Eclipse, being between +£4000 and £5000, and the Imperial Stakes at Kempton Park +falling not very far short of £3000. As a rule, a colt who +has been specially successful as a two-year-old maintains +his capacity later in life, unless it be found that he cannot +“stay”—that is to say, is unable to maintain his best speed +over more than five or six furlongs; but it is frequently the +case that fillies who have won good races as two-year-olds +entirely lose their form and meet with little or no success +afterwards.</p> + +<p>Newmarket is called with reason “the headquarters of the +Turf.” There are about forty training establishments in the +town, each trainer being in charge of an average of +thirty to forty horses, irrespective of mares, foals and +<span class="sidenote">Newmarket.</span> +yearlings. During the year eight race meetings are +held on the Heath: the Craven; the First and Second Spring; +the First and Second October—the First October usually +occurring at the end of September; and the Houghton. These +are contested on “the Flat,” the course which includes the Rowley +Mile. It is said that the Rowley Mile is so called from the +fact of its having been a favourite race-ground with Charles II. +The First and Second July Meetings take place on another +course, known as “Behind the Ditch,” the Ditch being the +huge embankment which runs through several counties and +has existed from time immemorial. The Craven Stakes for +three-year-olds is an event of some importance at the first meeting +of the year. It used to finish on an ascent at what is called +the “Top of the Town,” a course over which the handicap for the +Cambridgeshire was run. This course has now been abandoned +and the stand pulled down. At the First Spring Meeting the +Two Thousand Guineas and the One Thousand Guineas occur, +as already stated, but the names do not represent the values of +the stakes, which are, in fact, usually worth close on £5000 each. +The July Stakes and the Princess of Wales’ Stakes are run at +the First July Meeting. The Jockey Club Stakes is the leading +event of the First October; the Cesarewitch and the Middle +Park Plates follow in the Second October; the Criterion Stakes, +another of the few races that once finished at the “Top of the +Town,” the Cambridgeshire and the Dewhurst Plate take place at +the Houghton Meeting. The majority of races finish at the Rowley +Mile post; but there are three other winning-posts along the +Rowley Mile. “Behind the Ditch” races finish at two different +posts, one of which enables horses to avoid the necessity of galloping +up the severe ascent of the “Bunbury Mile.” Although, as +a rule, there is no better racing to be seen than the best events +<span class="sidenote">Ascot and other meetings.</span> +at Newmarket, the programmes are often spun out by +selling plates and paltry handicaps, and a high level is +nowhere so consistently maintained as at Ascot. +The Ascot meeting is distinguished by the entire +absence of selling plates, and much more “added money” is +given than on any other course. Added money is the sum supplied +by the directors of a race meeting, derived by them from the +amounts paid for entrances to stands and enclosures; for in many +races—the Ten Thousand prizes, for instance—owners run mainly +or entirely for money which they have themselves provided. +The Ascot Cup is generally spoken of as a race success in which +sets the seal to the fame of a good horse. It is a prize of the highest +distinction, and of late years has been of considerable value, the +winner in 1909 having gained for his owner £3430. That the +number of runners for this race should be invariably small—the +average for many years past has been about six—is not a +matter of surprise to those who are familiar with the Turf. +There are very few horses possessing sufficient speed and staying +power to make it worth the while of their owners to submit +them to the exceedingly severe test of a preparation for this race, +which is run over 2½ m. of ground at a time of year when the +turf is almost always extremely hard everywhere, and harder at +Ascot than almost anywhere else. There is no course on which +more good horses have hopelessly broken down. All the prizes +are handsome, and success at Ascot confers much prestige, +for the reason that the majority of horses that run are good +ones; but annually there is a list of victims that never recover +from the effects of galloping on this ground. Goodwood also +attracts horses of high character, though some unimportant +races fill out the programme. Formerly there were many +meetings around London, which fell into disrepute in consequence +of the manner in which they were conducted. These have been +replaced by well-managed gatherings in enclosed parks, and here +the value of the prizes is often so high that the best horses in +training are attracted. These meetings include Sandown, +Kempton, Gatwick, Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park. Liverpool, +Manchester, Birmingham, Brighton, York and various other +towns have race meetings twice or oftener in the course of each +year. At the various fixtures over half a million of money is +annually given in stakes. The largest sum ever won by a horse +was the £57,185 gained by Isinglass in 1892-1895. Donovan +follows with £54,935. In all probability these large totals would +have been considerably exceeded had not Flying Fox—who had +won in his first two seasons £40,090—been disqualified by the +death of his owner, the duke of Westminster, as this colt was +engaged in the four £10,000 races of 1900, in which to all appearance +he could not have been beaten, so much was he superior +to his contemporaries. The death of an owner of horses disqualifies +the animals he has entered—a necessary regulation, as +otherwise an heir might be burdened with a stable of horses the +possession of which would entail heavy expense and serious +responsibility on a person who perhaps had no knowledge of or +taste for racing.</p> + +<p>The value of an unquestionably good horse is enormous. +It has been seen what handsome prizes are offered for competition, +and when withdrawn from the Turf the horse may +secure a large income to his owner at the stud. A +<span class="sidenote">Value of horses.</span> +stallion’s fee of 600 guineas (as in the case of St +Simon) should mean well over £20,000 a year; and fees of 100 +guineas and more are common. Proved merit on the Turf is +considered essential in a sire, though there have been instances +of horses, unsuccessful during their racing career, who have +distinguished themselves at the stud: Wisdom, sire of the Derby +winner Sir Hugo, and several notable examples might be cited. +Mares are much more uncertain in this respect. On the whole, +the famous mares that have won the Oaks, the St Leger and +other leading races, have been apt to fail in the paddocks; but +there is always a hope of success with them, and the large sum +of 12,600 guineas was paid for La Flèche when she had ceased +from active service on the Turf. For None-the-Wiser 7200 +guineas was given; and 4600 guineas for Wedlock when well +advanced in years, on the strength of her having been the dam +of a good horse called Best Man. Well-bred mares that have +shown no capacity for racing are, however, frequently the dams +of good winners. Breeding is a lottery. An Australian enthusiast +some years since published a book the object of which was to +enable breeders to produce good horses by a species of mathematical +calculation; but the fallacy of the “Figure System” +was at once proved by the simple circumstance that in very +many cases the own brothers and sisters of good winners, whose +breeding conformed entirely to the system, proved to be utterly +worthless for racing purposes. It is a fact difficult of explanation +that the majority of famous winners have been privately bred +by their owners. Many persons breed for sale, in some cases +sparing no expense or trouble in the endeavour to secure good +results, and yearlings sold by auction have fetched prices of +from 10,000 guineas (paid for Sceptre, a daughter of Persimmon +and Ornament, in 1900) downwards; sums of over 1000 guineas +being frequently given. That so large a proportion of high-priced +yearlings should turn out failures is not at all a matter +for surprise, considering the uncertainties of the Turf, but it +by no means follows that a high-priced yearling is necessarily +an expensive animal; 5500 guineas was, for instance, given for +La Flèche, who won for her owner £34,585 in stakes, and, as +already observed, was subsequently sold for 12,600 guineas. +The principal yearling sales take place during the July meeting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span> +at Newmarket and the Doncaster meeting in September. There +are also sales at Ascot and elsewhere. The Royal Stud at Bushey +Park, where Memoir, La Flèche, Best Man and other good +animals were bred, has now been abandoned.</p> + +<p>In many cases trainers have graduated from jockeys. The +usual charge to an owner is 50s. a week per horse, but, as regards +the cost of a horse in training, to this there are various +additions irrespective of entrances to races, forfeits, +<span class="sidenote">Trainers and jockeys.</span> +travelling, jockey’s fees, &c. The recognized sum +paid to a jockey is 3 guineas for a losing mount, 5 +guineas for winning. In many cases special terms are made; +the principal owners usually have a claim on a rider’s services, +and for this call as much as £5000 per annum, exclusive of the +usual riding fees, has been given.</p> + +<p>From time immemorial until within a very recent period +jockeys rode in much the same style, though, of course, with +varying degrees of skill. Many hundreds of boys exercise daily +at Newmarket and other training grounds, all of them necessarily +having a firm seat in the saddle, for the thoroughbred horse is, +as a rule, high-couraged and apt to play violent tricks; but +though most of these lads find chances to distinguish themselves +in trials and races for apprentices, probably not 5% grow +into professional jockeys, increasing weight keeping many from the +business, as a jockey has few chances unless he can ride well +under 9 stone. Knowledge of pace is a rare gift or acquisition +which is essential to successful jockeyship. The rider must +also be quick to perceive how his own horse is going—what he +has “left in him”; he must understand at a glance which of +his rivals are beaten and which are still likely to be dangerous; +must know when the moment comes for the supreme effort to +be made, and how to balance and prepare the horse for that +critical struggle. At the beginning of the race the jockey used +to stand in his stirrups, with the idea of removing weight from +the horse’s back and preserving perfect steadiness; towards the +end of the race, if it were necessary to drive the animal home, +he sat down “to finish.”</p> + +<p>This method used to be adopted in all countries, but recently +a new system came into practice in America. Instead of putting +the saddle in the middle of the horse’s back, where it had always +been placed previously, it was shifted forward on to the animal’s +withers. The jockey rode with very short stirrups, leaning +forward over the neck and grasping the reins within a few +inches of the horse’s mouth. The appearance of this was ungainly +in the extreme and an entire departure from ancient ways +(though Fordham and a few other riders of great reputation had +always sat much more forward than their contemporaries), +but it was found to be remarkably effective. From the position +thus adopted there was less resistance to the wind, and though +the saving in this respect was largely exaggerated, in racing, +where success or failure is frequently a matter of a very few inches, +every little that helps is to be considered. The value of the +discovery lay almost entirely in the fact that the horse carries +weight better—and is therefore able to stride out more freely—when +it is placed well forward on his shoulders. With characteristic +conservatism the English were slow to accept the +new plan. Several American jockeys, however, came to England. +In all the main attributes of horsemanship there was no reason +to believe that they were in the least superior to English jockeys, +but their constant successes required explanation, and the only +way to account for them appeared to be that horses derived a +marked advantage from the new system of saddling. A number +of English riders followed the American lead, and those who +did so met with an unusual degree of success. Race-riding, indeed, +was in a very great measure revolutionized in the closing +years of the 19th century.