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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6
+       "Home, Daniel" to "Hortensius, Quintus"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 13, 2012 [EBook #39127]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 6 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HOMER: "... he cannot attribute to the original poet of the
+      lay (Betrachtungen, p. 15, ed. 1865)." 'cannot' amended from
+      'cannnot'.
+
+    ARTICLE HONDURAS: "This instrument gives the legislative power to a
+      congress of deputies elected for four years by popular vote, in the
+      ratio of one member for every 10,000 inhabitants." 'inhabitants'
+      amended from 'imhabitants'.
+
+    ARTICLE HORACE: "... and a practice originating in the wants and
+      convenience of friends temporarily separated from one another by
+      the public service was ultimately cultivated as a literary
+      accomplishment." 'convenience' amended from 'covenience'.
+
+    ARTICLE HORACE: "At that time he had outlived the coarser pleasures
+      and risen above the harassing cares of his earlier career ..."
+      'above' amended from 'bove'.
+
+    ARTICLE HORN: "Historisch-biographisches Lexicon der Tonkünstler
+      (Leipzig, 1790-1792 and 1812-1814)." 'Tonkünstler' amended from
+      'Tonkünslter'.
+
+    ARTICLE HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS: "It was early in 1877
+      that he went out as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, where
+      his skill in man[oe]uvring the fleet ..." 'Mediterranean' amended
+      from 'Mediterraean'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE VI
+
+    Home, Daniel to Hortensius, Quintus
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS             HOPKINS, ESEK
+  HOME, JOHN                       HOPKINS, MARK
+  HOMEL                            HOPKINS, SAMUEL
+  HOME OFFICE                      HOPKINS, WILLIAM
+  HOMER                            HOPKINSON, FRANCIS
+  HOMER, WINSLOW                   HOPKINSON, JOHN
+  HOMESTEAD                        HOPKINSVILLE
+  HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS     HOPPNER, JOHN
+  HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV             HOP-SCOTCH
+  HOMICIDE                         HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON
+  HOMILETICS                       HOR, MOUNT
+  HOMILY                           HORACE
+  HOMOEOPATHY                      HORAE
+  HOMONYM                          HORAPOLLON
+  HOMS                             HORATII and CURIATII
+  HO-NAN                           HORATIUS COCLES
+  HONAVAR                          HORDE
+  HONDA                            HOREB
+  HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D'         HOREHOUND
+  HONDURAS                         HORGEN
+  HONE, NATHANIEL                  HORIZON
+  HONE, WILLIAM                    HORMAYR, JOSEPH
+  HONE                             HORMISDAS
+  HONEY                            HORMIZD
+  HONEYCOMB                        HORMUZ
+  HONEY-EATER                      HORN, ARVID BERNHARD
+  HONEY-GUIDE                      HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY
+  HONEY LOCUST                     HORN (English hero)
+  HONEYMOON                        HORN (of animals)
+  HONEYSUCKLE                      HORN (wind instrument)
+  HONFLEUR                         HORNBEAM
+  HONG-KONG                        HORNBILL
+  HONITON                          HORNBLENDE
+  HONNEF                           HORN-BOOK
+  HONOLULU                         HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS
+  HONORIUS                         HORNCASTLE
+  HONORIUS, FLAVIUS                HORN DANCE
+  HONOUR                           HORNE, GEORGE
+  HONOURABLE                       HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST
+  HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON    HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL
+  HONTHORST, GERARD VAN            HORNELL
+  HOOCH, PIETER DE                 HORNEMANN, FREDERICK
+  HOOD, JOHN BELL                  HORNER, FRANCIS
+  HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD                HORNER, LEONARD
+  HOOD, SIR SAMUEL                 HÖRNES, MORITZ
+  HOOD, THOMAS                     HORNFELS
+  HOOD, TOM                        HORNING, LETTERS OF
+  HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR HOOD      HORNPIPE
+  HOOD                             HORNSEY
+  HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN        HOROWITZ, ISAIAH
+  HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN   HORREUM
+  HOOK, JAMES CLARKE               HORROCKS, JEREMIAH
+  HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD            HORROCKS, JOHN
+  HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR            HORSE
+  HOOKAH                           HORSE LATITUDES
+  HOOKE, ROBERT                    HORSE-MACKEREL
+  HOOKER, JOSEPH                   HORSEMANSHIP
+  HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON        HORSENS
+  HOOKER, RICHARD                  HORSE-POWER
+  HOOKER, THOMAS                   HORSE-RACING
+  HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON      HORSERADISH
+  HOOLE, JOHN                      HORSE-SHOES
+  HOOLIGAN                         HORSETAIL
+  HOOPER, JOHN                     HORSHAM
+  HOOPOE                           HORSLEY, JOHN
+  HOORN                            HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT
+  HOOSICK FALLS                    HORSLEY, SAMUEL
+  HOP                              HORSLEY, WILLIAM
+  HOPE, ANTHONY                    HORSMAN, EDWARD
+  HOPE, THOMAS                     HORST
+  HOPEDALE                         HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY
+  HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT         HORTA
+  HOPFEN, HANS VON                 HORTEN
+  HOPI                             HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (Roman orator)
+  HÖPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN             HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (dictator of Rome)
+  HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN
+
+
+
+
+HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886), Scottish spiritualist, was born near
+Edinburgh on the 20th of March 1833, his father being said to be a
+natural son of the 10th earl of Home, and his mother a member of a
+family credited with second sight. He went with his mother to America,
+and on her death was adopted by an aunt. In the United States he came
+out as a spiritualistic medium, though, it should be noted, he never
+sought to make money out of his exhibitions. In 1855 he came to England
+and gave numerous séances, which were attended by many well-known
+people. Robert Browning, the poet, went to one of these, but without
+altering his contempt for spiritualism, and he subsequently gave his
+impression of Home in the unflattering poem of "Sludge the Medium"
+(1864); Home, nevertheless, had many disciples, and gave séances at
+several European courts. He became a Roman Catholic, but was expelled
+from Rome as a sorcerer. In 1866 Mrs Lyon, a wealthy widow, adopted him
+as her son, and settled £60,000 upon him. Repenting, however, of her
+action, she brought a suit for the return of her money, on the ground
+that it had been obtained by "spiritual" influence. It was held that the
+burden of establishing the validity of the gift lay on Home, and as he
+failed to do so the case was decided against him. He continued, however,
+to give séances, mostly on the Continent, and in 1871 appeared before
+the tsar of Russia and two Russian scientists, who attested the
+phenomena evoked. Returning to England he submitted to a series of
+experiments designed to test his pretensions before Professor
+(subsequently Sir William) Crookes, which the latter declared to be
+thoroughly genuine; and Professor von Boutlerow, of the Russian Academy
+of Science, after witnessing a similar series of experiments, expressed
+the same opinion. Home published two volumes of _Incidents of my Life
+and Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism_. He married successively two
+well-connected Russian ladies. He died at Auteuil, France, on the 21st
+of June 1886.
+
+
+
+
+HOME, JOHN (1722-1808), Scottish dramatic poet, was born on the 22nd of
+September 1722 at Leith, where his father, Alexander Home, who was
+distantly related to the earls of Home, filled the office of town-clerk.
+He was educated at the grammar school of his native town, and at the
+university of Edinburgh, where he graduated M.A. in 1742. Though he
+showed a fondness for the profession of arms, he studied divinity, and
+was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh in 1745. In the same year he
+joined as a volunteer against the Pretender, and was taken prisoner at
+the battle of Falkirk (1746). With many others he was carried to the
+castle of Doune in Perthshire, but soon effected his escape. In July
+1746 Home was presented to the parish of Athelstaneford,
+Haddingtonshire, vacant by the death of Robert Blair, the author of _The
+Grave_. He had leisure to visit his friends and became especially
+intimate with David Hume who belonged to the same family as himself. His
+first play, _Agis: a tragedy_, founded on Plutarch's narrative, was
+finished in 1747. He took it to London and submitted it to Garrick for
+representation at Drury Lane, but it was rejected as unsuitable for the
+stage. The tragedy of _Douglas_ was suggested to him by hearing a lady
+sing the ballad of _Gil Morrice_ or _Child Maurice_ (F. J. Child,
+_Popular Ballads_, ii. 263). The ballad supplied him with the outline of
+a simple and striking plot. After five years' labour he completed his
+play, which he took to London for Garrick's opinion. It also was
+rejected, but on his return to Edinburgh his friends resolved that it
+should be brought out in that city. It was produced on the 14th of
+December 1756 with overwhelming success, in spite of the opposition of
+the presbytery, who summoned Alexander Carlyle to answer for having
+attended its representation. Home wisely resigned his charge in 1757,
+after a visit to London, where _Douglas_ was brought out at Covent
+Garden on the 14th of March. Peg Woffington played Lady Randolph, a part
+which found a later exponent in Mrs Siddons. David Hume summed up his
+admiration for _Douglas_ by saying that his friend possessed "the true
+theatric genius of Shakespeare and Otway, refined from the unhappy
+barbarism of the one and licentiousness of the other." Gray, writing to
+Horace Walpole (August, 1757), said that the author "seemed to have
+retrieved the true language of the stage, which has been lost for these
+hundred years," but Samuel Johnson held aloof from the general
+enthusiasm, and averred that there were not ten good lines in the whole
+play (Boswell, _Life_, ed. Croker, 1848, p. 390). In 1758 Home became
+private secretary to Lord Bute, then secretary of state, and was
+appointed tutor to the prince of Wales; and in 1760 his patron's
+influence procured him a pension of £300 per annum and in 1763 a
+sinecure worth another £300. Garrick produced _Agis_ at Drury Lane on
+the 21st of February 1758. By dint of good acting and powerful support,
+according to Genest (_Short Account_ &c., iv. 513 seq.), the piece kept
+the stage for eleven days, but it was lamentably inferior to _Douglas_.
+In 1760 his tragedy, _The Siege of Aquileia_, was put on the stage,
+Garrick taking the part of Aemilius. In 1769 his tragedy of _The Fatal
+Discovery_ had a run of nine nights; _Alonzo_ also (1773) had fair
+success in the representation; but his last tragedy, _Alfred_ (1778),
+was so coolly received that he gave up writing for the stage. In 1778 he
+joined a regiment formed by the duke of Buccleuch. He sustained severe
+injuries in a fall from horseback which permanently affected his brain,
+and was persuaded by his friends to retire. From 1767 he resided either
+at Edinburgh or at a villa which he built at Kilduff near his former
+parish. It was at this time that he wrote his _History of the Rebellion
+of 1745_, which appeared in 1802. Home died at Merchiston Bank, near
+Edinburgh, on the 5th of September 1808, in his eighty-sixth year.
+
+  _The Works of John Home_ were collected and published by Henry
+  Mackenzie in 1822 with "An Account of the Life and Writings of Mr John
+  Home," which also appeared separately in the same year, but several of
+  his smaller poems seem to have escaped the editor's observation. These
+  are--"The Fate of Caesar," "Verses upon Inveraray," "Epistle to the
+  Earl of Eglintoun," "Prologue on the Birthday of the Prince of Wales,
+  1759" and several "Epigrams," which are printed in vol. ii. of
+  _Original Poems by Scottish Gentlemen_ (1762). See also Sir W. Scott,
+  "The Life and Works of John Home" in the _Quarterly Review_ (June,
+  1827). _Douglas_ is included in numerous collections of British drama.
+  Voltaire published his _Le Caffé, ou l'Écossaise_ (1760), _Londres_
+  (really Geneva), as a translation from the work of Mr Hume, described
+  as _pasteur de l'église d'Édimbourg_, but Home seems to have taken no
+  notice of the mystification.
+
+
+
+
+HOMEL, or GOMEL, a town of Russia, in the government of Mogilev, and 132
+m. by rail S.S.E. of the town of Mogilev, on the Sozh, a tributary of
+the Dnieper. Pop. (1900) 45,081, nearly half of whom are Jews. It is an
+important junction of the railways from Vilna to Odessa and from Orel to
+Poland, and is in steamer communication with Kiev and Mogilev. In front
+of Prince Paskevich's castle stands an equestrian statue of the Polish
+general Joseph Poniatowski, and in the cathedral is the tomb of the
+chancellor Nikolai Petrovich Rumantsev, by Canova. The town carries on a
+brisk trade in hops, corn and timber; there are also paper-pulp mills
+and oil factories. Homel was founded in the 12th century, and after
+changing hands several times between Poles and Russians was annexed to
+Russia in 1772. In 1648 it suffered at the hands of the Cossack
+chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki.
+
+
+
+
+HOME OFFICE, a principal government department in the United Kingdom,
+the creation of which dates from 1782, when the conduct of foreign
+affairs, which had previously been divided between the northern and
+southern secretaries, was handed over to the northern department (see
+FOREIGN OFFICE). The home department retained control of Irish and
+colonial affairs, and of war business until 1794, when an additional
+secretary of state was re-appointed. In 1801 the colonial business was
+transferred from the home department, which now attends only to domestic
+affairs. The head of the department, the principal secretary of state
+for home affairs, or home secretary, is a member of the government for
+the time being, and of the cabinet, receiving a salary of £5000 a year.
+He is the proper medium of communication between the sovereign and the
+subject, and receives petitions addressed to the crown. He is
+responsible for the maintenance of the king's peace and attends to the
+administration of criminal justice, police and prisons, and through him
+the sovereign exercises his prerogative of mercy. Within his department
+is the supervision of lunatic asylums, reformatories and industrial
+schools, and it is his duty to see after the internal well-being of the
+country, to enforce the rules made for the health or safety of the
+community generally, and especially of those classes employed in special
+trades or dangerous occupations. He is assisted by a permanent
+under-secretary, a parliamentary secretary and several assistant
+under-secretaries.
+
+  See Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_. (1907).
+
+
+
+
+HOMER[1] ([Greek: Homêros]), the great epic poet of Greece. Many of the
+works once attributed to him are lost; those which remain are the two
+great epics, the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, thirty-three _Hymns_, a mock
+epic (the _Battle of the Frogs and Mice_), and some pieces of a few
+lines each (the so-called _Epigrams_).
+
+_Ancient Accounts of Homer._--Of the date of Homer probably no record,
+real or pretended, ever existed. Herodotus (ii. 53) maintains that
+Hesiod and Homer lived not more than 400 years before his own time,
+consequently not much before 850 B.C. From the controversial tone in
+which he expresses himself it is evident that others had made Homer more
+ancient; and accordingly the dates given by later authorities, though
+very various, generally fall within the 10th and 11th centuries B.C. But
+none of these statements has any claim to the character of external
+evidence.
+
+The extant lives of Homer (edited in Westermann's _Vitarum Scriptores
+Graeci minores_) are eight in number, including the piece called the
+_Contest of Hesiod and Homer_. The longest is written in the Ionic
+dialect, and bears the name of Herodotus, but is certainly spurious. In
+all probability it belongs to the time which was fruitful beyond all
+others in literary forgeries, viz. the 2nd century of our era.[2] The
+other lives are certainly not more ancient. Their chief value consists
+in the curious short poems or fragments of verse which they have
+preserved--the so-called _Epigrams_, which used to be printed at the end
+of editions of Homer. These are easily recognized as "Popular Rhymes," a
+form of folk-lore to be met with in most countries, treasured by the
+people as a kind of proverbs.[3] In the Homeric _epigrams_ the interest
+turns sometimes on the characteristics of particular localities--Smyrna
+and Cyme (_Epigr._ iv.), Erythrae (_Epigr._ vi., vii.), Mt Ida (_Epigr._
+x.). Neon Teichos (_Epigr._ i.); others relate to certain trades or
+occupations--potters (Epigr. xiv.), sailors, fishermen, goat herds, &c.
+Some may be fragments of longer poems, but evidently they are not the
+work of any one poet. The fact that they were all ascribed to Homer
+merely means that they belong to a period in the history of the Ionian
+and Aeolian colonies when "Homer" was a name which drew to itself all
+ancient and popular verse.
+
+Again, comparing the "epigrams" with the legends and anecdotes told in
+the Lives of Homer, we can hardly doubt that they were the chief source
+from which these Lives were derived. Thus in Epigr. iv. we find a blind
+poet, a native of Aeolian Smyrna, through which flows the water of the
+sacred Meles. Here is doubtless the source of the chief incident of the
+Herodotean Life--the birth of Homer "Son of the Meles." The epithet
+Aeolian implies high antiquity, inasmuch as according to Herodotus
+Smyrna became Ionian about 688 B.C. Naturally the Ionians had their own
+version of the story--a version which made Homer come out with the first
+Athenian colonists.
+
+The same line of argument may be extended to the _Hymns_, and even to
+some of the lost works of the post-Homeric or so-called "Cyclic" poets.
+Thus:--
+
+1. The hymn to the Delian Apollo ends with an address of the poet to his
+audience. When any stranger comes and asks who is the sweetest singer,
+they are to answer with one voice, the "blind man that dwells in rocky
+Chios; his songs deserve the prize for all time to come." Thucydides,
+who quotes this passage to show the ancient character of the Delian
+festival, seems to have no doubt of the Homeric authorship of the hymn.
+Hence we may most naturally account for the belief that Homer was a
+Chian.
+
+2. The _Margites_--a humorous poem which kept its ground as the reputed
+work of Homer down to the time of Aristotle--began with the words,
+"There came to Colophon an old man, a divine singer, servant of the
+Muses and Apollo." Hence doubtless the claim of Colophon to be the
+native city of Homer--a claim supported in the early times of Homeric
+learning by the Colophonian poet and grammarian Antimachus.
+
+3. The poem called the _Cypria_ was said to have been given by Homer to
+Stasinus of Cyprus as a daughter's dowry. The connexion with Cyprus
+appears further in the predominance given in the poem to Aphrodite.
+
+4. The _Little Iliad_ and the _Phocaïs_, according to the Herodotean
+life, were composed by Homer when he lived at Phocaea with a certain
+Thestorides, who carried them off to Chios and there gained fame by
+reciting them as his own. The name Thestorides occurs in _Epigr._ v.
+
+5. A similar story was told about the poem called the _Taking of
+Oechalia_ ([Greek: Oichalias Halôsis]), the subject of which was one of
+the exploits of Heracles. It passed under the name of Creophylus, a
+friend or (as some said) a son-in-law of Homer; but it was generally
+believed to have been in fact the work of the poet himself.
+
+6. Finally the _Thebaid_ always counted as the work of Homer. As to the
+_Epigoni_, which carried on the Theban story, some doubt seems to have
+been felt.
+
+These indications render it probable that the stories connecting Homer
+with different cities and islands grew up after his poems had become
+known and famous, especially in the new and flourishing colonies of
+Aeolis and Ionia. The contention for Homer, in short, began at a time
+when his real history was lost, and he had become a sort of mythical
+figure, an "eponymous hero," or personification of a great school of
+poetry.
+
+An interesting confirmation of this view from the negative side is
+furnished by the city which ranked as chief among the Asiatic colonies
+of Greece, viz. Miletus. No legend claims for Miletus even a visit from
+Homer, or a share in the authorship of any Homeric poem. Yet Arctinus of
+Miletus was said to have been a "disciple of Homer," and was certainly
+one of the earliest and most considerable of the "Cyclic" poets. His
+_Aethiopis_ was composed as a sequel to the _Iliad_; and the structure
+and general character of his poems show that he took the _Iliad_ as his
+model. Yet in his case we find no trace of the disputed authorship which
+is so common with other "Cyclic" poems. How has this come about? Why
+have the works of Arctinus escaped the attraction which drew to the name
+of Homer such epics as the _Cypria_, the _Little Iliad_, the _Thebaid_,
+the _Epigoni_, the _Taking of Oechalia_ and the _Phocais_. The most
+obvious account of the matter is that Arctinus was never so far
+forgotten that his poems became the subject of dispute. We seem through
+him to obtain a glimpse of an early post-Homeric age in Ionia, when the
+immediate disciples and successors of Homer were distinct figures in a
+trustworthy tradition--when they had not yet merged their individuality
+in the legendary "Homer" of the Epic Cycle.
+
+_Recitation of the Poems._--The recitation of epic poetry was called in
+historical times "rhapsody" ([Greek: rhapsôdia]). The word [Greek:
+rhapsôdos] is post-Homeric, but was known to Pindar, who gives two
+different explanations of it--"singer of stitched verse" ([Greek:
+rhaptôn hepeôn aoidoi]), and "singer with the wand" ([Greek: rhabdos]).
+Of these the first is etymologically correct (except that it should
+rather be "stitcher of verse"); the second was suggested by the fact,
+for which there is early evidence, that the reciter was accustomed to
+hold a wand in his hand--perhaps, like the sceptre in the Homeric
+assembly, as a symbol of the right to a hearing.[4]
+
+The first notice of rhapsody meets us at Sicyon, in the reign of
+Cleisthenes (600-560 B.C.), who "put down the rhapsodists on account of
+the poems of Homer, because they are all about Argos and the Argives"
+(Hdt. v. 67). This description applies very well to the _Iliad_, in
+which Argos and Argives occur on almost every page. It may have suited
+the _Thebaid_ still better, but there is no need to understand it only
+of that poem, as Grote does. The incident shows that the poems of the
+Ionic Homer had gained in the 6th century B.C., and in the Doric parts
+of the Peloponnesus, the ascendancy, the national importance and the
+almost canonical character which they ever afterwards retained.
+
+At Athens there was a law that the Homeric poems should be recited
+([Greek: rhapsôdeisthai]) on every occasion of the Panathenaea. This law
+is appealed to as an especial glory of Athens by the orator Lycurgus
+(_Leocr._ 102). Perhaps therefore the custom of public recitation was
+exceptional,[5] and unfortunately we do not know when or by whom it was
+introduced. The Platonic dialogue _Hipparchus_ attributes it to
+Hipparchus, son of Peisistratus. This, however, is part of the
+historical romance of which the dialogue mainly consists. The author
+makes (perhaps wilfully) all the mistakes about the family of
+Peisistratus which Thucydides notices in a well-known passage (vi.
+54-59). In one point, however, the writer's testimony is valuable. He
+tells us that the law required the rhapsodists to recite "taking each
+other up in order ([Greek: ex hypolêpseôs ephexês]), as they still do."
+This recurs in a different form in the statement of Diogenes Laertius
+(i. 2. 57) that Solon made a law that the poems should be recited "with
+prompting" ([Greek: ex hypobolês]). The question as between Solon and
+Hipparchus cannot be settled; but it is at least clear that a due order
+of recitation was secured by the presence of a person charged to give
+the rhapsodists their cue ([Greek: hypoballein]). It was necessary, of
+course, to divide the poem to be recited into parts, and to compel each
+contending rhapsodist to take the part assigned to him. Otherwise they
+would have chosen favourite or show passages.
+
+The practice of poets or rhapsodists contending for the prize at the
+great religious festivals is of considerable antiquity, though
+apparently post-Homeric. It is brought vividly before us in the Hymn to
+Apollo (see the passage mentioned above), and in two Hymns to Aphrodite
+(v. and ix.). The latter of these may evidently be taken to belong to
+Salamis in Cyprus and the festival of the Cyprian Aphrodite, in the same
+way that the Hymn to Apollo belongs to Delos and the Delian gathering.
+The earliest trace of such contests is to be found in the story of
+Thamyris, the Thracian singer, who boasted that he could conquer even
+the Muses in song (_Il._ ii. 594 ff.).
+
+Much has been made in this part of the subject of a family or clan
+([Greek: genos]) of Homeridae in the island of Chios. On the one hand,
+it seemed to follow from the existence of such a family that Homer was a
+mere "eponymus," or mythical ancestor; on the other hand, it became easy
+to imagine the Homeric poems handed down orally in a family whose
+hereditary occupation it was to recite them, possibly to add new
+episodes from time to time, or to combine their materials in new ways,
+as their poetical gifts permitted. But, although there is no reason to
+doubt the existence of a family of "Homeridae," it is far from certain
+that they had anything to do with Homeric poetry. The word occurs first
+in Pindar (_Nem._ 2. 2), who applies it to the rhapsodists ([Greek:
+Homêridai rhaptôn epeôn aoidoi]). On this a scholiast says that the name
+"Homeridae" denoted originally descendants of Homer, who sang his poems
+in succession, but afterwards was applied to rhapsodists who did not
+claim descent from him. He adds that there was a famous rhapsodist,
+Cynaethus of Chios, who was said to be the author of the Hymn to Apollo,
+and to have first recited Homer at Syracuse about the 69th Olympiad.
+Nothing here connects the Homeridae with Chios. The statement of the
+scholiast is evidently a mere inference from the patronymic form of the
+word. If it proves anything, it proves that Cynaethus, who was a Chian
+and a rhapsodist, made no claim to Homeric descent. On the other hand
+our knowledge of Chian Homeridae comes chiefly from the lexicon of
+Harpocration, where we are told that Acusilaus and Hellanicus said that
+they were so called from the poet; whereas Seleucus pronounced this to
+be an error. Strabo also says that the Chians put forward the Homeridae
+as an argument in support of their claim to Homer. These Homeridae,
+then, belonged to Chios, but there is no indication of their being
+rhapsodists. On the contrary, Plato and other Attic writers use the word
+to include interpreters and admirers--in short, the whole "spiritual
+kindred"--of Homer. And although we hear of "descendants of Creophylus"
+as in possession of the Homeric poems, there is no similar story about
+descendants of Homer himself. Such is the evidence on which so many
+inferences are based.
+
+The result of the notices now collected is to show that the early
+history of epic recitation consists of (1) passages in the Homeric hymns
+showing that poets contended for the prize at the great festivals, (2)
+the passing mention in Herodotus of rhapsodists at Sicyon, and (3) a law
+at Athens, of unknown date, regulating the recitation at the
+Panathenaea. Let us now compare these data with the account given in the
+Homeric poems. The word "rhapsode" does not yet exist; we hear only of
+the "singer" ([Greek: aoidos]), who does not carry a wand or
+laurel-branch, but the lyre ([Greek: phormigx]), with which he
+accompanies his "song." In the _Iliad_ even the epic "singer" is not met
+with. It is Achilles himself who sings the stories of heroes ([Greek:
+klea andrôn]) in his tent, and Patroclus is waiting (_respondere
+paratus_), to take up the song in his turn (_Il._ ix. 191). Again we do
+not hear of poetical contests (except in the story of Thamyris already
+mentioned) or of recitation of epic poetry at festivals. The _Odyssey_
+gives us pictures of two great houses, and each has its singer. The song
+is on a subject taken from the Trojan war, at some point chosen by the
+singer himself, or by his hearers. Phemius pleases the suitors by
+singing of the calamitous return of the Greeks; Demodocus sings of a
+quarrel between Ulysses and Achilles, and afterwards of the wooden horse
+and the capture of Troy.
+
+It may be granted that the author of the _Odyssey_ can hardly have been
+just such a singer as he himself describes. The songs of Phemius and
+Demodocus are too short, and have too much the character of
+improvisations. Nor is it necessary to suppose that epic poetry, at the
+time to which the picture in the _Odyssey_ belongs, was confined to the
+one type represented. Yet in several respects the conditions under which
+the singer finds himself in the house of a chieftain like Odysseus or
+Alcinous are more in harmony with the character of Homeric poetry than
+those of the later rhapsodic contests. The subdivision of a poem like
+the _Iliad_ or _Odyssey_ among different and necessarily unequal
+performers must have been injurious to the effect. The highly theatrical
+manner of recitation which was fostered by the spirit of competition,
+and by the example of the stage, cannot have done justice to the even
+movement of the epic style. It is not certain indeed that the practice
+of reciting a long poem by the agency of several competitors was
+ancient, or that it prevailed elsewhere than at Athens; but as
+rhapsodists were numerous, and popular favour throughout Greece became
+more and more confined to one or two great works, it must have become
+almost a necessity. That it was the mode of recitation contemplated by
+the author of the _Iliad_ or _Odyssey_ it is impossible to believe.
+
+The difference made by substituting the wand or branch of laurel for the
+lyre of the Homeric singer is a slighter one, though not without
+significance. The recitation of the Hesiodic poems was from the first
+unaccompanied by the lyre, i.e. they were confessedly _said_, not
+_sung_; and it was natural that the example should be extended to Homer.
+For it is difficult to believe that the Homeric poems were ever "sung"
+in the strict sense of the word. We can only suppose that the lyre in
+the hands of the epic poet or reciter was in reality a piece of
+convention, a "survival" from the stage in which narrative poetry had a
+lyrical character. Probably the poets of the Homeric school--that which
+dealt with war and adventure--were the genuine descendants of minstrels
+whose "lays" or "ballads" were the amusement of the feasts in an earlier
+heroic age; whereas the Hesiodic compositions were non-lyrical from the
+first, and were only in verse because that was the universal form of
+literature.
+
+It seems, then, that if we imagine Homer as a singer in a royal house of
+the Homeric age, but with more freedom regarding the limits of his
+subject, and a more tranquil audience than is allowed him in the rapid
+movement of the _Odyssey_, we shall probably not be far from the truth.
+
+_Time and Place of Homer._--The oldest direct references to the _Iliad_
+and _Odyssey_ are in Herodotus, who quotes from both poems (ii. 53). The
+quotation from the _Iliad_ is of interest because it is made in order to
+show that Homer supported the story of the travels of Paris to Egypt and
+Sidon (whereas the Cyclic poem called the _Cypria_ ignored them), and
+also because the part of the _Iliad_ from which it comes is cited as the
+"Aristeia of Diomede." This was therefore a recognized part of the poem.
+
+The earliest mention of the name of Homer is found in a fragment of the
+philosopher Xenophanes (of the 6th century B.C., or possibly earlier),
+who complains of the false notions implanted through the teaching of
+Homer. The passage shows, not merely that Homer was well known at
+Colophon in the time of Xenophanes, but also that the great advance in
+moral and religious ideas which forced Plato to banish Homer from his
+republic had made itself felt in the days of the early Ionic
+philosophers.
+
+Failing external testimony, the time and place of the Homeric poems can
+only be determined (if at all) by internal evidence. This is of two main
+kinds: (a) evidence of history, consisting in a comparison of the
+political and social condition, the geography, the institutions, the
+manners, arts and ideas of Homer with those of other times; (b) evidence
+of language, consisting in a comparison with later dialects, in respect
+of grammar and vocabulary. To these may be added, as occasionally of
+value, (c) much evidence of the direct influence of Homer upon the
+subsequent course of literature and art.
+
+(a) The political condition of Greece in the earliest times known to
+history is separated from the Greece of Homer by an interval which can
+hardly be overestimated. The great national names are different: instead
+of Achaeans, Argives, Danai, we find Hellenes, subdivided into Dorians,
+Ionians, Aeolians--names either unknown to Homer, or mentioned in terms
+more significant than silence. At the dawn of Greek history Mycenae is
+no longer the seat of empire; new empires, polities and civilizations
+have grown up--Sparta with its military discipline, Delphi with its
+religious supremacy, Miletus with its commerce and numberless colonies,
+Aeolis and Ionia, Sicily and Magna Graecia.
+
+While the political centre of Homeric Greece is at Mycenae, the real
+centre is rather to be found In Boeotia. The Catalogue of the Ships
+begins with Boeotia; the list of Boeotian towns is much the longest; and
+they sail, not from the bay of Argos, but from the Boeotian harbour of
+Aulis. This position is not due to its chiefs, who are all of inferior
+rank. The importance of Boeotia for Greek civilization is further shown
+by the ancient worship of the Muses on Mount Helicon, and the fact that
+the oldest poet whose birthplace was known was the Boeotian Hesiod. Next
+to Boeotia and the neighbouring countries, it appears that the
+Peloponnesus, Crete and Thessaly were the most important seats of Greek
+population.
+
+In the Peloponnesus the face of things was completely altered by the
+Dorian conquest, no trace of which is found in Homer. The only Dorians
+known in Homer are those that the _Odyssey_ (xix. 177) places in Crete.
+It is difficult to connect them with the Dorians of history.
+
+The eastern shores of the Aegean, which the earliest historical records
+represent to us as the seat of a brilliant civilization, giving way
+before the advance of the great military empires (Lydia and afterwards
+Persia), are almost a blank in Homer's map. The line of settlements can
+be traced in the Catalogue from Crete to Rhodes, and embraces the
+neighbouring islands of Cos and Calymnos. The colonization of Rhodes by
+Tlepolemus is related (_Il._ ii. 661 ff.), and seems to mark the
+farthest point reached in the Homeric age. Between Rhodes and the Troad
+Homer knows of but one city, Miletus--which is a Carian ally of
+Troy--and the mouth of one river, the Cayster. Even the Cyclades--Naxos,
+Paros, Melos--are unknown to the Homeric world. The disposition of the
+Greeks to look to the west for the centres of religious feeling appears
+in the mention of Dodona and the Dodonaean Zeus, put in the mouth of the
+Thessalian Achilles.
+
+To the north we find the Thracians, known from the stories of Thamyris
+the singer (_Il._ ii. 595), and Lycurgus, the enemy of the young god
+Dionysus (_Il._ vi. 130). Here the Trojan empire begins. It does not
+appear, however, that the Trojans are thought of as people of a
+different language. As this is expressly said of the Carians, and of the
+Trojan allies who were "summoned from afar," the contrary rather is
+implied regarding Troy itself.
+
+The mixed type of government described by Homer--consisting of a king
+guided by a council of elders, and bringing all important resolutions
+before the assembly of the fighting men--does not seem to have been
+universal in Indo-European communities, but to have grown up in many
+different parts of the world under the stress of similar conditions. The
+king is the commander in war, and the office probably owed its existence
+to military necessities. It is not surrounded with any special
+sacredness. There were ruling families, laying claim to divine descent,
+from whom the king was naturally chosen, but his own fitness is the
+essence of his title. The aged Laertes is set aside; the young
+Telemachus does not succeed as a matter of course. Nor are any very
+definite rights attached to the office. Each tribe in the army before
+Troy was commanded by its own king (or kings); but Agamemnon was
+supreme, and was "more a king" ([Greek: basileiteros]) than any other.
+The assembly is summoned on all critical occasions, and its approval is
+the ultimate sanction. A king therefore stands in almost as much need of
+oratory as of warlike skill and prowess. Even the division of the spoil
+is not made in the _Iliad_ by Agamemnon, but by "the Achaeans" (_Il._ i.
+162, 368). The taking of Briseïs from Achilles was an arbitrary act, and
+against all rule and custom. The council is more difficult to
+understand. The "elders" ([Greek: gerontes]) of the _Iliad_ are the same
+as the subordinate "kings"; they are summoned by Agamemnon to his tent,
+and form a small council of nine or ten persons. In Troy we hear of
+elders of the people ([Greek: dêmogerontes]) who are with Priam, and are
+men past the military age. So in Ithaca there are elders who have not
+gone to Troy with the army. It would seem therefore that the meeting in
+Agamemnon's tent was only a copy or adaptation of the true
+constitutional "council of elders," which indeed was essentially
+unfitted for the purposes of military service. The king's palace, if we
+may judge from Tiryns and Mycenae, was usually in a strong situation on
+an "acropolis." In the later times of democracy the acropolis was
+reserved for the temples of the principal gods.
+
+Priesthood in Homer is found in the case of particular temples, where an
+officer is naturally wanted to take charge of the sacred inclosure and
+the sacrifices offered within it. It is perhaps an accident that we do
+not hear of priests in Ithaca. Agamemnon performs sacrifice himself, not
+because a priestly character was attached to the kingly office, but
+simply because he was "master in his own house."
+
+The conception of "law" is foreign to Homer. The later words for it
+([Greek: nomos], [Greek: rhêtra]) are unknown, and the terms which he
+uses ([Greek: dikê] and [Greek: themis]) mean merely "custom." Judicial
+functions are in the hands of the elders, who "have to do with suits"
+([Greek: dikaspoloi]), and "uphold judgments" ([Greek: themistas
+eiryatai]). On such matters as the compensation in cases of homicide, it
+is evident that there were no rules, but merely a feeling, created by
+use and wont, that the relatives of the slain man should be willing to
+accept payment. The sense of anger which follows a violation of custom
+has the name of "Nemesis"--righteous displeasure.
+
+As there is no law in Homer, so there is no morality. That is to say,
+there are no general principles of action, and no words which indicate
+that acts have been classified as good or bad, right or wrong. Moral
+_feeling_, indeed, existed and was denoted by "Aidos"; but the numerous
+meanings of this word--shame, veneration, pity--show how rudimentary the
+idea was. And when we look to practice we find that cruel and even
+treacherous deeds are spoken of without the least sense that they
+deserve censure. The heroes of Homer are hardly more moral agents than
+the giants and enchanters of a fairy tale.
+
+The religious ideas of Homer differ in some important points from those
+of later Greece. The Apollo of the _Iliad_ has the character of a local
+Asiatic deity--"ruler of Chryse and goodly Cilla and Tenedos." He may be
+compared with the Clarian and the Lycian god, but he is unlike the
+Apollo of Dorian times, the "deliverer" and giver of oracles. Again, the
+worship of Dionysus, and of Demeter and Persephone, is mainly or wholly
+post-Homeric. The greatest difference, however, lies in the absence of
+hero-worship from the Homeric order of things. Castor and Polydeuces,
+for instance, are simply brothers of Helen who died before the
+expedition to Troy (_Il._ iii. 243.)
+
+The military tactics of Homer belong to the age when the chariot was the
+principal engine of warfare. Cavalry is unknown, and the battles are
+mainly decided by the prowess of the chiefs. The use of the trumpet is
+also later. It has been supposed indeed that the art of riding was known
+in Homer's own time, because it occurs in comparisons. But the riding
+which he describes (_Il._ xv. 679) is a mere exhibition of skill, such
+as we may see in a modern circus. And though he mentions the trumpet
+(_Il._ xviii. 219), there is nothing to show that it was used, as in
+historical times, to give the signal for the charge.
+
+The chief industries of Homeric times are those of the carpenter
+([Greek: tektôn]), the worker in leather ([Greek: skutotomos]), the
+smith or worker in metal ([Greek: chalkeus])--whose implements are the
+hammer and pincers--and the potter ([Greek: kerameus]); also spinning
+and weaving, which were carried on by the women. The fine arts are
+represented by sculpture in relief, carving in wood and ivory,
+embroidery. Statuary is later; it appears to have come into existence in
+the 7th century, about the time when casting in metal was invented by
+Rhoecus of Samos. In general, as was well shown by A. S. Murray,[6]
+Homeric art does not rise above the stage of _decoration_, applied to
+objects in common use; while in point of style it is characterized by a
+richness and variety of ornament which is in the strongest contrast to
+the simplicity of the best periods. It is the work, in short, not of
+artists but of skilled workmen; the ideal artist is "Daedalus," a name
+which implies mechanical skill and intricate workmanship, not beauty of
+design.
+
+One art of the highest importance remains. The question whether writing
+was known in the time of Homer was raised in antiquity, and has been
+debated with especial eagerness ever since the appearance of Wolf's
+_Prolegomena_. In this case we have to consider not merely the
+indications of the poems, but also the external evidence which we
+possess regarding the use of writing in Greece. This latter kind of
+evidence is much more considerable now than it was in Wolf's time. (See
+WRITING elsewhere in these volumes.)
+
+The oldest known stage of the Greek alphabet appears to be represented
+by inscriptions of the islands of Thera, Melos and Crete, which are
+referred to the 40th Olympiad (620 B.C.). The oldest specimen of a
+distinctively Ionian alphabet is the famous inscription of the
+mercenaries of Psammetichus, in Upper Egypt, as to which the only doubt
+is whether the Psammetichus in question is the first or the second, and
+consequently whether the inscription is to be dated Ol. 40 or Ol. 47.
+Considering that the divergence of two alphabets (like the difference of
+two dialects) requires both time and familiar use, we may gather from
+these facts that writing was well known in Greece early in the 7th
+century B.C.[7]
+
+The rise of prose composition in the 6th century B.C. has been thought
+to mark the time when memory was practically superseded by writing as a
+means of preserving literature--the earlier use of letters being
+confined to short documents, such as lists of names, treaties, laws, &c.
+This conclusion, however, is by no means necessary. It may be that down
+to comparatively late rimes poetry was not commonly read, but was
+recited from memory. But the question is--From what time are we to
+suppose that the preservation of long poems was generally secured by the
+existence of written copies? Now, without counting the Homeric
+poems--which doubtless had exceptional advantages in their fame and
+popularity--we find a body of literature dating from the 8th century
+B.C. to which the theory of oral transmission is surely inapplicable. In
+the Trojan cycle alone we know of the two epics of Arctinus, the _Little
+Iliad_ of Lesches, the _Cypria_, the _Nostoi_. The Theban cycle is
+represented by the _Thebaid_ (which Callinus, who was of the 7th
+century, ascribed to Homer) and the _Epigoni_. Other ancient
+epics--ancient enough to have passed under the name of Homer--are the
+_Taking of Oechalia_, and the _Phocaïs_. Again, there are the numerous
+works attributed to Hesiod and other poets of the didactic,
+mythological and quasi-historical schools--Eumelus of Corinth, Cinaethon
+of Sparta, Agias of Troezen, and many more. The preservation of this
+vast mass can only be attributed to writing, which must therefore have
+been in use for two centuries or more before there was any considerable
+prose literature. Nor is this in itself improbable.
+
+The further question, whether the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ were originally
+written, is much more difficult. External evidence does not reach back
+so far, and the internal evidence is curiously indecisive. The only
+passage which can be interpreted as a reference to writing occurs in the
+story of Bellerophon, told by Glaucus in the sixth book of the _Iliad_.
+Proetus, king of Corinth, sent Bellerophon to his father-in-law the king
+of Lycia, and gave him "baneful tokens" ([Greek: sêmata lugra], i.e.
+tokens which were messages of death), "scratching on a folded tablet
+many spirit-destroying things, and bade him show this to his
+father-in-law, that he might perish." The king of Lycia asked duly (on
+the tenth day from the guest's coming) for a token ([Greek: hêtee sêma
+idesthai]), and then knew what Proetus wished to be done. In this
+account there is nothing to show exactly how the message of Proetus was
+expressed. The use of writing for the purpose of the token between
+"guest-friends" (_tessera hospitalis_) is certainly very ancient.
+Mommsen (_Röm. Forsch_. i. 338 ff.) aptly compares the use in treaties,
+which are the oldest species of public documents. But we may suppose
+that tokens of some kind--like the marks which the Greek chiefs make on
+the lots (_Il._ vii. 175 ff.)--were in use before writing was known. In
+any system of signs there were doubtless means of recommending a friend,
+or giving warning of the presence of an enemy. There is no difficulty,
+therefore, in understanding the message of Proetus without alphabetical
+writing. But, on the other hand, there is no reason for so understanding
+it.
+
+If the language of Homer is so ambiguous where the use of writing would
+naturally be mentioned, we cannot expect to find more decisive
+references elsewhere. Arguments have been founded upon the descriptions
+of the blind singers in the _Odyssey_, with their songs inspired
+directly by the Muse; upon the appeals of the poet to the Muses,
+especially in such a place as the opening of the Catalogue; upon the
+Catalogue itself, which is a kind of historical document put into verse
+to help the memory; upon the shipowner in the _Odyssey_, who has "a good
+memory for his cargo," &c. It may be answered, however, that much of
+this is traditional, handed down from the time when all poetry was
+unwritten. Moreover it is one thing to recognize that a literature is
+essentially oral in its form, characteristic of an age which was one of
+hearing rather than of reading, and quite another to hold that the same
+literature was preserved entirely by oral transmission.
+
+The result of these various considerations seems to be that the age
+which we may call the Homeric--the age which is brought before us in
+vivid outlines in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_--lies beyond the earliest
+point to which history enables us to penetrate. And so far as we can
+draw any conclusion as to the author (or authors) of the two poems, it
+is that the whole debate between the cities of Aeolis and Ionia was wide
+of the mark. The author of the _Iliad_, at least, was evidently a
+European Greek who lived before the colonization of Asia Minor; and the
+claims of the Asiatic cities mean no more than that in the days of their
+prosperity these were the chief seats of the fame of Homer.
+
+  This is perhaps the place to consider whether the poems are to be
+  regarded as possessing in any degree the character; of historical
+  record. The question is one which in the absence of satisfactory
+  criteria will generally be decided by taste and predilection. A few
+  suggestions, however, may be made.
+
+  1. The events of the _Iliad_ take place in a real locality, the
+  general features of which are kept steadily in view. There is no doubt
+  about Sigeum and Rhoeteum, or the river Scamander, or the islands
+  Imbros, Lemnos and Tenedos. It is at least remarkable that a legend of
+  the national interest of the "tale of Troy" should be so definitely
+  localized, and that in a district, which was never famous as a seat of
+  Greek population. It may be urged, too, that the story of the _Iliad_
+  is singularly free from the exaggerated and marvellous character which
+  belongs as a rule to the legends of primitive peoples. The apple of
+  discord, the arrows of Philoctetes, the invulnerability of Achilles,
+  and similar fancies, are the additions of later poets. This sobriety,
+  however, belongs not to the whole _Iliad_, but to the events and
+  characters of the war. Such figures as Bellerophon, Nïobe, the
+  Amazons, which are thought of as traditions from an earlier
+  generation, show the marvellous element at work.
+
+  2. Certain persons and events in the story have a distinctly mythical
+  stamp. Helen is a figure of this kind. There was another story
+  according to which she was carried off by Theseus, and recovered by
+  her brothers the Dioscuri. There are even traces of a third version,
+  in which the Messenian twins, Idas and Lynceus, appear.
+
+  3. The analogy of the French epic, the _Chanson de Roland_, favours
+  the belief that there was some nucleus of fact. The defeat of
+  Roncevaux was really suffered by a part of Charlemagne's army. But the
+  Saracen army is purely mythical, the true enemy having been the
+  Gascons. If similarly we leave, as historical, the plain of Troy, and
+  the name Agamemnon, we shall perhaps not be far wrong.
+
+(b) The dialect of Homer is an early or "primitive" form of the language
+which we know as that of Attica in the classical age of Greek
+literature. The proof of this proposition is to be obtained chiefly by
+comparing the grammatical formation and the syntax of Homer with those
+of Attic. The comparison of the vocabulary is in the nature of things
+less conclusive on the question of date. It would be impossible to give
+the evidence in full without writing a Homeric grammar, but a few
+specimens may be of interest.
+
+  1. The first aorist in Greek being a "weak" tense, i.e. formed by a
+  suffix ([Greek: -sa]), whereas the second aorist is a "strong" tense,
+  distinguished by the form of the root-syllable, we expect to find a
+  constant tendency to diminish the number of second aorists in use. No
+  new second aorists, we may be sure, were formed any more than new
+  "strong" tenses, such as _came_ or _sang_, can be formed in English.
+  Now in Homer there are upwards of 80 second aorists (not reckoning
+  aorists of "Verbs in [Greek: mi]," such as [Greek: hestên], [Greek:
+  ebên]), whereas in all Attic prose not more than 30 are found. In this
+  point therefore the Homeric language is manifestly older. In Attic
+  poets, it is true, the number of such aorists is much larger than in
+  prose. But here again we find that they bear witness to Homer. Of the
+  poetical aorists in Attic the larger part are also Homeric. Others are
+  not really Attic at all, but borrowed from earlier Aeolic and Doric
+  poetry. It is plain, in short, that the later poetical vocabulary was
+  separated from that of prose mainly by the forms which the influence
+  of Homer had saved from being forgotten.
+
+  2. While the whole class of "strong" aorists diminished, certain
+  smaller groups in the class disappeared altogether. Thus we find in
+  Homer, but not in the later language:--
+
+  (a) The second aorist middle without the "thematic" [epsilon] or
+  [omicron]: as [Greek: eblê-to], _was struck_; [Greek: ephi-to],
+  _perished_; [Greek: al-to], _leaped_.
+
+  (b) The aorist formed by reduplication: as [Greek: dedaev], _taught_;
+  [Greek: lelabesthai], _to seize_. These constitute a distinct
+  formation, generally with a "causative" meaning; the solitary Attic
+  specimen is [Greek: êgagon].
+
+  3. It had long been known that the subjunctive in Homer often takes a
+  short vowel (e.g. in the plural, [Greek: -omen], [Greek: -ete] instead
+  of [Greek: -ômen], [Greek: -ête], and in the Mid. [Greek: -omai], &c.
+  instead of [Greek: -ômai], &c.). This was generally said to be done by
+  "poetic licence," or _metri gratia_. In fact, however, the Homeric
+  subjunctive is almost quite "regular," though the rule which it obeys
+  is a different one from the Attic. It may be summed up by saying that
+  the subjunctive takes [omega] or [eta] when the indicative has
+  [omicron] or [epsilon], and not otherwise. Thus Homer has [Greek:
+  i-men], _we go_, [Greek: i-o-men], _let us go_. The later [Greek:
+  i-ô-men] was at first a solecism, an attempt to conjugate a "verb in
+  [Greek: mi]" like the "verbs in [omega]." It will be evident that
+  under this rule the perfect and first aorist subjunctive should always
+  take a short vowel; and this accordingly is the case, with very few
+  exceptions.
+
+  4. The article ([Greek: ho, hê, to]) in Homer is chiefly used as an
+  independent pronoun (_he, she, it_), a use which in Attic appears only
+  in a few combinations (such as [Greek: ho mèn ... ho de], _the one ...
+  the other_). This difference is parallel to the relation between the
+  Latin _ille_ and the article of the Romance languages.
+
+  5. The prepositions offer several points of comparison. What the
+  grammarians called "tmesis," the separation of the preposition from
+  the verb with which it is compounded, is peculiar to Homer. The true
+  account of the matter is that in Homer the place of the preposition is
+  not rigidly fixed, as it was afterwards. Again, "with" is in Homer
+  [Greek: syn] (with the dative), in Attic prose [Greek: meta] with the
+  genitive. Here Attic poetry is intermediate; the use of [Greek: syn]
+  is retained as a piece of poetical tradition.
+
+  6. In addition to the particle [Greek: an], Homer has another, [Greek:
+  ken], hardly distinguishable in meaning. The Homeric uses of [Greek:
+  an] and [Greek: ken] are different in several respects from the Attic,
+  the general result being that the Homeric syntax is more elastic. And
+  yet it is perfectly definite and precise. Homer uses no constructions
+  loosely or without corresponding differences of meaning. His rules are
+  equally strict with those of the later language, but they are not the
+  same rules. And they differ chiefly in this, that the less common
+  combinations of the earlier period were disused altogether in the
+  later.
+
+  7. In the vocabulary the most striking difference is that many words
+  appear from the metre to have contained a sound which they afterwards
+  lost, viz. that which is written in some Greek alphabets by the
+  "digamma" [digamma] Thus the words [Greek: anax, asty, ergon, epos],
+  and many others must have been written at one time [Greek: Fanax,
+  Fasty, Fergon, Fepos]. This letter, however, died out earlier in Ionic
+  than in most dialects, and there is no proof that the Homeric poems
+  were ever written with it.
+
+These are not, speaking generally, the differences that are produced by
+the gradual divergence of dialects in a language. They are rather to be
+classed with those which we find between the earlier and the later
+stages of every language which has had a long history. The Homeric
+dialect has passed into New Ionic and Attic by gradual but ceaseless
+development of the same kind as that which brought about the change from
+Vedic to classical Sanskrit, or from old high German to the present
+dialects of Germany.
+
+The points that have been mentioned, to which many others might be
+added, make it clear that the Homeric and Attic dialects are separated
+by differences which affect the whole structure of the language, and
+require a considerable time for their development. At the same time
+there is hardly one of these differences which cannot be accounted for
+by the natural growth of the language. It has been thought indeed that
+the Homeric dialect was a mixed one, mainly Ionic, but containing Aeolic
+and even Doric forms; this, however, is a mistaken view of the processes
+of language. There are doubtless many Homeric forms which were unknown
+to the later Ionic and Attic, and which are found in Aeolic or other
+dialects. In general, however, these are _older_ forms, which must have
+existed in Ionic at one time, and may very well have belonged to the
+Ionic of Homer's time. So too the digamma is called "Aeolic" by
+grammarians, and is found on Aeolic and Doric inscriptions. But the
+letter was one of the original alphabet, and was retained universally as
+a numeral. It can only have fallen into disuse by degrees, as the sound
+which it denoted ceased to be pronounced. The fact that there are so
+many traces of it in Homer is a strong proof of the antiquity of the
+poems, but no proof of admixture with Aeolic.
+
+There is one sense, however, in which an admixture of dialects may be
+recognized. It is clear that the variety of forms in Homer is too great
+for any actual spoken dialect. To take a single instance: it is
+impossible that the genitives in [Greek: -oio] and in [Greek: -ou]
+should both have been in everyday use together. The form in [Greek:
+-oio] must have been poetical or literary, like the old English forms
+that survive in the language of the Bible. The origin of such double
+forms is not far to seek. The effect of dialect on style was always
+recognized in Greece, and the dialect which had once been adopted by a
+particular kind of poetry was ever afterwards adhered to. The Epic of
+Homer was doubtless formed originally from a spoken variety of Greek,
+but became literary and conventional with time. It is Homer himself who
+tells us, in a striking passage (_Il._ iv. 437) that all the Greeks
+spoke the same language--that is to say, that they understood one
+another, in spite of the inevitable local differences. Experience shows
+how some one dialect in a country gains a literary supremacy to which
+the whole nation yields. So Tuscan became the type of Italian, and
+Anglian of English. But as soon as the dialect is adopted, it begins to
+diverge from the colloquial form. Just as modern poetical Italian uses
+many older grammatical forms peculiar to itself, so the language of
+poetry, even in Homeric times, had formed a deposit (so to speak) of
+archaic grammar. There were doubtless poets before Homer, as well as
+brave men before Agamemnon; and indeed the formation of a poetical
+dialect such as the Homeric must have been the work of several
+generations. The use of that dialect (instead of Aeolic) by the Boeotian
+poet Hesiod, in a kind of poetry which was not of the Homeric type,
+tends to the conclusion that the literary ascendancy of the epic dialect
+was anterior to the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, and independent of the
+influence exercised by these poems.
+
+What then was the original language of Homer? Where and when was it
+spoken? [The answer given to this question by Aug. Fick (in 1883) and
+still held, with modifications, by some European scholars can no longer
+be maintained. Fick's original statement was that in or about the 6th
+century B.C. the poems, which had originally worn an Aeolic dress, were
+transposed into Ionic. To this it is easily answered that such an event
+is not only unique in history, but contrary to all that we know of the
+Greek genius. At the period in question an Aeolic literature, the lyrics
+of Sappho and Alcaeus, were in existence. If it was found necessary to
+transpose the Aeolic Homer, why did the Aeolic lyric verse escape? If,
+however, as is the view of some of Fick's followers, the transposition
+took place several centuries earlier, before species of literature had
+appropriated particular dialects, then the linguistic facts upon which
+Fick relied to distinguish the "Aeolic" and "Ionic" elements in Homer
+disappear. We have no means of knowing what the Aeolic and Ionic of say
+the 9th century were, or if there were such dialects at all. Certain
+prominent historical differences between Aeolic and Ionic (the digamma
+and alpha) are known to be unoriginal. The view that Homer underwent at
+any time a passage from one dialect to another may be dismissed. The
+tendency of modern dialectologists is to divide the Greek dialects into
+Dorian and non-Dorian. The non-Dorian dialects, Ionic, Attic and the
+various forms of Aeolic, are regarded as relatively closely akin, and go
+by the common name "Achaean." They formed the common language of Greece
+before the Doric invasion. As the scene which Homer depicts is
+prae-Dorian Greece, it is reasonable to call his language Achaean. The
+historical divergences of Achaean into Aeolian and Ionic were later than
+the Migration, and were due to the well-known effects of change of soil
+and air.
+
+To what local variety of Achaean Homeric Greek belonged it is idle to
+ask. Thessaly, Boeotia and Mycenae have equal claims. It seems clearer
+that when once this local variety of Achaean had been used by poets of
+eminence as their vehicle for national history, it established its right
+to be considered the one poetical language of Hellas. As the dialect of
+the Arno in Italy, of Castille in Spain, by the virtue of the genius of
+the singers who used them, became literary "Italian" and "Spanish," so
+this variety of Achaean elevated itself to the position of the _volgare
+illustre_ of Greece.[8]]     (T. W. A.)
+
+(c) The influence of Homer upon the subsequent course of Greek
+literature is a large subject, even if we restrict it to the centuries
+which immediately followed the Homeric age. It will be enough to observe
+that in the earliest elegiac poets, such as Archilochus, Tyrtaeus and
+Theognis, reminiscences of Homeric language and thought meet us on every
+page. If the same cannot be said of the ancient epic poems, that is
+because of the extreme scantiness of the existing fragments. Much,
+however, is to be gathered from the arguments of the Trojan part of the
+Epic Cycle (preserved in the _Codex Venetus_ of the _Iliad_, a full
+discussion of which will be found in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
+1884, pp. 1-40). An examination of these arguments throws light on two
+chief aspects of the relation between Homer and his "cyclic" successors.
+
+1. The later poets sought to complete the story of the Trojan war by
+supplying the parts which did not fall within the _Iliad_ and
+_Odyssey_--the so-called _ante-homerica_ and _post-homerica_. They did
+so largely from hints and passing references in Homer. Thus the
+successive episodes of the siege related at length in the _Little
+Iliad_, and ending with the story of the Wooden Horse, are nearly all
+taken from passages in the _Odyssey_. Much the same may be said of the
+_Nosti_.
+
+2. With this process of expansion and development (so to speak) of
+Homeric themes is combined the addition of new characters. Such, in the
+_Little Iliad_ (e.g.), are the story of the Palladium and of the
+treachery of Sinon. Such, too, in the _Cypria_ are the new legendary
+figures--Palamedes, Iphigenia, Telephus, Laocoon. These new elements in
+the narrative are evidently due not only to the natural growth of legend
+in a people highly endowed with imagination, but in a large proportion
+also to the new races and countries with which the Greeks came into
+contact, as well as to their own rapid advance in wealth and
+civilization. It will be observed that the two poems of Arctinus are
+remarkable for the proportion of new matter of the latter kind. The
+_Aethiopis_ shows us the allies of Troy reinforced by two peoples that
+are evidently creations of oriental fancy, the Amazons and Memnon with
+his Aethiopians. The _Iliu Persis_, again, was the oldest authority for
+the story of Laocoon and of the consequent escape of Aeneas--a story
+which connected a surviving branch of the house of Priam with the later
+inhabitants of the Troad. On the other hand the fate of Creusa (_sed me
+magna deum genetrix his detinet oris_) is a link with the worship of
+Cybele. The journey of Calchas to Colophon and his death there, as told
+in the _Nosti_, is another instance of the kind. These facts point to a
+familiarity with the Greek colonies in Asia which contrasts strongly
+with the silence of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_.
+
+  _Study of Homer._--_The Homeric Question._--The critical study of
+  Homer began in Greece almost with the beginning of prose writing. The
+  first name is that of Theagenes of Rhegium, contemporary of Cambyses
+  (525 B.C.), who is said to have founded the "new grammar" (the older
+  "grammar" being the art of reading and writing), and to have been the
+  inventor of the allegorical interpretations by which it was sought to
+  reconcile the Homeric mythology with the morality and speculative
+  ideas of the 6th century B.C. The same attitude in the "ancient
+  quarrel of poetry and philosophy" was soon afterwards taken by
+  Anaxagoras; and after him by his pupil Metrodorus of Lampsacus, who
+  explained away all the gods, and even the heroes, as elementary
+  substances and forces (Agamemnon as the upper air, &c.).
+
+  The next writers on Homer of the "grammatical" type were Stesimbrotus
+  of Thasos (contemporary with Cimon) and Antimachus of Colophon,
+  himself an epic poet of mark. The _Thebaid_ of Antimachus, however,
+  was not popular, and seems to have been a great storehouse of
+  mythological learning rather than a poem of the Homeric school.
+
+  Other names of the pre-Socratic and Socratic times are mentioned by
+  Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle. These were the "ancient Homerics"
+  ([Greek: hoi archaioi Homêrikoi]), who busied themselves much with the
+  hidden meanings of Homer; of whom Aristotle says, with his profound
+  insight, that they see the small likenesses and overlook the great
+  ones (_Metaph._ xii.).
+
+  The text of Homer must have attracted some attention when Antimachus
+  came to be known as the "corrector" ([Greek: diorthôtês]) of a
+  distinct edition ([Greek: ekdosis]), Aristotle is said himself to have
+  made a recension for the use of Alexander the Great. This is unlikely.
+  His remarks on Homer (in the _Poetics_ and elsewhere) show that he had
+  made a careful study of the structure and leading ideas of the poems,
+  but do not throw much light on the text.
+
+  The real work of criticism became possible only when great collections
+  of manuscripts began to be made by the princes of the generation after
+  Alexander, and when men of learning were employed to sift and arrange
+  these treasures. In this way the great Alexandrian school of Homeric
+  criticism began with Zenodotus, the first chief of the museum, and was
+  continued by Aristophanes and Aristarchus. In Aristarchus ancient
+  philology culminated, as philosophy had done in Socrates. All earlier
+  learning either passed into his writings, or was lost; all subsequent
+  research turned upon his critical and grammatical work.
+
+  The means of forming a judgment of the Alexandrine criticism are
+  scanty. The literary form which preserved the works of the great
+  historians was unfortunately wanting, or was not sufficiently valued,
+  in the case of the grammarians. Abridgments and newer treatises soon
+  drove out the writings of Aristarchus and other founders of the
+  science. Moreover, a recension could not be reproduced without new
+  errors soon creeping in. Thus we find that Didymus, writing in the
+  time of Cicero, does not quote the readings of Aristarchus as we
+  should quote a _textus receptus_. Indeed, the object of his work seems
+  to have been to determine what those readings were. Enough, however,
+  remains to show that Aristarchus had a clear notion of the chief
+  problems of philology (except perhaps those concerning etymology). He
+  saw, for example, that it was not enough to find a meaning for the
+  archaic words (the [Greek: glôssai], as they were called), but that
+  common words (such as [Greek: ponos, phobos]) had their Homeric uses,
+  which were to be gathered by due induction. In the same spirit he
+  looked upon the ideas and beliefs of Homer as a consistent whole,
+  which might be determined from the evidence of the poems. He noticed
+  especially the difference between the stories known to Homer and those
+  given by later poets, and made many comparisons between Homeric and
+  later manners, arts and institutions. Again, he was sensible of the
+  paramount value of manuscript authority, and appears to have
+  introduced no readings from mere conjecture. The frequent mention in
+  the Scholia of "better" and "inferior" texts may indicate a
+  classification made by him or by the general opinion of critics. His
+  use of the "obelus" to distinguish spurious verses, which made so
+  large a part of his fame in antiquity, has rather told against him
+  with modern scholars.[9] It is chiefly interesting as a proof of the
+  confusion in which the text must have been before the Alexandrian
+  times; for it is impossible to understand the readiness of Aristarchus
+  to suspect the genuineness of verses unless the state of the copies
+  had pointed to the existence of numerous interpolations. On this
+  matter, however, we are left to conjecture.
+
+  Our knowledge of Alexandrian criticism is derived almost wholly from a
+  single document, the famous _Iliad_ of the library of St Mark in
+  Venice (_Codex Venetus_ 454, or _Ven. A_), first published by the
+  French scholar Villoison in 1788 (_Scholia antiquissima ad Homeri
+  Iliadem_). This manuscript, written in the 10th century, contains (1)
+  the best text of the _Iliad_, (2) the critical marks of Aristarchus
+  and (3) Scholia, consisting mainly of extracts from four grammatical
+  works, viz. Didymus (contemporary of Cicero) on the recension of
+  Aristarchus, Aristonicus (fl. 24 B.C.) on the critical marks of
+  Aristarchus, Herodian (fl. A.D. 160) on the accentuation, and Nicanor
+  (fl. A.D. 127) on the punctuation, of the _Iliad_.
+
+  These extracts present themselves in two distinct forms. One series of
+  scholia is written in the usual way, on a margin reserved for the
+  purpose. The other consists of brief scholia, written in very small
+  characters (but of the same period) on the narrow space left vacant
+  round the text. Occasionally a scholium of this kind gives the
+  substance of one of the longer extracts; but as a rule they are
+  distinct. It would seem, therefore, that after the manuscript was
+  finished the "marginal scholia" were discovered to be extremely
+  defective, and a new series of extracts was added in a form which
+  interfered as little as possible with the appearance of the book.[10]
+
+  The mention of the Venetian Scholia leads us at once to the Homeric
+  controversy; for the immortal _Prolegomena_ of F. A. Wolf[11] appeared
+  a few years after Villoison's publication, and was founded in great
+  measure upon the fresh and abundant materials which it furnished. Not
+  that the "Wolfian theory" of the Homeric poems is directly supported
+  by anything in the Scholia; the immediate object of the _Prolegomena_
+  was not to put forward that theory, but to elucidate the new and
+  remarkable conditions under which the text of Homer had to be settled,
+  viz. the discovery of an _apparatus criticus_ of the 2nd century B.C.
+  The questions regarding the original structure and early history of
+  the poems were raised (forced upon him, it may be said) by the
+  critical problem; but they were really originated by facts and ideas
+  of a wholly different order.
+
+  The 18th century, in which the spirit of classical correctness had the
+  most absolute dominion, did not come to an end before a powerful
+  reaction set in, which affected not only literature but also
+  speculation and politics. In this movement the leading ideas were
+  concentrated in the word Nature. The natural condition of society,
+  natural law, natural religion, the poetry of nature, gained a singular
+  hold, first on the English philosophers from Hume onwards, and then
+  (through Rousseau chiefly) on the general drift of thought and action
+  in Europe. In literature the effect of these ideas was to set up a
+  false opposition between nature and art. As political writers imagined
+  a patriarchal innocence prior to codes of law, so men of letters
+  sought in popular unwritten poetry the freshness and simplicity which
+  were wanting in the prevailing styles. The blind minstrel was the
+  counterpart of the noble savage. The supposed discovery of the poems
+  of Ossian fell in with this train of sentiment, and created an
+  enthusiasm for the study of early popular poetry. Homer was soon drawn
+  into the circle of inquiry. Blackwell (Professor of Greek at Aberdeen)
+  had insisted, in a book published in 1735, on the "naturalness" of
+  Homer; and Wood (_Essay on the Original Genius of Homer_, London,
+  1769) was the first who maintained that Homer composed without the
+  help of writing, and supported his thesis by ancient authority, and
+  also by the parallel of Ossian. Both these books were translated into
+  German, and their ideas passed into the popular philosophy of the day.
+  Everything in short was ripe for the reception of a book that brought
+  together, with masterly ease and vigour, the old and the new Homeric
+  learning, and drew from it the historical proof that Homer was no
+  single poet, writing according to art and rule, but a name which stood
+  for a golden age of the true spontaneous poetry of genius and nature.
+
+  The part of the _Prolegomena_ which deals with the original form of
+  the Homeric poems occupies pp. xl.-clx. (in the first edition). Wolf
+  shows how the question of the date of writing meets us on the
+  threshold of the textual criticism of Homer and accordingly enters
+  into a full discussion, first of the external evidence, then of the
+  indications furnished by the poems. Having satisfied himself that
+  writing was unknown to Homer, he is led to consider the real mode of
+  transmission, and finds this in the Rhapsodists, of whom the Homeridae
+  were an hereditary school. And then comes the conclusion to which all
+  this has been tending: "the die is cast"--the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_
+  cannot have been composed in the form in which we know them without
+  the aid of writing. They must therefore have been, as Bentley had
+  said, "a sequel of songs and rhapsodies," "loose songs not collected
+  together in the form of an epic poem till about 500 years after." This
+  conclusion he then supports by the character attributed to the
+  "Cyclic" poems (whose want of unity showed that the structure of the
+  _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ must be the work of a later time), by one or two
+  indications of imperfect connexion, and by the doubts of ancient
+  critics as to the genuineness of certain parts. These, however, are
+  matters of conjecture. "Historia loquitur." The voice of antiquity is
+  unanimous in declaring that "Peisistratus first committed the poems of
+  Homer to writing, and reduced them to the order in which we now read
+  them."
+
+  The appeal of Wolf to the "voice of all antiquity" is by no means
+  borne out by the different statements on the subject. According to
+  Heraclides Ponticus (pupil of Plato), the poetry of Homer was first
+  brought to the Peloponnesus by Lycurgus, who obtained it from the
+  descendants of Creophylus (_Polit._ fr. 2). Plutarch in his _Life of
+  Lycurgus_ (c. 4) repeats this story, with the addition that there was
+  already a faint report of the poems in Greece, and that certain
+  detached fragments were in the possession of a few persons. Again, the
+  Platonic dialogue _Hipparchus_ (which though not genuine is probably
+  earlier than the Alexandrian times) asserts that Hipparchus, son of
+  Peisistratus, first brought the poems to Athens, and obliged the
+  rhapsodists at the Panathenaea to follow the order of the text, "as
+  they still do," instead of reciting portions chosen at will. The
+  earliest authority for attributing any work of the kind to
+  Peisistratus is the well-known passage of Cicero (_De Orat._ 3. 34:
+  "Quis doctior eisdem temporibus illis, aut cujus eloquentia litteris
+  instructior fuisse traditur quam Pisistrati? qui primus Homeri libros,
+  confusos antea, sic disposuisse dicitur ut nunc habemus"). To the same
+  effect Pausanias (vii. p. 594) says that the change of the name
+  Donoessa to Gonoessa (in _Il._ ii. 573) was thought to have been made
+  by "Peisistratus or one of his companions," when he collected the
+  poems, which were then in a fragmentary condition. Finally, Diogenes
+  Laertius (i. 57) says that Solon made a law that the poems should be
+  recited with the help of a prompter so that each rhapsodist should
+  begin where the last left off; and he argues from this that Solon did
+  more than Peisistratus to make Homer known. The argument is directed
+  against a certain Dieuchidas of Megara, who appears to have maintained
+  that the verses about Athens in the Catalogue (_Il._ ii. 546-556) were
+  interpolated by Peisistratus. The passage is unfortunately corrupt,
+  but it is at least clear that in the time of Solon, according to
+  Diogenes, there were complete copies of the poems, such as could be
+  used to control the recitations. Hence the account of Diogenes is
+  quite irreconcilable with the notices on which Wolf relied.
+
+  It is needless to examine the attempts which have been made to
+  harmonize these accounts. Such attempts usually start with the tacit
+  assumption that each of the persons concerned--Lycurgus, Solon,
+  Peisistratus, Hipparchus--must have done _something_ for the text of
+  Homer, or for the regulation of the rhapsodists. But we have first to
+  consider whether any of the accounts come to us on such evidence that
+  we are bound to consider them as containing a nucleus of truth.
+
+  In the first place, the statement that Lycurgus obtained the poems
+  from descendants of Creophylus must be admitted to be purely mythical.
+  But if we reject it, have we any better reason for believing the
+  parallel assertion in the Platonic _Hipparchus_? It is true that
+  Hipparchus is undoubtedly a real person. On the other hand it is
+  evident that the Peisistratidae soon became the subject of many
+  fables. Thucydides notices as a popular mistake the belief that
+  Hipparchus was the eldest son of Peisistratus, and that consequently
+  he was the reigning "tyrant" when he was killed by Aristogiton. The
+  Platonic _Hipparchus_ follows this erroneous version, and may
+  therefore be regarded as representing (at best) mere local tradition.
+  We may reasonably go further, and see in this part of the dialogue a
+  piece of historical romance, designed to put the "tyrant" family in a
+  favourable light, as patrons of literature and learning.
+
+  Again, the account of the _Hipparchus_ is contradicted by Diogenes
+  Laërtius, who says that Solon provided for the due recitation of the
+  Homeric poems. The only good authorities as to this point are the
+  orators Lycurgus and Isocrates, who mention the law prescribing the
+  recitation, but do not say when or by whom it was enacted. The
+  inference seems a fair one, that the author of the law was really
+  unknown.
+
+  With regard to the statements which attribute some work in connexion
+  with Homer to Peisistratus, it was noticed by Wolf that Cicero,
+  Pausanias and the others who mention the matter do so _nearly in the
+  same words_, and, therefore, appear to have drawn from a common
+  source. This source was in all probability an epigram quoted in two of
+  the short lives of Homer, and there said to have been inscribed on the
+  statue of Peisistratus at Athens. In it Peisistratus is made to say of
+  himself that he "collected Homer, who was formerly sung in fragments,
+  for the golden poet was a citizen of ours, since we Athenians founded
+  Smyrna." The other statements repeat these words with various minor
+  additions, chiefly intended to explain how the poems had been reduced
+  to this fragmentary condition, and how Peisistratus set to work to
+  restore them. Thus all the authority for the work of Peisistratus
+  "reduces itself to the testimony of a single anonymous inscription"
+  (Nutzhorn p. 40). Now, what is the value of that testimony? It is
+  impossible of course to believe that a statue of Peisistratus was set
+  up at Athens in the time of the free republic. The epigram is almost
+  certainly a mere literary exercise. And what exactly does it say? Only
+  that Homer was _recited in fragments_ by the rhapsodists, and that
+  these partial recitations were made into a continuous whole by
+  Peisistratus; which does not necessarily mean more than that
+  Peisistratus did what other authorities ascribe to Solon and
+  Hipparchus, viz. regulated the recitation.
+
+  Against the theory which sees in Peisistratus the author of the first
+  complete text of Homer we have to set the absolute silence of
+  Herodotus, Thucydides, the orators and the Alexandrian grammarians.
+  And it can hardly be thought that their silence is accidental.
+  Herodotus and Thucydides seem to tell us all that they know of
+  Peisistratus. The orators Lycurgus and Isocrates make a great deal of
+  the recitation of Homer at the Panathenaea, but know nothing of the
+  poems having been collected and arranged at Athens, a fact which would
+  have redounded still more to the honour of the city. Finally, the
+  Scholia of the _Ven. A_ contain no reference or allusion to the story
+  of Peisistratus. As these Scholia are derived in substance from the
+  writings of Aristarchus, it seems impossible to believe that the story
+  was known to him. The circumstance that it is referred to in the
+  _Scholia Townleiana_ and in Eustathius, gives additional weight to
+  this argument.
+
+  The result of these considerations seems to be that nothing rests on
+  good evidence beyond the fact that Homer was recited by law at the
+  Panathenaic festival. The rest of the story is probably the result of
+  gradual expansion and accretion. It was inevitable that later writers
+  should speculate about the authorship of such a law, and that it
+  should be attributed with more or less confidence to Solon or
+  Peisistratus or Hipparchus. The choice would be determined in great
+  measure by political feeling. It is probably not an accident that
+  Dieuchidas, who attributed so much to Peisistratus, was a Megarian.
+  The author of the _Hipparchus_ is evidently influenced by the
+  anti-democratical tendencies in which he only followed Plato. In the
+  times to which the story of Peisistratus can be traced, the 1st
+  century B.C., the substitution of the "tyrant" for the legislator was
+  extremely natural. It was equally natural that the importance of his
+  work as regards the text of Homer should be exaggerated. The splendid
+  patronage of letters by the successors of Alexander, and especially
+  the great institutions which had been founded at Alexandria and
+  Pergamum, had made an impression on the imagination of learned men
+  which was reflected in the current notions of the ancient despots. It
+  may even be suspected that anecdotes in praise of Peisistratus and
+  Hipparchus were a delicate form of flattery addressed to the reigning
+  Ptolemy. Under these influences the older stories of Lycurgus bringing
+  Homer to the Peloponnesus, and Solon providing for the recitation at
+  Athens, were thrown into the shade.
+
+  In the later Byzantine times it was believed that Peisistratus was
+  aided by seventy grammarians, of whom Zenedotus and Aristarchus were
+  the chief. The great Alexandrian grammarians had become figures in a
+  new mythology. It is true that Tzetzes, one of the writers from whom
+  we have this story, gives a better version, according to which
+  Peisistratus employed four men, viz. Onomacritus, Zopyrus of Heraclea,
+  Orpheus of Croton, and one whose name is corrupt (written [Greek:
+  epikogkylos]). Many scholars (among them Ritschl) accept this account
+  as probable. Yet it rests upon no better evidence than the other.
+
+  The effect of Wolf's _Prolegomena_ was so overwhelming that, although
+  a few protests were made at the time, the true Homeric controversy did
+  not begin till after Wolf's death (1824). His speculations were
+  thoroughly in harmony with the ideas and sentiment of the time, and
+  his historical arguments, especially his long array of testimonies to
+  the work of Peisistratus, were hardly challenged.
+
+  The first considerable antagonist of the Wolfian school was G. W.
+  Nitzsch, whose writings cover the years 1828-1862, and deal with every
+  side of the controversy. In the earlier part of his _Meletemata_
+  (1830) he took up the question of written or unwritten literature, on
+  which Wolf's whole argument turned, and showed that the art of writing
+  must be anterior to Peisistratus. In the later part of the same series
+  of discussions (1837), and in his chief work (_Die Sagenpoesie der
+  Griechen_, 1852), he investigated the structure of the Homeric poems,
+  and their relation to the other epics of the Trojan cycle. These epics
+  had meanwhile been made the subject of a work which for exhaustive
+  learning and delicacy of artistic perception has few rivals in the
+  history of philology, the _Epic Cycle_ of F. G. Welcker. The confusion
+  which previous scholars had made between the ancient post-Homeric
+  poets (Arctinus, Lesches, &c.) and the learned mythological writers
+  (such as the "scriptor cyclicus" of Horace) was first cleared up by
+  Welcker. Wolf had argued that if the cyclic writers had known the
+  _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ which we possess, they would have imitated the
+  unity of structure which distinguishes these two poems. The result of
+  Welcker's labours was to show that the Homeric poems had influenced
+  both the form and the substance of epic poetry.