</p> + +<p>Of late years American horses—bred, it must always be +remembered, from stock imported from England—have won +many races in England. Australian horses have also +been sent to the mother country, with results remunerative +<span class="sidenote">Foreign horses.</span> +to their owners, and the intermixture of +blood which will necessarily result should have beneficial consequences. +French horses—<i>i.e.</i> horses bred in France from +immediate or from more or less remote English parentage—have +also on various occasions distinguished themselves on +English race-courses. That coveted trophy, the Ascot Cup, was +won by a French horse, Elf II., in 1898, it having fallen also to +the French-bred Verneuil in 1878, to Boiard in 1874, to Henry in +1872 and to Mortemer in 1871. In the Cesarewitch Plaisanterie +(3 yrs., 7 st. 8 ℔) and Ténébreuse (4 yrs., 8 st. 12 ℔) were successful +in 1885 and 1888; and Plaisanterie also carried off the +Cambridgeshire as a three-year-old with the heavy weight of +8 st. 12 ℔ in a field of 27 runners. In most respects racing +in France is conducted with praiseworthy discrimination. There +are scarcely any of the five- and six-furlong scrambles for horses +over two years old which are such common features of English +programmes.</p> + +<p>That the horses who have covered various distances in the +shortest times on record must have been exceptionally speedy +animals is obvious. The times of races, however, +frequently form a most deceptive basis in any attempt +<span class="sidenote">Time.</span> +to gauge the relative capacity of horses. A good animal will +often win a race in bad time, for the reason that his opponents +are unable to make him exert himself to the utmost. Not seldom +a race is described as having been “won in a canter,” and +this necessarily signifies that if the winner had been harder +pressed he would have completed the course more quickly. +The following figures show the shortest times that had been +occupied in winning over various distances up to the spring +of 1910:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">M.</td> <td class="tcr">S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm cl">Five furlongs</td> <td class="tcl cl">Mirida (2 years), Epsom, 1905<br />Le Buff (aged), Epsom, 1903<br />Master Willie (aged), Epsom, 1903</td> <td class="tcrm cl">0</td> <td class="tcrm cl">56<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Six furlongs</td> <td class="tcl">Master Willie (5 years), Epsom, 1901</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">7<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Seven furlongs</td> <td class="tcl cl">Vav (4 years), Epsom, 1907</td> <td class="tcr cl">1</td> <td class="tcr cl">20<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mile</td> <td class="tcl">Caiman (4 years), Lingfield, 1900</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">33<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Mile and a quarter</td> <td class="tcl cl">Housewife (3 years), Brighton, 1904</td> <td class="tcr cl">2</td> <td class="tcr cl">1<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mile and a half</td> <td class="tcl">Zinfandel (3 years), Manchester, 1903</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">28<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Mile and three quarters</td> <td class="tcl cl">Golden Measure (4 years), York, 1906</td> <td class="tcr cl">2</td> <td class="tcr cl">57<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Two miles</td> <td class="tcl">Pradella (aged), Ascot, 1906</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">19<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Two miles and a half</td> <td class="tcl cl">Bachelor’s Button, Ascot, 1906</td> <td class="tcr cl">4</td> <td class="tcr cl">23<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Three miles</td> <td class="tcl">Corrie Roy, Ascot, 1884</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">9 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It may be noted that, as compared with similar records in 1901, +only three of these latter held good in 1910, <i>i.e.</i> the mile, the six furlongs +and the three miles. The fastest times over a mile and a half +(the Derby and Oaks distance) up to 1901 may be repeated here as +of some interest: Avidity, 2 min. 30<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> secs., in September 1901 at +Doncaster; Santoi, 2 min. 31 secs., in May 1901 at Hurst Park; +King’s Courier, 2 min. 31 secs., in 1900 at Hurst Park; Landrail, +2 min. 34 secs., in September 1899 at Doncaster; Carbiston, 2 min. +37<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> secs., in August 1899 at York; Bend Or, 2 min. 40 secs., in 1881 +at Epsom (gold cup): Volodyovski won the Derby in 1901, and +Memoir the Oaks in 1890, in 2 min. 40<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> secs.</p> +</div> + +<p>As regards time in famous races, Ormonde, perhaps the best +horse of the 19th century—one, at any rate, that can scarcely +have had a superior—occupied 2 minutes 45<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> seconds in winning +the Derby; and Lonely, one of the worst mares that have won +the Oaks, galloped the same mile and a half in 2 seconds less. +Ormonde’s St Leger time was 3 m. 21<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> s., and Sir Visto, one of +the poorest specimens of a winner of the great Doncaster race, +took 3 m. 18<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> s. The regulation of the weight to be carried +serves to “bring the horses together,” as the popular sporting +phrase runs—that is to say, it equalizes their chances of +winning; hence handicaps, the carrying of penalties by winners +of previous races, and the granting of “maiden allowances.” +A horse that has never won a race, and is therefore known as a +“maiden,” often has an allowance of as much as 7 ℔ made in +its favour.</p> + +<p>Sport is carried on under the auspices of the Jockey Club, a self-elected +body of the highest standing, whose powers are absolute +and whose sway is judicious and beneficent. Three +stewards, one of whom retires each year, when a +<span class="sidenote">The Jockey Club.</span> +successor is nominated, govern the active—and extremely +arduous—work of the club. They grant licences +to trainers and jockeys and all officials, and supervise the +whole business of racing. The stewards of the Jockey Club +are <i>ex officio</i> stewards of Ascot, Epsom, Goodwood and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span> +Doncaster. All other meetings are controlled by stewards, +usually well-known patrons of the Turf invited to act by +the projectors of the fixture, who settle disputed points, hear +and adjudicate on objections, &c., and, if special difficulties +arise, report to the stewards of the Jockey Club, whose decision +is final.</p> + +<p>Steeplechasing has altered entirely since the first introduction +of this essentially British sport. In early days men were +accustomed to match their hunters against each other +and ride across country to a fixed point near to some +<span class="sidenote">Steeplechasing.</span> +steeple which guided them on their way; and this is +no doubt, in several respects, a class of sport superior to that now +practised under the name of steeplechasing; for it tested the +capacity of the horse to jump fences of all descriptions, and +provided the rider with opportunities of showing his readiness and +skill in picking the best line of country. But racing of this kind +afforded spectators a very small chance of watching the struggle; +and made-up steeplechase courses, the whole circuit of which +could be viewed from the enclosures, came into existence. +The steeplechase horse has also changed. The speed of the +thoroughbred is so much greater than that of all other breeds +that if one were in the field, if he only stood up and could jump +a little, his success was certain; consequently, except in “point-to-point” +races, organized by various hunts, where a qualification +is that all starters must have been regularly ridden with +hounds, few other than thoroughbred horses are nowadays +ever found in races run under the rules of the National Hunt +Committee, the body which governs the sport of steeplechasing. +A considerable proportion of existing steeplechase horses have +done duty on the flat. Members of certain equine families +display a special aptitude for jumping; thus the descendants +of Hermit, who won the Derby in 1867, are very frequently +successful in steeplechases—Hermit’s son Ascetic, the sire +of Cloister, Hidden Mystery and other good winners, is a notable +case in point. The sons and daughters of Timothy and of several +other Hermit horses often jump well. When a flat-race horse +appears to have comparatively poor prospects of winning under +Jockey Club rules, he is frequently, if he “looks like jumping,” +schooled for steeplechasing, generally in the first place over +hurdles, and subsequently over what is technically called “a +country,” beginning with small fences, over which he canters, led +by some steady animal who is to be depended on to show the way. +A great many steeplechase horses also come from Ireland. They +are usually recognizable as thoroughbred, though it is possible +that in some cases the name of an ancestor may be missing from +the Stud Book. Irish horse-masters are for the most part particularly +skilful in schooling jumpers, and the grass and climate of +Ireland appear to have beneficial effects on young stock; +but, as a rule, the imported Irish horse improves considerably +in an English training-stable, where he is better fed +and groomed than in most Irish establishments. All steeplechase +courses must at the present time contain certain regulation +jumps, the nature of which is specified in the National +Hunt rules:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>44. In all steeplechase courses there shall be at least twelve +fences (exclusive of hurdles) in the first 2 m., and at least six fences +in each succeeding m. There shall be a water jump at least 12 ft. +wide and 2 ft. deep, to be left open, or guarded only by a perpendicular +fence not exceeding 2 ft. in height. There shall be in each m. +at least one ditch 6 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep on the taking-off side of +the fence, which ditch may be guarded by a single rail, or left open, +and which fence must be 4 ft. 6 in. in height, and, if of dead brushwood +or gorse, 2 ft. in width.</p> + +<p>45. In all hurdle-race courses there shall be not less than eight +flights of hurdles in the first 2 m., with an additional flight of hurdles +for every quarter of a m. or part of one beyond that distance, the +height of the hurdles being not less than 3 ft. 6 in. from the bottom +bar to the top bar.</p> +</div> + +<p>Natural fences would no doubt be desirable if they could be +utilized; but it is obvious that fences must be made up, because +when the same hedge is jumped frequently, and for the most +part in the same place—as it is the object of riders to go the +shortest way round—gaps would necessarily be made. The use of +these made courses naturally renders the sport somewhat +artificial, but under existing conditions this is unavoidable; +and as a matter of fact, by reason of the conformation of the +ground, the arrangement and make of the fences, courses do vary +in no small degree. The steeplechase horse differs from the +hunter in his method of jumping. In riding to hounds a man +usually steadies his horse at a fence, and in almost every case +the animal “dwells” more or less after the leap. In a steeplechase, +where speed is everything, horses must be taught to dash +resolutely at their jumps without hesitation, and to get away +with no pause on the other side; as a rule, therefore, an old +steeplechase horse who is employed as a hunter is rarely a pleasant +mount for any but a bold rider. It has been remarked that +steeplechase horses are usually in the first place schooled over +hurdles, and many animals remain hurdle racers till the end. +More speed is required for hurdles than for a steeplechase course, +and there is more money to be won over hurdles than over “a +country.” No hurdle race is worth so much as the Grand +National or the Lancashire Handicap Steeplechase, the two +richest prizes now offered; but, with the exception of these, +hurdle-race stakes are as a rule of greater value. Except as a +spectacle, there is little to be said in defence of this mongrel +business, which is neither one thing nor the other; but hurdle +races are popular and are therefore likely to continue. A few +years ago an attempt was made to discriminate between what +were called “hunters” and handicap steeplechase horses, and +certain races were only open to the former class. It proved, +however, to be a distinction without a difference; thoroughbred +horses crept into the ranks of the so-called hunters, and when +nominal hunters began to be entered for, and in some cases to +win, the Grand National and other important steeplechases, +for which they could be nominated by abandoning their qualification +of hunter, the meaningless title was relinquished. Still more +absurd were the hunters’ flat races of a former day. In order to +compete in these the rule was that an owner must produce a +certificate from a master of hounds to the effect that his horse +had been hunted. Thoroughbreds who lacked speed to win +under Jockey Club rules used to be ridden to a meet, perhaps +cantered across a field or two, and were then supposed to have +become hunters. Animals who were genuinely and regularly +utilized for the pursuit of foxes had of course no chance against +these race-horses in shallow disguise. What are called National +Hunt flat races still exist, the qualification being that a horse +must have been placed first, second or third in a steeplechase +in Great Britain or Ireland, after having jumped all the fences +and completed the whole distance of the race to the satisfaction +of at least two of the stewards, to whom previous notice +must have been given in writing. There are no handicaps +for such animals, and none is allowed to carry less than +11 stone. No race under National Hunt rules can be of a +shorter distance than 2 m., except for three-year-olds, who +sometimes run a mile and a half over hurdles; and the +lowest weight carried can never be less than 10 stone except in +a handicap steeplechase of 3½ m. or upwards, when it may be +9 st. 7 ℔.</p> + +<p>Horses are ridden in these races either by gentlemen, or +qualified riders or jockeys. The first of these classes comprises +officers on full pay in the army or navy, persons holding commissions +under the Crown, bearing titles either in their own +right or by courtesy, or members of certain social and racing +clubs. Qualified riders may be farmers holding at least a +hundred acres of land, their sons if following the same occupation, +and persons elected by members of the National Hunt Committee, +a proviso being that they must never have ridden for +hire; but it is feared that this rule is in not a few cases evaded. +Professional jockeys are paid £5 for each mount or £10 if they +win. The sport is governed by the National Hunt Committee, +a body which receives delegated powers from the Jockey Club, +and six stewards are elected every year to supervise the business +of the various meetings. Steeplechases and hurdle races are +either handicaps or weight-for-age races according to the following +scale:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="3"><i>For Steeplechases of 3 miles and upwards.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">10 st. 3 ℔</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 8 ℔</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 ℔</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">11 st.</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 12 ℔</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 ℔</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="3"><i>For Steeplechases of less than 3 miles.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">10 st. 10 ℔</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 10 lb</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 ℔</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">11 st. 6 ℔</td> <td class="tcc">12 st.</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 ℔</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="3"><i>For Hurdle Races.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of January to the 31st of August, inclusive:—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">11 st. 6 ℔</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 10 ℔</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 0 ℔</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of September to the 31st of December, inclusive:—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">3 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5, 6, and aged</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">10 st. 7 ℔</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 12 ℔</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 ℔</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The great test of merit in a steeplechase horse is success in the +Grand National, which is always run at Liverpool during the +first week of the flat-racing season. The course is +4½ m., and includes thirty jumps, the fences being for +<span class="sidenote">The Grand National.</span> +the most part larger than are found elsewhere. The +average time occupied is well under ten minutes. The stake has +varied in value since the race was originated in 1839; it now +amounts to close on £2500. Only a very small percentage of +steeplechase horses possess the speed and staying power to give +them a chance in this race, and the number of entries year by +year falls considerably short of a hundred, the prospects of +many of these usually appearing hopeless to all but unduly +sanguine owners. The average number of starters during the +period 1860-1901 was rather over twenty. As many as thirty-two +competed in 1909, when the French-bred Latteur III. won; in +1883, when Zoedone, ridden by her owner, Count Kinsky, was successful, +only ten went to the post. Mishaps are almost invariably +numerous; in most years about one-third complete the course. +So severe is the task that for a long time many good judges of +steeplechasing believed that no horse with more than 12 stone +on his back could possibly win. In 1893, however, Cloister won +in a canter by forty lengths carrying 12 st. 7 ℔, and with the +same weight Manifesto also won in 1899. The race which most +nearly approaches the Grand National in importance is the +Lancashire Handicap Steeplechase, run at Manchester over 3½ m. +early in April. The stake is worth about £1750. An interesting +steeplechase called the Grand Sefton takes place at Liverpool +about the middle of November; the distance is 3 m. During +the winter, and extending into the spring, steeplechasing and +hurdle racing are carried on at Sandown, Kempton, Gatwick, +Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park; at Ludlow, Newmarket, +Aldershot, Birmingham, Manchester, Windsor and other places. +A race called the National Hunt Steeplechase, under the immediate +patronage of the National Hunt Committee, is run annually +over a 4-mile course, the stake being £1000. Managers of +various courses bid for the privilege of having the race on their +ground, and it is therefore found in different localities. A condition +is that no horse who has ever won a race can compete; +and, as few owners are willing to keep their animals with a +view to success in this event, the field consists either of unknown +horses or of those that have been beaten.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center sc">Australia</p> + +<p>Racing in Australia has its headquarters at Sydney, under the +government of the Australian Jockey Club, the principal course being +at Ranwick; and at Melbourne, where the Victoria Jockey Club is +supreme, the principal course being at Flemington. In New Zealand +sport is carried on under the authority of delegates from the chief +racing clubs, who meet in conference. There is a Sydney Derby +and a Victoria Derby, and a notable event at Flemington is the +Champion Race, weight-for-age, for three-year-olds and upwards, +which usually attracts the best horses in training, as the fee at +which a sire stands depends in a great measure on his success in this +contest. This race is over a distance of 3 m., and to ensure a good +pace there is a regulation that the time in which it is run must not +exceed 5 minutes 40 seconds, though the stewards have power to +extend this in case the ground should be made exceptionally heavy +by rainy weather. The Melbourne Cup is regarded as one of the +most important races in the state. This is a handicap, and in comparison +with English races may perhaps be ranked with the Cesarewitch. +The birth of horses dates from the 1st of August, which +corresponds as nearly as possible to the 1st of February in England, +so that the Australian horses are practically seven months younger +than the English—a matter of some importance in the case of those +sent to run in England. There are few races which close long before +the date of decision, and practically all the good animals run in +handicaps. The five- and six-furlong races for other than two-year-olds, +so common in Great Britain, are extremely rare; and it is +asserted by colonial sportsmen that their horses stay better than +those bred in England, a circumstance which is largely attributed +to the fact that mares and foals have much more liberty and exercise +than is the case in the mother country.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">United States</p> + +<p>Horse-racing was indulged in to a limited extent in Maryland +and Virginia as early as the middle of the 17th century, particularly +in the latter colony. Most of the inhabitants of both were +either from the British Isles or were descended from parents who +had immigrated from them, and they inherited a taste for the +sport. The animals used for this purpose, however, were not +highly prized at the time, and the pedigree of not even one of +them has been preserved. A horse called Bully Rock by the +Darley Arabian out of a mare by the Byerly Turk, granddam by +the Lister Turk, great-granddam a royal mare, foaled 1718, +is the first recorded importation of a thoroughbred horse into +America. He was imported into Virginia in 1730. In 1723 the +duke of Bolton bred a mare named Bonny Lass by his celebrated +horse Bay Bolton out of a daughter of the Darley Arabian. +She became celebrated in England as a brood mare, and was the +first thoroughbred mare, according to the records, that was +carried to America. This is supposed to have been in or after +1740, as the <i>Stud-Book</i> shows she produced in England after +1739 a filly by Lord Lonsdale’s Arabian, and subsequently became +familiar to the public as the granddam of Zamora. The importations +increased very rapidly from this period, and many +valuable shipments were made before the war which resulted in +a separation of the colonies from the mother country. This +acquisition of thoroughbred stock increased the number and +value of racing prizes, and extended the area of operations into +the Carolinas in the South, and New Jersey and New York in +the North. The first race run in South Carolina was in February +1734 for £20. It took place over “the Green,” on Charleston +Neck. This shows that the earlier races in America were actually +on the turf, as they have always been in England. The next +year a Jockey Club was organized at Charleston (1735), and a +course was prepared, such as those which came later into general +use throughout the states, the turf being removed and the +ground made as level as possible.