+
+  In this way there arose a conservative school who admitted more or
+  less freely the absorption of pre-existing lays in the formation of
+  the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, and also the existence of considerable
+  interpolations, but assigned the main work of formation to prehistoric
+  times, and to the genius of a great poet. Whether the two epics were
+  by the same author remained an open question; the tendency of this
+  group of scholars was decidedly towards separation. Regarding the use
+  of writing, too, they were not unanimous. K. O. Müller, for instance,
+  maintained the view of Wolf on this point, while he strenuously
+  combated the inference which Wolf drew from it.
+
+  The _Prolegomena_ bore on the title-page the words "Volumen I."; but
+  no second volume ever appeared, nor was any attempt made by Wolf
+  himself to carry his theory further. The first important steps in that
+  direction were taken by Gottfried Hermann, chiefly in two
+  dissertations, _De interpolationibus Homeri_ (Leipzig, 1832), and _De
+  iteratis Homeri_ (Leipzig, 1840), called forth by the writings of
+  Nitzsch. As the word "interpolation" implies, Hermann did not maintain
+  the hypothesis of a congeries of independent "lays." Feeling the
+  difficulty of supposing that all the ancient minstrels sang of the
+  "wrath of Achilles" or the "return of Ulysses" (leaving out even the
+  capture of Troy itself), he was led to assume that two poems of no
+  great compass dealing with these two themes became so famous at an
+  early period as to throw other parts of the Trojan story into the
+  background, and were then enlarged by successive generations of
+  rhapsodists. Some parts of the _Iliad_, moreover, seemed to him to be
+  older than the poem on the wrath of Achilles; and thus in addition to
+  the "Homeric" and "post-Homeric" matter he distinguished a
+  "pre-Homeric" element.
+
+  The conjectures of Hermann, in which the Wolfian theory found a
+  modified and tentative application, were presently thrown into the
+  shade by the more trenchant method of Lachmann, who (in two papers
+  read to the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841) sought to show that the
+  _Iliad_ was made up of sixteen independent "lays," with various
+  enlargements and interpolations, all finally reduced to order by
+  Peisistratus. The first book, for instance, consists of a lay on the
+  anger of Achilles (1-347), and two continuations, the return of
+  Chryseis (430-492) and the scenes in Olympus (348-429, 493-611). The
+  second book forms a second lay, but several passages, among them the
+  speech of Ulysses (278-332), are interpolated. In the third book the
+  scenes in which Helen and Priam take part (including the making of the
+  truce) are pronounced to be interpolations; and so on. Regarding the
+  evidence on which these sweeping results are founded, opinions will
+  vary. The degree of smoothness or consistency which is to be expected
+  on the hypothesis of a single author will be determined by taste
+  rather than argument. The dissection of the first book, for instance,
+  turns partly on a chronological inaccuracy which might well escape the
+  poet as well as his hearers. In examining such points we are apt to
+  forget that the contradictions by which a story is shown to be untrue
+  are quite different from those by which a confessedly untrue story
+  would be shown to be the work of different authors.
+
+_Structure of the Iliad._--The subject of the Iliad, as the first line
+proclaims, is the "anger of Achilles." The manner in which this subject
+is worked out will appear from the following summary in which we
+distinguish (1) the plot, i.e. the story of the quarrel, (2) the main
+course of the war, which forms a sort of underplot, and (3) subordinate
+episodes.
+
+  I. Quarrel of Achilles with Agamemnon and the Greek army--Agamemnon,
+    having been compelled to give up his prize Chryseis, takes Briseïs
+    from Achilles--Thereupon Achilles appeals to his mother Thetis, who
+    obtains from Zeus a promise that he will give victory to the Trojans
+    until the Greeks pay due honour to her son--Meanwhile Achilles takes
+    no part in the war.
+
+  II. Agamemnon is persuaded by a dream sent from Zeus to take the
+    field with all his forces.
+
+    His attempt to test the temper of the army nearly leads to their
+    return.
+
+    Catalogue of the army (probably a later addition).
+
+    Trojan muster--Trojan catalogue.
+
+  III. Meeting of the Armies--Paris challenges Menelaus--Truce made.
+
+    "Teichoscopy," Helen pointing out to Priam the Greek leaders.
+
+    The duel--Paris is saved by Aphrodite.
+
+  IV. Truce broken by Pandarus.
+
+    Advance of the armies--Battle.
+
+  V. Aristeia of Diomede--his combat with Aphrodite.
+
+  VI.--Meeting with Glaucus--Visit of Hector to the (1-311) city, and
+    offering of a peplus to Athena.
+
+    (312-529) Visit of Hector to Paris--to Andromache.
+
+  VII. Return of Hector and Paris to the field.
+
+    Duel of Ajax and Hector.
+
+    Truce for burial of dead.
+
+    The Greeks build a wall round their camp.
+
+  VIII. Battle--The Trojans encamp on the field.
+
+  IX. Agamemnon sends an embassy by night, offering Achilles
+    restitution and full amends--Achilles refuses.
+
+  X. Doloneia--Night expedition of Odysseus and Diomede (in all
+    probability added later).
+
+  XI. Aristeia of Agamemnon--he is wounded--Wounding of Diomede and
+    Odysseus.
+
+    Achilles sends Antilochus to inquire about Machaon.
+
+  XII. Storming of the wall--the Trojans reach the ships.
+
+  XIII. Zeus ceases to watch the field--Poseidon secretly comes to the
+    aid of the Greeks.
+
+  XIV. Sleep of Zeus, by the contrivance of Hera.
+
+  XV. Zeus awakened--Restores the advantage to the Trojans--Ajax alone
+    defends the ships.
+
+  XVI. Achilles is persuaded to allow Patroclus to take the field.
+    Patroclus drives back the Trojans--kills Sarpedon--is himself killed
+    by Hector.
+
+  XVII. Battle for the body of Patroclus--Aristeia of Menelaus.
+
+  XVIII. News of the death of Patroclus is brought to Achilles--Thetis
+    comes with the Nereids--promises to obtain new armour for him from
+    Hephaestus.
+
+    The shield of Achilles described.
+
+  XIX. Reconciliation of Achilles--His grief and desire to avenge
+    Patroclus.
+
+  XX. The gods come down to the plain--Combat of Achilles with Aeneas
+    and Hector, who escape.
+
+  XXI. The Scamander is choked with slain--rises against Achilles, who
+    is saved by Hephaestus.
+
+  XXII. Hector alone stands against Achilles--his flight round the
+    walls--he is slain.
+
+  XXIII. Burial of Patroclus--Funeral games.
+
+  XXIV. Priam ransoms the body of Hector--his burial.
+
+Such is the "action" ([Greek: praxis]) which in Aristotle's opinion
+showed the superiority of Homer to all later epic poets. But the proof
+that his scheme was the work of a great poet does not depend merely upon
+the artistic unity which excited the wonder of Aristotle. A number of
+separate "lays" might conceivably be arranged and connected by a man of
+poetical taste in a manner that would satisfy all requirements. In such
+a case, however, the connecting passages would be slight and weak. Now,
+in the _Iliad_ these passages are the finest and most characteristic.
+The element of connexion and unity is the story of the "wrath of
+Achilles"; and we have only to look at the books which give the story of
+the wrath to see how essential they are. Even if the ninth book is
+rejected (as Grote proposed), there remain the speeches of the first,
+sixteenth and nineteenth books. These speeches form the cardinal points
+in the action of the _Iliad_--the framework into which everything else
+is set; and they have also the best title to the name of Homer.
+
+The further question, however, remains,--What shorter narrative piece
+fulfilling the conditions of an independent poem has Lachmann succeeded
+in disengaging from the existing _Iliad_? It must be admitted that when
+tried by this test his "lays" generally fail. The "quarrel of the
+chiefs," the "muster of the army," the "duel of Paris and Menelaus,"
+&c., are excellent beginnings, but have no satisfying conclusion. And
+the reason is not far to seek. The _Iliad_ is not a history, nor is it a
+series of incidents in the history, of the siege. It turns entirely upon
+a single incident, occupying a few days only. The several episodes of
+the poem are not so many distinct stories, each with an interest of its
+own. They are only parts of a single main event. Consequently the type
+of epic poem which would be produced by an aggregation of shorter lays
+is not the type which we have in the _Iliad_. Rather the _Iliad_ is
+itself a single lay which has grown with the growth of poetical art to
+the dimensions of an epic.
+
+But the original nucleus and parts of the incidents may be the work of a
+single great poet, and yet other episodes may be of different
+authorship, wrought into the structure of the poem in later times.
+Various theories have been based on this supposition. Grote in
+particular held that the original poem, which he called the Achilleïs,
+did not include books ii.-vii., ix., x., xxiii., xxiv. Such a view may
+be defended somewhat as follows.
+
+Of the books which relate the events during the absence of Achilles from
+the Greek ranks (ii.-xv.), the last five are directly related to the
+main action. They describe the successive steps by which the Greeks are
+driven back, first from the plain to the rampart, then to their ships.
+Moreover, three of the chief heroes, Agamemnon, Diomede and Ulysses, are
+wounded, and this circumstance, as Lachmann himself admitted, is
+steadily kept in mind throughout. It is otherwise with the earlier books
+(especially ii.-vii.). The chief incidents in that part of the poem--the
+panic rush to the ships, the duels of Paris and Menelaus, and of Hector
+and Ajax, the Aristeia of Diomede--stand in no relation to the
+mainspring of the poem, the promise made by Zeus to Thetis. It is true
+that in the thirteenth and fourteenth books the purpose of Zeus is
+thwarted for a time by other gods; but in books ii.-vii. it is not so
+much thwarted as ignored. Further, the events follow without sufficient
+connexion. The truce of the third book is broken by Pandarus, and
+Agamemnon passes along the Greek ranks with words of encouragement, but
+without a hint of the treachery just committed. The Aristeia of Diomede
+ends in the middle of the sixth book; he is uppermost in all thoughts
+down to ver. 311, but from this point, in the meetings of Hector with
+Helen and Andromache, and again in the seventh book when Hector
+challenges the Greek chiefs, his prowess is forgotten. Once more, some
+of the incidents seem to belong properly to the beginning of the war.
+The joy of Menelaus on seeing Paris, Priam's ignorance of the Greek
+leaders, the speeches of Agamemnon in his review of the ranks (in book
+iv.), the building of the wall--all these are in place after the Greek
+landing, but hardly in the ninth year of the siege.
+
+On the other hand, it may be said, the second book opens with a direct
+reference to the events of the first, and the mention of Achilles in the
+speech of Thersites (ii. 239 sqq.) is sufficient to keep the main course
+of events in view. The Catalogue is connected with its place in the poem
+by the lines about Achilles (686-694). When Diomede is at the height of
+his Aristeia Helenus says (_Il._ vi. 99), "We did not so fear even
+Achilles." And when in the third book Priam asks Helen about the Greek
+captains, or when in the seventh book nine champions come forward to
+contend with Hector, the want of the greatest hero of all is
+sufficiently felt. If these passages do not belong to the period of the
+wrath of Achilles, how are we to account for his conspicuous absence?
+
+Further, the want of smoothness and unity which is visible in this part
+of the _Iliad_ may be due to other causes than difference of date or
+authorship. A national poet such as the author of the _Iliad_ cannot
+always choose or arrange his matter at his own will. He is bound by the
+traditions of his art, and by the feelings and expectations of his
+hearers. The poet who brought the exploits of Diomede into the _Iliad_
+doubtless had his reasons for doing so, which were equally strong
+whether he was the poet of the Achilleïs or a later Homerid or
+rhapsodist. And if some of the incidents (those of the third book in
+particular) seem to belong to the beginning of the war, it must be
+considered that poetically, and to the hearers of the _Iliad_, the war
+opens in the third book, and the incidents are of the kind that is
+required in such a place. The truce makes a pause which heightens the
+interest of the impending battle; the duel and the scene on the walls
+are effective in bringing some of the leading characters on the stage,
+and in making us acquainted with the previous history. The story of
+Paris and Helen especially, and the general position of affairs in Troy,
+is put before us in a singularly vivid manner. The book in short forms
+so good a _prologue_ to the action of the war that we can hardly be
+wrong in attributing it to the genius which devised the rest of the
+_Iliad_.
+
+The case against the remaining books is of a different kind. The ninth
+and tenth seem like two independent pictures of the night before the
+great battle of xi.-xvii. Either is enough to fill the space in Homer's
+canvas; and the suspicion arises (as when two Platonic dialogues bear
+the same name) that if either had been genuine, the other would not have
+come into existence. If one of the two is to be rejected it must be the
+tenth, which is certainly the less Homeric. It relates a picturesque
+adventure, conceived in a vein more approaching that of comedy than any
+other part of the _Iliad_. Moreover, the language in several places
+exhibits traces of post-Homeric date. The ninth book, on the other hand,
+was rejected by Grote, chiefly on the grounds that the embassy to
+Achilles ought to have put an end to the quarrel, and that it is ignored
+in later passages, especially in the speeches of Achilles (xi. 609;
+xvi. 72, 85). His argument, however, rests on an assumption which we are
+apt to bring with us to the reading of the _Iliad_, but which is not
+borne out by its language, viz. that there was some definite atonement
+demanded by Achilles, or due to him according to the custom and
+sentiment of the time. But in the _Iliad_ the whole stress is laid on
+the anger of Achilles, which can only be satisfied by the defeat and
+extreme peril of the Greeks.[12] He is influenced by his own feeling,
+and by nothing else. Accordingly, in the ninth book, when they are still
+protected by the rampart (see 348 sqq.), he rejects gifts and fair words
+alike; in the sixteenth he is moved by the tears and entreaties of
+Patroclus, and the sight of the Greek ships on fire; in the nineteenth
+his anger is quenched in grief. But he makes no conditions, either in
+rejecting the offers of the embassy or in returning to the Greek army.
+And this conduct is the result, not only of his fierce and inexorable
+character, but also (as the silence of Homer shows) of the want of any
+general rules or principles, any code of morality or of honour, which
+would have required him to act in a different way.
+
+Finally, Grote objected to the two last books that they prolong the
+action of the _Iliad_ beyond the exigencies of a coherent scheme. Of the
+two, the twenty-third could more easily be spared. In language, and
+perhaps in style and manner, it is akin to the tenth; while the
+twenty-fourth is in the pathetic vein of the ninth, and like it serves
+to bring out new aspects of the character of Achilles.
+
+  Dr E. Kammer has given some strong reasons for doubting the
+  genuineness of the passage in book xx. describing the duel between
+  Achilles and Aeneas (79-352). The incident is certainly very much out
+  of keeping with the vehement action of that part of the poem, and
+  especially with the moment when Achilles returns to the field, eager
+  to meet Hector and avenge the death of his friend. The interpolation
+  (if it is one) is probably due to local interests. It contains the
+  well-known prophecy that the descendants of Aeneas are to rule over
+  the Trojans,--pointing to the existence of an Aenead dynasty in the
+  Troad. So, too, the legend of Anchises in the Hymn to Aphrodite is
+  evidently local; and Aeneas becomes more prominent in the later epics,
+  especially the _Cypria_ and the [Greek: Iliou persis] of Arctinus.
+
+_Structure of the Odyssey._--In the _Odyssey_, as in the _Iliad_, the
+events related fall within a short space of time. The difficulty of
+adapting the long wanderings of Ulysses to a plan of this type is got
+over by the device--first met with in the _Odyssey_--of making the hero
+tell the story of his own adventures. In this way the action is made to
+begin almost immediately before the actual return of Ulysses. Up to the
+time when he reaches Ithaca it moves on three distinct scenes: we follow
+the fortunes of Ulysses, of Telemachus on his voyage in the
+Peloponnesus, and of Penelope with the suitors. The art with which these
+threads are woven together was recognized by Wolf himself, who admitted
+the difficulty of applying his theory to the "admirabilis summa et
+compages" of the poem. Of the comparatively few attempts which have been
+made to dissect the _Odyssey_, the most moderate and attractive is that
+of Professor A. Kirchhoff of Berlin.[13]
+
+  According to Kirchhoff, the _Odyssey_ as we have it is the result of
+  additions made to an original nucleus. There was first of all a
+  "Return of Odysseus," relating chiefly the adventures with the
+  Cyclops, Calypso and the Phaeacians; then a continuation, the scene of
+  which lay in Ithaca, embracing the bulk of books xiii.-xxiii. The poem
+  so formed was enlarged at some time between Ol. 30 and Ol. 50 by the
+  stories of books x.-xii. (Circe, the Sirens, Scylla, &c.), and the
+  adventures of Telemachus. Lastly, a few passages were interpolated in
+  the time of Peisistratus.
+
+  The proof that the scenes in Ithaca are by a later hand than the
+  ancient "Return" is found chiefly in a contradiction discussed by
+  Kirchhoff in his sixth dissertation (pp. 135 sqq., ed. 1869).
+  Sometimes Ulysses is represented as aged and worn by toil, so that
+  Penelope, for instance, cannot recognize him; sometimes he is really
+  in the prime of heroic vigour, and his appearing as a beggarly old man
+  is the work of Athena's wand. The first of these representations is
+  evidently natural, considering the twenty eventful years that have
+  passed; but the second, Kirchhoff holds, is the Ulysses of Calypso's
+  island and the Phaeacian court. He concludes that the aged Ulysses
+  belongs to the "continuation" (the change wrought by Athena's wand
+  being a device to reconcile the two views), and hence that the
+  continuation is the work of a different author.
+
+  Ingenious as this is, there is really very slender ground for
+  Kirchhoff's thesis. The passages in the second half of the _Odyssey_
+  which describe the appearance of Ulysses do not give _two_ well-marked
+  representations of him. Sometimes Athena disguises him as a decrepit
+  beggar, sometimes she bestows on him supernatural beauty and vigour.
+  It must be admitted that we are not told exactly how long in each case
+  the effect of these changes lasted. But neither answers to his natural
+  appearance, or to the appearance which he is imagined to present in
+  the earlier books. In the palace of Alcinous, for instance, it is
+  noticed that he is vigorous but "marred by many ills" (_Od._ viii.
+  137); and this agrees with the scenes of recognition in the latter
+  part of the poem.
+
+  The arguments by which Kirchhoff seeks to prove that the stories of
+  books x.-xii. are much later than those of book ix. are not more
+  convincing. He points out some resemblances between these three books
+  and the Argonautic fables, among them the circumstance that a fountain
+  Artacia occurs in both. In the Argonautic story this fountain is
+  placed in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus, and answers to an actual
+  fountain known in historical times. Kirchhoff argues that the Artacia
+  of the Argonautic story must have been taken from the real Artacia,
+  and the Artacia of the _Odyssey_ again from that of the Argonautic
+  story. And as Cyzicus was settled from Miletus, he infers that both
+  sets of stories must be comparatively late. It is more probable,
+  surely, that the name Artacia occurred independently (as most
+  geographical names are found to occur) in more than one place. Or it
+  may be that the Artacia of the _Odyssey_ suggested the name to the
+  colonists of Cyzicus, whence it was adopted into the later versions of
+  the Argonautic story. The further argument that the _Nostoi_
+  recognized a son of Calypso by Ulysses but no son of Circe,
+  consequently that Circe was unknown to the poet of the _Nostoi_, rests
+  (in the first place) upon a conjectural alteration of a passage in
+  Eustathius, and, moreover, has all the weakness of an argument from
+  silence, in addition to the uncertainty arising from our very slight
+  knowledge of the author whose silence is in question. Finally, when
+  Kirchhoff finds traces in books x.-xii. of their having been
+  originally told by the poet himself instead of being put in the mouth
+  of his hero, we feel that inaccuracies of this kind are apt to creep
+  in wherever a fictitious story is thrown into the form of an
+  autobiography.
+
+  Inquiries conducted with the refinement which characterizes those of
+  Kirchhoff are always instructive, and his book contains very many just
+  observations; but it is impossible to admit his main conclusions. And
+  perhaps we may infer that no similar attempt can be more successful.
+  It does not indeed follow that the _Odyssey_ is free from
+  interpolations. The [Greek: Nekuia] of book xi. may be later (as Lauer
+  maintained), or it may contain additions, which could easily be
+  inserted in a description of the kind. And the last book is probably
+  by a different hand, as the ancient critics believed. But the unity of
+  the _Odyssey_ as a whole is apparently beyond the reach of the
+  existing weapons of criticism.
+
+_Chorizontes._--When we are satisfied that each of the great Homeric
+poems is either wholly or mainly the work of a single poet, a question
+remains which has been matter of controversy in ancient as well as
+modern times--Are they the work of the same poet? Two ancient
+grammarians, Xeno and Hellanicus, were known as the "separators"
+([Greek: oi chôrizontes]); and Aristarchus appears to have written a
+treatise against their heresy. In modern times some of the greatest
+names have been on the side of the "Chorizontes."
+
+If, as has been maintained in the preceding pages, the external evidence
+regarding Homer is of no value, the problem now before us may be stated
+in this form: Given two poems of which nothing is known except that they
+are of the same school of poetry, what is the probability that they are
+by the same author? We may find a fair parallel by imagining two plays
+drawn at hazard from the works of the great tragic writers. It is
+evident that the burden of proof would rest with those who held them to
+be by the same hand.
+
+The arguments used in this discussion have been of very various calibre.
+The ancient Chorizontes observed that the messenger of Zeus is Iris in
+the _Iliad_, but Hermes in the _Odyssey_; that the wife of Hephaestus is
+one of the Charites in the _Iliad_, but Aphrodite in the _Odyssey_; that
+the heroes in the _Iliad_ do not eat fish; that Crete has a hundred
+cities according to the _Iliad_, and only ninety according to the
+_Odyssey_; that [Greek: proparoithe] is used in the _Iliad_ of place, in
+the _Odyssey_ of time, &c. Modern scholars have added to the list,
+especially by making careful comparisons of the two poems in respect of
+vocabulary and grammatical forms. Nothing is more difficult than to
+assign the degree of weight to be given to such facts. The difference of
+subject between the two poems is so great that it leads to the most
+striking differences of detail, especially in the vocabulary. For
+instance, the word [Greek: phobos], which in Homer means "flight in
+battle" (not "fear"), occurs thirty-nine times in the _Iliad_, and only
+once in the _Odyssey_; but then there are no battles in the _Odyssey_.
+Again, the verb [Greek: rhêgnymi], "to break," occurs forty-eight times
+in the _Iliad_, and once in the _Odyssey_,--the reason being that it is
+constantly used of breaking the armour of an enemy, the gate of a city,
+the hostile ranks, &c. Once more, the word [Greek: skotos], "darkness,"
+occurs fourteen times in the _Iliad_, once in the _Odyssey_. But in
+every one of the fourteen places it is used of "darkness" coming over
+the sight of a fallen warrior. On the other side, if words such as
+[Greek: asaminthos], "a bath," [Greek: chernips], "a basin for the
+hands," [Greek: leschê], "a place to meet and talk," &c., are peculiar
+to the _Odyssey_, we have only to remember that the scene in the _Iliad_
+is hardly ever laid within any walls except those of a tent. These
+examples will show that mere statistics of the occurrence of words prove
+little, and that we must begin by looking to the subject and character
+of each poem. When we do so, we at once find ourselves in the presence
+of differences of the broadest kind. The _Iliad_ is much more historical
+in tone and character. The scene of the poem is a real place, and the
+poet sings (as Ulysses says of Demodocus) as though he had been present
+himself, or had heard from one who had been. The supernatural element is
+confined to an interference of the gods, which to the common eye hardly
+disturbs the natural current of affairs. The _Odyssey_, on the contrary,
+is full of the magical and romantic--"speciosa miracula," as Horace
+called them. Moreover, these marvels--which in their original form are
+doubtless as old as anything in the _Iliad_, since in fact they are part
+of the vast stock of popular tales (_Märchen_) diffused all over the
+world--are mixed up in the _Odyssey_ with the heroes of the Trojan war.
+This has been especially noticed in the case of the story of Polyphemus,
+one that is found in many countries, and in versions which cannot all be
+derived from Homer. W. Grimm has pointed out that the behaviour of
+Ulysses in that story is senseless and foolhardy, utterly beneath the
+wise and much-enduring Ulysses of the Trojan war. The reason is simple;
+he is not the Ulysses of the Trojan war, but a being of the same world
+as Polyphemus himself--the world of giants and ogres. The question then
+is--How long must the name of Ulysses have been familiar in the legend
+(_Sage_) of Troy before it made its way into the tales of giants and
+ogres (_Märchen_), where the poet of the _Odyssey_ found it?
+
+Again, the Trojan legend has itself received some extension between the
+time of the _Iliad_ and that of the _Odyssey_. The story of the Wooden
+Horse is not only unknown to the _Iliad_, but is of a kind which we can
+hardly imagine the poet of the _Iliad_ admitting. The part taken by
+Neoptolemus seems also to be a later addition. The tendency to amplify
+and complete the story shows itself still more in the Cyclic poets.
+Between the _Iliad_ and these poets the _Odyssey_ often occupies an
+intermediate position.
+
+This great and significant change in the treatment of the heroic legends
+is accompanied by numerous minor differences (such as the ancients
+remarked) in belief, in manners and institutions, and in language. These
+differences bear out the inference that the _Odyssey_ is of a later age.
+The progress of reflection is especially shown in the higher ideas
+entertained regarding the gods. The turbulent Olympian court has almost
+disappeared. Zeus has acquired the character of a supreme moral ruler;
+and although Athena and Poseidon are adverse influences in the poem, the
+notion of a direct contest between them is scrupulously avoided. The
+advance of morality is shown in the more frequent use of terms such as
+"just" ([Greek: dikaios]), "piety" ([Greek: hoshiê]), "insolence"
+([Greek: hubris]), "god-fearing" ([Greek: theoudês]), "pure" ([Greek:
+hagnos]); and also in the plot of the story, which is distinctly a
+contest between right and wrong. In matters bearing upon the arts of
+life it is unsafe to press the silence of the _Iliad_. We may note,
+however, the difference between the house of Priam, surrounded by
+distinct dwellings for his many sons and daughters, and the houses of
+Ulysses and Alcinous, with many chambers under a single roof. The
+singer, too, who is so prominent a figure in the _Odyssey_ can hardly be
+thought to be absent from the _Iliad_ merely because the scene is laid
+in a camp.
+
+_Style of Homer._--A few words remain to be said on the style and
+general character of the Homeric poems, and on the comparisons which may
+be made between Homer and analogous poetry in other countries.
+
+The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer have been pointed out once
+for all by Matthew Arnold. "The translator of Homer," he says, "should
+above all be penetrated by a sense of four qualities of his author--that
+he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in
+the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both
+in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in
+the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and,
+finally, that he is eminently noble" (_On Translating Homer_, p. 9).
+
+The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his use of the
+hexameter verse. It is characteristic of early literature that the
+evolution of the thought--that is, the grammatical form of the
+sentence--is guided by the structure of the verse; and the
+correspondence which consequently obtains between the rhythm and the
+grammar--the thought being given out in lengths, as it were, and these
+again divided by tolerably uniform pauses--produces a swift flowing
+movement, such as is rarely found when the periods have been constructed
+without direct reference to the metre. That Homer possesses this
+rapidity without falling into the corresponding faults--that is, without
+becoming either "jerky" or monotonous--is perhaps the best proof of his
+unequalled poetical skill. The plainness and directness, both of thought
+and of expression, which characterize Homer were doubtless qualities of
+his age; but the author of the _Iliad_ (like Voltaire, to whom Arnold
+happily compares him) must have possessed the national gift in a
+surpassing degree. The _Odyssey_ is in this respect perceptibly below
+the level of the _Iliad_.
+
+Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression and plainness of
+thought, these are not the distinguishing qualities of the great epic
+poets--Virgil, Dante, Milton. On the contrary, they belong rather to the
+humbler epico-lyrical school for which Homer has been so often claimed.
+The proof that Homer does not belong to that school--that his poetry is
+not in any true sense "ballad-poetry"--is furnished by the higher
+artistic structure of his poems (already discussed), and as regards
+style by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold--the
+quality of _nobleness_. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained
+through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates Homer
+from all forms of "ballad-poetry" and "popular epic."[14]
+
+But while we are on our guard against a once common error, we may
+recognize the historical connexion between the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ and
+the "ballad" literature which undoubtedly preceded them in Greece. It
+may even be admitted that the swift-flowing movement, and the simplicity
+of thought and style, which we admire in the _Iliad_ are an inheritance
+from the earlier "lays"--the [Greek: klea andrôn] such as Achilles and
+Patroclus sang to the lyre in their tent. Even the metre--the hexameter
+verse--may be assigned to them. But between these lays and Homer we must
+place the cultivation of epic poetry as an art.[15] The pre-Homeric lays
+doubtless furnished the elements of such a poetry--the alphabet, so to
+speak, of the art; but they must have been refined and transmuted before
+they formed poems like the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_.
+
+A single example will illustrate this. In the scene on the walls of
+Troy, in the third book of the _Iliad_, after Helen has pointed out
+Agamemnon, Ulysses and Ajax in answer to Priam's questions, she goes on
+unasked to name Idomeneus. Lachmann, whose mind is full of the ballad
+manner, fastens upon this as an irregularity. "The unskilful transition
+from Ajax to Idomeneus, about whom no question had been asked," he
+cannot attribute to the original poet of the lay (_Betrachtungen_, p.
+15, ed. 1865). But, as was pointed out by A. Römer[16], this is exactly
+the variation which a _poet_ would introduce to relieve the primitive
+_ballad-like_ sameness of question and answer; and moreover it forms the
+transition to the lines about the Dioscuri by which the scene is so
+touchingly brought to a close.
+
+_Analogies._--The development of epic poetry (properly so called) out of
+the oral songs or ballads of a country is a process which in the nature
+of things can seldom be observed. It seems clear, however, that the
+hypothesis of epics such as the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ having been formed
+by putting together or even by working up shorter poems finds no support
+from analogy.
+
+Narrative poetry of great interest is found in several countries (such
+as Spain and Servia), in which it has never attained to the epic stage.
+In Scandinavia, in Lithuania, in Russia, according to Gaston Paris
+(_Histoire poétique de Charlemagne_, p. 9), the national songs have been
+arrested in a form which may be called intermediate between contemporary
+poetry and the epic. The true epics are those of India, Persia, Greece,
+Germany, Britain and France. Most of these, however, fail to afford any
+useful points of comparison, either from their utter unlikeness to
+Homer, or because there is no evidence of the existence of anterior
+popular songs. The most instructive, perhaps the only instructive,
+parallel is to be found in the French "chansons de geste," of which the
+_Chanson de Roland_ is the earliest and best example. These poems are
+traced back with much probability to the 10th century. They are epic in
+character, and were recited by professional _jongleurs_ (who may be
+compared to the [Greek: aoidoi] of Homer). But as early as the 7th
+century we come upon traces of short lays (the so-called cantilènes)
+which were in the mouths of all and were sung in chorus. It has been
+held that the chansons de geste were formed by joining together
+"bunches" of these earlier cantilènes, and this was the view taken by
+Léon Gautier in the first edition of _Les Épopées françaises_ (1865). In
+the second edition, of which the first volume appeared in 1878, he
+abandoned this theory. He believes that the epics were generally
+composed under the influence of earlier songs. "Our first epic poets,"
+he says, "did not actually and materially patch together pre-existent
+cantilènes. They were only inspired by these popular songs; they only
+borrowed from them the traditional and legendary elements. In short,
+they took nothing from them but the ideas, the spirit, the life; they
+'found' (ils ont trouvé) all the rest" (p. 80). But he admits that "some
+of the old poems may have been borrowed from tradition, without any
+intermediary" (ibid.); and when it is considered that the traces of the
+"cantilènes" are slight, and that the degree in which they inspired the
+later poetry must be a matter of impression rather than of proof, it
+does not surprise us to find other scholars (notably Paul Meyer)
+attaching less importance to them, or even doubting their existence.[17]
+
+When Léon Gautier shows how history passes into legend, and legend again
+into romance, we are reminded of the difference noticed above between
+the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, and between Homer and the early Cyclic
+poems. And the peculiar degradation of Homeric characters which appears
+in some poets (especially Euripides) finds a parallel in the later
+chansons de geste.[18]
+
+The comparison of Homer with the great literary epics calls for more
+discursive treatment than would be in place here. Some external
+differences have been already indicated. Like the French epics, Homeric
+poetry is indigenous, and is distinguished by this fact, and by the ease
+of movement and the simplicity which result from it, from poets such as
+Virgil, Dante and Milton. It is also distinguished from them by the
+comparative absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil's
+poetry a sense of the greatness of Rome and Italy is the leading motive
+of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the "chosen delicacy" of his
+language. Dante and Milton are still more faithful exponents of the
+religion and politics of their time. Even the French epics are pervaded
+by the sentiment of fear and hatred of the Saracens. But in Homer the
+interest is purely dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or
+religion; the war turns on no political event; the capture of Troy lies
+outside the range of the _Iliad_. Even the heroes are not the chief
+national heroes of Greece. The interest lies wholly (so far as we can
+see) in the picture of human action and feeling.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A complete bibliography of Homer would fill volumes.
+  The following list is intended to include those books only which are
+  of first-rate importance.
+
+  The _editio princeps_ of Homer, published at Florence in 1488, by
+  Demetrius Chalcondylas, and the Aldine editions of 1504 and 1517, have
+  still some value beyond that of curiosity. The chief modern critical
+  editions are those of Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804-1807),
+  Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836), Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858), La
+  Roche (_Odyssey_, 1867-1868; _Iliad_, 1873-1876, both at Leipzig);
+  Ludwich (_Odyssey_, Leipzig, 1889-1891; _Iliad_, 2 vols., 1901 and
+  1907): W. Leaf (_Iliad_, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902); Merry
+  and Riddell (_Odyssey_ i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886); Monro
+  (_Odyssey_ xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901); Monro and Allen
+  (_Iliad_), and Allen (_Odyssey_, 1908, Oxford). The commentaries of
+  Barnes, Clarke and Ernesti are practically superseded; but Heyne's
+  _Iliad_ (Leipzig, 1802) and Nitzsch's commentary on the _Odyssey_
+  (books i.-xii., Hanover, 1826-1840) are still useful. Nägelbach's
+  _Anmerkungen zur Ilias_ (A, B 1-483, [Gamma]) is of great value,
+  especially the third edition (by Autenrieth, Nuremberg, 1864). The
+  unique _Scholia Veneta_ on the _Iliad_ were first made known by
+  Villoison (_Homeri Ilias ad veteris codicis Veneti fidem recensita,
+  Scholia in eam antiquissima ex eodem codice aliisque nunc primum
+  edidit, cum Asteriscis, Obeliscis, aliisque signis criticis, Joh.
+  Baptista Caspar d'Ansse de Villoison_, Venice, 1788); reprinted, with
+  many additions from other MSS., by Bekker (_Scholia in Homeri
+  Iliadem_, Berlin, 1825-1826). A new edition has been published by the
+  Oxford Press (_Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem_, ed. Gul.
+  Dindorfius); six volumes have appeared (1875-1888), the last two
+  edited by Professor E. Maass. The vast commentary of Eustathius was
+  first printed at Rome in 1542; the last edition is that of Stallbaum
+  (Leipzig, 1827). The Scholia on the _Odyssey_ were published by
+  Buttmann (Berlin, 1821), and with greater approach to completeness by
+  W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1855). Although Wolf at once perceived the value
+  of the Venetian Scholia on the _Iliad_, the first scholar who
+  thoroughly explored them was C. Lehrs (_De Aristarchi studiis
+  Homericis_, Königsberg, 1833; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1865). Of the studies
+  in the same field which have appeared since, the most important are:
+  Aug. Nauck, _Aristophanis Byzantii fragmenta_ (Halle, 1848); L.
+  Friedländer, _Aristonici_ [Greek: peri sêmeiôn 'Iliados] _reliquiae_
+  (Göttingen, 1853); M. Schmidt, _Didymi Chalcenteri fragmenta_
+  (Leipzig, 1854); L. Friedländer, _Nicanoris_ [Greek: peri Iliakês
+  stigmês] _reliquiae_ (Berlin, 1857); Aug. Lentz, _Herodiani Technici
+  reliquiae_ (Leipzig, 1867); J. La Roche, _Die homerische Textkritik im
+  Alterthum_ (Leipzig, 1866) and _Homerische Untersuchungen_ (Leipzig,
+  1869); Ad. Römer, _Die Werke der Aristarcheer im Cod. Venet. A._
+  (Munich, 1875); A. Ludwich, _Aristarch's Homerische Textkritik_ (2
+  vols. Leipzig, 1884-1885); and _Die Homervulgata als
+  vor-Alexandrinisch erwiesen_ (Leipzig, 1898).
+
+  The literature of the "Homeric Question" begins practically with
+  Wolf's _Prolegomena_ (Halle, 1795). Of the earlier books Wood's _Essay
+  on the Original Genius and Writings of Homer_ is the most interesting.
+  Wolf's views were skilfully popularized in W. Müller's _Homerische
+  Vorschule_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1836). G. Hermann's dissertations _De
+  interpolationibus Homeri_ (1832) and _De iteratis apuà Homerum_ (1840)
+  are reprinted in his _Opuscula_. Lachmann's two papers (_Betrachtungen
+  über Homer's Ilias_) were edited together by M. Haupt (2nd ed.,
+  Berlin, 1865). Besides the somewhat voluminous writings of Nitzsch,
+  and the discussions contained in the histories of Greek literature by
+  K. O. Müller, Bernhardy, Ulrici and Th. Bergk, and in Grote's _History
+  of Greece_, see Welcker, _Der epische Cyclus oder die homerischen
+  Dichter_ (Bonn, 1835-1849); on Proclus and the Cycle reference may
+  also be made to Wilamowitz-Möllendorf p. 328 seq.; E. Bethe, _Rhein.
+  Mus._ (1891), xxvi. p. 593 seq.; O. Immisch, _Festschrift Th. Gomperz
+  dargebracht_ (1902), p. 237 sq.; Lauer, _Geschichte der homerischen
+  Poesie_ (Berlin, 1851); Sengebusch, two dissertations prefixed to the
+  two volumes of W. Dindorf's _Homer_ in the Teubner series (1855-1856);
+  Friedländer, _Die homerische Kritik von Wolf bis Grote_ (Berlin,
+  1853); Nutzhorn, _Die Entstehungsweise der homerischen Gedichte, mit
+  Vorwort von J. N. Madvig_ (Leipzig, 1869); E. Kammer, _Zur homerischen
+  Frage_ (Königsberg, 1870); and _Die Einheit der Odyssee_ (Leipzig,
+  1873); Ä. Kirchhoff, _Die Composition der Odyssee_ (Berlin, 1869);
+  Volkmann, _Geschichte und Kritik der Wolf'schen Prolegomena_ (Leipzig,
+  1874); K. Sittl, _Die Wiederholungen in der Odyssee_ (München, 1882);
+  U. v. Wilamowitz-Möllendorf, _Homerische Untersuchungen_ (Berlin,
+  1884); O. Seeck, _Die Quellen der Odyssee_ (Berlin, 1887); F. Blass,
+  _Die Interpolationen in der Odyssee_ (Leipzig, 1905). The interest
+  taken in the question by English students is sufficiently shown in the
+  writings of W. E. Gladstone, F. A. Paley, Henry Hayman (in the
+  Introduction to his _Odyssey_), P. Geddes, R. C. Jebb and A. Lang (see
+  especially the latter's _Homer and his Age_, 1907).
+
+  The Homeric dialect must be studied in the books (such as those of G.
+  Curtius) that deal with Greek on the comparative method. The best
+  special work is the brief _Griechische Formenlehre_ of H. L. Ahrens
+  (Göttingen, 1852). Other important works are those of Aug. Fick: _Die
+  homerische Odyssee in der ursprünglichen Sprachform wiederhergestelt_
+  (Göttingen, 1883); _Die homerische Ilias_ (_ibid._, 1886); W. Schulze,
+  _Quaestiones epicae_ (Güterslohe, 1892). On Homeric syntax the chief
+  book is B. Delbrück's _Syntactische Forschungen_ (Halle, 1871-1879),
+  especially vols. i. and iv.; on metre, &c., Hartel's _Homerische
+  Studien_ (i.-iii., Vienna); Knös, _De digammo Homerico quaestiones_
+  (Upsala, 1872-1873-1878); Thumb, _Zur Geschichte des griech. Digamma,
+  Indogermanische Forschungen_ (1898), ix. 294 seq. The papers reprinted
+  in Bekker's _Homerische Blätter_ (Bonn, 1863-1872) and Cobet's
+  _Miscellanea Crilica_ (Leiden, 1876) are of the highest value.
+  Hoffmann's _Quaestiones Homericae_ (Clausthal, 1842) is a useful
+  collection of facts. Buttmann's _Lexilogus_, as an example of method,
+  is still worth study.
+
+  The antiquities of Homer--using the word in a wide sense--may be
+  studied in the following books: Völcker, _Über homerische Geographie
+  und Weltkunde_ (Hanover, 1830); Nägelsbach's _Homerische Theologie_
+  (2nd ed., Nuremberg, 1861); H. Brunn, _Die Kunst bei Homer_ (Munich,
+  1868); W. W. Lloyd, _On the Homeric Design of the Shield of Achilles_
+  (London, 1854); Buchholz, _Die homerischen Realien_ (Leipzig,
+  1871-1873); W. Helbig, _Das homerische Epos aus den Denkmälern
+  erläutert_ (Leipzig, 1884; 2nd ed., ibid., 1887); W. Reichel, _Über
+  homerische Waffen_ (Vienna, 1894); C. Robert, _Studien zur Ilias_
+  (Berlin, 1901); W. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_ (Cambridge,
+  1901); V. Bérard, _Les Phéniciens et l'Odyssée_ (Paris, 1902-1903); C.
+  Robert, "Topographische Probleme der Ilias," in _Hermes_, xlii., 1907,
+  pp. 78-112.
+
+  Among other aids should be mentioned the _Index Homericus_ of Seber
+  (Oxford, 1780); Prendergast's _Concordance to the Iliad_ (London,
+  1875); Dunbar's _id._ to the _Odyssey and Hymns_ (Oxford, 1880);
+  Frohwein, _Verbum Homericum_, (Leipzig, 1881); Gehring, _Index
+  Homericus_ (Leipzig, 1891); the _Lexicon Homericum_, edited by H.
+  Ebeling (Leipzig, 1880-1885) and the facsimile of the cod. Ven. A
+  (Sijthoff; Leiden, 1901), with an introduction by D. Comparetti.
+       (D. B. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This article was thoroughly revised by Dr D. B. Monro before his
+    death in 1905; a few points have since been added by Mr. T. W. Allen.
+
+  [2] See a paper in the _Diss. Philol. Halenses_, ii. 97-219.
+
+  [3] Compare the _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, published by Robert
+    Chambers.
+
+  [4] Compare the branch of myrtle at an Athenian feast (Aristoph.,
+    _Nub._, 1364).
+
+  [5] The _Iliad_ was also recited at the festival of the Brauronia, at
+    Brauron in Attica (Hesych. _s.v._ [Greek: branrôniois]).
+
+  [6] _Contemporary Review_, vol. xxiii. p. 218 ff.
+
+  [7] The fact that the Phoenician Vau ([digamma]) was retained in the
+    Greek alphabets, and the vowel [upsilon] added, shows that when the
+    alphabet was introduced the sound denoted by [digamma] was still in
+    full vigour. Otherwise [digamma] would have been used for the vowel
+    [upsilon], just as the Phoenician consonant Yod became the vowel
+    [iota]. But in the Ionic dialect the sound of [digamma] died out soon
+    after Homer's time, if indeed it was still pronounced then. It seems
+    probable therefore that the introduction of the alphabet is not later
+    than the composition of the Homeric poems.
+
+  [8] See D. B. Monro's _Homer's Odyssey_, books xiii.-xxiv. (Oxford,
+    1901, p. 455 sqq.), and the abstract of his paper on the Homeric
+    Dialect read to the Congress of Historical Sciences at Rome, 1903:
+    _Atti del Congresso internazionale di scienze storiche_, ii. 152,
+    153, 1905, "Il Dialetto omerico."
+
+  [9] See the chapter in Cobet's _Miscellanea critica_, pp. 225-239.
+
+  [10] The existence of two groups of the Venetian Scholia was first
+    noticed by Jacob La Roche, and they were first distinguished in the
+    edition of W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1875). There is also a group of
+    Scholia, chiefly exegetical, a collection of which was published by
+    Villoison from a MS. Ven. 453 (s. xi.) in his edition of 1788, and
+    has been again edited by W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1877). The most
+    important collection of this group is contained in the _Codex
+    Townleianus_ (Burney 86 s. xi.) of the British Museum, edited by E.
+    Maass, (Oxford, 1887-1888). The vast commentary of Eustathius (of the
+    12th century) marks a third stage in the progress of ancient Homeric
+    learning.
+
+  [11] _Prolegomena ad Homerum, sive de operum Homericorum prisca et
+    genuina forma variisque mutationibus et probabili ratione emendandi._
+    scripsit Frid. Aug. Wolfius, volumen i. (1795).
+
+  [12] On this point see a paper by Professor Packard in the _Trans. of
+    the American Philological Association_ (1876).
+
+  [13] _Die Composition der Odyssee_ (Berlin, 1869). A full discussion
+    of this book is given by Dr E. Kammer, _Die Einheit der Odyssee_
+    (Leipzig, 1873).
+
+  [14] "As a poet Homer must be acknowledged to excel Shakespeare in
+    the truth, the harmony, the sustained grandeur, the satisfying
+    completeness of his images" (Shelley, _Essays_, &c., i. 51, ed.
+    1852).
+
+  [15] "The old English balladist may stir Sir Philip Sidney's heart
+    like a trumpet, and this is much; but Homer, but the few artists in
+    the grand style, can do more--they can refine the raw natural man,
+    they can transmute him" (_On Translating Homer_, p. 61).
+
+  [16] _Die exegetischen Scholien der Ilias_, p. vii.
+
+  [17] "On comprend que des chants populaires nés d'un événement
+    éclatant, victoire ou défaite, puissent contribuer à former la
+    tradition, à en arrêter les traits; ils peuvent aussi devenir le
+    centre de légendes qui se forment pour les expliquer; et de la sorte
+    leur substance au moins arrive au poëte épique qui l'introduit dans
+    sa composition. Voilà ce qui a pu se produire pour de chants
+    très-courts, dont il est d'ailleurs aussi difficile d'affirmer que de
+    nier l'existence. Mais on peut expliquer la formation des chansons de
+    geste par une autre hypothèse" (Meyer, _Recherches sur l'épopée
+    française_, p. 65). "Ce qui a fait naître la théorie des chants
+    'lyrico-épiques' ou des cantilènes, c'est le système de Wolf sur les
+    poëmes homériques, et de Lachmann sur les _Nibelungen_. Mais, au
+    moins en ce qui concerne ce dernier poëme, le système est détruit....
+    On tire encore argument des romances espagnoles, qui, dit-on, sont
+    des 'cantilènes' non encore arrivées à l'épopée.... Et c'est le
+    malheur de cette théorie: faute de preuves directes, elle cherche des
+    analogies au dehors: en Espagne, elle trouve des 'cantilènes,' mais
+    pas d'épopée; en Allemagne, une épopée, mais pas de cantilènes!"
+    (_Ibid._ p. 66).
+
+  [18] A. Lang, _Contemporary Review_, vol. xvii., N.S., p. 588.
+
+
+
+
+HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-1910), American painter, was born in Boston,
+U.S.A., on the 24th of February 1836. At the age of nineteen he was
+apprenticed to a lithographer. Two years later he opened a studio in
+Boston, and devoted much of his time to making drawings for
+wood-engravers. In 1859 he removed to New York, where he studied in the
+night-school of the National Academy of Design. During the American
+Civil War he was with the troops at the front, and contributed sketches
+to _Harper's Weekly_. The war also furnished him with the subjects for
+the first two pictures which he exhibited (1863), one of which was
+"Home, Sweet Home." His "Prisoners from the Front"--perhaps his most
+generally popular picture--was exhibited in New York in 1865, and also
+in Paris in 1867, where he was spending the year in study. Among his
+other paintings in oil are "Snap the Whip" (which was exhibited at the
+Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876, and, in company with "The
+Country Schoolroom," at the Paris Salon the following year), "Eating
+Water-melon," "The Cotton Pickers," "Visit from the Old Mistress, Sunday
+Morning," "The Life-Line" and "The Coming of the Gale." His genius,
+however, has perhaps shown better in his works in water-colour, among
+which are his marine studies painted at Gloucester, Mass., and his
+"Inside the Bar," "The Voice from the Cliffs" (pictures of English
+fisherwomen), "Tynemouth," "Wrecking of a Vessel" and "Lost on the
+Grand Banks." His work, which principally consists of _genre_ pictures,
+is characterized by strength, rugged directness and unmistakable
+freshness and originality, rather than by technical excellence, grace of
+line or beauty of colour. He was little affected by European influences.
+His types and scenes, apart from his few English pictures, are
+distinctly American--soldiers in blue, New England children, negroes in
+the land of cotton, Gloucester fishermen and stormy Atlantic seas.
+Besides being a member of the Society of Painters in Water-color, New
+York, he was elected in 1864 an associate and the following year a
+member of the National Academy of Design.
+
+
+
+
+HOMESTEAD, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the
+Monongahela river, 8 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 7911; (1900)
+12,554, of whom 3604 were foreign-born and 640 were negroes; (U.S.
+census, 1910) 18,713. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg
+& Lake Erie railways, and by the short Union Railroad, which connects
+with the Bessemer & Lake Erie and the Wabash railways. The borough has a
+Carnegie library and the C.M. Schwab Manual Training School. Partly in
+Homestead but chiefly in the adjoining borough of Munhall (and therefore
+not reported as in Homestead by the U.S. Census) is one of the largest
+plants in the United States for the manufacture of steel used in the
+construction of bridges and steel-frame buildings and of steel
+armour-plate, and this is its chief industry; among Homestead's other
+manufactures are glass and fire-bricks. The water-works are owned and
+operated by the municipality. Homestead was first settled in 1871, and
+it was incorporated in 1880. In 1892 a labour strike lasting 143 days
+and one of the most serious in the history of the United States was
+carried on here by the National Amalgamated Association of Iron and
+Steel Workers of the United States against the Carnegie Steel Company.
+The arrival (on the 6th of July) of a force of about 200 Pinkerton
+detectives from New York and Chicago resulted in a fight in which about
+10 men were killed, and to restore order two brigades of the state
+militia were called out. See STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS.
+
+
+
+
+HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS, laws (principally in the United States)
+designed primarily either to aid the head of a family to acquire title
+to a place of residence or to protect the owner against loss of that
+title through seizure for debt. These laws have all been enacted in
+America since about the middle of the 19th century, and owe their origin
+to the demand for a population of the right sort in a new country, to
+the conviction that the freeholder rather than the tenant is the natural
+supporter of popular government, to the effort to prevent insolvent
+debtors from becoming useless members of society, and to the belief that
+such laws encourage the stability of the family.
+
+By the cessions of several of the older states, and by various treaties
+with foreign countries, public lands have been acquired for the United
+States in every state and territory of the Union except the original
+thirteen, and Maine, Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee and Texas. For a time
+they were regarded chiefly as a source of revenue, but about 1820, as
+the need of revenue for the payment of the national debt decreased and
+the inhabitants of an increasing number of new states became eager to
+have the vacant lands within their bounds occupied, the demand that the
+public lands should be disposed of more in the interest of the settler
+became increasingly strong, and the homestead idea originated. Until the
+advent of railways, however, the older states of the North were opposed
+to promoting the development of the West in this manner, and soon
+afterwards the Southern representatives in Congress opposed the general
+homestead bills in the interests of slavery, so that except in isolated
+cases where settlers were desired to protect some frontier, as in
+Florida and Oregon, and to a limited extent in the case of the
+Pre-emption Act of 1841 (see below), the homestead principle was not
+applied by the national government until the Civil War had begun. A
+general homestead bill was passed by Congress in 1860, but this was
+vetoed by President James Buchanan; two years later, however, a similar
+bill became a law. The act of 1862 originally provided that any citizen
+of the United States, or applicant for citizenship, who was the head of
+a family, or twenty-one years of age, or, if younger, had served not
+less than fourteen days in the army or navy of the United States during
+an actual war, might apply for 160 acres or less of unappropriated
+public lands, and might acquire title to this amount of land by residing
+upon and cultivating it for five years immediately following, and paying
+such fees as were necessary to cover the cost of administration; a
+homestead acquired in this manner was exempted from seizure for any debt
+contracted prior to the date of issuing the patent. A commutation clause
+of this act permitted title to be acquired after only six months of
+residence by paying $1.25 per acre, as provided in the Pre-emption Act
+of 1841. Act of 1872, amended in 1901, allows any soldier or seaman, who
+has served at least ninety days in the army or navy of the United States
+during the Civil War, the Spanish-American War or in the suppression of
+the insurrection in the Philippines, and was honourably discharged, to
+apply for a homestead, and permits the deduction of the time of such
+service, or, if discharged on account of wounds or other disability
+incurred in the line of duty, the full term of his enlistment, from the
+five years otherwise required for perfecting title, except that in any
+case he shall have resided upon and cultivated the land at least one
+year before the passing of title. Since 1866 mineral lands have been for
+the most part excluded from entry as homesteads.
+
+In accordance with the provisions of the homestead law, 718,930
+homesteads, containing 96,495,414 acres, were established in forty-two
+years, and besides this principal act, Congress has passed several minor
+ones of a like nature, that is, acts designed to benefit the actual
+settler who improves the land. Thus the Pre-emption Act of 1841 gave to
+any head of a family or any single person over twenty-one years of age,
+who was a citizen of the United States or had declared his intention to
+become one, permission to purchase not to exceed 160 acres of public
+lands after he had resided upon and improved the same for six months;
+the Timber-Culture Act of 1873 allowed title to 160 acres of public
+prairie-land to be given to any one who should plant upon it 40 acres of
+timber, and keep the same in good growing condition for ten years; and
+the Desert-Land Act of 1877 gave to any citizen of the United States, or
+to any person who had declared his intention to become one, the
+privilege of acquiring title to 640 acres of such public land as was not
+included in mineral or timber lands, and would not without irrigation
+produce an agricultural crop, by paying twenty-five cents an acre and
+creating for the tract an artificial water-supply. These several land
+acts, however, invited fraud to such an extent that in time they
+promoted the establishment of large land holdings by ranchmen and others
+quite as much as they encouraged settlement and cultivation, and so
+great was this evil that in 1891 the Timber-Culture and Pre-emption Acts
+were repealed, the total amount of land that could be acquired by any
+one person under the several land laws was limited to 320 acres, the
+Desert-Land Act was so amended as to require an expenditure of at least
+three dollars an acre for irrigation, and the original Homestead Act was
+so amended as to disqualify any person who was already proprietor of
+more than 160 acres in any state or Territory of the Union for acquiring
+any more land under its provisions; and in 1896 a residence of fourteen
+months was required before permitting commutation or the purchase of
+title. But even these measures were inadequate to prevent fraud. In 1894
+Congress, in what is known as the Carey Act, donated to California,
+Oregon, Nevada, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Arizona, New
+Mexico and the Dakotas so much of 1,000,000 acres each of desert-lands
+as each should cause to be irrigated, reclaimed and occupied within ten
+years,[1] not less than 20 acres of each 160 acres to be cultivated by
+actual settlers; and in several of these states and territories
+irrigating companies have been formed and land offered to settlers in
+amounts not exceeding 160 acres to each, on terms requiring the settler
+to purchase ample and perpetual water-rights. In 1902, Congress
+appropriated the proceeds of the sales of public lands in these states
+and territories to form a reclamation fund to be used for the
+construction and maintenance of irrigation works, and lands reclaimed by
+this means are open to homestead entries, the entry-man being required
+to pay for the cost of reclamation in ten equal annual instalments
+without interest. When Texas was admitted to the Union the disposal of
+its public lands was reserved to the state, and under its laws every
+person who is the head of a family and without a homestead may acquire
+title to 160 acres of land by residing upon and improving it for three
+years; every unmarried man eighteen years of age or over may acquire
+title to 80 acres in the same way.
+
+A short time before the National Homestead Act for aiding citizens to
+acquire homesteads went into operation, some of the state legislatures
+had passed homestead and exemption laws designed to protect homesteads
+or a certain amount of property against loss to the owners in case they
+should become insolvent debtors, and by the close of the century the
+legislature of nearly every state in the Union had passed a law of this
+nature. These laws vary greatly. In most states the exemption of a
+homestead or other property from liability for debts can be claimed only
+by the head of a family, but in Georgia it may be claimed by any aged or
+infirm person, by any trustee of a family of minor children, or by any
+person on whom any woman or girls are dependent for support; and in
+California, although the head of a family may claim exemption for a
+homestead valued at $5000, any other person may claim exemption for a
+homestead valued at $1000. In some states exemptions may be claimed
+either for a farm limited to 40, 80, 160 or 200 acres, or for a house
+and one or more lots, usually limited in size, in a town, village or
+city; in other states the homestead for which exemption may be claimed
+is limited in value, and this value varies from $500 to $5000. With the
+homestead are usually included the appurtenances thereto, and the courts
+invariably interpret the law liberally; but many states also exempt a
+specified amount of personal property, including wearing apparel,
+furniture, provisions, tools, libraries and in some cases domestic
+animals and stock in trade. A few states exempt no homestead and only a
+small amount of personal property; Maryland, for example, exempts only
+$100 worth of property besides money payable in the nature of insurance,
+or for relief, in the event of sickness, injury or death. To some debts
+the exemption does not usually apply; the most common of these are
+taxes, purchase money, a debt secured by mortgage on the homestead and
+debts contracted in making improvements upon it; in Maryland the only
+exception is a judgment for breach of promise to marry or in case of
+seduction. If the homestead belongs to a married person, the consent of
+both husband and wife is usually required to mortgage it. Finally, some
+states require that the homestead for which exemption is to be claimed
+shall be previously entered upon record, others require only occupancy,
+and still others permit the homestead to be designated whenever a claim
+is presented.
+
+Following the example of either the United States Congress or the state
+legislatures, the governments of several British colonial states and
+provinces have passed homestead laws. In Quebec every settler on public
+lands is allowed, after receiving a patent, an exemption of not to
+exceed 200 acres from that of his widow, of his, her or their children
+and descendants in the direct line. In Ontario an applicant for a
+homestead may have not to exceed 200 acres of unappropriated public land
+for farming purposes by building a house thereon, occupying it for five
+years, and bringing at least fifteen acres under cultivation; the
+exemption of such a homestead from liability to seizure for debts is,
+however, limited to twenty years from the date of application for the
+land, and does not extend even during that period to rates or taxes.
+Manitoba, British Columbia, Queensland, New South Wales, South
+Australia, West Australia and New Zealand also have liberal homestead
+and exemption laws.
+
+  See J. B. Sanborn, "Some Political Aspects of Homestead Legislation,"
+  in _The American Historical Review_ (1900); Edward Manson, "The
+  Homestead Acts," in the _Journal of the Society of Comparative
+  Legislation_ (London, 1899); S. D. Thompson, _A Treatise on_
+  _Homesteads and Exemptions_ (San Francisco, 1886); P. Bureau, _Le
+  Homestead ou l'Insaisissabilité de la petite propriété foncière_
+  (Paris, 1894), and L. Vacher, _Le Homestead aux États-Unis_ (Paris,
+  1899).     (N. D. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In 1901 it was provided that the ten years should date from the
+    segregation of the lands from the public domain.
+
+
+
+
+HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV (1795-1874), German jurist, was born on the 13th of
+August 1795 at Wolgast in Pomerania. After studying law at the
+universities of Berlin, Göttingen and Heidelberg (1813-1817), he settled
+as a _Privatdocent_, in 1821, at the university of Berlin, where he
+became ordinary professor of law in 1827. His principal works are his
+edition of the _Sachsenspiegel_ (in 3 vols., 1827, 3rd ed., 1861,
+containing also some other important sources of Saxon or Low German
+law), which is still unsurpassed in accuracy and sagacity of research,
+and his book on _Die Haus- und Hofmarken_ (1870), in which he has given
+a history of the use of trade-marks among all the Teutonic nations of
+Europe, and which is full of important elucidations of the history of
+law and also contains valuable contributions to the history of art and
+civilization. In 1850 Homeyer was elected a member of the Berlin Academy
+of Sciences, in the _Transactions_ of which he published various papers
+exhibiting profound learning (_Über die Heimat_, 1852; _Genealogie der
+Handschriften des Sachsenspiegels_, 1859; _Die Stadtbücher des
+Mittelalters_, 1860; _Der Dreissigste_, 1864, &c.). He died on the 20th
+of October 1874.
+
+
+
+
+HOMICIDE (Lat. _homicidium_), the general and neutral term for the
+killing of one human being by another. The nature of the responsibility
+of the slayer to the state and to the relatives of the slain has been
+one of the chief concerns of all systems of law from the earliest times,
+and it has been variously considered from the points of view of the
+sanctity of human life, the interests of the sovereign, the injury to
+the family of the slain and the moral guilt, i.e. the motives and
+intentions, of the slayer.
+
+The earliest recorded laws (those of Khammurabi) do not contain any
+sweeping general provision as to the punishment of homicide. The death
+penalty is freely imposed but not for homicide. "If a man strike a
+gentleman's daughter that she dies, his own daughter is to be put to
+death, if a poor man's the slayer pays ½ mina." In the Mosaic law the
+general command "Thou shalt not kill" of the Decalogue is in terms
+absolute. In primitive law homicide, however innocent, subjected the
+slayer to the lawful vengeance of the kindred of the slain, unless he
+could make some composition with him. This _lex talionis_ (a life for a
+life) resulted: (1) in a course of private justice which still survives
+in the vendetta of Corsica and Albania, and the blood feuds arising out
+of "difficulties" in the southern and western parts of the United
+States; (2) in the recognition of sanctuaries and cities of refuge
+within which the avenger of blood might not penetrate to kill an
+innocent manslayer; and (3) in the system of wite, bote and wer, by
+which the life of every man had its assessed price payable to his chief
+and his next of kin.
+
+It took long to induce the relatives of the slain to appreciate anything
+beyond the fact of the death of their kinsman or to discriminate between
+intentional and accidental homicide. By the laws of Khammurabi (206,
+208) striking a man in a quarrel without deadly intent but with fatal
+effect was treated as a matter for compensation according to the rank of
+the slain. The Pentateuch discriminates between the man "who lieth in
+wait for" or "cometh presumptuously" on "his neighbour to slay him with
+guile" (Exodus xxi. 13, 14), and the man "who killeth his neighbour
+ignorantly whom he hated not in time past" (Deut. xix. 4). But even
+killing by misadventure exposed the slayer to the avenger of blood. "As
+a man goeth into the wood with his neighbour to hew wood, and his hand
+fetcheth a stroke with the axe to cut down a tree and the head slippeth
+from the helve and lighteth upon his neighbour that he die: he shall
+flee into one of these cities (of refuge) and live" (Deut. xix. 5).
+
+Under the early laws of Teutonic and Celtic communities the
+inconveniences of the blood feud were gradually mitigated (see CRIMINAL
+LAW) by the system of wite and wer (or eric), but the blood feud
+continued long in Friesland and Lower Saxony, and in parts of
+Switzerland until the 16th century. In England under the Norman system
+homicide became a plea of the crown, and the rights of the kindred to
+private vengeance and to compensation were gradually superseded in
+favour of the right of the king to forfeitures where the homicide
+amounted to a crime (felony).
+
+Though homicide was thus made a public offence and not a matter for
+private vengeance, it took long to discriminate between those forms of
+homicide which should and those which should not be punished.
+
+The terms of act in English law used to describe _criminal_ homicide are
+murder (_mord_, _meurtre_, _murdrum_), manslaughter and _felo de se_ (or
+suicide by a person of sound mind).
+
+The original meaning of the word "murder" seems to have been secret
+homicide,--"_Murdrum proprie dicitur mors alicujus occulta cujus
+interfector ignoratur_" (_Dialogus de Scaccario_ i, x.); and Glanville
+says: _Duo sunt genera homicidii, unum est quod dicitur murdrum quod
+nullo vidente nullo sciente clam perpetratur, ita quod non assignatur
+clamor popularis_ (hue and cry), _est et aliud homicidium quod diciter
+simplex homicidium_. After the Conquest, and for the protection of the
+ruling race, a fine (also called _murdrum_) was levied for the king on
+the hundred or other district in which a stranger was found dead, if the
+slayer was not brought to justice and the blood kin of the slain did not
+present Englishry, there being a presumption (in favour of the
+Exchequer) that the deceased was a Frenchman. After the assize of
+Clarendon (1166) the distinction between the killing of Normans and
+Englishmen gradually evaporated and the term murder came to acquire its
+present meaning of deliberate as distinct from secret homicide. In 1267
+it was provided that the murder fine should not be levied in cases of
+death by "misadventure" (_per infortunium_).[1] But at that date and for
+long afterwards homicide in self-defence or by misadventure or even
+while of unsound mind involved at the least a forfeiture of goods, and
+required a pardon. These pardons, and restitution of the goods, became a
+matter of course, and the judges appear at a later date to have been in
+the habit of directing an acquittal in such cases. But it was not until
+1828 that the innocence of excusable homicide was expressly declared.
+The rule is now expressed in s. 7 of the Offences against the Person Act
+1861: "No punishment or forfeiture shall be incurred by any person who
+shall kill another by misfortune, or in his own defence, or in any other
+manner without felony."
+
+The further differentiation between different degrees of criminal
+homicide was marked by legislation of Henry VIII. (1531) taking away
+benefit of clergy in the case of "wilful murder with malice prepensed"
+(aforethought), and that phrase is still the essential element in the
+definition of "wilful murder," which is committed "when a person of
+sound memory and discretion unlawfully killeth any reasonable creature
+or being and under the king's peace with malice aforethought either
+express or implied" (3 Co. Inst. 47). The whole development of the
+substantive law as to murder rests on judicial rulings as to the meaning
+of malice prepense coupled with the extrajudicial commentaries of Coke,
+Hale and Foster; for parliament, though often tempted by bills and
+codes, has never ventured on a legislative definition. Much discussion
+has ranged round the phrase "malice aforethought," and it has
+undoubtedly been expanded by judicial decision so as to create what is
+described as "constructive" murder. According to the view of the
+criminal code commissioners of 1879 (_Parl. Pap._, 1879, c. 23, 45, p.
+23) the term "malice aforethought" is now a common name for all the
+following states of mind:--
+
+  1. An intent, preceding the act, to kill or do grievous bodily harm to
+  the person or to any other person:
+
+  2. Knowledge that the act done is _likely_ to produce such
+  consequences, whether coupled with an intention to produce them or
+  not:
+
+  3. An intent to commit any felony: or
+
+  4. An intent to resist an officer of police in the execution of his
+  duty.
+
+The third form of malice aforethought has been much controverted. When
+it was first recognized as creating a liability for wilful murder almost
+all felonies were capital offences: but even at the end of the 17th
+century Lord Holt expressed a view that it should be limited to felonies
+involving violence or danger to life, e.g. assault with intent to rob,
+or setting fire to a dwelling-house. And Sir James Stephen's opinion is
+that, to justify conviction of murder by an act done with intent to
+commit a felony, the act done must be one dangerous to life or known to
+be likely to cause death.
+
+Starting with the definition above given, English law still retains so
+much of its medieval character as to presume all homicide to be
+"malicious, and therefore murder, unless it is either _justified_ by the
+command or permission of the law, _excused_ on the ground of accident or
+self-preservation, or _alleviated_ into manslaughter by being the
+involuntary consequence of some act not strictly lawful or occasioned by
+some sudden and sufficiently violent provocation." The truth of the
+facts alleged in justification, excuse or alleviation, is for the jury
+to determine: the question whether if true they support the plea for
+which they are put forward is for the court.
+
+In the administration of the English criminal law as to homicide the
+consequences of too strict an adherence to the technical definitions of
+the offences are avoided (a) by the exercise of the jury of their powers
+to convict of manslaughter only even in cases where they are directed
+that the offence is murder or nothing; (b) by the report of the judge as
+to the particular circumstances of each case in which a conviction of
+murder has been followed by the statutory sentence of death; (c) by the
+examination of all the evidence in the case by the Home Office in order
+to enable the secretary of state to determine whether the prerogative of
+mercy should be exercised.
+
+Homicide is justifiable and not criminal when the killing is done in the
+execution of the law. The most important case of justifiable homicide is
+the execution of a criminal in due course of public justice. This
+condition is most stringently interpreted. "To kill the greatest of
+malefactors deliberately, uncompelled, and extrajudicially is murder....
+And further, if judgment of death be given by a judge not authorized by
+lawful commission, and execution is done accordingly, the judge is
+guilty of murder" (Stephen's _Commentaries_, book vi. c. iv.). The
+execution must be carried out by the proper officer or his deputy: any
+person executing the sentence without such authority, were it the judge
+himself, would be guilty of murder. And the sentence must be strictly
+pursued: to execute a criminal by a kind of death other than that to
+which he has been judicially condemned is murder.
+
+Homicide committed by an officer of justice in the course of carrying
+out his duty, as such, is also justifiable; e.g. where a felon resists a
+legal arrest and is killed in the effort to arrest him (see 2 Pollock
+and Maitland, 476); where officers in dispersing a riotous assemblage
+kill any of the mob, &c. (see RIOT). In these cases the homicide must be
+shown to have been absolutely necessary. Again, homicide is justifiable
+if committed in the defence of person or property against forcible and
+heinous crime, such as murder, violent robbery, rape or burglary. In
+this connexion there has been much discussion as to whether the person
+attacked is under a duty to retreat: and in substance the justification
+depends on the continuous necessity of attack or defence In order to
+prevent the commission by the deceased of the crime threatened.
+
+Homicide is excusable and not criminal at all when committed either by
+misadventure or in self-defence. In the former case the homicide is
+excused; where a man in the course of doing some lawful work,
+accidentally and without intention kills another, e.g. shooting at a
+mark and undesignedly hitting and killing a man. The act must be
+strictly lawful, and death by misadventure in unlawful sports is not a
+case of excusable homicide. Homicide in self-defence is excusable when
+the slayer is himself in immediate danger of death, and has done all he
+could to avoid the assault. Accordingly, if he strikes and kills his
+assailant after the assault is over, this is not excusable homicide. But
+if the assault has been premeditated, as in the ease of a duel, the
+death of either antagonist has under English law always been held to be
+murder and not excusable homicide. The excuse of self-defence covers the
+case in which a person in defence of others whom it is his duty to
+protect--children, wife, master, &c.--kills an assailant. It has been
+considered doubtful whether the plea of self-defence is available to one
+who has himself provoked a fray, in the course of which he is so pressed
+by his antagonist that his only resource is to kill him.
+
+In English law the term "manslaughter" is applied to those forms of
+homicide which though neither justifiable nor excusable are attended by
+alleviating circumstances which bring them short of wilful murder. The
+offence is not defined by statute, but only by judicial rulings. Its
+punishment is as a maximum penal servitude for life, and as a minimum a
+fine or recognizances to be of good behaviour. The quantum of punishment
+between the limits above stated is in the discretion of the court, and
+not, as under continental codes, with fixed minima; and the offence
+includes acts and omissions of very varying gravity, from acts which
+only by the charitable appreciation of a jury fall short of wilful
+murder, to acts or omissions which can only technically be described as
+criminal, e.g. where one of two persons engaged in poaching, by pure
+accident gets caught in a hedge so that his gun goes off and kills his
+fellow-poacher. This may be described as an extreme instance of
+"constructive crime."
+
+There are two main forms of "manslaughter":--
+
+1. "Voluntary" homicide under grave and sudden provocation or on a
+sudden quarrel in the heat of passion, without the slayer taking undue
+advantage or acting in an unusual manner. The substance of the
+alleviation of guilt lies in the absence of time for cool reflection or
+the formation of a premeditated design to kill. Under English law the
+provocation must be by acts and not by words or gestures, and must be
+serious and not trivial, and the killing must be immediately after
+provocation and while the slayer has lost his self-control in
+consequence of the provocation. The provocation need not be by assault
+or violence, and perhaps the best-recognized example is the slaying by a
+husband of a man found committing adultery with the slayer's wife. In
+the case of a sudden quarrel it does not matter who began or provoked
+the quarrel. This used to be called "chance medley."
+
+2. "Involuntary" homicide as a result of great rashness or gross
+negligence in respect of matters involving danger to human life, e.g. in
+driving trains or vehicles, or in dealing with dangerous weapons, or in
+performing surgical operations, or in taking care of the helpless.
+
+The innumerable modes in which criminal liability for killing others has
+been adjudged under the English definitions of murder and manslaughter
+cannot be here stated, and can only be studied by reference to the
+judicial decisions collected and discussed in _Russell on Crimes_ and
+other English text-books, and in the valuable work by Mr J. D. Mayne on
+the criminal law of India, in which the English common law rulings are
+stated side by side with the terms and interpretations of the Indian
+penal code. Much labour has been expended by many jurists in efforts to
+create a scientific and acceptable classification of the various forms
+of unlawful homicide which shall properly define the cases which should
+be punishable by law and the appropriate punishment. Their efforts have
+resulted in the establishment in almost every state except the United
+Kingdom of statutory definitions of the crime, beginning with the French
+penal code and going down to the criminal code of Japan. In the case of
+England, as a result of the labours of Sir James Stephen, a code bill
+was submitted to parliament in 1878. In 1879 a draft code was prepared
+by Blackburn, Lush and Barry, and was presented to parliament. It was
+founded on and prepared with Sir J. Stephen, and is a revision of his
+digest of the criminal law.
+
+After defining homicide and culpable homicide, the draft code (cl. 174)
+declares culpable homicide to be murder in the following cases: (a) if
+the offender means to cause the death of the person killed; (b) if the
+offender means to cause to the person killed any bodily injury which is
+known to the offender to be likely to cause death, and if the offender,
+whether he does or does not mean to cause death, is reckless whether
+death ensues or not; (c) if the offender means to cause death or such
+bodily injury as aforesaid to one person, so that if that person be
+killed the offender would be guilty of murder, and by accident or
+mistake the offender kills another person though he does not mean to
+hurt the person killed; (d) if the offender for any unlawful object does
+an act which he knows or ought to have known to be likely to cause
+death, and thereby kills any person, though he may have desired that his
+object should be effected without hurting any one.
+
+Further (cl. 175), it is murder (whether the offender means or not death
+to ensue, or knows or not that death is likely to ensue) in the
+following cases:--"(a) if he means to inflict grievous bodily injury for
+the purpose of facilitating the commission of any of the offences
+hereinafter mentioned, or the flight of the offender upon the commission
+or attempted commission thereof, and death ensues from his violence; (b)
+if he administers any stupefying thing for either of the purposes
+aforesaid and death ensues from the effects thereof; (c) if he by any
+means wilfully stops the breath of any person for either of the purposes
+aforesaid and death ensues from such stopping of the breath." The
+following are the offences referred to:--"high treason and other
+offences against the king's authority, piracy and offences deemed to be
+piracy, escape or rescue from prison or lawful custody, resisting lawful
+apprehension, murder, rape, forcible abduction, robbery, burglary,
+arson." Cl. 176 reduces culpable homicide to manslaughter if the person
+who causes death does so "in the heat of passion caused by sudden
+provocation"; and "any _wrongful act or insult_ of such a nature as to
+be sufficient to deprive any ordinary person of the power of
+self-control may be provocation if the offender acts upon it on the
+sudden, and before there has been time for his passion to cool. Whether
+any particular wrongful act or insult amounts to provocation and whether
+the offender was deprived of self-control shall be questions of fact;
+but no one shall be deemed to give provocation by doing that which he
+had a legal right to do, or which the offender incited him to do in
+order to provide an excuse for killing him or doing grievous bodily harm
+to any person." Further, "an arrest shall not necessarily reduce the
+offence from murder to manslaughter because an arrest was illegal, but
+if the illegality was known to the offender it may be evidence of
+provocation"; (cl. 177) "culpable homicide not amounting to murder is
+manslaughter."
+
+The definitions embodied in these clauses though not yet accepted by the
+British legislature, have in substance been embodied in the criminal
+codes of Canada (1892 ss. 227-230), New Zealand (1893, ss. 163-166),
+Queensland (1899, ss. 300-305), and Western Australia (1901, ss.
+275-280).
+
+From the point of view of civil as distinct from criminal responsibility
+homicide does not by the common law give any cause of action against the
+person causing the death of another in favour of the wife or blood
+relations of the deceased. In early law this was otherwise; and the wer
+or eric of the deceased came historically before the right of chief or
+state. But under English law the rights of relations, except by way of
+appeal for felony,[2] were swept aside in favour of the crown, on the
+principle that every homicide is presumed felonious (murder) unless the
+contrary is proved, and that in all cases of homicide not justifiable by
+law a forfeiture was incurred. The rights of the relatives were also
+defeated by application of the maxim "_actio personalis moritur cum
+personâ_" ("a personal action dies with the person") to all proceedings
+for injury to the person or to reputation. In Scotland the old theory
+was preserved in the law as to assythement.