</p> + +<p>After 1776, when the United States declared their independence +of Great Britain, the importation of thoroughbred horses from +England became quite common, and selections were made from +the best stocks in the United Kingdom. This continued and +even increased as the country became developed, down to 1840. +The following Derby winners were among those carried into +the states: Diomed, who won the first Derby in 1780; Saltram, +winner in 1783; John Bull, winner in 1792; Spread Eagle, +winner in 1795; Sir Harry, winner in 1798; Archduke, winner +in 1799; and Priam, who won in 1830. The most important and +valuable importations, however, proved to be Jolly Roger, +Fearnought, Medley, Traveller, Diomed, Glencoe, Leviathan, +Tranby, Lexington, Margrave, Yorkshire Buzzard, Albion +and Leamington. The best results were obtained from Diomed +and Glencoe. Diomed sired one horse, Sir Archy, who founded +a family to which nearly all the blood horses of America trace +back. He was foaled in 1805, in Virginia, and became celebrated +as a sire. The superiority of his progeny was so generally conceded +that they were greatly sought after. From this period, too, +the number and value of races increased; still they were comparatively +few in number, and could not compare in value with +those of Great Britain. Up to 1860 the value of racing prizes +was quite inadequate to develop large breeding establishments, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span> +or to sustain extensive training stables. Then the civil war +between the North and the South broke out, which raged for +four years. Breeding establishments were broken up during +that time; the horses were taken by the armies for cavalry +purposes, for which service they were highly prized; and racing +was completely paralysed. It took some time to regain its +strength; but an era of prosperity set in about 1870, and since +then the progress in interest has been continuous.</p> + +<p>In the United States interest in trotting races more than rivals +that felt in the contests of thoroughbred horses. This interest +dates back to the importation to Philadelphia from England, +in 1788, of the thoroughbred horse Messenger, a grey stallion, +by Mambrino, 1st dam by Turf, 2nd dam by Regulus, 3rd dam +by Starling, 4th dam by Fox, 5th dam Gipsey, by Bay Bolton, +6th dam by duke of Newcastle’s Turk, 7th dam by Byerly Turk, +8th dam by Taffolet Barb, 9th dam by Place’s White Turk. +He was eight years old when imported to the United States. +He was at the stud for twenty years, in the vicinity of Philadelphia +and New York, serving a number of thoroughbred mares, +but a far greater number of cold-blooded mares, and in the +progeny of the latter the trotting instinct was almost invariably +developed, while his thoroughbred sons, who became scattered +over the country, were also noted for transmitting the trotting +instinct. The first public trotting race of which there is any +account in the United States was in 1818, when the grey gelding +Boston Blue was matched to trot a mile in 3 minutes, a feat +deemed impossible; but he won, though the time of his performance +has not been preserved. From about that date interest in +this gait began to increase; breeders of trotters sprang up, and +horses were trained for trotting contests. The problem of +breeding trotters has been necessarily found to be a much more +complex one than that of breeding the thoroughbred, as in the +latter case pure blood lines of long recognized value could be +relied upon, while in the former the best results were constantly +being obtained from most unexpected sources. Among the +leading families came to be the Hambletonian, of which the +modern head was Rysdyk’s Hambletonian, a bay horse foaled +in 1849, got by Abdallah (traced to imp. Messenger on the side +of both sire and dam) out of the Charles Kent mare, by imp. +(<i>i.e.</i> imported) Bellfounder, with two crosses to imp. Messenger +on her dam’s side; the Mambrinos, whose modern head was +Mambrino Chief, foaled 1844, by Mambrino Paymaster, a +grandson of imp. Messenger; the Bashaws, founded by Young +Bashaw, foaled 1822, by Grand Bashaw, an Arabian horse, +dam Pearl, by First Consul; the Clays, springing from Henry +Clay, a grandson of Young Bashaw through Andrew Jackson; +the Stars, springing from Stockholm’s American Star, by Duroc, +son of imp. Diomed; the Morgans, whose founder was Justin +Morgan, foaled 1793, by a horse called True Briton, or Beautiful +Bay, who was probably thoroughbred; the Black Hawks, a +branch of the Morgan family; the Blue Bulls, descended from +Doyle’s Blue Bull, foaled 1855, a pacer, sired by a pacer of the +same name, dam by Blacknose, son of Medoc; the Canadians, +whose best representatives were St Lawrence and pacing Pilot, +horses of unknown pedigree; the Gold Dusts, another branch +of the Morgan family; and the Royal Georges, springing from +Tippoo, a horse who was probably by Ogden’s Messenger, son +of imp. Messenger. But trotters of great speed have been produced +which do not trace to any of the sources mentioned. Very +large prices are paid. Steinway, a three-year-old colt, was sold +in 1879, to go to California, for $13,000; and in 1878 $21,000 +was paid for the four-year-old filly Maud S., after she had trotted +a mile in public in 2 m. 17½ s. Much larger sums have been paid, +however, for matured trotters, such as $40,000 for the stallion +Smuggler, $38,000 for Pocahontas, $35,000 for Dexter, $36,000 +for Rarus, and long prices for many others; St Julien, the +trotter with the fastest record at the close of 1879, was held at +$50,000, while Rysdyk’s Hambletonian, Messenger Duroc and +Volunteer were valued, in their prime, at $100,000 each.</p> + +<p>Compared with the early days of American trotting, the +advance has been rapid and the changes marked. After the +performance of Boston Blue, mentioned above, more attention +was paid to the gait, but for a long time the races were generally +under saddle, and at long distances, 3 m. being rather the +favourite. The best of the old time trotters were Edwin Forrest, +who trotted a mile in 2 m. 31½ s. in 1834; Dutchman, who did +3 m. under saddle in 7 m. 32½ s.; Ripton; Lady Suffolk, who +trotted a mile in 2 m. 26½ s. in 1843, and headed the list of +performers; Mac, Tacony, &c. After 1850, however, the taste of +the people settled upon the style of race called “mile heats, best +three out of five, in harness” as the favourite. By “in harness” +is meant that the horse draws a sulky, a light two-wheeled +vehicle in which the driver sits close to the horse, with his legs +on each side of his flanks. These sulkies often weigh less than +40 ℔. The driver is required to weigh, with the blanket on +which he sits, 150 ℔, while for saddle races the regulation weight +is 145 ℔, or 10 st. 5 ℔. Each heat of a mile is a separate race; +20 minutes is allowed between heats; and the horse that first +places three heats to his credit wins the race. There are various +penalties imposed upon a horse that breaks into a run in a trotting +race. The driver is required to pull him to a trot as quickly as +possible; if the horse gains by running, the judges set him back +at the finish twice the distance he has gained, in their estimation, +by running; and for repeated “breaks” they can declare him +distanced. The first-class tracks are of oval shape, with long +stretches and easy curves, measuring 1 m. at 3 ft. distance from +the “pole,” as the inner railing of the track is called. The time +in which the leading horse trots each heat is accurately kept, +placed on a blackboard in front of the judges’ stand for the +information of the public, and also placed in the book of the +course. The fastest time that any trotter has is thus entered +as his “record.” This is one of the distinctive features of +trotting in America.</p> + +<p>Prior to 1866 purses for trotters were small; match races were +more in vogue, and the trotting turf was in bad odour. In that +year an association was formed at Buffalo, N.Y., which inaugurated +its efforts by offering the then unprecedented sum +of $10,500 for a trotting meeting of four days’ duration. The +experiment was successful; other cities followed the example +of Buffalo; larger and larger purses were given; and at Buffalo +in 1872 the prizes amounted to $70,000. Since then the amount +offered in the United States and Canada, during a single year, +has reached $1,500,000. Individual trotters, in the course of a +long turf career, earn enormous amounts. A remarkable instance +of this was the mare Goldsmith Maid, by Alexander’s Abdallah +(a son of Rysdyk’s Hambletonian), out of an Abdallah mare. +She began trotting in 1866, and left the turf in 1878, when twenty-one +years old, and her winnings amounted to over $200,000.</p> + +<p>In 1869 the National Trotting Association was formed, under +which an elaborate code of rules has been published.</p> + +<p>In trotting races, it will be noted, the time test is supreme, +differing from running races, in which time is of comparatively +little consequence. The animal which has the fastest record for +1 mile in harness is, until deposed, the king or queen of the trotting +turf. Lady Suffolk, with her record of 2 m. 26½ s., in 1843, held +this honour until 1853, when Tacony trotted in 2 m. 25½ s. under +saddle; Flora Temple wrested it from him in 1856 by trotting in +2 m. 24½ s. in harness. This latter mare, in 1859, trotted a mile +in 2 m. 19¾ s., a feat which the best horsemen thought would +never be repeated, but since that time forty-two trotters have +beaten 2 m. 20 s. Dexter’s record was 2 m. 17¼ s. in 1867, and +Goldsmith Maid’s in 1871 was 2 m. 17 s., which she reduced, by +successive efforts, to 2 m. 16¾ s., 2 m. 16 s., 2 m. 15 s., 2 m. 14¾ s., +and finally, in 1874, to 2 m. 14 s. In 1878 Rarus trotted a mile +in 2 m. 13¼ s., and in October 1879 the bay gelding St Julien, +by Volunteer, son of Rysdyk’s Hambletonian, dam by Henry +Clay, trotted a mile in California in 2 m. 12¾ s. Other notable +performances reducing the record were Maud S. in 1881, 2 m. +10¼ s.; Maud S. in 1885, 2 m. 8¾ s.; Sunol in 1891, 2 m. 8¼ s.; +Nancy Hanks in 1892, 2 m. 4 s.; Alix in 1894, 2 m. 3¾ s.; +Cresceus in 1901, 2 m. 2¼ s.; Lou Dillon in 1905, 1 m. 58½ s. Improved +times have doubtless been the result of improved methods, +as well as of care in the breeding of the trotter. Some very severe +training rules used to be sedulously observed; about 1870, for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span> +instance, a horse never had water the night before a race, and +the system generally appears to have overtaxed the animal’s +strength. A prominent consideration in trotting races is the +adjustment of toe-weights, which are fastened on to the horses’ +feet to equalize their action, and it is found that horses improve +their time to the extent of several seconds when properly +shod.</p> + +<p>Pacing races are also frequent in the United States. In trotting +the action may be described as diagonal; the pacer moves both +legs on the same side at the same time, and both feet stride as +one. A similar “gait,” to employ the American term, was called +in England some centuries ago an “amble.” The pacer moves +more easily and with apparently less exertion than the trotter, +and the mile record (made by Prince Alert in 1903) stands at +1 m. 57 s.</p> + +<p>Owing to the vast size of the country there are various centres +of sport, which can be classified with reasonable accuracy as +follows: the Eastern States, dominated by the Jockey Club, +founded in New York in 1894, and recognized by a state law in +1895; the Middle Western States, under the control of the +Western Jockey Club, whose headquarters are in Chicago; +the Pacific Coast, with San Francisco for its centre; and the +Southern and South-Western States, with Louisville as the most +important centre. The passage of the racing law in New York +State marked the opening of a new era. Supreme even over the +Jockey Club is a State Racing Commission of three, appointed +by the governor of the state. While the Jockey Club is only +recognized by law in its native state, it has assumed and maintains +control of all racing on the eastern seaboard, within certain lines +of latitude and longitude, extending as far north as the Canadian +border and south to Georgia. There is small question that +other states, both east and west, will follow suit and enact +similar laws. The Western Jockey Club, though not recognized +by law, controls practically all the racing through the middle +west, south-west and south; but the racing associations of the +Pacific Coast have maintained a position of independence.</p> + +<p>What New York is to the east, Chicago is to the middle west, +and a very large proportion of American racing is conducted +close to these centres. In New York State the Coney Island +Jockey Club, at Sheepshead Bay; the Brooklyn Jockey Club, +at Gravesend; the Westchester Racing Association, at Morris +Park; the Brighton Beach Racing Association, at Brighton +Beach; the Queen’s County Jockey Club, at Aqueduct; and +the Saratoga Racing Association, at Saratoga, are the leading +organizations; and all these race-courses, with the exception +of Saratoga, are within a radius of 20 miles of the city. The +Empire City Jockey Club, near Yonkers, and another club with +headquarters near Jamaica, Long Island, have also become +prominent institutions. The Washington Park Club, at Chicago, +is the leading Turf body of the west, and the only one on an +equal footing with the prominent associations of New York +State. With this single exception the most important and valuable +stakes of the American Turf are given in the east; and +so great has the prosperity of the Turf been since the Jockey +Club came into existence that the list of rich prizes is growing +at a surprising rate. In this respect the principal fault is the +undue encouragement given to the racing of two-year-olds. +At the winter meetings held at New Orleans and San Francisco, +two-year-olds are raced from the very beginning of the year; +and under the rules of the Jockey Club of New York they run +as early as March. The Westchester Racing Association, with +which are closely identified some of the principal members of +the Jockey Club, gives valuable two-year-old stakes in May. +The Futurity Stakes, the richest event of the year—on one +occasion it reached a value of $67,675—is for two-year-olds, +and is run at Sheepshead Bay in the autumn. The institution +of races, either absolutely or practically at weight-for-age, +and over long courses, has engaged much attention. The +Coney Island Jockey Club has the leading three-year-old stake +in the Lawrence Realization, over 1 mile 5 furlongs, with an +average value of about $30,000. The Westchester Racing +Association’s two principal three-year-old stakes, the Withers, +over a mile, run in May, and the Belmont, 1 mile and 3 furlongs, +run later in the same month, are of less value, but are much +older-established and have a species of “classic” prestige, +dating from the old Jerome Park race-course in the ’sixties. The +Coney Island Jockey Club’s Century and the Annual Champion +Stakes, both for three-year-olds and upwards, over a mile and +a half and two miles and a quarter respectively, are fair specimens +of the races the associations have founded. At Saratoga a +stake of $50,000 for three-year-olds and upwards, distance +a mile and a quarter, was opened, and run for first in 1904. +The hope is to wean owners from the practice of overtaxing +their two-year-olds, which has resulted practically in a positive +dearth, almost a total absence, of good four-year-olds and +upwards of late years. Handicaps play a more important part +than in England. The principal events of this character, such +as the Brooklyn Handicap at Gravesend and the Suburban at +Sheepshead Bay, have for years drawn the largest attendances +of the racing season.</p> + +<p>Practically all flat racing in the United States is held on +“dirt-tracks,” <i>i.e.</i> courses with soil specially prepared for +racing, instead of turf courses. At Sheepshead Bay there is +a turf course, but it is only used for a minority of races. Dirt-tracks, +which are, like many other things in American racing, +a legacy from the once hugely popular harness-racing, are +conducive to great speed, but are costly in the extreme strain +on horses’ legs. Steeplechases are run on turf. This branch +of the sport in the east is now flourishing under the administration +of the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association, a sister +body of the Jockey Club. Comparatively few races are, however, +run under these rules, as the weather conditions render it impossible +to have a separate season for cross-country sport and +steeplechases, and hurdle races are incorporated in programmes +of flat racing held through the spring, summer and autumn, +though the ground is frequently so hard as to be unsafe. +Since the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association assumed +control, regulation courses, practically similar in every respect +to those used in England, have been insisted upon in the east, +the “open ditch” figuring under the name of the “Liverpool.” +In the west and south there is not the same uniformity, and so +far the sport has not flourished.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">France</p> + +<p>Racing in France as conducted on modern lines may be said +to date from the year 1833, when the French <i>Stud-Book</i> was +originated, and a body formed, somewhat after the model of +the English Jockey Club, under the title of the Société d’Encouragement +pour l’Amélioration des Races de Chevaux en +France. Races took place in the Champs de Mars, and an +unsuccessful attempt was made in 1834 to arrange for a course, +or “hippodrome,” as it is termed in France, at Maisons Laffitte. +Chantilly was, however, fixed upon as the principal racing centre; +on the 22nd April 1836 the first meeting was held there, with +five races on the card, the principal being the Prix d’Orléans, +a stake of 3500 francs, named after the due d’Orléans, one of +the chief promoters of the fixture. Next day the first race +for the Prix du Jockey Club was run, and won by Frank, the +property of Lord Henry Seymour, who was at the time taking a +very active part in French sport. The Prix du Jockey Club was +then worth 5000 francs; the value has since increased to 200,000 +francs. This race occupies in France the place of the English +Derby. The Prix de Diane, which corresponds to the English +Oaks, was first run in 1843. Chantilly still continues an important +centre of the French Turf, and a great many horses are trained +in the district. Attempts had been made to popularize racing +at Longchamps prior to the year 1856, when the Société d’Encouragement +obtained a lease, erected stands, laid out the +course, and held their first meeting on the 27th August 1857. +Next season two meetings were held, one of four days in the +spring and another of three in the autumn; at the present +time the sport is vigorously carried on from March to the end +of October, except during a summer recess. In 1857 meetings +under the auspices of the Société d’Encouragement began to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +take place at Amiens, Caen, Nantes, Versailles, Moulins and +other towns; and there were stakes for two-year-olds in the +spring, though of late years the appearance of the young horses +has been postponed to the 1st of August. Progress was rapid, +and in 1863 two important events were contested for the first +time, the Prix du Prince Impérial, which was designed to balance +the English St Leger, but for obvious reasons faded out of the +programme, and the Grand Prix de Paris, an international +race for three-year-olds, run at Longchamps over a distance +of 1 mile 7 furlongs, and now the most valuable stake in Europe. +In 1909 the prize was £14,071. The first Grand Prix fell to an +English horse, Mr Savile’s The Ranger; two years later it +was won by Gladiateur, winner of the English Derby and the +property of the comte de Lagrange, who raced equally in France +and in England; the duke of Beaufort’s Ceylon was successful +in 1866, and the marquis of Hastings’ Earl in 1868. Mr +Savile’s Cremorne followed up his Derby victory by a victory +at Longchamps in 1872, as did Mr Baltazzi’s Kisber four years +later. English horses were also victorious in 1874 (Mr W. R. +Marshall’s Trent), in 1878 (Prince Soltykoff’s Thurio), in 1880 +(Mr C. Brewer’s Robert the Devil), in 1881 (Mr Keene’s Foxhall, +who, however, should rather rank as an American horse), in 1882 +(Mr Rymill’s Bruce), in 1885 (Mr Cloete’s Paradox), in 1886 (Mr +Vyner’s Minting); and in 1906 Major Eustace Loder’s Derby +winner Spearmint. During the first 23 years of the Grand +Prix (owing to the war the race did not take place in 1871) +the stake fell to English horses—if Kisber and Foxhall +be included—on twelve occasions, and generally to English +jockeys. In recent years, however, French owners have held +their own. In not a few respects racing is managed more +judiciously than in England. The courses, for one thing, are +better tended and maintained. The five- and six-furlong races +for others than two-year-olds, which are so common at English +meetings, are comparatively rare in France, and the value of +the prizes in an average day’s racing is considerably higher +across the Channel than in England. A very large percentage +of trainers and jockeys are English, and the former are, as +a rule, quite as expert as at Newmarket and elsewhere. +Transatlantic methods have been introduced by American +jockeys since 1899. From the middle of February until the +middle of December a race meeting within easy reach of Paris +takes place almost every day, except during August, when the +sport is carried on in the provinces, notably at Deauville. Near +Paris, the chief centre after Longchamps is Maisons Laffitte. +At Longchamps, early in October, a race called the Prix du +Conseil Municipal, worth £4000, for three-year-olds and upwards, +over a mile and a half, was organized in 1893, and has usually +attracted English horses, Mr Wallace Johnstone’s Best Man +having been successful in 1894, and Mr Sullivan’s Winkfield’s +Pride the following year. Except when the Whip is challenged +for and the challenge decided over the Beacon Course at Newmarket, +no race is run in England over a longer distance than +two miles and 6 furlongs; but in France the Prix Gladiateur, of +£1200 and a work of art value £100, 3 miles 7 furlongs, creates +considerable interest at Longchamps in the autumn.</p> + +<p>The first recognized steeplechase in France took place +at Croix de Berny, and was won by the comte de Vaublanc’s +May-fly, all the horses at that time being ridden +by gentlemen. Sport does not seem to have been +<span class="sidenote">Steeplechasing.</span> +carried on with much spirit, for it is said that the +death of an animal called Barcha, in 1839, nearly led to the +abandonment of the meeting; and it was not till 1863, +when the Société des Steeplechases de France was founded, +that the business was resolutely taken in hand. Gravelle and +Vincennes were the principal centres until 1873, when the +Société obtained possession of the ground at Auteuil, where +the excellent course now in use was laid out. In 1874 twelve +days’ racing took place here, the card each day including three +steeplechases and a hurdle race, the “hurdles,” however, being +small fences, as they are at present. The Grand Steeplechase +d’Auteuil was then for a stake of 30,000 francs, at the time +the most valuable offered in any country; but, as in racing +on the flat, the stakes have enormously increased in value, and +in 1901 the Paris Grand Steeplechase, as the chief event is now +called, credited the winner with £6020, the hurdle race being +worth rather more than half as much. In England there is +scarcely any steeplechasing between March and November, +except at hunt meetings, but in Paris cross-country sport is +pursued almost all through the year, the chief races at Auteuil +taking place in June, about the time of the Grand Prix, which is +usually run for between the English Epsom and Ascot meetings. +The Auteuil course is laid out in the shape of the figure 8, with +varied fences, several of which really test a horse’s jumping +capacity; and variety is further obtained by starting the fields +in different places and traversing the course in different ways. +St Ouen, a meeting within half an hour’s drive of the Louvre, +is entirely devoted to steeplechasing; and jumping is also +carried on at Vincennes, Colombes, Enghien, and elsewhere +near Paris, as also at Nice in the winter, at Dieppe and other +places in August. As a rule, the stakes run for, especially at +Auteuil, are very much larger than in England. There are none of +the clubs and special enclosures such as at Sandown, Kempton, +Hurst, Lingfield, Gatwick, &c., though portions of the stand +are set apart for privileged persons. A fee of 20 francs is +charged for admission to the chief French race-courses, with +half as much for a lady’s voucher, and the tickets give +access everywhere but to the very few reserved portions. At +Vincennes, St Cloud, and some other courses trotting races are +also contested.