+
+In England the law was altered at the instance of Lord Campbell in 1846
+(9 & 10 V. c. 93) so as to give a right of a claim by the husband, wife,
+parent or child of a person killed by a wrongful (or even criminal) act,
+neglect or default by another which would have given the deceased if he
+had survived a cause of action against the wrongdoer. The compensation
+payable is what the surviving relative has lost by the death, and under
+the Workmen's Compensation Act 1906 (in all cases to which it applies)
+the employer is liable even without negligence to compensate the
+dependants of an employee killed by an accident arising out of and in
+the course of the employment; and in such cases even if the death was
+due to serious and wilful misconduct by the employee, compensation is
+payable.
+
+In the Indian penal code the definitions of murder are so drawn as to
+limit the offences to cases where it was actually intended to cause
+death or bodily injury by the acts or omissions of the slayer, and the
+definition of culpable homicide short of murder is so drawn as to
+exclude the forms of unintentional manslaughter due to neglect of duty,
+e.g. in the conduct of trains or ships or vehicles. This last omission
+was supplied in 1870. The Indian code does not treat as murder either
+duelling or helping Hindu widows to commit _suttee_ (s. 301, exception
+5). In most of the British possessions in Asia and in east Africa the
+Indian definitions of homicide have been adopted. In the rest of the
+colonies, except South Africa, the law of homicide depends on the
+English common law as modified by colonial codes or statutes. In South
+Africa it rests mainly on the Roman Dutch law.
+
+_Europe._--In European codes distinctions corresponding to those of the
+English law are drawn between premeditated and other forms of criminal
+homicide; but more elaborate distinctions are drawn between the degrees
+of deliberation or criminality manifested in the slaying, and the
+minimum or maximum penalty is varied accordingly.
+
+In the French penal code voluntary homicide is called murder (_meurtre_,
+art. 295): but if committed with premeditation or lying in wait is
+styled _assassinat_ (_guet-apens_) (296-298). Poisoning (even if the
+poison is not fatal), is specially punished, as is parricide (on the
+lines of the obsolete English offence of petty treason), and
+infanticide, i.e. the killing of newly-born infants. Assassination,
+poisoning and parricide are at present capital offences; but a bill to
+abolish the death sentence has been laid before the French parliament.
+
+The German code distinguishes between voluntary homicide which is done
+with deliberation and such homicide committed without deliberation (ss.
+211, 212), and provides for mitigation of punishment where the slaying
+was provoked without fault in the slayer by any wrongful act or serious
+insult upon the slayer or his relatives by the slain (213). Parricide
+and infanticide are specially punished (214, 215), as is killing another
+person at his express and earnest request (216)--an offence which would
+in England be murder--and it is a separate offence to cause the death of
+another, the penalty being increased if the offender was peculiarly
+bound by office, calling or trade to use a care which he did not use
+(222).
+
+The Italian code punishes as homicide those who with intention to kill
+cause the death of another (364). The death penalty is not imposed, but
+scales of punishment are provided to deal with aggravated forms of the
+offence. Thus _ergastolo_ (penal servitude for life) is the punishment
+in the case of homicide of ascendants and descendants, or with
+premeditation, or under the sole impulse of brutal ferocity or with
+gross cruelty (_gravi sevizie_), or by means of arson, inundation,
+drowning and certain other crimes, or to secure the gains or conceal the
+commission, or to secure immunity from the consequences, of another
+crime (366). Personal violence resulting in death inflicted without
+intention to kill is punishable _minore poenâ_ (368), and it is criminal
+to cause the death of another by imprudence, negligence or lack of skill
+in an art or profession (_imperitia nella propria arte o professione_),
+or by non-observance of regulations, orders or instructions.
+
+The Spanish code has like those of Italy and France special punishments
+for parricide (417) and for assassination, in which are included killing
+for reward or promise of reward or by inundation (418), and for aiding
+another to commit suicide (421). Both the Italian and the Spanish codes
+afford a special mitigation to infanticide committed to avoid dishonour
+to the mother of the infant or her family.
+
+_America._--The most notable difference between England and the United
+States in regard to the law on this subject is the recognition by state
+legislation of degrees in murder. English law treats all unlawful
+killing not reducible to manslaughter as of the same degree of guilt in
+law. American statutes seek to discriminate for purposes of punishment
+between the graver and the less culpable forms of murder. Thus an act of
+the legislature of Pennsylvania (22nd of April 1794) declares "all
+murder which shall be perpetrated by means of poison or by lying in wait
+or by any other kind of wilful, deliberate and premeditated killing, or
+which shall be committed in the perpetration of or attempt to perpetrate
+any arson, rape, robbery or burglary shall be deemed murder of the first
+degree; and all other kinds of murder shall be deemed murder of the
+second degree." This legislation has been copied or adopted in many if
+not most of the other states. There are also statutory degrees of
+manslaughter in the legislation of some of the states. The differences
+of legislation, coupled with the power of the jury in some states to
+determine the sentence, and the limitations on the right of the judges
+to comment on the testimony adduced, lead to very great differences
+between the administration of the law as to homicide in the two
+countries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Stephen, _Hist. Cr. Law, Digest Criminal Law_; _Russell
+  on Crimes_ (7th ed., 1909); Archbold, _Criminal Pleading_ (23rd ed.,
+  1905); Bishop, _American Criminal Law_ (8th ed.); Pollock and
+  Maitland, _Hist. English Law_; Pike, _History of Crime_.
+       (W. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Select Pleas of Crown, 1 (Selden Society Publ.); Pollock and
+    Maitland, _Hist. Eng. Law_, ii. 458, 476, 478.
+
+  [2] Appeals remained in the law till 1819, but were long before this
+    disused. In the middle ages they were used as a means of getting
+    compensation.
+
+
+
+
+HOMILETICS (Gr. [Greek: homilêtikos], from [Greek: homilein], to
+assemble together), in theology the application of the general
+principles of rhetoric to the specific department of public preaching.
+It may be further defined as the science that treats of the analysis,
+classification, preparation, composition and delivery of sermons. The
+formation during recent years of such lectureships as the "Lyman
+Beecher" course at Yale University has resulted in increased attention
+being given to homiletics, and the published volumes of this series are
+the best contribution to the subject.
+
+  The older literature is cited exhaustively in W. G. Blaikie, _For the
+  Work of the Ministry_ (1873); and D. P. Kidder, _Treatise on
+  Homiletics_ (1864).
+
+
+
+
+HOMILY, a simple religious address, less elaborate than a sermon, and
+confining itself to the practical exposition of some ethical topic or
+some passage of Scripture. The word [Greek: homilia] from [Greek:
+homilein] ([Greek: homou, eilô]), meaning communion, intercourse, and
+especially interchange of thought and feeling by means of words
+(conversation), was early employed in classical Greek to denote the
+instruction which a philosopher gave to his pupils in familiar talk
+(Xenophon, _Memorabilia_, I. ii. 6. 15). This usage of the word was long
+preserved (Aelian, _Varia Historia_, iii. 19); and the [Greek:
+homilêsas] of Acts xx. 11 may safely be taken to assign not only a free
+and informal but also a didactic character to the apostle Paul's
+discourse in the upper chamber of Troas, when "he talked a long while,
+even till break of day." That the "talk" on that occasion partook of the
+nature of the "exposition" ([Hebrew: drasha]) of Scripture, which,
+undertaken by a priest, elder or other competent person, had become a
+regular part of the service of the Jewish synagogue,[1] may also with
+much probability be assumed. The custom of delivering expositions or
+comments more or less extemporaneous on the lessons of the day at all
+events passed over soon and readily into the Christian Church, as may be
+gathered from the first _Apology_ (c. 67) of Justin Martyr, where we
+read that, in connexion with the practice of reading portions from the
+collected writings of the prophets and from the memoirs of the apostles,
+it had by that time become usual for the presiding minister to deliver a
+discourse in which "he admonishes the people, stirring them up to an
+imitation of the good works which have been brought before their
+notice." This discourse, from its explanatory character, and from the
+easy conversational manner of its delivery, was for a long time called
+[Greek: homilia] rather than [Greek: logos]: it was regarded as part of
+the regular duty of the bishop, but he could devolve it, if he thought
+fit, on a presbyter or deacon, or even on a layman. An early and
+well-known instance of such delegation is that mentioned by Eusebius
+(_Hist. Eccl._ vi. 19) in the case of Origen (216 A.D.).[2] In course of
+time the exposition of the lesson for the day came more frequently to
+assume a more elaborate character, and to pass into the category of a
+[Greek: logos] or even [Greek: philosophia] or [Greek: philosophêma];
+but when it did so the fact was as far as possible denoted by a change
+of name, the word [Greek: homilia] being reserved for the expository or
+exegetical lecture as distinguished from the pulpit oration or
+sermon.[3] While the church of the 3rd and 4th centuries could point to
+a brilliant succession of great preachers, whose discourses were wont to
+be taken down in shorthand and circulated among the Christian public as
+edifying reading, it does not appear that the supply of ordinary
+homiletical talent kept pace with the rapidity of church extension
+throughout the Roman empire. In the smaller and remoter communities it
+not uncommonly happened that the minister was totally unqualified to
+undertake the work of preaching; and though, as is curiously shown by
+the case of Rome (Sozomen, _Hist. Eccl._ vii. 19), the regular
+exposition of the appointed lessons was by no means regarded as part of
+the necessary business of a church, it was generally felt to be
+advisable that some provision should be made for the public instruction
+of congregations. Even in Jerome's time (_De Vir. Ill._ c. 115),
+accordingly, it had become usual to read, in the regular meetings of the
+churches which were not so fortunate as to possess a competent preacher,
+the written discourses of celebrated fathers; and at a considerably
+later period we have on record the canon of at least one provincial
+council (that of Vaux, probably the third, held in 529 A.D.), positively
+enjoining that if the presbyter through any infirmity is unable himself
+to preach, "homilies of the holy fathers" (homiliae sanctorum patrum)
+are to be read by the deacons. Thus the finally fixed meaning of the
+word homily as an ecclesiastical term came to be a written discourse
+(generally possessing the sanction of some great name) read in church by
+or for the officiating clergyman when from any cause he was unable to
+deliver a sermon of his own. As the standard of clerical education sank
+during the dark ages, the habit of using the sermons of others became
+almost universal. Among the authors whose works were found specially
+serviceable in this way may be mentioned the Venerable Bede, who is
+credited with no fewer than 140 homilies in the Basel and Cologne
+editions of his works, and who certainly was the author of many
+_Homiliae de Tempore_ which were much in vogue during the 8th and
+following centuries. Prior to Charlemagne it is probable that several
+other collections of homilies had obtained considerable popularity, but
+in the time of that emperor these had suffered so many mutilations and
+corruptions that an authoritative revision was felt to be imperatively
+necessary. The result was the well-known _Homiliarium_, prepared by Paul
+Warnefrid, otherwise known as Paulus Diaconus (q.v.).[4] It consists of
+176 homilies arranged in order for all the Sundays and festivals of the
+ecclesiastical year; and probably was completed before the year 780.
+Though written in Latin, its discourses were doubtless intended to be
+delivered in the vulgar tongue; the clergy, however, were often too
+indolent or too ignorant for this, although by more than one provincial
+council they were enjoined to exert themselves so that they might be
+able to do so.[5] Hence an important form of literary activity came to
+be the translation of the homilies approved by the church into the
+vernacular. Thus we find Alfred the Great translating the homilies of
+Bede; and in a similar manner arose Ælfric's Anglo-Saxon _Homilies_ and
+the German _Homiliarium_ of Ottfried of Weissenburg. Such _Homiliaria_
+as were in use in England down to the end of the 15th century were at
+the time of the Reformation eagerly sought for and destroyed, so that
+they are now extremely rare, and the few copies which have been
+preserved are generally in a mutilated or imperfect form.[6]
+
+The _Books of Homilies_ referred to in the 35th article of the Church of
+England originated at a convocation in 1542, at which it was agreed "to
+make certain homilies for stay of such errors as were then by ignorant
+preachers sparkled among the people." Certain homilies, accordingly,
+composed by dignitaries of the lower house, were in the following year
+produced by the prolocutor; and after some delay a volume was published
+in 1547 entitled _Certain sermons or homilies appointed by the King's
+Majesty to be declared and read by all parsons, vicars, or curates every
+Sunday in their churches where they have cure_. In 1563 a second _Book
+of Homilies_ was submitted along with the 39 Articles to convocation; it
+was issued the same year under the title _The second Tome of Homilies of
+such matters as were promised and instituted in the former part of
+Homilies, set out by the authority of the Queen's Majesty, and to be
+read in every Parish Church agreeably_. Of the twelve homilies contained
+in the first book, four (the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) are probably to be
+attributed to Cranmer, and one (the 12th) possibly to Latimer; one (the
+6th) is by Bonner; another (the 5th) is by John Harpsfield, archdeacon
+of London, and another (the 11th) by Thomas Becon, one of Cranmer's
+chaplains. The authorship of the others is unknown. The second book
+consists of twenty-one homilies, of which the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 7th, 8th,
+9th, 16th and 17th have been assigned to Jewel, the 4th to Grindal, the
+5th and 6th to Pilkington and the 18th to Parker. See the critical
+edition by Griffiths, Oxford, 1869. The homilies are not now read
+publicly, though they are sometimes appealed to in controversies
+affecting the doctrines of the Anglican Church.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Philo, _Quod omnis probus liber_, sec. 12 (ed. Mangey ii.
+    458; cf. ii. 630).
+
+  [2] Sozomen (_Hist. Eccl._ vii. 19) mentions that in Alexandria in
+    his day the bishop alone was in the custom of preaching; but this, he
+    implies, was a very exceptional state of matters, dating only from
+    the time of Arius.
+
+  [3] To the more strictly exegetical lectures the names [Greek:
+    exêgêseis, exêgêmata, exêgêtika, ektheseis,] were sometimes applied.
+    But as no popular discourse delivered from the pulpit could ever be
+    exclusively expository and as on the other hand every sermon
+    professing to be based on Scripture required to be more or less
+    "exegetical" and "textual," it would obviously be sometimes very hard
+    to draw the line of distinction between [Greek: homilia] and [Greek:
+    logos]. It would be difficult to define very precisely the difference
+    in French between a "conférence" and a "sermon"; and the same
+    difficulty seems to have been experienced in Greek by Photius, who
+    says of the eloquent pulpit orations of Chrysostom, that they were
+    [Greek: homiliai] rather than [Greek: logoi].
+
+  [4] Manuscript copies are preserved at Heidelberg, Darmstadt,
+    Frankfort, Giessen, Cassel and other places. It was first printed at
+    Spires in 1482. In the Cologne edition of 1530 the title
+    runs--_Homiliae seu mavis sermones sive conciones ad populum,
+    praestantissimorum ecclesiae doctorum Hieronymi, Augustini, Ambrosii,
+    Gregorii, Origenis, Chrysostomi, Bedae, &c., in hunc ordinem digestae
+    per Alchuinum levitam, idque injungente ei Carolo M. Rom. Imp. cui a
+    secretis fuit_. Though thus attributed here to Alcuin, who is known
+    to have revised the Lectionary or _Comes Hieronymi_, the compilation
+    of the _Homiliarium_ is in the emperor's own commission entrusted to
+    Paul, to whom it is assigned in the earlier printed editions also. A
+    comparison of different editions shows that the contents increased
+    with the ever-growing number of saints' days and festivals, new
+    discourses by later preachers like Bernard being constantly added.
+
+  [5] Neander, _Church History_, v. 174 (Eng. trans. of 1851).
+
+  [6] An ancient English metrical homiliarium is preserved in the
+    library of the university of Cambridge. Earlier versions of it have
+    existed, and a portion of perhaps the earliest copy, dating from
+    about the middle of the 13th century, was published in 1862 by Mr J.
+    Small, librarian to the university of Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+HOMOEOPATHY (from the Greek [Greek: homoios], like, and [Greek: pathos],
+feeling). The distinctive system of therapeutics which bears the name of
+homoeopathy is based upon the law _similia similibus curentur_,[1] the
+originator of which was S. C. F. Hahnemann, a native of Meissen in
+Germany, who discovered his new principle while he was experimenting
+with cinchona bark in 1790, and announced it in 1796.[2] The essential
+tenets of homoeopathy--with which is contrasted the "allopathy" ([Greek:
+allos], other) of the "orthodox" therapeutics--are that the cure of
+disease is effected by drugs that are capable of producing in a healthy
+individual symptoms similar to those of the disease to be treated, and
+that to ascertain the curative virtues of any drug it must be "proved"
+upon healthy persons--that is, taken by individuals of both sexes in a
+state of health in gradually increasing doses. The manifestations of
+drug action thus produced are carefully recorded, and this record of
+"drug-diseases," after being verified by repetition on many "provers,"
+constitutes the distinguishing feature of the homoeopathic materia
+medica, which, while it embraces the sources, preparation and uses of
+drugs as known to the orthodox pharmacopoeia, contains, in addition, the
+various "provings" obtained in the manner above described.
+
+Besides the promulgation of the doctrine of similars, Hahnemann also
+enunciated a theory to account for the origin of all chronic diseases,
+which he asserted were derived either directly or remotely from psora
+(the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or sycosis (fig-wart disease).
+This doctrine, although at first adopted by some of the enthusiastic
+followers of Hahnemann, was almost immediately discarded by very many
+who had a firm belief in his law of cure. In the light of advancing
+science such theories are entirely untenable, and it was unfortunate for
+the system of medicine which he founded that Hahnemann should have
+promulgated such an hypothesis. It served as a target for the shafts of
+ridicule showered upon the system by those who were its opponents, and
+even at the present time there still exists in the minds of many
+misinformed persons the conviction that homoeopathy is a system of
+medicine that bases the origin of all chronic disease on the itch or on
+syphilis or fig-warts.
+
+Another peculiar feature of homoeopathy is its posology or theory of
+dose. It may be asserted that homoeopathic posology has nothing more to
+do with the original law of cure than the psora (itch) theory has, and
+that it was one of the later creations of Hahnemann's mind. Most
+homoeopathists believe more or less in the action of minute doses of
+medicine, but it must not be considered as an integral part of the
+system. The dose is the corollary, not the principle. Yet in the minds of
+many, infinitesimal doses of medicine stand for homoeopathy itself, the
+real law of cure being completely put into the background. The question
+of dose has also divided the members of the homoeopathic school into
+bitter factions, and is therefore a matter for careful consideration.
+Many employ low potencies,[3] i.e. mother tinctures, first, second,
+sixth dilutions, &c., while others use hundred-thousandths and
+millionths.
+
+Some homoeopathists of the present day still believe with Hahnemann
+that, even after the material medicinal particles of a drug have been
+subdivided to the fullest extent, the continuation of the dynamization
+or trituration or succussion develops a spiritual acurative agency, and
+that the higher the potency, the more subtle and more powerful is the
+curative action. Hahnemann says (_Organon_, 3rd American edition, p.
+101), "It is only by means of the spiritual influence of a morbific
+agent that our spiritual vital power can be diseased, and in like manner
+only by the spiritual operation of medicine can health be restored."
+This is absolutely denied by others. Thus there exist two schools among
+the adherents of homoeopathy. On the one hand there are the
+Hahnemannians, the "Purists" or "High Potency" men, who still profess to
+regard the _Organon_ as their Bible, who believe in all the teachings of
+Hahnemann, who adhere in their prescriptions to the single dose, the
+single medicine, and the highest possible potency, and regard the
+doctrine of the spiritual dynamization acquired by trituration and
+succussion as indubitable. On the other side there are the "Rational" or
+"Low Potency" men, who believe in the universality of the law of cure,
+but think that it cannot always be applied, on account of an imperfect
+materia medica and a lack of knowledge on the part of the physician.
+They believe that in many cases of severe and acute pain palliatives are
+required, and that they are free to use all the adjuvants at present
+known to science for the relief of suffering humanity--massage,
+balneology, electricity, hygiene, &c. The American Institute of
+Homoeopathy, the national body of the United States, has adopted the
+following resolution and ordered it to be published conspicuously in
+each number of the _Transactions_ of the society: "A homoeopathic
+physician is one who adds to his knowledge of medicine a special
+knowledge of homoeopathic therapeutics. All that pertains to the great
+field of medical learning is his by tradition, by inheritance, by
+right."
+
+It is claimed that the effect produced upon both the laity and the
+general profession of medicine by the introduction of homoeopathy was
+salutary in many ways. It diminished the quantity of medicine that was
+formerly considered necessary for the eradication of disease, and thus
+revealed the fact that the _vis medicatrix naturae_ is often sufficient,
+with occasional and gentle assistance, to cure many diseases, especially
+those fevers that run a definite and regular course. Corroboration of
+the law _similia similibus curentur_ is seen, according to
+homoeopathists, in the adoption of the serum therapy, which consists in
+the treatment of the most malignant diseases (diphtheria, lock-jaw,
+typhoid fever, tuberculosis, bubonic plague) by introducing into the
+system a modified form (similar) of those poisons that produce them in
+the healthy individual. Hahnemann undoubtedly deserves the credit of
+being the first to break decidedly with the old school of medical
+practice, in which, forgetful of the teachings of Hippocrates, nature
+was either overlooked or rudely opposed by wrong and ungentle methods.
+We can scarcely now estimate the force of character and of courage which
+was implied in his abandoning the common lines of medicine. More than
+this, he and his followers showed results in the treatment of disease
+which compared very favourably with the results of contemporary orthodox
+practice.
+
+Homoeopathy has given prominence to the therapeutical side of medicine,
+and has done much to stimulate the study of the physiological action of
+drugs. It has done service in directing more special attention to
+various powerful drugs, such as aconite, nux vomica, belladonna, and to
+the advantage of giving them in simpler forms than were common before
+the days of Hahnemann. But in the medical profession homoeopathy
+nevertheless remains under the stigma of being a dissenting sect. It has
+been publicly announced that if the homoeopathists would abolish the
+name "homoeopathy," and remove it from their periodicals, colleges,
+hospitals, dispensaries and asylums, they would be received within the
+fold of the regular profession. These conditions have been accepted by a
+few homoeopathists who have become members of the most prominent medical
+association in the United States.
+
+Homoeopathy as it exists to-day can, in the opinion of its adherents,
+stand by itself, and its progress for a century in face of prolonged and
+determined opposition appears to its upholders to be evidence of its
+truth. There are still, indeed, in both schools of medical thought, men
+who stand fast by their old principles. There are homoeopathists who can
+see nothing but evil in the practice of their brothers of the orthodox
+school, as there are allopathists who still regard homoeopathy as a
+humbug and a sham. There are, however, liberal-minded men in both
+schools, who look upon the adoption of any safe and efficient method of
+curing disease as the birthright of the true physician, and who allow
+every man to prescribe for his patients as his conscience may dictate,
+and, provided he be educated in all the collateral branches of medical
+science, are ready to exchange views for the good of suffering humanity.
+
+  _Great Britain._--Homoeopathy is not rapidly extending in Great
+  Britain, and its recognition has been slow. The first notice taken of
+  the new system of therapeutics was by the Medical Society of London in
+  1826. In 1827 the physician of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, Dr F. H.
+  F. Quin (1799-1878), who had previously studied homoeopathy in Germany
+  and practised it in Italy, came to England, and it was through his
+  efforts that the system was introduced. Three other physicians, Dr
+  Belluomini, Dr Romani and Dr Tagliani, claimed priority, but careful
+  research established Dr Quin's title. Quin was a successful man
+  professionally and socially, and brought upon himself in a short time
+  the anathema of the Royal College of Physicians. In 1844 Dr William
+  Henderson, professor of pathology in the university of Edinburgh,
+  embraced the Hahnemannian system. A storm of opposition arose, and
+  Professor J. Y. Simpson (the discoverer of chloroform anaesthesia)
+  published a volume, with the alliterative title, _Homoeopathy, its
+  Tenets and Tendencies, Theoretical, Theological, and Therapeutical_.
+  This brochure was answered by Professor Henderson, the title of his
+  book being _Homoeopathy Fairly Represented_. From 1827 to 1837 there
+  were but a dozen practitioners of homoeopathy in London, but during
+  1837 to 1847 the number increased to between seventy and eighty. In
+  1857 there were upwards of two hundred practitioners in the kingdom,
+  with thirty-three institutions in which the law of similars was used
+  as a basis of practice. In 1867 the increase was not so rapid, the
+  number being 261. A society was formed about this period for "the
+  protection of homoeopathic practitioners and students," which proved
+  of great value in binding the sect together. In 1870 congresses were
+  established, and annual meetings held, which have continued to the
+  present time. In 1901 there were over three hundred homoeopathic
+  physicians in the British Isles, of whom between seventy and eighty
+  were in London alone. There were seventy-nine chemists, of whom
+  seventeen were located in London, and eighty-two towns and cities in
+  the country contained from one to ten homoeopathic practitioners each,
+  together with many established chemists for dispensing homoeopathic
+  medicines. The British Homoeopathic Society was founded by Quin in
+  1844, and has numerous members and fellows, besides corresponding
+  members in all portions of the world, including Australia, India and
+  Tasmania. The London Homoeopathic Hospital was founded in 1850, also
+  largely through the efforts of Quin, and a few years afterwards moved
+  to Great Ormond Street. During the cholera epidemic of 1854 the
+  statistics of this hospital showed a mortality of 16.4%, against 51.8%
+  of other metropolitan charities. The London Homoeopathic Hospital has
+  a convalescent home under its management at Eastbourne. There are also
+  dispensaries in Ealing and West Middlesex, Kensington, Notting Hill
+  and Bayswater. Similar institutions are located in Bath, Birkenhead,
+  Birmingham, Bootle, Bournemouth, Brighton, Bristol, Bromley,
+  Cheltenham, Cheshire, Croydon, Dublin, Eastbourne, Edinburgh,
+  Folkestone, Hastings and St Leonards, Ipswich, Leeds, Leicester,
+  Liverpool, Newcastle, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Plymouth, Torquay,
+  Tunbridge Wells, Weston-super-Mare. The homoeopathic journals include
+  the _Homoeopathic World_, the _London Homoeopathic Hospital_
+  _Reports_, the _Journal of the British Homoeopathic Society_, and the
+  _British Homoeopathic Review_, the last being issued by the British
+  Homoeopathic Association, which was founded in 1902 for the purpose of
+  developing and extending homoeopathy in Great Britain. The _British
+  Journal of Homoeopathy_ was first published in 1843, and was edited by
+  Drs Drysdale, Russell and Black. For many years it was the foremost
+  homoeopathic journal in the world. Its motto was _In certis unitas, in
+  dubiis libertas, in omnibus charitas_. One reason why homoeopathy has
+  not advanced as rapidly in the British Isles as in America is said to
+  be the discrimination exercised against it by the General Medical
+  Council, and another is want of cohesion amongst the homoeopaths
+  themselves.
+
+  _United States._--Homoeopathy was introduced into the United States by
+  Dr Hans Birch Gram, who was born in Boston. His father being Danish,
+  Gram in his eighteenth year went to Copenhagen, where he graduated in
+  1814. In 1823 he became acquainted with homoeopathy, and brought a
+  knowledge of it to America in 1825 when he settled in New York. The
+  first homoeopathic association was formed in 1833 in Philadelphia, the
+  second in New York, 1834, and homoeopathy became known in the
+  different states somewhat in the following order: New York, 1825;
+  Pennsylvania, 1828; Louisiana, 1836; Connecticut, 1837; Massachusetts,
+  1837-1838; Maryland, 1837; Delaware, 1837; Kentucky, 1837; Vermont,
+  1838; Rhode Island, 1839; Ohio, 1839; New Jersey, 1840; Maine, 1840;
+  New Hampshire, 1840; Michigan, 1841; Georgia, 1842; Wisconsin, 1842;
+  Alabama, 1843; Illinois, 1843; Tennessee, 1844; Missouri, 1844; Texas,
+  1848; Minnesota, 1852; Nebraska, 1862; Colorado, 1863; Iowa, 1871.
+  After 1871 the spread of the system was rapid throughout every state
+  in the Union, and it is in the United States that homoeopathy
+  principally flourishes. There are thousands of homoeopathic
+  physicians, and their clients number several millions. It may be noted
+  that departments of homoeopathy are connected with the universities of
+  Boston, Michigan, Iowa, Minnesota and Kansas City.
+
+  _Canada._--The early history of homoeopathy can be traced back nearly
+  to 1850 in the province of Quebec. In the Dominion of Canada the
+  various provinces control the licensing of physicians, excepting in
+  Quebec, which is the only province having a separate homoeopathic
+  board of examiners. This is under the control of the Montreal
+  homoeopathic Association, and is known as the College of Homoeopathic
+  Physicians and Surgeons of Montreal. Three examiners are annually
+  appointed by the association. Successful candidates receive the
+  diploma of the college, and are entitled to add to their degree the
+  letters M.C.H.P.S. A certificate of successful examination is
+  forwarded to the lieutenant-governor at Quebec, who, "if satisfied of
+  the loyalty, integrity and good morals of the applicant, may grant him
+  a license to practise surgery, physic and midwifery, or either of
+  them, in the province of Quebec." The word "loyalty" has been decided
+  by the provincial secretary to mean a British subject. This is the
+  only government medical license now issued in the British empire, the
+  others being by provincial boards or colleges of physicians and
+  surgeons. In 1894 there was no homoeopathic institution in the
+  province; at present the Montreal Homoeopathic Hospital is in active
+  operation. Two homoeopathic papers are published monthly--the
+  _Homoeopathic Record_ in Montreal, and the _Homoeopathic Messenger_ in
+  Toronto. In 1870, in the province of Ontario, the three schools,
+  allopathic, homoeopathic and eclectic, united for examining purposes
+  into one board called the medical council, seventeen members
+  representing the old school and five the other two systems. Finally
+  the eclectics were merged in the old school, the board appointing five
+  of Hahnemann's followers for examining purposes. Grace Hospital at
+  Toronto (erected 1892) was begun as a dispensary in 1887.
+
+  _Germany._--In 1810 Hahnemann published his _Organon_, which was the
+  starting-point of homoeopathy in Germany. In 1811 an endeavour was
+  made to found an institution in Leipzig in which practitioners might
+  learn the new method of treatment theoretically and practically, but
+  it was not a success, as the entire tide of professional opinion was
+  against the system. In 1829, at the celebration of the fiftieth
+  anniversary of Hahnemann's doctorate, the German Central Society was
+  organized, holding its first meeting in 1830. In the university
+  hospital of Munich some experiments were made to test the efficacy of
+  homoeopathic medicines, but these were not successful. In 1831 the
+  government prohibited homoeopathists from dispensing their own
+  medicines; this was a severe blow to the system. In 1834 there was a
+  division among the homoeopathists themselves, which much retarded the
+  progress of the school. A homoeopathic hospital was established about
+  this time (January 1833) in Leipzig, but there was such constant
+  wrangling among the physicians connected with it that its sphere of
+  usefulness was curtailed, and it was finally converted into a
+  dispensary. The Baden Homoeopathic Society was established in 1834.
+  The homoeopathic hospital in Munich was established in 1836, but
+  suffered a similar fate to that of Leipzig, and was converted into a
+  dispensary. The rather equivocal success of these hospitals in Saxony
+  and Bavaria was in direct contrast to the fate of two newly
+  established hospitals in Austria, one in Vienna and the other in Linz,
+  which were very successful, and aroused great interest both among
+  physicians and laymen. During the political confusion of 1846 and 1849
+  there was complete stagnation of everything medical in Germany. But
+  during all these years, though the public institutions were few, the
+  literature on homoeopathic subjects became very extensive, and
+  exercised a significant influence upon the system in all parts of the
+  world. Hahnemann died in 1843, and on the 10th of August 1851 a bronze
+  monument to him was unveiled at Leipzig. The Leipzig dispensary lived
+  thirty-three years. From 1842 to 1874 there were treated in this
+  institution 65,106 patients. In 1901 there were about 250 homoeopathic
+  physicians in Germany; they appeared to be strongest at Berlin, in the
+  province of Brandenburg, in Pomerania and Westphalia, Saxony, Hessen
+  and in Württemberg.
+
+  _Austria-Hungary._--Homoeopathy was introduced into Austria about
+  1817, and in 1819 its practice was forbidden by law. Shortly
+  afterwards the physician attending the archduke John became a
+  homoeopath. In 1825 the doctrine was introduced into Vienna. To test
+  the efficacy of the system Francis I. ordered that experiments be made
+  with homoeopathic medicines, and for this purpose a ward furnished
+  with twelve beds was allotted. The results were satisfactory to the
+  new system, and it made gigantic strides in Vienna. During the cholera
+  epidemic of 1836 an increased impetus was given to the new school by
+  the reported brilliant successes of the treatment. Societies were
+  founded and journals published. In 1846 a second hospital was founded.
+  In 1850 a third hospital was opened, and clinical lectures upon the
+  system were delivered. In 1873 the Society of Homoeopathic Physicians
+  was formed. Between the years 1873 and 1893 homoeopathy declined. In
+  1901, in thirty-seven cities and towns there were to be found about
+  fifty physicians and two hospitals, and it was estimated that about
+  seventy-five more were scattered in Moravia, Bohemia, Tirol, Salzburg
+  and the coast provinces. There is a professorship of homoeopathy at
+  the University of Budapest, and homoeopathic clinics are held at the
+  new Rochus Hospital in Üllöi Street, and also in the homoeopathic
+  department of the Hospital Bethesda of the Reformed Community. The
+  Elizabeth Hospital, exclusively homoeopathic, has existed for many
+  years.
+
+  _Russia._--The homoeopathic system was introduced into Russia in 1823.
+  In 1825 great impetus was given to the new doctrine by the conversion
+  of Dr Bigel, physician to the grand duke Constantine. In 1829 the
+  grand duke ordered a series of experiments to be conducted to prove
+  the truth or fallacy of homoeopathy, and they demonstrated the success
+  of the new school. In 1841 a hospital was established in Moscow, and
+  in 1849 similar institutions were founded in Nizhniy-Novgorod. Since
+  then homoeopathy has been steadily practised, and has penetrated to
+  the remotest parts of Russia. In 1881 the civil engineers proposed to
+  commemorate the virtues of the emperor Alexander II. by the erection
+  of a hospital; a committee for collecting funds was created, and
+  58,064 roubles were handed to the Charity Society of the followers of
+  homoeopathy at St Petersburg for the erection and founding of a
+  homoeopathic hospital. The foundation stone of the edifice was laid on
+  19th June 1893, the emperor Alexander III. giving 5000 roubles. The
+  inauguration of a new dispensary and a pharmacy took place on the 19th
+  of April 1898, and the hospital itself, intended originally for fifty
+  beds, was opened on the 1st of November 1898. There are sixteen free
+  beds, three of them being in the name of the emperor Nicholas, the
+  empress Maria Feodorovna, and the emperor Alexander III. On the 28th
+  of January 1899 an imperial edict was issued granting the rights of
+  public service to the doctors of the hospital and dispensaries of the
+  Charity Society, thus placing them on an equality with the doctors of
+  the prevailing medical school.
+
+  _France._--Homoeopathy was first introduced into France in 1830 by
+  Count de Guidi, doctor of medicine, doctor of science, and inspector
+  of the university, who practised in Lyons. About the same year Dr
+  Antoine Petroz, widely known by his _Grand dictionnaire des sciences
+  médicales_, began practising homoeopathy in Paris, and his
+  establishment became the headquarters of the new system there. In 1835
+  Hahnemann himself came to the capital. In 1832 the homoeopathic method
+  of treating disease was introduced into the Hospice de Choisy, and in
+  1842 into the hospital of Carentan. Tessier practised the new doctrine
+  in his wards in the Hospital St Marguérite, and in the Children's
+  Hospital up to the year 1862, when he retired. The first homoeopathic
+  society was established in 1832 (the Société Gallicain), Hahnemann
+  becoming president in 1835; in 1845 the Société de Médecine
+  Homéopathique was organized; and in 1860 the two were united for the
+  better interests of the school. In 1901 there were at Paris three
+  hospitals--the Hospital St Jacques with fifty-five beds, the Hahnemann
+  Hospital with thirty-five beds, and the new Protestant Hospital for
+  Children with twenty-five-beds. At Lyons there is the Hospital St Luc.
+  The medical journals include _L'Art médical, La Revue homéopathique
+  belge, Journal belge d'homéopathie, La Thérapeutique Intégrale, La
+  Revue homéopathique française_. In the year 1900 the medical officers
+  of the republic having supervision over the medical department of the
+  International Exhibition officially recognized the members of the
+  homoeopathic school, and arranged for the proper accommodation and
+  reception of the International Congress of Homoeopathic Physicians
+  held in June. On the 30th of that month, with appropriate ceremonies,
+  the remains of Hahnemann were removed from the cemetery of Montmartre
+  and deposited in Père-la-Chaise, and a monument bearing a suitable
+  inscription was erected to the memory of the founder of homoeopathy.
+
+  _Italy._--The Austrians when they entered Naples in 1821 brought
+  homoeopathy into Italy, the general in command of the army being a
+  devoted friend of Hahnemann. In 1828 Dr Count Sebastian de Guidi came
+  from Lyons and assisted in spreading the doctrine. During the period
+  from 1830 to 1860 many physicians practised homoeopathy, and the
+  literature on the subject became extensive. A homoeopathic clinic was
+  established and a ward opened in Trinity Hospital at Naples, and a
+  homoeopathic physician was appointed to the count of Syracuse. During
+  the severe cholera epidemics of 1854, 1855, 1865 the success of
+  homoeopathic treatment of that disease was so marked under the care of
+  Dr Rubini that the attention of the authorities was directed to the
+  system. In 1860 the homoeopathic practice was introduced into the
+  Spedale della Cesarea, and since that period homoeopathy has been
+  recognized with more or less favour in most of the cities. The Italian
+  Homoeopathic Institute is recognized by royal warrant as an
+  established institution, and its regulations are approved by the
+  government. In Turin the legal seat of the Homoeopathic Institute,
+  there is a hospital under the management of the State Association. The
+  homoeopathic medical press consists of the _Revista Omiopatica_,
+  established in 1855, and _L'Omiopatico in Italia_, the organ of the
+  Italian Homoeopathic Institute, which first appeared in 1884.
+
+  _Spain._--Homoeopathy was introduced into Spain in 1829 by a physician
+  to the Royal Commission sent by the king of Naples to attend the
+  marriage of Maria Christina with Don Ferdinand VII. Shortly after
+  this, a merchant of Cadiz visited Hahnemann in Coethen, and was cured
+  of a serious disorder; he returned to Spain with a supply of
+  homoeopathic literature, and immediately sent a medical student to
+  Leipzig to study the new system. In 1843 many cases of cholera were
+  treated homoeopathically in Madrid. The civil war, which did not
+  terminate until 1840, arrested all medical investigation in Spain, but
+  in 1843 there still existed in Madrid five pharmacies and a number of
+  homoeopathic physicians. About this time Dr Tosi Nuñez returned from
+  an investigation of the new system with Hahnemann, and owing to his
+  success in the treatment of disease was created one of the physicians
+  of the bedchamber to the queen, who soon afterwards conferred upon him
+  the title of marquis, with the grand crosses of the Charles III. and
+  of the Civil Order of Beneficiencia. This recognition by high
+  authority gave an impetus to homoeopathy which has continued ever
+  since.
+
+  _Denmark._--Homoeopathy was unknown in Denmark until the year 1821,
+  when Hans Christian Lund, a medical practitioner, adopted it.
+  Hahnemann, however, had been both before and after that time consulted
+  by Danes, and consequently homoeopathic therapeutics was recognized in
+  different parts of the country. Lund translated many of Hahnemann's
+  works into Danish, as well as those of other eminent members of the
+  new school.     (W. T. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] An interesting controversy has been carried on between the
+    members of the homoeopathic school as to the proper construction of
+    the Latin motto which constitutes its acknowledged basis. For many
+    years the verb at the conclusion of the sentence was used in the
+    indicative mood, _curantur_, thus making the sentence a positive one.
+    After extended research it has been discovered that Hahnemann himself
+    never employed the word _curantur_ as descriptive of his law of cure,
+    but always wrote _curentur_, which greatly modifies the meaning of
+    the phrase. If the subjunctive mood be used, the motto reads, "Let
+    similars be treated by similars," or "similars should be treated by
+    similars." The reading _similia similibus curentur_ was officially
+    adopted as the correct reading of the sentence by the American
+    Institute of Homoeopathy at its session held in Atlantic City, N.J.,
+    on the 20th of June 1899; and the words are so inscribed on the
+    monument erected to the memory of Hahnemann and unveiled in
+    Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of June 1900, and also are those carved
+    upon the tomb of Hahnemann in Père-la-Chaise, Paris.
+
+  [2] Some points of Hahnemann's system were borrowed from previous
+    writers--as he himself, though imperfectly, admits. Not to mention
+    others, he was anticipated by Hippocrates, and especially by
+    Paracelsus (1495-1541). The identical words _similia similibus
+    curantur_ occur in the Geneva edition (1658) of the works of
+    Paracelsus, as a marginal heading of one of the paragraphs; and in
+    the "Fragmenta Medica," _Op. Omnia_, i. 168, 169, occurs the
+    following passage:
+
+      _Simile similis cura; non contrarium._
+
+    "Quisquis enim cum laude agere Medicum volet, is has nugas longe
+    valere jubeat. Nec enim ullus unquam morbus calidus per frigida
+    sanatus fuit, nec frigidus per calida. Simile autem suum simile
+    frequenter curavit, scilicet Mercurius sulphur, et sulphur Mercurium;
+    et sal ilia, velut et illa sal. Interdum quidem cum proprietate
+    junctum frigidum sanavit calidum; sed id non factum est ratione
+    frigidi, verum ratione naturae alterius, quam a primo illo omnino
+    diversam facimus."
+
+    It is very remarkable that in Hahnemann's enumeration of authors who
+    anticipated him in regard to the doctrine of _Similia_, he makes no
+    mention of the views of Paracelsus, though the very words seem to be
+    taken from the works of that physician. The other point in
+    Hahnemann's doctrine--that medicines should be tried first on healthy
+    persons--he admits to have been enunciated by Haller. Roughly it has
+    been acted on by physicians in all ages, but certainly more
+    systematically since Hahnemann's time. In the most characteristic
+    feature of Hahnemann's practice--"the potentizing," "dynamizing," of
+    medicinal substances--he appears to have been original.
+
+  [3] Two methods of preparing medicines are recognized, one on the
+    decimal, the other on the centesimal scale. The pure tinctures are
+    denominated "mother tinctures," and represented by the Greek [phi].
+    To make a first decimal dilution or first decimal trituration, 10
+    drops of the mother tincture, or 10 grains of a crude substance, are
+    mixed with 90 drops of alcohol, or 90 grains of _saccharum lactis_
+    (sugar of milk) respectively. The liquid is thoroughly shaken, or the
+    powder carefully triturated, and the bottles containing them marked 1
+    X, meaning first decimal dilution or trituration. To make the 2 X
+    potency, 10 drops or 10 grains of this first dilution or trituration
+    are mixed with 90 drops of pure alcohol, or 90 grains of milk sugar,
+    and are succussed or triturated as above described, and marked 2 X
+    dilution or trituration. This subdivision of particles may be
+    continued to an indefinite degree. On the Hahnemannian or centesimal
+    scale the medicines are prepared in the same manner, the difference
+    being that 1 drop or grain is mixed with 99 drops or grains, to make
+    the first centesimal, which is marked 1 c or 1 simply, and so on for
+    the second and higher dilutions.
+
+
+
+
+HOMONYM (Gr. [Greek: homônomos], having the same name, from [Greek:
+homos], same, alike, and [Greek: onoma], name), a term in philology for
+those words which differ in sense but are alike either in sound or
+spelling or both. Words alike only in spelling but not in sound, e.g.
+"bow," are sometimes called _homographs_; and words alike only in sound
+but not in spelling, e.g. "meat," "meet," _homophones_. Skeat (_Etymol.
+Dict._) gives a list of English homonyms.
+
+
+
+
+HOMS, or HUMS (anc. _Emesa_ or _Emessa_, near the Hittite _Kadesh_), a
+town of Syria, on the right bank of the Orontes, and capital of a sanjak
+in the vilayet of Syria (Damascus). Pop. 30,000 (20,000 Moslem, 10,000
+Christian). The importance of the place arises from its command of the
+great north road from Egypt, Palestine and Damascus by the Orontes
+valley. Invading armies from the south have often been opposed near
+Homs, from the time of Rameses II., who had to fight the battle of
+Kadesh, to that of Ibrahim Pasha, who broke the first line of Ottoman
+defence in 1831 by his victory there. Ancient Emesa, in the district of
+Apamea, was a very old Syrian city, devoted to the worship of Baal, the
+sun god, of whose great temple the emperor Heliogabalus was originally a
+priest (A.D. 218). As a centre of native influences it was overawed by
+the Seleucid foundation of Apamea; but it opposed the Roman advance.
+There Aurelian crushed, in A.D. 272, the Syrian national movement led by
+Zenobia. Caracalla made it a Roman colony, and later it became the
+Capital of a small province, _Phoenicia Libanesia_ or _ad Libanum_.
+About 630 it was captured by the Moslem leader, Khalid ibn Walid, who is
+buried there. It now became the capital of a _jund_, or military
+district, which under the Omayyad Caliphs extended from Palmyra to the
+sea. Under the Arabs it was one of the largest cities in Syria, with
+walls and a strong citadel, which stood on a hill, occupying perhaps the
+site of the great sun temple. The ruins of this castle, blown up by
+Ibrahim Pasha, are still the most conspicuous feature of Homs, and
+contain many remains of ancient buildings. Its men were noted for their
+courage in war, and its women for their beauty. The climate was
+extolled for its excellence, and the land for its fertility. A
+succession of gardens bordered the Orontes, and the vineyards were
+remarkable for their abundant yield of grapes. When the place
+capitulated the great church of St John was divided between the
+Christians and Moslems, an arrangement which apparently lasted until the
+arrival of the Turks. At the end of the 11th century it fell into
+crusading hands, but was recovered by the Moslems under Saladin in 1187.
+Its decay probably dates from the invasion of the Mongols (1260), who
+fought two important battles with the Egyptians (1281 and 1299) in its
+vicinity. The construction of a carriage road to Tripoli led to a
+partial revival of prosperity and to an export of cereals and fruit, and
+this growth has, in turn, been accentuated by the railway, which now
+connects it with Aleppo and the Damascus-Beirut line. The district is
+well planted with mulberries and produces much silk, most of which is
+worked up on the spot.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HO-NAN, a central province of China, bounded N. partly by the Hwang-ho
+(which it crosses to the west of Ho-nan Fu, forming an arm northwards
+between the provinces of Shan-si and Chih-li), on the W. by Shen-si, on
+the S. by Hu-peh, and on the E. by Ngan-hui. It occupies an area of
+81,000 sq. m., with a population of about 22,100,000, and contains nine
+prefectural cities. Its capital is K'ai-fêng Fu. The prefecture of
+Hwai-k'ing, north of the Hwang-ho, consists of a fertile plain,
+"rendered park-like by numerous plantations of trees and shrubs, among
+which thick bosquets of bamboo contrast with the gloomy groves of
+cypress." All kinds of cereals grow luxuriantly, and the general
+productiveness of the district is indicated by the extreme denseness of
+the population. The most noticeable feature in that portion of the
+province which is properly called Ho-nan is the Fu-niu Shan range, which
+runs east and west across this part of the province. Coal is found on
+the south of the Hwang-ho in the districts of Ho-nan Fu, the ancient
+capital, Lushan and Ju Chow. The chief products of the province are,
+however, agricultural, especially in the valley of the Tang-ho and
+Pai-ho, which is an extensive and densely populated plain running north
+and south from the Fu-niu Shan. Cotton is also grown extensively and
+forms the principal article of export, and a considerable quantity of
+wild silk is produced from the Fu-niu Shan. Three roads from the east
+and south unite at Ho-nan Fu, and one from the west. The southern road
+leads to Ju Chow, where it forks, one branch going to Shi-ki-chên,
+connecting the trade from Fan-cheng, Han-kow, and the Han river
+generally, and the other to Chow-kia-k'ow near the city of Ch'ên-chow
+Fu, at the confluence of the three rivers which unite to form the
+Sha-ho; the second road runs parallel with the Hwang-ho to K'ai-fêng Fu;
+the third crosses the Hwang-ho at Mêngching Hien, and passes thence in a
+north-easterly direction to Hwai-k'ing Fu, Sew-wu Hien and Wei-hui Fu,
+at which place it joins the high road from Peking to Fan-cheng; and the
+western road follows the southern bank of the Hwang-ho for 250 m. to its
+great bend at the fortified pass known as the Tung-kwan, where it joins
+the great wagon road leading through Shan-si from Peking to Si-gan Fu.
+Ho-nan is now traversed north to south by the Peking-Hankow railway
+(completed 1905). The line crosses the Hwang-ho by Yung-tse and runs
+east of the Fu-niu Shan. Branch lines serve Ho-nan Fu and K'ai-fêng Fu.
+
+
+
+
+HONAVAR, or ONORE, a seaport of British India, in the North Kanara
+district of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 6929. It is mentioned as a place of
+trade as early as the 16th century, and is associated with two
+interesting incidents in Anglo-Indian history. In 1670, the English
+factors here had a bull-dog which unfortunately killed a sacred bull, in
+revenge for which they were all murdered, to the number of eighteen
+persons, by an enraged mob. In 1784 it was bravely defended for three
+months by Captain Torriano and a detachment of sepoys against the army
+of Tippoo Sultan.
+
+
+
+
+HONDA, or SAN BARTOLOMEO DE HONDA, a town of the department of Tolima,
+Colombia, on the W. bank of the Magdalena river, 580 m. above its mouth.
+In 1906 Mr F. Loraine Petre estimated the population at 7000. It is
+about 650 ft. above sea-level and stands at the entrance to a narrow
+valley formed by spurs of the Central Cordillera, through which a
+picturesque little stream, called the Guali, flows into the Magdalena.
+The town overlooks the rapids of the Magdalena, and is shut in closely
+by spurs of the Eastern and Central Cordilleras. The climate is hot and
+damp and the temperature frequently rises to 102° F. in the shade. Honda
+dates back to the beginning of the 17th century, and has been one of the
+important centres of traffic in South America for three hundred years.
+Within the city there is an iron bridge across the Guali, and there is a
+suspension bridge across the Magdalena at the head of the rapids. A
+railway 18 m. long connects with the landing place of La Dorada, or Las
+Yeguas, where the steamers of the lower Magdalena discharge and receive
+their cargoes (the old landing at Carocali nearer the rapids having been
+abandoned), and with Arrancaplumas, 1½ m. above, where navigation of the
+upper river begins. Up to 1908 the greater part of the traffic for
+Bogotá crossed the river at this point, and was carried on mule-back
+over the old _camino real_, which was at best only a rough bridlepath
+over which transportation to Bogotá (67 m. distant) was laborious and
+highly expensive; now the transshipment is made to smaller steamboats on
+the upper river for carriage to Girardot, 93 m. distant, from which
+place a railway runs to the Bogotá plateau. Honda was nearly destroyed
+by an earthquake in 1808.
+
+
+
+
+HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D' (c. 1636-1695), Dutch painter, was born at
+Utrecht, it is said, about 1636, and died at Amsterdam on the 3rd of
+April 1695. Old historians say that, being the grandson of Gillis and
+son of Gisbert d'Hondecoeter, as well as nephew of J. B. Weenix, he was
+brought up by the last two to the profession of painting. Of Weenix we
+know that he married one Josina d'Hondecoeter in 1638. Melchior was,
+therefore, related to Weenix, who certainly influenced his style. As to
+Gillis and Gisbert some points still remain obscure, and it is difficult
+to accept the statement that they stood towards each other in the
+relation of father and son, since both were registered as painters at
+Utrecht in 1637. Both it appears had practised art before coming to
+Utrecht, but where they resided or what they painted is uncertain.
+Unhappily pictures scarcely help us to clear up the mystery. In the
+Fürstenberg collection at Donaueschingen there is a "Concert of Birds"
+dated 1620, and signed with the monogram G. D. H.; and we may presume
+that G. D. H. is the man whose "Hen and Chickens in a Landscape" in the
+gallery of Rotterdam is inscribed "G. D. Hondecoeter, 1652"; but is the
+first letter of the monogram to stand for Gillis or Gisbert? In the
+museums of Dresden and Cassel landscapes with sportsmen are catalogued
+under the name of Gabriel de Heusch (?), one of them dated 1529, and
+certified with the monogram G. D. H., challenging attention by
+resemblance to a canvas of the same class inscribed G. D. Hond. in the
+Berlin Museum. The question here is also whether G. means Gillis or
+Gisbert. Obviously there are two artists to consider, one of whom paints
+birds, the other landscapes and sportsmen. Perhaps the first is Gisbert,
+whose son Melchior also chose birds as his peculiar subject. Weenix too
+would naturally teach his nephew to study the feathered tribe. Melchior,
+however, began his career with a different speciality from that by which
+he is usually known. Mr de Stuers affirms that he produced sea-pieces.
+One of his earliest works is a "Tub with Fish," dated 1655, in the
+gallery of Brunswick. But Melchior soon abandoned fish or fowl. He
+acquired celebrity as a painter of birds only, which he represented not
+exclusively, like Fyt, as the gamekeeper's perquisite after a day's
+shooting, or stock of a poulterer's shop, but as living beings with
+passions, joys, fears and quarrels, to which naturalists will tell us
+that birds are subject. Without the brilliant tone and high finish of
+Fyt, his Dutch rival's birds are full of action; and, as Bürger truly
+says, Hondecoeter displays the maternity of the hen with as much
+tenderness and feeling as Raphael the maternity of Madonnas. But Fyt was
+at home in depicting the coat of deer and dogs us well as plumage.
+Hondecoeter cultivates a narrower field, and seldom goes beyond a
+cock-fight or a display of mere bird life. Very few of his pictures are
+dated, though more are signed. Amongst the former we should note the
+"Jackdaw deprived of his Borrowed Plumes" (1671), at the Hague, of which
+Earl Cadogan has a variety; or "Game and Poultry" and "A Spaniel hunting
+a Partridge" (1672), in the gallery of Brussels; or "A Park with
+Poultry" (1686) at the Hermitage of St Petersburg. Hondecoeter, in great
+favour with the magnates of the Netherlands, became a member of the
+painters' academy at the Hague in 1659. William III. employed him to
+paint his menagerie at Loo, and the picture, now at the Hague museum,
+shows that he could at a pinch overcome the difficulty of representing
+India's cattle, elephants and gazelles. But he is better in homelier
+works, with which he adorned the royal chateaux of Bensberg and
+Oranienstein at different periods of his life (Hague and Amsterdam). In
+1688 Hondecoeter took the freedom of the city of Amsterdam, where he
+resided till his death. His earliest works are more conscientious,
+lighter and more transparent than his later ones. At all times he is
+bold Of touch and sure of eye, giving the motion of birds with great
+spirit and accuracy. His masterpieces are at the Hague and at Amsterdam.
+But there are fine examples in private collections in England, and in
+the public galleries of Berlin, Caen, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Cologne,
+Copenhagen, Dresden, Dublin, Florence, Glasgow, Hanover, London, Lyons,
+Montpellier, Munich, Paris, Rotterdam, Rouen, St Petersburg, Stuttgart
+and Vienna.
+
+
+
+
+HONDURAS, a republic of Central America, bounded on the N. by the
+Caribbean Sea, E. by Nicaragua, S. by Nicaragua, the Pacific Ocean and
+Salvador, and W. by Guatemala. (For map see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop.
+(1905) 500,136; area, about 46,500 sq. m. Honduras is said to owe its
+name, meaning in Spanish "depths," to the difficulty experienced by its
+original Spanish explorers in finding anchorage off its shores; Cape
+Gracias à Dios (Cape "Thanks to God") is the name bestowed, for
+analogous reasons, on its easternmost headland, which shelters a small
+harbour, now included in Nicaragua. Modern navigators are not confronted
+by the same difficulty; for, although the north coast is unbroken by any
+remarkable inlet except the Carataska Lagoon, a land-locked lake on the
+east, with a narrow entrance from the sea, there are many small bays and
+estuaries, such as those of Puerto Cortes, Omoa, Ulua, La Ceiba and
+Trujillo, which serve as harbours. The broad basin of the Caribbean Sea,
+bounded by Honduras, Guatemala and British Honduras, is known as the bay
+or gulf of Honduras. Several islets and the important group of the Bay
+Islands (q.v.) belong to the republic. On the Pacific the Hondurian
+littoral is short but of great commercial value; for it consists of a
+frontage of some 60 m. on the Bay of Fonseca (q.v.), one of the finest
+natural harbours in the world. The islands of Tigre, Sacate Grande and
+Gueguensi, in the bay, belong to Honduras.
+
+The frontier which separates the republic from Nicaragua extends across
+the continent from E.N.E to W.S.W. It is defined by the river Segovia,
+Wanks or Coco, for about one-third of the distance; it then deflects
+across the watershed on the east and south of the river Choluteca,
+crosses the main Nicaraguan Cordillera (mountain chain) and follows the
+river Negro to the Bay of Fonseca. The line of separation from Salvador
+is irregularly drawn, first in a northerly and then in a westerly
+direction; beginning at the mouth of the river Goascoran, in the Bay of
+Fonseca, it ends 12 m. W. of San Francisco city. At this point begins
+the Guatemalan frontier, the largest section of which is delimited along
+the crests of the Sierra de Merendon. On the Caribbean seaboard the
+estuary of the Motagua forms the boundary between Honduras and
+Guatemala.
+
+  _Physical Features._--The general aspect of the country is
+  mountainous; its southern half is traversed by a continuation of the
+  main Nicaraguan Cordillera. The chain does not, in this republic,
+  approach within 50 or 60 m. of the Pacific; nor does it throughout
+  maintain its general character of an unbroken range, but sometimes
+  turns back on itself, forming interior basins or valleys, within which
+  are collected the headwaters of the streams that traverse the country
+  in the direction of the Atlantic Ocean. Nevertheless, viewed from the
+  Pacific, it presents the appearance of a great natural wall, with
+  many volcanic peaks towering above it and with a lower range of
+  mountains intervening between it and the sea. It would almost seem
+  that at one time the Pacific broke at the foot of the great mountain
+  barrier, and that the subordinate coast range was subsequently thrust
+  up by volcanic forces. At one point the main range is interrupted by a
+  great transverse valley or plain known as the plain of Comayagua,
+  which has an extreme length of about 40 m., with a width of from 5 to
+  15 m. From this plain the valley of the river Humuya extends north to
+  the Atlantic, and the valley of the Goascoran extends south to the
+  Pacific. These three depressions collectively constitute a great
+  transverse valley reaching from sea to sea, which was pointed out soon
+  after the conquest as an appropriate course for inter-oceanic
+  communication. The mountains of the northern half of Honduras are not
+  volcanic in character and are inferior in altitude to those of the
+  south, which sometimes exceed 10,000 ft. The relief of all the
+  highlands of the Atlantic watershed is extremely varied; its
+  culminating points are probably in the mountain mass about the sources
+  of the Choluteca, Sulaco and Roman, and in the Sierra de Pija, near
+  the coast. Farther eastward the different ranges are less clearly
+  marked and the surface of the country resembles a plateau intersected
+  by numerous watercourses.
+
+  The rivers of the Atlantic slope of Honduras are numerous and some of
+  them of large size and navigable. The largest is the Ulua, with its
+  tributary the Humuya. It rises in the plain of Comayagua and flows
+  north to the Atlantic; it drains a wide expanse of territory,
+  comprehending nearly one-third of the entire state, and probably
+  discharges a greater amount of water into the sea than any other river
+  of Central America, the Segovia excepted. It may be navigated by
+  steamers of light draught for the greater part of its course. The Rio
+  Roman or Aguan is a large stream falling into the Atlantic near
+  Trujillo, with a total length of about 120 m. Its largest tributary is
+  the Rio Mangualil, celebrated for its gold washings, and it may be
+  ascended by boats of light draft for 80 m. Rio Tinto, Negro or Black
+  River, called also Poyer or Poyas, is a considerable stream, navigable
+  by small vessels for about 60 m. Some English settlements were made on
+  its banks during the 18th century. The Patuca rises near the frontier
+  of Nicaragua, and enters the Atlantic east of the Brus or Brewer
+  lagoon. The Segovia is the longest river in Central America, rising
+  within 50 m. of the Bay of Fonseca, and flowing into the Caribbean Sea
+  at Cape Gracias à Dios (see NICARAGUA). Three considerable rivers flow
+  into the Pacific--the Goascoran, Nacaome and Choluteca, the last named
+  having a length of about 150 m. The Goascoran, which almost interlocks
+  with the Humuya, in the plain of Comayagua, has a length of about 80
+  m. The lake of Yojoa or Taulébe is the only large inland lake in
+  Honduras, and is about 25 m. in length, by 6 to 8 in breadth. Its
+  surface is 2050 ft. above the sea. It has two outlets on the south,
+  the rivers Jaitique and Sacapa, which unite about 15 m. from the lake;
+  and it is drained on the north by the Rio Blanco, a narrow, deep
+  stream falling into the Ulua. It has also a feeder on the north, in
+  the form of a subterranean stream of beautiful clear water, which here
+  comes to the surface. The Carataska or Caratasca lagoon is a shallow
+  salt-water lake connected by a narrow channel with the Atlantic, and
+  near the mouth of the Segovia. It contains several large sandy
+  islands.
+
+  Honduras resembles the neighbouring countries in the general character
+  of its geological formations, fauna and flora. Here, as in other
+  Central American states, there are but two seasons, the wet, from May
+  to November, and the dry, from November to May. On the moist lowlands
+  of the Atlantic coast the climate is oppressive, but on the highlands
+  of the interior it is delightful. At Tegucigalpa, on the uplands, a
+  year's observations showed the maximum temperature to be 90° F. in
+  May, and the minimum to be 50° F. in December, the range of variation
+  during the whole year being within 40° F.
+
+  See also CENTRAL AMERICA: _Geology, Fauna, Flora, Climate_.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of Honduras are in many cases of the
+Indian or aboriginal type, and the European element is very small,
+although it shares in the social, political and economic preponderance
+of the Spanish-speaking half-castes (_Ladinos_ or _Mestizos_), who are
+the most numerous section of the population. Throughout the country
+there are many interesting relics of the native civilization which was
+destroyed by the Spanish invaders in the 16th century. In the eastern
+portion of the state, between the Rio Roman, Cape Gracias à Dios, and
+the Segovia river, the country is almost exclusively occupied by native
+Indian tribes, known under the general names of Xicaques and Poyas. In
+many districts the Indians are known as Lencas, a generic name which
+includes several tribes akin to the Mayans of Guatemala. Portions of all
+of these tribes have accepted the Roman Catholic religion, and live in
+peaceful neighbourhood and good understanding with the white
+inhabitants. There are, however, considerable numbers, probably about
+90,000 in all, who live among the mountains and still conform closely
+to the aboriginal modes of life. They all cultivate the soil, and are
+good and industrious labourers. A small portion of the coast, above Cape
+Gracias, is occupied by the Sambos, a mixed race of Indians and negroes,
+which, however, is fast disappearing. Spreading along the entire north
+coast are the Caribs, a vigorous race, descendants of the Caribs of St
+Vincent, one of the Windward Islands. These, to the number of 5000, were
+deported in 1796 by the English and landed on the island of Roatan. They
+still retain their native language, although it tends to disappear and
+be replaced by Spanish and a bastard dialect of English; they are
+active, industrious and provident, forming the chief reliance of the
+mahogany cutters on the coast. A portion of them, who have a mixture of
+negro blood, are called the Black Caribs. They profess the Roman
+Catholic religion, but retain many of their native rites and
+superstitions. In the departments of Gracias, Comayagua and Choluteca
+are many purely Indian towns.
+
+The aggregate population, according to an official estimate made in
+1905, is 500,136, but a complete and satisfactory census cannot be taken
+throughout the country, since the ignorant masses of the people, and
+especially the Indians, avoid a census as in some way connected with
+military conscription or taxation. The bulk of the Spanish population
+exists on the Pacific slope of the continent, while on the Atlantic
+declivity the country is uninhabited or but sparsely occupied by Indian
+tribes, of which the number is wholly unknown. In 1905 there were fewer
+than 11 inhabitants per sq. m., but all the available data tend to show
+that the population increases rapidly, owing to the continuous excess of
+births over deaths. The first census, taken in 1791, gave the total
+population as only 95,500. There is little emigration or immigration.
+
+_Chief Towns._--The capital is Tegucigalpa (pop. 1905, about 35,000);
+other important towns are Jutigalpa (18,000), Comayagua (8000), and the
+seaports of Amapala (4000), Trujillo (4000), and Puerto Cortes (2500).
+These are described in separate articles. The towns of Nacaome, La
+Esperanza, Choluteca and Santa Rosa have upwards of 10,000 inhabitants.
+
+  _Communications._--Means of communication are very defective. In 1905
+  the only railway in the country was that from Puerto Cortes to La
+  Pimienta, a distance of 57 m. This is a section of the proposed
+  inter-oceanic railway for which the external debt of the republic was
+  incurred. For the completion of the line concessions, one after
+  another, were granted, and expired or were revoked. Other railways are
+  projected, including one along the Atlantic coast, an extension from
+  La Pimienta to La Brea on the Pacific, and a line from Tegucigalpa to
+  the port of San Lorenzo. The capital is connected with other towns by
+  fairly well made roads, which, however, are not kept in good repair.
+  In the interior generally, all travelling and transport are by mules
+  and ox-carts over roads which defy description.
+
+  Honduras joined the Postal Union in 1879, The telegraph service is
+  conducted by the government and is inefficient. Telephones are in use
+  in Tegucigalpa and a few of the more important towns.
+
+  _Commerce and Industry._--Although grants of land for mining and
+  agricultural purposes are readily made by the state to companies and
+  individual capitalists, the economic development of Honduras has been
+  a very slow process, impeded as it has been by political disturbances
+  and in modern times by national bankruptcy, heavy import and export
+  duties, and the scarcity of both labour and capital. The natural
+  wealth of the country is great and consists especially in its
+  vegetable products. The mahogany and cedar of Honduras are
+  unsurpassed, but reckless destruction of these and of other valuable
+  cabinet-woods and dye-woods has much reduced the supply available for
+  export. Rubber-planting, a comparatively modern industry, has proved
+  successful, and tends to supplement the almost exhausted stock of wild
+  rubber. Of still greater importance are the plantations of bananas,
+  especially in the northern maritime province of Atlantida, where
+  coco-nuts are also grown. Coffee, tobacco, sugar, oranges, lemons,
+  maize and beans are produced in all parts, rice, cocoa, indigo and
+  wheat over more limited areas. Cattle and pigs are bred extensively;
+  cattle are exported to Cuba, and dairy-farming is carried on with
+  success. Sheep-farming is almost an unknown industry. Turtle and fish
+  are obtained in large quantities off the Atlantic seaboard. In its
+  mineral resources Honduras ranks first among the states of Central
+  America. Silver is worked by a British company, gold by an American
+  company. Gold-washing was practised in a primitive manner even before
+  the Spanish conquest, and in the 18th century immense quantities of
+  gold and silver were obtained by the Spaniards from mines near
+  Tegucigalpa. Opals, platinum, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, antimony,
+  iron, lignite and coal have been found but the causes already
+  enumerated have prevented the exploitation of any of these minerals
+  on a large scale, and the total value of the ores exported was only
+  £174,800 in 1904 and £239,426 in 1905. The total value of the exports
+  in a normal year ranges from about £500,000 to £600,000, and that of
+  the imports from £450,000 to £550,000. Apart from minerals the most
+  valuable commodity exported is bananas (£209,263 in 1905); coco-nuts,
+  timber, hides, deer-skins, feathers, coffee, sarsaparilla and rubber
+  are items of minor importance. Nearly 90% of the exports are shipped
+  to the United States, which also send to Honduras more than half of
+  its imports. These chiefly consist of cotton goods, hardware and
+  provisions. The manufacturing industries of Honduras include the
+  plaiting of straw hats, cigar-making, brick-making and the
+  distillation of spirits.
+
+  _Finance._--Owing to the greater variety of its products and the
+  possession of a metallic currency, Honduras is less affected by
+  fluctuations of exchange than the neighbouring republics, in which
+  little except paper money circulates. The monetary unit is the silver
+  _peso_ or dollar of 100 cents, which weighs 25 grammes, .900 fine, and
+  is worth about 1s. 8d.; the gold dollar is worth about 4s. The
+  principal coins in circulation arc the 1-cent copper piece, 5, 10, 20,
+  25 and 50 cents, and 1 peso silver pieces, and 1, 5, 10 and 20 dollar
+  gold pieces. The metric system of weights and measures, adopted
+  officially on the 1st of April 1897, has not supplanted the older
+  Spanish standards in general use. There is only one bank in the
+  republic, the _Banco de Honduras_, with its head office at
+  Tegucigalpa. Its bills are legal tender for all debts due to the
+  state.
+
+  In July 1909 the foreign debt of Honduras, with arrears of interest,
+  amounted to £22,470,510, of which more than £17,000,000 were for
+  arrears of interest. The principal was borrowed between 1867 and 1870,
+  chiefly for railway construction; but it was mainly devoted to other
+  purposes and no interest has been paid since 1872. The republic is
+  thus practically bankrupt. The revenue, derived chiefly from customs
+  and from the spirit, gunpowder and tobacco monopolies reached an
+  average of about £265,000 during the five years 1901-1905; the
+  expenditure in normal years is about £250,000. The principal spending
+  departments are those of war, finance, public works and education.
+
+_Constitution and Government._--The constitution of Honduras,
+promulgated in 1839 and frequently amended, was to a great extent recast
+in 1880. It was again remodelled in 1894, when a new charter was
+proclaimed. This instrument gives the legislative power to a congress of
+deputies elected for four years by popular vote, in the ratio of one
+member for every 10,000 inhabitants. Congress meets on the 1st of
+January and sits for sixty consecutive days. The executive is entrusted
+to the president, who is nominated and elected for four years by popular
+vote, and is re-eligible for a second but not for a third consecutive
+term. He is assisted by a council of ministers representing the
+departments of the interior, war, finance, public works, education and
+justice. For purposes of local administration the republic is divided
+into sixteen departments. The highest judicial power is vested in the
+Supreme Court, which consists of five popularly elected judges; there
+are also four Courts of Appeal, besides subordinate departmental and
+district tribunals. The active army consists of about 500 regular
+soldiers and 20,000 militia, recruited by conscription from all
+able-bodied males between the ages of twenty and thirty. Service in the
+reserve is obligatory for a further period of ten years.
+
+  _Religion and Education._--Roman Catholicism is the creed of a very
+  large majority of the population; but the constitution grants complete
+  liberty to all religious communities, and no Church is supported by
+  public funds or receives any other special privilege. Education is
+  free, secular and compulsory for children between the ages of seven
+  and fifteen. There are primary schools in every convenient centre, but
+  the percentage of illiterates is high, especially among the Indians.
+  The state maintains a central institute and a university at
+  Tegucigalpa, a school of jurisprudence at Comayagua, and colleges for
+  secondary education, with special schools for teachers, in each
+  department. The annual cost of primary education is about £11,000.
+
+_History._--It was at Cape Honduras that Columbus first landed on the
+American continent in 1502, and took possession of the country on behalf
+of Spain. The first settlement was made in 1524 by order of Hernando
+Cortes, who had heard rumours of rich and populous empires in this
+region, and sent his lieutenant Christobal de Olid to found a Spanish
+colony. Olid endeavoured to establish an independent principality, and,
+in order to resume control of the settlers, Cortes was compelled to
+undertake the long and arduous march across the mountains of southern
+Mexico and Guatemala. In the spring of 1525 he reached the colony and
+founded the city which is now Puerto Cortes. He entrusted the
+administration to a new governor, whose successors were to be nominated
+by the king, and returned to Mexico in 1526. By 1539, when Honduras was
+incorporated in the captaincy-general of Guatemala, the mines of the
+province had proved to be the richest as yet discovered in the New World
+and several large cities had come into existence. The system under which
+Honduras was administered from 1539 to 1821, when it repudiated the
+authority of the Spanish crown, the effects of that system, the part
+subsequently played by Honduras in the protracted struggle for Central
+American unity, and the invasion by William Walker and his
+fellow-adventurers (1856-1860), are fully described under CENTRAL
+AMERICA.
+
+War and revolution had stunted the economic growth of the country and
+retarded every attempt at social or political reform; its future was
+mortgaged by the assumption of an enormous burden of debt in 1869 and
+1870. A renewal of war with Guatemala in 1871, and a revolution three
+years later in the interests of the ex-president Medina, brought about
+the intervention of the neighbouring states and the provisional
+appointment to the presidency of Marco Aurelio Soto, a nominee of
+Guatemala. This appointment proved successful and was confirmed by
+popular vote in 1877 and 1880, when a new constitution was issued and
+the seat of government fixed at Tegucigalpa. Fresh outbreaks of civil
+war occurred frequently between 1883 and 1903; the republic was bankrupt
+and progress again at a standstill. In 1903 Manuel Bonilla, an able,
+popular and experienced general, gained the presidency and seemed likely
+to repeat the success of Soto in maintaining order. As his term of
+office drew to a close, and his re-election appeared certain, the
+supporters of rival candidates and some of his own dissatisfied
+adherents intrigued to secure the co-operation of Nicaragua for his
+overthrow. Bonilla welcomed the opportunity of consolidating his own
+position which a successful war would offer; José Santos Zelaya, the
+president of Nicaragua, was equally ambitious; and several alleged
+violations of territory had embittered popular feeling on both sides.
+The United States and Mexican governments endeavoured to secure a
+peaceful settlement without intervention, but failed. At the outbreak of
+hostilities in February 1907 the Hondurian forces were commanded by
+Bonilla in person and by General Sotero Barahona his minister of war.
+One of their chief subordinates was Lee Christmas, an adventurer from
+Memphis, Tennessee, who had previously been a locomotive-driver.
+Honduras received active support from his ally, Salvador, and was
+favoured by public opinion throughout Central America. But from the
+outset the Nicaraguans proved victorious, largely owing to their
+remarkable mobility. Their superior naval force enabled them to capture
+Puerto Cortes and La Ceiba, and to threaten other cities on the
+Caribbean coast; on land they were aided by a body of Hondurian rebels,
+who also established a provisional government. Zelaya captured
+Tegucigalpa after severe fighting, and besieged Bonilla in Amapala. Lee
+Christmas was killed. The surrender of Amapala on the 11th of April
+practically ended the war. Bonilla took refuge on board the United
+States cruiser "Chicago." A noteworthy feature of the war was the
+attitude of the American naval officers, who landed marines, arranged
+the surrender of Amapala, and prevented Nicaragua prolonging
+hostilities. Honduras was now evacuated by the Nicaraguans and her
+provisional government was recognized by Zelaya. Miguel R. Davila was
+president in 1908 and 1909.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Official documents such as the annual presidential
+  message and the reports of the ministries are published in Spanish at
+  Tegucigalpa. Other periodical publications which throw much light on
+  the movement of trade and politics are the British Foreign Office
+  reports (London, annual), United States consular reports (Washington,
+  monthly), bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics (Washington),
+  and reports of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders
+  (London, annual). For a more comprehensive account of the country and
+  its history, the works of K. Sapper, E. G. Squier, A. H. Keane and T.
+  Child, cited under CENTRAL AMERICA, are important. See also E.
+  Pelletier, _Honduras et ses ports: documents officiels sur le
+  chemin-de-fer interocéanique_ (Paris, 1869); E. G. Squier, _Honduras:
+  Descriptive, Historical and Statistical_ (London, 1870); C. Charles,
+  _Honduras_ (Chicago, 1890); _Handbook of Honduras_, published by the
+  Bureau of American Republics (1892); T. R. Lombard, _The New
+  Honduras_ (New York, 1887); H. Jalhay, _La République de Honduras_
+  (Antwerp, 1898); Perry, _Directorio nacional de Honduras_ (New York,
+  1899); H. G. Bourgeois, _Breve noticia sobre Honduras_ (Tegucigalpa,
+  1900).
+
+
+
+
+HONE, NATHANIEL (1718-1784), British painter, was the son of a merchant
+at Dublin, and without any regular training acquired in his youth much
+skill as a portrait-painter. Early in his career he left Dublin for
+England and worked first in various provincial towns, but ultimately
+settled in London, where he soon made a considerable reputation. His
+oil-paintings were decidedly popular, but he gained his chief success by
+his miniatures and enamels, which he executed with masterly capacity. He
+became a member of the Incorporated Society of Artists and afterwards a
+foundation member of the Royal Academy; but he had several disagreements
+with his fellow-members of that institution, and on one occasion they
+rejected two of his pictures, one of which was regarded as a satire on
+Reynolds and the other on Angelica Kauffman. Most of his contributions
+to the Academy exhibitions were portraits. The quality of his work
+varied greatly, but the merit of his miniatures and enamels entitles him
+to a place among the ablest artists of the British school. He executed
+also a few mezzotint plates of reasonable importance, and some etchings.
+His portrait, painted by himself two years before his death, is in the
+possession of the Royal Academy.
+
+
+
+
+HONE, WILLIAM (1780-1842), English writer and bookseller, was born at
+Bath on the 3rd of June 1780. His father brought up his children with
+the sectarian narrowness that so frequently produces reaction. Hone
+received no systematic education, and was taught to read from the Bible
+only. His father having removed to London in 1783, he was in 1790 placed
+in an attorney's office. After two and a half years spent in the office
+of a solicitor at Chatham he returned to London to become clerk to a
+solicitor in Gray's Inn. But he disliked the law, and had already
+acquired a taste for free-thought and political agitation. Hone married
+in 1800, and started a book and print shop with a circulating Library in
+Lambeth Walk. He soon removed to St Martin's Churchyard, where he
+brought out his first publication, Shaw's _Gardener_ (1806). It was at
+this time that he and his friend, John Bone, tried to realize a plan for
+the establishment of popular savings banks, and even had an interview on
+the subject with the president of the Board of Trade. This scheme,
+however, failed. Bone joined him next in a bookseller's business; but
+Hone's habits were not those of a tradesman, and bankruptcy was the
+result. He was in 1811 chosen by the booksellers as auctioneer to the
+trade, and had an office in Ivy Lane. Independent investigations carried
+on by him into the condition of lunatic asylums led again to business
+difficulties and failure, but he took a small lodging in the Old Bailey,
+keeping himself and his now large family by contributions to magazines
+and reviews. He hired a small shop, or rather box, in Fleet Street but
+this was on two separate nights broken into, and valuable books lent for
+show were stolen. In 1815 he started the _Traveller_ newspaper, and
+endeavoured vainly to exculpate Eliza Fenning, a poor girl, apparently
+quite guiltless, who was executed on a charge of poisoning. From
+February 1 to October 25, 1817, he published the _Reformer's Register_,
+writing in it as the serious critic of the state abuses, which he soon
+after attacked in the famous political squibs and parodies, illustrated
+by George Cruikshank. In April 1817 three _ex-officio_ informations were
+filed against him by the attorney-genera, Sir William Garrow. Three
+separate trials took place in the Guildhall before special juries on the
+18th, 19th and 20th of December 1817. The first, for publishing Wilkes's
+_Catechism of a Ministerial Member_ (1817), was before Mr Justice Abbot
+(afterwards Lord Tenterden); the second, for parodying the litany and
+libelling the prince regent, and the third, for publishing the
+_Sinecurist's Creed_ (1817), a parody on the Athanasian creed, were
+before Lord Ellenborough (q.v.). The prosecution took the ground that
+the prints were calculated to injure public morals, and to bring the
+prayer-book and even religion itself into contempt. But there can be no
+doubt that the real motives of the prosecution were political; Hone had
+ridiculed the habits and exposed the corruption of the prince regent and
+of other persons in power. He went to the root of the matter when he
+wished the jury "to understand that, had he been a publisher of
+ministerial parodies, he would not then have been defending himself on
+the floor of that court." In spite of illness and exhaustion Hone
+displayed great courage and ability, speaking on each of the three days
+for about seven hours. Although his judges were biassed against him he
+was acquitted on each count, and the result was received with
+enthusiastic cheers by immense crowds within and without the court. Soon
+after the trials a subscription was begun which enabled Hone to get over
+the difficulties caused by his prosecution. Among Hone's most successful
+political satires were _The Political House that Jack built_ (1819),
+_The Queen's Matrimonial Ladder_ (1820), in favour of Queen Caroline,
+_The Man in the Moon_ (1820), _The Political Showman_ (1821), all
+illustrated by Cruikshank. Many of his squibs are directed against a
+certain "Dr Slop," a nickname given by him to Dr (afterwards Sir John)
+Stoddart, of _The Times_. In researches for his defence he had come upon
+some curious and at that time little trodden literary ground, and the
+results were shown by his publication in 1820 of his _Apocryphal New
+Testament_, and in 1823 of his _Ancient Mysteries Explained_. In 1826 he
+published the _Every-day Book_, in 1827-1828 the _Table-Book_, and in
+1829 the _Year-Book_; all three were collections of curious information
+on manners, antiquities and various other subjects. These are the works
+by which Hone is best remembered. In preparing them he had the approval
+of Southey and the assistance of Charles Lamb, but pecuniarily they were
+not successful, and Hone was lodged in King's Bench prison for debt.
+Friends, however, again came to his assistance, and he was established
+in a coffee-house in Gracechurch Street; but this, like most of his
+enterprises, ended in failure. Hone's attitude of mind had gradually
+changed to that of extreme devoutness, and during the latter years of
+his life he frequently preached in Weigh House Chapel, Eastcheap. In
+1830 he edited Strutt's _Sports and Pastimes_, and he contributed to the
+first number of the _Penny Magazine_. He was also for some years
+sub-editor of the _Patriot_. He died at Tottenham on the 6th of November
+1842.
+
+
+
+
+HONE (in O. Eng. _hán_, cognate with Swed. _hen_; the root appears in
+Skt. _çána_, _ço_ to sharpen), a variety of finely siliceous stone
+employed for whetting or sharpening edge tools, and for abrading steel
+and other hard surfaces. Synonyms are honestone, whetstone, oilstone and
+sharpening stone. Hones are generally prepared in the form of flat slabs
+or small pencils or rods, but some are made with the outline of the
+special instrument they are designed to sharpen. Their abrading action
+is due to the quartz or silica which is always present in predominating
+proportion, some kinds consisting of almost pure quartz, while in others
+the siliceous element is very intimately mixed with aluminous or
+calcareous matter, forming a uniform compact stone, the extremely fine
+siliceous particles of which impart a remarkably keen edge to the
+instruments for the sharpening of which they are applied. In some cases
+the presence of minute garnets or magnetite assists in the cutting
+action. Hones are used either dry, with water, or with oil, and
+generally the object to be sharpened is drawn with hand pressure
+backward and forward over the surface of the hone; but sometimes the
+stone is moved over the cutting edge.
+
+The coarsest type of stone which can be included among hones is the bat
+or scythe stone, a porous fine-grained sandstone used for sharpening
+scythes and cutters of mowing machines, and for other like purposes.
+Next come the ragstones, which consist of quartzose mica-schist, and
+give a finer edge than any sandstone. Under the head of oilstones or
+hones proper the most famous and best-known qualities are the German
+razor hone, the Turkey oilstone, and the Arkansas stone. The German
+razor hone, used, as its name implies, chiefly for razors, is obtained
+from the slate mountains near Ratisbon, where it forms a yellow vein of
+from 1 to 18 in. in the blue slate. It is sawn into thin slabs, and
+these are cemented to slabs of slate which serve as a support. Turkey
+oilstone is a close-grained bluish stone containing from 70 to 75% of
+silica in a state of very fine division, intimately blended with about
+20 to 25% of calcite. It is obtained only in small pieces, frequently
+flawed and not tough, so that the slabs must have a backing of slate or
+wood. It is one of the most valuable of all whetstones, abrading the
+hardest steel, and possessing sufficient compactness to resist the
+pressure required for sharpening gravers. The stone comes from the
+interior of Asia Minor, whence it is carried to Smyrna. Of Arkansas
+stones there are two varieties, both found in the same district, Garland
+and Saline counties, Arkansas, United States. The finer kind, known as
+Arkansas hone, is obtained in small pieces at the Hot Springs, and the
+second quality, distinguished as Washita stone, comes from Washita or
+Ouachita river. The hones yield on analysis 98% of silica, with small
+proportions of alumina, potash and soda, and mere traces of iron, lime,
+magnesia and fluorine. They are white in colour, extremely hard and keen
+in grit, and not easily worn down or broken. Geologically the materials
+are called novaculites, and are supposed to be metamorphosed sandstone
+silt, chert or limestone resulting from the permeation through the mass
+of heated alkaline siliceous waters. The finer kind is employed for fine
+cutting instruments, and also for polishing steel pivots of watch-wheels
+and similar minute work, the second and coarser quality being used for
+common tools. Both varieties are largely exported from the United States
+in the form of blocks, slips, pencils, rods and wheels. Other honestones
+are obtained in the United States from New York, New Hampshire, Vermont,
+Ohio (Deerlick stone) and Indiana (Hindostan or Orange stone). Among
+hones of less importance in general use may be noted the Charley Forest
+stone--or Whittle Hill honestone--a good substitute for Turkey oilstone;
+Water of Ayr stone, Scotch stone, or snake stone, a pale grey
+carboniferous shale hardened by igneous action, used for tools and for
+polishing marble and copper-plates; Idwal or Welsh oilstone, used for
+small articles; and cutlers' greenstone from Snowdon, very hard and
+close in texture, used for giving the last edge to lancets.
+
+
+
+
+HONEY (Chin. _me_; Sansk. _madhu_, mead, honey; cf. A.S. _medo_, _medu_,
+mead; Gr. [Greek: meli], in which [theta] or [delta] is changed into
+[lambda]; Lat. _mel_; Fr. _miel_; A.S. _hunig_; Ger. _Honig_),[1] a
+sweet viscid liquid, obtained by bees (see BEE, _Bee-keeping_) chiefly
+from the nectaries of flowers, i.e. those parts of flowers specially
+constructed for the elaboration of honey, and, after transportation to
+the hive in the proventriculus or crop of the insects, discharged by
+them into the cells prepared for its reception. Whether the nectar
+undergoes any alteration within the crop of the bee is a point on which
+authors have differed. Some wasps, e.g. _Myrapetra scutellaris_[2] and
+the genus _Nectarina_, collect honey. A honey-like fluid, which consists
+of a nearly pure solution of uncrystallizable sugar having the formula
+C6H14O7 after drying in vacuo, and which is used by the Mexicans in the
+preparation of a beverage, is yielded by certain inactive individuals of
+_Myrmecocystus mexicanus_, Wesmael, the honey-ants or pouched ants
+(_hormigas mieleras_ or _mochileras_) of Mexico.[3] The abdomen in these
+insects, owing to the distensibility of the membrane connecting its
+segments, becomes converted into a globular thin-walled sac by the
+accumulation within it of the nectar supplied to them by their working
+comrades (Wesmael, _Bull. de l'Acad. Roy. de Brux._ v. 766, 1838). By
+the Rev. H. C. M'Cook, who discovered the insect in the Garden of the
+Gods, Colorado, the honey-bearers were found hanging by their feet, in
+groups of about thirty, to the roofs of special chambers in their
+underground nests, their large globular abdomens causing them to
+resemble "bunches of small Delaware grapes" (_Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
+Philad._, 1879, p. 197). A bladder-like formation on the metathorax of
+another ant, _Crematogaster inflatus_ (F. Smith, _Cat. of Hymenoptera_,
+pt. vi. pp. 136 and 200, pl. ix. fig. 1), which has a small circular
+orifice at each posterior lateral angle, appears to possess a function
+similar to that of the abdomen in the honey-ant.
+
+It is a popular saying that where is the best honey there also is the
+best wool; and a pastoral district, since it affords a greater profusion
+of flowers, is superior for the production of honey to one under
+tillage.[4] Dry warm weather is that most favourable to the secretion of
+nectar by flowers. This they protect from rain by various internal
+structures, such as papillae, cushions of hairs and spurs, or by virtue
+of their position (in the raspberry, drooping), or the arrangement of
+their constituent parts. Dr A. W. Bennett (_How Flowers are Fertilized_,
+p. 31, 1873) has remarked that the perfume of flowers is generally
+derived from their nectar; the blossoms of some plants, however, as ivy
+and holly, though almost scentless, are highly nectariferous. The
+exudation of a honey-like or saccharine fluid, as has frequently been
+attested, is not a function exclusively of the flowers in all plants. A
+sweet material, the manna of pharmacy, e.g. is produced by the leaves
+and stems of a species of ash, _Fraxinus Ornus_; and honey-secreting
+glands are to be met with on the leaves, petioles, phyllodes, stipules
+(as in _Vicia sativa_), or bracteae (as in the _Maregraviaceae_) of a
+considerable number of different vegetable forms. The origin of the
+honey-yielding properties manifested specially by flowers among the
+several parts of plants has been carefully considered by Darwin, who
+regards the saccharine matter in nectar as a waste product of chemical
+changes in the sap, which, when it happened to be excreted within the
+envelopes of flowers, was utilized for the important object of
+cross-fertilization, and subsequently was much increased in quantity,
+and stored in various ways (see _Cross and Self Fertilization of
+Plants_, pp. 402 sq., 1876). It has been noted with respect to the
+nectar of the fuchsia that it is most abundant when the anthers are
+about to dehisce, and absent in the unexpanded flower.
+
+  Pettigrew is of opinion that few bees go more than 2 m. from home in
+  search of honey. The number of blossoms visited in order to meet the
+  requirements of a single hive of bees must be very great; for it has
+  been found by A. S. Wilson ("On the Nectar of Flowers," _Brit. Assoc.
+  Rep._, 1878, p. 567) that 125 heads of common red clover, which is a
+  plant comparatively abundant in nectar, yield but one gramme (15.432
+  grains) of sugar; and as each head contains about 60 florets,
+  7,500,000 distinct flower-tubes must on this estimate be exhausted for
+  each kilogramme (2.204 lb.) of sugar collected. Among the richer
+  sources of honey are reckoned the apple, asparagus, asters, barberry,
+  basswood (_Tilia americana_), and the European lime or linden (_T.
+  europaea_), beans, bonesets (_Eupatorium_), borage, broom, buckwheat,
+  catnip, or catmint (_Nepeta Cataria_), cherry, cleome, clover, cotton,
+  crocus, currant, dandelion, eucalyptus, figwort (_Scrophularia_),
+  furze, golden-rod (_Solidago_), gooseberry, hawthorn, heather,
+  hepatica, horehound, hyacinth, lucerne, maple, mignonette, mint,
+  motherwort (_Leonurus_), mustard, onion, peach, pear, poplar, quince,
+  rape, raspberry, sage, silver maple, snapdragon, sour-wood
+  (_Oxydendron arboreum_, D.C.), strawberry, sycamore, teasel, thyme,
+  tulip-tree (more especially rich in pollen), turnip, violet and
+  willows, and the "honey-dew" of the leaves of the whitethorn (Bonner),
+  oak, linden, beech and some other trees.
+
+Honey contains dextroglucose and laevoglucose (the former practically
+insoluble, the latter soluble in 1/8 pt. of cold strong alcohol),
+cane-sugar (according to some), mucilage, water, wax, essential oil,
+colouring bodies, a minute quantity of mineral matter and pollen. By a
+species of fermentation, the cane-sugar is said to be gradually
+transformed into inverted sugar (laevoglucose with dextroglucose). The
+pollen, as a source of nitrogen, is of importance to the bees feeding on
+the honey. It may be obtained for examination as a sediment from a
+mixture of honey and water. Other substances which have been discovered
+in honey are mannite (Guibourt), a free acid which precipitates the
+salts of silver and of lead, and is soluble in water and alcohol
+(Calloux), and an uncrystallizable sugar, nearly related to inverted
+sugar (Soubeiran, _Compt. Rend._ xxviii. 774-775, 1849). Brittany honey
+contains couvain, a ferment which determines its active decomposition
+(Wurtz, _Dict. de Chem._ ii. 430). In the honey of _Polybia
+apicipennis_, a wasp of tropical America, cane-sugar occurs in crystals
+of large size (Karsten, _Pogg. Ann._, C. 550). Dr J. Campbell Brown ("On
+the Composition of Honey," _Analyst_ iii. 267, 1878) is doubtful as to
+the presence of cane-sugar in any one of nine samples, from various
+sources, examined by him. The following average percentage numbers are
+afforded by his analyses: laevulose, 36.45; dextrose, 36.57; mineral
+matter, .15; water expelled at 100° C., 18.5, and at a much higher
+temperature, with loss, 7.81: the wax, pollen and insoluble matter vary
+from a trace to 2.1%. The specific gravity of honey is about 1.41. The
+rotation of a polarized ray by a solution of 16.26 grammes of crude
+honey in 100 c.c. of water is generally from -3.2° to -5° at 60° F.; in
+the case of Greek honey it is nearly -5.5°. Almost all pure honey, when
+exposed for some time to light and cold, becomes more or less granular
+in consistency. Any liquid portion can be readily separated by straining
+through linen. Honey sold out of the comb is commonly clarified by
+heating and skimmimg; but according to Bonner it is always best in its
+natural state. The _mel depuratum_ of British pharmacy is prepared by
+heating honey in a water-bath, and straining through flannel previously
+moistened with warm water.
+
+The term "virgin-honey" (A.-S., _hunigtear_) is applied to the honey of
+young bees which have never swarmed, or to that which flows
+spontaneously from honeycomb with or without the application of heat.
+The honey obtained from old hives, considered inferior to it in quality,
+is ordinarily darker, thicker and less pleasant in taste and odour. The
+yield of honey is less in proportion to weight in old than in young or
+virgin combs. The far-famed honey of Narbonne is white, very granular
+and highly aromatic; and still finer honey is that procured from the
+Corbières Mountains, 6 to 9 m. to the south-west. The honey of Gâtinais
+is usually white, and is less odorous and granulates less readily than
+that of Narbonne. Honey from white clover has a greenish-white, and that
+from heather a rich golden-yellow hue. What is made from honey-dew is
+dark in colour, and disagreeable to the palate, and does not candy like
+good honey. "We have seen aphide honey from sycamores," says F. Cheshire
+(_Pract. Bee-keeping_, p. 74), "as deep in tone as walnut liquor, and
+where much of it is stored the value of the whole crop is practically
+nil." The honey of the stingless bees (_Meliponia_ and _Trigona_) of
+Brazil varies greatly in quality according to the species of flowers
+from which it is collected, some kinds being black and sour, and others
+excellent (F. Smith, _Trans. Ent. Soc._, 3d ser., i. pt. vi., 1863).
+That of _Apis Peronii_, of India and Timor, is yellow, and of very
+agreeable flavour and is more liquid than the British sorts. _A.
+unicolor_, a bee indigenous to Madagascar, and naturalized in Mauritius
+and the island of Réunion, furnishes a thick and syrupy, peculiarly
+scented green honey, highly esteemed in Western India. A rose-coloured
+honey is stated (_Gard. Chron._, 1870, p. 1698) to have been procured by
+artificial feeding. The fine aroma of Maltese honey is due to its
+collection from orange blossoms. Narbonne honey being harvested chiefly
+from Labiate plants, as rosemary, an imitation of it is sometimes
+prepared by flavouring ordinary honey with infusion of rosemary flowers.
+
+  Adulterations of honey are starch, detectable by the microscope, and
+  by its blue reaction with iodine, also wheaten flour, gelatin, chalk,
+  gypsum, pipe-clay, added water, cane-sugar and common syrup, and the
+  different varieties of manufactured glucose. Honey sophisticated with
+  glucose containing copperas as an impurity is turned of an inky colour
+  by liquids containing tannin, as tea. Elm leaves have been used in
+  America for the flavouring of imitation honey. Stone jars should be
+  employed in preference to common earthenware for the storage of honey,
+  which acts upon the lead glaze of the latter.
+
+Honey is mildly laxative in properties. Some few kinds are poisonous, as
+frequently the reddish honey stored by the Brazilian wasp _Nectarina_
+(_Polistes_, Latr.[5]) _Lecheguana_, Shuck., the effects of which have
+been vividly described by Aug. de Saint-Hilaire,[6] the spring honey of
+the wild bees of East Nepaul, said to be rendered noxious by collection
+from rhododendron flowers (Hooker, _Himalayan Journals_, i. 190, ed.
+1855), and the honey of Trebizond, which from its source, the blossoms,
+it is stated, of _Azalea pontica_ and _Rhododendron ponticum_ (perhaps
+to be identified with Pliny's _Aegolethron_), acquires the qualities of
+an irritant and intoxicant narcotic, as described by Xenophon (_Anab._
+iv. 8). Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxi. 45) describes as noxious a
+livid-coloured honey found in Persia and Gaetulia. Honey obtained from
+_Kalmia latifolia_, L., the calico bush, mountain laurel or spoon-wood
+of the northern United States, and allied species, is reputed
+deleterious; also that of the sour-wood is by some good authorities
+considered to possess undeniable griping properties; and G. Bidie
+(_Madras Quart. Journ. Med. Sci._, Oct, 1861, p. 399) mentions
+urtication, headache, extreme prostration and nausea, and intense thirst
+among the symptoms produced by a small quantity only of a honey from
+Coorg jungle. A South African species of _Euphorbia_, as was experienced
+by the missionary Moffat (_Miss. Lab._ p. 32, 1849), yields a poisonous
+honey. The nectar of certain flowers is asserted to cause even in bees a
+fatal kind of vertigo. As a demulcent and flavouring agent, honey is
+employed in the _oxymel_, _oxymel scillae_, _mel boracis_, _confectio
+piperis_, _conf. scammonii_ and _conf. terebinthinae_ of the _British
+Pharmacopoeia_. To the ancients honey was of very great importance as an
+article of diet, being almost their only available source of sugar. It
+was valued by them also for its medicinal virtues; and in recipes of the
+Saxon and later periods it is a common ingredient.[7] Of the eight kinds
+of honey mentioned by the great Indian surgical writer Susruta, four are
+not described by recent authors, viz. _argha_ or wild honey, collected
+by a sort of yellow bee; _chhatra_, made by tawny or yellow wasps;
+_audálaka_, a bitter and acrid honey-like substance found in the nest of
+white ants; and _dála_ or unprepared honey occurring on flowers.
+According to Hindu medical writers, honey when new is laxative, and when
+more than a year old astringent (U. C. Dutt, _Mat. Med. of the Hindus_,
+p. 277, 1877). Ceromel, formed by mixing at a gentle heat one part by
+weight of yellow wax with four of clarified honey, and straining, is
+used in India and other tropical countries as a mild stimulant for
+ulcers in the place of animal fats, which there rapidly become rancid
+and unfit for medicinal purposes. The _Koran_, in the chapter entitled
+"The Bee," remarks with reference to bees and their honey: "There
+proceedeth from their bellies a liquor of various colour, wherein is a
+medicine for men" (Sale's _Koran_, chap. xvi.). Pills prepared with
+honey as an excipient are said to remain unindurated, however long they
+may be kept (_Med. Times_, 1857, i. 269). Mead, of yore a favourite
+beverage in England (vol. iv. p. 264), is made by fermentation of the
+liquor obtained by boiling in water combs from which the honey has been
+drained. In the preparation of sack-mead, an ounce of hops is added to
+each gallon of the liquor, and after the fermentation a small quantity
+of brandy. Metheglin, or hydromel, is maufactured by fermenting with
+yeast a solution of honey flavoured with boiled hops (see Cooley,
+_Cyclop._). A kind of mead is largely consumed in Abyssinia (vol. i. p.
+64), where it is carried on journeys in large horns (Stern,
+_Wanderings_, p. 317, 1862). In Russia a drink termed _lipez_ is made
+from the delicious honey of the linden. The _mulsum_ of the ancient
+Romans consisted of honey, wine and water boiled together. The _clarre_,
+or _piment_, of Chaucer's time was wine mixed with honey and spices, and
+strained till clear; a similar drink was _bracket_, made with wort of
+ale instead of wine. L. Maurial (_L'Insectologie Agricole_ for 1868, p.
+206) reports unfavourably as to the use of honey for the production of
+alcohol; he recommends it, however, as superior to sugar for the
+thickening of liqueurs, and also as a means of sweetening imperfectly
+ripened vintages. It is occasionally employed for giving strength and
+flavour to ale. In ancient Egypt it was valued as an embalming material;
+and in the East, for the preservation of fruit, and the making of cakes,
+sweetmeats, and other articles of food, it is largely consumed. Grafts,
+seeds and birds' eggs, for transmission to great distances, are
+sometimes packed in honey. In India a mixture of honey and milk, or of
+equal parts of curds, honey and clarified butter (Sansk.,
+_madhu-parka_), is a respectful offering to a guest, or to a bridegroom
+on his arrival at the door of the bride's father; and one of the
+purificatory ceremonies of the Hindus (Sansk., _madhu-prasana_) is the
+placing of a little honey in the mouth of a newborn male infant. Honey
+is frequently alluded to by the writers of antiquity as food for
+children; it is not to this, however, as already mentioned, that Isa.
+vii. 15 refers. Cream or fresh butter together with honey, and with or
+without bread, is a favourite dish with the Arabs.
+
+Among the observances at the Fandròana or New Year's Festival, in
+Madagascar, is the eating of mingled rice and honey by the queen and her
+guests; in the same country honey is placed in the sacred water of
+sprinkling used at the blessing of the children previous to circumcision
+(Sibree, _The Great African Is._ pp. 219, 314, 1880). Honey was
+frequently employed in the ancient religious ceremonies of the heathen,
+but was forbidden as a sacrifice in the Jewish ritual (Lev. ii. 11).
+With milk or water it was presented by the Greeks as a libation to the
+dead (_Odyss._ xi. 27; Eurip. _Orest._ 115). A honey-cake was the
+monthly food of the fabled serpent-guardian of the Acropolis (Herod,
+viii. 41). By the aborigines of Peru honey was offered to the sun.
+
+  The Hebrew word translated "honey" in the authorized version of the
+  English Bible is _debash_, practically synonymous with which are
+  _ja'ar_ or _ja'arith had-debash_ (1 Sam. xix. 25-27; cf. Cant. v. 1)
+  and nopheth (Ps. xix. 10, &c.), rendered "honey-comb." _Debash_
+  denotes bee-honey (as in Deut. xxxii. 13 and Jud. xiv. 8); the manna
+  of trees, by some writers considered to have been the "wild honey"
+  eaten by John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4); the syrup of dates or the
+  fruits themselves; and probably in some passages (as Gen. xliii. 11
+  and Ez. xxvii. 17) the syrupy boiled juice of the grape, resembling
+  thin molasses, in use in Palestine, especially at Hebron, under the
+  name of _dibs_ (see Kitto, _Cyclop._, and E. Robinson, _Bibl. Res._
+  ii. 81). Josephus (B.J., iv. 8, 3) speaks highly of a honey produced
+  at Jericho, consisting of the expressed juice of the fruit of palm
+  trees; and Herodotus (iv. 194) mentions a similar preparation made by
+  the Gyzantians in North Africa, where it is still in use. The honey
+  most esteemed by the ancients was that of Mount Hybla in Sicily, and
+  of Mount Hymettus in Attica (iii. 59). Mahaffy (_Rambles in Greece_,
+  p. 148, 2nd ed., 1878) describes the honey of Hymettus as by no means
+  so good as the produce of other parts of Greece--not to say of the
+  heather hills of Scotland and Ireland. That of Thebes, and more
+  especially that of Corinth, which is made in the thymy hills towards
+  Cleonae, he found much better (cf. xi. 88). Honey and wax, still
+  largely obtained in Corsica (vi. 440), were in olden times the chief
+  productions of the island. In England, in the 13th and 14th centuries,
+  honey sold at from about 7d. to 1s. 2d. a gallon, and occasionally was
+  disposed of by the swarm or hive, or _ruscha_ (Rogers, _Hist. of
+  Agric. and Prices in Eng._, 1. 418). At Wrexham, Denbigh, Wales, two
+  honey fairs are annually held, one on the Thursday next after the 1st
+  of September, and the other--the more recently instituted and by far
+  the larger--on the Thursday following the first Wednesday in October.
+  In Hungary the amounts of honey and of wax are in favourable years
+  respectively about 190,000 and 12,000 cwt., and in unfavourable years,
+  as, e.g. 1874, about 12,000 and 3000 cwt. The hives there in 1870
+  numbered 617,407 (or 40 per 1000 of the population, against 45 in
+  Austria). Of these 365,711 were in Hungary Proper, and 91,348 (87 per
+  1000 persons) in the Military Frontier (Keleti, _Übersicht der Bevölk.
+  Ungarns_, 1871; Schwicker, _Statistik d. K. Ungarn_, 1877). In Poland
+  the system of bee-keeping introduced by Dolinowski has been found to
+  afford an average of 40 lb. of honey and wax and two new swarms per
+  hive, the common peasant's hive yielding, with two swarms, only 3 lb.
+  of honey and wax. In forests and places remote from villages in
+  Podolia and parts of Volhynia, as many as 1000 hives may be seen in
+  one apiary. In the district of Ostrolenka, in the government of Plock,
+  and in the woody region of Polesia, in Lithuania, a method is
+  practised of rearing bees in excavated trunks of trees (Stanton, "On
+  the Treatment of Bees in Poland," _Technologist_, vi. 45, 1866). When,
+  in August, in the loftier valleys of Bormio, Italy, flowering ceases,
+  the bees in their wooden hives are by means of spring-carts
+  transported at night to lower regions, where they obtain from the
+  buckwheat crops the inferior honey which serves them for winter
+  consumption (Ib. p. 38).
+
+  In Palestine, "the land flowing with milk and honey"[8] (Ex. iii. 17;
+  Numb. xiii. 27), wild bees are very numerous, especially in the
+  wilderness of Judaea, and the selling of their produce, obtained from
+  crevices in rocks, hollows in trees and elsewhere, is with many of the
+  inhabitants a means of subsistence. Commenting on 1 Sam. xiv. 26, J.
+  Roberts (_Oriental Illust._) remarks that in the East "the forests
+  literally flow with honey; large combs may be seen hanging on the
+  trees, as you pass along, full of honey." In Galilee, and at Bethlehem
+  and other places in Palestine, bee-keeping is extensively carried on.
+  The hives are sun-burnt tubes of mud, about 4 ft. in length and 8 in.
+  in diameter, and, with the exception of a small central aperture for
+  the passage of the bees, closed at each end with mud. These are laid
+  together in long rows, or piled pyramidally, and are protected from
+  the sun by a covering of mud and of boughs. The honey is extracted,
+  when the ends have been removed, by means of an iron hook. (See
+  Tristram, _Nat. Hist. of the Bible_, pp. 322 sqq., 2nd ed., 1868).
+  Apiculture in Turkey is in a very rude condition. The Bali-dagh, or
+  "Honey Mount," in the plain of Troy, is so called on account of the
+  numerous wild bees tenanting the caves in its precipitous rocks to the
+  south. In various regions of Africa, as on the west, near the Gambia,
+  bees abound. Cameron was informed by his guides that the large
+  quantities of honey at the cliffs by the river Makanyazi were under
+  the protection of an evil spirit, and not one of his men could be
+  persuaded to gather any (_Across Africa_, i. 266). On the precipitous
+  slopes of the Teesta valley, in India, the procuring of honey from the
+  pendulous bees'-nests, which are sometimes large enough to be
+  conspicuous features at a mile's distance, is the only means by which
+  the idle poor raise their annual rent (Hooker, _Him. Journ._ ii. 41).
+
+  To reach the large combs of _Apis dorsata_ and _A. testacea_, the
+  natives of Timor, by whom both the honey and young bees are esteemed
+  delicacies, ascend the trunks of lofty forest trees by the use of a
+  loop of creeper. Protected from the myriads of angry insects by a
+  small torch only, they detach the combs from the under surface of the
+  branches, and lower them by slender cords to the ground (Wallace,
+  _Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool._, vol. xi.).     (F. H. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The term honey in its various forms is peculiar to the Teutonic
+    group of languages, and in the Gothic New Testament is wanting, the
+    Greek word being there translated _melith_.
+
+  [2] See A. White, in _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ vii. 315, pl. 4.
+
+  [3] Wetherill (_Chem. Gaz._ xi. 72, 1853) calculates that the average
+    weight of the honey is 8.2 times that of the body of the ant, or
+    0.3942 grammes.
+
+  [4] Compare Isa. vii. 15, 22, where curdled milk (A.V. "butter") and
+    honey as exclusive articles of diet are indicative of foreign
+    invasion, which turns rich agricultural districts into pasture lands
+    or uncultivated wastes.
+
+  [5] _Mémoires du Muséum_, xi. 313 (1824).
+
+  [6] _Ib._ xii. 293, pl. xii. fig. B (1825). The honey, according to
+    Lassaigne (_ib._ ix. 319), is almost entirely soluble in alcohol.
+
+  [7] For a list of fifteen treatises concerning honey, dating from
+    1625 to 1868, see Waring, _Bibl. Therap._ ii. 559, New Syd. Soc.
+    (1879). On sundry ancient uses for honey, see Beckmann, _Hist. of
+    Invent._ i. 287 (1846).
+
+  [8] In Sanskrit, _madhu-kulya_, a stream of honey, is sometimes used
+    to express an overflowing abundance of good things (Monier Williams,
+    _Sansk.-Eng. Dict._, p. 736, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+HONEYCOMB, a cloth, so called because of the particular arrangement of
+the crossing of the warp and weft threads which form cells somewhat
+similar to those of the real honeycomb. They differ from the latter in
+that they are rectangular instead of hexagonal. The bottom of the cell
+is formed by those threads and picks which weave "plain," while the
+ascending sides of the figure are formed by the gradually increasing
+length of float of the warp and weft yarns.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  The figure shows two of the commonest designs which are used for these
+  cloths, design A being what is often termed the "perfect honeycomb";
+  in the figure it will be seen that the highest number of successive
+  white squares is seven, while the corresponding highest number of
+  successive black squares is five. Two of each of these maximum floats
+  form the top or highest edges of the cell, and the number of
+  successive like squares decreases as the bottom of the cell is reached
+  when the floats are one of black and one of white (see middle of
+  design, &c.). The weave produces a reversible cloth, and it is
+  extensively used for the embellishment of quilts and other fancy
+  goods. It is also largely used in the manufacture of cotton and linen
+  towels. B is, for certain purposes, a more suitable weave than A, but
+  both are very largely used for the latter class of goods.
+
+
+
+
+HONEY-EATER, or HONEY-SUCKER, names applied by many writers in a very
+loose way to a large number of birds, some of which, perhaps, have no
+intimate affinity; here they are used in a more restricted sense for
+what, in the opinion of a good many recent authorities,[1] should really
+be deemed the family _Meliphagidae_--excluding therefrom the
+_Nectariniidae_ or SUN-BIRDS (q.v.) as well as the genera _Promerops_
+and _Zosterops_ with whatever allies they may possess. Even with this
+restriction, the extent of the family must be regarded as very
+indefinite, owing to the absence of materials sufficient for arriving at
+a satisfactory conclusion, though the existence of such a family is
+probably indisputable. Making allowance, then, for the imperfect light
+in which they must at present be viewed, what are here called
+_Meliphagidae_ include some of the most characteristic forms of the
+ornithology of the great Australian region--members of the family
+inhabiting almost every part of it, and a single species only, _Ptilotis
+limbata_, being said to occur outside its limits. They all possess, or
+are supposed to possess, a long protrusible tongue with a brush-like
+tip, differing, it is believed, in structure from that found in any
+other bird--_Promerops_ perhaps excepted--and capable of being formed
+into a suctorial tube, by means of which honey is absorbed from the
+nectary of flowers, though it would seem that insects attracted by the
+honey furnish the chief nourishment of many species, while others
+undoubtedly feed to a greater or less extent on fruits. The
+_Meliphagidae_, as now considered, are for the most part small birds,
+never exceeding the size of a missel thrush; and they have been divided
+into more than 20 genera, containing above 200 species, of which only a
+few can here be particularized. Most of these species have a very
+confined range, being found perhaps only on a single island or group of
+islands in the region, but there are a few which are more widely
+distributed--such as _Glycyphila rufifrons_, the white-throated[2]
+honey-eater, found over the greater part of Australia and Tasmania. In
+plumage they vary much. Most of the species of _Ptilotis_ are
+characterized by a tuft of white, or in others of yellow, feathers
+springing from behind the ear. In the greater number of the genus
+_Myzomela_[3] the males are recognizable by a gorgeous display of
+crimson or scarlet, which has caused one species, _M. sanguinolenta_, to
+be known as the soldier-bird to Australian colonists; but in others no
+brilliant colour appears, and those of several genera have no special
+ornamentation, while some have a particularly plain appearance. One of
+the most curious forms is _Prosthemadera_--the tui or parson-bird of New
+Zealand, so called from the two tufts of white feathers which hang
+beneath its chin in great contrast to its dark silky plumage, and
+suggest a likeness to the bands worn by ministers of several religious
+denominations when officiating.[4] The bell-bird of the same island,
+_Anthornis melanura_--whose melody excited the admiration of Cook the
+morning after he had anchored in Queen Charlotte's Sound--is another
+member of this family, and unfortunately seems to be fast becoming
+extinct. But it would be impossible here to enter much further into
+detail, though the wattle-birds, _Anthochaera_, of Australia have at
+least to be named. Mention, however, must be made of the friar-birds,
+_Tropidorhynchus_, of which nearly a score of species, five of them
+belonging to Australia, have been described. With their stout bills,
+mostly surmounted by an excrescence, they seem to be the most abnormal
+forms of the family, and most of them are besides remarkable for the
+baldness of some part at least of their head. They assemble in troops,
+sitting on dead trees, with a loud call, and are very pugnacious,
+frequently driving away hawks and crows. A. R. Wallace (_Malay
+Archipelago_, ii. 150-153) discovered the curious fact that two species
+of this genus--_T. bourensis_ and _T. subcornutus_--respectively
+inhabiting the islands of Bouru and Ceram, were the object of natural
+"mimicry" on the part of two species of oriole of the genus _Mimeta_,
+_M. bourouensis_ and _M. forsteni_, inhabiting the same islands, so as
+to be on a superficial examination identical in appearance--the
+honey-eater and the oriole of each island presenting exactly the same
+tints--the black patch of bare skin round the eyes of the former, for
+instance, being copied in the latter by a patch of black feathers, and
+even the protuberance on the beak of the _Tropidorhynchus_ being
+imitated by a similar enlargement of the beak of the _Mimeta_. The very
+reasonable explanation which Wallace offers is that the pugnacity of the
+former has led the smaller birds of prey to respect it, and it is
+therefore an advantage for the latter, being weaker and less courageous,
+to be mistaken for it.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Among them especially A. R. Wallace, _Geogr. Distr. Animals_, ii
+    275.
+
+  [2] The young of this species has the throat yellow.
+
+  [3] W. A. Forbes published a careful monograph of this genus in the
+    _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ for 1879, pp. 256-279.
+
+  [4] This bird, according to Sir Walter Buller (_Birds of New
+    Zealand_, p. 88), while uttering its wild notes, indulges in much
+    gesticulation, which adds to the suggested resemblance. It has great
+    power of mimicry, and is a favourite cage-bird both with the natives
+    and colonists. On one occasion, says Buller, he had addressed a large
+    meeting of Maories on a matter of considerable political importance,
+    when "immediately on the conclusion of my speech, and before the old
+    chief to whom my arguments were chiefly addressed had time to reply,
+    a tui, whose netted cage hung to a rafter overhead, responded in a
+    clear, emphatic way, 'Tito!' (false). The circumstance naturally
+    caused much merriment among my audience, and quite upset the gravity
+    of the venerable old chief, Nepia Taratoa. 'Friend,' said he,
+    laughing, 'your arguments are very good; but my _mokai_ is a very
+    wise bird, and he is not yet convinced!'"
+
+
+
+
+HONEY-GUIDE, a bird so called from its habit of pointing out to man and
+to the ratel (_Mellivora capensis_) the nests of bees. Stories to this
+effect have been often told, and may be found in the narratives of many
+African travellers, from Bruce to Livingstone. But Layard says (_B.
+South Africa_, p. 242) that the birds will not infrequently lead any one
+to a leopard or a snake, and will follow a dog with vociferations,
+though its noisy cry and antics unquestionably have in many cases the
+effect signified by its English name. If not its first discoverer,
+Sparrman, in 1777, was the first who described and figured this bird,
+which he met with in the Cape Colony (_Phil. Trans._, lxvii. 42-47, pl.
+i.), giving it the name of _Culculus indicator_, its zygodactylous feet
+with the toes placed in pairs--two before and two behind--inducing the
+belief that it must be referred to that genus. Vicillot in 1816 elevated
+it to the rank of a genus, _Indicator_; but it was still considered to
+belong to the family _Cuculidae_ (its asserted parasitical habits
+lending force to that belief) by all systematists except Blyth and
+Jerdon, until it was shown by Blanford (_Obs. Geol. and Zool.
+Abyssinia_, pp. 308, 309) and Sclater (_Ibis_, 1870, pp. 176-180) that
+it was more allied to the barbets, _Capitonidae_, and, in consequence,
+was then made the type of a distinct family, _Indicatoridae_. In the
+meanwhile other species had been discovered, some of them differing
+sufficiently to warrant Sundevall's foundation of a second genus,
+_Prodotiscus_, of the group. The honey-guides are small birds, the
+largest hardly exceeding a lark in size, and of plain plumage, with what
+appears to be a very sparrow-like bill. Bowdler Sharpe, in a revision of
+the family published in 1876 (_Orn. Miscellany_, i. 192-209), recognizes
+ten species of the genus _Indicator_, to which another was added by Dr
+Reichenow (_Journ. für Ornithologie_, 1877, p. 110), and two of
+_Prodotiscus_. Four species of the former, including _I. sparrmani_,
+which was the first made known, are found in South Africa, and one of
+the latter. The rest inhabit other parts of the same continent, except
+_I. archipelagicus_, which seems to be peculiar to Borneo, and _I.
+xanthonotus_, which occurs on the Himalayas from the borders of
+Afghanistan to Bhutan. The interrupted geographical distribution of this
+genus is a very curious fact, no species having been found in the Indian
+or Malayan peninsula to connect the outlying forms with those of Africa,
+which must be regarded as their metropolis.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+HONEY LOCUST, the popular name of a tree, _Gleditsia triacanthos_, a
+member of the natural order Leguminosae, and a native of the more
+eastern United States of North America. It reaches from 75 to 140 ft. in
+height with a trunk 2 or 3, or sometimes 5 or 6 ft. in diameter, and
+slender spreading branches which form a broad, flattish crown. The
+branchlets bear numerous simple or three-forked (whence the species-name
+_triacanthos_) sharp stiff spines, 3 to 4 in. long, at first red in
+colour, then chestnut brown; they are borne above the leaf-axils and
+represent undeveloped branchlets; sometimes they are borne also on the
+trunk and main branches. The long-stalked leaves are 7 to 8 in. long
+with eight to fourteen pairs of narrowly oblong leaflets. The flowers,
+which are of two kinds, are borne in racemes in the leaf-axils; the
+staminate flowers in larger numbers. The brown pods are often 12 to 18
+in. long, have thin, tough walls, and contain a quantity of pulp between
+the seeds; they contract spirally when drying. The tree was first
+cultivated in Europe towards the end of the 17th century by Bishop
+Compton in his garden at Fulham, near London, and is now extensively
+planted as an ornamental tree. The name of the genus commemorates Johann
+Gottlieb Gleditsch (1714-1786), a friend of Linnaeus, and the author of
+one of the earliest works on scientific forestry.
+
+
+
+
+HONEYMOON, the first month after marriage. Lord Avebury in his _Origin
+of Civilization_ suggests that the seclusion usually associated with
+this period is a survival of marriage by capture, and answers to the
+period during which the husband kept his wife in retirement, to prevent
+her from appealing to her relatives for release. Others suggest that as
+the moon commences to wane as soon as it is at its full, so does the
+mutual affection of the wedded pair, the "honeymoon" (with this
+derivation) not necessarily referring to any definite period of time.
+
+
+
+
+HONEYSUCKLE (Mid. Eng., _honysocle_, i.e. any plant from which honey may
+be sucked,--cf. A.-S. _huni-suge_, privet; Ger. _Geissblatt_; Fr.
+_chèvrefeuille_), botanical name _Lonicera_, a genus of climbing, erect
+or prostrate shrubs, of the natural order _Caprifoliaceae_, so named
+after the 16th-century German botanist Adam Lonicer. The British species
+is _L. Periclymenum_, the woodbine; _L. Caprifolium_ and _L. Xylosteum_
+are naturalized in a few counties in the south and east of England. Some
+of the garden varieties of the woodbine are very beautiful, and are held
+in high esteem for their delicious fragrance, even the wild plant, with
+its pale flowers, compensating for its sickly looks "with never-cloying
+odours." The North American sub-evergreen _L. sempervirens_, with its
+fine heads of blossoms, commonly called the trumpet honeysuckle, the
+most handsome of all the cultivated honeysuckles, is a distinct and
+beautiful species producing both scarlet and yellow flowered varieties,
+and the Japanese _L. flexuosa_ var. _aureoreticulata_ is esteemed for
+its charmingly variegated leaves netted with golden yellow. The fly
+honeysuckle, _L. Xylosteum_, a hardy shrub of dwarfish, erect habit, and
+_L. tatarica_, of similar habit, both European, are amongst the oldest
+English garden shrubs, and bear axillary flowers of various colours,
+occurring two on a peduncle. There are numerous other species, many of
+them introduced to our gardens, and well worth cultivating in
+shrubberies or as climbers on walls and bowers, either for their beauty
+or the fragrance of their blossoms.
+
+[Illustration: Honeysuckle.--(a) Flowering branch; (b) Flower, nat.
+size; (c) fruit, slightly reduced.]
+
+In the western counties of England, and generally by agriculturists, the
+name honeysuckle is applied to the meadow clover, _Trifolium pratense_.
+Another plant of the same family (Leguminosae) _Hedysarum coronarium_, a
+very handsome hardy biennial often seen in old-fashioned collections of
+garden plants, is commonly called the French honeysuckle. The name is
+moreover applied with various affixes to several other totally different
+plants. Thus white honeysuckle and false honeysuckle are names for the
+North American _Azalea viscosa_; Australian or heath honeysuckle is the
+Australian _Banksia serrata_, Jamaica honeysuckle, _Passiflora
+laurifolia_, dwarf honeysuckle the widely spread _Cornus suecica_,
+Virgin Mary's honeysuckle the European _Pulmonaria officinalis_, while
+West Indian honeysuckle is _Tecoma capensis_, and is also a name applied
+to _Desmodium_.
+
+The wood of the fly honeysuckle is extremely hard, and the clear
+portions between the joints of the stems, when their pith has been
+removed, were stated by Linnaeus to be utilized in Sweden for making
+tobacco-pipes. The wood is also employed to make teeth for rakes; and,
+like that of _L. tatarica_, it is a favourite material for
+walking-sticks.
+
+Honeysuckles (_Lonicera_) flourish in any ordinary garden soil, but are
+usually sadly neglected in regard to pruning. This should be done about
+March, cutting out some of the old wood, and shortening back some of the
+younger growths of the preceding year.     (J. Ws.)
+
+
+
+
+HONFLEUR, a seaport of north-western France, in the department of
+Calvados, 57 m. N.E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) 8735. The town is
+situated at the foot of a semicircle of hills, on the south shore of the
+Seine estuary, opposite Havre, with which it communicates by steamboat.
+Honfleur, with its dark narrow lanes and old houses, has the typical
+aspect of an old-fashioned seaport. The most noteworthy of its buildings
+is the church of St Catherine, constructed entirely of timber work, with
+the exception of the façade added in the 18th century, and consisting of
+two parallel naves, of which the more ancient is supposed to date from
+the end of the 15th century. Within the church are several antique
+statues and a painting by J. Jordaens--"Jesus in the Garden of
+Gethsemane." The church tower stands on the other side of a street. St
+Leonard's dates from the 17th century, with the exception of its fine
+ogival portal and rose-window belonging to the 16th, and its octagonal
+tower erected in the 18th. The ruins of a 16th-century castle known as
+the Lieutenance and several houses of the same period are also of
+antiquarian interest. The hôtel de ville contains a library and a
+museum. On the rising ground above the town is the chapel of
+Nôtre-Dame-de-Grâce, a shrine much resorted to by pilgrim sailors, which
+is said to have been founded in 1034 by Robert the Magnificent of
+Normandy and rebuilt in 1606. The town has a tribunal and a chamber of
+commerce and a communal college. The port, which is protected from the
+west winds by the height known as the Côte de Grâce, consists of the
+tidal harbour and four floating basins--The West basin, dating from the
+17th century, and the Centre, East and Carnot basins. A reservoir
+affords the means of sluicing the channel and supplying the basins. The
+surface available for vessels is about 27 acres. Numerous fishing and
+coasting vessels frequent the harbour. In 1907 there entered 375
+vessels, of 133,872 tons, more than half this tonnage being British. The
+exports go mainly to England and include poultry, butter, eggs, cheese,
+chocolate, vegetables, fruit, seeds and purple ore. There is regular
+communication by steamer with Southampton. Timber from Scandinavia,
+English coal and artificial manures form the bulk of the imports. There
+are important saw-mills, as well as shipbuilding yards, manufactories of
+chemical manures and iron foundries.
+
+Honfleur dates from the 11th century and is thus four or five hundred
+years older than its rival Havre, by which it was supplanted during the
+18th century. During the Hundred Years' War it was frequently taken and
+re-taken, the last occupation by the English ending in 1440. In 1562 the
+Protestant forces got possession of it only after a regular siege of the
+suburb of St Leonard; and though Henry IV. effected its capture in 1590
+he had again to invest it in 1594 after all the rest of Normandy had
+submitted to his arms. In the earlier years of the 17th century Honfleur
+colonists founded Quebec, and Honfleur traders established factories in
+Java and Sumatra and a fishing establishment in Newfoundland.
+
+
+
+
+HONG-KONG (properly HIANG-KIANG, the place of "sweet lagoons"), an
+important British island-possession, situated off the south-east coast
+of China, opposite the province of Kwang-tung, on the east side of the
+estuary of the Si-kiang, 38 m. E. of Macao and 75 S.E. of Canton,
+between 22° 9´ and 22° 1´ N., and 114° 5´ and 114° 18´ E. It is one of a
+small cluster named by the Portuguese "Ladrones" or Thieves, on account
+of the notorious habits of their old inhabitants. Extremely irregular in
+outline, it has an area of 29 sq. m., measuring 10½ m. in extreme length
+from N.E. to S.W., and varying in breadth from 2 to 5 m. A good military
+road about 22 m. long encircles the island. From the mainland it is
+separated by a narrow channel, which at Hong-Kong roads, between
+Victoria, the island capital), and Kowloon Point, is about 1 m. broad,
+and which narrows at Ly-ee-mun Pass to little over a ¼ m. The southern
+coast in particular is deeply indented; and there two bold peninsulas,
+extending for several miles into the sea, form two capacious natural
+harbours, namely, Deep Water Bay, with the village of Stanley to the
+east, and Tytam Bay, which has a safe, well-protected entrance showing a
+depth of 10 to 16 fathoms. An in-shore island on the west coast, called
+Aberdeen, or Taplishan, affords protection to the Shekpywan or Aberdeen
+harbour, an inlet provided with a granite graving dock, the caisson gate
+of which is 60 ft. wide, and the Hope dock, opened in 1867, with a
+length of 425 ft. and a depth of 24 ft. Opposite the same part of the
+coast, but nearly 2 m. distant, rises the largest of the surrounding
+islands, Lamma, whose conspicuous peak, Mount Stenhouse, attains a
+height of 1140 ft. and is a landmark for local navigation. On the
+northern shore of Hong-Kong there is a patent slip at East or Matheson
+Point, which is serviceable during the north-east monsoon, when sailing
+vessels frequently approach Victoria through the Ly-ee-mun Pass. The
+ordinary course for such vessels is from the westward, on which side
+they are sheltered by Green Island and Kellett Bank. There is good
+anchorage throughout the entire channel separating the island from the
+mainland, except in the Ly-ee-mun Pass, where the water is deep; the
+best anchorage is in Hong-Kong roads, in front of Victoria, where, over
+good holding ground, the depth is 5 to 9 fathoms. The inner anchorage of
+Victoria Bay, about ½ m. off shore and out of the strength of the tide,
+is 6 to 7 fathoms. Victoria, the seat of government and of trade, is the
+chief centre of population, but a tract on the mainland is covered with
+public buildings and villa residences. Practically an outlying suburb of
+Victoria, Kowloon or (Nine Dragons) is free from the extreme heat of the
+capital, being exposed to the south-west monsoon. Numerous villas have
+also been erected along the beautiful western coast of the island, while
+Stanley, in the south, is favoured as a watering-place.
+
+The island is mountainous throughout, the low granite ridges, parted by
+bleak, tortuous valleys, leaving in some places a narrow strip of level
+coast-land, and in others overhanging the sea in lofty precipices. From
+the sea, and especially from the magnificent harbour which faces the
+capital, the general aspect of Hong-Kong is one of singular beauty.
+Inland the prospect is wild, dreary and monotonous. The hills have a
+painfully bare appearance from the want of trees. The streams, which are
+plentiful, are traced through the uplands and glens by a line of
+straggling brushwood and rank herbage. Nowhere is the eye relieved by
+the evidences of cultivation or fertility. The hills, which are mainly
+composed of granite, serpentine and syenite, rise in irregular masses to
+considerable heights, the loftiest point, Victoria Peak, reaching an
+altitude of 1825 ft. The Peak lies immediately to the south-west of the
+capital, in the extreme north-west corner of the island, and is used as
+a station for signalling the approach of vessels. Patches of land,
+chiefly around the coast, have been laid under rice, sweet potatoes and
+yams, but the island is hardly able to raise a home-supply of
+vegetables. The mango, lichen, pear and orange are indigenous, and
+several fruits and esculents have been introduced. One of the chief
+products is building-stone, which is quarried by the Chinese. The
+animals are few, comprising a land tortoise, the armadillo, a species of
+boa, several poisonous snakes and some woodcock. The public works suffer
+from the ravages of white ants. Water everywhere abounds, and is
+supplied to the shipping by means of tanks.
+
+
+  Mainland territory.
+
+Under the Peking Treaty of 1860 the peninsula of Kowloon (about 5 m. in
+area) was added to Hong-Kong. The population is about 27,000. There are
+several docks and warehouses, and manufactures are being developed.
+Granite is quarried in the peninsula. An agreement was entered into in
+1898 whereby China leased to Great Britain for ninety-nine years the
+territory behind Kowloon peninsula up to a line drawn from Mirs Bay to
+Deep Bay and the adjoining islands, including Lantao. The new district,
+which extends to 376 sq. m. in area, is mountainous, with extensive
+cultivated valleys of great fertility, and the coastline is deeply
+indented by bays. The alluvial soil of the valleys yields two crops of
+rice in the year. Sugar-cane, indigo, hemp, peanuts, potatoes of
+different varieties, yam, taro, beans, sesamum, pumpkins and vegetables
+of all kinds are also grown. The mineral resources are as yet unknown.
+The population is estimated at about 100,000. It consists of Puntis (or
+Cantonese), Hakkas ("strangers") and Tankas. The Puntis are agricultural
+and inhabit the valleys, and they make excellent traders. The Hakkas are
+a hardy and frugal race, belonging mainly to the hill districts. The
+Tankas are the boat people or floating population. In the government of
+the new territory the existing organization is as far as possible
+utilized.
+
+
+  Victoria.
+
+Hong-Kong or Victoria harbour constantly presents an animated
+appearance, as many as 240 guns having been fired as salutes in a single
+day. Its approaches are strongly fortified. The steaming distance from
+Singapore is 1520 m. Victoria, the capital, often spoken of as Hong-Kong
+(population over 166,000, of whom about 6000 are European or American),
+stretches for about 4 m. along the north coast. Its breadth varies from
+½ m. in the central portions to 200 or 300 yds. in the eastern and
+western portions. The town is built in three layers. The "Praya" or
+esplanade, 50 ft. wide, is given up to shipping. The Praya reclamation
+scheme provided for the extension of the land frontage of 250 ft. and a
+depth of 20 ft. at all states of the tide. A further extension of the
+naval dockyard was begun in 1902, and a new commercial pier was opened
+in 1900. The main commercial street runs inland parallel with the Praya.
+Beyond the commercial portion, on each side, lie the Chinese quarters,
+wherein there is a closely packed population. In 1888, 1600 people were
+living in the space of a single acre, and over 100,000 were believed to
+be living within an area not exceeding ½ m.; and the overcrowding does
+not tend to diminish, for in one district, in 1900, it was estimated
+that there were at the rate of 640,000 persons on the sq. m. The
+average, however, for the whole of the city is 126 per acre, or 80,640
+per sq. m. The second stratum of the town lies ten minutes' climb up the
+side of the island. Government house and other public buildings are in
+this quarter. There abound "beautifully laid out gardens, public and
+private, and solidly constructed roads, some of them bordered with
+bamboos and other delicately-fronded trees, and fringed with the
+luxuriant growth of semi-tropical vegetation." Finally, the third layer,
+known as "the Peak," and reached by a cable tramway, is dotted over with
+private houses and bungalows, the summer health resort of those who can
+afford them; here a new residence for the governor was begun in 1900.
+Excellent water is supplied to the town from the Pokfolum and Tytam
+reservoirs, the former containing 68 million gallons, the latter 390
+millions.
+
+  _Climate._--The temperature has a yearly range of from 45° to 99°, but
+  it occasionally falls below 40°, and ice occurs on the Peak. In
+  January 1893 ice was found at sea-level. The wet season begins in May,
+  after showers in March and April, and continues until the beginning of
+  August. During this period rain falls almost without intermission. The
+  rainfall varies greatly, but the mean is about 90 in. In 1898 only
+  57.025 in. fell, while in 1897 there were 100.03 in.; in 1899, 72.7
+  in. and in 1900, 73.7 in. The damp is extremely penetrating. During
+  the dry season the climate is healthy, but dysentery and intermittent
+  fever are not uncommon. Bilious remittent fever occurs in the summer
+  months, and smallpox prevails from November to March. The annual
+  death-rate per 1000 for the whole population in 1902 was 21.70.
+
+  _Population, &c._--The following table shows the increase of
+  population:--
+
+    +------+----------+--------------+------------------+
+    |      |          |              | Total (including |
+    |      |Europe and|              |Military and Naval|
+    | Year.| American |Chinese Civil.|Establishments and|
+    |      |  Civil.  |              |  Indians, &c.).  |
+    +------+----------+--------------+------------------+
+    | 1881 |   3,040  |   148,850    |     160,402      |
+    | 1891 |   4,195  |   208,383    |     221,441      |
+    | 1901 |   3,860  |   274,543    |     283,978      |
+    | 1906 |  12,174  |   306,130    |     326,961      |
+    +------+----------+--------------+------------------+
+
+  Education is provided by a few government schools and by a large
+  number receiving grants-in-aid. The foundation-stone of Hong-Kong
+  University was laid in March 1910, the buildings being the gift of Sir
+  Hormusjee Mody, a colonial broker. The Queen's College provides
+  secondary education for boys. There are several hospitals, one of
+  which is a government institution. The Hong-Kong savings bank has
+  deposits amounting to about $1,100,000. There is a police force
+  composed of Europeans, Indian Sikhs and Chinese; and a strong military
+  garrison.
+
+  _Industries._--Beyond the cultivation of vegetable gardens there is
+  practically no agricultural industry in the colony. But although only
+  400 acres are cultivated on Hong-Kong island, and the same number of
+  acres in Kowloon, there are 90,000 acres under cultivation in the new
+  territory, of which over 7000 acres were in 1900 planted with
+  sugar-cane. Granite quarries are worked. The chief industries are
+  sugar-refining, the manufacture of cement, paper, bamboo and rattan
+  ware, carving in wood and ivory, working in copper and iron,
+  gold-beating and the production of gold, silver and sandal-wood ware,
+  furniture making, umbrella and jinricksha making, and industries
+  connected with kerosene oil and matches. The manufacture of cotton has
+  been introduced. Ship and boat building, together with subsidiary
+  industries, such as rope and sail making, appear less subject to
+  periods of depression than other industries.
+
+  _Trade._--Hong-Kong being a free port, there are no official figures
+  as to the amount of trade; but the value of the exports and imports is
+  estimated as about £50,000,000 in the year. Among the principal goods
+  dealt with are tea, silk, opium, sugar, flax, salt, earthenware, oil,
+  amber, cotton and cotton goods, sandal-wood, ivory, betel, vegetables,
+  live stock and granite. There is an extensive Chinese passenger trade.
+  The following are the figures of ships cleared and entered:--
+
+    +------+------------+------------+
+    | Year.|  Tonnage.  |  British.  |
+    +------+------------+------------+
+    | 1880 |  8,359,994 |  3,758,160 |
+    | 1890 | 13,676,293 |  6,994,919 |
+    | 1898 | 17,265,780 |  8,705,648 |
+    | 1902 | 19,709,451 |  8,945,976 |
+    +------+------------+------------+
+
+  The Chinese ships rank next to British ships in the amount of trade.
+  German and Japanese ships follow next.
+
+  _Finance._--The revenue and expenditure are given below:--
+
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+    | Year.|  Revenue. |Expenditure.|
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+    | 1880 |$1,069,948 |  $948,014  |
+    | 1890 | 1,995,220 | 1,915,350  |
+    | 1898 | 2,918,159 | 2,841,805  |
+    | 1902 | 4,901,073 | 4,752,444  |
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+
+  The main sources of revenue are licences, rent of government property,
+  the post-office and land sales. The light dues were reduced in 1898
+  from 2½ cents to 1 cent per ton. There is a public debt of about
+  £340,000, borrowed for public works, which is being paid off by a
+  sinking fund. The only legal tender is the Mexican dollar, and the
+  British and Hong-Kong dollar, or other silver dollars of equivalent
+  value duly authorized by the governor. There are small silver and
+  copper coins, which are legal tenders for amounts not exceeding two
+  dollars and one dollar respectively. There is also a large paper
+  currency in the form of notes issued by the Chartered Bank of India,
+  Australia and China, the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
+  and the National Bank of China, Limited. The foundation of new law
+  courts was laid in 1900.
+
+  _Administration._--Formerly an integral part of China, the island of
+  Hong-Kong was first ceded to Great Britain in 1841, and the cession
+  was confirmed by the treaty of Nanking in 1842, the charter bearing
+  the date 5th of April 1843. The colony is administered by a governor,
+  executive council and legislative council. The executive council
+  consists of the holders of certain offices and of such other members
+  as the crown may nominate. In 1890 there were nine members. The
+  legislative council consists of the same officials and of six
+  unofficial members. Of these, three are appointed by the governor (of
+  whom one must be, and two at present are, members of the Chinese
+  community); one is elected from the chamber of commerce, and one from
+  the justices of the peace.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Sir G. W. des Voeux, _Report on Blue-book of 1888_; _A
+  Handbook to Hong-Kong_ (Hong-Kong, 1893); _The China Sea Directory_
+  (vol. iii., 3rd ed., 1894); Henry Norman, _The Peoples and Politics of
+  the Far East_ (London, 1895); Sir E. Hertslet, _Treaties between Great
+  Britain and China and China and Foreign Powers_ (London, 1896); A. R.
+  Colquhoun, _China in Transformation_ (London, 1898); _Colonial
+  Possessions Report_, No. 84; and other _Colonial Annual Reports_.
+
+
+
+
+HONITON, a market town and municipal borough in the Honiton
+parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, pleasantly situated on
+rising ground on the left bank of the Otter, 16½ m. E.N.E. of Exeter by
+the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3271. The town consists
+of one wide street, down which a stream of water runs, extending for
+about 1 m., and crossed at right angles by a lesser street. The restored
+church of St Michael, formerly a parish church, but standing on a hill
+about ½ m. from the town, was built by Courtenay, bishop of Exeter,
+about 1482. It retains a curiously carved screen, and the black marble
+tomb of Queen Elizabeth's physician, Marwood, who attained the age of
+105. Allhallows Grammar School, founded in 1614, was enlarged in 1893;
+St Margaret's hospital, founded as a lazar-house in the 14th century, is
+converted into almshouses. Honiton is famous for its lace industry,
+established by refugees from Flanders under Queen Elizabeth. The
+delicate fabric made by hand on the pillow was long in demand; its sale
+was, however, greatly diminished by the competition of cheaper
+machine-made goods, and a school of lace-making was opened to promote
+its recovery. The town possesses breweries, tanneries, malthouses,
+flour-mills, saw-mills, brick and tile works, potteries and an iron
+foundry; its trade in butter is considerable. It is governed by a mayor,
+6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3134 acres.
+
+Honiton (_Honetona_, _Huneton_) is situated on the British Icknield
+Street, and was probably the site of an early settlement, but it does
+not appear in history before the Domesday Survey, when it was a
+considerable manor, held by Drew (Drogo) under the count of Mortain, who
+had succeeded Elmer the Saxon, with a subject population of 33, a flock
+of 80 sheep, a mill and 2 salt-workers. The borough was founded before
+1217 by William de Vernon, earl of Devon, whose ancestor Richard de
+Redvers had received the manor from Henry I. In the 14th century it
+passed to the Courtenays, and in 1698 Sir William Courtenay was
+confirmed in the right of holding court leet, view of frank-pledge and
+the nomination of a portreeve, these privileges having been surrendered
+to James II. The borough was represented by two members in parliament in
+1300 and 1311, and then not again till 1640, from which date it returned
+two members until disfranchised by the act of 1868, the returning
+officer being the portreeve, who was also the chief magistrate of the
+borough until its incorporation by charter of 1846. In 1221 Falkes de
+Breauté, then custodian of the borough, rendered a palfrey for holding a
+three days' fair at the feast of All Saints, transferred in 1247 to the
+feast of St Margaret, and still held under that grant. A great market
+for corn and other produce is still held on Saturday by prescription.
+The wool manufacture flourished at Honiton in the reign of Henry VII.,
+and it is said to have been the first town at which serges were made,
+but the industry entirely declined during the 19th century. The lace
+manufacture was introduced by Flemish refugees, and was flourishing in
+the reign of Charles I.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Devonshire_; A. Farquharson, _History of
+  Honiton_ (Exeter, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+HONNEF, a town and climatic health resort of Germany, beautifully situated
+on the right bank of the Rhine, at the foot of the Siebengebirge, 8 m.
+above Bonn by the railway Cologne-Königswinter-Horchheim. Pop. (1905)
+6183. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a sanatorium for
+consumptives, and does a considerable trade in wine. The town is
+surrounded by vineyards and orchards, and has annually a large number of
+visitors. A mineral spring called the Drachenquelle is used both for
+drinking and bathing.
+
+
+
+
+HONOLULU, a city, port of entry, and the capital of Hawaii, situated in
+the "city and county of Honolulu," on the S. coast of the island of
+Oahu, at the mouth of Nuuanu Valley, 2100 m. S.W. of San Francisco. Pop.
+(1890) 22,907; (1900) 39,306, of whom 24,746 were males, 14,560 were
+females; about 10,000 were Hawaiians, 15,000 Asiatics, and 5000
+Portuguese; (1910) 52,183. Honolulu is served by the Oahu railway, by
+electric lines to the principal suburbs, and by steamship lines to San
+Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, Manila, Salina Cruz (Mexico), Victoria,
+Sydney, and Chinese and Japanese ports. The business section and the
+older residence quarters occupy low ground, but many of the newer
+residences are built on the sides of neighbouring hills and mountains,
+of which there are several from 500 to 2000 ft. in height. The Punch
+Bowl (behind the city), a hill rising about 500 ft. above the sea,
+Diamond Head, a crater about 760 ft. in height, 4 m. to the S.E., and
+the Nuuanu Pali, a lofty and picturesque precipice 6 m. up the valley,
+are especially known for their commanding views. In front of the city is
+the small harbour, well protected from all winds except those from the
+S.; in and after 1892 the Hawaiian government deepened its entrance
+from 21 ft. to 30 ft. Six miles to the W. is the much more spacious
+Pearl Harbor (a U.S. Naval Station), the bar at the entrance of which
+was removed (1903) by the U.S. government. Pearl Harbor and the harbour
+of Honolulu are the only safe ports in the archipelago. The streets of
+Honolulu are wide, and are macadamized with crushed or broken lava. The
+business houses are mostly of brick or stone, and range from two to six
+storeys in height. About most of the residences there are many tropical
+trees, flowering shrubs and plants. Wood is the most common material of
+which the residences are built; a large portion of these residences are
+one-storey cottages; broad verandahs are common; and of the more
+pretentious residences the lanai, a semi-outdoor drawing-room with
+conservatories adjoining, is a notable feature. Throughout the city
+there is a marked absence of poverty and squalor. There are good hotels
+in the city and its suburbs. The government buildings are extensive and
+have a pleasing appearance; that of the executive, in a beautiful park,
+was formerly the royal palace and still contains many relics of royalty.
+Facing the judiciary building is an heroic statue in bronze of
+Kamehameha the Great. About 2 m. W. of the business centre of the city
+is the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, a fine stone building on a
+commanding site, and containing a large collection of Hawaiian and
+Polynesian relics and curios, especially Hawaiian feather-work, and
+notable collections of fish and of Hawaiian land shells and birds. Four
+miles S.E. of the business centre, at the foot of Diamond Head, is
+Waikiki sea-beach, noted for its surf-riding, boating and bathing, and
+Kapiolani Park, a pleasure resort, near which is a famous aquarium of
+tropical fishes. Honolulu has other parks, a fine Botanical Garden,
+created by the Bureau of Agriculture, several public squares, several
+hospitals, a maternity home, the Lunalilo Home for aged Hawaiians, an
+asylum for the insane, several schools of high rank both public and
+private--notably Oahu College on the E. edge of the city, first founded
+as a school for the children of missionaries in 1841; the Honolulu High
+School, founded in 1833 as the Oahu Charity School, to teach English to
+the half whites; the Royal School, which was founded in 1840 for the
+sons of chiefs; and the Normal School, housed in what was in 1906 the
+most expensive building on the island of Oahu--a library containing
+about 14,000 volumes and the collections of the Hawaiian Historical
+Society, a number of benevolent, literary, social and political
+societies, and an art league, and is the see of both an Anglican and a
+Roman Catholic bishop. In 1907 the Pacific Scientific Institution for
+the advancement of scientific knowledge of the Pacific, its islands and
+their people, was established here. Among the clubs of the city are the
+Pacific Club, founded in 1853 as the British Club; the Scottish Thistle
+Club (1891), of which Robert Louis Stevenson was a member; the Hawaii
+Yacht Club, and the Polo, Country and University Clubs. There are
+various journals and periodicals, five languages being represented. The
+chief industries are the manufacture of machinery (especially machinery
+for sugar-refineries) and carriages, rice-milling and ship-building.
+Honolulu's total exports for the fiscal year 1908 were valued at
+$42,238,455, and its imports at $19,985,724. There is a privately owned
+electric street car service in the city. The water-works and
+electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the Territorial
+government, and to the plentiful water-supply is partly due the
+luxuriant vegetation of the city. Honolulu's safe harbour, discovered in
+1794, made it a place of resort for vessels (especially whalers) and
+traders from the beginning of the 19th century. Kamehameha I. (the
+Great) lived here from 1803 until 1811. In 1816 was built a fort which
+stood until 1857. In 1820 the city became the principal residence of the
+sovereign and soon afterwards of foreign consuls, and thus practically
+the seat of government. In 1907 an act was passed by which the former
+county of Oahu, including the island of Oahu and the small islands
+adjacent, was made a municipal corporation under the name of the "city
+and county of Honolulu"; this act came into effect on the 1st of January
+1909.
+
+
+
+
+HONORIUS, the name of four popes and one antipope (Honorius II; i.e. 2
+below).
+
+1. HONORIUS I., pope from 625 to 638, was of a noble Roman family, his
+father Petronius having been consul. He was very active in carrying on
+the work of Gregory the Great, especially in England; Bede (_Hist.
+Eccl._ ii. 17) gives a letter of his to King Edwin of Northumbria, in
+which he admonishes him diligently to study Gregory's writings; and it
+was at Edwin's request that Honorius conferred the pallium on the
+bishops of Canterbury and York (ib. ii. 18). He also admonished the
+Irish for not following the custom of the Catholic Church in the
+celebration of Easter (ib. ii. 19), and commissioned Birinus to preach
+Christianity in Wessex (ib. iii. 7). It is, however, in connexion with
+the Monothelite heresy that Honorius is most remembered, his attitude in
+this matter having acquired fresh importance during the controversy
+raised by the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility in 1870.
+In his efforts to consolidate the papal power in Italy, Honorius had
+been hampered by the schism of "the three chapters" in Istria and
+Venetia, a schism that was ended by the deposition in 628 of the
+schismatic patriarch Fortunatus of Aquileia-Grado and the elevation of a
+Roman sub-deacon to the patriarchate. It is suggested that help rendered
+to him in this matter by the emperor Heraclius, or by the Greek exarch,
+may have inclined the pope to take the emperor's side in the Monothelite
+controversy, which broke out shortly afterwards in consequence of the
+formula proposed by the emperor with a view to reconciling the
+Monophysites and the Catholics. However that may be, he joined the
+patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria in supporting the doctrine
+of "one will" in Christ, and expounded this view forcibly, if somewhat
+obscurely, in two letters to the patriarch Sergius (Epist. 4 and 5 in
+Migne, _Patrologia. Ser. Lat._ lxxx. 470, 474). For this he was, more
+than forty years after his death (October 638), anathematized by name
+along with the Monothelite heretics by the council of Constantinople
+(First Trullan) in 681; and this condemnation was subsequently confirmed
+by more than one pope, particularly by Leo II. See Hefele, _Die Irrlehre
+des Honorius u. die vaticanische Lehre der Unfehlbarkeit_ (1871), who,
+however, modified his view in his _Conciliengeschichte_ (1877). Honorius
+I. was succeeded by Severinus.
+
+  See the articles by R. Zöpffel and G. Krüger in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 1900), and by T. Grisar in Wetzer and Welte's
+  _Kirchenlexikon_ (Freiburg, 1889). In addition to the bibliographies
+  there given see also U. Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources hist._,
+  &c., Bio-bibliographie, s. "Honorius I." (Paris, 1905).     (W. A. P.)
+
+2. HONORIUS II. (d. 1072), antipope, was the name taken by Peter
+Cadalus, who was born at Verona and became bishop of Parma in 1046.
+After the death of Pope Nicholas II. in July 1061 he was chosen pope by
+some German and Lombard bishops at Basel in opposition to Alexander II.,
+who had been elected by the party led by Hildebrand, afterwards Pope
+Gregory VII. Taking the name of Honorius II., Cadalus was thus the
+representative of those who were opposed to reforms in the Church. Early
+in 1062 he advanced towards Rome, and though his supporters defeated the
+forces of his rival outside the city, he soon returned to Parma to await
+the decision of the advisers of the young German king, Henry IV., whose
+mother Agnes had supported his election. About this time, however, Agnes
+was deprived of her power, and the chief authority in Germany passed to
+Anno, archbishop of Cologne, who was hostile to Cadalus. Under these
+circumstances the antipope again marched towards Rome in 1063 and
+entered the city, but was soon forced to take refuge in the castle of St
+Angelo. The ensuing war between the rival popes lasted for about a year,
+and then Cadalus left Rome as a fugitive. Refusing to attend a council
+held at Mantua in May 1064, he was deposed, and he died in 1072, without
+having abandoned his claim to the papal chair.
+
+  See the article on Honorius II. in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, Band
+  viii. (Leipzig, 1900).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+3. HONORIUS II. (Lamberto Scannabecchi), pope from the 15th of December
+1124 to the 13th of February 1130, a native of Fagnano near Imola, of
+considerable learning and great religious zeal, successively archdeacon
+at Bologna, cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede under Urban II.,
+cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri under Paschal II., shared the
+exile of Gelasius II. in France, and helped Calixtus II. to conclude
+the Concordat of Worms (1122), which settled the investiture contest. He
+owed his election in large measure to force employed by the Frangipani,
+but was consecrated with general consent on the 21st of December 1124.
+By means of a close alliance with that powerful family, he was enabled
+to maintain peace at Rome, and the death of Emperor Henry V. (1125)
+further strengthened the papal position. He recognized the Saxon Lothair
+III. as king of the Romans and later as emperor, and excommunicated his
+rival, Conrad of Hohenstaufen. He sanctioned the Praemonstratensian
+order and that of the Knights Templars. He excommunicated Count William
+of Normandy for marriage in prohibited degree; brought to an end,
+through the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux, the struggle with Louis
+VI. of France; and arranged with Henry I. for the reception of papal
+legates in England. He laid claim as feudal overlord to the Norman
+possessions in southern Italy (July 1127), and excommunicated the
+claimant, Duke Roger of Sicily, but was unable to prevent the foundation
+of the Neapolitan monarchy, for Duke Roger defeated the papal army and
+forced recognition in August 1128. Honorius appealed to Lothair for
+assistance, but died before it arrived. His successor was Innocent II.
+
+  The chief sources for the life of Honorius II. are his "Epistolae et
+  Privilegia," in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 166, and the _Vitae_
+  of Cardinals Pandulf and Boso in J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman.
+  vitae_, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862); also "Codice diplomatico e bollario di
+  Onorio II." in _Fr. Liverani opere_, vol. 4 (Macerata, 1859), and
+  Jaffé-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman_. (1885-1888).
+
+  See J. Langen, _Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
+  Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle
+  Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); H. H.
+  Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol. 4 (London, 1899); Fr. Liverani,
+  "Lamberto da Fiagnano" in _Opere_, vol. 3 (Macerata, 1859); A. Wagner,
+  _Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum 1086-1150_ (Breslau,
+  1885); E. Bernheim, _Zur Geschichte des Wormser Concordats_
+  (Göttingen, 1878); Volkmar, "Das Verhältnis Lothars III. zur
+  Investiturfrage," in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, vol. 26.
+       (C. H. Ha)
+
+4. HONORIUS III. (Cencio Savelli), pope from the 18th of July 1216 to
+the 18th of March 1227, a highly-educated and pious Roman, successively
+canon of Sta Maria Maggiore, cardinal-deacon of Sta Lucia in Silice,
+vice-chancellor, chamberlain and cardinal-priest of Sti Giovanni e
+Paolo, was the successor of Innocent III. He made peace with Frederick
+II., in accordance with which the emperor was crowned with his wife
+Constance in St Peter's on the 22nd of November 1220, and swore to
+accord full liberty to the church and to undertake a crusade. Honorius
+was eager to carry out the decrees of the Lateran Council of 1215
+against the Albigenses and to further the crusade proclaimed by his
+predecessor. He crowned Peter of Courtenay emperor of Byzantium in April
+1217; espoused the cause of the young Henry III. of England against the
+barons; accepted the Isle of Man as a perpetual fief; arbitrated
+differences between Philip II. of France and James of Aragon; and made
+special ecclesiastical regulations for the Scandinavian countries. He
+sanctioned the Dominican order (22nd of November 1216), making St
+Dominic papal major-domo in 1218; approved the Franciscan order by bull
+of the 29th of November 1223; and authorized many of the tertiary
+orders. He maintained, on the whole, a tranquil rule at Rome; but
+Frederick II.'s refusal to interrupt his reforms in Sicily in order to
+go on the crusade gave the pope much trouble. Honorius died in 1227,
+before the emperor had fulfilled his oath, and was succeeded by Gregory
+IX.