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Other Countries.</i>—Racing in Germany is mainly conducted under +the authority of the Union Club of Berlin, the principal course +being the Hoppegarten. Two-year-olds do not run until the 1st of +June, except in Saxony, where they appear a month earlier. During +the month of August there are several days’ racing at Baden-Baden, +steeplechases as well as flat races being run. Some of the more +valuable stakes are usually contested by a proportion of horses +from France and other countries, a few being occasionally sent +from England. For years past blood-stock has been imported from +England. In Austria the two centres of racing are Vienna and +Budapest, each of which has its Jockey Club. Racing in Belgium +derives no little support from the contiguity of the country to +France. The headquarters of the Belgium Jockey Club are in the +Bois de la Cambre at Boisfort, and meetings are held at Ostend, +Antwerp, Spa, Bruges and elsewhere. Steeplechases take place +at Groenenval and on other Belgian courses, but are not of high +class. Racing has not reached a great degree of excellence in Italy, +though attempts have been made to improve competitors by the +purchase of Melton, who won the Derby of 1885, and of other notable +animals. Meetings take place at Florence, Padua, Bologna and +other places, but the stakes are usually small.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. E. T. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSERADISH<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Meerrettig</i>; Fr. <i>raifort</i> = <i>racine forte</i>, +<i>cran de Bretagne</i>; Swed. <i>Peppar-rot</i>; Russ. <i>chren</i>), known +botanically as <i>Cochlearia Armoracia</i>, a perennial plant of the +natural order Cruciferae, having a stout cylindrical rootstock +from the crown of which spring large radical leaves on long +stalks, 4 to 6 in. broad, and about a foot in length with a deeply +crenate margin, and coarsely veined; the stem-leaves are short-stalked +or sessile, elongated and tapering to their attachment, +the lower ones often deeply toothed. The flowers, which appear +in May and June, are <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in width, in flat-topped panicles, with +purplish sepals and white petals; the fruit is a small silicula, +which does not ripen in the climate of England. The horseradish +is indigenous to eastern Europe. Into western Europe +and Great Britain, where it is to be met with on waste ground, +it was probably introduced. It was wild in various parts of +England in Gerard’s time.</p> + +<p>The root, the <i>armoraciae radix</i> of pharmacy, is ½ to 2 in. or +more in diameter, and commonly 1 ft., sometimes 3 ft. in +length; the upper part is enlarged into a crown, which is annulated +with the scars of fallen leaves; and from the numerous +irregular lateral branches are produced vertical stolons, and +also adventitious buds, which latter render the plant very +difficult of extirpation. From the root of Aconite (<i>q.v.</i>), which +has occasionally been mistaken for it, horseradish root differs +in being more or less cylindrical from a little below the crown, +and in its pale yellowish (or brownish) white hue externally, +acrid and penetrating odour when scraped or bruised, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span> +pungent and either sweetish or bitter taste. Under the influence +of a ferment which it contains, the fresh root yields on distillation +with water about .05% of a volatile oil, butyl sulphocyanide, +C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">9</span>CNS. After drying, the root has been found to afford +11.15% of ash. Horseradish root is an ingredient in the <i>spiritus +armoraciae compositus</i> (dose 1-2 drachms) of the British Pharmacopoeia. +It is an agreeable flavouring agent. In common with +other species of <i>Cochlearia</i>, the horseradish was formerly in high +repute as an antiscorbutic. The root was, as well as the leaves, +taken with food by the Germans in the middle ages, whence the +old French name for it, <i>moutarde des Allemands</i>; and Coles, +writing in 1657, mentions its use with meat in England, where it +is still chiefly employed as a condiment with beef.</p> + +<p>For the successful cultivation of the horseradish, a light and +friable damp soil is the most suitable; this having been trenched +3 ft. deep in autumn, and the surface turned down with a liberal +supply of farm-yard manure, a second dressing of decomposed +manure should in the ensuing spring be dug in 2 ft. deep, and +pieces of the root 6 in. in length may then be planted a foot apart +in narrow trenches. During summer the ground requires to be +kept free of weeds; and the application of liquid manure twice or +thrice in sufficient quantity to reach the lowest roots is an +advantage. When dug the root may be long preserved in good +condition by placing it in sand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gerard, <i>Herball</i>, p. 240, ed. Johnson (1636); Flückiger and +Hanbury, <i>Pharmacographia</i>, p. 71 (2nd ed., 1879); Bentley and +Trimen, <i>Med. Pl.</i>, i. 21 (1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSE-SHOES.<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> The horny casing of the foot of the horse +and other Solidungulates, while quite sufficient to protect the +extremity of the limb under natural conditions, is found to wear +away and break, especially in moist climates, when the animal +is subjected to hard work of any kind. This, however, can be +obviated by the simple device of attaching to the hoof a rim of +iron, adjusted to the shape of the hoof. The animal itself has +been in a very marked manner modified by shoeing, for without +this we could have had neither the fleet racers nor the heavy +and powerful cart-horses of the present day. Though the ancients +were sufficiently impressed by the damage done to horses’ +hoofs to devise certain forms of covering for them (in the shape +of socks or sandals), the practice of nailing iron plates or rim-shoes +to the hoof does not appear to have been introduced earlier than +the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was not commonly known till the close +of the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, or in regular use till the middle ages. +The evidence for the earlier date depends on the doubtful +interpretations of designs on coins, &c. As time went on, however, +the profession of the farrier and the art of the shoesmith +gradually grew in importance. It was only in the 19th century +that horse-shoeing was introduced in Japan, where the former +practice was to attach to the horse’s feet slippers of straw, +which were renewed when necessary, a custom which may +indicate the usage of early peoples. In modern times much +attention has been devoted to horse-shoeing by veterinary +science, with the result of showing that methods formerly +adopted caused cruel injury to horses and serious loss to their +owners. The evils resulted from (1) paring the sole and frog; +(2) applying shoes too heavy and of faulty shape; (3) employing +too many and too large nails; (4) applying shoes too small and +removing the wall of the hoof to make the feet fit the shoes, and +(5) rasping the front of the hoof. In rural districts, where the +art of the farrier is combined with general blacksmith work, +too little attention is apt to be given to considerations which have +an important bearing on the comfort, usefulness and life of the +horse. According to modern principles (1) shoes should be as light +as compatible with the wear demanded of them; (2) the ground +face of the shoe should be concave, and the face applied to the foot +plain; (3) heavy draught horses alone should have toe and heel +calks on their shoes to increase foothold; (4) the excess growth +of the wall or outer portion of horny matter should only be removed +in re-shoeing, care being taken to keep both sides of the +hoof of equal height; (5) the shoe should fit accurately to the +circumference of the hoof, and project slightly beyond the heel; +(6) the shoes should be fixed with as few nails as possible, six or +seven in fore-shoes and eight in hind-shoes, and (7) the nails +should take a short thick hold of the wall, so that old nail-holes +may be removed with the natural growth and paring of the +horny matter. Horse-shoes and nails are now made with great +economy by machinery, and special forms of shoe or plate are +made for race-horses and trotters, or to suit abnormalities of +the hoof.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSETAIL<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (<i>Equisetum</i>), the sole genus of the botanical +natural order Equisetaceae, consisting of a group of vascular +cryptogamous plants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteridophyta</a></span>) remarkable for the +vegetative structure which resembles in general appearance +the genera of flowering plants <i>Casuarina</i> and <i>Ephedra</i>. They +are herbaceous plants growing from an underground much-branched +rootstock from which spring slender aerial shoots +which are green, ribbed, and bear at each node a whorl of leaves +reduced to a toothed sheath. From the nodes spring whorls of +similar but more slender branches. Some shoots are sterile +while others are fertile, bearing at the apex the so-called fructification—a +dense oval, oblong conical or cylindrical spike, consisting +of a number of shortly-stalked peltate scales, each of which has +attached to its under surface a circle of spore-cases (sporangia) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span> +which open by a longitudinal slit on their inner side. The spores +differ from those of ferns in their outer coat (<i>exospore</i>) being +split up into four club-shaped hygroscopic threads (<i>elaters</i>) +which are curled when moist, but become straightened when +dry. In most species the fertile and sterile shoots are alike, both +being green and leaf-bearing, but in a few species the fertile are +more or less different, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>E. arvense</i> the fertile shoots appear +first, in the spring, and are unbranched and not green. Any +portion of the underground rhizome when broken off is capable +of producing a new plant; hence the difficulty of eradicating +them when once established. There are 24 known species of +the genus which is universally distributed.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:525px; height:843px" src="images/img738.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><i>Equisetum arvense.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Fertile shoot, springing from the rhizome, which also bears tubers; the + vegetative shoots have not yet unfolded.</p> + +<p>F, Sterile vegetative shoot.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>B, C, Sporophylls bearing sporangia, which in C have opened.</p> + +<p>D, Spore showing the two spiral bands of the perinium.</p> + +<p>E, Dry spores showing the expanded spiral bands.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(A, F, reduced.   B, C, D, E, enlarged.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The corn horsetail <i>E. arvense</i>, one of the commonest species, +is a troublesome weed in clayey cornfields (see fig.). The +fructification appears in March and April, terminating in short +unbranched stems. It is said to produce diarrhoea in such cattle +as eat it. The bog horsetail, <i>E. palustre</i>, is said to possess similar +properties. It grows in marshes, ditches, pools and drains in +meadows, and sometimes obstructs the flow of water with its dense +matted roots. The fructification in this species is cylindrical, +and in that of <i>E. limosum</i>, which grows in similar situations, +it is ovate in outline. The largest British species, <i>E. maximum</i>, +grows in wet sandy declivities by railway embankments or +streams, &c., and is remarkable for its beauty, due to the abundance +of its elegant branches and the alternately green and white +appearance of the stem. In this species the fructification is +conical or lanceolate, and is found in April on short, stout, unbranched +stems which have large loose sheaths. Horses appear +to be fond of this species, and in Sweden it is stored for use +as winter fodder. <i>E. hyemale</i>, commonly known as the Dutch +rush, is much more abundant in Holland than in Britain; it is +used for polishing purposes. <i>E. variegatum</i> grows on wet sandy +ground, and serves by means of its fibrous roots to bind the +sand together. The horsetails are remarkable for the large +quantity of silica they contain in the cuticle (hence their value +in polishing), which often amounts to half the weight of the +ash yielded by burning them; the roots contain a quantity of +starch.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSHAM,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a market town in the Horsham parliamentary +division of Sussex, England, 38 m. S. by W. from London by +the London, Brighton and South Coast railway. Pop. of +urban district (1901) 9446. It is pleasantly situated in the +midst of a fertile country near the source of the Arun. A +picturesque avenue leads to the church of St Mary, principally +Early English and Perpendicular, with remains of Norman +work, having a lofty tower surmounted by a spire, and containing +several fine monuments, tombs and brasses. Other buildings +include the grammar school, founded in 1532 and rebuilt in +1893, a town hall and corn exchange, erected in 1866 in Italian +style, with an assembly room. In the vicinity are several fine +mansions. The buildings of Christ’s Hospital (<i>q.v.</i>) at West +Horsham were opened in 1902, the school being removed hither +from London. The town has industries of tanning, founding, +carriage-building and flour-milling.</p> + +<p>Some neolithic remains have been found at Horsham. The +town is not mentioned in Domesday Book, but the Rape of +Bramber, in which it lies, belonged at that time to William de +Braose. His descendants held the borough and the manor +of Horsham, and through them they passed to the family of +Mowbray, afterwards dukes of Norfolk. There are traces of +burgage tenure at Horsham in 1210, and it was called a borough +in 1236. It has no charter of incorporation. Horsham +sent two representatives to parliament from 1295 until 1832, +when the number was reduced to one. In 1885 it was disfranchised. +In 1233 Henry III. granted William de Braose +a yearly three-days’ fair at his manor of Horsham. In the +reign of Edward I. William de Braose claimed to have a free +market on Wednesdays and Saturdays. Fairs are held on +the 5th of April, 18th of July, 17th of November and 27th +of November. Market days are Monday and Wednesday. +“Glovers” of Horsham are mentioned in a patent roll of 1485, +and a brewery existed here in the time of Queen Anne.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSLEY, JOHN<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1685-1732), British archaeologist. +John Hodgson (1779-1845), the historian of Northumberland, +in a short memoir published in 1831, held that he was born in +1685, at Pinkie House, in the parish of Inveresk, Midlothian, +and that his father was a Northumberland Nonconformist, who +had migrated to Scotland, but returned to England soon after +the Revolution of 1688. J. H. Hinde, in the <i>Archaeologia Aeliana</i> +(Feb. 1865), held that he was a native of Newcastle-on-Tyne, +the son of Charles Horsley, a member of the Tailors’ Company +of that town. He was educated at Newcastle, and at Edinburgh +University, where he graduated M.A. on the 29th of April 1701. +There is evidence that he “was settled in Morpeth as a Presbyterian +minister as early as 1709.” Hodgson, however, thought +that up to 1721, at which time he was residing at Widdrington, +“he had not received ordination, but preached as a licentiate.” +Even if he was ordained then, his stay at the latter place was +probably prolonged beyond that date; for he communicated +to the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> (xxxii. 328) notes on the +rainfall there in the years 1722 and 1723. Hinde shows that +during these years “he certainly followed a secular employment +as agent to the York Buildings Company, who had contracted +to purchase and were then in possession of the Widdrington +estates.” At Morpeth Horsley opened a private school. Respect +for his character and abilities attracted pupils irrespective +of religious connexion, among them Newton Ogle, afterwards +dean of Westminster. He gave lectures on mechanics and +hydrostatics in Morpeth, Alnwick and Newcastle, and was +elected F.R.S. on the 23rd of April 1730. It is as an archaeologist +that Horsley is now known. His great work, <i>Britannia +Romana, or the Roman Antiquities of Britain</i> (London, 1732), +one of the scarcest and most valuable of its class, contains the +result of patient labour. There is in the British Museum a copy +with notes by John Ward (<i>c.</i> 1679-1758), biographer of the +Gresham professors. Horsley died of apoplexy on the 12th +of January 1732, on the eve of the publication of the <i>Britannia +Romana</i>. He also published two sermons and a handbook to +his lectures on mechanics, &c., and projected a history of +Northumberland and Durham, collections for which were +found among his papers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>J. P. Wood (d. 1838) (<i>Parish of Cramond</i>, 1794, and <i>Anecdotes of +Bowyer</i>, 1782, p. 371) says that his wife was a daughter of William +Hamilton, D.D., minister of Cramond, afterwards professor of +divinity in Edinburgh University, but probably the John Horsley +in question was another, the father of Samuel Horsley (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1817-1903), English painter, +son of William Horsley, the musician, and grand-nephew of Sir +Augustus Callcott, was born in London, on the 29th of January +1817. He studied painting in the Academy schools, and in 1836 +exhibited “The Pride of the Village” (Vernon Gallery) at the +Royal Academy. This was followed by numerous <i>genre</i> pictures +at subsequent exhibitions up to 1893, the best known of these +being “Malvolio,” “L’Allegro and il Penseroso” (painted for +the Prince Consort), “Le Jour des Morts,” “A Scene from +Don Quixote,” &c. In 1843 his cartoon of “St Augustine +Preaching” won a prize in the Westminster Hall competition, +and in 1844 he was selected as one of the six painters commissioned +to execute frescoes for the Houses of Parliament, his “Religion” +(1845) being put in the House of Lords; he also painted the +“Henry V. assuming the Crown” and “Satan surprised at +the Ear of Eve.” In 1864 he became R.A., and in 1882 was +elected treasurer, a post which he held till 1897, when he resigned +and became a “retired Academician.” Mr Horsley had much +to do with organizing the winter exhibitions of “Old Masters” +at Burlington House after 1870. When, during the ’eighties, +the example of the French Salon began to affect the Academy +exhibitors, and paintings of the nude became the fashion, he +protested against the innovation, and his attitude caused <i>Punch</i> +to give him the punning sobriquet of “Mr J. C(lothes) Horsley.” +He died on the 18th of October 1903. His son, Sir Victor +Horsley (b. 1857), became famous as a surgeon and neuropathologist, +and a prominent supporter of the cause of experimental +research.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSLEY, SAMUEL<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1733-1806), English divine, was born +in London on the 15th of September 1733. Entering Trinity +College, Cambridge, he became LL.B. in 1758 without graduating +in arts, and in the following year succeeded his father in the +living of Newington Butts in Surrey. Horsley was elected a +Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767; and secretary in 1773, +but, in consequence of a difference with the president (Sir Joseph +Banks) he withdrew in 1784. In 1768 he attended the eldest +son of the 4th earl of Aylesford to Oxford as private tutor; +and, after receiving through the earl and Bishop Lowth various +minor preferments, which by dispensations he combined with +his first living, he was installed in 1781 as archdeacon of St +Albans. Horsley now entered in earnest upon his famous +controversy with Joseph Priestley, who denied that the early +Christians held the doctrine of the Trinity. In this controversy, +conducted on both sides in the fiercest polemical spirit, Horsley +showed the superior learning and ability. His aim was to +lessen the influence which the prestige of Priestley’s name +gave to his views, by indicating inaccuracies in his scholarship +and undue haste in his conclusions. For the energy displayed +in the contest Horsley was rewarded by Lord Chancellor Thurlow +with a prebendal stall at Gloucester; and in 1788 the same +patron procured his promotion to the see of St David’s. As a +bishop, Horsley was energetic both in his diocese, where he strove +to better the position of his clergy, and in parliament. The +efficient support which he afforded the government was acknowledged +by his successive translations to Rochester in 1793, +and to St Asaph in 1802. With the bishopric of Rochester he +held the deanery of Westminster. He died at Brighton on +the 4th of October 1806.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the controversial <i>Tracts</i>, which appeared in 1783-1784-1786, +and were republished in 1789 and 1812, Horsley’s more important +works are:—<i>Apollonii Pergaei inclinationum libri duo</i> +(1770); <i>Remarks on the Observation ... for determining the acceleration +of the Pendulum in Lat. 70° 51′</i> (1774); <i>Isaaci Newtoni Opera +quae extant Omnia</i>, with a commentary (5 vols. 4to, 1779-1785); +<i>On the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Languages</i> (1796); <i>Disquisitions +on Isaiah xviii.</i> (1796); <i>Hosea, translated ... with +Notes</i> (1801); <i>Elementary Treatises on ... Mathematics</i> (1801); +<i>Euclidis elementorum libri priores XII.</i> (1802); <i>Euclidis datorum +liber</i> (1803); <i>Virgil’s Two Seasons of Honey</i>, &c. (1805); and papers +in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> from 1767 to 1776. After his +death there appeared—<i>Sermons</i> (1810-1812); <i>Speeches in Parliament</i> +(1813); <i>Book of Psalms, translated with Notes</i> (1815); <i>Biblical +Criticism</i> (1820); <i>Collected Theological Works</i> (6 vols. 8vo, 1845).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSLEY, WILLIAM<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1774-1858), English musician, was +born on the 15th of November 1774. He became in 1790 the +pupil of Theodore Smith, an indifferent musician of the time, +who, however, taught him sufficient to obtain in 1794 the position +of organist at Ely Chapel, Holborn. This post he resigned in +1798, to become organist at the Asylum for Female Orphans, +as assistant to Dr Callcott, with whom he had long been on terms +of personal and artistic intimacy, and whose eldest daughter +he married. In 1802 he became his friend’s successor upon the +latter’s resignation. Besides holding this appointment he +became in 1812 organist of Belgrave Chapel, Halkin Street, +and in 1838 of the Charter House. He died on the 12th of June +1858. Horsley’s compositions are numerous, and include +amongst other instrumental pieces three symphonies for full +orchestra. Infinitely more important are his glees, of which +he published five books (1801-1807) besides contributing many +detached glees and part songs to various collections. His +glees, “By Celia’s arbour,” “O nightingale,” “Now the storm +begins to lower,” and others, are amongst the finest specimens +of this peculiarly English class of compositions. Horsley’s +son Charles Edward (1822-1876), also enjoyed a certain reputation +as a musician. He studied in Germany under Hauptmann +and Mendelssohn, and on his return to England composed +several oratorios and other pieces, none of which had permanent +success. In 1808 he emigrated to Australia, and in 1872 went to +America; he died in New York.