+
+  Honorius III. left many writings which have been collected and
+  published by Abbé Horoy in the _Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica_,
+  vols. i.-ii. (Paris, 1879-1883). Among them are five books of
+  decretals, compiled about 1226; a continuation of the _Liber
+  Pontificalis_; a life of Gregory VII; a coronation form; and a large
+  number of sermons. His most important work is the _Liber censuum
+  Romanae ecclesiae_, written in 1192 and containing a record of the
+  income of the Roman Church and of its relations with secular
+  authorities. The last named is admirably edited by P. Fabre in
+  _Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome_ (Paris,
+  1892). The letters of Honorius are in F. Liverani, _Spicilegium
+  Liberianum_ (1863). There are good _Regesta_ in Latin and Italian,
+  edited by P. Pressutti (Rome, 1888, &c.).
+
+  See J. Clausen, _Papst Honorius III._ (1895); P. T. Masetti, _I
+  Pontefici Onorio III. ed Innocenzo IV. a fronte dell' Imperatore
+  Federico II. net secolo XIII._ (1884); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the
+  Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
+  1900-1902); K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 5, 2nd ed.;
+  H. H. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol. 5 (London, 1899); T. Frantz,
+  _Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit des
+  Hohenstaufen Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, _Das Papsttum
+  u. Byzanz_ (Berlin, 1903); M. Tangl, _Die päpstlichen Kanzleiordungen
+  von 1200-1500_ (Innsbruck, 1894); Caillemer, _Le Pape Honorius III. et
+  le droit civil_ (Lyons, 1881); F. Vernet, _Études sur les sermons
+  d'Honorius III._ (Lyons, 1888). There is an excellent article, with
+  exhaustive bibliography, by H. Schulz in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_,
+  3rd edition.     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+5. HONORIUS IV. (Jacopo Savelli), pope from the 2nd of April 1285 to the
+3rd of April 1287, a member of a prominent Roman family and grand-nephew
+of Honorius III., had studied at the university of Paris, been made
+cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin, and succeeded Martin IV.
+Though aged and so crippled that he could not stand alone he displayed
+remarkable energy as pope. He maintained peace in the states of the
+Church and friendly relations with Rudolph of Habsburg, and his policy
+in the Sicilian question was more liberal than that of his predecessor.
+He showed special favours to the mendicant orders and formally
+sanctioned the Carmelites and Augustinian Eremites. He was the first
+pope to employ the great banking houses in northern Italy for the
+collection of papal dues. He died at Rome and was succeeded by Nicholas
+IV.
+
+  See M. Bouquet, _Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France_,
+  new ed., vols. 20-22 (Paris, 1894), for the chief sources; A.
+  Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman_, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); M. Prou,
+  "Les registres d'Honorius IV." in _Bibliothèque des écoles françaises
+  d Athènes et de Rome_ (Paris, 1888); B. Pawlicki, _Papst Honorius IV._
+  (Münster, 1896); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5,
+  trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902).     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+HONORIUS, FLAVIUS (384-423), son of Theodosius I., ascended the throne
+as "emperor of the West" in 395. The history of the first thirteen years
+of the reign of Honorius is inseparably connected with the name of
+Stilicho (q.v.), his guardian and father-in-law. During this period the
+revolt of the African prince Gildo was suppressed (398); Italy was
+successfully defended against Alaric, who was defeated at Pollentia
+(402) and Verona (403); and the barbarian hordes under the Goth
+Radagaisus were destroyed (406). After the downfall and murder of
+Stilicho (408), the result of palace intrigues, the emperor was under
+the control of incompetent favourites. In the same year Rome was
+besieged, and in 410, for the second time in its history, taken and
+sacked by Alaric, who for a short time set up the city prefect Attalus
+as a rival emperor, but soon deposed him as incapable. Alaric died in
+the same year, and in 412 Honorius concluded peace with his
+brother-in-law and successor, Ataulphus (Adolphus), who married the
+emperor's sister Placidia and removed with his troops to southern Gaul.
+A number of usurpers laid claim to the throne, the most important of
+whom was Constantine. In 409 Britain and Armorica declared their
+independence, which was confirmed by Honorius himself, and were thus
+practically lost to the empire. Honorius was one of the feeblest
+emperors who ever occupied the throne, and the dismemberment of the West
+was only temporarily averted by the efforts of Stilicho, and, later, of
+Constantius, a capable general who overthrew the usurpers and was
+rewarded with a share in the government. It was only as a supporter of
+the orthodox church and persecutor of the heathen that Honorius
+displayed any energy. In 399 the exercise of the pagan cult was
+prohibited, and the revenues of the temples, which were to be
+appropriated for the use of the public or pulled down, were confiscated
+to defray the expenses of the army. Honorius was equally severe on
+heretics, such as the Donatists and Manichaeans. He is also to be
+credited with the abolition of the gladiatorial shows in 404 (although
+there is said to be evidence of their existence later), a reduction of
+the taxes, improvements in criminal law, and the reorganization of the
+_defensores civitatum_, municipal officers whose duty it was to defend
+the rights of the people and set forth their grievances. Honorius at
+first established his court at Milan, but, on the report of the
+invasion of Italy, fled to Ravenna, where he resided till his death on
+the 27th of August 423.
+
+  See Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, chs. 28-33; J. B. Bury, _Later Roman
+  Empire_, i. chs. 1-5, ii. chs. 4, 6; E. A. Freeman, "Tyrants of
+  Britain, Gaul and Spain" in _Eng. Hist. Review_ (January 1886); T.
+  Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (Oxford, 1892), i. chs. 13, 15-18.
+
+
+
+
+HONOUR (Lat. _honos_ or _honor_, _honoris_; in English the word was
+spelled with or without the _u_ indifferently until the 17th century,
+but during the 18th century it became fashionable to spell the word
+"honor"; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereotyped the English
+and American spellings respectively), a term which may be defined as
+respect, esteem or deference paid to, or received by, a person in
+consideration of his character, worth or position; also the state or
+condition of the person exciting the feeling or expression of such
+esteem; particularly a high personal character coupled with conduct in
+accordance with or controlled by a nice sense of what is right and true
+and due to the position so held. Further, the word is commonly used of
+the dignities, distinctions or titles, granted as a mark of such esteem
+or as a reward for services or merit, and quite generally of the credit
+or renown conferred by a person or thing on the country, town or
+particular society to which he or it belongs. The standard of conduct
+may be laid down not only by a scrupulous sense of what is due to lofty
+personal character but also by the conventional usages of society, hence
+it is that debts which cannot be legally enforced, such as gambling
+debts, are called "debts of honour." Similarly in the middle ages and
+later, courts, known as "courts of honour," sat to decide questions such
+as precedence, disputes as to coat armour &c. (see CHIVALRY); such
+courts, chiefly military, are found in countries where duelling has not
+fallen into desuetude (see DUEL). In the British House of Lords, when
+the peers sit to try another peer on a criminal charge or at an
+impeachment, on the question being put whether the accused be guilty or
+not, each peer, rising in his place in turn, lays his right hand on his
+breast and returns his verdict "upon my honour." As a title of address,
+"his honour" or "your honour" is applied in the United States of America
+to all judges, in the United Kingdom only to county court judges; in
+university or other examinations, those who have won particular
+distinction, or have undergone with success an examination of a standard
+higher than that required for a "pass" degree, are said to have passed
+"with honours," or an "honours" examination or to have taken an "honours
+degree." In many games of cards the ace, king, queen and knave of trumps
+are the "honours."
+
+Funeral or military honours are paid to a dead officer or soldier. The
+usual features of such a burial are as follows: the coffin is carried on
+a gun-carriage and attended by troops; it is covered by the national
+flag, on which rests the soldier's head-dress, sword or bayonet; if the
+deceased had been a mounted soldier, his charger follows with the boots
+reversed in the stirrups; three volleys are fired over the grave after
+committal, and "last post" or another call is sounded on the bugles or a
+roll on the drums is given.
+
+A military force is said to be accorded "the honours of war" when, after
+a specially honourable defence, it has surrendered its post, and is
+permitted, by the terms of capitulation to march out with colours
+flying, bands playing, bayonets fixed, &c. and retaining possession of
+the field artillery, horses, arms and baggage. The force remains free to
+act as combatants for the remainder of the war, without waiting for
+exchange or being considered as prisoners. Usually some point is named
+to which the surrendering troops must be conveyed before recommencing
+hostilities; thus, during the Peninsular War, at the Convention of
+Cintra 1808, the French army under Junot was conveyed to France by
+British transports before being free to rejoin the combatant troops in
+the Peninsula. By far the most usual case of the granting of the
+"honours of war" is in connexion with the surrender of a fortress. Of
+historic examples may be mentioned the surrender of Lille by Marshal
+Boufflers to Prince Eugene in 1708, that of Huningen by General Joseph
+Barbanègre (1772-1830) to the Austrians in 1815, and that of Belfort by
+Colonel P. Denfert Rochereau to the Germans in 1871.
+
+In English law the term "honour" is used of a seigniory of several
+manors held under one baron or lord paramount. The formation of such
+lordships dates back to the Anglo-Saxon period, when jurisdiction of sac
+and soc was frequently given in the case of a group of estates lying
+close together. The system was encouraged by the Norman lords, as
+tending to strengthen the principles of feudal law, but the legislation
+of Henry II., which increased the power of the central administration,
+undoubtedly tended to discourage the creation of new honours.
+Frequently, they escheated to the crown, retaining their corporate
+existence and their jurisdictions; they then either remained in the
+possession of the king or were regranted, diminished in extent. Although
+an honour contained several manors, one court day was held for all, but
+the various manors retained their separate organizations, having their
+"quasi several and distinct courts."
+
+
+
+
+HONOURABLE (Fr. _honorable_, from Lat. _honorabilis_, worthy of honour),
+a style or title of honour common to the United Kingdom, the British
+colonies and the United States of America. The terms _honorabilis_ and
+_honorabilitas_ were in use in the middle ages rather as a form of
+politeness than as a stereotyped style; and though Gibbon assimilates
+the late Roman title of _clarissimus_ to "honourable," as applied to the
+lowest of the three grades of rank in the imperial hierarchy, the
+analogy was good even in his day only in so far as both styles were
+applicable to those who belonged to the less exalted ranks of the titled
+classes, for the title "honourable" was not definitely confined to
+certain classes until later. As a formal address it is found frequently
+in the _Paston Letters_ (15th century), but used loosely and
+interchangeable with other styles; thus John, Viscount Beaumont, is
+addressed alternately as "my worshipful and reverent Lord" (ii. 88, ed.
+1904) and as "my right honorabull Lord" (ii. 118), while John Paston, a
+plain esquire, is "my right honurabyll maister." More than two centuries
+later Selden, in his _Titles of Honor_ (1672), does not include
+"honourable" among the courtesy titles given to the children of peers.
+The style was, in fact, used extremely loosely till well on into the
+18th century. Thus we find in the registers of Westminster Abbey records
+of the burial (in 1710) of "The Hon. George Churchill, Esq.," who was
+only a son of Sir Winston Churchill, and of "The Hon. Sir William
+Godolphin," who had only been created a baronet; in 1717 was buried "The
+Hon. Colonel Henry Cornwall," who was only an esquire and the son of
+one; in 1743 a rear-admiral was buried as "The Hon. Sir John Jennings,
+Kt."; in 1746 "The Hon. Major-General Lowther," whose father was only a
+Dublin merchant; and finally, in 1747, "The Hon. Lieutenant-General
+Guest," who is said to have begun life as an hostler. From this time
+onwards the style of "honourable" tended to become more narrowly
+applied; but the whole matter is full of obscurity and contradictions.
+The baronets, for instance, allege that they were usually styled "the
+honourable" until the end of the 18th century, and in 1835 they
+petitioned for the style as a prefix to their names. The Heralds'
+College officially reported on the petition (31st of October 1835) that
+the evidence did not prove the right of baronets to the style, and that
+its use "has been no more warranted by authority than when the same
+style has been applied to Field Officers in the Army and others." They
+added that "the style of the Honourable is given to the _Judges_ and to
+the _Barons of the Exchequer_ with others because by the Decree of 10
+James I., for settling the place and precedence of the Baronets, the
+Judges and Barons of the Exchequer were declared to have place and
+precedence before the younger sons of Viscounts and Barons." This seems
+to make the style a consequence of the precedence; yet from the examples
+above given it is clear that it was applied, e.g. in the case of field
+officers, where no question of precedence arose. It is not, indeed,
+until 1874 that we have any evidence of an authoritative limitation of
+the title. In this year the wives of lords of appeal, life peers, were
+granted style and precedence as baronesses; but it was provided that
+their children were not "to assume or use the prefix of Honourable, or
+to be entitled to the style, rank or precedence of the children of a
+Baron." In 1898, however, this was revoked, and it was ordained "that
+such children shall have and enjoy on all occasions the style and title
+enjoyed by the children of hereditary Barons together with the rank and
+precedence, &c." By these acts of the Crown the prefix of "honourable"
+would seem to have been restricted and stereotyped as a definite title
+of honour; yet in legal documents the sons of peers are still styled
+merely "esquire," with the addition of "commonly called, &c." This
+latter fact points to the time when the prefix "honourable" was a mark
+of deference paid by others rather than a style assumed by right, and
+relics of this doubtless survive in the United Kingdom in the
+conventions by which an "honourable" does not use the title on his
+visiting card and is not announced as such.
+
+As to the actual use and social significance of the style, the practice
+in the United Kingdom differs considerably from that in the colonies or
+in the United States. In the United Kingdom marquesses are "most
+honourable"; earls, viscounts and barons "right honourable," a style
+also borne by all privy councillors, including the lord mayor of London
+and lord provost of Edinburgh during office. The title of "honourable"
+is in the United Kingdom, except by special licence of the Crown (e.g.
+in the case of retired colonial or Indian officials), mainly confined to
+the sons and daughters of peers, and is the common style of the younger
+sons of earls and of the children of viscounts, barons and legal life
+peers. The eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls bear "by courtesy"
+their father's second title, the younger sons of dukes and marquesses
+having the courtesy title Lord prefixed to their Christian name; while
+the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls are styled Lady. The title
+of "honourable" is also given to all present or past maids of honour,
+and to the judges of the high court being lords justices or lords of
+appeal (who are "right honourable"). A county court judge is, however,
+"his honour." The epithet is also applied to the House of Commons as a
+body and to individual members during debate ("the honourable member for
+X."). Certain other corporate bodies have, by tradition or grant, the
+right to bear the style; e.g. the Honourable Irish Society, the Inns of
+Court (Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, &c.) and the Honourable
+Artillery Company; the East India Company also had the prefix
+"honourable." The style may not be assumed by corporate bodies at will,
+as was proved, in the case of the Society of Baronets, whose original
+style of "Honourable" Society was dropped by command.
+
+In the British colonies the title "honourable" is given to members of
+the executive and legislative bodies, to judges, &c., during their term
+of service. It is sometimes retained by royal licence after a certain
+number of years' service.
+
+In the United States of America the title is very widespread, being
+commonly given to any one who holds or has held any office of importance
+in state or nation, more particularly to members of Congress or of the
+state legislatures, judges, justices, and certain other judicial and
+executive officials. Popular amenity even sometimes extends the title to
+holders of quite humble government appointments, and consoles with it
+the defeated candidates for a post. See also the article PRECEDENCE.
+
+
+
+
+HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON (1701-1790), German historian and
+theologian, was born on the 27th of January 1701 at Trier. He belonged
+to a noble family which had been for many generations connected with the
+court and diocese of the archbishop-electors, his father, Kaspar von
+Hontheim, being receiver-general of the archdiocese. At the age of
+twelve young Hontheim was given by his maternal uncle, Hugo Friedrich
+von Anethan, canon of the collegiate church of St Simeon (which at that
+time still occupied the Roman Porta Nigra at Trier), a prebend in his
+church, and on the 13th of May 1713 he received the tonsure. He was
+educated by the Jesuits at Trier and at the universities of Trier,
+Louvain and Leiden, taking his degree of doctor of laws at Trier in
+1724. During the following years he travelled in various European
+countries, spending some time at the German College in Rome; in 1728 he
+was ordained priest and, formally admitted to the chapter of St Simeon
+in 1732, he became a professor at the university of Trier. In 1738 he
+went to Coblenz as official to the archbishop-elector. In this capacity
+he had plentiful opportunity of studying the effect of the interference
+of the Roman Curia in the internal affairs of the Empire, notably in the
+negotiations that preceded the elections of the emperors Charles VII.
+and Francis I. in which Hontheim took part as assistant to the electoral
+ambassador. It appears that it was the extreme claims of the papal
+nuncio on these occasions and his interference in the affairs of the
+electoral college that first suggested to Hontheim that critical
+examination of the basis of the papal pretensions, the results of which
+he afterwards published to the world under the pseudonym of "Febronius."
+In 1747, broken down by overwork, he resigned his position as official
+and retired to St Simeon's, of which he was elected dean in the
+following year. In May 1748 he was appointed by the archbishop-elector
+Francis George (von Schönborn) as his suffragan, being consecrated at
+Mainz, in February 1749, under the title of bishop of Myriophiri _in
+partibus_. The archbishop of Trier was practically a great secular
+prince, and upon Hontheim as suffragan and vicar-general fell the whole
+spiritual administration of the diocese; this work, in addition to that
+of pro-chancellor of the university, he carried on single-handed until
+1778, when Jean Marie Cuohot d'Herbain was appointed his coadjutor. On
+the 21st of April 1779 he resigned the deanery of St Simeon's on the
+ground of old age. He died on the 2nd of September 1790 at his chateau
+at Montquentin near Orval, an estate which he had purchased. He was
+buried at first in St Simeon's; but the church was ruined by the French
+during the revolutionary wars and never restored, and in 1803 the body
+of Hontheim was transferred to that of St Gervasius.
+
+As a historian Hontheim's reputation rests on his contributions to the
+history of Trier. He had, during the period of his activity as official
+at Coblenz, found time to collect a vast mass of printed and MS.
+material which he afterwards embodied in three works on the history of
+Trier. Of these the _Historia Trevirensis diplomatica et pragmatica_ was
+published in 3 vols. folio in 1750, the _Prodromus historiae
+Trevirensis_ in 2 vols. in 1757. They give, besides a history of Trier
+and its constitution, a large number of documents and references to
+published authorities. A third work, the _Historiae scriptorum et
+monumentarum Trevirensis amplissima collectio_, remains in MS. at the
+city library of Trier. These books, the result of an enormous labour in
+collation and selection in very unfavourable circumstances, entitle
+Hontheim to the fame of a pioneer in modern historical methods. It is,
+however, as "Febronius" that Hontheim is best remembered. The character
+and effect of his book on "the state of the Church and the lawful power
+of the Roman pontiff" is described elsewhere (see FEBRONIANISM). The
+author of the book was known at Rome almost as soon as it was published;
+but it was not till some years afterwards (1778) that he was called on
+to retract. The terrors of the spiritual power were reinforced by a
+threat of the archbishop-elector to deprive not only him but all his
+relations of their offices, and Hontheim, after much wavering and
+correspondence, signed a submission which was accepted at Rome as
+satisfactory, though he still refused to admit, as demanded, _ut proinde
+merito monarchicum ecclesiae regimen a catholicis doctoribus
+appelletur_. The removal of the censure followed (1781) when Hontheim
+published at Frankfort what purported to be a proof that his submission
+had been made of his own free will (_Justini Febronii acti commentarius
+in suam retractationem_, &c.). This book, however, which carefully
+avoided all the most burning questions, rather tended to show--as indeed
+his correspondence proves--that Hontheim had not essentially shifted his
+standpoint. But Rome left him thenceforth in peace.
+
+  See Otto Mejer, _Febronius, Weihbischof Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim
+  und sein Widerruf_ (Tübingen, 1880), with many original letters. Of
+  later date is the biography by F. X. Kraus in the _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_ (1881), which gives numerous references.
+
+
+
+
+HONTHORST, GERARD VAN (1590-1656), Dutch painter of Utrecht, was brought
+up at the school of Bloemart, who exchanged the style of the Franckens
+for that of the pseudo-Italians at the beginning of the 16th century.
+Infected thus early with a mania which came to be very general in
+Holland, Honthorst went to Italy, where he copied the naturalism and
+eccentricities of Michelangelo da Caravaggio. Home again about 1614,
+after acquiring a considerable practice in Rome, he set up a school at
+Utrecht which flourished exceedingly; and he soon became so fashionable
+that Sir Dudley Carleton, then English envoy at the Hague, recommended
+his works to the earl of Arundel and Lord Dorchester. At the same time
+the queen of Bohemia, sister of Charles I. and electress palatine, being
+an exile in Holland, gave him her countenance and asked him to teach her
+children drawing; and Honthorst, thus approved and courted, became known
+to Charles I., who invited him to England. There he painted several
+portraits, and a vast allegory, now at Hampton Court, of Charles and his
+queen as Diana and Apollo in the clouds receiving the duke of Buckingham
+as Mercury and guardian of the king of Bohemia's children. Charles I.,
+whose taste was flattered alike by the energy of Rubens and the elegance
+of Van Dyck, was thus first captivated by the fanciful mediocrity of
+Honthorst, who though a poor executant had luckily for himself caught,
+as Lord Arundel said, "much of the manner of Caravaggio's colouring,
+then so much esteemed at Rome." It was his habit to transmute every
+subject into a night scene, from the Nativity, for which there was
+warrant in the example of Correggio, to the penitence of the Magdalen,
+for which there was no warrant at all. But unhappily this caprice,
+though "sublime in Allegri and Rembrandt," was but a phantasm in the
+hands of Honthorst, whose prosaic pencil was not capable of more than
+vulgar utterances, and art gained little from the repetition of these
+quaint vagaries. Sandrart gave the measure of Honthorst's popularity at
+this period when he says that he had as many as twenty apprentices at
+one time, each of whom paid him a fee of 100 florins a year. In 1623 he
+was president of his gild at Utrecht. After that he went to England,
+returning to settle anew at Utrecht, where he married. His position
+amongst artists was acknowledged to be important, and in 1626 he
+received a visit from Rubens, whom he painted as the honest man sought
+for and found by Diogenes Honthorst. In his home at Utrecht Honthorst
+succeeded in preserving the support of the English monarch, for whom he
+finished in 1631 a large picture of the king and queen of Bohemia "and
+all their children." For Lord Dorchester about the same period he
+completed some illustrations of the _Odyssey_; for the king of Denmark
+he composed incidents of Danish history, of which one example remains in
+the gallery of Copenhagen. In the course of a large practice he had
+painted many likenesses--Charles I. and his queen, the duke of
+Buckingham, and the king and queen of Bohemia. He now became court
+painter to the princess of Orange, settled (1637) at the Hague, and
+painted in succession at the Castle of Ryswick and the House in the
+Wood. The time not consumed in producing pictures was devoted to
+portraits. Even now his works are very numerous, and amply represented
+in English and Continental galleries. His most attractive pieces are
+those in which he cultivates the style of Caravaggio, those, namely,
+which represent taverns, with players, singers and eaters. He shows
+great skill in reproducing scenes illuminated by a single candle. But he
+seems to have studied too much in dark rooms, where the subtleties of
+flesh colour are lost in the dusky smoothness and uniform redness of
+tints procurable from farthing dips. Of great interest still, though
+rather sharp in outline and hard in modelling, are his portraits of the
+Duke of Buckingham and Family (Hampton Court), the King and Queen of
+Bohemia (Hanover and Combe Abbey), Mary de Medici (Amsterdam town-hall),
+1628, the Stadtholders and their Wives (Amsterdam and Hague), Charles
+Louis and Rupert, Charles I.'s nephews (Louvre, St Petersburg, Combe
+Abbey and Willin), and Lord Craven (National Portrait Gallery). His
+early form may be judged by a Lute-player (1614) at the Louvre, the
+Martyrdom of St John in S. M. della Scala at Rome, or the Liberation of
+Peter in the Berlin Museum; his latest style is that of the House in the
+Wood (1648), where he appears to disadvantage by the side of Jordaens
+and others.
+
+Honthorst was succeeded by his brother William, born at Utrecht in 1604,
+who died, it is said, in 1666. He lived chiefly in his native place,
+temporarily at Berlin. But he has left little behind except a portrait
+at Amsterdam, and likenesses in the Berlin Museum of William and Mary of
+England.
+
+
+
+
+HOOCH, PIETER DE (1629-?1678), Dutch painter, was born in 1629, and died
+in Amsterdam probably shortly after 1677. He was a native of Rotterdam,
+and wandered early to Haarlem and the Hague. In 1654 we find him again
+at Rotterdam, where in that year he married a girl of Delft, Jannetje
+van der Burch. From 1655 to 1657 he was a member of the painter's gild
+of Delft, but after that date we have no traces of his doings until
+about 1668, when his presence is recorded in Amsterdam. His dated
+pictures prove that he was still alive in 1677, but his death followed
+probably soon after this year. De Hooch is one of the kindliest and most
+charming painters of homely subjects that Holland has produced. He seems
+to have been born at the same time and taught in the same school as van
+der Meer and Maes. All three are disciples of the school of Rembrandt.
+Houbraken mentions Nicolas Berchem as De Hooch's teacher. De Hooch only
+once painted a canvas of large size, and that unfortunately perished in
+a fire at Rotterdam in 1864. But his small pieces display perfect finish
+and dexterity of hand, combined with great power of discrimination.
+Though he sometimes paints open-air scenes, these are not his favourite
+subjects. He is most at home in interiors illuminated by different
+lights, with the radiance of the day, in different intensities, seen
+through doors and windows. He thus brings together the most delicate
+varieties of tone, and produces chords that vibrate with harmony. The
+themes which he illustrates are thoroughly suited to his purpose.
+Sometimes he chooses the drawing-room where dames and cavaliers dance,
+or dine, or sing; sometimes--mostly indeed--he prefers cottages or
+courtyards, where the housewives tend their children or superintend the
+labours of the cook. Satin and gold are as familiar to him as camlet and
+fur; and there is no article of furniture in a Dutch house of the middle
+class that he does not paint with pleasure. What distinguishes him most
+besides subtle suggestiveness is the serenity of his pictures. One of
+his most charming was the canvas formerly in the Ashburton collection,
+now burnt, where an old lady with a dish of apples walks with a child
+along a street bounded by a high wall, above which gables and a church
+steeple are seen, while the sun radiates joyfully over the whole. Fine
+in another way is the "Mug of Beer" in the Amsterdam Museum, an interior
+with a woman coming out of a pantry and giving a measure of beer to a
+little girl. The light flows in here from a small closed window; but
+through the door to the right we look into a drawing-room, and through
+the open sash of that room we see the open air. The three lights are
+managed with supreme cunning. Beautiful for its illumination again is
+the "Music Party," with its contending indoor and outdoor lights, a gem
+in the late A. Thieme collection at Leipzig. More subtly suggestive, in
+the museum of Berlin, is the "Mother seated near a Cradle." "A Card
+Party," dated 1658, at Buckingham Palace, is a good example of De
+Hooch's drawing-room scenes, counterpart as to date and value of a
+"Woman and Child" in the National Gallery, and the "Smoking Party,"
+formerly in Lord Enfield's collection. Another very fine example is the
+"Interior" with two women, bought by Sir Julius Wernher. Other pictures
+later in the master's career are--the "Lady and Child in a Courtyard,"
+of 1665, in the National Gallery, and the "Lady receiving a Letter," of
+1670, in the Amsterdam Museum (Van der Hoop collection).
+
+  It is possible to bring together over 250 examples of De Hooch. There
+  are three at St Petersburg, three in Buckingham Palace, three in the
+  National Gallery, two in the Wallace Collection, six in the Amsterdam
+  Museum, some in the Louvre and at Munich and Darmstadt; many others
+  are in private galleries in England. For England was the first country
+  to recognize the merit of De Hooch who only began to be valued in
+  Holland in the middle of the 18th century. A celebrated picture at
+  Amsterdam, sold for 450 florins in 1765, fetched 4000 in 1817, and in
+  1876 the Berlin Museum gave £5400 for a De Hooch at the Schneider
+  sale--"A Dutch Dwelling-room" (820 B).
+
+  See Hofstede de Groot's _Catalogue raisonné_, vol. i., London, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831-1879), American soldier, lieut.-general of the
+Confederate army, was born at Owingsville, Kentucky, in 1831, and
+graduated from West Point military academy in 1853. As an officer of the
+2nd U.S. cavalry (Colonel Sidney Johnston) he saw service against
+Indians, and later he was cavalry instructor at West Point. He resigned
+from the U.S. service in 1861, and became a colonel in the Confederate
+army. He was soon promoted brigadier-general, and at the battle of
+Gaines's Mill, where he was wounded, won the brevet of major-general for
+his gallant conduct. With the famous, "Texas brigade" of the Army of
+Northern Virginia he served throughout the campaign of 1862. At
+Gettysburg he commanded one of the divisions of Longstreet's corps,
+receiving a wound which disabled his arm. With Longstreet he was
+transferred in the autumn of 1863 to the Army of Tennessee. At the
+battle of Chickamauga (September 19th, 20th) Hood was severely wounded
+again and his leg was amputated, but after six months he returned to
+duty undaunted. He remained with the Army of Tennessee as a corps
+commander, and when the general dissatisfaction with the Fabian policy
+of General J. E. Johnston brought about the removal of that officer,
+Hood was put in his place with the temporary rank of general. He had won
+a great reputation as a fighting general, and it was with the distinct
+understanding that battles were to be fought that he was placed at the
+head of the Army of Tennessee. But in spite of skill and courage he was
+uniformly unsuccessful in the battles around Atlanta. In the end he had
+to abandon the place, but he forthwith sought to attack Sherman in
+another direction, and finally invaded Tennessee. His march was pushed
+with the greatest energy, but he failed to draw the main body of the
+enemy after him, and, while Sherman with a picked force made his "March
+to the Sea," Thomas collected an army to oppose Hood. A severe battle
+was fought at Franklin on the 30th of November, and finally Hood was
+defeated and his army almost annihilated in the battle of Nashville. He
+was then relieved at his own request (January 23rd, 1865). After the war
+he was engaged in business in New Orleans, where he died of yellow fever
+on the 30th of August 1879. His experiences in the Civil War are
+narrated in his _Advance and Retreat_ (New Orleans, 1880). Hood's
+reputation as a bold and energetic leader was well deserved, though his
+reckless vigour proved but a poor substitute for Johnston's careful
+husbanding of his strength at this declining stage of the Confederacy.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724-1816), British admiral, was the son of
+Samuel Hood, vicar of Butleigh in Somerset, and prebendary of Wells. He
+was born on the 12th of December 1724, and entered the navy on the 6th of
+May 1741. He served part of his time as midshipman with Rodney in the
+"Ludlow," and became lieutenant in 1746. He was fortunate in serving
+under active officers, and had opportunities of seeing service in the
+North Sea. In 1753 he was made commander of the "Jamaica" sloop, and
+served in her on the North American station. In 1756, while still on the
+North American station, he attained to post rank. In 1757, while in
+temporary command of the "Antelope" (50), he drove a French ship ashore
+in Audierne Bay, and captured two privateers. His zeal attracted the
+favourable notice of the Admiralty and he was appointed to a ship of his
+own. In 1759, when captain of the "Vestal" (32), he captured the French
+"Bellona" (32) after a sharp action. During the war his services were
+wholly in the Channel, and he was engaged under Rodney in 1759 in
+destroying the vessels collected by the French to serve as transports in
+the proposed invasion of England. In 1778 he accepted a command which in
+the ordinary course would have terminated his active career. He became
+commissioner of the dockyard at Portsmouth and governor of the Naval
+Academy. These posts were generally given to officers who were retiring
+from the sea. In 1780, on the occasion of the king's visit to
+Portsmouth, he was made a baronet. The circumstances of the time were
+not ordinary. Many admirals declined to serve under Lord Sandwich, and
+Rodney, who then commanded in the West Indies, had complained of want of
+proper support from his subordinates, whom he accused of disaffection.
+The Admiralty was naturally anxious to secure the services of trustworthy
+flag officers, and having confidence in Hood promoted him rear-admiral
+out of the usual course on the 26th of September 1780, and sent him to
+the West Indies to act as second in command under Rodney, to whom he was
+personally known. He joined Rodney in January 1781, and remained in the
+West Indies or on the coast of North America till the close of the War of
+American Independence. The calculation that he would work harmoniously
+with Rodney was not altogether justified by the results. The
+correspondence of the two shows that they were far from being on cordial
+personal terms with one another, but Hood always discharged his duty
+punctually, and his capacity was so great, and so signally proved, that
+no question of removing him from the station ever arose. The unfortunate
+turn taken by the campaign of 1781 was largely due to Rodney's neglect of
+his advice. If he had been allowed to choose his own position there can
+be no doubt that he could have prevented the comte de Grasse (1722-1788)
+from reaching Fort Royal with the reinforcements from France in April
+(see RODNEY, LORD). When the fleet went on to the coast of North America
+during the hurricane months of 1781 he was sent to serve with Admiral
+Graves (1725?-1802) in the unsuccessful effort to relieve the army at
+Yorktown. But his subordinate rank gave him no chance to impart a greater
+measure of energy to the naval operations. When, however, he returned to
+the West Indies he was for a time in independent command owing to
+Rodney's absence in England for the sake of his health. The French
+admiral, the comte de Grasse, attacked the British islands of St Kitts
+and Nevis with a much superior force to the squadron under Hood's
+command. The attempt Hood made in January 1782 to save them from capture,
+with 22 ships to 29, was not successful, but the series of bold movements
+by which he first turned the French out of their anchorage at the Basse
+Terre of St Kitts, and then beat off the attacks of the enemy, were the
+most brilliant things done by any British admiral during the war. He was
+made an Irish peer for his share in the defeat of the comte de Grasse on
+the 9th and 12th of April near Dominica. During the peace he entered
+parliament as member for Westminster in the fiercely contested election
+of 1784, was promoted vice-admiral in 1787, and in July of 1788 was
+appointed to the Board of Admiralty under the second earl of Chatham. On
+the outbreak of the revolutionary war he was sent to the Mediterranean as
+commander-in-chief. His period of command, which lasted from May 1793 to
+October 1794, was very busy. In August he occupied Toulon on the
+invitation of the French royalists, and in co-operation with the
+Spaniards. In December of the same year the allies, who did not work
+harmoniously together, were driven out, mainly by the generalship of
+Napoleon. Hood now turned to the occupation of Corsica, which he had been
+invited to take in the name of the king of England by Paoli. The island
+was for a short time added to the dominions of George III., chiefly by
+the exertions of the fleet and the co-operation of Paoli. While the
+occupation of Corsica was being effected, the French at Toulon had so far
+recovered that they were able to send a fleet to sea. In June Hood sailed
+in the hope of bringing it to action. The plan which he laid to attack it
+in the Golfe Jouan in June may possibly have served to some extent as an
+inspiration, if not as a model, to Nelson for the battle of the Nile, but
+the wind was unfavourable, and the attack could not be carried out. In
+October he was recalled to England in consequence of some
+misunderstanding with the admiralty, or the ministry, which has never
+been explained. He had attained the rank of full admiral in April of
+1794. He held no further command at sea, but in 1796 he was named
+governor of Greenwich Hospital, a post which he held till his death on
+the 27th of January 1816. A peerage of Great Britain was conferred on his
+wife as Baroness Hood of Catherington in 1795, and he was himself
+created Viscount Hood of Whitley in 1796. The titles descended to his
+son, Henry (1753-1836), the ancestor of the present Viscount Hood. There
+are several portraits of Lord Hood by Abbot in the Guildhall and in the
+National Portrait Gallery. He was also painted by Reynolds and
+Gainsborough.
+
+  There is no good life of Lord Hood, but a biographical notice of him
+  by M'Arthur, his secretary during the Mediterranean command, is in the
+  _Naval Chronicle_, vol. ii. Charnock's _Biogr. Nav._ vi., Ralfe, _Nav.
+  Biog._ i., may also be consulted. His correspondence during his
+  command in America has been published by the Navy Record Society. The
+  history of his campaigns will be found in the historians of the wars
+  in which he served: for the earlier years, Beatson's _Naval and
+  Military Memoirs_; for the later, James's _Naval History_, vol. i.,
+  for the English side, and for the French, Troudes, _Batailles navales
+  de la France_, ii. and iii., and Chevalier's _Histoire de la marine
+  française pendant la guerre de l'indépendance américaine and Pendant
+  la République_.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814), British vice-admiral, cousin of Lord Hood
+and of Lord Bridport, entered the Royal Navy in 1776. His first
+engagement was the battle off Ushant in 1778, and, soon afterwards
+transferred to the West Indies, he was present, under the command of his
+cousin Sir Samuel Hood, at all the actions which culminated in Rodney's
+victory of April 12th, 1782. After the peace, like many other British
+naval officers, he spent some time in France, and on his return to
+England was given the command of a sloop, from which he proceeded in
+succession to various frigates. In the "Juno" his gallant rescue of some
+shipwrecked seamen won him a vote of thanks and a sword of honour from
+the Jamaica assembly. Early in 1793 the "Juno" went to the Mediterranean
+under Lord Hood, and her captain distinguished himself by an audacious
+feat of coolness and seamanship in extricating his vessel from the
+harbour of Toulon, which he had entered in ignorance of Lord Hood's
+withdrawal. Soon afterwards he was put in command of a frigate squadron
+for the protection of Levantine commerce, and in 1797 he was given the
+"Zealous" (74), in which he was present at Nelson's unsuccessful attack
+on Santa Cruz. It was Captain Hood who conducted the negotiations which
+relieved the squadron from the consequences of its failure. The part
+played by the "Zealous" at the battle of the Nile was brilliant. Her
+first opponent she put out of action in twelve minutes, and, passing on,
+Hood immediately engaged other ships, the "Guerrier" being left
+powerless to fire a shot. When Nelson left the coast of Egypt, Hood
+commanded the blockading force off Alexandria and Rosetta. Later he
+rejoined Nelson on the coast of the two Sicilies, receiving for his
+services the order of St Ferdinand.
+
+In the "Venerable" Hood was present at the action of Algesiras and the
+battle in the Straits of Gibraltar (1801). In the Straits his ship
+suffered heavily, losing 130 officers and men. A year later Captain Hood
+was employed in Trinidad as a commissioner, and, upon the death of the
+flag officer commanding the Leeward station, he succeeded him as
+Commodore. Island after island fell to him, and soon, outside
+Martinique, the French had scarcely a foothold in the West Indies.
+Amongst other measures taken by Hood may be mentioned the garrisoning of
+Diamond Rock, which he commissioned as a sloop-of-war to blockade the
+approaches of Martinique (see James, _Naval History_, iii, 245). For
+these successes he received, amongst other rewards, the K.B. In command
+next of the squadron blockading Rochefort, Sir Samuel Hood had a sharp
+fight, on 25th September 1805, with a small French squadron which was
+trying to escape. Amongst the few casualties on this occasion was the
+Commodore, who lost an arm. Promoted rear-admiral a few days after this
+action, Hood was in 1807 entrusted with the operations against Madeira,
+which he brought to a successful conclusion, and a year later went to
+the Baltic, with his flag in the "Centaur," to take part in the war
+between Russia and Sweden. In one of the actions of this war the
+"Centaur" and "Implacable," unsupported by the Swedish ships (which lay
+to leeward), cut out the Russian 80-gun ship "Sevolod" from the enemy's
+line and, after a desperate fight, forced her to strike. The king of
+Sweden rewarded the admiral with the Grand Cross of the Order of the
+Sword. Present in the roads of Corunna at the re-embarkation of the army
+of Sir John Moore, Hood thence returned to the Mediterranean, where for
+two years he commanded a division of the British fleet. In 1811 he
+became vice-admiral. In his last command, that of the East Indies
+station, he carried out many salutary reforms, especially in matters of
+discipline and victualling. He died at Madras, 24th December 1814. A
+lofty column was raised to his memory on a hill near Butleigh,
+Somersetshire, and in Butleigh Church is another memorial, with an
+inscription written by Southey.
+
+  See _Naval Chronicle_, xvii. 1 (the material was furnished by Hood
+  himself; it does not go beyond 1806).
+
+His elder brother, Captain ALEXANDER HOOD (1758-1798), entered the Royal
+Navy in 1767, and accompanied Captain Cook in his second voyage round
+the world. Under Howe and Rodney he distinguished himself in the West
+Indies, and at the victory of April 12th, 1782, he was in command of one
+of Rodney's frigates. Under Sir Samuel Hood he then proceeded to the
+Mona passage, where he captured the French corvette "Cérès." With the
+commander of his prize, the Baron de Peroy, Hood became very intimate,
+and during the peace he paid a long visit to France as his late
+prisoner's guest. In the early part of the Revolutionary war, ill health
+kept him at home, and it was not until 1797 that he went afloat again.
+His first experience was bitter; his ship, the "Mars," was unenviably
+prominent in the mutiny at Spithead. On April 21st, 1798, occurred the
+famous duel of the "Mars" with the "Hercule," fought in the dusk near
+the Bec du Raz. The two ships were of equal force, but the "Hercule" was
+newly commissioned, and after over an hour's fighting at close quarters
+she struck her flag, having lost over three hundred men. The captain of
+the "Mars" was mortally wounded early in the fight, and died as the
+sword of the French captain was being put in his hand. The latter,
+L'Heritier, also died of his wounds.
+
+  See _Naval Chronicle_, vi. 175; Ralfe, _Naval Biographies_, iv. 48;
+  James, _Naval History_, and Chevalier, _Hist. de la marine française
+  sous la première république_.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845), British humorist and poet, the son of Thomas
+Hood, bookseller, was born in London on the 23rd of May 1799. "Next to
+being a citizen of the world," writes Thomas Hood in his _Literary
+Reminiscences_, "it must be the best thing to be born a citizen of the
+world's greatest city." On the death of her husband in 1811 Mrs Hood
+removed to Islington, where Thomas Hood had a schoolmaster who
+appreciated his talents, and, as he says, "made him feel it impossible
+not to take an interest in learning while he seemed so interested in
+teaching." Under the care of this "decayed dominie," whom he has so
+affectionately recorded, he earned a few guineas--his first literary
+fee--by revising for the press a new edition of _Paul and Virginia_.
+Admitted soon after into the counting-house of a friend of his family,
+he "turned his stool into a Pegasus on three legs, every foot, of
+course, being a dactyl or a spondee"; but the uncongenial profession
+affected his health, which was never strong, and he was transferred to
+the care of his father's relations at Dundee. There he led a healthy
+outdoor life, and also became a large and indiscriminate reader, and
+before long contributed humorous and poetical articles to the provincial
+newspapers and magazines. As a proof of the seriousness with which he
+regarded the literary vocation, it may be mentioned that he used to
+write out his poems in printed characters, believing that that process
+best enabled him to understand his own peculiarities and faults, and
+probably unconscious that Coleridge had recommended some such method of
+criticism when he said he thought "print settles it." On his return to
+London in 1818 he applied himself assiduously to the art of engraving,
+in which he acquired a skill that in after years became a most valuable
+assistant to his literary labours, and enabled him to illustrate his
+various humours and fancies by a profusion of quaint devices, which not
+only repeated to the eye the impressions of the text, but, by suggesting
+amusing analogies and contrasts, added considerably to the sense and
+effect of the work.
+
+In 1821 Mr John Scott, the editor of the _London Magazine_, was killed
+in a duel, and that periodical passed into the hands of some friends of
+Hood, who proposed to make him sub-editor. His installation into this
+congenial post at once introduced him to the best literary society of
+the time; and in becoming the associate of Charles Lamb, Cary, de
+Quincey, Allan Cunningham, Proctor, Talfourd, Hartley Coleridge, the
+peasant-poet Clare and other contributors to the magazine, he gradually
+developed his own intellectual powers, and enjoyed that happy
+intercourse with superior minds for which his cordial and genial
+character was so well adapted, and which he has described in his best
+manner in several chapters of _Hood's Own_. He had married in 1825, and
+_Odes and Addresses_--his first work--was written in conjunction with
+his brother-in-law Mr J. H. Reynolds, the friend of Keats. S. T.
+Coleridge wrote to Charles Lamb averring that the book must be his work.
+_The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies_ (1827) and a dramatic romance,
+Lamia, published later, belong to this time. _The Plea of the Midsummer
+Fairies_ was a volume of serious verse, in which Hood showed himself a
+by no means despicable follower of Keats. But he was known as a
+humorist, and the public, which had learned to expect jokes from him,
+rejected this little book almost entirely. There was much true poetry in
+the verse, and much sound sense and keen observation in the prose of
+these works; but the poetical feeling and lyrical facility of the one,
+and the more solid qualities of the other, seemed best employed when
+they were subservient to his rapid wit, and to the ingenious
+coruscations of his fancy. This impression was confirmed by the series
+of the _Comic Annual_, dating from 1830, a kind of publication at that
+time popular, which Hood undertook and continued, almost unassisted, for
+several years. Under that somewhat frivolous title he treated all the
+leading events of the day in a fine spirit of caricature, entirely free
+from grossness and vulgarity, without a trait of personal malice, and
+with an under-current of true sympathy and honest purpose that will
+preserve these papers, like the sketches of Hogarth, long after the
+events and manners they illustrate have passed from the minds of men.
+But just as the agreeable jester rose into the earnest satirist, one of
+the most striking peculiarities of his style became a more manifest
+defect. The attention of the reader was distracted, and his good taste
+annoyed, by the incessant use of puns, of which Hood had written in his
+own vindication:--
+
+  "However critics may take offence,
+   A double meaning has double sense."
+
+Now it is true that the critic must be unconscious of some of the
+subtlest charms and nicest delicacies of language who would exclude from
+humorous writing all those impressions and surprises which depend on the
+use of the diverse sense of words. The history, indeed, of many a word
+lies hid in its equivocal uses; and it in no way derogates from the
+dignity of the highest poetry to gain strength and variety from the
+ingenious application of the same sounds to different senses, any more
+than from the contrivances of rhythm or the accompaniment of imitative
+sounds. But when this habit becomes the characteristic of any wit, it is
+impossible to prevent it from degenerating into occasional buffoonery,
+and from supplying a cheap and ready resource, whenever the true vein of
+humour becomes thin or rare. Artists have been known to use the left
+hand in the hope of checking the fatal facility which practice had
+conferred on the right; and if Hood had been able to place under some
+restraint the curious and complex machinery of words and syllables which
+his fancy was incessantly producing, his style would have been a great
+gainer, and much real earnestness of object, which now lies confused by
+the brilliant kaleidoscope of language, would have remained definite and
+clear. He was probably not unconscious of this danger; for, as he gained
+experience as a writer, his diction became more simple, and his
+ludicrous illustrations less frequent. In another annual called the
+_Gem_ appeared the poem on the story of "Eugene Aram," which first
+manifested the full extent of that poetical vigour which seemed to
+advance just in proportion as his physical health declined. He started a
+magazine in his own name, for which he secured the assistance of many
+literary men of reputation and authority, but which was mainly sustained
+by his own intellectual activity. From a sick-bed, from which he never
+rose, he conducted this work with surprising energy, and there composed
+those poems, too few in number, but immortal in the English language,
+such as the "Song of the Shirt" (which appeared anonymously in the
+Christmas number of _Punch_, 1843), the "Bridge of Sighs" and the "Song
+of the Labourer," which seized the deep human interests of the time, and
+transported them from the ground of social philosophy into the loftier
+domain of the imagination. They are no clamorous expressions of anger at
+the discrepancies and contrasts of humanity, but plain, solemn pictures
+of conditions of life, which neither the politician nor the moralist can
+deny to exist, and which they are imperatively called upon to remedy.
+Woman, in her wasted life, in her hurried death, here stands appealing
+to the society that degrades her, with a combination of eloquence and
+poetry, of forms of art at once instantaneous and permanent, and with
+great metrical energy and variety.
+
+Hood was associated with the _Athenaeum_, started in 1828 by J. Silk
+Buckingham, and he was a regular contributor for the rest of his life.
+Prolonged illness brought on straitened circumstances; and application
+was made to Sir Robert Peel to place Hood's name on the pension list
+with which the British state so moderately rewards the national services
+of literary men. This was done without delay, and the pension was
+continued to his wife and family after his death, which occurred on the
+3rd of May 1845. Nine years after a monument, raised by public
+subscription, in the cemetery of Kensal Green, was inaugurated by
+Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) with a concourse of spectators that
+showed how well the memory of the poet stood the test of time. Artisans
+came from a great distance to view and honour the image of the popular
+writer whose best efforts had been dedicated to the cause and the
+sufferings of the workers of the world; and literary men of all opinions
+gathered round the grave of one of their brethren whose writings were at
+once the delight of every boy and the instruction of every man who read
+them. Happy the humorist whose works and life are an illustration of the
+great moral truth that the sense of humour is the just balance of all
+the faculties of man, the best security against the pride of knowledge
+and the conceits of the imagination, the strongest inducement to submit
+with a wise and pious patience to the vicissitudes of human existence.
+This was the lesson that Thomas Hood left behind him. (H.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The list of Hood's separately published works is as
+  follows: _Odes and Addresses to Great People_ (1825); _Whims and
+  Oddities_ (two series, 1826 and 1827); _The Plea of the Midsummer
+  Fairies, Hero and Leander, Lycus the Centaur and other Poems_ (1827),
+  his only collection of serious verse; _The Dream of Eugene Aram, the
+  Murderer_ (1831); _Tylney Hall_, a novel (3 vols., 1834); _The Comic
+  Annual_ (1830-1842); _Hood's Own; or, Laughter from Year to Year_
+  (1838, second series, 1861); _Up the Rhine_ (1840); _Hood's Magazine
+  and Comic Miscellany_ (1844-1848); _National Tales_ (2 vols., 1837), a
+  collection of short novelettes; _Whimsicalities_ (1844), with
+  illustrations from Leech's designs; and many contributions to
+  contemporary periodicals.
+
+  The chief sources of his biography are: _Memorials of Thomas Hood,
+  collected, arranged and edited by his daughter_ (1860); his "Literary
+  Reminiscences" in _Hood's Own_; Alexander Elliot, _Hood in Scotland_
+  (1885). See also the memoir of Hood's friend C. W. Dilke, by his
+  grandson Sir Charles Dilke, prefixed to _Papers of a Critic_; and M.
+  H. Spielmann's _History of Punch_. There is an excellent edition of
+  the _Poems of Thomas Hood_ (2 vols., 1897), with a biographical
+  introduction of great interest by Canon Alfred Ainger.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, TOM (1835-1874), English humorist, son of the poet Thomas Hood,
+was born at Lake House, Wanstead, Essex, on the 19th of January 1835.
+After attending University College School and Louth Grammar School he
+entered Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1853, where he passed all the
+examinations for the degree of B.A., but did not graduate. At Oxford he
+wrote his _Farewell to the Swallows_ (1853) and _Pen and Pencil
+Pictures_ (1857). He began to write for the _Liskeard Gazette_ in 1856,
+and edited that paper in 1858-1859. He then obtained a position in the
+War Office, which he filled for five years, leaving in 1865 to become
+editor of _Fun_, the comic paper, which became very popular under his
+direction. In 1867 he first issued _Tom Hood's Comic Annual_. In 1861
+had appeared _The Daughters of King Daker, and other Poems_, after which
+he published in conjunction with his sister, Frances Freeling Broderip,
+a number of amusing books for children. His serious novels, of which
+_Captain Masters's Children_ (1865) is the best, were not so successful.
+Hood drew with considerable facility, among his illustrations being
+those of several of his father's comic verses. In private life his
+geniality and sincere friendliness secured him the affection and esteem
+of a wide circle of acquaintance. He died on the 20th of November 1874.
+
+  A memoir by his sister, F. F. Broderip, is prefixed to the edition of
+  his poems published in 1877.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR WILLIAM ACLAND HOOD, BARON (1824-1901), English
+admiral, born on the 14th of July 1824, was the younger son of Sir
+Alexander Hood of St Andries, Somerset, 2nd baronet, and grandson of
+Captain Alexander Hood, R.N., who, when in command of the "Mars," fell
+in action with the French 74-gun ship "Hercule," 21st of April 1798. At
+the age of twelve Hood entered the navy, and whilst still a boy saw
+active service on the north coast of Spain, and afterwards on the coast
+of Syria. After passing through the established course of gunnery on
+board the "Excellent" in 1844-1845, he went out to the Cape of Good Hope
+as gunnery mate of the "President," the flagship of Rear-Admiral Dacres,
+by whom, on the 9th of January 1846, he was promoted to be lieutenant.
+As gunnery lieutenant he continued in the "President" till 1849; and in
+the following year he was appointed to the "Arethusa" frigate, then
+commissioned for the Mediterranean by Captain Symonds, afterwards the
+well-known admiral of the fleet. The outbreak of the Russian war made
+the commission a very long one; and on the 27th of November 1854 Hood
+was promoted to be commander in recognition of his service with the
+naval brigade before Sebastopol. In 1855 he married Fanny Henrietta,
+daughter of Sir C. F. Maclean. In 1856 he commissioned the "Acorn" brig
+for the China station, and arrived in time to take part in the
+destruction of the junks in Fatshan creek on the 1st of June 1857, and
+in the capture of Canton in the following December, for which, in
+February 1858, he received a post-captain's commission. From 1862 to
+1866 he commanded, the "Pylades" on the North American station, and was
+then appointed to the command of the "Excellent" and the government of
+the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth. This was essentially a gunnery
+appointment, and on the expiration of three years Hood was made Director
+of Naval Ordnance. He was thoroughly acquainted with the routine work of
+the office and the established armament of the navy, but he had not the
+power of adapting himself to the changes which were being called for,
+and still less of initiating them; so that during his period of office
+the armament of the ships remained sadly behind the general advance. In
+June 1874 he was appointed to the command of the "Monarch" in the
+Channel Fleet, from which he was relieved in March 1876 by his promotion
+to flag rank. From 1877 to 1879 he was a junior lord of the Admiralty,
+and from 1880 to 1882 he commanded the Channel Fleet, becoming
+vice-admiral on 23rd July 1880. In June 1885 he was appointed first sea
+lord of the Admiralty. The intense conservatism of his character,
+however, and his antagonistic attitude towards every change, regardless
+of whether it was necessary or not, had much to do with the alarming
+state of the navy towards 1889. In that year, on attaining the age of
+sixty-five, he was placed on the retired list and resigned his post at
+the Admiralty. After two years of continued ill-health, he died on the
+15th of November 1901, and was buried at Butleigh on the 23rd. He had
+been promoted to the rank of admiral on the 18th of January 1886; was
+made K.C.B, in December 1885; G.C.B. in September 1889; and in February
+1892 was raised to the peerage as Lord Hood of Avalon, but on his death
+the title became extinct.     (J. K. L.)
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, a covering for the head. The word is in O. Eng. _hod_, cognate
+with Dutch _hoed_ and Ger. _Hut_, hat, both masculine; "hood" and "hat"
+are distantly related; they may be connected with the feminine _hoed_ or
+_Hut_, meaning charge, care, Eng. "heed." Some form of hood as a loose
+covering easily drawn on or off the head has formed a natural part of
+outdoor costume both for men and women at all times and in all quarters
+of the globe where climatic conditions called for it. In the middle ages
+and later both men and women are found wearing it, but with men it
+tended to be superseded by the hat before it became merely an occasional
+and additional head-covering in time of bad weather or in particularly
+rigorous climates. For illustrations and examples of the hood as worn by
+men and women in medieval and later times see the article COSTUME; for
+the hood or cowl as part of the dress of a religious see COWL, and as
+forming a distinctive mark of degree in academic costume see Robes. The
+word is applied to many objects resembling a hood in function or shape,
+such as a folding cover for a carriage to protect the occupants from
+rain or wind, the belled covering for the head of a hawk trained for
+falconry, the endmost planks in a ship's bottom at bow or stern, and, in
+botany and zoology, certain parts of a flower or of the neck of an
+animal which in arrangement of structure or of colour recall this
+article of dress.
+
+In architecture a "hood-mould" is a projecting moulding carried outside
+the arch of a door or window; it is weathered underneath, and when
+continued horizontally is better known as a dripstone. The ends of the
+hood-mould are generally stopped on a corbel, plain or carved with heads
+in European churches, but in those of central Syria terminating in
+scrolls. Although in its origin the object of the projecting and
+weathered hood-mould was to protect the face of the wall below from
+rain, it gives more importance to, and emphasizes, the arch-moulds, so
+that it is often employed decoratively inside churches.
+
+  The suffix "-hood," like the cognate "-head," was originally a
+  substantive meaning rank, status or quality, and was constantly used
+  in combination with other substantives; cf. in O. Eng. _cild-hod_,
+  child-hood; later it ceased to be used separately and became a mere
+  suffix denoting condition added to adjectives; cf. "falsehood," as
+  well as to substantives.
+
+
+
+
+HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN (1581-1647), Dutch poet and historian, was
+born at Amsterdam on the 16th of March 1581. His father was one of the
+leading citizens of Holland, both in politics and in the patronage of
+letters, and for some time burgomaster of Amsterdam. As early as 1598
+the young man was made a member of the chamber of rhetoric _In Liefde
+bloeiende_, and produced before that body his tragedy of _Achilles and
+Polyxena_, not printed until 1614. In June 1598 he left Holland and
+proceeded to Paris, where on the 10th of April 1599 he saw the body of
+Gabrielle d'Estrées lying in state. He went a few months later to
+Venice, Florence and Rome, and in 1600 to Naples. During his Italian
+sojourn he made a deep and fruitful study of the best literature of
+Italy. In July 1600 he sent home to the _In Liefde bloeiende_ a very
+fine letter in verse, expressing his aspirations for the development of
+Dutch poetry. He returned through Germany, and after an absence of three
+years and a half found himself in Amsterdam again on the 8th of May
+1601. In 1602 he brought out his second tragedy, _Theseus and Ariadne_,
+printed at Amsterdam in 1614. In 1605 he completed his beautiful
+pastoral drama _Granida_, not published until 1615. He studied law and
+history at Leiden from 1606 to 1609, and in June of the latter year
+received from Prince Maurice of Orange the appointment of steward of
+Muiden, bailiff of Gooiland, and lord of Weesp, a joint office of great
+emolument. He occupied himself with repairing and adorning the decayed
+castle of Muiden, which was his residence during the remainder of his
+life. There he entertained the poet Vondel, the scholar Barlaeus,[1]
+Constantin Huygens, Vossius, Laurens Reael and others. Hooft had been a
+suitor for the hand of Anna Roemer Visscher, and after the death of
+Roemer Visscher both the sisters visited Muiden. Anna's sympathies were
+in time diverted to the school of Jacob Cats, but Marie Tesselschade
+maintained close ties with Hooft, who revised her translation of Tasso.
+In August 1610 he married Christina van Erp, an accomplished lady who
+died in 1623, and four years later he married Eleonora Hellemans. In
+1612 Hooft produced his national tragedy of _Geeraerdt van Velzen_ (pr.
+1613), a story of the reign of Count Floris V. In 1614 was performed at
+Coster's academy Hooft's comedy of _Ware-nar_, an adaptation of the
+_Aulularia_ of Plautus, first printed in 1617. In 1616 he wrote another
+tragedy, _Baeto, or the Origin of the Dutch_, not printed until 1626. It
+was in 1618 that he abandoned poetry for history, and in 1626 he
+published the first of his great prose works, the _History of Henry the
+Great_ (Henry IV. of France). His next production was his _Miseries of
+the Princes of the House of Medici_ (Amsterdam, 1638). In 1642 he
+published at Amsterdam a folio comprising the first twenty books of his
+_Dutch History_, embracing the period from 1555 to 1585, a magnificent
+performance, to the perfecting of which he had given fifteen years of
+labour. The seven concluding books were published posthumously in 1654.
+His idea of history was gained from Tacitus, whose works he translated.
+Hooft died on a visit to the Hague, whither he had gone to attend the
+funeral of Prince Frederick Henry, on the 21st of May 1647, and was
+buried in the New Church at Amsterdam.
+
+Hooft is one of the most brilliant figures that adorn Dutch literature
+at its best period. He was the first writer to introduce a modern and
+European tone into belles lettres, and the first to refresh the sources
+of native thought from the springs of antique and Renaissance poetry.
+His lyrics and his pastoral of _Granida_ are strongly marked by the
+influence of Tasso and Sannazaro; his later tragedies belong more
+exactly to the familiar tone of his native country. But high as Hooft
+stands among the Dutch poets, he stands higher--he holds perhaps the
+highest place--among writers of Dutch prose. His historical style has
+won the warmest eulogy from so temperate a critic as Motley, and his
+letters are the most charming ever published in the Dutch language.
+After Vondel, he may on the whole be considered the most considerable
+author that Holland has produced.
+
+  Hooft's poetical and dramatic works were collected in two volumes
+  (1871, 1875) by P. Leendertz. His letters were edited by B. Huydecoper
+  (Leiden, 1738) and by van Vloten (Leiden, 4 vols., 1855). The best
+  original account of Hooft is given by G. Bradt in his _Leven van P. C.
+  Hooft_ (1677), and his funeral address (1647), edited together by J.
+  C. Matthes (Groningen, 1874). There is an account of the Muiden circle
+  in Edmund Gosse's _Literatures of Northern Europe_. Many editions
+  exist of his prose works.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Kaspar van Baerle (1584-1648), professor of rhetoric at
+    Amsterdam, and famous as a Latin poet.
+
+
+
+
+HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN, Dutch painter, was born, it is said, in
+1627 at the Hague, and died at Dort on the 19th of October 1678. This
+artist, who was first a pupil of his father, lived at the Hague and at
+Dort till about 1640, when on the death of Dirk Hoogstraten he changed
+his residence to Amsterdam and entered the school of Rembrandt. A short
+time afterwards he started as a master and painter of portraits, set out
+on a round of travels which took him (1651) to Vienna, Rome and London,
+and finally retired to Dort, where he married in 1656, and held an
+appointment as "provost of the mint." Hoogstraten's works are scarce;
+but a sufficient number of them has been preserved to show that he
+strove to imitate different styles at different times. In a portrait
+dated 1645 in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna he imitates
+Rembrandt; and he continues in this vein as late as 1653, when he
+produced that wonderful figure of a Jew looking out of a casement, which
+is one of the most characteristic examples of his manner in the
+Belvedere at Vienna. A view of the Vienna Hofburg, dated 1652, in the
+same gallery displays his skill as a painter of architecture, whilst in
+a piece at the Hague representing a Lady Reading a Letter as she crosses
+a Courtyard, or a Lady Consulting a Doctor, in the Van der Hoop Museum
+at Amsterdam, he imitates de Hooch. One of his latest works is a
+portrait of Mathys van den Brouck, dated 1670, in the gallery of
+Amsterdam. The scarcity of Hoogstraten's pictures is probably due to his
+versatility. Besides directing a mint, he devoted some time to literary
+labours, wrote a book on the theory of painting (1678) and composed
+sonnets and a tragedy. We are indebted to him for some of the familiar
+sayings of Rembrandt. He was an etcher too, and some of his plates are
+still preserved. His portrait, engraved by himself at the age of fifty,
+still exists.
+
+
+
+
+HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907), English painter, was born in London on
+the 21st of November 1819. His father, James Hook, a Northumbrian by
+descent, Judge Arbitrator of Sierra Leone, married the second daughter of
+Dr Adam Clarke, the commentator on the Bible, who gave to the painter his
+second name. Young Hook's first taste of the sea was on board the Berwick
+smacks which took him on his way to Wooler. He drew with rare facility,
+and determined to become an artist; and accordingly, without any
+supervision, he set to work for more than a year in the sculpture
+galleries of the British Museum. In 1836 he was admitted a student of the
+Royal Academy, where he worked for three years, and elsewhere learned a
+good deal of the scientific technique of painting from a nephew of Opie.
+His first picture, called "The Hard Task," was exhibited in 1837, and
+represented a girl helping her sister with a lesson. Unusual facility in
+portraiture and a desire to earn his own living took the student into
+Ireland to paint likenesses of the Waterford family and others; here he
+produced landscapes of the Vale of Avoca, and much developed his taste
+for pastoral art; later, he was similarly engaged in Kent and
+Somersetshire. In 1842 his second exhibited work was a portrait of
+"Master J. Finch Smith": in this year he gained silver medals at the
+Royal Academy, and in 1843 he was one of the competitors in the
+exhibition of cartoons in Westminster Hall, with a 10 by 7 ft. design of
+"Satan in Paradise." In 1844 the Academy contained a picture of a kind
+with which his name was long associated, an illustration of the
+_Decameron_, called "Pamphilius relating his Story," a meadow scene in
+bright light, with sumptuous ladies, richly clad, reclining on the grass.
+The British Institution, 1844 and 1845, set forth two of Hook's idylls,
+subjects taken from Shakespeare and Burns, which, with the above, showed
+him to be cultivating those veins of romantic sentiment and the
+picturesque which were then in vogue, but in a characteristically fresh
+and vigorous manner. "The Song of Olden Times" (Royal Academy, 1845)
+marked the artist's future path distinctly in most technical respects. It
+was in this year Hook won the Academy gold medal for an oil picture of
+"The Finding the Body of Harold." The travelling studentship in painting
+was awarded to him for "Rizpah watching the Dead Sons of Saul" in 1846;
+and he went for three years to Italy, having married Miss Rosalie Burton
+before he left England. Hook passed through Paris, worked diligently for
+some time in the Louvre, traversed Switzerland, and, though he stayed
+only part of three years in Italy, gained much from studies of Titian,
+Tintoret, Carpaccio, Mansueti and other Venetians. Their influence
+thenceforth dominated the coloration of his pictures, and enabled him to
+apply the principles to which they had attained to the representation (as
+Bonington before him had done) of romantic subjects and to those English
+themes of the land and sea with which the name of the artist is
+inseparably associated. "A Dream of Ancient Venice" (R.A., 1848)--the
+first fruit of these Italian studies--"Bayard of Brescia" (R.A., 1849),
+"Venice" (B.I., 1849) and other works assured for Hook the Associateship
+of the Royal Academy in 1851. Soon afterwards an incomparable series of
+English subjects was begun, in many pastorals and fine brilliant idylls
+of the sea and rocks. "A Rest by the Wayside" and "A Few Minutes to Wait
+before Twelve o'clock" proved his title to appear, in 1854, as a new and
+original painter. After these came "A Signal on the Horizon" (1857), "A
+Widow's Son going to Sea," "The Ship-boy's Letter," "Children's Children
+are the Crown of Old Men," "A Coast-boy gathering Eggs," a scene at
+Lundy; the perfect "Luff, Boy!" (1859), about which Ruskin broke into a
+dithyrambic chant, "The Brook," "Stand Clear!" "O Well for the
+Fisherman's Boy!" (1860), "Leaving Cornwall for the Whitby Fishing," "Sea
+Urchins," and a score more as fine as these. The artist was elected a
+full Academician on the 6th of March 1860, in the place of James Ward. He
+died on the 14th of April 1907.
+
+  See A. H. Palmer, "J. C. Hook, R.A.," _Portfolio_ (1888); F. G.
+  Stephens, "J. C. Hook, Royal Academician: His Life and Work," _Art
+  Annual_ (London, 1888); P. G. Hamerton, _Etching and Etchers_ (London,
+  1877).
+
+
+
+
+HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841), English author, was born in London on
+the 22nd of September 1788. He spent a year at Harrow, and subsequently
+matriculated at Oxford, but he never actually resided at the university.
+His father, James Hook (1746-1827), the composer of numerous popular
+songs, took great delight in exhibiting the boy's extraordinary musical
+and metrical gifts, and the precocious Theodore became "the little pet
+lion of the green room." At the age of sixteen, in conjunction with his
+father, he scored a dramatic success with _The Soldier's Return_, a
+comic opera, and this he rapidly followed up with a series of over a
+dozen sparkling ventures, the instant popularity of which was hardly
+dependent on the inimitable acting of John Liston and Charles Mathews.
+But Hook gave himself up for some ten of the best years of his life to
+the pleasures of the town, winning a foremost place in the world of
+fashion by his matchless powers of improvisation and mimicry, and
+startling the public by the audacity of his practical jokes. His unique
+gift of improvising the words and the music of songs eventually charmed
+the prince Regent into a declaration that "something must be done for
+Hook." The prince was as good as his word, and Hook, in spite of a total
+ignorance of accounts, was appointed accountant-general and treasurer of
+the Mauritius with a salary of £2000 a year. For five delightful years
+he was the life and soul of the island, but in 1817, a serious
+deficiency having been discovered in the treasury accounts, he was
+arrested and brought to England on a criminal charge. A sum of about
+£12,000 had been abstracted by a deputy official, and for this amount
+Hook was held responsible.
+
+During the tardy scrutiny of the audit board he lived obscurely and
+maintained himself by writing for magazines and newspapers. In 1820 he
+launched the newspaper _John Bull_, the champion of high Toryism and the
+virulent detractor of Queen Caroline. Witty, incisive criticism and
+pitiless invective secured it a large circulation, and from this source
+alone Hook derived, for the first year at least, an income of £2000. He
+was, however, arrested for the second time on account of his debt to the
+state, which he made no effort to defray. In a sponging-house, where he
+was confined for two years, he wrote the nine volumes of stories
+afterwards collected under the title of _Sayings and Doings_
+(1826-1829). In the remaining twenty-three years of his life he poured
+forth no fewer than thirty-eight volumes, besides numberless articles,
+squibs and sketches. His novels are not works of enduring interest, but
+they are saved from mediocrity by frequent passages of racy narrative
+and vivid portraiture. The best are _Maxwell_ (1830), _Love and Pride_
+(1833), the autobiographic _Gilbert Gurney_ (1836), _Jack Brag_ (1837),
+_Gurney Married_ (1838), and _Peregrine Bunce_ (1842). Incessant work
+had already begun to tell on his health, when Hook returned to his old
+social habits, and a prolonged attempt to combine industry and
+dissipation resulted in the confession that he was "done up in purse, in
+mind and in body too at last." He died on the 24th of August 1841. His
+writings in great part are of a purely ephemeral character; and the
+greatest triumphs of the improvisatore may be said to have been writ in
+wine. Putting aside, however, his claim to literary greatness, Hook will
+be remembered as one of the most brilliant, genial and original figures
+of Georgian times.
+
+  See the Rev. R. H. D. Barham's _Life and Remains of Hook_ (3rd ed.,
+  1877); and an article by J. G. Lockhart in the _Quarterly Review_ (May
+  1843).
+
+
+
+
+HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875), English divine, nephew of the witty
+Theodore, was born in London on the 13th of March 1798. Educated at
+Tiverton and Winchester, he graduated at Oxford (Christ Church) in 1821,
+and after holding an incumbency in Coventry, 1829-1837, and in Leeds,
+1837-1859, was nominated dean of Chichester by Lord Derby. He received
+the degree of D.D. in 1837. His friendship towards the Tractarians
+exposed him to considerable persecution, but his simple manly character
+and zealous devotion to parochial work gained him the support of widely
+divergent classes. His stay in Leeds was marked by vigorous and
+far-reaching church extension, and his views on education were far in
+advance of his time. Among his many writings are _An Ecclesiastical
+Biography, containing the Lives of Ancient Fathers and Modern Divines_
+(8 vols., 1845-1852), _A Church Dictionary, The Means of Rendering more
+Effectual the Education of the People, The Cross of Christ_ (1873), _The
+Church and its Ordinances_ (sermons, 4 vols., 1876), and _Lives of the
+Archbishops of Canterbury_ (12 vols., 1860-1876). He died on the 20th of
+October 1875.
+
+  See _Life and Letters of Dean Hook_, by his son-in-law, W. R. W.
+  Stephens (2 vols., 1878).
+
+
+
+
+HOOKAH (the English spelling of the Persian and Hindustani _huqqu_, an
+adaptation of the Arabic _huqqah_, a vase or casket, and by transference
+a pipe for smoking, probably derived from the Arabie _huqq_, a hollow
+place), a pipe with a long flexible tube attached to a large bowl
+containing water, often scented, and resting upon a tripod or stand. The
+smoke of the tobacco is made to pass through the water in the bowl, and
+is thus cooled before reaching the smoker. The _narghile_ of India is in
+principle the same as that of the hookah; the word is derived from
+_nargil_, an Indian name for the coco-nut tree, as when the _narghile_
+was first made the water was placed in a coco-nut. This receptacle is
+now often made of porcelain, glass or metal. In the _hubble-bubble_ the
+pipe is so contrived that the water in the bowl makes a bubbling noise
+while the pipe is being smoked. This pipe is common in India, Egypt and
+the East generally.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKE, ROBERT (1635-1703), English experimental philosopher, was born on
+the 18th of July 1635 at Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, where his
+father, John Hooke, was minister of the parish. After working for a
+short time with Sir Peter Lely, he went to Westminster school; and in
+1653 he entered Christ Church, Oxford, as servitor. After 1655 he was
+employed and patronized by the Hon. Robert Boyle, who turned his skill
+to account in the construction of his air-pump. On the 12th of November
+1662 he was appointed curator of experiments to the Royal Society, of
+which he was elected a fellow in 1663, and filled the office during the
+remainder of his life. In 1664 Sir John Cutler instituted for his
+benefit a mechanical lectureship of £50 a year, and in the following
+year he was nominated professor of geometry in Gresham College, where he
+subsequently resided. After the Great Fire of 1666 he constructed a
+model for the rebuilding of this city, which was highly approved,
+although the design of Sir C. Wren was preferred. During the progress of
+the works, however, he acted as surveyor, and accumulated in that
+lucrative employment a sum of several thousand pounds, discovered after
+his death in an old iron chest, which had evidently lain unopened for
+above thirty years. He fulfilled the duties of secretary to the Royal
+Society during five years after the death of Henry Oldenburg in 1677,
+publishing in 1681-1682 the papers read before that body under the title
+of _Philosophical Collections_. A protracted controversy with Johann
+Hevelius, in which Hooke urged the advantages of telescopic over plain
+sights, brought him little but discredit. His reasons were good; but his
+offensive style of argument rendered them unpalatable and himself
+unpopular. Many circumstances concurred to embitter the latter years of
+his life. The death, in 1687, of his niece, Mrs Grace Hooke, who had
+lived with him for many years, caused him deep affliction; a law-suit
+with Sir John Cutler about his salary (decided, however, in his favour
+in 1696) occasioned him prolonged anxiety; and the repeated anticipation
+of his discoveries inspired him with a morbid jealousy. Marks of public
+respect were not indeed wanting to him. A degree of M.D. was conferred
+on him at Doctors' Commons in 1691, and the Royal Society made him, in
+1696, a grant to enable him to complete his philosophical inventions.
+While engaged on this task he died, worn out with disease, on the 3rd of
+March 1703 in London, and was buried in St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate
+Street.
+
+In personal appearance Hooke made but a sorry show. His figure was
+crooked, his limbs shrunken; his hair hung in dishevelled locks over his
+haggard countenance. His temper was irritable, his habits penurious and
+solitary. He was, however, blameless in morals and reverent in religion.
+His scientific achievements would probably have been more striking if
+they had been less varied. He originated much, but perfected little. His
+optical investigations led him to adopt in an imperfect form the
+undulatory theory of light, to anticipate the doctrine of interference,
+and to observe, independently of though subsequently to F. M. Grimaldi
+(1618-1663), the phenomenon of diffraction. He was the first to state
+clearly that the motions of the heavenly bodies must be regarded as a
+mechanical problem, and he approached in a remarkable manner the
+discovery of universal gravitation. He invented the wheel barometer,
+discussed the application of barometrical indications to meteorological
+forecasting, suggested a system of optical telegraphy, anticipated E. F.
+F. Chladni's experiment of strewing a vibrating bell with flour,
+investigated the nature of sound and the function of the air in
+respiration and combustion, and originated the idea of using the
+pendulum as a measure of gravity. He is credited with the invention of
+the anchor escapement for clocks, and also with the application of
+spiral springs to the balances of watches, together with the explanation
+of their action by the principle _Ut tensio sic vis_ (1676).
+
+  His principal writings are _Micrographia_ (1664); _Lectiones
+  Cutlerianae_ (1674-1679); and _Posthumous Works_, containing a sketch
+  of his "Philosophical Algebra," published by R. Waller in 1705.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814-1879), American general, was born in Hadley,
+Massachusetts, on the 13th of November 1814. He was educated at the
+military academy at West Point (1833-1837), and on graduating entered
+the 1st U.S. Artillery. In the war with Mexico (1846-48) he served as a
+staff officer, and rose by successive brevets for meritorious services
+to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1853 he left the service and
+bought a large farm near Sonoma, Cal., which he managed successfully
+till 1858, when he was made superintendent of military roads in Oregon.
+Upon the opening of hostilities in the Civil War of 1861-65, he
+sacrificed his fine estate and offered his sword to the Federal
+Government. He was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers on the
+17th of May 1861 and major-general on the 5th of May 1862. The
+engagement of Williamsburg (May 5th) brought him and his subordinate
+Hancock into prominence, and Hooker received the soubriquet of "Fighting
+Joe." He was engaged at the battle of Fair Oaks, and did splendid
+service to the Union army during the "Seven Days." In the campaign of
+Northern Virginia, under General Pope (August 1862), he led his division
+with fiery energy at Bristoe Station, Manassas and Chantilly. In the
+Maryland campaign (September) he was at the head of the I. corps, Army
+of the Potomac, forced the defile of South Mountain and opened the way
+for the advance of the army. The I. corps opened the great battle of the
+Antietam, and sustained a sanguinary fight with the Confederates under
+Stonewall Jackson. Hooker himself was severely wounded. He was
+commissioned brigadier-general in the United States army on the 20th of
+September 1862, and in the battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.), under
+Burnside, he commanded the centre grand division (III. and V. corps). He
+had protested against the useless slaughter of his men on that
+disastrous field, and when Burnside resigned the command Hooker
+succeeded him. The new leader effected a much-needed re-organization in
+the army, which had fought many battles without success. In this task,
+as in subordinate commands in battle, Hooker was excelled by few. But
+his grave defects as a commander-in-chief were soon to be obvious. By a
+well-planned and well-executed flanking movement, he placed himself on
+the enemy's flank, but at the decisive moment he checked the advance of
+his troops. Lee turned upon him, Jackson surprised and destroyed a whole
+army corps, and the battle of Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS), in
+which Hooker was himself disabled, ended in a retreat to the old
+position. Yet Hooker had not entirely forfeited the confidence of his
+men, to whom he was still "Fighting Joe." The second advance of Lee into
+Union territory, which led to the battle of Gettysburg, was strenuously
+resisted by Hooker, who would have inflicted a heavy blow on Lee's
+scattered forces had he not been condemned to inaction by orders from
+Washington. Even then Hooker followed the Confederates a day only behind
+them, until, finding himself distrusted and forbidden to control the
+movements of troops within the sphere of operations, he resigned the
+command on the eve of the battle (June 28, 1863). Faults of temper and
+an excessive sense of responsibility made his continued occupation of
+the command impossible, but when after a signal defeat Rosecrans was
+besieged in Chattanooga, and Grant with all the forces of the West was
+hurried to the rescue, two corps of the Army of the Potomac were sent
+over by rail, and Hooker, who was at least one of the finest fighting
+generals of the service, went with them in command. He fought and won
+the "Battle above the Clouds" on Lookout Mountain which cleared the way
+for the crowning victory of the army of the Cumberland on Missionary
+Ridge (see CHATTANOOGA). And in command of the same corps (consolidated
+as the XX. corps) he took part in all the battles and combats of the
+Atlanta campaign of 1864. When General McPherson was killed before
+Atlanta, the command of Grant's old Army of the Tennessee fell vacant.
+Hooker, who, though only a corps commander, was senior to the other army
+commanders, Thomas and Schofield, was normally entitled to receive it,
+but General Sherman feared to commit a whole army to the guidance of a
+man of Hooker's peculiar temperament, and the place was given to Howard.
+Hooker thereupon left the army. He was commissioned brevet-major-general
+in the United States army on the 13th of March 1865, and retired from
+active service with the full rank of major-general on the 15th of
+October 1868, in consequence of a paralytic seizure. The last years of
+his life were passed in the neighbourhood of New York. He died at Garden
+City, Long Island, on the 31st of October 1879.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817-   ), English botanist and traveller,
+second son of the famous botanist Sir W. J. Hooker, was born on the 30th
+of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow
+University, and almost immediately after taking his M.D. degree there in
+1839 joined Sir James Ross's Antarctic expedition, receiving a
+commission as assistant-surgeon on the "Erebus." The botanical fruits of
+the three years he thus spent in the Southern Seas were the _Flora
+Antarctica_, _Flora Novae Zelandiae_ and _Flora Tasmanica_, which he
+published on his return. His next expedition was to the northern
+frontiers of India (1847-1851), and the expenses in this case also were
+partially defrayed by the government. The party had its full share of
+adventure. Hooker and his friend Dr Campbell were detained in prison for
+some time by the raja of Sikkim, but nevertheless they were able to
+bring back important results, both geographical and botanical. Their
+survey of hitherto unexplored regions was published by the Calcutta
+Trigonometrical Survey Office, and their botanical observations formed
+the basis of elaborate works on the rhododendrons of the Sikkim Himalaya
+and on the flora of India. Among other journeys undertaken by Hooker may
+be mentioned those to Palestine (1860), Morocco (1871), and the United
+States (1877), all yielding valuable scientific information. In the
+midst of all this travelling in foreign countries he quickly built up
+for himself a high scientific reputation at home. In 1855 he was
+appointed assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and in 1865 he succeeded
+his father as full director, holding the post for twenty years. At the
+early age of thirty he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in
+1873 he was chosen its president; he received three of its medals--a
+Royal in 1854, the Copley in 1887 and the Darwin in 1892. He acted as
+president of the British Association at its Norwich meeting of 1868,
+when his address was remarkable for its championship of Darwinian
+theories. Of Darwin, indeed, he was an early friend and supporter: it
+was he who, with Lyell, first induced Darwin to make his views public,
+and the author of _The Origin of Species_ has recorded his indebtedness
+to Hooker's wide knowledge and balanced judgment. Sir Joseph Hooker is
+the author of numerous scientific papers and monographs, and his larger
+books include, in addition to those already mentioned, a standard
+_Student's Flora of the British Isles_ and a monumental work, the
+_Genera plantarum_, based on the collections at Kew, in which he had the
+assistance of Bentham. On the publication of the last part of his _Flora
+of British India_ in 1897 he was created G.C.S.I., of which order he had
+been made a knight commander twenty years before; and twenty years
+later, on attaining the age of ninety, he was awarded the Order of
+Merit.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600), English writer, author of the _Laws of
+Ecclesiastical Polity_, son of Richard Vowell or Hooker, was born at
+Heavitree, near the city of Exeter, about the end of 1553 or beginning
+of 1554. Vowell was the original name of the family, but was gradually
+dropped, and in the 15th century its members were known as Vowell
+_alias_ Hooker. At school, not only his facility in mastering his tasks,
+but his intellectual inquisitiveness and his fine moral qualities,
+attracted the special notice of his teacher, who strongly recommended
+his parents to educate him for the church. Though well connected, they
+were, however, somewhat straitened in their worldly circumstances, and
+Hooker was indebted for admission to the university to his uncle, John
+Hooker _alias_ Vowell, chamberlain of Exeter, and in his day a man of
+some literary repute, who induced Bishop Jewel to become his patron and
+to bestow on him a clerk's place in Corpus Christi College, Oxford. To
+this Hooker was admitted in 1568. Bishop Jewel died in September 1571,
+but Dr William Cole, president of the college, from the strong interest
+he felt in the young man, on account at once of his character and his
+abilities, spontaneously offered to take the bishop's place as his
+patron; and shortly afterwards Hooker, by his own labours as a tutor,
+became independent of gratuitous aid. Two of his pupils, and these his
+favourite ones, were Edwin Sandys, afterwards author of _Europae
+speculum_, and George Cranmer, grand-nephew of the archbishop. Hooker's
+reputation as a tutor soon became very high, for he had employed his
+five years at the university to such good purpose as not only to have
+acquired great proficiency in the learned languages, but to have joined
+to this a wide and varied culture which had delivered him from the
+bondage of learned pedantry; in addition to which he is said to have
+possessed a remarkable talent for communicating knowledge in a clear and
+interesting manner, and to have exercised a special influence over his
+pupils' intellectual and moral tendencies. In December 1573 he was
+elected scholar of his college; in July 1577 he proceeded to M.A., and
+in September of the same year he was admitted a fellow. In 1579 he was
+appointed by the chancellor of the university to read the public Hebrew
+lecture, a duty which he continued to discharge till he left Oxford. Not
+long after his admission into holy orders, about 1581, he was appointed
+to preach at St Paul's Cross; and, according to Walton, he was so kindly
+entertained by Mrs Churchman, who kept the Shunamite's house where the
+preachers were boarded, that he permitted her to choose him a wife,
+"promising upon a fair summons to return to London and accept of her
+choice." The lady selected by her was "her daughter Joan," who, says the
+same authority, "found him neither beauty nor portion; and for her
+conditions they were too like that wife's which is by Solomon compared
+to a dripping house." It is probable that Walton has exaggerated the
+simplicity and passiveness of Hooker in the matter, but though, as Keble
+observes with justice, his writings betray uncommon shrewdness and
+quickness of observation, as well as a vein of keenest humour, it would
+appear that either gratitude or some other impulse had on this occasion
+led his judgment astray. After his marriage he was, about the end of
+1584, presented to the living of Drayton Beauchamp in Buckinghamshire.
+In the following year he received a visit from his two pupils, Edwin
+Sandys and George Cranmer, who found him with the _Odes_ of Horace in
+his hand, tending the sheep while the servant was at dinner, after
+which, when they on the return of the servant accompanied him to his
+house, "Richard was called to rock the cradle." Finding him so engrossed
+by worldly and domestic cares, "they stayed but till the next morning,"
+and, greatly grieved at his narrow circumstances and unhappy domestic
+condition, "left him to the company of his wife Joan."
+
+The visit had, however, results of the highest moment, not only in
+regard to the career of Hooker, but in regard to English literature and
+English philosophical thought. Sandys prevailed on his father, the
+archbishop of York, to recommend Hooker for presentation to the
+mastership of the Temple, and Hooker, though his "wish was rather to
+gain a better country living," having agreed after some hesitation to
+become a candidate, the patent conferring upon him the mastership was
+granted on the 17th of March 1584/5. The rival candidate was Walter
+Travers, a Presbyterian and evening lecturer in the same church. Being
+continued in the lectureship after the appointment of Hooker, Travers
+was in the habit of attempting a refutation in the evening of what
+Hooker had spoken in the morning, Hooker again replying on the following
+Sunday; so it was said "the forenoon sermon spake Canterbury, the
+afternoon Geneva." On account of the keen feeling displayed by the
+partisans of both, Archbishop Whitgift deemed it prudent to prohibit the
+preaching of Travers, whereupon he presented a petition to the council
+to have the prohibition recalled. Hooker published an _Answer to the
+Petition of Mr Travers_, and also printed several sermons bearing on
+special points of the controversy; but, feeling strongly the
+unsatisfactory nature of such an isolated and fragmentary discussion of
+separate points, he resolved to compose an elaborate and exhaustive
+treatise, exhibiting the fundamental principles by which the question in
+dispute must be decided. It is probable that the work was begun in the
+latter half of 1586, and he had made considerable progress with it
+before, with a view to its completion, he petitioned Whitgift to be
+removed to a country parsonage, in order that, as he said, "I may keep
+myself in peace and privacy, and behold God's blessing spring out of my
+mother earth, and eat my own bread without oppositions." His desire was
+granted in 1591 by a presentation to the rectory of Boscombe near
+Salisbury. There he completed the volume containing the first four of
+the proposed _Eight Books of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_. It was
+entered at Stationers' Hall on the 9th of March 1592, but was not
+published till 1593 or 1594. In July 1595 he was promoted by the crown
+to the rectory of Bishopsbourne near Canterbury, where he lived to see
+the completion of the fifth book in 1597. In the passage from London to
+Gravesend some time in 1600 he caught a severe cold from which he never
+recovered; but, notwithstanding great weakness and constant suffering,
+he "was solicitous in his study," his one desire being "to live to
+finish the three remaining books of _Polity_." His death took place on
+the 2nd of November of the same year. A volume professing to contain the
+sixth and eighth books of the _Polity_ was published at London in 1648,
+but the bulk of the sixth book, as has been shown by Keble, is an entire
+deviation from the subject on which Hooker proposed to treat, and
+doubtless the genuine copy, known to have been completed, has been lost.
+The seventh book, which was published in a new edition of the work by
+Gauden in 1662, and the eighth book, may be regarded as in substance the
+composition of Hooker; but, as, in addition to wanting his final
+revision, they have been very unskilfully edited, if they have not been
+manipulated for theological purposes, their statements in regard to
+doubtful matters must be received with due reserve, and no reliance can
+be placed on their testimony where their meaning contradicts that of
+other portions of the _Polity_.
+
+The conception of Hooker in his later years, which we form from the
+various accessible sources, is that of a person of low stature and not
+immediately impressive appearance, much bent by the influence of
+sedentary and meditative habits, of quiet and retiring manners, and
+discoloured in complexion and worn and marked in feature from the hard
+mental toil which he had expended on his great work. There seems,
+however, exaggeration in Walton's statement as to the meanness of his
+dress; and Walton certainly misreads his character when he portrays him
+as a kind of ascetic mystic. Though he was unworldly and simple in his
+desires, and engrossed in the purpose to which he had devoted his
+life--the "completion of the _Polity_"--his writings indicate that he
+possessed a cheerful and healthy disposition, and that he was capable of
+discovering enjoyment in everyday pleasures, and of appreciating human
+life and character in a wide variety of aspects. He seems to have had a
+special delight in outward nature--as he expressed it, he loved "to see
+God's blessing spring out of his mother earth"; and he spent much of his
+spare time in visiting his parishioners, his deference towards them, if
+excessive, being yet mingled with a grave dignity which rendered
+unwarrantable liberties impossible. As a preacher, though singularly
+devoid of the qualities which win the applause of the multitude, he
+always excited the interest of the more intelligent, the breadth and
+finely balanced wisdom of his thoughts and the fascination of his
+composition greatly modifying the impression produced by his weak voice
+and ineffective manner. Partly, doubtless, on account of his
+dim-sightedness, he never removed his eye from his manuscript, and,
+according to Fuller, "he may be said to have made good music with his
+fiddle and stick alone, having neither pronunciation nor gesture to
+grace his matter."
+
+  To accede without explanation to the claim put forth for the
+  _Ecclesiastical Polity_ of Hooker, that it marks an epoch in English
+  prose literature and English thought, would both be to do some
+  injustice to writers previous to him, and, if not to overestimate his
+  influence, to misinterpret its character. By no means can his
+  excursions in English prose be regarded as chiefly those of a pioneer;
+  and not only is his intellectual position inferior to that of
+  Shakespeare, Spenser and Bacon,[1] who alone can be properly reckoned
+  as the master spirits of the age, but in reality what effect he may
+  have had upon the thought of his contemporaries was soon disregarded
+  and swept out of sight in the hand-to-hand struggle with Puritanism,
+  and his influence, so far from being immediate and confined to one
+  particular era, has since the reaction against Puritanism been slowly
+  and imperceptibly permeating and colouring English thought. His work
+  is, however, the earliest in English prose with enough of the
+  preserving salt of excellence to adapt it to the mental palate of
+  modern readers. Attempts more elaborate than those of the old
+  chroniclers had been made two centuries previously to employ English
+  prose both for narrative and for discussion; and, a few years before
+  him, Roger Ascham, Sir Thomas More, Latimer, Sir Philip Sidney, the
+  compilers of the prayer book, and various translators of the Bible,
+  had in widely different departments of literature brought to light
+  many samples of the rich wealth of expression that was latent in the
+  language; but Hooker's is the first independent work in English prose
+  of notable power and genius, and the vigour and grasp of its thought
+  are not more remarkable than the felicity of its literary style. Its
+  more usual and obvious excellences are clearness of expression,
+  notwithstanding occasionally complicated methods; great aptness and
+  conciseness in the formation of individual clauses, and such a fine
+  sense of proportion and rhythm in their arrangement as almost conceals
+  the difficulties of syntax by which he was hampered; finished
+  simplicity, notwithstanding a stateliness too uniform and unbroken; a
+  nice discrimination in the choice of words and phrases, so as both to
+  portray the exact shade of his meaning, and to express each of his
+  thoughts with that degree of emphasis appropriate to its place in his
+  composition. In regard to qualities more relating to the matter than
+  the manner we may note the subtle and partly hidden humour; the strong
+  enthusiasm underlying that seemingly calm and passionless exposition
+  of principles which continually led him away from the minutiae of
+  temporary disputes, and has earned for him the somewhat misleading
+  epithet of "judicious;" the solidity of learning, not ostentatiously
+  displayed, but indicated in the character and variety of his
+  illustrations and his comprehensive mastery of all that relates to his
+  subject; the breadth of his conceptions, and the sweep and ease of his
+  movements in the highest regions of thought; the fine poetical
+  descriptions occasionally introduced, in which his eloquence attains a
+  grave, rich and massive harmony that compares not unfavourably with
+  the finest prose of Milton. His manner is, of course, defective in the
+  flexibility and variety characteristic of the best models of English
+  prose literature after the language had been enriched and perfected by
+  long use, and his sentences, constructed too much according to Latin
+  usages, are often tautological and too protracted into long
+  concatenations of clauses; but if, when regarded superficially, his
+  style presents in some respects a stiff and antiquated aspect, it yet
+  possesses an original and innate charm that has retained its freshness
+  after the lapse of nearly three centuries.
+
+  The direct interest in the _Ecclesiastical Polity_ is now
+  philosophical and political rather than theological, for what
+  theological importance it possessed was rather in regard to the spirit
+  and method in which theology should be discussed than in regard to the
+  decision of strictly theological points. Hooker bases his reasoning on
+  principles which he discovered in Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, but
+  the intellectual atmosphere of his age was different from that which
+  surrounded them; he was acted upon by new and more various impulses
+  enabling him to imbibe more thoroughly the spirit of Greek thought
+  which was the source of their inspiration, and thus to reach a higher
+  and freer region than scholasticism, and in a sense to inaugurate
+  modern philosophy in England. It may be admitted that his principles
+  are only partially and in some degree capriciously wrought out--that
+  if he is not under the dominion of intellectual tendencies leading to
+  opposite results there are occasional blanks and gaps in his argument
+  where he seems sometimes to be groping after a meaning which he cannot
+  fully grasp; but he is often charged with obscurity simply because
+  readers of various theological schools, beholding in his principles
+  what seem the outline and justification of their own ideas, are
+  disappointed when they find that these outlines instead of acquiring
+  as they narrowly examine them the full and definite form of their
+  anticipations, widen out into a region beyond their notions and
+  sympathies, and therefore from their point of view enveloped in mist
+  and shade. It is the exposition of philosophical principles in the
+  first and second books of the _Polity_, and not the application of
+  these principles in the remaining books that gives the work its
+  standard place in English literature. It was intended to be an answer
+  to the attacks of the Presbyterians on the Episcopalian polity and
+  customs, but no attempt is made directly to oust Presbyterianism from
+  the place it then held in the Church of England. The work must rather
+  be regarded as a remonstrance against the narrow ground chosen by the
+  Presbyterians for their basis of attack, Hooker's exact position being
+  that "a necessity of polity and regiment may be held in all churches
+  without holding any form to be necessary."
+
+  The general purpose of his reasoning is to vindicate Episcopacy from
+  objections that had been urged against it, but he attains a result
+  which has other and wider consequences than this. The fundamental
+  principle on which he bases his reasoning is the unity and
+  all-embracing character of law--law "whose seat," he beautifully says,
+  "is the bosom of God, whose voice the harmony of the world." Law--as
+  operative in nature, as regulating each man's individual character and
+  actions, as seen in the formations of societies and governments--is
+  equally a manifestation and development of the divine order according
+  to which God Himself acts, is the expression in various forms of the
+  divine reason. He makes a distinction between natural and positive
+  laws, the one being eternal and immutable, the other varying according
+  to external necessity and expediency; and he includes all the forms of
+  government under laws that are positive and therefore alterable
+  according to circumstances. Their application is to be determined by
+  reason, reason enlightened and strengthened by every variety of
+  knowledge, discipline and experience. The leading feature in his
+  system is the high place assigned to reason, for, though affirming
+  that certain truths necessary to salvation could be made known only by
+  special divine revelation, he yet elevates reason into the criterion
+  by which these truths are to be judged, and the standard to determine
+  what in revelation is temporal and what eternal. "It is not the word
+  of God itself," he says, "which doth or possibly can assure us that we
+  do well to think it His word." At the same time he saves himself from
+  the dangers of abstract and rash theorizing by a deep and absolute
+  regard for facts, the diligent and accurate study of which he makes of
+  the first importance to the proper use of reason. "The general and
+  perpetual voice of men is," he says, "as the sentence of God Himself.
+  For that which all men have at all times learned, nature herself must
+  needs have taught; and, God being the author of nature, her voice is
+  but His instrument." Applying his principles to man individually, the
+  foundation of morality is, according to Hooker, immutable, and rests
+  "on that law which God from the beginning hath set Himself to do all
+  things by"; this law is to be discovered by reason; and the perfection
+  which reason teaches us to strive after is stated, with characteristic
+  breadth of conception and regard to the facts of human nature, to be
+  "a triple perfection: first a sensual, consisting in those things
+  which very life itself requireth, either as necessary supplements, or
+  as beauties or ornaments thereof; then an intellectual, consisting in
+  those things which none underneath man is either capable of or
+  acquainted with; lastly, a spiritual or divine, consisting in those
+  things whereunto we tend by supernatural means here, but cannot here
+  attain unto them." Applying his principles to man as a member of a
+  community, he assigns practically the same origin and sanctions to
+  ecclesiastical as to civil government. His theory of government forms
+  the basis of the _Treatise on Civil Government_ by Locke, although
+  Locke developed the theory in a way that Hooker would not have
+  sanctioned. The force and justification of government Hooker derives
+  from public approbation, either given directly by the parties
+  immediately concerned, or indirectly through inheritance from their
+  ancestors. "Sith men," he says, "naturally have no full and perfect
+  power to command whole politic multitudes of men, therefore utterly
+  without our consent we could in such sort be at no man's commandment
+  living. And to be commanded we do consent, when that society whereof
+  we are part hath at any time before consented, without revoking the
+  same after, by the like universal agreement." His theory as he stated
+  it is in various of its aspects and applications liable to objection;
+  but taken as a whole it is the first philosophical statement of the
+  principles which, though disregarded in the succeeding age, have since
+  regulated political progress in England and gradually modified its
+  constitution. One of the corollaries of his principles is his theory
+  of the relation of church and state, according to which, with the
+  qualifications implied in his theory of government, he asserts the
+  royal supremacy in matters of religion, and identifies the church and
+  commonwealth as but different aspects of the same government.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A life of Hooker by Dr Gauden was published in his
+  edition of Hooker's works (London, 1662). To correct the errors in
+  this life Walton wrote another, which was published in the 2nd edition
+  of Hooker's works in 1666. The standard modern edition of Hooker's
+  works is that by Keble, which first appeared in 1836, and has since
+  been several times reprinted (1888 edition, revised by Dean Church and
+  Bishop Paget). The first book of the _Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_
+  was edited for the Clarendon Press by Dean R. W. Church (1868-1876).
+       (T. F. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] If Bacon was the author of _The Christian Paradoxes_, his
+    philosophical standpoint in reference to religion was not only less
+    advanced than that of Hooker, but in a sense directly opposed to it.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, THOMAS (1586-1647), New England theologian, was born, probably
+on the 7th of July 1586, at Marfield, in the parish of Tilton, County of
+Leicester, England. He graduated B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611 at
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge, the intellectual centre of Puritanism,
+remained there as a fellow for a few years, and then preached in the
+parish of Esher in Surrey. About 1626 he became lecturer to the church
+of St Mary at Chelmsford, Essex, delivering on market days and Sunday
+afternoons evangelical addresses which were notable for their moral
+fervour. In 1629 Archbishop Laud took measures to suppress church
+lectureships, which were an innovation of Puritanism. Hooker was placed
+under bond and retired to Little Baddow, 4 m. from Chelmsford. In 1630
+he was cited to appear before the Court of High Commission, but he
+forfeited his bond and fled to Holland, whence in 1633 he emigrated to
+the Colony of Massachusetts Bay in America, and became pastor at
+Newtowne (now Cambridge), Mass., of a company of Puritans who had
+arrived from England in the previous year and in expectation of his
+joining them were called "Mr Hooker's Company." Hooker seems to have
+been a leader in the formation of that sentiment of discontent with the
+Massachusetts government which resulted in the founding of Connecticut.
+He publicly criticized the limitation of suffrage to church members,
+and, according to a contemporary historian, William Hubbard (_General
+History of New England_), "after Mr Hooker's coming over it was observed
+that many of the freemen grew to be very jealous of their liberties." He
+was a leader of the emigrants who in 1636 founded Hartford, Connecticut.
+In a sermon before the Connecticut General Court of 1638, he declared
+that "the choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God's
+own allowance" and that "they who have the power to appoint officers and
+magistrates, it is in their power, also, to set the bounds and
+limitations of the power and place unto which they call them." Though
+this theory was in advance of the age, Hooker had no idea of the
+separation of church and state--"the privilege of election, which
+belongs to the people," he said, must be exercised "according to the
+blessed will and law of God." He also defended the right of magistrates
+to convene synods, and in the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639),
+which he probably framed, the union of church and state is presupposed.
+Hooker was pastor of the Hartford church until his death on the 7th of
+July 1647. He was active in the negotiations which preceded the
+formation of the New England Confederation in 1643. In the same year he
+attended the meeting of Puritan ministers at Boston, whose object was to
+defend Congregationalism, and he wrote a _Survey of the Summe of Church
+Discipline_ (1648) in justification of the New England church system.
+His other works deal chiefly with the experimental phases of religion,
+especially the experience precedent to conversion. In _The Soule's
+Humiliation_ (1637), he assigns as a test of conversion a willingness of
+the convert to be damned if that be God's will, thus anticipating the
+doctrine of Samuel Hopkins in the following century.
+
+  See George L. Walker's _Thomas Hooker_ (New York, 1891); the appendix
+  of which contains a bibliography of Hooker's published works.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785-1865), English botanist, was born at
+Norwich on the 6th of July 1785. His father, Joseph Hooker of Exeter, a
+member of the same family as the celebrated Richard Hooker, devoted much
+of his time to the study of German literature and the cultivation of
+curious plants. The son was educated at the high school of Norwich, on
+leaving which his independent means enabled him to travel and to take up
+as a recreation the study of natural history, especially ornithology and
+entomology. He subsequently confined his attention to botany, on the
+recommendation of Sir James E. Smith, whom he had consulted respecting a
+rare moss. His first botanical expedition was made in Iceland, in the
+summer of 1809, at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks; but the natural
+history specimens which he collected, with his notes and drawings, were
+lost on the homeward voyage through the burning of the ship, and the
+young botanist himself had a narrow escape with his life. A good memory,
+however, aided him to publish an account of the island, and of its
+inhabitants and flora (_Tour in Iceland_, 1809), privately circulated in
+1811, and reprinted in 1813. In 1810-1811 he made extensive
+preparations, and sacrifices which proved financially serious, with a
+view to accompany Sir R. Brownrigg to Ceylon, but the disturbed state of
+the island led to the abandonment of the projected expedition. In 1814
+he spent nine months in botanizing excursions in France, Switzerland and
+northern Italy, and in the following year he married the eldest daughter
+of Mr Dawson Turner, banker, of Yarmouth. Settling at Halesworth,
+Suffolk, he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which
+became of world-wide renown among botanists. In 1816 appeared the
+_British Jungermanniae_, his first scientific work, which was succeeded
+by a new edition of William Curtis's _Flora Londinensis_, for which he
+wrote the descriptions (1817-1828); by a description of the _Plantae
+cryptogamicae_ of A. von Humboldt and A. Bonpland; by the _Muscologia
+Britannica_, a very complete account of the mosses of Great Britain and
+Ireland, prepared in conjunction with Dr T. Taylor (1818); and by his
+_Musci exotici_ (2 vols., 1818-1820), devoted to new foreign mosses and
+other cryptogamic plants. In 1820 he accepted the regius professorship
+of botany in Glasgow University where he soon became popular as a
+lecturer, his style being both clear and ready. The following year he
+brought out the _Flora Scotica_, in which the natural method of
+arrangement of British plants was given with the artificial.
+Subsequently he prepared or edited many works, the more important being
+the following:--
+
+  _Botanical Illustrations_ (1822); _Exotic Flora_, indicating such of
+  the specimens as are deserving cultivation (3 vols., 1822-1827);
+  _Account of Sabine's Arctic Plants_ (1824); _Catalogue of Plants in
+  the Glasgow Botanic Garden_ (1825); the _Botany of Parry's Third
+  Voyage_ (1826); _The Botanical Magazine_ (38 vols., 1827-1865);
+  _Icones Filicum_, in concert with Dr R. K. Greville (2 vols.,
+  1829-1831); _British Flora_, of which several editions appeared,
+  undertaken with Dr G. A. W. Arnott, &c. (1830); _British Flora
+  Cryptogamia_ (1833); _Characters of Genera from the British Flora_
+  (1830); _Flora Boreali-Americana_ (2 vols., 1840), being the botany of
+  British North America collected in Sir J. Franklin's voyage; _The
+  Journal of Botany_ (4 vols., 1830-1842); _Companion to the Botanical
+  Magazine_ (2 vols., 1835-1836); _Icones plantarum_ (10 vols.,
+  1837-1854); the _Botany of Beechey's Voyage to the Pacific and
+  Behring's Straits_ (with Dr Arnott, 1841); the _Genera Filicum_
+  (1842), from the original coloured drawings of F. Bauer, with
+  additions and descriptive letterpress; _The London Journal of Botany_
+  (7 vols., 1842-1848); _Notes on the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of
+  the Erebus and Terror_ (1843); _Species filicum_ (5 vols., 1846-1864),
+  the standard work on this subject; _A Century of Orchideae_ (1846);
+  _Journal of Botany and Kew Garden Miscellany_ (9 vols., 1849-1857);
+  _Niger Flora_ (1849); _Victoria Regia_ (1851); _Museums of Economic
+  Botany at Kew_ (1855); _Filices exoticae_ (1857-1859); _The British
+  Ferns_ (1861-1862); _A Century of Ferns_ (1854); _A Second Century of
+  Ferns_ (1860-1861).
+
+It was mainly by Hooker's exertions that botanists were appointed to the
+government expeditions. While his works were in progress his herbarium
+received large and valuable additions from all parts of the globe, and
+his position as a botanist was thus vastly improved. He was made a
+knight of Hanover in 1836 and in 1841 he was appointed director of the
+Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, on the resignation of W. T. Aiton. Under
+his direction the gardens expanded from 11 to 75 acres, with an
+arboretum of 270 acres, many new glass-houses were erected, and a museum
+of economic botany was established. He was engaged on the _Synopsis
+filicum_ with J. G. Baker when he was attacked by a throat disease then
+epidemic at Kew, where he died on the 12th of August 1865.
+
+
+
+
+HOOLE, JOHN (1727-1803), English translator and dramatist, son of a
+watchmaker and machinist, Samuel Hoole, was born at Moorfields, London,
+in December 1727. He was educated at a private school at Hoddesdon,
+Hertfordshire, kept by James Bennet, who edited Ascham's English works.
+At the age of seventeen he became a clerk in the accountants' department
+of the East India House, and before 1767 became one of the auditors of
+Indian accounts. His leisure hours he devoted to the study of Latin and
+especially Italian, and began writing translations of the chief works of
+the Italian poets. He published translations of the _Jerusalem
+Delivered_ of Tasso in 1763, the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto in
+1773-1783, the _Dramas_ of Metastasio in 1767, and _Rinaldo_, an early
+work of Tasso, in 1792. Among his plays are: _Cyrus_ (1768), _Timanthes_
+(1770) and _Cleonice, Princess of Bithynia_ (1775), none of which
+achieved success. The verses of Hoole were praised by Johnson, with whom
+he was on terms of intimacy, but, though correct, smooth and flowing,
+they cannot be commended for any other merit. His translation of the
+_Orlando Furioso_ was superseded by the version (1823-1831) of W. S.
+Rose. Hoole was also the friend of the Quaker poet John Scott of Amwell
+(1730-1783), whose life he wrote; it was prefixed to Scott's _Critical
+Essays_ (1785). In 1773 he was promoted to be chief auditor of Indian
+accounts, an office which he resigned in 1785. In 1786 he retired to the
+parsonage of Abinger, Surrey; and afterwards lived at Tenterden, Kent,
+dying at Dorking on the 2nd of April 1803.
+
+  See _Anecdotes of the Life of the late Mr John Hoole_, by his
+  surviving brother, Samuel Hoole (London, 1803). Some of his plays are
+  reprinted in J. Bell's _British Theatre_ (1797).
+
+
+
+
+HOOLIGAN, the generally accepted modern term for a young street ruffian
+or rowdy. It seems to have been first applied to the young street
+ruffians of the South-East of London about 1890, but though popular in
+the district, did not attract general attention till later, when
+authentic information of its origin was lost, but it appears that the
+most probable source was a comic song which was popular in the
+lower-class music-hall in the late 'eighties or early 'nineties, which
+described the doings of a rowdy family named Hooligan (i.e. Irish
+Houlihan). A comic character with the same name also appears to have
+been the central figure in a series of adventures running through an
+obscure English comic paper of about the same date, and also in a
+similar New York paper, where his confrère in the adventures is a German
+named Schneider (see _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vol. ii. pp. 227
+and 316, 1898, and 10th series, vol. vii. p. 115, 1901). In other
+countries the "hooligan" finds his counterpart. The Parisian _Apache_,
+so self-styled after the North American Indian tribe, is a much more
+dangerous character; mere rowdyism, the characteristic of the English
+"hooligan," is replaced by murder, robbery and outrage. An equally
+dangerous class of young street ruffian is the "hoodlum" of the United
+States of America; this term arose in San Francisco in 1870, and thence
+spread. Many fanciful origins of the name have been given, for some of
+which see _Manchester (N.H.) Notes and Queries_, September 1883 (cited
+in the _New English Dictionary_). The "plug-ugly" of Baltimore is
+another name for the same class. More familiar is the Australian
+"larrikin," which apparently came into use about 1870 in Melbourne. The
+story that the word represents an Irish policeman's pronunciation of
+"larking" is a mere invention. It is probably only an adaptation of the
+Irish "Larry," short for Lawrence. Others suggest that it is a
+corruption of the slang _Leary Kinchen_, i.e. knowing, wide-awake child.
+
+
+
+
+HOOPER, JOHN (d. 1555), bishop of Gloucester and Worcester and martyr,
+was born in Somerset about the end of the 15th century and graduated
+B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He is said to have then entered the Cistercian
+monastery at Gloucester; but in 1538 a John Hooper appears among the
+names of the Black friars at Gloucester and also among the White friars
+at Bristol who surrendered their houses to the king. A John Hooper was
+likewise canon of Wormesley priory in Herefordshire; but identification
+of any of these with the future bishop is doubtful. The _Greyfriars'
+Chronicle_ says that Hooper was "sometime a white monk"; and in the
+sentence pronounced against him by Gardiner he is described as "_olim
+monachus de Cliva Ordinis Cisterciensis_," i.e. of the Cistercian house
+at Cleeve in Somerset. On the other hand, at his deprivation he was not
+accused, like the other married bishops who had been monks or friars, of
+infidelity to the vow of chastity; and his own letters to Bullinger are
+curiously reticent on this part of his history. He there speaks of
+himself as being the only son and heir of his father and as fearing to
+be deprived of his inheritance if he adopted the reformed religion.
+Before 1546 he had secured employment in the household of Sir Thomas
+Arundell, a man of influential connexions. Hooper speaks of himself at
+this period as being "a courtier and living too much of a court life in
+the palace of our king." But he chanced upon some of Zwingli's works and
+Bullinger's commentaries on St Paul's epistles; and after some
+molestation in England and some correspondence with Bullinger on the
+lawfulness of complying against his conscience with the established
+religion, he determined to secure what property he could and take refuge
+on the continent. He had an adventurous journey, being twice imprisoned,
+driven about for three months on the sea, and reaching Strassburg in the
+midst of the Schmalkaldic war. There he married Anne de Tserclaes, and
+later on he proceeded by way of Basle to Zürich, where his Zwinglian
+convictions were confirmed by constant intercourse with Zwingli's
+successor, Bullinger.
+
+It was not until May 1549, after he had published various works at
+Zürich, that Hooper again arrived in England. He at once became the
+principal champion of Swiss Protestantism against the Lutherans as well
+as the Catholics, and was appointed chaplain to Protector Somerset.
+Somerset's fall in the following October endangered Hooper's position,
+and for a time he was in hourly dread of imprisonment and martyrdom,
+more especially as he had taken a prominent part against Gardiner and
+Bonner, whose restoration to their sees was now anticipated. Warwick,
+afterwards duke of Northumberland, however, overcame the reactionaries
+in the Council, and early in 1550 the Reformation resumed its course.
+Hooper became Warwick's chaplain, and after a course of Lent lectures
+before the king he was offered the bishopric of Gloucester. This led to
+a prolonged controversy; Hooper had already denounced the "Aaronic
+vestments" and the oath by the saints prescribed in the new Ordinal; and
+he refused to be consecrated according to its rites. Cranmer, Ridley,
+Bucer and others urged him to submit in vain; confinement to his house
+by order of the Council proved equally ineffectual; and it was not until
+he had spent some weeks in the Fleet prison that the "father of
+nonconformity" consented to conform, and Hooper submitted to
+consecration with the legal ceremonies (March 8, 1551).
+
+Once seated in his bishopric Hooper set about his episcopal duties with
+exemplary vigour. His visitation of his diocese (printed in _English
+Hist. Rev._ Jan. 1904, pp. 98-121) revealed a condition of almost
+incredible ignorance among his clergy. Fewer than half could say the Ten
+Commandments; some could not even repeat the Lord's Prayer in English.
+Hooper did his best in the time at his disposal; but in less than a year
+the bishopric of Gloucester was reduced to an archdeaconry and added to
+Worcester, of which Hooper was made bishop in succession to Nicholas
+Heath (q.v.). He was opposed to Northumberland's plot for the exclusion
+of Mary from the throne; but this did not save him from speedy
+imprisonment. He was sent to the Fleet on the 1st of September 1553 on a
+doubtful charge of debt to the queen; but the real cause was his
+stanchness to a religion which was still by law established. Edward
+VI.'s legislation was, however, repealed in the following month, and in
+March 1554 Hooper was deprived of his bishopric as a married man. There
+was still no statute by which he could be condemned to the stake, but
+Hooper was kept in prison; and the revival of the heresy acts in
+December 1554 was swiftly followed by execution. On the 29th of January
+1555, Hooper, Rogers, Rowland Taylor and others were condemned by
+Gardiner and degraded by Bonner. Hooper was sent down to suffer at
+Gloucester, where he was burnt on the 9th of February, meeting his fate
+with steadfast courage and unshaken conviction.
+
+Hooper was the first of the bishops to suffer because his Zwinglian
+views placed him further beyond the pale than Cranmer, Ridley and
+Latimer. He represented the extreme reforming party in England. While he
+expressed dissatisfaction with some of Calvin's earlier writings, he
+approved of the _Consensus Tigurinus_ negotiated in 1549 between the
+Zwinglians and Calvinists of Switzerland; and it was this form of
+religion that he laboured to spread in England against the wishes of
+Cranmer, Ridley, Bucer, Peter Martyr and other more conservative
+theologians. He would have reduced episcopacy to narrow limits; and his
+views had considerable influence on the Puritans of Elizabeth's reign,
+when many editions of Hooper's various works were published.
+
+  Two volumes of Hooper's writings are included in the Parker Society's
+  publications and another edition appeared at Oxford in 1855. See also
+  Gough's General Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Strype's _Works_ (General
+  Index); Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_, ed. Townsend; _Acts of the Privy
+  Council; Cal. State Papers_, "Domestic" Series; Nichols's _Lit.
+  Remains of Edward VI._; Burner, Collier, Dixon, Froude and Gairdner's
+  histories; Pollard's _Cranmer; Dict. Nat. Biogr._     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HOOPOE (Fr. _Huppe_, Lat. _Upupa_, Gr. [Greek: epops]--all names
+bestowed apparently from its cry), a bird long celebrated in literature,
+and conspicuous by its variegated plumage and its large erectile
+crest,[1] the _Upupa epops_ of naturalists, which is the type of the
+very peculiar family _Upupidae_, placed by Huxley in his group
+_Coccygomorphae_, but considered by Dr Murie (_Ibis_, 1873, p. 208) to
+deserve separate rank as _Epopomorphae_. This species has an exceedingly
+wide range in the Old World, being a regular summer-visitant to the
+whole of Europe, in some parts of which it is abundant, as well as to
+Siberia, mostly retiring southwards in autumn to winter in equatorial
+Africa and India, though it would seem to be resident throughout the
+year in north-eastern Africa and in China. Its power of wing ordinarily
+seems to be feeble; but it is capable of very extended flight, as is
+testified by its wandering habits (for it occasionally makes its
+appearance in places very far removed from its usual haunts), and also
+by the fact that when pursued by a falcon it will rapidly mount to an
+extreme height and frequently effect its escape from the enemy. About
+the size of a thrush, with a long, pointed and slightly arched bill, its
+head and neck are of a golden-buff--the former adorned by the crest
+already mentioned, which begins to rise from the forehead and consists
+of broad feathers, gradually increasing in length, tipped with black and
+having a subterminal bar of yellowish-white. The upper part of the back
+is of a vinous-grey, and the scapulars and flight-feathers are black,
+broadly barred with white tinged in the former with buff. The tail is
+black with a white chevron, marking off about the distal third part of
+its length. The legs and feet are as well adapted for running or walking
+as for perching, and the scutellations are continued round the whole of
+the tarsi. Chiefly on account of this character, which is also possessed
+by the larks, Sundevall (_Tentamen_, pp. 53-55) united the _Upupidae_
+and _Alaudidae_ in the same "cohors" _Holaspideae_. Comparative anatomy,
+however, forbids its being taken to signify any real affinity between
+these groups, and the resemblance on this point, which is by no means so
+striking as that displayed by the form of the bill and the coloration in
+certain larks (of the genus _Certhilauda_, for instance), must be
+ascribed to analogy merely.
+
+[Illustration: Hoopoe.]
+
+Pleasing as is the appearance of the hoopoe as it fearlessly parades its
+showy plumage, some of its habits are much the reverse. All observers
+agree in stating that it delights to find its food among filth of the
+most abominable description, and this especially in its winter-quarters.
+But where it breeds, its nest, usually in the hole of a tree or of a
+wall, is not only partly composed of the foulest material, but its
+condition becomes worse as incubation proceeds, for the hen scarcely
+ever leaves her eggs, being assiduously fed by the cock as she sits; and
+when the young are hatched, their faeces are not removed by their
+parents,[2] as is the case with most birds, but are discharged in the
+immediate neighbourhood of the nest, the unsanitary condition of which
+can readily be imagined. Worms, grubs, and insects generally form the
+hoopoes' food, and upon it they get so fat in autumn that they are
+esteemed a delicate morsel in some of the countries of southern Europe,
+and especially by the Christian population of Constantinople.[3]
+
+Not a year passes but the hoopoe makes its appearance in some part or
+other of the British Islands, most often in spring, and if unmolested
+would doubtless stop to breed in them, and a few instances are known in
+which it has done so. But its remarkable plumage always attracts
+attention, and it is generally shot down so soon as it is seen, and
+before it has time to begin a nest. Eight or nine so-called species of
+the genus have been described, but of them the existence of five only
+has been recognized by Sharpe and Dresser (_Birds of Europe_, pt. vii.).
+Besides the _Upupa epops_ above treated, these are _U. indica_, resident
+in India and Ceylon; _U. longirostris_, which seems to be the form of
+the Indo-Chinese countries; _U. marginata_, peculiar to Madagascar; and
+_U. africana_ or _U. minor_ of some writers, which inhabits South Africa
+to the Zambesi on the east and Benguela on the west coast. In habits and
+appearance they all resemble the best-known and most widely-spread
+species.[4]     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Hence the secondary meaning of the French word _huppe_--a crest
+    or tuft (cf. Littré, _Dict. français_, i. 2067).
+
+  [2] This indeed is denied by Naumann, but by him alone, and the
+    statement in the text is confirmed by many eye-witnesses.
+
+  [3] Under the name of _Dukipath_, in the authorized version of the
+    Bible translated "lapwing" (Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18), the hoopoe
+    was accounted unclean by the Jewish law. Arabs have a great reverence
+    for the bird, imparting to it marvellous medicinal and other
+    qualities, and making use of its head in all their charms (cf.
+    Tristram, _Nat. Hist. of the Bible_, pp. 208, 209).
+
+  [4] The genera _Rhinopomastus_ and _Irrisor_ are generally placed in
+    the Family _Upupidae_, but Dr Murie, after an exhaustive examination
+    of their osteology, regards them as forming a group of equal value.
+
+
+
+
+HOORN, a seaport in the province of North Holland, Holland, on a bay of
+the Zuider Zee called the Hoornerhop, and a junction station 23½ m. by
+rail N. by E. of Amsterdam, on the railway to Enkhuizen, with which it
+is also connected by steam tramway. Pop. (1900) 10,647. Hoorn is
+distinguished by its old-world air and the beauty and interest of its
+numerous gabled houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these are
+decorated with inscriptions and bas-reliefs, some of which commemorate
+the battle on the Zuider Zee in 1573, in which the Beggars defeated the
+Spaniards under Count Bossu. Walks and gardens now surround the town in
+the place of the old city walls, but a few towers and gateways adorned
+with various old coats of arms are still standing. The fine Gothic
+bastion tower overlooking the harbour was built in 1532; the East gate
+not later than 1578. Among the public buildings of special interest are
+the picturesque St John's hospital (1563), now used for military
+purposes; the old mint; the hospital for aged men and women (beginning
+of 17th century); the weigh-house (1609); the town hall, in which the
+states of West Friesland formerly met; and the old court-house, which
+dates from the beginning of the 17th century, though parts of it are
+older, containing a modern museum and some early portraits. There are
+also various charitable and educational institutions, Protestant and
+Roman Catholic churches and a synagogue. The extensive foreign commerce
+which Hoorn carried on in the 16th and 17th centuries has almost
+entirely vanished, but there is still a considerable trade with other
+parts of the Netherlands, especially in cheese and cattle. The chief
+industries include gold and silver work, and there are also tobacco
+factories, saw-mills and some small boat-building yards, a considerable
+number of vessels being engaged in the Zuider Zee fisheries.
+
+Hoorn, latinized as _Horna_ or _Hornum_, has existed at least from the
+first part of the 14th century, as it is mentioned in a document of the
+year 1311, five years earlier than the date usually assigned for its
+foundation. In 1356 it received municipal privileges from Count William
+V. of Holland, and in 1426 it was surrounded with walls. It was at Hoorn
+in 1416 that the first great net was made for the herring fishery, an
+industry which long proved an abundant source of wealth to the town.
+During the 15th century Hoorn shared in the troubles occasioned by the
+different contending factions; in 1569 the Spanish forces entered the
+town; but in 1572 it cast in its lot with the states of the Netherlands.
+In the 16th century it was a commercial centre, important for its trade,
+fisheries and breweries. A company of commerce and navigation was formed
+at Hoorn in 1720, and the admiralty offices and storehouses remained
+here until their removal to Medemblik in 1795. The English under Sir
+Ralph Abercromby took possession of the town in 1799, and in 1811 it
+suffered severely from the French. Among the celebrities of Hoorn are
+William Schouten, who discovered in 1616 the passage round Cape Horn, or
+Hoorn, as he named it in honour of his birthplace; Abel Janszoon Tasman,
+whose fame is associated with Tasmania; and Jan Pietersz Coen,
+governor-general of the Dutch East Indies.
+
+
+
+
+HOOSICK FALLS, a village of Rensselaer county, New York, U.S.A., in the
+township of Hoosick, 27 m. N.E. of Troy, on the Hoosick river. Pop. of
+the village (1890) 7014; (1900) 5671, of whom 1092 were foreign-born;
+(1905) 5251; (1910) 5532; of the township (1900) 8631; (1910) 8315.
+Hoosick Falls is served by the Boston & Maine Railroad, and is connected
+by electric railway with Bennington, Vermont, about 8 m. E. The falls of
+the Hoosick river furnish water-power for the manufacture of
+agricultural machinery by the Walter A. Wood Mowing and Reaping Machine
+Co., which dates from 1866, the business having been started in 1852 by
+Walter Abbott Wood (1815-1892), who was a Republican representative in
+Congress in 1879-1883. Other manufactures are knit goods, shirts and
+collars and paper-making machinery. Hoosick Falls was settled about 1688
+by Dutch settlers--settlers from Connecticut and Massachusetts came
+after 1763--and it was first incorporated in 1827. Three miles N.E. of
+the village, at Walloomsac, in the township of Hoosick, the battle of
+Bennington was fought, on the 16th of August 1777.
+
+
+
+
+HOP (Ger. _Hopfen_, Fr. _houblon_), _Humulus Lupulus_, L., an herbaceous
+twining plant, belonging to the natural order Cannabinaceae, which is by
+some botanists included in the larger group called Urticaceae by
+Endlicher. It is of common occurrence in hedges and thickets in the
+southern counties of England, but is believed not to be native in
+Scotland. On the European continent it is distributed from Greece to
+Scandinavia, and extends through the Caucasus and Central Asia to the
+Altai Mountains. It is common, but doubtfully indigenous, in the
+northern and western states of North America, and has been introduced
+into Brazil, Australia and the Himalayas.
+
+It is a perennial plant, producing annually several long twining
+roughish striated stems, which twist from left to right, are often 15 to
+20 ft. long and climb freely over hedges and bushes. The roughness of
+stem and leaves is due to lines of strong hooked hairs, which help the
+plant to cling to its support. The leaves are stalked, opposite, 3-5
+lobed, and coarsely serrate, and bear a general resemblance to those of
+the vine, but are, as well as the whole plant, rough to the touch; the
+upper leaves are sometimes scarcely divided, or quite entire. The
+stipules are between the leaf-stalks, each consisting of two lateral
+ones united, or rarely with the tips free. The male and female flowers
+are produced on distinct plants. The male inflorescence (fig. 1, A)
+forms a panicle; the flowers consist of a small greenish five-parted
+perianth (a) enclosing five stamens, whose anthers (b) open by terminal
+slits. The female inflorescence (fig. 1, B) is less conspicuous in the
+young state. The catkin or strobile consists of a number of small acute
+bracts, with two sessile ovaries at their base, each subtended by a
+rounded bractlet (c). Both the bracts and bractlets enlarge greatly
+during the development of the ovary, and form, when fully grown, the
+membranous scales of the strobile (fig. 2, _a_); they are known as
+"petals" by hop-growers. The bracts can then only be distinguished from
+the bractlets by being rather more acute and more strongly veined. The
+perianth (fig. 1, _d_) is short, cup-shaped, undivided and closely
+applied to the ovary, which it ultimately encloses. In the young
+strobile the two purple hairy styles (e) of each ovary project beyond
+the bracts. The ovary contains a single ovule (fig. 1. _f_) which
+becomes in the fruit an exalbuminous seed, containing a spirally-coiled
+embryo (fig. 2, _b_). The light dusty pollen is carried by the wind from
+the male to the female flowers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Male (A) and Female (B) Inflorescence of the
+Hop.]
+
+The ovary and the base of the bracts are covered with a yellowish
+powder, consisting of minute sessile grains, called lupulin or lupulinic
+glands. These glands (fig. 2, _c_) are from 1/260 to 1/140 in. in
+diameter, like flattened subovate little saucers in shape, and attached
+to a short pedicel. The upper or hemispherical portion bears a delicate
+continuous membrane, the cuticle, which becomes raised by the secretion
+beneath it of the yellowish lupulin. The stalk is not perceptible in the
+gland as found in commerce. When fresh the gland is seen to be filled
+with a yellowish or dark brown liquid; this on drying contracts in bulk
+and forms a central mass. It is to these lupulinic glands that the
+medicinal properties of the hop are chiefly due. By careful sifting
+about 1 oz. may be obtained from 1 lb. of hops, but the East Kent
+variety is said to yield more than the Sussex hops.
+
+In hop gardens a few male plants, usually three or four to an acre, are
+sometimes planted, that number being deemed sufficient to fertilize the
+female flowers. The blossoms are produced in August, and the strobiles
+are fit for gathering from the beginning of September to the middle of
+October, according to the weather.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Fruit of Hop.]
+
+The cultivation of hops for use in the manufacture of beer dates from an
+early period. In the 8th and 9th centuries hop gardens, called
+"humularia" or "humuleta," existed in France and Germany. Until the 16th
+century, however, hops appear to have been grown in a very fitful
+manner, and to a limited extent, generally only for private consumption;
+but after the beginning of the 17th century the cultivation increased
+rapidly. The plant was introduced into England from Flanders in 1525;
+and in America its cultivation was encouraged by legislative enactments
+in 1657. Formerly several plants were used as well as hops to season
+ale, hence the name "alehoof" for _Nepeta Glechoma_, and "alecost" for
+_Balsamita vulgaris_. The sweet gale, _Myrica Gale_, and the sage,
+_Salvia officinalis_, were also similarly employed. Various hop
+substitutes, in the form of powder, have been offered in commerce of
+late years, most of which appear to have quassia as a chief ingredient.
+The young tender tops of the hop are in Belgium cut off in spring and
+eaten like asparagus, and are forced from December to February.
+
+  _Medical Use._--The principal constituents of the strobiles are
+  _lupulin_, one of the few liquid alkaloids; _lupulinic acid_, a bitter
+  crystalline body, soluble in ether, which is without any other
+  pharmacological action than that common to bitter substances;
+  _Valerol_, a volatile oil which in old hops undergoes a change to the
+  malodorous body valerianic acid; resin; trimethylamine; a peculiar
+  modification of tannin known as _humulotannic acid_; and a
+  sesqui-terpene. The British pharmacopoeia contains two preparations of
+  the strobiles,--an infusion (dose, 1-2 oz.) and a tincture (dose, ½-1
+  drachm). The glands obtained from the strobiles are known in pharmacy
+  as lupulin, a name which tends to confusion with that of the alkaloid.
+  They occur in commerce as a bright yellow-brown powder, seen under a
+  lens to consist of minute glandular particles. The dose of this
+  so-called lupulin is 2-5 grains. From it there is prepared the
+  Tinctura Lupulinae of the United States pharmacopoeia, which is given
+  in doses of 10-60 minims. Furthermore, there are prepared hop pillows,
+  designed to procure sleep; but these act, when at all, mainly by
+  suggestion. The pharmacological action of hops is determined first by
+  the volatile oil they contain, which has the actions of its class.
+  Similarly the lupulinic acid may act as a bitter tonic. The
+  preparations of hops, when taken internally, are frequently hypnotic,
+  though unfortunately different specimens vary considerably in
+  composition, none of the preparations being standardized. It is by no
+  means certain whether the hypnotic action of hops is due to the
+  alkaloid lupulin or possibly to the volatile oil which they contain.
+  Medical practice, however, is acquainted with many more trustworthy
+  and equally safe hypnotics. The bitter acid of hops may endow beer
+  containing it with a certain value in cases of impaired gastric
+  digestion, and to the hypnotic principle of hops may partly be
+  ascribed--as well as to the alcohol--the soporific action of beer in
+  the case of some individuals.
+
+
+HOP PRODUCTION IN ENGLAND[1]
+
+The cultivation of hops in the British Isles is restricted to England,
+where it is practically confined to half-a-dozen counties--four in the
+south-eastern and two in the west-midland districts. In 1901 the English
+crop was reported by the Board of Agriculture to occupy 51,127 acres.
+The official returns as to acreage do not extend back beyond 1868, in
+which year the total area was reported to be 64,488 acres. The largest
+area recorded since then was 71,789 acres in 1878; the smallest was
+44,938 acres in 1907. The extent to which the areas of hops in the chief
+hop-growing counties vary from year to year is sufficiently indicated in
+Table I., which shows the annual acreages over a period of thirteen
+years, 1895 to 1907. The proportions in which the acres of hops are
+distributed amongst the counties concerned vary but little year by year,
+and as a rule over 60% belongs to Kent.
+
+  TABLE I.--_Hop Areas of England 1895 to 1907. Acres._
+
+  +------+--------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+  |      |  Kent. |Hereford.|Sussex.|Worcester.|Hants.|Surrey.|
+  +------+--------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+  | 1895 | 35,018 |  7553   |  7489 |   4024   | 2875 | 1783  |
+  | 1896 | 33,300 |  6895   |  5908 |   3800   | 2494 | 1623  |
+  | 1897 | 31,661 |  6542   |  5174 |   3591   | 2306 | 1416  |
+  | 1898 | 30,941 |  6651   |  4829 |   3567   | 2263 | 1313  |
+  | 1899 | 31,988 |  7227   |  4949 |   3788   | 2319 | 1388  |
+  | 1900 | 31,514 |  7287   |  4823 |   3964   | 2231 | 1300  |
+  | 1901 | 31,242 |  7497   |  4800 |   4029   | 2133 | 1232  |
+  | 1902 | 29,649 |  6915   |  4541 |   3779   | 2003 |  969  |
+  | 1903 | 29,933 |  6851   |  4454 |   3697   | 1920 |  901  |
+  | 1904 | 29,841 |  6767   |  4474 |   3752   | 1900 |  877  |
+  | 1905 | 30,655 |  6851   |  4647 |   3807   | 1978 |  843  |
+  | 1906 | 29,296 |  6481   |  4379 |   3672   | 1939 |  777  |
+  | 1907 | 28,169 |  6143   |  4243 |   3622   | 1842 |  744  |
+  +------+--------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+
+Less than 200 acres in all are annually grown in the other hop-growing
+counties of England, these being Shropshire, Gloucestershire and
+Suffolk.
+
+The average yield per acre in cwt. in the six counties during the decade
+1897 to 1906 was as follows:--
+
+  TABLE II.
+
+  +------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+  | Kent.|Hereford.|Sussex.|Worcester.|Hants.|Surrey.|
+  +------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+  | 9.31 |  7.14   |  9.41 |   7.79   | 8.78 |  7.23 |
+  +------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+
+Table III. shows the average acreage, yield and total home produce of
+England during the decades 1888-1897 and 1898-1907.
+
+  TABLE III.
+
+  +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |           |Average Annual|Average Annual|Average Annual|
+  |  Periods. |   Acreage.   |Yield per acre| Home Produce |
+  |           |              |    (cwt.).   |   (cwt.).    |
+  +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+  | 1888-1897 |    56,370    |     7.76     |    438,215   |
+  | 1898-1907 |    48,841    |     8.84     |    434,567   |
+  +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+The wide fluctuations in the home production of hops are worthy of note,
+as they exercise a powerful influence upon market prices. The largest
+crop between 1885, the first year in which figures relating to
+production were collected, and 1907 was that of 776,144 cwt. in 1886,
+and the smallest that of 281,291 cwt. in 1888, the former being more
+than 2½ times the size of the latter. The crop of 1899, estimated at
+661,373 cwt., was so large that prices receded to an extent such as to
+leave no margin of profit to the great body of growers, whilst some
+planters were able to market the crop only at a loss. The calculated
+annual average yields per acre over the years 1885 to 1907 ranged
+between 12.76 cwt. in 1899 and 4.81 cwt. in 1888. No other staple crop
+of British agriculture undergoes such wide fluctuations in yield as are
+here indicated, the size of the crop produced bearing no relation to the
+acreage under cultivation. For example, the 71,327 acres in 1885
+produced only 509,170 cwt., whereas the 51,843 acres in 1899 produced
+661,373 cwt.--19,484 acres less under crop yielded 152,203 cwt. more
+produce.
+
+Comparing the quantities of home-grown hops with those of imported hops,
+of the total available for consumption about 70% on the average is home
+produce and about 30% is imported produce. The imports, however, do not
+vary so much as the home produce. Table IV. shows the average quantity
+of imports to and exports (home-grown) from Great Britain during the
+decades 1877-1886, 1887-1896 and 1897-1906.
+
+  TABLE IV.
+
+  +-----------+---------------+---------------+
+  |  Periods. |Annual Average |Annual Average |
+  |           |Imports (cwt.).|Exports (cwt.).|
+  +-----------+---------------+---------------+
+  | 1877-1886 |    215,219    |    10,805     |
+  | 1887-1896 |    194,966    |     9,437     |
+  | 1897-1906 |    186,362    |    14,808     |
+  +-----------+---------------+---------------+
+
+The highest and lowest imports were 266,952 cwt. in 1885 and 145,122
+cwt. in 1887, the latter in the year following the biggest home-grown
+crop on record. On a series of years the largest proportion of imports
+is from the United States.
+
+During the twenty-five years 1881-1905 the annual values of the hops
+imported into England fluctuated between the wide limits of £2,962,631
+in 1882 and £427,753 in 1887. In five other years besides 1882 the value
+exceeded a million sterling. The annual average value over the whole
+period was £921,000, whilst the annual average import was 194,000 cwt.,
+consequently the average value per cwt. was nearly £4, 15s., which is
+approximately the same as that of the exported product. The quantities
+and values of the imported hops that are again exported are almost
+insignificant.
+
+
+HOP PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+The distribution of the area of hop-cultivation in the United States
+showed great changes during the last decades of the 19th and the first
+decade of the 20th century. During the earlier portion of that period
+New York was the chief hop-growing state of the Union, but toward the
+end of it a great extension of hop-growing took place on the Pacific
+coast (in the states of Oregon, California and Washington), where the
+richness of the soil and mildness of the climate are favourable to the
+bines.
+
+The average annual produce of hops in the United States from 1900 to
+1906 was 423,471 cwt.; of this quantity 80% was raised in the three
+states of the Pacific coast, where the yield per acre is much larger
+than in New York. In the latter state the yield does not appear to
+exceed 5 or 6 cwt. per acre, whereas in Oregon it is 9 or 10 cwt., and
+in Washington and California from 12 to 14 cwt. The average annual
+export (chiefly to Great Britain) in the years from 1899 to 1905 was
+108,400 cwt.; the average import (chiefly from Germany) is about 50,000
+cwt.
+
+
+HOP CULTIVATION
+
+As the county of Kent has always taken the lead in hop-growing in
+England, and as it includes about two-thirds of the hop acreage of the
+British Isles, the recent developments in hop cultivation cannot be
+better studied than in that county. They were well summarized by Mr
+Charles Whitehead in his sketch of the agriculture of Kent,[2] wherein
+he states that the hop grounds--or hop gardens, as they are called in
+Kent--of poor character and least suitable for hop production have been
+gradually grubbed since 1894, on account of large crops, the importation
+of hops and low prices. At the beginning of the 19th century there were
+290 parishes in Kent in which hops were cultivated. A century later, out
+of the 413 parishes in the county, as many as 331 included hop
+plantations. The hops grown in Kent are classified in the markets as
+"East Kents," "Bastard East Kents," "Mid Kents" and "Wealds," according
+to the district of the county in which they are produced. The relative
+values of these four divisions follow in the same order, East Kents
+making the highest and Wealds the lowest rates. These divisions agree in
+the main with those defined by geological formations. Thus, "East Kents"
+are grown upon the Chalk, and especially on the outcrop of the soils of
+the London Tertiaries upon the Chalk. "Bastard East Kents" are produced
+on alluvial soil and soils formed by admixtures of loam, clay-loams,
+chalk, marl and clay from the Gault, Greensand and Chalk formations.
+"Mid Kents" are derived principally from the Greensand soils and
+outcrops of the London Tertiaries in the upper part of the district.
+"Wealds" come from soils on the Weald Clay, Hastings Sand and Tunbridge
+Wells Sand. As each "pocket" of hops must be marked with the owner's
+name and the parish in which they were grown, buyers of hops can,
+without much trouble, ascertain from which of the four divisions hops
+come, especially if they have the map of the hop-growing parishes of
+England, which gives the name of each parish. There has been a
+considerable rearrangement of the hop plantations in Kent within recent
+years. Common varieties as Colegate's, Jones's, Grapes and Prolifics
+have been grubbed, and Goldings, Bramlings and other choice kinds
+planted in their places. The variety known as Fuggle's, a heavy-cropping
+though slightly coarse hop, has been much planted in the Weald of Kent,
+and in parts of Mid Kent where the soil is suitable. In very old hop
+gardens, where there has been no change of plant for fifty or even one
+hundred years in some instances, except from the gradual process of
+filling up the places of plants that have died, there has been
+replanting with better varieties and varieties ripening in more
+convenient succession; and, generally speaking, the plantations have
+been levelled up in this respect to suit the demand for bright hops of
+fine quality. A recent classification[3] of the varieties of English
+hops arranges them in three groups: (1) early varieties (e.g. Prolific,
+Bramling, Amos's Early Bird); (2) mid-season or main-crop varieties
+(e.g. Farnham Whitebine, Fuggle's, Old Jones's, Golding); (3) late
+varieties (e.g. Grapes, Colgate's).
+
+The cost of cultivating and preparing the produce of an acre of hop land
+tends to increase, on account of the advancing rates of wages, the
+intense cultivation more and more essential, and the necessity of
+freeing the plants from the persistent attacks of insects and fungi. In
+1893 Mr Whitehead estimated the average annual cost of an acre of hop
+land to be £35, 10s., the following being the items:--
+
+  Manure (winter and summer)                        £6 10 0
+  Digging                                            0 19 0
+  Dressing (or cutting)                              0  6 0
+  Poling, tying, earthing, ladder-tying, stringing,
+    lewing                                           2  3 0
+  Shimming, nidgeting, digging round and hoeing
+    hills                                            3  0 0
+  Stacking, stripping, making; bines, &c.            0 17 0
+  Annual renewal of poles                            2 10 0
+  Expense of picking, drying, packing, carriage,
+    sampling, selling, &c., on average crop of,
+    say, 7 cwt. per acre                            10  5 0
+  Rent, rates, taxes, repairs of oast and tacks,
+    interest on capital                              6  0 0
+  Sulphuring                                         1  0 0
+  Washing (often two, three or four times)           2  0 0
+                                                   --------
+                             Total                 £35 10 0
+
+Seven years later the average cost per acre in Kent had risen to quite
+£37.
+
+The hops in Kent are usually planted in October or November, the plants
+being 6 ft. apart each way, thus giving 1210 hills or plant-centres per
+acre. Some planters still grow potatoes or mangels between the rows the
+first year, as the plants do not bear much until the second year; but
+this is considered to be a mistake, as it encourages wire-worm and
+exhausts the ground. Many planters pole hop plants the first year with a
+single short pole, and stretch coco-nut-fibre string from pole to pole,
+and grow many hops in the first season. Much of the hop land is ploughed
+between the rows, as labour is scarce, and the spaces between are dug
+afterwards. It is far better to dig hop land if possible, the tool used
+being the Kent spud. The cost of digging an acre ranges from 18s. to
+21s. Hop land is ploughed or dug between November and March. After this
+the plants are "dressed," which means that all the old bine ends are cut
+off with a sharp curved hop-knife, and the plant centres kept level with
+the ground.
+
+  _Manuring._--Manure is applied in the winter, and dug or ploughed in.
+  London manure from stables is used to an enormous extent. It comes by
+  barge or rail, and is brought from the wharves and stations by
+  traction engines; it costs from 7s. 6d. to 9s. per load. Rags, fur
+  waste, sprats, wool waste and shoddy are also put on in the winter. In
+  the summer, rape dust, guano, nitrate of soda and various patent hop
+  manures are chopped in with the Canterbury hoe. Fish guano or
+  desiccated fish is largely used; it is very stimulating and more
+  lasting than some of the other forcing manures.
+
+  The recent investigations into the subject of hop-manuring made by Dr
+  Bernard Dyer and Mr F. W. E. Shrivell, at Golden Green, near
+  Tonbridge, Kent, are of interest. In the 1901 report[4] it was stated
+  that the object in view was to ascertain how far nitrate of soda, in
+  the presence of an abundant supply of phosphates and potash, is
+  capable of being advantageously used as a source of nitrogenous food
+  for hops. An idea long persisted among hop-growers that nitrate of
+  soda was an unsafe manure for hops, being likely to produce rank
+  growth of bine at the expense of quality and even quantity of hops.
+  During recent years, however, owing very largely to the results of
+  these experiments, and of corresponding experiments based upon these,
+  which have been carried out abroad, hop farmers have much more freely
+  availed themselves of the aid of this useful manure; and there is
+  little doubt that the distrust of nitrate of soda as a hop manure
+  which has existed in the past has been largely due to the fact that
+  nitrate of soda, like many other nitrogenous manures, has often been
+  misused (1) by being applied without a sufficient quantity of
+  phosphates and potash, or (2) by being applied too abundantly, or (3)
+  by being applied too late in the season, with the result of unduly
+  delaying the ripening period. On most of the experimental plots
+  nitrate of soda (in conjunction with phosphates and potash) has been
+  used as the sole source of nitrogen; but it is, of course, not be to
+  supposed that any hop-grower would use year after year, as is the case
+  on some of the plots, nothing but phosphates, potash and nitrate of
+  soda. Miscellaneous feeding is probably good for plants as well as for
+  animals, and there is a large variety of nitrogenous manures at the
+  disposal of the hop-farmer, to say nothing of what, in its place, is
+  one of the most valuable of all manures, namely, home-made dung. These
+  experiments were begun in 1894 with a new garden of young Fuggle's
+  hops. A series of experimental plots was marked out, each plot being
+  one-sixth of an acre in area. The plots run parallel with one another,
+  there being four rows of hills in each. The climate of the district is
+  very dry.
+
+    _Weight of Kiln-dried Fuggle's Hops per Acre._
+
+    +-----+-------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+-------+
+    |     |                         |    |    |    |    |    |Average|
+    |Plot.|Annual Manuring per Acre.|1896|1897|1898|1899|1900|  of 5 |
+    |     |                         |    |    |    |    |    | Years.|
+    +-----+-------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+-------+
+    |     |                         |Cwt.|Cwt.|Cwt.|Cwt.|Cwt.|  Cwt. |
+    |  A  |Phosphates and potash    |13½ | 7½ | 8¼ |20¼ | 8  |  11½  |
+    |  B  |Phosphates, potash and   |    |    |    |    |    |       |
+    |     | 2 cwt. nitrate of soda  |16½ | 9¼ |10¼ |22¼ | 9¾ |  13½  |
+    |  C  |Phosphates, potash and   |    |    |    |    |    |       |
+    |     | 4 cwt. nitrate of soda  |16½ |12  |12½ |23  |11  |  15   |
+    |  D  |Phosphates, potash and   |    |    |    |    |    |       |
+    |     | 6 cwt. nitrate of soda  |15¼ |13  |13  |22½ |10½ |  14¾  |
+    |  E  |Phosphates, potash and   |    |    |    |    |    |       |
+    |     | 8 cwt. nitrate of soda  |15  |13½ |15¼ |23½ |11  |  15½  |
+    |  F  |Phosphates, potash and   |    |    |    |    |    |       |
+    |     | 10 cwt. nitrate of soda |15  |13  |15  |24½ |10½ |  15¾  |
+    |  X  |30 loads (about 15 tons) |    |    |    |    |    |       |
+    |     | London dung             |13  | 8  | 9¾ |24½ |10¾ |  13¾  |
+    +-----+-------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+-------+
+
+  The table given above shows the annual yield of hops per acre on each
+  plot, and also the average for each plot over the five years
+  1896-1900.
+
+  The general results seem to show that the purchase of town dung for
+  hops is not economical, unless under specially favourable terms as to
+  cost of conveyance, and that it should certainly not be relied upon as
+  a sufficient manure. Home-made dung is in quite a different position,
+  as not only is it richer, but it costs nothing for railway carriage.
+  As a source of nitrogenous manure, purchased dung is on the whole too
+  expensive. There is a large variety of other nitrogenous manures in
+  the market besides nitrate of soda, such, for instance as Peruvian and
+  Damaraland guano, sulphate of ammonia, fish guano, dried blood, rape
+  dust, furriers' refuse, horn shavings, hoof parings, wool dust,
+  shoddy, &c. All of these may in turn be used for helping to maintain a
+  stock of nitrogen in the soil; and the degree to which manures of this
+  kind have been recently applied in any hop garden will influence the
+  grower in deciding as to the quantity of nitrate of soda he should use
+  in conjunction with them, and also to some extent in fixing the date
+  of its application.
+
+  Dressings of 8 or 10 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre, such as are
+  applied annually to plots E and F, would be larger than would be put
+  on where the land has been already dressed with dung or with other
+  nitrogenous manures; and even, in the circumstances under notice,
+  although these plots have on the average beaten the others in weight,
+  the hops in some seasons have been distinctly coarser than those more
+  moderately manured--though in the dry season of 1899 the most heavily
+  dressed plot gave actually the best quality as well as the greatest
+  quantity of produce.
+
+  With regard to the application of nitrate of soda in case the season
+  should turn out to be wet, present experience indicates that, on a
+  soil otherwise liberally manured, 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre
+  applied not too late, would be a thoroughly safe dressing. In the
+  case of neither dung nor any other nitrogenous fertilizers having been
+  recently applied, there seems no reason for supposing that, even in a
+  wet season, 6 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre applied early would be
+  otherwise than a safe dressing, considering both quantity and quality
+  of produce. In conjunction with dung, or with the early use of other
+  nitrogenous manures, such as fish, guano, rape dust, &c. it would
+  probably be wise not to exceed 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre.
+
+  As to the date of application, April or May is the latest time at
+  which nitrate of soda should, in most circumstances, be applied, and
+  probably April is preferable to May. The quantity used should be
+  applied in separate dressings of not more than 2 cwt. per acre each,
+  put on at intervals of a month. Where the quantity of nitrate of soda
+  used is large, and constitutes the whole of the nitrogenous manure
+  employed, the first dressing may, on fairly deep and retentive soils,
+  be given as early as January; or, if the quantity used is smaller, say
+  in February; while February will, in most cases, probably be early
+  enough for the first dressing in the case of lighter soils. The
+  condition of the soil and the degree and distribution of rainfall
+  during both the previous autumn and the winter, as well as in the
+  spring itself, produce such varying conditions that it is almost
+  impossible to frame general rules.
+
+  The commonly accepted notion that nitrate of soda is a manure which
+  should be reserved for use during the later period of the growth of
+  the bine appears to be erroneous. The summer months, when the growth
+  of the bine is most active, are the months in which natural
+  nitrification is going on in the soil, converting soil nitrogen and
+  the nitrogen of dung, guano, fish, rape dust, shoddy or other
+  fertilizers into nitrates, and placing this nitrogen at the disposal
+  of the plants; and it appears reasonable, therefore, to suppose that
+  nitrate of soda will be most useful to the hops at the earlier stages
+  of their growth, before the products of that nitrification become
+  abundant. This would especially be so in a season immediately
+  following a wet autumn and winter, which have the effect of washing
+  away into the drains the residual nitrates not utilized by the
+  previous crop.
+
+  The necessity, whether dung is used or not, and whatever form of
+  nitrogenous manure is employed, of also supplying the hops with an
+  abundance of phosphates, cannot be too strongly urged. The use of
+  phosphates for hops was long neglected by hop-planters, and even now
+  there are many growers who do not realize the full importance of heavy
+  phosphatic manuring. On soils containing an abundance of lime no
+  better or cheaper phosphatic manure can be used than ordinary
+  superphosphate, of which as much as 10 cwt. per acre may be applied
+  without the slightest fear of harm. But if the soil is not decidedly
+  calcareous--that is to say, if it does not effervesce when it is
+  stirred up with some diluted hydrochloric (muriatic) acid--bone dust,
+  phosphatic guano or basic slag should be used as a source of
+  phosphates, at the rate of not less than 10 cwt. per acre. On medium
+  soils, which, without being distinctly calcareous, nevertheless
+  contain a just appreciable quantity of carbonate of lime, it is
+  probably a good plan to use the latter class of manures, alternately
+  with superphosphate, year and year about; but it is wise policy to use
+  phosphates _in some form or other_ every year in every hop garden.
+  They are inexpensive, and without them neither dung, nitrate of soda,
+  ammonia salts nor organic manures can be expected to produce both a
+  full vigorous growth of bine and at the same time a well-matured crop
+  of full-weighted, well-conditioned hops.
+
+  The use of potash salts, on most soils, is probably not needed when
+  good dung is freely used; but where this is not the case it is safer
+  in most seasons and on most soils to give a dressing of potash salts.
+  On some soils their aid should on no account be dispensed with.
+
+  Experiments in hop-manuring have also been conducted in connexion with
+  the South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. The main results
+  have been to demonstrate the necessity of a liberal supply of
+  phosphates, if the full benefit is to be reaped from applications of
+  nitrogenous manure.
+
+_Tying, Poling and Picking._--Tying the bines to the poles or strings is
+essentially women's work. It was formerly always piecework, each woman
+taking so many acres to tie, but it is found better to pay the women 1s.
+8d. to 2s. per day, that they may all work together, and tie the plants
+in those grounds where they want tying at once. The new modes of poling
+and training hop plants have also altered the conditions of tying.