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORSMAN, EDWARD<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1807-1876), English politician, was +the son of a well-to-do gentleman of Stirling, and connected +on the mother’s side with the earls of Stair. He was educated +at Rugby and Cambridge, and was called to the Scotch bar +in 1832, but then took to politics. He was elected to parliament +as a Liberal for Cockermouth in 1836, and represented that +constituency till 1852, when he was defeated; in 1853 he was +returned for Stroud, and sat there till 1868; and from 1869 +till he died he was member for Liskeard. He was a junior lord +of the treasury in Lord Melbourne’s administration for a few +months during 1841, and became prominent for attacking +Lord John Russell’s ecclesiastical policy in 1847 and subsequent +years. In 1855, under Lord Palmerston, he was made chief +secretary for Ireland, but resigned in 1857. He gradually took +up a position as an independent Liberal, and was well known for +his attacks on the Church, and his exposures of various “jobs.” +But his name is principally connected with his influence over +Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) in 1866 at the time of Mr +Gladstone’s Reform Bill, to which he and Lowe were hostile; +and it was in describing the Lowe-Horsman combination that +John Bright spoke of the “Cave of Adullam.” Horsman died +at Biarritz on the 30th of November 1876.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORST,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> the term used In physical geography and geology +for a block of the earth’s crust that has remained stationary +while the land has sunk on either side of it, or has been crushed +in a mountain range against it. The Vosges and Black Forest +are examples of the former, the Table, Jura and the Dôle +of the latter result. The word is also applied to those larger +areas, such as the Russian plain, Arabia, India and Central +South Africa, where the continent remains stable, with horizontal +table-land stratification, in distinction to folded regions such +as the Eurasian chains.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1828-1892), English +theologian, was born in Dublin on the 23rd of April 1828, the +great-grandson of Josiah Hort, archbishop of Tuam in the 18th +century. In 1846 he passed from Rugby to Trinity College, +Cambridge, where he was the contemporary of E. W. Benson, +B. F. Westcott and J. B. Lightfoot. The four men became +lifelong friends and fellow-workers. In 1850 Hort took his +degree, being third in the classical tripos, and in 1852 he became +fellow of his college. In 1854, in conjunction with J. E. B. +Mayor and Lightfoot, he established the <i>Journal of Classical +and Sacred Philology</i>, and plunged eagerly into theological +and patristic study. He had been brought up in the strictest +principles of the Evangelical school, but at Rugby he fell under +the influence of Arnold and Tait, and his acquaintance with +Maurice and Kingsley finally gave his opinions a direction +towards Liberalism. In 1857 he married, and accepted the +college living of St Ippolyts, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, +where he remained for fifteen years. During his residence +there he took some part in the discussions on university reform, +continued his studies, and wrote essays for various periodicals. +In 1870 he was appointed a member of the committee for +revising the translation of the New Testament, and in 1871 +he delivered the Hulsean lectures before the university. Their +title was <i>The Way, the Truth, and the Life</i>, but they were not +prepared for publication until many years after their delivery. +In 1872 he accepted a fellowship and lectureship at Emmanuel +College; in 1878 he was made Hulsean professor of divinity, +and in 1887 Lady Margaret reader in divinity. In the meantime +he had published, with his friend Westcott, an edition of the text +of the New Testament. The Revision Committee had very +largely accepted this text, even before its publication, as a +basis for their translation of the New Testament. The work +on its appearance created an immense sensation among scholars, +and was vehemently attacked in many quarters, but on the +whole it was received as being much the nearest approximation +yet made to the original text of the New Testament (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>: +<i>New Testament</i>, “Textual Criticism”). The introduction was +the work of Hort, and its depth and fulness convinced all who +read it that they were under the guidance of a master. Hort +died on the 30th of November 1892, worn out by intense mental +labour. Next to his Greek Testament his best-known work is +<i>The Christian Ecclesia</i> (1897). Other publications are: <i>Judaistic +Christianity</i> (1894); <i>Village Sermons</i> (two series); <i>Cambridge</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span> +<i>and other Sermons</i>; <i>Prolegomena to ... Romans and Ephesians</i> +(1895); <i>The Ante-Nicene Fathers</i> (1895); and two <i>Dissertations</i>, +on the reading <span class="grk" title="monogenês theos">μονογενὴς θεός</span> in John i. 18, and on <i>The Constantinopolitan +and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth Century</i>. +All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of materials.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Life and Letters</i> was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart. +(1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORTA,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> the capital of an administrative district comprising +the islands of Pico, Fayal, Flores and Corvo, in the Portuguese +archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1900) 6574. Horta is a +seaport on the south-east coast of Fayal. It is defended by +two castles and a wall, but these fortifications are obsolete. +The harbour, a bay 2 m. long and nearly 1 m. broad, affords +good anchorage in 5 to 20 fathoms of water, but is dangerous +in south-westerly and south-easterly winds. It is the headquarters +of profitable whale, tunny, bonito and mullet fisheries. +Its exports include sperm-oil, fruit, wine and grain. Between +1897 and 1904 the port annually accommodated about 140 vessels +of 220,000 tons, mostly of British or Portuguese nationality.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORTEN,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg-Laurvik <i>amt</i> +(county), beautifully situated on the west bank of the Christiania +Fjord, opposite Moss, 38 m. by water and 66 by rail S. +of Christiania. Pop. (1900) 8460. It is practically united with +Karl-Johansvaern, which is defended by strong fortifications, +is the headquarters of the Norwegian fleet, and possesses an +arsenal and shipbuilding yards. There are also an observatory +and a nautical museum.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (114-50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), surnamed Hortalus, +Roman orator and advocate. At the age of nineteen he made +his first speech at the bar, and shortly afterwards successfully +defended Nicomedes III. of Bithynia, one of Rome’s dependants +in the East, who had been deprived of his throne by his brother. +From that time his reputation as an advocate was established. +As the son-in-law of Q. Lutatius Catulus he was attached to the +aristocratic party. During Sulla’s ascendancy the courts of +law were under the control of the senate, the judges being +themselves senators. To this circumstance perhaps, as well as to +his own merits, Hortensius may have been indebted for much of +his success. Many of his clients were the governors of provinces +which they were accused of having plundered. Such men were +sure to find themselves brought before a friendly, not to say +a corrupt, tribunal, and Hortensius, according to Cicero (<i>Div. +in Caecil.</i> 7), was not ashamed to avail himself of this advantage. +Having served during two campaigns (90-89) in the Social War, +he became quaestor in 81, aedile in 75, praetor in 72, and consul +in 69. In the year before his consulship he came into collision +with Cicero in the case of Verres, and from that time his supremacy +at the bar was lost. After 63 Cicero was himself drawn towards +the party to which Hortensius belonged. Consequently, in +political cases, the two men were often engaged on the same +side (<i>e.g.</i> in defence of Rabirius, Murena, Publius Cornelius +Sulla, and Milo). After Pompey’s return from the East in 61, +Hortensius withdrew from public life and devoted himself to +his profession. In 50, the year of his death, he successfully +defended Appius Claudius Pulcher when accused of treason +and corrupt practices by P. Cornelius Dolabella, afterwards +Cicero’s son-in-law.</p> + +<p>Hortensius’s speeches are not extant. His oratory, according +to Cicero, was of the Asiatic style, a florid rhetoric, better to +hear than to read. He had a wonderfully tenacious memory +(Cicero, <i>Brutus</i>, 88, 95), and could retain every single point +in his opponent’s argument. His action was highly artificial, +and his manner of folding his toga was noted by tragic actors +of the day (Macrobius, <i>Sat.</i> iii. 13. 4). He also possessed a fine +musical voice, which he could skilfully command. The vast +wealth he had accumulated he spent on splendid villas, parks, +fish-ponds and costly entertainments. He was the first to +introduce peacocks as a table delicacy at Rome. He was a great +buyer of wine, pictures and works of art. He wrote a treatise +on general questions of oratory, erotic poems (Ovid, <i>Tristia</i>, ii. +441), and an <i>Annales</i>, which gained him considerable reputation +as an historian (Vell. Pat. ii. 16. 3).</p> + +<p>His daughter <span class="sc">Hortensia</span> was also a successful orator. In +42 she spoke against the imposition of a special tax on wealthy +Roman matrons with such success that part of it was remitted +(Quint. <i>Instit.</i> i. 1. 6; Val. Max. viii. 3. 3).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to Cicero (<i>passim</i>), see Dio Cassius xxxviii. 16, xxxix. +37; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> ix. 81, x. 23, xiv. 17, xxxv. 40; Varro, +<i>R.R.</i> iii. 13. 17.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> dictator of Rome 286 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> When +the people, pressed by their patrician creditors, “seceded” +to the Janiculum, he was commissioned to put an end to the +strife. He passed a law whereby the resolutions of the multitude +(<i>plebiscita</i>) were made binding on all the citizens, without +the approval of the senate being necessary. This was not a +mere re-enactment of previous laws. Another law, passed about +the same time, which declared the <i>nundinae</i> (market days) +to be <i>dies fasti</i> (days on which legal business might be transacted), +is also attributed to him. He is said to have died while still +dictator.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Aulus Gellius xv. 27; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 15; Macrobius, +<i>Saturnalia</i> i. 16; Livy, <i>Epit.</i> ii.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 6 *** + +***** This file should be named 39127-h.htm or 39127-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/1/2/39127/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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