+
+Many improvements have been made in the methods of poling and training
+hops. Formerly two or three poles were placed to each hop-hill or
+plant-centre in the spring, and removed in the winter, and this was the
+only mode of training. Recently systems of training on wires and strings
+fastened to permanent upright poles have been introduced. One
+arrangement of wires and strings much adopted consists of stout posts
+set at the end of every row of hop-hills and fastened with stays to keep
+them in place. At intervals in each row a thick pole is fixed. From post
+to post in the rows a wire is stretched at a height of ½ ft. from the
+ground, another about 6 ft. from the ground, and another along the tops
+of the posts, so that there are three wires. Hooks are clipped on these
+wires at regular intervals, and coco-nut-fibre strings are threaded on
+them and fastened from wire to wire, and from post to post, to receive
+the hop bines. The string is threaded on the hooks continuously, and is
+put on those of the top wire with a machine called a stringer. There are
+several methods of training hops with posts or stout poles, wire and
+string, whose first cost varies from £20 to £40 per acre. The system is
+cheaper in the long run than that of taking down the poles every year,
+and the wind does not blow down the poles or injure the hops by banging
+the poles together. In another method, extensively made use of in Kent
+and Sussex, stout posts are placed at the ends of each row of plants,
+and, at intervals where requisite, wires are fastened from top to top
+only of these posts, whilst coco-nut-fibre strings are fixed by pegs to
+the ground, close to each hop-stock, whence they radiate upwards for
+attachment to the wires stretching between the tops of the posts. This
+method is more simple and less expensive than the system first
+described, its cost being from £24 to £28 per acre. In this case the
+plants require to be well "lewed," or sheltered, as the strings being so
+light are blown about by the wind. These methods are being largely
+adopted, and, together with the practice of putting coco-nut-fibre
+strings from pole to pole in grounds poled in the old-fashioned manner,
+are important improvements in hop culture, which have tended to increase
+the production of hops. Where the old system of poling with two or three
+poles is still adhered to they are always creosoted, most growers having
+tanks for the purpose; and, in the new methods of poling, the posts and
+poles are creosoted, dipped or kyanized.
+
+At Wye College, Kent, different systems of planting and training have
+been tried, the alleys varying in width from 10 ft. down to 5 ft., and
+the distance between the hills varying quite as widely, so that the
+number of hills to the acre has ranged from 1210 down to 660. The
+biggest crop was secured on the plot where hills were 8 ft. apart each
+way. As a rule, indeed, a wide alley and abundant space between the
+plants, thus allowing the hops plenty of air and light, produced the
+best results, besides effecting some saving in the cost of cultivation,
+as there were only 660 or 680 hills per acre. Of the various methods of
+training, the umbrella system gave the biggest crop in each of the three
+years, 1899, 1900, 1901; and it seemed to be the best method, except in
+seasons when washing was required early, in which case the plants were
+not so readily cleared of vermin.
+
+Much attention is required to keep the bines in their places on the
+poles, strings or wire, during the summer. This gives employment to many
+women, for whose service in this and fruit-picking there is considerable
+demand, and a woman has no trouble in earning from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 10d.
+per day from April till September at pleasant and not very arduous
+labour. The hop-picking follows, and at this women sometimes get 4s. and
+even 5s. per day. This is the real Kent harvest, which formerly lasted a
+month or five weeks. Now it rarely extends beyond eighteen days, as it
+is important to secure the hops before the weather and the aphides,
+which almost invariably swarm within the bracts of the cones, discolour
+them and spoil their sale, as brewers insist upon having bright,
+"coloury" hops. Picking is better done than was formerly the case. The
+hops are picked more singly, and with comparatively few leaves, and the
+pickers are of a somewhat better type than the rough hordes who formerly
+went into Kent for "hopping." Kent planters engage their pickers
+beforehand, and write to them, arranging the numbers required and the
+date of picking. Many families go into Kent for pea- and fruit-picking
+and remain for hop-picking. Without this great immigration of persons,
+variously estimated at between 45,000 and 65,000, the crops of hops
+could not be picked; and fruit-farmers also would be unable to get their
+soft fruit gathered in time without the help of immigrant hands. The
+fruit-growers and hop-planters of Kent have greatly improved the
+accommodation for these immigrants.
+
+Concerning the general question as to the advisability or otherwise of
+cutting the hop bine at the time of picking, A.D. Hall has ascertained
+experimentally that if the bine is cut close to the ground at a time
+when the whole plant is unripe there are removed in the bine and leaves
+considerable quantities of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which
+would have returned to the roots if the bine had not been cut until
+ripe. The plant, therefore, would retain a substantial store of these
+constituents for the following year's growth if the bine were left.
+Chemical analyses have shown that about 30 lb. of nitrogen per acre may
+be saved by allowing the bines to remain uncut, this representing
+practically one-third of the total amount of nitrogen in the hops, leaf
+and bine together. There are also from 25 lb. to 30 lb. of potash in the
+growth, of which nine-tenths would return to the roots, with about half
+the phosphoric acid and a very small proportion of the lime. It has been
+demonstrated that by the practice of cutting the bines when the hops are
+picked the succeeding crop is lessened to the extent of about one-tenth.
+As to stripping off the leaves and lower branches of the plant, it was
+found that this operation once reduced the crop 10% and once 20%, but
+that in the year 1899 it did not affect the crop at all. The inference
+appears to be that when there is a good crop it is not reduced by
+stripping, but that when there is less vigour in the plant it suffers
+the more. Hence, it would seem advisable to study the plant itself in
+connexion with this matter, and to strip a little later, or somewhat
+less, than usual when the bine is not healthy.
+
+_Drying._--After being picked, the hops are taken in pokes--long sacks
+holding ten bushels--to the oasts to be dried. The oasts are circular or
+square kilns, or groups of kilns, wherein the green hops are laid upon
+floors covered with horsehair, under which are enclosed or open stoves
+or furnaces. The heat from these is evenly distributed among the hops
+above by draughts below and round them. This is the usual simple
+arrangement, but patent processes are adopted here and there, though
+they are by no means general. The hops are from nine to ten hours
+drying, after which they are taken off the kiln and allowed to cool
+somewhat, and are then packed tightly into "pockets" 6 ft. long and 2
+ft. wide, weighing 1½ cwt., by means of a hop-pressing machine, which
+has cogs and wheels worked by hand. Of late years more care has been
+bestowed by some of the leading growers upon the drying of hops, so as
+to preserve their qualities and volatile essences, and to meet the
+altered requirements of brewers, who must have bright, well-managed hops
+for the production of light clear beers for quick draught. The use, for
+example, of exhaust fans, recently introduced, greatly facilitates
+drying by drawing a large volume of air through the hops; and as the
+temperature may at the same time be kept low, the risk of getting
+overfired samples is considerably reduced, though not entirely obviated.
+The adoption of the roller floor is another great advance in the process
+of hop-drying, for this, used in conjunction with a raised platform for
+the men to stand on when turning, prevents any damage from the feet of
+the workmen, and reduces the loss of resin to a minimum. The best
+results are obtained when exhaust fans and the roller floor are
+associated together. In such cases the roller floor, which empties its
+load automatically, pours the hop cones into the receiving sheets in
+usually as whole and unbroken a condition as that in which they went on
+to the kiln.
+
+  _Pests of the Hop Crop._--In recent years the difficulties attendant
+  upon hop cultivation have been aggravated, and the expenses increased,
+  by regularly recurring attacks of aphis blight--due to the insect
+  _Aphis (Phorodon) humuli_--which render it necessary to spray or
+  syringe every hop plant, every branch and leaf, with insecticidal
+  solutions three or four times, and sometimes more often, in each
+  season. Quassia and soft-soap solutions are usually employed; they
+  contain from 4 lb. to 8 lb. of soft soap, and the extract of from 8
+  lb. to 10 lb. of quassia chips to 100 gallons of water. The soft soap
+  serves as a vehicle to retain the bitterness of the quassia upon the
+  bines and leaves, making them repulsive to the aphides, which are thus
+  starved out. Another pest, the red spider, _Tetranychus
+  telarius_--really one of the "spinning mites"--is most destructive in
+  very hot summers. Congregating on the under surfaces of the leaves,
+  the red spiders exhaust the sap and cause the leaves to fall,
+  producing the effect known in Germany as "fire-blast." The hop-wash of
+  soft soap and quassia, so effective against aphis attack, is of little
+  avail in the case of red spider. Some success, however, has attended
+  the use of a solution containing 8 lb. to 10 lb. of soft soap to 100
+  gallons of water, with three pints of paraffin added. It is necessary
+  to apply the washes with great force, in order to break through the
+  webs with which the spiders protect themselves. Hop-washing is done by
+  means of large garden engines worked by hand, but more frequently with
+  horse engines. Resort is sometimes had to steam engines, which force
+  the spraying solution along pipes laid between the rows of hops.
+
+  Mould or mildew is frequently the source of much loss to hop-planters.
+  It is due to the action of the fungus _Podosphaera castagnei_, and the
+  mischief is more especially that done to the cones. The only
+  trustworthy remedy is sulphur, employed usually in the form of flowers
+  of sulphur, from 40 lb. to 60 lb. per acre being applied at each
+  sulphuring. The powder is distributed by means of a machine drawn by a
+  horse between the rows. The sulphur is fed from a hopper into a
+  blast-pipe, whence it is driven by a fan actuated by the travelling
+  wheels, and falls as a dense, wide-spreading cloud upon the hop-bines.
+  The first sulphuring takes place when the plants are fairly up the
+  poles, and is repeated three or four weeks later; and even again if
+  indications of mildew are present. It may be added that sulphur is
+  also successfully employed in the form of an alkaline sulphide, such
+  as solution of "liver of sulphur," a variety of potassium sulphide.
+       (W. Fr.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _Report from the Select Committee on the Hop Industry_
+    (London, 1908).
+
+  [2] _Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc_., 1899.
+
+  [3] J. Percival, "The Hop and its English Varieties," _Jour. Roy.
+    Agric. Soc._, 1901.
+
+  [4] _Six Years' Experiments on Hop Manuring_ (London, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+HOPE, ANTHONY, the pen-name of ANTHONY HOPE HAWKINS (1863-   ), British
+novelist, who was born on the 9th of February 1863, the second son of
+the Rev. E. C. Hawkins, Vicar of St Bride's, Fleet Street, London. He
+was educated at Marlborough and Balliol College, Oxford, where he was
+president of the Union Society, and graduated with first classes in
+Moderations and Final Schools. He was called to the bar at the Middle
+Temple in 1877. He soon began contributing stories and sketches to the
+_St James's Gazette_, and in 1890 published his first novel, _A Man of
+Mark_. This was followed by _Father Stafford_ (1891), _Mr Witt's Widow_
+(1892), _Change of Air_ and _Sport Royal and Other Stories_ (1893). By
+this time he had attracted by his vivacious talent the attention of
+editors and readers; but it was not till the following year that he
+attained a great popular success with the publication (May 1894) of _The
+Prisoner of Zenda_. This was followed a few weeks later by _The Dolly
+Dialogues_ (previously published in separate instalments in the
+_Westminster Gazette_). Both books became parents of a numerous progeny.
+_The Prisoner of Zenda_, owing something to the _Prince Otto_ of R. L.
+Stevenson, established a fashion for what was christened, after its
+fictitious locality, "Ruritanian romance"; while the _Dolly Dialogues_,
+inspired possibly by "Gyp" and other French dialogue writers, was the
+forerunner of a whole school of epigrammatic drawing-room comedy. _The
+Prisoner of Zenda_, with Mr Alexander as "Rupert Rassendyll," enjoyed a
+further success in a dramatized form at the St James's Theatre, which
+did still more to popularize the author's fame. In 1894 also appeared
+_The God in the Car_, a novel suggested by the ambiguous influence on
+English society of Cecil Rhodes's career; and _Half a Hero_, a
+complementary study of Australian politics. The same year saw further
+the publication of _The Indiscretion of the Duchess_, in the style of
+the _Dolly Dialogues_, and of another collection of stories named (after
+the first) _The Secret of Wardale Court_. In 1895 Mr Hawkins published
+_Count Antonio_, and contributed to _Dialogues of the Day_, edited by Mr
+Oswald Crawfurd. _Comedies of Courtship_ and _The Heart of the Princess
+Osra_ followed in 1896; _Phroso_ in 1897; _Simon Dale_ and _Rupert of
+Hentzau_ (sequel of the _Prisoner of Zenda_) 1898; and _The King's
+Mirror_, a Ruritanian romance with an infusion of serious psychological
+interest, 1899. The author was advancing from his light comedy and
+gallant romantic inventions to the graver kind of fiction of which _The
+God in the Car_ had been an earlier essay. _Quisante_, published in
+1900, was a study of English society face to face with a political
+genius of an alien type. _Tristram of Blent_ (1901) embodied an ethical
+study of family pride. _The Intrusions of Peggy_ reflected the effects
+on society of recent financial fashions. In 1904 he published _Double
+Harness_, and in 1905 _A Servant of the Public_, two novels of modern
+society, containing somewhat cynical pictures of the condition of
+marriage. With increasing gravity the novelist sacrificed some of the
+charm of his earlier irresponsible gaiety and buoyancy; but his art
+retained its wit and urbanity while it gained in grip of the social
+conditions of contemporary life. He wrote two plays, _The Adventure of
+Lady Ursula_ (1898) and _Pilkerton's Peerage_ (1902), and his later
+novels include _The Great Miss Driver_ (1908) and _Second String_
+(1909). Mr Hawkins's attractive and cultured style and command of plot
+give him a high place among the modern writers of English fiction. In
+1903 he married Miss Elizabeth Somerville Sheldon of New York.
+
+
+
+
+HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831), English art-collector, and author of
+_Anastasius_, born in London about 1770, was the eldest son of John Hope
+of Amsterdam, and was descended from a branch of an old Scottish family
+who for several generations were extensive merchants in London and
+Amsterdam. About the age of eighteen he started on a tour through
+various parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, where he interested himself
+especially in architecture and sculpture, making a large collection of
+the principal objects which attracted his attention. On his return to
+London about 1796 he purchased a house in Duchess Street, Cavendish
+Square, which he fitted up in a very elaborate style, from drawings made
+by himself. In 1807 he published sketches of his furniture, accompanied
+by letterpress, in a folio volume, entitled _Household Furniture and
+Interior Decoration_, which had considerable influence in effecting a
+change in the upholstery and interior decoration of houses,
+notwithstanding that Byron had referred scornfully to him as
+"House-furnisher withal, one Thomas hight." Hope's furniture designs
+were in that pseudo-classical manner which is generally called "English
+Empire." It was sometimes extravagant, and often heavy, but was much
+more restrained than the wilder and later flights of Sheraton in this
+style. At the best, however, it was a not very inspiring mixture of
+Egyptian and Roman motives. In 1809 he published the _Costumes of the
+Ancients_, and in 1812 _Designs of Modern Costumes_, works which display
+a large amount of antiquarian research. He was also, as his father had
+been--the elder Hope's country house near Haarlem was crowded with fine
+pictures--a munificent patron of the highest forms of art, and both at
+his London house and his country seat at Deepdene near Dorking he formed
+large collections of paintings, sculpture and antiques. Deepdene in his
+day became a famous resort of men of letters as well as of people of
+fashion, and among the luxuries suggested by his fine taste was a
+miniature library in several languages in each bedroom. Thorvaldsen, the
+Danish sculptor, was indebted to him for the early recognition of his
+talents, and he also gave frequent employment to Chantrey and
+Flaxman--it was to his order that the latter illustrated Dante. In 1819
+he published anonymously his novel _Anastasius, or Memoirs of a Modern
+Greek, written at the close of the 18th century_, a work which, chiefly
+on account of the novel character of its subject, caused a great
+sensation. It was at first generally attributed to Lord Byron, who told
+Lady Blessington that he wept bitterly on reading it because he had not
+written it and Hope had. But, though remarkable for the acquaintance it
+displays with Eastern life, and distinguished by considerable
+imaginative vigour and much graphic and picturesque description, its
+paradoxes are not so striking as those of Lord Byron; and,
+notwithstanding some eloquent and forcible passages, the only reason
+which warranted its ascription to him was the general type of character
+to which its hero belonged. Hope died on the 3rd of February 1831. He
+was the author of two works published posthumously--the _Origin and
+Prospects of Man_ (1831), in which his speculations diverged widely from
+the usual orthodox opinions, and an _Historical Essay on Architecture_
+(1835), an elaborate description of the architecture of the middle ages,
+illustrated by drawings made by himself in Italy and Germany. He is
+commonly known in literature as "Anastasius" Hope. He married (1806)
+Louisa de la Poer Beresford, daughter of Lord Decies, archbishop of
+Tuam.
+
+
+
+
+HOPEDALE, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.; pop.
+(1905; state census) 2048; (1910) 2188. It is served by the Milford &
+Uxbridge (electric) street railway, and (for freight) by the Grafton &
+Upton railway. The town lies in the "dale" between Milford and Mendon,
+and is cut from N.W. to S.E. by the Mill river, which furnishes good
+water power at its falls. The principal manufactures are textiles,
+boots and shoes, and, of most importance, cotton machinery. The great
+cotton machinery factories here are owned by the Draper Company.
+Hopedale has a public park on the site of the Ballou homestead, with a
+bronze statue of Adin Ballou; a memorial church erected by George A. and
+Eben S. Draper; the Bancroft Memorial Library, given by Joseph B.
+Bancroft in memory of his wife; and a marble drinking fountain with
+statuary by Waldo Story, the gift of Susan Preston Draper, General W. F.
+Draper's wife. The village is remarkable for the comfortable cottages of
+the workers.
+
+The history of Hopedale centres round the Rev. Adin Ballou (1803-1890),
+a distant relative of Hosea Ballou;[1] he left, in succession, the
+ministry of the Christian Connexion (1823) and that of the Universalist
+Church (1831), because of his restorationist views. In 1831 he became
+pastor of an independent church in Mendon. An ardent exponent of
+temperance, the anti-slavery movement, woman's rights, the peace cause
+and Christian non-resistance (even through the Civil War), and of
+"Practical Christian Socialism," it was in the interests of the last
+cause that he founded Hopedale, or "Fraternal Community No. 1," in
+Milford, in April 1842, the first compact of the community having been
+drawn up in January 1841. Thirty persons joined with him, and lived in a
+single house on a poor farm of 258 acres, purchased in June 1841. Ballou
+was for several years the president of the community, which was run on
+the plan that all should have an equal voice as to the use of property,
+in spite of the fact that there was individual holding of property. The
+community, however, owned the instruments of production, with the single
+exception of the important patent rights held by Ebenezer D. Draper. The
+result was bickerings between those who were joint stockholders and
+those whose only profit came from their manual labour. In a short time
+the control of the community came into the hands of its richest members,
+E. D. Draper and his brother, George Draper (1817-1887), who owned
+three-fourths of the joint stock. In 1856 there was a total deficit of
+about $12,000. The Draper brothers bought up the joint stock of the
+community at par and paid its debts, and the community soon ceased to
+exist save as a religious society. After George Draper's death the
+control of the mills passed to his sons. These included General William
+Franklin Draper (1842-1910), a Republican representative in Congress in
+1892-1897 and U.S. ambassador to Italy in 1897-1900, and Eben Sumner
+Draper (b. 1858), lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1906-1908 and
+governor in 1909-1911. In 1867 the community was merged with Hopedale
+parish, a Unitarian organization. Hopedale was separated from Milford
+and incorporated as a township in 1886.
+
+  See Adin Ballou's _History of Milford_ (Boston, 1882), his _History of
+  the Hopedale Community_, edited by William S. Heywood (Lowell, 1897),
+  his _Biography_ by the same editor (Lowell, 1896) and his _Practical
+  and Christian Socialism_ (Hopedale, 1854); George L. Carey, "Adin
+  Ballou and the Hopedale Community" (in the _New World_, vol. vii.,
+  1898); Lewis G. Wilson, "Hopedale and Its Founder" (in _The New
+  England Magazine_, vol. x., 1891); and William F. Draper,
+  _Recollections of a Varied Career_ (Boston, 1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Adin Ballou wrote _An Elaborate History and Genealogy of the
+    Ballous in America_ (Providence, R.I., 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT (1812-1873), English barrister and Tractarian,
+was born on the 15th of July 1812, at Great Marlow, Berkshire, the third
+Son of Sir Alexander Hope, and grandson of the second earl of Hopetoun.
+He was educated at Eton and Oxford, where he was a contemporary and
+friend of Gladstone and J. H. Newman, and in 1838 was called to the bar.
+Between 1840 and 1843 he helped to found Trinity College, Glenalmond. He
+was one of the leaders of the Tractarian movement and entirely in
+Newman's confidence. In 1851 he was received with Manning into the Roman
+Catholic church. At this time he was making a very large income at the
+Parliamentary bar. He only commenced serious practice in this branch of
+his profession in 1843, but by the end of 1845 he stood at the head of
+it and in 1849 was made a Queen's Counsel. In 1847 he married Miss
+Lockhart, granddaughter of Sir Walter Scott, and on her coming into
+possession of Abbotsford six years later, assumed the surname of
+Hope-Scott. He retired from the bar in 1870 and died on the 29th of
+April 1873.
+
+
+
+
+HOPFEN, HANS VON (1835-1904), German poet and novelist, was born on the
+3rd of January 1835, at Munich. He studied law, and in 1858, having
+shown marked poetical promise, he was received into the circle of young
+poets whom King Maximilian II. had gathered round him, and thereafter
+devoted himself to literature. In 1862 he made his debut as an author,
+with _Lieder und Balladen_, which were published in the _Münchener
+Dichterbuch_, edited by E. Geibel. After travelling in Italy (1862),
+France (1863) and Austria (1864), he was appointed, in 1865, general
+secretary of the "Schillerstiftung," and in this capacity settled at
+Vienna. The following year, however, he removed to Berlin, in a suburb
+of which, Lichterfelde, he died on the 19th of November 1904. Of
+Hopfen's lyric poems, _Gedichte_ (4th ed., Berlin, 1883), many are of
+considerable talent and originality; but it is as a novelist that he is
+best known. The novels _Peregretta_ (1864); _Verdorben zu Paris_ (1868,
+new ed. 1892); _Arge Sitten_ (1869); _Der graue Freund_ (1874, 2nd ed.,
+1876); and _Verfehlte Liebe_ (1876, 2nd ed., 1879) are attractive, while
+of his shorter stories _Tiroler Geschichten_ (1884-1885) command most
+favour.
+
+  An autobiographical sketch of Hopfen is contained in K. E. Franzos,
+  _Geschichte des Erstlingswerkes_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HOPI, or MOKI (_Moquis_), a tribe of North American Indians of
+Shoshonean stock. They are Pueblo or town-building Indians and occupy
+seven villages on three lofty plateaus of northern Arizona. The first
+accounts of them date from the expedition of Francisco Vasquez de
+Coronado in 1540. With the town-building Indians of New Mexico they were
+then subdued. They shared in the successful revolt of 1542, but again
+suffered defeat in 1586. In 1680, however, they made a successful revolt
+against the Spaniards. They weave very fine blankets, make baskets and
+are expert potters and wood-carvers. Their houses are built of stone set
+in mortar. Their ceremonies are of an elaborate nature, and in the
+famous "snake-dance" the performers carry live rattlesnakes in their
+mouths. They number some 1600. (See also PUEBLO INDIANS.)
+
+  For Hopi festivals, see _21st Ann. Report Bureau of Amer. Ethnology_
+  (1899-1900).
+
+
+
+
+HÖPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN, COUNT VON (1712-1789), Swedish statesman, was the
+son of Daniel Niklas Höpken, one of Arvid Horn's most determined
+opponents and a founder of the Hat party. When in 1738 the Hats came
+into power the younger Höpken obtained a seat in the secret committee of
+the diet, and during the Finnish war of 1741-42 was one of the two
+commissioners appointed to negotiate with Russia. During the diet of
+1746-1747 Höpken's influence was of the greatest importance. It was
+chiefly through his efforts that the estates issued a "national
+declaration" protesting against the arrogant attitude of the Russian
+ambassador, who attempted to dominate the crown prince Adolphus
+Frederick and the government. This spirited policy restored the waning
+prestige of the Hat party and firmly established their anti-Muscovite
+system. In 1746 Höpken was created a senator. In 1751 he succeeded
+Gustaf Tessin as prime minister, and controlled the foreign policy of
+Sweden for the next nine years. On the outbreak of the Seven Years' War,
+he contracted an armed neutrality treaty with Denmark (1756); but in the
+following year acceded to the league against Frederick II. of Prussia.
+During the crisis of 1760-1762, when the Hats were at last compelled to
+give an account of their stewardship, Höpken was sacrificed to party
+exigencies and retired from the senate as well as from the premiership.
+On the 22nd of June 1762, however, he was created a count. After the
+revolution of 1772 he re-entered the senate at the particular request of
+Gustavus III., but no longer exercised any political influence. His
+caustic criticism of many of the royal measures, moreover, gave great
+offence, and in 1780 he retired into private life. Höpken was a
+distinguished author. The noble style of his biographies and orations
+has earned for him the title of the Swedish Tacitus. He helped to found
+the _Vetenskaps Akademi_, and when Gustavus III. in 1786 established
+the Swedish Academy, he gave Höpken the first place in it.
+
+  See L. G. de Geer, _Minne af Grefve A. J. von Höpken_ (Stockholm,
+  1882); Carl Silfverstolpe, _Grefve Höpkens Skrifter_ (Stockholm,
+  1890-1893).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN (1857-   ), American Sanskrit scholar, was born
+in Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 8th of September 1857. He
+graduated at Columbia University in 1878, studied at Leipzig, where he
+received the degree of Ph.D. in 1881, was an instructor at Columbia in
+1881-1885, and professor at Bryn Mawr in 1885-1895, and became professor
+of Sanskrit and comparative philology in Yale University in 1895. He
+became secretary of the American Oriental Society and editor of its
+_Journal_, to which he contributed many valuable papers, especially on
+numerical and temporal categories in early Sanskrit literature. He wrote
+_Caste in Ancient India_ (1881); _Manu's Lawbook_ (1884); _Religions of
+India_ (1895); _The Great Epic of India_ (1901); and _India Old and New_
+(1901).
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, ESEK (1718-1802), the first admiral of the United States navy,
+was born at Scituate, Rhode Island, in 1718. He belonged to one of the
+most prominent Puritan families of New England. At the age of twenty he
+went to sea, and rapidly came to the front as a good sailor and skilful
+trader. Marrying, three years later, into a prosperous family of
+Newport, and thus increasing his influence in Rhode Island, he became
+commodore of a fleet of seventeen merchantmen, the movements of which he
+directed with skill and energy. In war as well as peace, Hopkins was
+establishing his reputation as one of the leading colonial seamen, for
+as captain of a privateer he made more than one brilliant and successful
+venture during the Seven Years' War. In the interval between voyages,
+moreover, he was engaged in Rhode Island politics, and rendered
+efficient support to his brother Stephen against the Ward faction. At
+the outbreak of the War of Independence, Hopkins was appointed
+brigadier-general by Rhode Island, was commissioned, December 1775, by
+the Continental Congress, commander-in-chief of the navy, and in January
+1776 hoisted his flag as admiral of the eight converted merchantmen
+which then constituted the navy of the United States. His first cruise
+resulted in a great acquisition of material of war and an indecisive
+fight with H.M.S. "Glasgow." At first this created great enthusiasm, but
+criticism soon made itself heard. Hopkins and two of his captains were
+tried for breach of orders, and, though ably defended by John Adams,
+were censured by Congress. The commands, nevertheless, were not
+interfered with, and a prize was soon afterwards named after the admiral
+by their orders. But the difficulties and mutual distrust continually
+increased, and in 1777 Congress summarily dismissed Hopkins from his
+command, on the complaint of some of his officers. Before the order
+arrived, the admiral had detected the conspiracy against him, and had
+had the ringleaders tried and degraded by court-martial. But the
+Congress followed up its order by dismissing him from the navy. For the
+rest of his life he lived in Rhode Island, playing a prominent part in
+state politics, and he died at Providence in 1802.
+
+  See Edward Field, _Life of Esek Hopkins_ (Providence, 1898); also an
+  article by R. Grieve in the _New England Magazine_ of November 1897.
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, MARK (1802-1887), American educationist, great-nephew of the
+theologian Samuel Hopkins, was born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on
+the 4th of February 1802. He graduated in 1824 at Williams College,
+where he was a tutor in 1825-1827, and where in 1830, after having
+graduated in the previous year at the Berkshire Medical College at
+Pittsfield, he became professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric. In
+1833 he was licensed to preach in Congregational churches. He was
+president of Williams College from 1836 until 1872. He was one of the
+ablest and most successful of the old type of college president. His
+volume of lectures on _Evidences of Christianity_ (1846) was long a
+favourite text-book. Of his other writings, the chief were _Lectures on
+Moral Science_ (1862), _The Law of Love and Love as a Law_ (1869), _An
+Outline Study of Man_ (1873), _The Scriptural Idea of Man_ (1883), and
+_Teachings and Counsels_ (1884). Dr Hopkins took a lifelong interest in
+Christian missions, and from 1857 until his death was president of the
+American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (the American
+Congregational Mission Board). He died at Williamstown, on the 17th of
+June 1887. His son, HENRY HOPKINS (1837-1908), was also from 1903 till
+his death president of Williams College.
+
+  See Franklin Carter's _Mark Hopkins_ (Boston, 1892), in the "American
+  Religious Leaders" series, and Leverett W. Spring's _Mark Hopkins,
+  Teacher_ (New York, 1888), being No. 4, vol. i., of the "Monographs of
+  the Industrial Educational Association."
+
+Mark Hopkins's brother, ALBERT HOPKINS (1807-1872), was long associated
+with him at Williams College, where he graduated in 1826 and was
+successively a tutor (1827-1829), professor of mathematics and natural
+philosophy (1829-1838), professor of natural philosophy and astronomy
+(1838-1868) and professor of astronomy (1868-1872). In 1835 he organized
+and conducted a Natural History Expedition to Nova Scotia, said to have
+been the first expedition of the kind sent out from any American
+college, and in 1837, at his suggestion and under his direction, was
+built at Williams College an astronomical observatory, said to have been
+the first in the United States built at a college exclusively for
+purposes of instruction. He died at Williamstown on the 24th of May
+1872.
+
+  See Albert C. Sewall's _Life of Professor Albert Hopkins_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, SAMUEL (1721-1803), American theologian, from whom the
+Hopkinsian theology takes its name, was born at Waterbury, Connecticut,
+on the 17th of September 1721. He graduated at Yale College in 1741;
+studied divinity at Northampton, Massachusetts, with Jonathan Edwards;
+was licensed to preach in 1742, and in December 1743 was ordained pastor
+of the church in the North Parish of Sheffield, or Housatonick (now
+Great Barrington), Massachusetts, at that time a small settlement of
+only thirty families. There he laboured--preaching, studying and
+writing--until 1769, for part of the time (1751-1758) in intimate
+association with his old teacher, Edwards, whose call to Stockbridge he
+had been instrumental in procuring. His theological views having met
+with much opposition, however, he was finally dismissed from the
+pastorate on the pretext of want of funds for his support. From April
+1770 until his death on the 20th of December 1803, he was the pastor of
+the First Church in Newport, Rhode Island, though during 1776-1780,
+while Newport was occupied by the British, he preached at Newburyport,
+Mass., and at Canterbury and Stamford, Conn. In 1799 he had an attack of
+paralysis, from which he never wholly recovered. Hopkins's theological
+views have had a powerful influence in America. Personally he was
+remarkable for force and energy of character, and for the utter
+fearlessness with which he followed premises to their conclusions. In
+vigour of intellect and in strength and purity of moral tone he was
+hardly inferior to Edwards himself. Though he was originally a
+slave-holder, to him belongs the honour of having been the first among
+the Congregational ministers of New England to denounce slavery both by
+voice and pen; and to his persistent though bitterly opposed efforts are
+probably chiefly to be attributed the law of 1774, which forbade the
+importation of negro slaves into Rhode Island, as also that of 1784,
+which declared that all children of slaves born in Rhode Island after
+the following March should be free. His training school for negro
+missionaries to Africa was broken up by the confusion of the American
+War of Independence. Among his publications are a valuable _Life and
+Character of Jonathan Edwards_ (1799), and numerous pamphlets, addresses
+and sermons, including _A Dialogue concerning the Slavery of the
+Africans, showing it to be the Duty and Interest of the American States
+to emancipate all their African Slaves_ (1776), and _A Discourse upon
+the Slave Trade and the History of the Africans_ (1793). His distinctive
+theological tenets are to be found in his important work, _A System of
+Doctrines Contained in Divine Revelation, Explained and Defended_
+(1793), which has had an influence hardly inferior to that exercised by
+the writings of Edwards himself. They may be summed up as follows: God
+so rules the universe as to produce its highest happiness, considered as
+a whole. Since God's sovereignty is absolute, sin must be, by divine
+permission, a means by which this happiness of the whole is secured,
+though that this is its consequence, renders it no less heinous in the
+sinner. Virtue consists in preference for the good of the whole to any
+private advantage; hence the really virtuous man must willingly accept
+any disposition of himself that God may deem wise--a doctrine often
+called "willingness to be damned." All have natural power to choose the
+right, and are therefore responsible for their acts; but all men lack
+inclination to choose the right unless the existing "bias" of their
+wills is transformed by the power of God from self-seeking into an
+effective inclination towards virtue. Hence preaching should demand
+instant submission to God and disinterested goodwill, and should teach
+the worthlessness of all religious acts or dispositions which are less
+than these, while recognizing that God can grant or withhold the
+regenerative change at his pleasure.
+
+  The best edition of Hopkins's _Works_ is that published in three
+  volumes at Boston in 1852, containing an excellent biographical sketch
+  by Professor Edwards A. Park. In 1854 was published separately
+  Hopkins's _Treatise on the Millennium_, which originally appeared in
+  his _System of Doctrines_ and in which he deduced from prophecies in
+  _Daniel_ and _Revelation_ that the millennium would come "not far from
+  the end of the twentieth century." See also Stephen West's _Sketches
+  of the Life of the Late Reverend Samuel Hopkins_ (Hartford, Conn.,
+  1805), Franklin B. Dexter's _Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of
+  Yale College_ and Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New
+  York, 1901).     (W. Wr.)
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, WILLIAM (1793-1866), English mathematician and geologist, was
+born at Kingston-on-Soar, in Nottinghamshire, on the 2nd of February
+1793. In his youth he learned practical agriculture in Norfolk and
+afterwards took an extensive farm in Suffolk. In this he was
+unsuccessful. At the age of thirty he entered St Peter's College,
+Cambridge, taking his degree of B.A. in 1827 as seventh wrangler and
+M.A. in 1830. In 1833 he published _Elements of Trigonometry_. He was
+distinguished for his mathematical knowledge, and became eminently
+successful as a private tutor, many of his pupils attaining high
+distinction. About 1833, through meeting Sedgwick at Barmouth and
+joining him in several excursions, he became intensely interested in
+geology. Thereafter, in papers published by the Cambridge Philosophical
+Society and the Geological Society of London, he entered largely into
+mathematical inquiries connected with geology, dealing with the effects
+which an elevatory force acting from below would produce on a portion of
+the earth's crust, in fissures, faults, &c. In this way he discussed the
+elevation and denudation of the Lake district, the Wealden area, and the
+Bas Boulonnais. He wrote also on the motion of glaciers and the
+transport of erratic blocks. So ably had he grappled with many difficult
+problems that in 1850 the Wollaston medal was awarded to him by the
+Geological Society of London; and in the following year he was elected
+president. In his second address (1853) he criticized Élie de Beaumont's
+theory of the elevation of mountain-chains and showed the imperfect
+evidence on which it rested. He brought before the Geological Society in
+1851 an important paper _On the Causes which may have produced changes
+in the Earth's superficial Temperature_. He was president of the British
+Association for 1853. His later researches included observations on the
+conductivity of various substances for heat, and on the effect of
+pressure on the temperature of fusion of different bodies. He died at
+Cambridge on the 13th of October 1866.
+
+  Obituary by W. W. Smyth, in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1867), p.
+  xxix.
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINSON, FRANCIS (1737-1791), American author and statesman, one of
+the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of October 1737. He was a son of
+Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751), a prominent lawyer of Philadelphia, one of
+the first trustees of the College of Philadelphia, now the University of
+Pennsylvania, and first president of the American Philosophical Society.
+Francis was the first student to enter the College of Philadelphia.
+from which he received his bachelor's degree in 1757 and his master's
+degree in 1760. He then studied law in the office in Philadelphia of
+Benjamin Chew, and was admitted to the bar in 1761. Removing after 1768
+to Bordentown, New Jersey, he became a member of the council of that
+colony in 1774. On the approach of the War of Independence he identified
+himself with the patriot or whig element in the colony, and in 1776 and
+1777 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress. He served on the
+committee appointed to frame the Articles of Confederation, executed,
+with John Nixon (1733-1808) and John Wharton, the "business of the navy"
+under the direction of the marine committee, and acted for a time as
+treasurer of the Continental loan office. From 1779 to 1789 he was judge
+of the court of admiralty in Pennsylvania, and from 1790 until his death
+was United States district judge for that state. He was famous for his
+versatility, and besides being a distinguished lawyer, jurist and
+political leader, was "a mathematician, a chemist, a physicist, a
+mechanician, an inventor, a musician and a composer of music, a man of
+literary knowledge and practice, a writer of airy and dainty songs, a
+clever artist with pencil and brush and a humorist of unmistakeable
+power" (Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_). It is as
+a writer, however, that he will be remembered. He ranks as one of the
+three leading satirists on the patriot side during the War of
+Independence. His ballad, _The Battle of the Kegs_ (1778), was long
+exceedingly popular. To alarm the British force at Philadelphia the
+Americans floated kegs charged with gunpowder down the Delaware river
+towards that city, and the British, alarmed for the safety of their
+shipping, fired with cannon and small arms at everything they saw
+floating in the river. Hopkinson's ballad is an imaginative expansion of
+the actual facts. To the cause of the revolution this ballad, says
+Professor Tyler, "was perhaps worth as much just then as the winning of
+a considerable battle." Hopkinson's principal writings are _The Pretty
+Story_ (1774), _A Prophecy_ (1776) and _The Political Catechism_ (1777).
+Among his songs may be mentioned _The Treaty_ and _The New Roof, a Song
+for Federal Mechanics_; and the best known of his satirical pieces are
+_Typographical Method of conducting a Quarrel_, _Essay on White Washing_
+and _Modern Learning_. His _Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional
+Writings_ were published at Philadelphia in 3 vols., 1792.
+
+His son, JOSEPH HOPKINSON (1770-1842), graduated at the University of
+Pennsylvania in 1786, studied law, and was a Federalist member of the
+national House of Representatives in 1815-1819, Federal judge of the
+Eastern District of Pennsylvania from 1828 until his death, and a member
+of the state constitutional convention of 1837. He is better known,
+however, as the author of the patriotic anthem "Hail Columbia" (1798).
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINSON, JOHN (1849-1898), English engineer and physicist, was born in
+Manchester on the 27th of July 1849. Before he was sixteen he attended
+lectures at Owens College, and at eighteen he gained a mathematical
+scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1871 as
+senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, having previously taken the
+degree of D.Sc. at London University and won a Whitworth scholarship.
+Although elected a fellow and tutor of his college, he stayed up at
+Cambridge only for a very short time, preferring to learn practical
+engineering as a pupil in the works in which his father was a partner.
+But there his stay was equally short, for in 1872 he undertook the
+duties of engineering manager in the glass manufactories of Messrs
+Chance Brothers and Company at Birmingham. Six years later he removed to
+London, and while continuing to act as scientific adviser to Messrs
+Chance, established a most successful practice as a consulting engineer.
+His work was mainly, though not exclusively, electrical, and his
+services were in great demand as an expert witness in patent cases. In
+1890 he was appointed director of the Siemens laboratory at King's
+College, London, with the title of professor of electrical engineering.
+His death occurred prematurely on the 27th of August 1898, when he was
+killed, together with one son and two daughters, by an accident the
+nature of which was never precisely ascertained, while climbing the
+Petite Dent de Veisivi, above Evolena. Dr Hopkinson presented a rare
+combination of practical with theoretical ability, and his achievements
+in pure scientific research are not less intrinsically notable than the
+skill with which he applied their results to the solution of concrete
+engineering problems. His original work is contained in more than sixty
+papers, all written with a complete mastery both of style and of
+subject-matter. His name is best known in connexion with electricity and
+magnetism. On the one hand he worked out the general theory of the
+magnetic circuit in the dynamo (in conjunction with his brother Edward),
+and the theory of alternating currents, and conducted a long series of
+observations on the phenomena attending magnetization in iron, nickel
+and the curious alloys of the two which can exist both in a magnetic and
+non-magnetic state at the same temperature. On the other hand, by the
+application of the principles he thus elucidated he furthered to an
+immense extent the employment of electricity for the purposes of daily
+life. As regards the generation of electric energy, by pointing out
+defects of design in the dynamo as it existed about 1878, and showing
+how important improvements were to be effected in its construction, he
+was largely instrumental in converting it from a clumsy and wasteful
+appliance into one of the most efficient known to the engineer. Again,
+as regards the distribution of the current, he took a leading part in
+the development of the three-wire system and the closed-circuit
+transformer, while electric traction had to thank him for the
+series-parallel method of working motors. During his residence in
+Birmingham, Messrs Chance being makers of glass for use in lighthouse
+lamps, his attention was naturally turned to problems of lighthouse
+illumination, and he was able to devise improvements in both the
+catoptric and dioptric methods for concentrating and directing the beam.
+He was a strong advocate of the group-flashing system as a means of
+differentiating lights, and invented an arrangement for carrying it into
+effect optically, his plan being first adopted for the catoptric light
+of the _Royal Sovereign_ lightship, in the English Channel off Beachy
+Head. Moreover, his association with glass manufacture led him to study
+the refractive indices of different kinds of glass; he further undertook
+abstruse researches on electrostatic capacity, the phenomena of the
+residual charge, and other problems arising out of Clerk Maxwell's
+electro-magnetic theory.
+
+  His original papers were collected and published, with a memoir by his
+  son, in 1901.
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Christian county, Kentucky,
+U.S.A., about 150 m. S.W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 5833; (1900) 7280
+(3243 negroes); (1910) 9419. The city is served by the Illinois Central
+and the Louisville & Nashville railways. It is the seat of Bethel Female
+College (Baptist, founded 1854), of South Kentucky College (Christian;
+co-educational; chartered 1849) and of the Western Kentucky Asylum for
+the Insane. The city's chief interest is in the tobacco industry; it has
+also considerable trade in other agricultural products and in coal; and
+its manufactures include carriages and wagons, bricks, lime, flour and
+dressed lumber. When Christian county was formed from Logan county in
+1797, Hopkinsville, formerly called Elizabethtown, became the
+county-seat, and was renamed in honour of Samuel Hopkins (c. 1750-1819),
+an officer of the Continental Army in the War of Independence, a pioneer
+settler in Kentucky, and a representative in Congress from Kentucky in
+1813-1815. In 1798 Hopkinsville was incorporated.
+
+
+
+
+HOPPNER, JOHN (1758-1810), English portrait-painter, was born, it is
+said, on the 4th of April 1758 at Whitechapel. His father was of German
+extraction, and his mother was one of the German attendants at the royal
+palace. Hoppner was consequently brought early under the notice and
+received the patronage of George III., whose regard for him gave rise to
+unfounded scandal. As a boy he was a chorister at the royal chapel, but
+showing strong inclination for art, he in 1775 entered as a student at
+the Royal Academy. In 1778 he took a silver medal for drawing from the
+life, and in 1782 the Academy's highest award, the gold medal for
+historical painting, his subject being King Lear. He first exhibited at
+the Royal Academy in 1780. His earliest love was for landscape, but
+necessity obliged him to turn to the more lucrative business of
+portrait-painting. At once successful, he had, throughout life, the most
+fashionable and wealthy sitters, and was the greatest rival of the
+growing attraction of Lawrence. Ideal subjects were very rarely
+attempted by Hoppner, though a "Sleeping Venus," "Belisarius," "Jupiter
+and Io," a "Bacchante" and "Cupid and Psyche" are mentioned among his
+works. The prince of Wales especially patronized him, and many of his
+finest portraits are in the state apartments at St James's Palace, the
+best perhaps being those of the prince, the duke and duchess of York, of
+Lord Rodney and of Lord Nelson. Among his other sitters were Sir Walter
+Scott, Wellington, Frere and Sir George Beaumont. Competent judges have
+deemed his most successful works to be his portraits of women and
+children. A _Series of Portraits of Ladies_ was published by him in
+1803, and a volume of translations of Eastern tales into English verse
+in 1805. The verse is of but mediocre quality. In his later years
+Hoppner suffered from a chronic disease of the liver; he died on the
+23rd of January 1810. He was confessedly an imitator of Reynolds. When
+first painted, his works were much admired for the brilliancy and
+harmony of their colouring, but the injury due to destructive mediums
+and lapse of time which many of them suffered caused a great
+depreciation in his reputation. The appearance, however, of some of his
+pictures in good condition has shown that his fame as a brilliant
+colourist was well founded. His drawing is faulty, but his touch has
+qualities of breadth and freedom that give to his paintings a faint
+reflection of the charm of Reynolds. Hoppner was a man of great social
+power, and had the knowledge and accomplishments of a man of the world.
+
+  The best account of Hoppner's life and paintings is the exhaustive
+  work by William McKay and W. Roberts (1909).
+
+
+
+
+HOP-SCOTCH ("scotch," to score), an old English children's game in which
+a small object, like a flat stone, is kicked by the player, while
+hopping, from one division to another of an oblong space marked upon the
+ground and divided into a number of divisions, usually 10 or 12. These
+divisions are numbered, and the stone must rest successively in each.
+Should it rest upon a line or go out of the division aimed for, the
+player loses. In order to win a player must drive the stone into each
+division and back to the starting-point.
+
+
+
+
+HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON, BARON (1598-1652), Royalist commander in the
+English Civil War, was the son of Robert Hopton of Witham, Somerset. He
+appears to have been educated at Lincoln College, Oxford, and to have
+served in the army of the Elector Palatine in the early campaigns of the
+Thirty Years' War, and in 1624 he was lieutenant-colonel of a regiment
+raised in England to serve in Mansfeld's army. Charles I., at his
+coronation, made Hopton a Knight of the Bath. In the political troubles
+which preceded the outbreak of the Civil War, Hopton, as member of
+parliament successively for Bath, Somerset and Wells, at first opposed
+the royal policy, but after Stratford's attainder (for which he voted)
+he gradually became an ardent supporter of Charles, and at the beginning
+of the Great Rebellion (q.v.) he was made lieutenant-general under the
+marquess of Hertford in the west. His first achievement was the rallying
+of Cornwall to the royal cause, his next to carry the war from that
+county into Devonshire. In May 1643 he won the brilliant victory of
+Stratton, in June he overran Devonshire, and on the 5th of July he
+inflicted a severe defeat on Sir William Waller at Lansdown. In the last
+action he was severely wounded by the explosion of a powder-wagon and he
+was soon after shut up in Devizes by Waller, where he defended himself
+until relieved by the victory of Roundway Down on the 13th of July. He
+was soon afterwards created Baron Hopton of Stratton. But his successes
+in the west were cut short by the defeat of Cheriton or Alresford in
+March 1644. After this he served in the western campaign under Charles's
+own command, and towards the end of the war, after Lord Goring had left
+England, he succeeded to the command of the royal army, which his
+predecessor had allowed to waste away in indiscipline. It was no longer
+possible to stem the tide of the parliament's victory, and Hopton,
+defeated in his last stand at Torrington on the 16th of February 1646,
+surrendered to Fairfax. Subsequently he accompanied the prince of Wales
+in his attempts to prolong the war in the Scilly and Channel Islands.
+But his downright loyalty was incompatible with the spirit of concession
+and compromise which prevailed in the prince's council in 1640-1650, and
+he withdrew from active participation in the cause of royalism. He died,
+still in exile, at Bruges in September 1652. The peerage became extinct
+at his death. The king, Prince Charles and the governing circle
+appreciated the merits of their faithful lieutenant less than did his
+enemies Waller and Fairfax, the former of whom wrote, "hostility itself
+cannot violate my friendship to your person," while the latter spoke of
+him as "one whom we honour and esteem above any other of your party."
+
+
+
+
+HOR, MOUNT ([Hebrew: hor]), the scene in the Bible of Aaron's death,
+situated "in the edge of the land of Edom" (Num. xxxiii. 37). Since the
+time of Josephus it has been identified with the _Jebel Nebi Harun_
+("Mountain of the Prophet Aaron"), a twin-peaked mountain 4780 ft. above
+the sea-level (6072 ft. above the Dead Sea) in the Edomite Mountains on
+the east side of the Jordan-Arabah valley. On the summit is a shrine
+said to cover the grave of Aaron. Some modern investigators dissent from
+this identification: H. Clay Trumbull prefers the Jebel Madara, a peak
+north-west of 'Ain Kadis. Another Mount Hor is mentioned in Num. xxxiv.
+7, 8, as on the northern boundary of the prospective conquests of the
+Israelites. It is perhaps to be identified with Hermon. It has been
+doubtfully suggested that for _Hor_ we should here read _Hadrach_, the
+name of a northern country near Damascus, mentioned only once in the
+Bible (Zech. ix. 1).     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HORACE [QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.), the famous Roman poet,
+was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia, on the borders of
+Lucania and Apulia (_Sat._ ii. 1. 34). The town, originally a colony of
+veterans, appears to have long maintained its military traditions, and
+Horace was early imbued with a profound respect for the indomitable
+valour and industry of the Italian soldier. It would seem, however, that
+the poet was not brought up in the town itself, at least he did not
+attend the town school (_Sat._ i. 6. 72) and was much in the
+neighbouring country, of which, though he was but a child when he left
+it, he retained always a vivid and affectionate memory. The mountains
+near and far, the little villages on the hillsides, the woods, the
+roaring Aufidus, the mossy spring of Bandusia, after which he named
+another spring on his Sabine farm--these scenes were always dear to him
+and are frequently mentioned in his poetry (e.g. _Carm._ iii. 4 and 30,
+iv. 9). We may thus trace some of the germs of his poetical inspiration,
+as well as of his moral sympathies, to the early years which he spent
+near Venusia. But the most important moral influence of his youth was
+the training and example of his father, of whose worth, affectionate
+solicitude and homely wisdom Horace has given a most pleasing and
+life-like picture (_Sat._ i. 6. 70, &c.). He was a freedman by position;
+and it is supposed that he had been originally a slave of the town of
+Venusia, and on his emancipation had received the gentile name of
+Horatius from the Horatian tribe in which the inhabitants of Venusia
+were enrolled. After his emancipation he acquired by the occupation of
+"coactor" (a collector of the payments made at public auctions, or,
+according to another interpretation, a collector of taxes) sufficient
+means to enable him to buy a small farm, to make sufficient provision
+for the future of his son (_Sat._ i. 4. 108), and to take him to Rome to
+give him the advantage of the best education there. To his care Horace
+attributes, not only the intellectual training which enabled him in
+later life to take his place among the best men of Rome, but also his
+immunity from the baser forms of moral evil (_Sat._ i. 6. 68. &c.). To
+his practical teaching he attributes also his tendency to moralize and
+to observe character (_Sat._ i. 4. 105, &c.)--the tendency which enabled
+him to become the most truthful painter of social life and manners which
+the ancient world produced.
+
+In one of his latest writings (_Epist._ ii. 2. 42, &c.) Horace gives a
+further account of his education; but we hear no more of his father, nor
+is there any allusion in his writings to the existence of any other
+member of his family or any other relative. After the ordinary
+grammatical and literary training at Rome, he went (45 B.C.) to Athens,
+the most famous school of philosophy, as Rhodes was of oratory; and he
+describes himself while there as "searching after truth among the groves
+of Academus" as well as advancing in literary accomplishment. His
+pleasant residence there was interrupted by the breaking out of the
+civil war. Following the example of his young associates, he attached
+himself to the cause of Brutus, whom he seems to have accompanied to
+Asia, probably as a member of his staff; and he served at the battle of
+Philippi in the post of military tribune. He shared in the rout which
+followed the battle, and henceforth, though he was not less firm in his
+conviction that some causes were worth fighting for and dying for, he
+had but a poor opinion of his own soldierly qualities.
+
+He returned to Rome shortly after the battle, stripped of his property,
+which formed part of the land confiscated for the benefit of the
+soldiers of Octavianus and Antony. It may have been at this time that he
+encountered the danger of shipwreck, which he mentions among the perils
+from which his life had been protected by supernatural aid (_Carm._ iii.
+4. 28). He procured in some way the post of a clerkship in the
+quaestor's office, and about three years after the battle of Philippi,
+he was introduced by Virgil and Varius to Maecenas. This was the
+turning-point of his fortunes. He owed his friendship with the greatest
+of literary patrons to his personal merits rather than to his poetic
+fame; for he was on intimate terms with Maecenas before the first book
+of the _Satires_ (his first published work) appeared. He tells us in one
+of his _Satires_ (i. 10. 31) that his earliest ambition was to write
+Greek verses. In giving this direction to his ambition, he was probably
+influenced by his admiration of the old iambic and lyrical poets whom he
+has made the models of his own _Epodes_ and _Odes_. His common sense as
+well as his national feeling fortunately saved him from becoming a
+second-rate Greek versifier in an age when poetic inspiration had passed
+from Greece to Italy, and the living language of Rome was a more fitting
+vehicle for the new feelings and interests of men than the echoes of the
+old Ionian or Aeolian melodies. His earliest Latin compositions were, as
+he tells us, written under the instigation of poverty; and they alone
+betray any trace of the bitterness of spirit which the defeat of his
+hopes and the hardships which he had to encounter on his first return to
+Rome may have temporarily produced on him. Some of the _Epodes_, of the
+nature of personal and licentious lampoons, and the second _Satire_ of
+book i., in which there is some trace of an angry republican feeling,
+belong to these early compositions. But by the time the first book of
+_Satires_ was completed and published (35 B.C.) his temper had recovered
+its natural serenity, and, though he had not yet attained to the height
+of his fortunes, his personal position was one of comfort and security,
+and his intimate relation with the leading men in literature and social
+rank was firmly established.
+
+About a year after the publication of this first book of _Satires_
+Maecenas presented him with a farm among the Sabine hills, near the
+modern Tivoli. This secured him pecuniary independence; it satisfied the
+love of nature which had been implanted in him during the early years
+spent on the Venusian farm; and it afforded him a welcome escape from
+the distractions of city life and the dangers of a Roman autumn. Many
+passages in the _Satires_, _Odes_ and _Epistles_ express the happiness
+and pride with which the thought of his own valley filled him, and the
+interest which he took in the simple and homely ways of his country
+neighbours. The inspiration of the _Satires_ came from the heart of
+Rome; the feeling of many of the _Odes_ comes direct from the Sabine
+hills; and even the meditative spirit of the later _Epistles_ tells of
+the leisure and peace of quiet days spent among books, or in the open
+air, at a distance from "the smoke, wealth and tumult" of the great
+metropolis.
+
+The second book of _Satires_ was published in 29 B.C.; the _Epodes_
+(spoken of by himself as _iambi_) apparently about a year earlier,
+though many of them are, as regards the date of their composition, to be
+ranked among the earliest extant writings of Horace. In one of his
+_Epistles_ (i. 19. 25) he rests his first claim to originality on his
+having introduced into Latium the metres and spirit of Archilochus of
+Paros. He may have naturalized some special form of metre employed by
+that poet, and it may be (as Th. Plüsz has suggested) that we should see
+in the _Epodes_ a tone of mockery and parody. But his personal lampoons
+are the least successful of his works; while those _Epodes_ which treat
+of other subjects in a poetical spirit are inferior in metrical effect,
+and in truth and freshness of feeling, both to the lighter lyrics of
+Catullus and to his own later and more carefully meditated _Odes_. The
+_Epodes_, if they are serious at all, are chiefly interesting as a
+record of the personal feelings of Horace during the years which
+immediately followed his return to Rome, and as a prelude to the higher
+art and inspiration of the first three books of the _Odes_, which were
+published together about the end of 24 or the beginning of 23 B.C.[1]
+The composition of these _Odes_ extended over several years, but all the
+most important among them belong to the years between the battle of
+Actium and 24 B.C. His lyrical poetry is thus, not, like that of
+Catullus, the ardent utterance of his youth, but the mature and finished
+workmanship of his manhood. The state of public affairs was more
+favourable than it had been since the outbreak of the civil war between
+Caesar and Pompey for the appearance of lyrical poetry. Peace, order and
+national unity had been secured by the triumph of Augustus, and the
+enthusiasm in favour of the new government had not yet been chilled by
+experience of its repressing influence. The poet's circumstances were,
+at the same time, most favourable for the exercise of his lyrical gift
+during these years. He lived partly at Rome, partly at his Sabine farm,
+varying his residence occasionally by visits to Tibur, Praeneste or
+Baiae. His intimacy with Maecenas was strengthened and he had become the
+familiar friend of the great minister. He was treated with distinction
+by Augustus, and by the foremost men in Roman society. He complains
+occasionally that the pleasures of his youth are passing from him, but
+he does so in the spirit of a temperate Epicurean, who found new
+enjoyments in life as the zest for the old enjoyments decayed, and who
+considered the wisdom and meditative spirit--"the philosophic mind that
+years had brought"--an ample compensation for the extinct fires of his
+youth.
+
+About four years after the publication of the three books of _Odes_, the
+first book of the _Epistles_ appeared, introduced, as his _Epodes_,
+_Satires_ and _Odes_ had been, by a special address to Maecenas. From
+these _Epistles_, as compared with the _Satires_, we gather that he had
+gradually adopted a more retired and meditative life, and had become
+fonder of the country and of study, and that, while owing allegiance to
+no school or sect of philosophy, he was framing for himself a scheme of
+life, was endeavouring to conform to it, and was bent on inculcating it
+on others. He maintained his old friendships, and continued to form new
+intimacies, especially with younger men engaged in public affairs or
+animated by literary ambition. After the death of Virgil he was
+recognized as pre-eminently the greatest living poet, and was
+accordingly called upon by Augustus to compose the sacred hymn for the
+celebration of the secular games in 17 B.C. About four years later he
+published the fourth book of _Odes_ (about 13 B.C.) having been called
+upon to do so by the emperor, in order that the victories of his
+stepsons Drusus and Tiberius over the Rhaeti and Vindelici might be
+worthily celebrated. He lived about five years longer, and during these
+years published the second book of _Epistles_, and the _Epistle to the
+Pisos_, more generally known as the "_Ars poetica_." These later
+_Epistles_ are mainly devoted to literary criticism, with the especial
+object of vindicating the poetic claims of his own age over those of the
+age of Ennius and the other early poets of Rome. He might have been
+expected, as a great critic and lawgiver on literature, to have
+exercised a beneficial influence on the future poetry of his country,
+and to have applied as much wisdom to the theory of his own art as to
+that of a right life. But his critical _Epistles_ are chiefly devoted to
+a controversial attack on the older writers and to the exposition of the
+laws of dramatic poetry, on which his own powers had never been
+exercised, and for which either the genius or circumstances of the
+Romans were unsuited. The same subordination of imagination and
+enthusiasm to good sense and sober judgment characterizes his opinions
+on poetry as on morals.
+
+He died somewhat suddenly on the 17th of November of the year 8 B.C. He
+left Augustus to see after his affairs, and was buried on the Esquiline
+Hill, near Maecenas.
+
+Horace is one of the few writers, ancient or modern, who have written a
+great deal about themselves without laying themselves open to the charge
+of weakness or egotism. His chief claim to literary originality is not
+that on which he himself rested his hopes of immortality--that of being
+the first to adapt certain lyrical metres to the Latin tongue--but
+rather that of being the first of those whose works have reached us who
+establishes a personal relation with his reader, speaks to him as a
+familiar friend, gives him good advice, tells him the story of his life,
+and shares with him his private tastes and pleasures--and all this
+without any loss of self-respect, any want of modesty or breach of good
+manners, and in a style so lively and natural that each new generation
+of readers might fancy that he was addressing them personally and
+speaking to them on subjects of every day modern interest. In his
+self-portraiture, far from wishing to make himself out better or greater
+than he was, he seems to write under the influence of an ironical
+restraint which checks him in the utterance of his highest moral
+teaching and of his poetical enthusiasm. He affords us some indications
+of his personal appearance, as where he speaks of the "nigros angusta
+fronte capillos" of his youth, and describes himself after he had
+completed his forty-fourth December as of small stature, prematurely
+grey and fond of basking in the sun (_Epist._ i. 20. 24).
+
+In his later years his health became weaker or more uncertain, and this
+caused a considerable change in his habits, tastes and places of
+residence. It inclined him more to a life of retirement and simplicity,
+and also it stimulated his tendency to self-introspection and
+self-culture. In his more vigorous years, when he lived much in Roman
+society, he claims to have acted in all his relations to others in
+accordance with the standard recognized among men of honour in every
+age, to have been charitably indulgent to the weakness of his friends,
+and to have been exempt from petty jealousies and the spirit of
+detraction. If ever he deviates from his ordinary vein of irony and
+quiet sense into earnest indignation, it is in denouncing conduct
+involving treachery or malice in the relations of friends (_Sat._ i. 4.
+81, &c.).
+
+He claims to be and evidently aims at being independent of fortune,
+superior to luxury, exempt both from the sordid cares of avarice and the
+coarser forms of profligacy. At the same time he makes a frank
+confession of indolence and of occasional failure in the pursuit of his
+ideal self-mastery. He admits his irascibility, his love of pleasure,
+his sensitiveness to opinion, and some touch of vanity or at least of
+gratified ambition arising out of the favour which through all his life
+he had enjoyed from those much above him in social station (_Epist._ i.
+20. 23). Yet there appears no trace of any unworthy deference in
+Horace's feelings towards the great. Even towards Augustus he maintained
+his attitude of independence, by declining the office of private
+secretary which the emperor wished to force upon him; and he did so with
+such tact as neither to give offence nor to forfeit the regard of his
+superior. His feeling towards Maecenas is more like that of Pope towards
+Bolingbroke than that which a client in ancient or modern times
+entertains towards his patron. He felt pride in his protection and in
+the intellectual sympathy which united him with one whose personal
+qualities had enabled him to play so prominent and beneficent a part in
+public affairs. Their friendship was slowly formed, but when once
+established continued unshaken through their lives.
+
+There is indeed nothing more remarkable in Horace than the independence,
+or rather the self-dependence, of his character. The enjoyment which he
+drew from his Sabine farm consisted partly in the refreshment to his
+spirit from the familiar beauty of the place, partly in the "otia
+liberrima" from the claims of business and society which it afforded
+him. His love poems, when compared with those of Catullus, Tibullus and
+Propertius, show that he never, in his mature years at least, allowed
+his peace of mind to be at the mercy of any one. They are the
+expressions of a fine and subtle and often a humorous observation rather
+than of ardent feeling. There is perhaps a touch of pathos in his
+reference in the _Odes_ to the early death of Cinara, but the epithet he
+applies to her in the _Epistles_,
+
+  "Quem scis immunem Cinarae placuisse rapaci,"
+
+shows that the pain of thinking of her could not have been very
+heartfelt. Even when the _Odes_ addressed to real or imaginary beauties
+are most genuine in feeling, they are more the artistic rekindling of
+extinct fires than the utterance of recent passion. In his friendships
+he had not the self-forgetful devotion which is the most attractive side
+of the character of Catullus; but he studied how to gain and keep the
+regard of those whose society he valued, and he repaid this regard by a
+fine courtesy and by a delicate appreciation of their higher gifts and
+qualities, whether proved in literature, or war, or affairs of state or
+the ordinary dealings of men. He enjoyed the great world, and it treated
+him well; but he resolutely maintained his personal independence and the
+equipoise of his feelings and judgment. If it is thought that in
+attributing a divine function to Augustus he has gone beyond the bounds
+of a sincere and temperate admiration, a comparison of the _Odes_ in
+which this occurs with the first _Epistle_ of the second book shows that
+he certainly recognized in the emperor a great and successful
+administrator and that his language is to be regarded rather as the
+artistic expression of the prevailing national sentiment than as the
+tribute of an insincere adulation.
+
+The aim of Horace's philosophy was to "be master of oneself," to retain
+the "mens aequa" in all circumstances, to use the gifts of fortune while
+they remained, and to be prepared to part with them with equanimity; to
+make the most of life, and to contemplate its inevitable end without
+anxiety. Self-reliance and resignation are the lessons which he
+constantly inculcates. His philosophy is thus a mode of practical
+Epicureanism combined with other elements which have more affinity with
+Stoicism. In his early life he professed his adherence to the former
+system, and several expressions in his first published work show the
+influences of the study of Lucretius. At the time when the first book of
+the _Epistles_ was published he professes to assume the position of an
+eclectic rather than that of an adherent of either school (_Epist._ i.
+1. 13-19). We note in the passage here referred to, as in other
+passages, that he mentions Aristippus of Cyrene, rather than Epicurus
+himself, as the master under whose influence he from time to time
+insensibly lapsed. Yet the dominant tone of his teaching is that of a
+refined Epicureanism, not so elevated or purely contemplative as that
+preached by Lucretius, but yet more within the reach of a society which,
+though luxurious and pleasure-loving, had not yet become thoroughly
+frivolous and enervated. His advice is to subdue all violent emotion of
+fear or desire; to estimate all things calmly--"nil admirari"; to choose
+the mean between a high and low estate; and to find one's happiness in
+plain living rather than in luxurious indulgence. Still there was in
+Horace a robuster fibre, inherited from the old Italian race, which
+moved him to value the dignity and nobleness of life more highly than
+its ease and enjoyment. In some of the stronger utterances of his
+_Odes_, where he expresses sympathy with the manlier qualities of
+character, we recognize the resistent attitude of Stoicism rather than
+the passive acquiescence of Epicureanism. The concluding stanzas of the
+address to Lollius (_Ode_ iv. 9) exhibit the Epicurean and Stoical view
+of life so combined as to be more worthy of human dignity than the
+genial worldly wisdom of the former school, more in harmony with human
+experience than the formal precepts of the latter.
+
+It is interesting to trace the growth of Horace in elevation of
+sentiment and serious conviction from his first ridicule of the
+paradoxes of Stoicism in the two books of the _Satires_ to the appeal
+which he makes in some of the _Odes_ of the third book to the strongest
+Roman instincts of fortitude and self-sacrifice. A similar modification
+of his religious and political attitude may be noticed between his early
+declaration of Epicurean unbelief and the sympathy which he shows with
+the religious reaction fostered by Augustus; and again between the
+Epicurean indifference to national affairs and the strong support which
+he gives to the national policy of the emperor in the first six _Odes_
+of the third book, and in the fifth and fifteenth of the fourth book. In
+his whole religious attitude he seems to stand midway between the
+consistent denial of Lucretius and Virgil's pious endeavour to reconcile
+ancient faith with the conclusions of philosophy. His introduction into
+some of his _Odes_ of the gods of mythology must be regarded as merely
+artistic or symbolical. Yet in some cases we recognize the expression of
+a natural piety, thankful for the blessing bestowed on purity and
+simplicity of life, and acknowledging a higher and more majestic law
+governing nations through their voluntary obedience. On the other hand,
+his allusions to a future life, as in the "domus exilis Plutonia," and
+the "furvae regna Proserpinae," are shadowy and artificial. The image of
+death is constantly obtruded in his poems to enhance the sense of
+present enjoyment. In the true spirit of paganism he associates all
+thoughts of love and wine, of the meeting of friends, or of the changes
+of the seasons with the recollection of the transitoriness of our
+pleasures--
+
+                   "Nos, ubi decidimus
+    Quo pius Aeneas, quo dives Tullus et Ancus,
+                   Pulvis et umbra sumus."
+
+  Horace is so much of a moralist in all his writings that, in order to
+  enter into the spirit both of his familiar and of his lyrical poetry,
+  it is essential to realize what were his views of life and the
+  influences under which they were formed. He is, though in a different
+  sense from Lucretius, eminently a philosophical and reflective poet.
+  He is also, like all the other poets of the Augustan age, a poet in
+  whose composition culture and criticism were as conspicuous elements
+  as spontaneous inspiration. In the judgment he passes on the older
+  poetry of Rome and on that of his contemporaries, he seems to attach
+  more importance to the critical and artistic than to the creative and
+  inventive functions of genius. It is on the labour and judgment with
+  which he has cultivated his gift that he rests his hopes of fame. The
+  whole poetry of the Augustan age was based on the works of older
+  poets, Roman as well as Greek. Its aim was to perfect the more
+  immature workmanship of the former, and to adapt the forms, manners
+  and metres of the latter to subjects of immediate and national
+  interest. As Virgil performed for his generation the same kind of
+  office which Ennius performed for an older generation, so Horace in
+  his _Satires_, and to a more limited extent in his _Epistles_, brought
+  to perfection for the amusement and instruction of his contemporaries
+  the rude but vigorous designs of Lucilius.
+
+  It was the example of Lucilius which induced Horace to commit all his
+  private thoughts, feelings and experience "to his books as to trusty
+  companions," and also to comment freely on the characters and lives of
+  other men. Many of the subjects of particular satires of Horace were
+  immediately suggested by those treated by Lucilius. Thus the "Journey
+  to Brundusium" (_Sat._ i. 5) reproduced the outlines of Lucilius's
+  "Journey to the Sicilian Straits." The discourse of Ofella on luxury
+  (_Sat._ ii. 2) was founded on a similar discourse of Laelius on
+  gluttony, and the "Banquet of Nasidienus" (_Sat._ ii. 8) may have been
+  suggested by the description by the older poet of a rustic
+  entertainment. There was more of moral censure and personal
+  aggressiveness in the satire of the older poet. The ironical temper of
+  Horace induced him to treat the follies of society in the spirit of a
+  humorist and man of the world, rather than to assail vice with the
+  severity of a censor; and the greater urbanity of his age or of his
+  disposition restrained in him the direct personality of satire. The
+  names introduced by him to mark types of character such as Nomentanus,
+  Maenius, Pantolabus, &c., are reproduced from the writings of the
+  older poet. Horace also followed Lucilius in the variety of forms
+  which his satire assumes, and especially in the frequent adoption of
+  the form of dialogue, derived from the "dramatic medley" which was the
+  original character of the Roman _Satura_. This form suited the spirit
+  in which Horace regarded the world, and also the dramatic quality of
+  his genius, just as the direct denunciation and elaborate painting of
+  character suited the "saeva indignatio" and the oratorical genius of
+  Juvenal.
+
+  Horace's satire is accordingly to a great extent a reproduction in
+  form, manner, substance and tone of the satire of Lucilius; or rather
+  it is a casting in the mould of Lucilius of his own observation and
+  experience. But a comparison of the fragments of Lucilius with the
+  finished compositions of Horace brings out in the strongest light the
+  artistic originality and skill of the latter poet in his management of
+  metre and style. Nothing can be rougher and harsher than the
+  hexameters of Lucilius, or cruder than his expression. In his
+  management of the more natural trochaic metre, he has shown much
+  greater ease and simplicity. It is one great triumph of Horace's
+  genius that he was the first and indeed the only Latin writer who
+  could bend the stately hexameter to the uses of natural and easy, and
+  at the same time terse and happy, conversational style. Catullus, in
+  his hendecasyllabics, had shown the vivacity with which that light and
+  graceful metre could be employed in telling some short story or
+  describing some trivial situation dramatically. But no one before
+  Horace had succeeded in applying the metre of heroic verse to the uses
+  of common life. But he had one great native model in the mastery of a
+  terse, refined, ironical and natural conversational style, Terence;
+  and the _Satires_ show, not only in allusions to incidents and
+  personages, but in many happy turns of expression very frequent traces
+  of Horace's familiarity with the works of the Roman Menander.
+
+  The _Epistles_ are more original in form, more philosophic in spirit,
+  more finished and charming in style than the _Satires_. The form of
+  composition may have been suggested by that of some of the satires of
+  Lucilius, which were composed as letters to his personal friends. But
+  letter-writing in prose, and occasionally also in verse, had been
+  common among the Romans from the time of the siege of Corinth; and a
+  practice originating in the wants and convenience of friends
+  temporarily separated from one another by the public service was
+  ultimately cultivated as a literary accomplishment. It was a happy
+  idea of Horace to adopt this form for his didactic writings on life
+  and literature. It suited him as an eclectic and not a systematic
+  thinker, and as a friendly counsellor rather than a formal teacher of
+  his age. It suited his circumstances in the latter years of his life,
+  when his tastes inclined him more to retirement and study, while he
+  yet wished to retain his hold on society and to extend his relations
+  with younger men who were rising into eminence. It suited the class
+  who cared for literature--a limited circle of educated men, intimate
+  with one another, and sharing the same tastes and pursuits. While
+  giving expression to lessons applicable to all men, he in this way
+  seems to address each reader individually, with the urbanity of a
+  friend rather than the solemnity of a preacher. In spirit the
+  _Epistles_ are more ethical and meditative than the _Satires_. Like
+  the _Odes_ they exhibit the twofold aspects of his philosophy, that of
+  temperate Epicureanism and that of more serious and elevated
+  conviction. In the actual maxims which he lays down, in his apparent
+  belief in the efficacy of addressing philosophical texts to the mind,
+  he exemplifies the triteness and limitation of all Roman thought. But
+  the spirit and sentiment of his practical philosophy is quite genuine
+  and original. The individuality of the great Roman moralists, such as
+  Lucretius and Horace, appears not in any difference in the results at
+  which they have arrived, but in the difference of spirit with which
+  they regard the spectacle of human life. In reading Lucretius we are
+  impressed by his earnestness, his pathos, his elevation of feeling; in
+  Horace we are charmed by the serenity of his temper and the flavour of
+  a delicate and subtle wisdom. We note also in the _Epistles_ the
+  presence of a more philosophic spirit, not only in the expression of
+  his personal convictions and aims, but also in his comments on
+  society. In the _Satires_ he paints the outward effects of the
+  passions of the age. He shows us prominent types of character--the
+  miser, the parasite, the legacy-hunter, the parvenu, &c., but he does
+  not try to trace these different manifestations of life to their
+  source. In the _Epistles_ he finds the secret spring of the social
+  vices of the age in the desire, as marked in other times as in those
+  of Horace, to become rich too fast, and in the tendency to value men
+  according to their wealth, and to sacrifice the ends of life to a
+  superfluous care for the means of living. The cause of all this
+  aimless restlessness and unreasonable desire is summed up in the words
+  "Strenua nos exercet inertia."
+
+  In his _Satires_ and _Epistles_ Horace shows himself a genuine
+  moralist, a subtle observer and true painter of life, and an admirable
+  writer. But for both of these works he himself disclaims the title of
+  poetry. He rests his claims as a poet on his _Odes_. They reveal an
+  entirely different aspect of his genius, his spirit and his culture.
+  He is one among the few great writers of the world who have attained
+  high excellence in two widely separated provinces of literature.
+  Through all his life he was probably conscious of the "ingeni benigna
+  vena," which in his youth made him the sympathetic student and
+  imitator of the older lyrical poetry of Greece, and directed his
+  latest efforts to poetic criticism. But it was in the years that
+  intervened between the publication of his _Satires_ and _Epistles_
+  that his lyrical genius asserted itself as his predominant faculty. At
+  that time he had outlived the coarser pleasures and risen above the
+  harassing cares of his earlier career; a fresh source of happiness and
+  inspiration had been opened up to him in his beautiful Sabine retreat;
+  he had become not only reconciled to the rule of Augustus, but a
+  thoroughly convinced and, so far as his temperament admitted to
+  enthusiasm, an enthusiastic believer in its beneficence. But it was
+  only after much labour that his original vein of genius obtained a
+  free and abundant outlet. He lays no claim to the "profuse strains of
+  unpremeditated art," with which other great lyrical poets of ancient
+  and modern times have charmed the world. His first efforts were
+  apparently imitative, and were directed to the attainment of perfect
+  mastery over form, metre and rhythm. The first nine _Odes_ of the
+  first book are experiments in different kinds of metre. They and all
+  the other metres employed by him are based on those employed by the
+  older poets of Greece--Alcaeus, Sappho, Archilochus, Alcman, &c. He
+  has built the structure of his lighter _Odes_ also on their model,
+  while in some of those in which the matter is more weighty, as in that
+  in which he calls on Calliope "to dictate a long continuous strain,"
+  he has endeavoured to reproduce something of the intricate movement,
+  the abrupt transitions, the interpenetration of narrative and
+  reflection, which characterize the art of Pindar. He frequently
+  reproduces the language and some of the thoughts of his masters, but
+  he gives them new application, or stamps them with the impress of his
+  own experience. He brought the metres which he has employed to such
+  perfection that the art perished with him. A great proof of his
+  mastery over rhythm is the skill with which he has varied his metres
+  according to the sentiment which he wishes to express. Thus his great
+  metre, the Alcaic, has a character of stateliness and majesty in
+  addition to the energy and impetus originally imparted to it by
+  Alcaeus. The Sapphic metre he employs with a peculiar lightness and
+  vivacity which harmonize admirably with his gayer moods.
+
+  Again in regard to his diction, if Horace has learned his subtlety and
+  moderation from his Greek masters, he has tempered those qualities
+  with the masculine characteristics of his race. No writer is more
+  Roman in the stateliness and dignity, the terseness, occasionally even
+  in the sobriety and bare literalness, of his diction.
+
+  While it is mainly owing to the extreme care which Horace gave to
+  form, rhythm and diction that his own prophecy
+
+          "Usque ego postera
+    Crescam laude recens"
+
+  has been so amply fulfilled, yet no greater injustice could be done to
+  him than to rank him either as poet or critic with those who consider
+  form everything in literature. With Horace the mastery over the
+  vehicle of expression was merely an essential preliminary to making a
+  worthy and serious use of that vehicle. The poet, from Horace's point
+  of view, was intended not merely to give refined pleasure to a few,
+  but above all things, to be "utilis urbi." Yet he is saved, in his
+  practice, from the abuse of this theory by his admirable sense, his
+  ironical humour, his intolerance of pretension and pedantry. Opinions
+  will differ as to whether he or Catullus is to be regarded as the
+  greater lyrical poet. Those who assign the palm to Horace will do so,
+  certainly not because they recognize in him richer or equally rich
+  gifts of feeling, conception and expression, but because the subjects
+  to which his art has been devoted have a fuller, more varied, more
+  mature and permanent interest for the world.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For the life of Horace the chief authorities are his own
+  works and a short ancient biography which is attributed to Suetonius.
+  The _apparatus criticus_ is most fully described in O. Keller's
+  preface to vol. i. of the 2nd ed. (1899) of Keller and Holder's
+  recension of Horace's works. This edition also gives by far the
+  largest collection of variants and emendations to the text and of the
+  _testimonia_ of ancient writers.
+
+  What might have proved the most important manuscript of Horace, the
+  so-called _vetustissimus Blandinius_, is now lost, and we know it only
+  from the account of J. Cruquius who saw it in 1565. The relations of
+  the extant MSS. to each other and the presumed archetype present an
+  intricate problem; and Keller's solution has not proved generally
+  acceptable. See a _résumé_ of the controversy _Horazkritik seit 1880_
+  by J. Bick (Leipzig, 1906) and F. Vollmer in _Philologus_. Supp. x. 2,
+  pp. 261-322. Many MSS. of Horace contain ancient scholia which are
+  copied or taken with abridgment from the commentaries of Porphyrio,
+  who lived about A.D. 200, and Helenius Aero, a still earlier
+  grammarian. These scholia also have been collected and edited--the
+  Porphyrio scholia by A. Holder (1902) and the "Acronian" (or
+  pseudo-Acronian) by O. Keller (1902-1904). R. Bentley's epoch-making
+  edition (1711) has been reprinted with an index by Zangemeister
+  (1869). Of the modern commentaries the most useful are those of J. C.
+  Orelli (4th ed., revised by O. Hirschfelder and J. Mewes, 1886-1890,
+  with _index verborum_), and of A. Kiessling (revised by R. Heinze,
+  _Odes_, 1901, 1908, _Satires_, 1906, _Epistles_, 1898). The best
+  complete English commentary is that of E. C. Wickham (2 vols.,
+  1874-1896). Other editions with English notes are those of T. E. Page
+  (_Odes_, 1883), A. Palmer (_Satires_, 1883), A. S. Wilkins
+  (_Epistles_, 1885), J. Gow (_Odes_ and _Epodes_, 1896, _Satires_, i.,
+  1901), P. Shorey (_Odes_ and _Epodes_, 1898, Boston, U.S.A.). L.
+  Müller's elaborate edition of the _Odes_ and _Epodes_ was published
+  posthumously (1900). Of the critical editions Keller and Holder's
+  still holds the field: to this Keller's _Epilegomena zu Horaz_ (1879)
+  is a necessary adjunct. F. Vollmer's text (1907) uses Keller's
+  materials on a new principle. Of illustrated editions H. H. Milman's
+  (1867) and C. W. King's (1869, with text revised by H. A. J. Munro)
+  deserve mention. The best verse translation is that of J. Conington
+  lately reprinted with the Latin text from the recension in Postgate's
+  new _Corpus poetarum_. For further information see Teuffel's
+  _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_ (Eng. trans. by G. C. Warr), §§
+  234-240, and M. Schanz's excellent account in his _Geschichte der
+  römischen Litteratur_, vol. ii. §§ 251-266.     (W. Y. S.; J. G*.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The date is determined by the poem on the death of Quintilius
+    Varus (who died 24 B.C.), and by the reference in _Ode_ i. 12 to the
+    young Marcellus (died in autumn 23 B.C.) as still alive. Cf.
+    Wickham's Introduction to the _Odes_.
+
+
+
+
+HORAE (Lat. _hora_, hour), the Hours, in Greek mythology [Greek: Hôrai],
+originally the personification of a series of natural phenomena. In the
+_Iliad_ (v. 749) they are the custodians of the gates of Olympus, which
+they open or shut by scattering or condensing the clouds; that is, they
+are weather goddesses, who send down or withhold the fertilizing dews
+and rain. In the _Odyssey_, where they are represented as bringing round
+the seasons in regular order, they are an abstraction rather than a
+concrete personification. The brief notice in Hesiod (_Theog._ 901),
+where they are called the children of Zeus and Themis, who superintend
+the operations of agriculture, indicates by the names assigned to them
+(Eunomia, Dike, Eirene, i.e. Good Order, Justice, Peace) the extension
+of their functions as goddesses of order from nature to the events of
+human life, and at the same time invests them with moral attributes.
+Like the Moerae (Fates), they regulate the destinies of man, watch over
+the newly born, secure good laws and the administration of justice. The
+selection of three as their number has been supposed to refer to the
+most ancient division of the year into spring, summer and winter, but it
+is probably only another instance of the Greek liking for that
+particular number or its multiples in such connexions (three Moerae,
+Charites, Gorgons, nine Muses). Order and regularity being indispensable
+conditions of beauty, it was easy to conceive of the Horae as the
+goddesses of youthful bloom and grace, inseparably associated with the
+idea of springtime. As such they are companions of the Nymphs and
+Graces, with whom they are often confounded, and of other superior
+deities connected with the spring growth of vegetation (Demeter,
+Dionysus). At Athens they were two (or three) in number: Thallo and
+Carpo, the goddesses of the flowers of spring and of the fruits of
+summer, to whom Auxo, the goddess of the growth of plants, may be added,
+although some authorities make her only one of the Graces. In honour of
+the Horae a yearly festival (Horaea) was celebrated, at which protection
+was sought against the scorching heat and drought, and offerings were
+made of boiled meat as less insipid and more nutritious than roast. In
+later mythology, under Alexandrian influence, the Horae become the four
+seasons, daughters of Helios and Selene, each represented with the
+conventional attributes. Subsequently, when the day was divided into
+twelve equal parts, each of them took the name of Hora. Ovid (_Metam._
+ii. 26) describes them as placed at equal intervals on the throne of
+Phoebus, with whom are also associated the four seasons. Nonnus (5th
+century A.D.) in the _Dionysiaca_ also unites the twelve Horae as
+representing the day and the four Horae as the seasons in the palace of
+Helios.
+
+  See C. Lehrs, _Populäre Aufsätze_ (1856); J. H. Krause, _Die Musen,
+  Grazien, Horen, und Nymphen_ (1871); and the articles in Daremberg and
+  Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, J. A. Hild; and in Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_, W. Rapp.
+
+
+
+
+HORAPOLLON, of Phaenebythis in the nome of Panopolis in Egypt, Greek
+grammarian, flourished in the 4th century A.D. during the reign of
+Theodosius I. According to Suidas, he wrote commentaries on Sophocles,
+Alcaeus and Homer, and a work ([Greek: Temenika]) on places consecrated
+to the gods. Photius (cod. 279), who calls him a dramatist as well as a
+grammarian, ascribes to him a history of the foundation and antiquities
+of Alexandria (unless this is by an Egyptian of the same name, who lived
+In the reign of Zeno, 474-491). Under the name of Horapollon two books
+on _Hieroglyphics_ are extant, which profess to be a translation from an
+Egyptian original into Greek by a certain Philippus, of whom nothing is
+known. The inferior Greek of the translation, and the character of the
+additions in the second book point to its being of late date; some have
+even assigned it to the 15th century. Though a very large proportion of
+the statements seem absurd and cannot be accounted for by anything known
+in the latest and most fanciful usage, yet there is ample evidence in
+both the books, in individual cases, that the tradition of the values of
+the hieroglyphic signs was not yet extinct in the days of their author.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editions by C. Leemans (1835) and A. T. Cory (1840)
+  with English translation and notes; see also G. Rathgeber in Ersch and
+  Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopädie_; H. Schäfer, _Zeitschrift für
+  ägyptische Sprache_ (1905), p. 72.
+
+
+
+
+HORATII and CURIATII, in Roman legend, two sets of three brothers born
+at one birth on the same day--the former Roman, the latter Alban--the
+mothers being twin sisters. During the war between Rome and Alba Longa
+it was agreed that the issue should depend on a combat between the two
+families. Two of the Horatii were soon slain; the third brother feigned
+flight, and when the Curiatii, who were all wounded, pursued him without
+concert he slew them one by one. When he entered Rome in triumph, his
+sister recognized a cloak which he was wearing as a trophy as one she
+had herself made for her lover, one of the Curiatii. She thereupon
+invoked a curse upon her brother, who slew her on the spot. Horatius was
+condemned to be scourged to death, but on his appealing to the people
+his life was spared (Livy i. 25, 26; Dion. Halic. iii. 13-22). Monuments
+of the tragic story were shown by the Romans in the time of Livy (the
+altar of Janus Curiatius near the _sororium tigillum_, the "sister's
+beam," or yoke under which Horatius had to pass; and the altar of Juno
+Sororia). The legend was probably invented to account for the origin of
+the _provocatio_ (right of appeal to the people), while at the same time
+it points to the close connexion and final struggle for supremacy
+between the older city on the mountain and the younger city on the
+plain. Their relationship and origin from three tribes are symbolically
+represented by the twin sisters and the two sets of three brothers.
+
+  For a critical examination of the story, see Schwegler, _Römische
+  Geschichte_, bk. xii. 11. 14; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, _Credibility of
+  Early Roman History_, ch. xi. 15; W. Ihne, _Hist. of Rome_, i.; E.
+  Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 3 (1898), and _Ancient Legends of Roman
+  History_ (Eng. trans., 1906), where the story is connected with the
+  ceremonies performed in honour of Jupiter Tigillus and Juno Sororia;
+  C. Pascal, _Fatti e legende di Roma antica_ (Florence, 1903); O.
+  Gilbert, _Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum_
+  (1883-1885).
+
+
+
+
+HORATIUS COCLES, a legendary hero of ancient Rome. With two companions
+he defended the Sublician bridge against Lars Porsena and the whole army
+of the Etruscans, while the Romans cut down the bridge behind. Then
+Horatius threw himself into the Tiber and swam in safety to the shore. A
+statue was erected in his honour in the temple of Vulcan, and he
+received as much land as he could plough round in a single day.
+According to another version, Horatius alone defended the bridge, and
+was drowned in the Tiber.
+
+There is an obvious resemblance between the legend of Horatius Codes and
+that of the Horatii and Curiatii. In both cases three Romans come
+forward as the champions of Rome at a critical moment of her fortunes,
+and only one successfully holds his ground. In the one case, the
+locality is the land frontier, in the other, the boundary stream of
+Roman territory. E. Pais finds the origin of the story in the worship of
+Vulcan, and identifies Cocles (the "one-eyed") with one of the Cyclopes,
+who in mythology were connected with Hephaestus, and later with Vulcan.
+He concludes that the supposed statue of Cocles was really that of
+Vulcan, who, as one of the most ancient Roman divinities and, in fact,
+the protecting deity of the state, would naturally be confounded with
+the hero who saved it by holding the bridge against the invaders. He
+suggests that the legend arose from some religious ceremony, possibly
+the practice of throwing the stuffed figures called Argei into the Tiber
+from the Pons Sublicius on the ides of May. The conspicuous part played
+in Roman history by members of the Horatian family, who were connected
+with the worship of Jupiter Vulcanus, will explain the attribution of
+the name Horatius to Vulcan-Cocles.
+
+  See Livy ii. 10; Dion. Halic. v. 23-25; Polybius vi. 55; Plutarch,
+  _Poplicola_, 16. For a critical examination of the legend, see
+  Schwegler, _Römische Geschichte_, bk. xxi. 18; W. Ihne, _History of
+  Rome_, i.; E. Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 4 (1898), and _Ancient
+  Legends of Roman History_ (Eng. trans., 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HORDE, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Westphalia, is 2 m. S.E. from Dortmund on the railway to Soest. Pop.
+(1905) 28,461. It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, a
+synagogue and an old castle dating from about 1300. There are large
+smelting-works, foundries, puddling-works, rolling-mills and
+manufactures of iron and plated wares. In the neighbourhood there are
+large iron and coal mines. A tramway connects the town with Dortmund.
+
+
+
+
+HOREB, the ancient seat of Yahweh, the tribal god of the Kenites,
+adopted by His covenant by Israel. This is the name preferred by the
+Elohistic writer (E) whose work is interwoven into the Old Testament
+narrative, and he is followed by the Deuteronomist school (D). The
+Yahwistic writer (J), on the other hand, prefers to call the mountain
+Sinai (q.v.), and so do the priestly writers (P). This latter form
+became the more usual. There is no ground for distinguishing between
+Horeb as the range and Sinai as the single mountain, or between Horeb
+and Sinai as respectively the N. and S. parts of the range.
+
+
+
+
+HOREHOUND (O. Eng. _harhune_, Ger. _Andorn_, Fr. _marrube_). Common or
+white horehound, _Marrubium vulgare_, of the natural order _Labiatae_,
+is a perennial herb with a short stout rootstock, and thick stems, about
+1 ft. in height, which, as well as their numerous branches, are coated
+with a white or hoary felt--whence the popular name of the plant. The
+leaves have long petioles, and are roundish or rhombic-ovate, with a
+bluntly toothed margin, much wrinkled, white and woolly below and pale
+green and downy above; the flowers are sessile, in dense whorls or
+clusters, small and dull-white, with a 10-toothed calyx and the upper
+lobe of the corolla long and bifid. The plant occurs in Europe, North
+Africa and West Asia to North-West India, and has been naturalized in
+parts of America. In Britain, where it is found generally on sandy or
+dry chalky ground, it is far from common. White horehound contains a
+volatile oil, resin, a crystallizable bitter principle termed
+_marrubiin_ and other substances, and has a not unpleasant aromatic
+odour, and a persistent bitter taste. Formerly it was official in
+British pharmacopoeias; and the infusion, syrup or confection of
+horehound has long been in popular repute for the treatment of a host of
+dissimilar affections. Black horehound, _Ballota nigra_, is a hairy
+perennial herb, belonging to the same order, of foetid odour, is 2 to 3
+ft. in height, and has stalked, roundish-ovate, toothed leaves and
+numerous flowers, in dense axillary clusters, with a green or purplish
+calyx, and a pale red-purple corolla. It occurs in Europe, North Africa
+and West Asia, and in Britain south of the Forth and Clyde, and has been
+introduced into North America.
+
+[Illustration: Horehound.]
+
+
+
+
+HORGEN, a small town in the Swiss canton of Zürich, situated on the left
+or west shore of the Lake of Zürich, and by rail 10½ m. S.E. of the town
+of Zürich. Pop. (1900) 6883, mostly German-speaking and Protestants. It
+possesses many industrial establishments of various kinds, and is a
+centre of the Zürich silk manufacture. It came in 1406 into the
+possession of Zürich, with which it communicates by means of steamers on
+the lake, as well as by rail.
+
+
+
+
+HORIZON (Gr. [Greek: horizôn], dividing), the apparent circle around
+which the sky and earth seem to meet. At sea this circle is well
+defined, the line being called the sea horizon, which divides the
+visible surface of the ocean from the sky. In astronomy the horizon is
+that great circle of the sphere the plane of which is at right angles to
+the direction of the plumb line. Sometimes a distinction is made between
+the rational and the apparent horizon, the former being the horizon as
+determined by a plane through the centre of the earth, parallel to that
+through the station of an observer. But on the celestial sphere the
+great circles of these two planes are coincident, so that this
+distinction is not necessary (see ASTRONOMY: _Spherical_). The _Dip_ of
+the horizon at sea is the angular depression of the apparent sea
+horizon, or circle bounding the visible ocean, below the apparent
+celestial horizon as above defined. It is due to the rotundity of the
+earth, and the height of the observer's eye above the water. The dip of
+the horizon and its distance in sea-miles when the height of the
+observer's eye above the sea-level is h feet, are approximately given by
+the formulae: Dip = 0´.97 [root]h; Distance = 1^m·17 [root]h. The
+difference between the coefficients 0.97 and 1.17 arises from the
+refraction of the ray, but for which they would be equal.
+
+
+
+
+HORMAYR, JOSEPH, BARON VON (1782-1848), German statesman and historian,
+was born at Innsbruck on the 20th of January 1782. After studying law in
+his native town, and attaining the rank of captain in the Tirolese
+Landwehr, the young man, who had the advantage of being the grandson of
+Joseph von Hormayr (1705-1778), chancellor of Tirol, obtained a post in
+the foreign office at Vienna (1801), from which he rose in 1803 to be
+court secretary and, being a near friend of the Archduke John, director
+of the secret archives of the state and court for thirteen months. In
+1803 he married Therese Anderler von Hohenwald. During the insurrection
+of 1809, by which the Tirolese sought to throw off the Bavarian
+supremacy confirmed by the treaty of Pressburg, Hormayr was the mainstay
+of the Austrian party, and assumed the administration of everything
+(especially the composition of proclamations and pamphlets); but,
+returning home without the prestige of success, he fell, in spite of the
+help of the Archduke John, into disfavour both with the emperor Francis
+I. and with Prince Metternich, and at length, when in 1813 he tried to
+stir up a new insurrection in Tirol, he was arrested and imprisoned at
+Munkatt. In 1816 some amends were made to him by his appointment as
+imperial historiographer; but so little was he satisfied with the
+general policy and conduct of the Austrian court that in 1828 he
+accepted an invitation of King Louis I. to the Bavarian capital, where
+he became ministerial councillor in the department of foreign affairs.
+In 1832 he was appointed Bavarian minister-resident at Hanover, and from
+1837 to 1846 he held the same position at Bremen. Together with Count
+Johann Friedrich von der Decken (1769-1840) he founded the Historical
+Society of Lower Saxony (Historischer Verein für Niedersachsen). The
+last two years of his life were spent at Munich as superintendent of the
+national archives. He died on the 5th of October 1848.
+
+Hormayr's literary activity was closely conditioned by the circumstances
+of his political career and by the fact that Johannes von Müller (d.
+1611) was his teacher: while his access to original documents gave value
+to his treatment of the past, his record or criticism of contemporary
+events received authority and interest from his personal experience. But
+his history of the Tirolese rebellion is far from being impartial; for
+he always liked to put himself into the first place, and the merits of
+Andreas Hofer and of other leaders are not sufficiently acknowledged. In
+his later writings he appears as a keen opponent of the policy of the
+court of Vienna.
+
+  The following are among Hormayr's more important works: _Geschichte
+  des Grafen von Andechs_ (1796); _Lexikon für Reisenden in Tirol_
+  (1796); _Kritisch-diplomatische Beiträge zur Geschichte Tirols im
+  Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Innsbruck, 1802-1803, new ed., 1805); _Gesch.
+  der gefürst. Grafschaft Tirol_ (2 vols., Tübingen, 1806-1808);
+  _Österreichischer Plutarch_, 20 vols., collection of portraits and
+  biographies of the most celebrated administrators, commanders and
+  statesmen of Austria (Vienna, 1807); an edition of Beauchamp's
+  _Histoire de la guerre en Vendée_ (1809); _Geschichte Hofers_ (1817,
+  2nd ed., 2 vols., 1845) and other pamphlets; _Archiv für Gesch.,
+  Stat., Lit. und Kunst_ (20 vols., 1809-1828); _Allgemeine Geschichte
+  der neuesten Zeit vom Tod Friedricks des Grossen bis zum zweiten
+  Pariser Frieden_ (3 vols., Vienna, 1814-1819, 2nd ed., 1891); _Wien,
+  seine Gesch. und Denkwürdigkeiten_ (5 vols., Vienna, 1823-1824);
+  together with _Fragmente über Deutschland, in Sonderheit Bayerns
+  Welthandel; Lebensbilder aus dem Befreiungskriege_ (3 vols., Jena,
+  1841-1844, 2nd ed., 1845); _Die goldene Chronik von Hohenschwangau_
+  (Munich, 1842); _Anemonen aus dem Tagebuch eines alten Pilgersmanns_
+  (4 vols., Jena, 1845-1847). Together with Mednyanski (1784-1844) he
+  founded the _Taschenbuch für die Vaterland. Gesch._ (Vienna,
+  1811-1848).
+
+  See T. H. Merdau, _Biographische Züge aus dem Leben deutscher Männer_
+  (Leipzig, 1815); Gräffer, _Österreichische National-Encyclopädie_, ii.
+  (1835); _Taschenbuch für vaterländische Geschichte_ (1836 and 1847);
+  _Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen_ (1848); _Blätter für literarische
+  Unterhaltung_ (1849); Wurzbach, _Österreichisches biographisches
+  Lexikon_, ix. (1863); K. Th. von Heigel in the _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_ (1881) and F. X. Wegele, _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Historiographie_ (Munich and Leipzig, 1885); F. v. Krones, _Aus
+  Österreichs stillen und bewegten Jahren 1810-1815_; _Biographie und
+  Briefe an Erzhz. Johann_ (Innsbruck, 1892); Hirn, _Tiroler Aufstand_
+  (1909).     (J. Hn.)
+
+
+
+
+HORMISDAS, pope from 514 to 523 in succession to Symmachus, was a native
+of Campania. He is known as having succeeded in obtaining the reunion of
+the Eastern and Western Churches, which had been separated since the
+excommunication of Acacius in 484. After two unsuccessful attempts under
+the emperor Anastasius I., Hormisdas had no difficulty in coming to an
+understanding in 518 with his successor Justin. Legates were despatched
+to Constantinople; the memorial of the schismatic patriarchs was
+condemned; and union was resumed with the Holy See.
+
+  Details of this transaction have come down to us in the _Collectio
+  Avellana_ (_Corpus script. eccl. Vindobon._, vol. xxv., Nos. 105-203;
+  cf. Andreas Thiel, _Epp. Rom. Pont._ i. 741 seq.).
+
+
+
+
+HORMIZD, or HORMIZDAS, the name of five kings of the Sassanid dynasty
+(see PERSIA: _Ancient History_). The name is another form of Ahuramazda
+or Ormuzd (Ormazd), which under the Sassanids became a common personal
+name and was borne not only by many generals and officials of their time
+(it therefore occurs very often on Persian seals), but even by the pope
+of Rome noticed above. It is strictly an abbreviation of Hormuzd-dad,
+"given by Ormuzd," which form is preserved by Agathias iv. 24-25 as name
+of King Hormizd I. and II. ([Greek: Hormisdatês]).
+
+1. HORMIZD I. (272-273) was the son of Shapur I., under whom he was
+governor of Khorasan, and appears in his wars against Rome (Trebellius
+Pollio, _Trig. Tyr._ 2, where Nöldeke has corrected the name Odomastes
+into Oromastes, i.e. Hormizd). In the Persian tradition of the history
+of Ardashir I., preserved in a Pahlavi text (Nöldeke, _Geschichte des
+Artachsir I. Papakan_), he is made the son of a daughter of Mithrak, a
+Persian dynast, whose family Ardashir had extirpated because the magians
+had predicted that from his blood would come the restorer of the empire
+of Iran. Only this daughter is preserved by a peasant; Shapur sees her
+and makes her his wife, and her son Hormizd is afterwards recognized and
+acknowledged by Ardashir. In this legend, which has been partially
+preserved also in Tabari, the great conquests of Shapur are transferred
+to Hormizd. In reality he reigned only one year and ten days.
+
+2. HORMIZD II., son of Narseh, reigned for seven years five months,
+302-309. Of his reign nothing is known. After his death his son
+Adarnases was killed by the grandees after a very short reign, as he
+showed a cruel disposition; another son, Hormizd, was kept a prisoner,
+and the throne reserved for the child with which a concubine of Hormizd
+II. was pregnant and which received the name Shapur II. Hormizd escaped
+from prison by the help of his wife in 323, and found refuge at the
+court of Constantine the Great (Zosim. ii. 27; John of Antioch, fr. 178;
+Zonar. 13.5), In 363 Hormizd served in the army of Julian against
+Persia; his son, with the same name, became consul in 366 (Ammian. Marc.
+26. 8. 12).
+
+3. HORMIZD III., son of Yazdegerd I., succeeded his father in 457. He
+had continually to fight with his brothers and with the Ephthalites in
+Bactria, and was killed by Peroz in 459.
+
+4. HORMIZD IV., son of Chosroes I., reigned 578-590. He seems to have
+been imperious and violent, but not without some kindness of heart. Some
+very characteristic stories are told of him by Tabari (Nöldeke,
+_Geschichte d. Perser und Araber unter den Sasaniden_, 264 ff.). His
+father's sympathies had been with the nobles and the priests. Hormizd
+protected the common people and introduced a severe discipline in his
+army and court. When the priests demanded a persecution of the
+Christians, he declined on the ground that the throne and the government
+could only be safe if it gained the goodwill of both concurring
+religions. The consequence was that he raised a strong opposition in the
+ruling classes, which led to many executions and confiscations. When he
+came to the throne he killed his brothers, according to the oriental
+fashion. From his father he had inherited a war against the Byzantine
+empire and against the Turks in the east, and negotiations of peace had
+just begun with the emperor Tiberius, but Hormizd haughtily declined to
+cede anything of the conquests of his father. Therefore the accounts
+given of him by the Byzantine authors, Theophylact, Simocatta (iii. 16
+ff.), Menander Protector and John of Ephesus (vi. 22), who give a full
+account of these negotiations, are far from favourable. In 588 his
+general, Bahram Chobin, defeated the Turks, but in the next year was
+beaten by the Romans; and when the king superseded him he rebelled with
+his army. This was the signal for a general insurrection. The magnates
+deposed and blinded Hormizd and proclaimed his son Chosroes II. king. In
+the war which now followed between Bahram Chobin and Chosroes II.
+Hormizd was killed by some partisans of his son (590).
+
+5. HORMIZD V. was one of the many pretenders who rose after the murder
+of Chosroes II. (628). He maintained himself about two years (631, 632)
+in the district of Nisibis.     (Ed. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HORMUZ (_Hurmuz_, _Ormuz_, _Ormus_), a famous city on the shores of the
+Persian Gulf, which occupied more than one position in the course of
+history, and has now long practically ceased to exist. The earliest
+mention of the name occurs in the voyage of Nearchus (325 B.C.). When
+that admiral beached his fleet at the mouth of the river Anamis on the
+shore of Harmozia, a coast district of Carmania, he found the country to
+be kindly, rich in every product except the olive. The Anamis appears to
+be the river now known as the Minab, discharging into the Persian Gulf
+near the entrance of the latter. The name Hormuz is derived by some from
+that of the Persian god Hormuzd (Ormazd), but it is more likely that the
+original etymology was connected with _khurma_, "a date"; for the
+meaning of Moghistan the modern name of the territory Harmozia is "the
+region of date-palms." The foundation of the city of Hormuz in this
+territory is ascribed by one Persian writer to the Sassanian Ardashir
+Babegan (c. 230 A.D.). But it must have existed at an earlier date, for
+Ptolemy takes note of [Greek: Harmonza polis] (vi. 8).
+
+Hormuz is mentioned by Idrisi, who wrote c. 1150, under the title of
+Hormuz-al-sahiliah, "Hormuz of the shore" (to distinguish it from inland
+cities of the same name then existing), as a large and well-built city,
+the chief mart of Kirman. Siraf and Kish (Kais), farther up the gulf,
+had preceded it as ports of trade with India, but in the 13th century
+Hormuz had become the chief seat of this traffic. It was at this time
+the seat also of a petty dynasty of kings, of which there is a history
+by one of their number (Turan Shah); an abstract of it is given by the
+Jesuit Teixeira. According to this history the founder of the dynasty
+was Shah Mohammed Dirhem-Kub ("the Drachma-coiner"), an Arab chief who
+crossed the gulf and established himself here. The date is not given,
+but it must have been before 1100 A.D., as Ruknuddin Mahmud, who
+succeeded in 1246, was the twelfth of the line. These princes appear to
+have been at times in dependence necessarily on the atabegs of Fars and
+on the princes of Kirman. About the year 1300 Hormuz was so severely and
+repeatedly harassed by raids of Tatar horsemen that the king and his
+people abandoned their city on the mainland and transferred themselves
+to the island of Jerun (Organa of Nearchus), about 12 m. westward and 4
+m. from the nearest shore.
+
+The site of the continental or ancient Hormuz was first traced in modern
+times by Colonel (Sir Lewis) Pelly when resident at Bushire. It stands
+in the present district of Minab, several miles from the sea, and on a
+creek which communicates with the Minab river, but is partially silted
+up and not now accessible for vessels. There remain traces of a long
+wharf and extensive ruins. The new city occupied a triangular plain
+forming the northern part of the island, the southern wall, as its
+remains still show, being about 2 m. in extent from east to west. A
+suburb with a wharf or pier, called Turan Bagh (garden of Turan) after
+one of the kings, a name now corrupted to Trumpak, stood about 3 m. from
+the town to the south-east.
+
+Odoric gives the earliest notice we have of the new city (c. 1320). He
+calls it Ormes, a city strongly fortified and abounding in costly wares,
+situated on an island 5 m. distant from the main, having no trees and no
+fresh water, unhealthy and (as all evidence confirms) incredibly hot.
+Some years later it was visited more than once by Ibn Batuta, who seems
+to speak of the old city as likewise still standing. The new Hormuz,
+called also Jerun (i.e. still retaining the original name of the
+island), was a great and fine city rising out of the sea, and serving as
+a mart for all the products of India, which were distributed hence over
+all Persia. The hills on the island were of rock-salt, from which vases
+and pedestals for lamps were carved. Near the gate of the chief mosque
+stood an enormous skull, apparently that of a sperm-whale. The king at
+this time was Kutbuddin Tahamtan, and the traveller gives a curious
+description of him, seated on the throne, in patched and dirty raiment,
+holding a rosary of enormous pearls, procured from the Bahrein
+fisheries, which at one time or another belonged, with other islands in
+the gulf and on the Oman shores from Ras-el-had (C. Rosalgat of the
+Portuguese) on the ocean round to Julfar on the gulf, to the princes of
+Hormuz. Abdurazzak, the envoy of Shah Rukh on his way to the Hindu court
+of Vijayanagar, was in Hormuz in 1442, and speaks of it as a mart which
+had no equal, frequented by the merchants of all the countries of Asia,
+among which he enumerates China, Java, Bengal, Tenasserim, Shahr-i-nao
+(i.e. Siam) and the Maldives. Nikitin, the Russian (c. 1470), gives a
+similar account; he calls it "a vast emporium of all the world."
+
+In September 1507 the king of Hormuz, after for some time hearing of the
+terrible foe who was carrying fire and sword along the shores of Arabia,
+saw the squadron of Alphonso d'Albuquerque appear before his city, an
+appearance speedily followed by extravagant demands, by refusal of these
+from the ministers of the young king, and by deeds of matchless daring
+and cruelty on the part of the Portuguese, which speedily broke down
+resistance. The king acknowledged himself tributary to Portugal, and
+gave leave to the Portuguese to build a castle, which was at once
+commenced on the northern part of the island, commanding the city and
+the anchorage on both sides. But the mutinous conduct and desertion of
+several of Albuquerque's captains compelled him suddenly to abandon the
+enterprise; and it was not till 1514, after the great leader had
+captured Goa and Malacca, and had for five years been viceroy, that he
+returned to Hormuz (or Ormuz, as the Portuguese called it), and without
+encountering resistance to a name now so terrible, laid his grasp again
+on the island and completed his castle. For more than a century Hormuz
+remained practically in the dominions of Portugal, though the hereditary
+prince, paying from his revenues a tribute to Portugal (in lieu of which
+eventually the latter took the whole of the customs collections),
+continued to be the instrument of government. The position of things
+during the Portuguese rule may be understood from the description of
+Cesare de' Federici, a Venetian merchant who was at Hormuz about 1565.
+After speaking of the great trade in spices, drugs, silk and silk
+stuffs, and pearls of Bahrein, and in horses for export to India, he
+says the king was a Moor (i.e. Mahommedan), chosen by and subordinate to
+the Portuguese. "At the election of the king I was there and saw the
+ceremonies that they use.... The old king being dead, the captain of the
+Portugals chooseth another of the blood-royal, and makes this election
+in the castle with great ceremony. And when he is elected the captain
+sweareth him to be true ... to the K. of Portugal as his lord and
+governor, and then he giveth him the sceptre regal. After this ... with
+great pomp ... he is brought into the royal palace in the city. The king
+keeps a good train and hath sufficient revenues, ... because the captain
+of the castle doth maintain and defend his right ... he is honoured as a
+king, yet he cannot ride abroad with his train, without the consent of
+the captain first had" (in Hakluyt).[1]
+
+The rise of the English trade and factories in the Indian seas in the
+beginning of the 17th century led to constant jealousies and broils with
+the Portuguese, and the successful efforts of the English company to
+open traffic with Persia especially embittered their rivals, to whom the
+possession of Hormuz had long given a monopoly of that trade. The
+officers of Shah Abbas, who looked with a covetous and resentful eye on
+the Portuguese occupation of such a position, were strongly desirous of
+the aid of English ships in attacking Hormuz. During 1620 and 1621 the
+ships of Portugal and of the English company had more than once come to
+action in the Indian seas, and in November of the latter year the
+council at Surat had resolved on what was practically maritime war with
+the Portuguese flag. There was hardly a step between this and the
+decision come to in the following month to join with "the duke of
+Shiraz" (Imam Kuli Khan, the governor of Fars) in the desired expedition
+against Hormuz. There was some pretext of being forced into the alliance
+by a Persian threat to lay embargo on the English goods at Jashk; but
+this seems to have been only brought forward by the English agents when,
+at a later date, their proceedings were called in question. The English
+crews were at first unwilling to take part in what they justly said was
+"no merchandizing business, nor were they engaged for the like," but
+they were persuaded, and five English vessels aided, first, in the
+attack of Kishm, where (at the east end of the large island so called)
+the Portuguese had lately built a fort,[2] and afterwards in that of
+Hormuz itself. The latter siege was opened on the 18th of February 1622,
+and continued to the 1st of May, when the Portuguese, after a gallant
+defence of ten weeks, surrendered. It is to be recollected that Portugal
+was at this time subject to the crown of Spain, with which England was
+at peace; indeed, it was but a year later that the prince of Wales went
+on his wooing adventure to the Spanish court. The irritation there was
+naturally great, though it is surprising how little came of it. The
+company were supposed (apparently without foundation) to have profited
+largely by the Hormuz booty; and both the duke of Buckingham and the
+king claimed to be "sweetened," as the record phrases it, from this
+supposed treasure. The former certainly received a large bribe
+(£10,000). The conclusion of the transaction with the king was formerly
+considered doubtful; but entries in the calendar of East India papers
+seem to show that James received an equal sum.[3]
+
+Hormuz never recovered from this blow. The Persians transferred their
+establishments to Gombroon on the mainland, about 12 m. to the
+north-west, which the king had lately set up as a royal port under the
+name of Bander Abbasi. The English stipulations for aid had embraced an
+equal division of the customs duties. This division was apparently
+recognized by the Persians as applying to the new Bander, and, though
+the trade with Persia was constantly decaying and precarious, the
+company held to their factory at Gombroon for the sake of this claim to
+revenue, which of course was most irregularly paid. In 1683-1684 the
+amount of debt due to the company in Persia, including their proportion
+of customs duties, was reckoned at a million sterling. As late as
+1690-1691 their right seems to have been admitted, and a payment of 3495
+sequins was received by them on this account. The factory at Gombroon
+lingered on till 1759, when it was seized by two French ships of war
+under Comte d'Estaing. It was re-established, but at the time of
+Niebuhr's visit to the gulf a few years later no European remained.
+Niebuhr mentions that in his time (c. 1765) Mulla 'Ali Shah, formerly
+admiral of Nadir Shah, was established on the island of Hormuz and part
+of Kishm as an independent chief.
+
+  See also Barros, _Asia_; _Commentaries of Albuquerque_, trans. by
+  Birch (Hak. Society); _Relaciones de Pedro Teixeira_ (Antwerp, 1610);
+  Narratives in Hakluyt's _Collection_ (reprint in 1809, vol. ii.) and
+  in Purchas's _Pilgrims_, vol. ii.; Pietro della Valle, _Persia_, lett.
+  xii.-xvii.; _Calendar of E. I. Papers_, by Sainsbury, vol. iii.;
+  Ritter, _Erdkunde_, xii.; _Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc._, Kempthorne in vol.
+  v., White-locke in vol. viii., Pelly in vol. xxxiv.; Fraser,
+  _Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan_ (1825); Constable and Stifle,
+  _Persian Gulf Pilot_ (1864); Bruce, _Annals of the E. I. Company_, &c.
+  (1810).     (H. Y.)
+
+The island has a circumference of 16 m. and its longest axis measures 4½
+m. The village is in 27° 6´ N., 56° 29´ E. The Portuguese fort still
+stands, but is sadly out of repair and much of its western wall has been
+undermined and washed away by the action of the sea. It is a bastioned
+fort with orillons and loopholed casemates under the ramparts and was
+separated from the town by a deep moat, now silted up, cut E.-W. across
+the isthmus and crossed by a bridge. It has three cisterns for
+collecting rainwater; two are 17-18 ft. deep, have a capacity of about
+60,000 gallons and are covered by arched roofs supported on six stone
+pillars. The third cistern is smaller and has no roof. Five rusty old
+iron guns are lying prone on the roof; six others on the strand before
+the village are used for fastening boats, another serves as a socket for
+a flagstaff before the representative of the government. The island is
+under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Persian Gulf ports who
+resides at Bushire. Of the old city hardly anything stands except a
+minaret, 70 ft. high, with a winding staircase inside and much worn away
+at the base, part of a former mosque used by the Portuguese as a
+lighthouse, but the traces of buildings, massive foundations constructed
+of stone quarried in the hills on the island, of many cisterns (some say
+300), &c., are numerous and extensive. The modern settlement, situated
+south of the fort on the eastern shore, has a population of about 1000
+during the cool season, but less in the hot season, when many people go
+over to Minab on the mainland to the east. Most of the people live in
+huts constructed of the branches and leaves of the date palm. They own
+about sixty small sailing vessels trading to Muscat and other ports and
+also do some pearl-fishing. At Turan Bagh on the east coast 4½ m. S.E.
+of the fort are some considerable ruins, irrigation canals, an extensive
+burial ground and some huts occupied by a few families who cultivate a
+small garden on a terrace supported by old retaining walls. On a hill
+near the shore 1½ m. S.E. of the fort is the ruin of a small chapel
+called "Santa Lucia" on an old map in Astley's _Collection of Voyages_,
+and on the summit of a salt hill 1½ m. south of the fort are the remains
+of another chapel called "N.S. de la Pena" on the same map, and a
+"Monastery" in a sketch of Hormuz made by David Davies, a mate on board
+the East India Company's ship "Discovery" in 1627. With the exception of
+the northern part, where the old city stood, and the little patch at
+Turan Bagh, the island is covered with reddish brown hills with sharp
+serrated ridges composed of gypsum, rock-salt and clay. These hills,
+which do not exceed 300 ft. in height, are broken through in four places
+by conical, whitish peaks of volcanic rocks (greenstone, trachyte); the
+highest of these peaks with an altitude of 690 ft. is situated almost in
+the centre of the island.
+
+The island has extensive beds of red ochre in which nodules of very pure
+hematite are often found. The ochre, here called _gilek_, has been an
+important article of export for centuries[4] and great quantities of it
+are exported at the present time to England (in 1906-1907, 10,000 tons;
+local price 27s. the ton). The climate of Hormuz, although hot, is,
+according to medical experts, the best in the Persian Gulf. Rain falls
+in January, February and March, and the annual rainfall is said to be
+about the same as that of Bushire, 12 to 13 in.
+
+  Capt. A. W. Stiffe in _Geogr. Mag._ (April 1874); William Foster in
+  _Geogr. Journal_ (Aug. 1894); writer's notes taken on island.
+       (A. H.-S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In Barros, _Dec. II._ book x. c. 7, there is a curious detail of
+    the revenue and expenditure of the kingdom of Ormuz, which would seem
+    to exhibit the former as not more than £100,000.
+
+  [2] The attack on Kishm was notable in that one of the two Englishmen
+    killed there was the great navigator Baffin.
+
+  [3] _Colonial Series, E. Indies_, by Sainsbury, vol. iii. _passim_,
+    especially see pp. 296 and 329.
+
+  [4] "Reddle or Red Ochre from the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire
+    is very little inferior to the Sort brought from the Island of Ormuz
+    in the Persian Gulph and so much valued and used by our Painters
+    under the name of Indian Red" (Sir John Hill, _Theophrastus's History
+    of Stones_, London, 1774).
+
+
+
+
+HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742), Swedish statesman, was born at
+Vuorentaka in Finland on the 6th of April 1664, of a noble but indigent
+family. After completing his studies at Åbo, he entered the army and
+served for several years in the Netherlands, in Hungary under Prince
+Eugene, and in Flanders under Waldeck (1690-1695). He stood high in the
+favour of the young Charles XII. and was one of his foremost generals in
+the earlier part of the great Northern War. In 1704 he was entrusted
+with his first diplomatic mission, the deposition of Augustus II. of
+Poland and the election of Stanislaus I., a mission which he
+accomplished with distinguished ability but absolute unscrupulousness.
+Shortly afterwards he was besieged by Augustus in Warsaw and compelled
+to surrender. In 1705 he was made a senator, in 1706 a count and in 1707
+governor of Charles XII.'s nephew, the young duke Charles Frederick of
+Holstein-Gottorp. In 1710 he succeeded Nils Gyldenstolpe as prime
+minister. Transferred to the central point of the administration, he had
+ample opportunity of regarding with other eyes the situation of the
+kingdom, and in consequence of his remonstrances he fell rapidly in the
+favour of Charles XII. Both in 1710 and 1713 Horn was in favour of
+summoning the estates, but when in 1714 the diet adopted an
+anti-monarchical attitude, he gravely warned and ultimately dissolved
+it. In Charles XII.'s later years Horn had little to do with the
+administration. After the death of Charles XII. (1718) it was Horn who
+persuaded the princess Ulrica Leonora to relinquish her hereditary
+claims and submit to be _elected_ queen of Sweden. He protested against
+the queen's autocratic behaviour, and resigned both the premiership and
+his senatorship. He was elected _landtmarskalk_ at the diet of 1720, and
+contributed, on the resignation of Ulrica Leonora, to the election of
+Frederick of Hesse as king of Sweden, whose first act was to restore to
+him the office of prime minister. For the next eighteen years he so
+absolutely controlled both the foreign and the domestic affairs of
+Sweden that the period between 1720 and 1738 has well been called the
+Horn period. His services to his country were indeed inestimable. His
+strong hand kept the inevitable strife of the parliamentary factions
+within due limits, and it was entirely owing to his provident care that
+Sweden so rapidly recovered from the wretched condition in which the
+wars of Charles XII. had plunged her. In his foreign policy Horn was
+extremely wary and cautious, yet without compromising either the
+independence or the self-respect of his country. He was, however, the
+promoter of a new principle of administration which in later days proved
+very dangerous to Sweden under ministers less capable than he was. This
+was to increase the influence of the diet and its secret committees in
+the solution of purely diplomatic questions, which should have been left
+entirely to the executive, thus weakening the central government and at
+the same time facilitating the interference of foreign Powers in
+Sweden's domestic affairs. Not till 1731 was there any appearance of
+opposition in the diet to Horn's "system"; but Horn, piqued by the
+growing coolness of the king, the same year offered his resignation,
+which was not accepted. In 1734, however, the opposition was bold enough
+to denounce his neutrality on the occasion of the war of the Polish
+Succession, when Stanislaus I. again appeared upon the scene as a
+candidate for the Polish throne; but Horn was still strong enough to
+prevent a rupture with Russia. Henceforth he was bitterly but unjustly
+accused of want of patriotism, and in 1738 was compelled at last to
+retire before the impetuous onslaught of the triumphant young Hat party.
+For the rest of his life he lived in retirement at his estate at
+Ekebyholm, where he died on the 17th of April 1742. Horn in many
+respects greatly resembled his contemporary Walpole. The peculiar
+situation of Sweden, and the circumstances of his time, made his policy
+necessarily opportunist, but it was an opportunism based on excellent
+common sense.
+
+  See V. E. Svedelius, _Arvid Bernard Horn_ (Stockholm, 1879); R. N.
+  Bain, _Gustavus III._, vol. i. (London, 1894), and _Charles XII._
+  (1895); C. F. Horn, _A. B. Horn: hans lefnad_ (Stockholm, 1852).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT OF (1518-1568), a man of illustrious
+descent and great possessions in the Netherlands, became in succession
+under Charles V. and Philip II. stadtholder of Gelderland, admiral of
+Flanders and knight of the Golden Fleece. In 1559 he commanded the
+stately fleet which conveyed Philip II. from the Netherlands to Spain,
+and he remained at the Spanish court till 1563. On his return he placed
+himself with the prince of Orange and Count Egmont at the head of the
+party which opposed the policy of Cardinal Granvella. When Granvella
+retired the three great nobles continued to resist the introduction of
+the Spanish Inquisition and of Spanish despotic rule into the
+Netherlands. But though Philip appeared for a time to give way, he had
+made up his mind to visit the opponents of his policy with ruthless
+punishment. The regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma, was replaced by the
+duke of Alva, who entered the Netherlands at the head of a veteran army
+and at once began to crush all opposition with a merciless hand. Orange
+fled from the country, but Egmont and Horn, despite his warning, decided
+to remain and face the storm. They were both seized, tried and condemned
+as traitors, and were executed on the 5th of June 1568 in the great
+square before the town hall at Brussels.
+
+  See biographical notices in A. J. van der Aa, _Biographisch
+  Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (Haarlem, 1851-1879); J. Kok,
+  _Vaderlandsch Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1785-1799); also bibliography
+  to chaps. vi. vii. and xix. in _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iii.
+  pp. 798-809 (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HORN, English hero of romance. _King Horn_ is a heroic poem or gest of
+1546 lines dating from the 13th century. Murry (or Allof), king of
+Sudenne[1] (Surrey and Sussex?) is slain by Saracen pirates who turn his
+son Horn adrift with twelve other children. The boat drifts to
+Westernesse[2] (Cornwall?), where the children are received by King
+Aylmer (Aethelmaer). Presently Horn is denounced by one of his
+companions as the lover of the king's daughter Rymenhild (Rimel) and is
+banished, taking with him a ring, the gift of his bride and a talisman
+against danger. In Ireland, under the name of Godmod, he serves for
+seven years, and slays in battle the Saracens who had killed his father.
+Learning that Rymenhild is to be married against her will to King Mody,
+he returns to Westernesse disguised as a palmer, and makes himself known
+to the bride by dropping the ring into the cup she offers him, with the
+words "Drink to Horn of Horn." He then reconquers his father's kingdom
+and marries Rymenhild.
+
+  The other versions of the story, which are founded on a common
+  tradition, but are not immediately dependent on one another, are: (1)
+  the longer French romance of _Horn et Rimenhild_ by "mestre Thomas,"
+  describing more complex social conditions than those of the English
+  poem; (2) a slightly shorter Middle English poem, _Horn Childe and
+  Maiden Rimnild_; (3) the Scottish ballad of "Hind Horn;" (4) a prose
+  romance founded on the French _Horn_, entitled _Pontus et Sidoine_
+  (Lyons, 1480, Eng. trans. pr. by Wynkyn de Worde, 1511; German trans.
+  Augsburg, 1483).
+
+There is a marked resemblance between the story of Horn and the legend
+of Havelok the Dane, and it is interesting to note how closely Richard
+of Ely followed the Horn tradition in the 12th century _De gestis
+Herewardi Saxonis_. Hereward also loves an Irish princess, flees to
+Ireland, and returns in time for the bridal feast, where he is presented
+with a cup by the princess. The orphaned prince who recovers his
+father's kingdom and avenges his murder, and the maid or wife who waits
+years for an absent lover or husband, and is rescued on the eve of a
+forced marriage, are common characters in romance. The second of these
+motives, with almost identical incidents, occurs in the legend of Henry
+the Lion, duke of Brunswick; it is the subject of ballads in Swedish,
+Danish, German, Bohemian, &c., and of a _Historia_ by Hans Sachs, though
+some magic elements are added; it also occurs in the ballad of _Der edle
+Moringer_ (14th century), well known in Sir Walter Scott's translation;
+in the story of Torello in the _Decameron_ of Boccaccio (10th day, 9th
+tale); and with some variation in the Russian tale of Dobrynya and
+Nastasya.
+
+  _King Horn_ was re-edited for the Early English Text Soc. by G. H.
+  McKnight in 1901; _Horn et Rimenhild_ was edited with the English
+  versions for the Bannatyne Club by F. Michel (Paris, 1845); _Horn
+  Childe and Maiden Rimnild_ in J. Ritson's _Metrical Romances_, vol.
+  iii.; and "Hind Horn" in F. J. Child's _English and Scottish_
+  _Popular Ballads_ (vol. i., 1882), with an introductory note on
+  similar legends. See also H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of Romances_, vol.
+  i., where the relation between Havelok and Horn is discussed; _Hist.
+  litt. de la France_ (vol. xxii., 1852); W. Söderhjelm, _Sur l'identité
+  du Thomas auteur de Tristan et du Thomas auteur de Horn_ (_Romania_,
+  xv., 1886); T. Wissmann, "King Horn" (1876) and "Das Lied von King
+  Horn" (1881) in Nos. 16 and 45 of _Quellen und Forschungen zur Spr.
+  und Culturgesch. d. german. Völker_ (Strassburg and London); _Reinfrid
+  von Braunschweig_, a version of the legend of Henry the Lion, edited
+  by K. Bartsch (Stuttgart, 1871); and a further bibliography in O.
+  Hartenstein, _Studien zur Hornsage_ (Heidelberg, 1902).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] There was a barrow in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, called
+    Hornesbeorh; and there are other indications which point to a
+    possible connexion between _Horn_ and Dorset (see H. L. Ward, _Cat.
+    of Romances_, i. 451).
+
+  [2] Sudenne and Westernesse are tentatively identified also with Isle
+    of Man and Wirral (_Cambridge Hist. of Eng Lit._, i. 304).
+
+
+
+
+HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. _cornu_; cf. Gr. [Greek:
+keras]). The weapons which project from the heads of various species of
+animals, constituting what are known as horns, embrace substances which
+are, in their anatomical structure and chemical composition, quite
+distinct from each other; and although in commerce also they are known
+indiscriminately as horn, their uses are altogether dissimilar. These
+differences in structure and properties were thus indicated by Sir R.
+Owen:--"The weapons to which the term horn is properly or technically
+applied consist of very different substances, and belong to two organic
+systems, as distinct from each other as both are from the teeth. Thus
+the horns of deer consist of bone, and are processes of the frontal
+bone; those of the giraffe are independent bones or 'epiphyses' covered
+by hairy skin; those of oxen, sheep and antelopes are 'apophyses' of the
+frontal bone, covered by the corium and by a sheath of true horny
+material; those of the prong-horned antelope consist at their basis of
+bony processes covered by hairy skin, and are covered by horny sheaths
+in the rest of their extent. They thus combine the character of those of
+the giraffe and ordinary antelope, together with the expanded and
+branched form of the antlers of deer. Only the horns of the rhinoceros
+are composed wholly of horny matter, and this is disposed in
+longitudinal fibres, so that the horns seem rather to consist of coarse
+bristles compactly matted together in the form of a more or less
+elongated sub-compressed cone." True horny matter is really a modified
+form of epidermic tissue, and consists of the albuminoid "keratin." It
+forms, not only the horns of the ox tribe, but also the hoofs, claws or
+nails of animals generally, the carapace of the tortoises and the
+armadilloes, the scales of the pangolin, porcupine quills, and birds'
+feathers, &c.
+
+Horn is employed in the manufacture of combs, buttons, the handles of
+walking-sticks, umbrellas, and knives, drinking-cups, spoons of various
+kinds, snuff-boxes, &c. In former times it was applied to several uses
+for which it is no longer required, although such applications have left
+their traces in the language. Thus the musical instruments and fog
+signals known as horns indicate their descent from earlier and simpler
+forms of apparatus made from horn. In the same way powder-horns were
+spoken of long after they ceased to be made of that substance; to a
+small extent lanterns still continue to be "glazed" with thin
+transparent plates of horn.
+
+
+
+
+HORN (Lat. _cornu_; corresponding terms being Fr. _cor_, _trompe_; Ger.
+_Horn_; Ital. _corno_), a class of wind instruments primarily derived
+from natural animal horns (see above), and having the common
+characteristics of a conical bore and the absence of lateral holes. The
+word "horn" when used by modern English musicians always refers to the
+French horn.
+
+Modern horns may be divided into three classes: (1) the short horns with
+wide bore, such as the bugles (q.v.) and the post-horn. (2) The saxhorns
+(q.v.), a family of hybrid instruments designed by Adolphe Sax, and
+resulting from the adaptation of valves and of a cup-shaped mouthpiece
+to instruments of the calibre of the bugle. The Flügelhorn family is the
+German equivalent of the saxhorns. The natural scale of instruments of
+this class comprises the harmonics from the second to the eighth only.
+(3) The French horn (Fr. _cor de chasse_ or _trompe de chasse_, _cor à
+pistons_; Ger. _Waldhorn_, _Ventilhorn_; Ital. _corno_ or _corno di
+caccia_), one of the most valuable and difficult wind instruments of the
+orchestra, having a very slender conical tube wound round in coils upon
+itself. It consists of four principal parts--the body, the crooks, the
+slide and the mouthpiece.
+
+  (a) The _body_ is the main tube, having a bore of the form known as
+  trunco-conical, measuring approximately 7 ft. 4 in. in length, in
+  which the increase in the diameter of the bore is very gradual in
+  proportion to the length, the cone becoming accentuated only near the
+  bell. In the valve horn the bore is only theoretically conical, the
+  extra lengths of tubing attached to the valves being practically
+  cylindrical. The body is coiled spirally, and has at one end a
+  wide-mouthed bell from 11 to 12 in. in diameter having a parabolic
+  curve, and at the other a conical ferrule into which fit the crooks.
+
+  (b) The _crooks_ (Fr. _corps_ or _tons de rechange_; Ger.
+  _Krummbogen_, _Stimmbogen_, _Einsetzbogen_) are interchangeable,
+  spiral tubes, tapering to a diameter of a quarter of an inch at the
+  mouthpiece end and varying in length from 16 in. for the B[flat] alto
+  crook to 125 in. for the B[flat] basso. Each crook is named according
+  to the fundamental tone which it produces on being added to the body.
+  By lengthening the tube at will the crook lowers the pitch of the
+  instrument, and consequently changes the key in which it stands.
+  Although the harmonic series remains the same for all the crooks, the
+  actual sounds produced by overblowing are lower, the tube being
+  longer, and they now belong to the key of the crook. The principle of
+  the crook was known early in the 17th century; it had been applied to
+  the trumpet, trombone and Jägertrummet[1] before being adapted to the
+  horn. Crooks are merely transposing agents; they are powerless to fill
+  up the gaps in the scale of the horn in order to make it a chromatic
+  or even a diatonic instrument, for they require time for adjustment.
+  The principle of the crook doubtless suggested to Stölzel the system
+  of valves, which is but an instantaneous application of the general
+  principle to the individual notes of the harmonic series, each of
+  which is thereby lowered a semitone, a tone or a tone and a half, as
+  long as the valve remains in operation. The body of the horn without
+  crooks is of the length to produce 8 ft. C., and forms the standard,
+  being known as the alto horn in C, which is the highest key in which
+  the horn is pitched. The notes are sounded as written.
+
+  (c) The _mouthpiece_ of the horn differs substantially from that of
+  the trumpet.[2] There is, strictly speaking, no cup, the inside of the
+  mouthpiece being, like the bore of the instrument itself, in the form
+  of a truncated cone or funnel. Like the other parts of this difficult
+  and complex instrument, the proportions of the mouthpiece must bear a
+  certain undefined relation to the length and diameter of the column of
+  air. The choice of a suitable mouthpiece is in fact a test of skill;
+  the shape of the lip of the performer and the more special use he may
+  wish to make of either the higher or the lower harmonics have to be
+  taken into consideration. In orchestral music the part for first horns
+  naturally calls for the use of the higher harmonics, which are more
+  easily obtained by means of a somewhat smaller and shallower
+  mouthpiece[3] than that used upon the second horn, which is called
+  upon to dwell more on the lower harmonics.
+
+  (d) The _tuning slides_ (Fr. _coulisses_; Ger. _Stimmbogen_) consist
+  of a pair of sliding U-shaped tubes fitting tightly into each other,
+  by means of which the instrument can be brought strictly into tune,
+  and which also act as compensators with the crooks. On these tuning
+  slides, placed across the ring formed by the coils of the valve-horn,
+  are fixed the pistons with their extra lengths of tubing; as the
+  connexion of the pistons with the body of the horn is made through the
+  slides, the value of the latter as compensators will be readily
+  understood. Those accustomed to deal with instruments having fixed
+  notes, such as the piano and harp, hardly realize the extreme
+  difficulties which confront both maker and performer in intricate wind
+  instruments such as the horn, on which no sounds can be produced
+  without conscious adjustment of lips and breath, and but few without
+  the additional use of some such contrivance as slide, crook, piston of
+  of the hand in the bell, in the case of the natural or hand horn.
+
+
+  Acoustics.
+
+The production of sound in wind instruments has a fourfold object: (1)
+pitch; (2) range or scale of available notes; (3) quality of tone or
+_timbre_; (4) dynamic variation, or crescendo and diminuendo. The pitch
+of the horn, as of other wind instruments, depends almost exclusively on
+the length of the air-column set in vibration, and remains practically
+uninfluenced by the diameter of the bore. In the case of conical tubes
+in which the difference in diameter at the two extremities, mouthpiece
+and bell, is very great, as in the horn, the pitch of the tube will be
+slightly higher than its theoretical length would warrant.[4] When, for
+instance, three tubes of the same length are sounded--No. 1, conical
+diverging; No. 2, conical converging in the direction from mouthpiece
+to bell; No. 3, cylindrical--No. 1 gives a fundamental tone somewhat
+higher, No. 2 somewhat lower, than No. 3. Victor Mahillon[5] adds that
+the rate of vibration in such conical tubes as the horn is slightly less
+than the rate of vibration in ambient air; therefore, as the rate of
+vibration (i.e. the number of vibrations per second) varies in the
+inverse ratio with the length of the tube, it follows that the practical
+length of the horn is slightly less than the theoretical, the difference
+for the horn in B[flat] normal pitch amounting to 13.9 cm.
+(approximately 5½ in.).
+
+The tube of the horn behaves as an open pipe. E. F. F. Chladni[6] states
+that the mouthpiece end is to be considered as open in all wind
+instruments (excepting reed instruments), even when, as in horns and
+trumpets, it would seem to be closed by the lips. Victor Mahillon,
+although apparently holding the opposite view, and considering as closed
+the tubes of all wind instruments played by means of reeds, whether
+single or double, or by the lips acting as reeds, gives a new and
+practical explanation of the phenomenon.[7] The result is the same in
+both cases, for the closed pipe of trunco-conical bore, whose diameter
+at the bell is at least four times greater than the diameter at the
+mouthpiece, behaves in the same manner, when set in vibration by a reed,
+as an open pipe, and gives the consecutive scale of harmonics.[8]
+
+  In order to produce sound from the horn, the performer, stretching his
+  lips across the funnel-shaped mouthpiece from rim to rim, blows into
+  the cavity. The lips, vibrating as the breath passes through the
+  aperture between them, communicate pulsations or series of
+  intermittent shocks to the thin stream of air, known as the exciting
+  current, which, issuing from them, strikes the column of air in the
+  tube, already in a state of stationary vibration.[9] The effect of
+  this series of shocks, without which there can be no sound, upon the
+  column of air confined within the walls of the tube is to produce
+  sound-waves, travelling longitudinally through the tube. Each
+  sound-wave consists of two half-lengths, one in which the air has been
+  compressed or condensed by the impulse or push, the second in which,
+  the push being spent, the air again dilates or becomes rarefied. In an
+  open pipe, the wave-length is theoretically equal to the length of the
+  tube. The pitch of the note depends on the frequency per second with
+  which each vibration or complete sound-wave reaches the drum of the
+  ear. The longer the wave the lower the frequency. The velocity of the
+  wave is independent of its length, being solely conditioned by the
+  rate of vibration of the particles composing the conveying medium:
+  while one individual particle performs one complete vibration, the
+  wave advances one wave-length.[10] The rate of particle vibration or
+  frequency is therefore inversely proportional to the corresponding
+  wave-length.[11] Sound-waves generated by the same exciting current
+  travel with the same velocity whatever their length, the difference
+  being the frequency number and therefore the pitch of the note. As
+  long as the performer blows with normal force, the same length of tube
+  produces the same wave-length and therefore the same frequency and
+  pitch. By "blowing with normal force" is understood the proper
+  relative proportions to be maintained between the wind-pressure and
+  the lip-tension--a ratio which is found instinctively by the performer
+  but was only suspected by the older writers.[12] If the shocks or
+  vibrations initiated by the lips through the medium of the exciting
+  current be sharper owing to the increased tension of the lips, and at
+  the same time succeed each other with greater velocity, the
+  wave-length breaks up, and two, three or more proportionally shorter
+  complete waves form instead of one, and traverse the pipe within the
+  same space of time, producing sounds proportionally higher by an
+  octave, a twelfth, &c., according to the character of the initiatory
+  disturbance. We may therefore add this proposition: the rate of
+  vibration of a tube varies as the number of segments into which the
+  vibrating column of air within it is divided. In order to obtain the
+  fundamental, the performer's lips must be loose and the wind-pressure
+  gentle but steady, so that the exciting current may issue forth in a
+  broad, slow stream. To set in vibration a column of air some 16 or 17
+  ft. long is a feat of extreme difficulty; that is why it is quite
+  exceptional to find a horn-player who can sound the fundamental on the
+  low C or B[flat] _basso_ horns. In the organ, where even a 32 ft. tone
+  is obtained, the wind-pressure and the lip-opening controlling the
+  exciting current are mechanically regulated for each length of
+  pipe--only one note being required from each. In order, therefore, to
+  induce the column of air within the tube to break up and vibrate in
+  aliquot parts, the exciting current must be compressed into an ever
+  finer, tenser and more incisive stream. There is in fact a certain
+  minimum pressure for each degree of tension of the lips below which no
+  harmonic can be produced.
+
+  It is often stated that the harmonics are obtained by increasing the
+  tension of the lips and a crescendo by increasing the pressure of the
+  breath.[13] Victor Mahillon[14] accounts for the harmonics by
+  increased wind-pressure only. It is evident that the greater the
+  tension of the lips, the greater the force of wind required to set
+  them vibrating; therefore the force and velocity of the air must vary
+  with the tension of the lips in order to produce a steady or musical
+  sound. D. J. Blaikley considers that the ratio of increase in lips and
+  breath follows that of the harmonic series. The tension of the lips
+  has the effect of reducing the width of the slit or aperture between
+  them and the width of the exciting current. While increasing its
+  density the energy of the wind must, therefore, either expend itself
+  in increasing the rate of vibration, or frequency of the pulses, which
+  influences the pitch of the note; or else in increasing the extent of
+  excursion or amplitude of the vibrations, which influences the dynamic
+  force of the sound or loudness.[15] If the aperture be narrowed
+  without providing a proportional increase of wind-pressure, the
+  harmonic overtone may be heard, but either the intonation will suffer
+  or the intensity of the tone will be reduced, because the force
+  required, to set the tenser membrane in vibration is insufficient to
+  give the vibrations the requisite amplitude as well as the frequency.
+  If the force expended be excessive, i.e. more than the maximum
+  required to ensure the increased frequency proportional to the
+  increased tension, the superfluous energy must expend itself in
+  increasing the amplitude of the vibrations so that a note of a greater
+  degree of loudness as well as of higher pitch will be produced. The
+  converse is equally true; the lower the pitch of the note the slower
+  the pulses or vibrations and therefore the looser the lip and the
+  gentler the force of current required to set them vibrating. To draw a
+  parallel from organ-pipes: as long as even wind-pressure is
+  maintained, the mouthpiece being fixed proportional to the length of
+  tube, the pipe gives out one note of unvarying dynamic intensity;
+  increase the pressure of the wind and harmonics are heard, but it is
+  impossible to obtain a crescendo unless the mouthpiece be dispensed
+  with and a free reed (q.v.) adapted.
+
+  Reference has already been made above to the difficulty of obtaining
+  the fundamental on tubes of great length and narrow bore like the
+  horn. The useful compass of the horn, therefore, begins with the note
+  that an open pipe half its length would give; the Germans term
+  instruments of such small calibre _half instruments_, and those of
+  wide calibre, such as bugles and tubas, _whole instruments_,[16] since
+  in them the whole of the length of the tube is available in practice.
+
+  The harmonic series of the horn, or the open notes obtainable without
+  using valves or crooks, is written as for the alto horn in C of 8 ft.
+  tone, which forms the standard of notation. Notes written in the bass
+  clef are generally, for some unexplained reason, placed an octave
+  lower than the real sounds.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  All the crooks, a list of the principal of which is appended,
+  therefore necessarily give real sounds _lower_ than the above series
+  according to their individual length.
+
+    _Table of Principal Crooks now in Use._[17]
+
+    +---------------+------------------+-------------+----------+-----------------+
+    |     Key of    | Actual Sounds of |             | Length of|                 |
+    |     Crook.    | Range of Useful  |             | Crook in |  Transposes to  |
+    |               |    Harmonics.    |             |  Inches. |                 |
+    +---------------+------------------+-------------+----------+-----------------+
+    | B[flat] alto  |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 10th |    16    | major 2nd lower |
+    | A[natural]    |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 10th |    22½   | minor 3rd   "   |
+    | A[flat]       |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 10th |    29½   | major 3rd   "   |
+    | G             |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 12th |    36¾   | perfect 4th "   |
+    | F             |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 16th |    52½   | perfect 5th "   |
+    | E             |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 16th |    61    | minor 6th   "   |
+    | E[flat]       |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 16th |    70¼   | major 6th   "   |
+    | D             |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 16th |    80    | minor 7th   "   |
+    | C basso       |   [music notes]  | 3rd to 16th |   101    | 8^ve        "   |
+    | B[flat] basso |   [music notes]  | 3rd to 16th |   125    | major 9th   "   |
+    +---------------+------------------+-------------+----------+-----------------+
+
+  The practical aggregate compass of the natural horns from B[flat]
+  basso at the service of composers therefore ranges (actual sounds)
+  from [music notes] or with 3 valves from [music notes] By means of
+  hand-stopping, i.e. the practice of thrusting the hand into the bell
+  in order to lower the sound by a tone or a semitone, or by the
+  adaptation of valves to the horn, this compass may be rendered
+  chromatic almost throughout the range.
+
+  The principle of the valve as applied to wind instruments differs
+  entirely from that of keys. The latter necessitate lateral holes bored
+  through the tube, and when the keys are raised the vibrating column of
+  air within the tube and the ambient air without are set in
+  communication, with the result that the vibrating column is shortened
+  and the pitch of the note raised. The valve system consists of valves
+  or pistons attached to additional lengths of tubing, the effect of
+  which is invariably to lower the pitch, except in the case of valve
+  systems specified as "ascending" tried by John Shaw and Adolphe Sax.
+  Insuperable practical difficulties led to the abandonment of these
+  systems, which in any case were the exception and not the rule. The
+  valves, placed upon the U-shaped slides in the centre of the horn, are
+  worked by means of pistons or levers, opening or closing the wind-ways
+  at will, so that when they are in operation the vibrating column of
+  air no longer takes its normal course along the main tube and directly
+  through the slides, but makes a détour through the extra length of
+  tubing before completing its course. Thus the valves, unlike the keys,
+  do not open any communication with the ambient air. Even authoritative
+  writers[18] have confused the two principles, believing them to be one
+  and the same.
+
+  French horns are made with either two or three valves. To the first
+  valve is attached sufficient length of tubing to lower the pitch of
+  the instrument a tone, so that any note played upon the horn in F
+  while the first valve is depressed takes effect a tone lower, or as
+  though the horn were in E[flat]. The second valve opens a passage into
+  a shorter length of tubing sufficient to lower the pitch of the
+  instrument a semitone, as though the instrument were for the time
+  being in E. The third valve similarly lowers the pitch a tone and a
+  half. It will thus be seen that the principle applied in the crook and
+  the valve is in the main the same, but the practical value of the
+  valve is immeasurably superior. Thanks to the valve system the
+  performer is able to have the extra lengths of tubing necessary to
+  give the horn a chromatic compass permanently incorporated with the
+  instrument, and at will to connect one or a combination of these
+  lengths with the main tube of the instrument during any interval of
+  time, however short. The three devices, crooks, valves and slides, are
+  in fact all based upon the same principle, that of providing
+  additional length of tubing in order to deepen the pitch of the whole
+  instrument at will and to transpose it into a different key. Valves
+  and slides, being instantaneous in operation, give to the instrument a
+  chromatic compass, whereas crooks merely enable the performer to play
+  in many keys upon one instrument instead of requiring a different
+  instrument for each key. The slide is the oldest of these devices, and
+  probably suggested the crook as a substitute on instruments of conical
+  bore such as the horn.
+
+  The invention of the valve, although a substantial improvement, was
+  found to fall short of perfection in its operation on the tubes of
+  wind instruments so soon as the possibility of using the three valves
+  in combination to produce six different positions or series of
+  harmonics was realized, and for the following reason. In order to
+  deepen the pitch one tone by means of valve 1, a length of tubing
+  exactly proportional to the length of the main tube must be thrown
+  into communication with the latter. If, in addition to valve 1, valve
+  3 be depressed, a further drop in pitch of 1½ tone should be effected;
+  but as the length of tubing added by depressing valve 3 is calculated
+  in proportion to the main tube, and the latter has already been
+  lengthened by depressing valve 1, therefore the additional length
+  supplied by opening valve 3 is now too short to produce a drop of a
+  minor third strictly in tune, and all notes played while valves 1 and
+  3 are depressed will be too sharp. Means of compensating slight errors
+  in intonation are provided in the U-shaped slides mentioned above.
+
+  The _timbre_ of the natural horn is mellow, sonorous and rich in
+  harmonics; it is quite distinctive and bears but little resemblance to
+  that of the other members of the brass wind. In listening to its
+  sustained notes one receives the impression of the tone being breathed
+  out as by a voice, whereas the trumpet and trombone produce the effect
+  of a rapid series of concussions, and in the tuba and cornet the
+  concussions, although still striking, are softened as by padding. The
+  timbre of the hand-stopped notes is veiled and suggestive of mystery;
+  so characteristic is the timbre that passages in the _Rheingold_ heard
+  when the magic power of the Tarnhelm reveals itself sound meaningless
+  if the weird chords are played by means of the valves instead of by
+  hand-stopping. The timbre of the piston notes is more resonant than
+  that of the open notes, partaking a little of the character of the
+  trombone, which is probably due to the fact that the strictly conical
+  bore of the natural horn has been replaced by a mixed cylindrical and
+  conical as in trumpet and trombone.
+
+  The form of the mouthpiece (q.v.) at the point where it joins the main
+  bore of the tube must also exercise a certain influence on the form of
+  vibration, which it helps to modify in conjunction with the
+  conformation of each individual horn-player's lip. In the horn the cup
+  of the mouthpiece is shaped like a funnel, the bore converging
+  insensibly into the narrow end of the main conical bore without break
+  or sharp edges as in the mouthpieces, more properly known as
+  cup-shaped, of trumpet and bombardon.
+
+  The brilliant sonorousness and roundness of the timbre of the horn are
+  due to the strength and predominance of the partial tones up to the
+  7th or 8th. The prevalence of the higher harmonics from the 10th to
+  the 16th, in which the partial tones lie very close together,
+  determines the harsh quality of the trumpet timbre, which may be
+  easily imitated on the horn by forcing the sound production and using
+  a trumpet mouthpiece, and by raising the bell, an effect which is
+  indicated by composers by the words "Raise the Bells."[19]
+
+
+  History.
+
+The origin of the horn must be sought in remote prehistoric times, when,
+by breaking off the tip of a short animal horn, one or at best two
+notes, powerful, rough, unsteady, only barely approximating to definite
+musical sounds, were obtained. This was undoubtedly the archetype of the
+modern families of brass wind instruments, and from it evolved the
+trumpet, the bugle and the tuba no less than the horn. The common
+characteristics which link together these widely different modern
+families of instruments are: (1) the more or less pronounced conical
+bore, and (2) the property possessed in a greater or lesser degree of
+producing the natural sounds by what has been termed overblowing the
+harmonic overtones. If we follow the evolution of the animal horn
+throughout the centuries, the ultimate development leads us not to the
+French horn but to the bugle and tuba.
+
+  Before civilization had dawned in classic Greece, Egypt, Assyria and
+  the Semitic races were using wind instruments of wood and metal which
+  had left the primitive ram or bugle horn far behind. Even in northern
+  Europe, during the Bronze age (c. 1000 B.C.), prehistoric man had
+  evolved for himself the prototype of the Roman _cornu_, a bronze horn
+  of wide conical bore, bent in the shape of a G. One of these
+  instruments, known among the modern Scandinavian races as _luurs_ or
+  _lurs_, found in the peat beds of Denmark and now preserved in the
+  Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, has a length of 1.91 m.
+  (about 6 ft. 4 in.). The U-shaped mouthpiece joint is neatly joined to
+  the remainder of the crescent-tube by means of a bronze ring; the
+  bell, which must have rested on the shoulder, consists merely of a
+  flat rim set round the end of the tube. There is therefore no graceful
+  curve in the bell as in the French horn. An exact facsimile of this
+  prehistoric horn has been made by Victor Mahillon of Brussels, who
+  finds that it was in the key of E[flat] and easily produces the first
+  eight harmonics of that key. It stands, therefore, an octave higher
+  than the modern horn in E[flat] (which measures some 13 ft.), but on
+  the _lur_ the fundamental E[flat] can be reached owing to the wider
+  calibre of the bore.[20]
+
+  Among the Romans the wind instruments derived from the horn were well
+  represented, and included well-developed types which do not differ
+  materially from the natural instruments of modern times. The buccina
+  developed directly into the trumpet and trombone during the middle
+  ages, losing no characteristic of importance but the bent form, which
+  was perforce abandoned when the art of bending hollow tubes was lost
+  after the fall of the Roman Empire. The name clung through all the
+  changes in form and locality to the one type, and still remains at the
+  present day in the German _Posaune_ (trombone). There were four
+  instruments known by the name of _cornu_ among the Romans: (1) the
+  short animal horn used by shepherds; (2) the longer, semicircular
+  horn, used for signals; and (3) the still longer _cornu_, bent and
+  carried like the buccina, which had the wide bore of the modern tuba.
+  But whereas on the buccina the higher harmonics were easily obtained,
+  on the cornu the natural scale consisted of the first eight harmonics
+  only. The cornu, although shorter than the buccina, had a deeper pitch
+  and more sonorous tone, for, owing to the wider calibre of the bore,
+  the fundamental was easily reached. In the reliefs on Trajan's Column,
+  where the two instruments may be compared, the wider curve of the
+  buccina forms a ready means of identification. In addition to these
+  was (4) the small instrument like the medieval hunting-horn or
+  post-horn, with the single spiral turn similar to one which figures as
+  service badge in many British infantry regiments,[21] such as the
+  first battalion of the King's Own Light Infantry. A terra-cotta model,
+  slightly broken, but with the spiral intact, was excavated at Ventoux
+  in France and is at present preserved in the department of Greek and
+  Roman antiquities at the British Museum, having been acquired from the
+  collection of M. Morel.
+
+  The _lituus_, or cavalry trumpet of the Romans, consisted of a
+  cylindrical tube, to which was attached a bent horn or conical bell,
+  the whole in the shape of a J. The long, straight Roman tuba was
+  similar to the large, bent cornu so far as bore and capabilities were
+  concerned, but more unwieldy. All these wind instruments seem to have
+  been used during the classic Greek and Roman periods merely to sound
+  fanfares, and therefore, in spite of the high degree of perfection to
+  which they attained as instruments, they scarcely possess any claim to
+  be considered within the domain of music. They were signalling
+  instruments, mainly used in war, in hunting and in state or civic
+  ceremonial. Vegetius (A.D. 386) describes these instruments, and gives
+  detailed instructions for the special traditional uses of tuba,
+  buccina and cornu in the military camp: "Semivocalia sunt, quae per
+  tubam, aut cornua, aut buccinam dantur. Tuba quae directa est
+  appellatur buccina, quae in semet ipsam aereo circulo flectitur. Cornu
+  quod ex uris agrestibus, argento nexum, temperatum arte, et spiritu,
+  quem canentis flatus emittit auditur."[22] It will be seen that
+  Vegetius demands a skilled horn-player. These service instruments may
+  all be identified in the celebrated bas-reliefs of Trajan's Column[23]
+  (fig. 1) and of the Triumphal arch of Augustus at Susa.[24]
+
+  Interesting evidence of a collegium cornicinum (gild of horn-players)
+  is furnished by an altar stone in the Roman catacombs, erected to the
+  memory of one "M. Julius victor ex Collegio Liticinum Cornicinum," on
+  which are carved a lituus, a cornu and a pan's pipe, the cornu being
+  similar to those on Trajan's Column.
+
+  All three Roman instruments, the tuba, the buccina and the cornu, had
+  well-formed mouthpieces, differing but little from the modern
+  cup-shaped form in use on the trumpet, the trombone, the tubas,
+  &c.[25] It would seem that even the short horn in the 4th century was
+  provided with a mouthpiece,[26] judging from a carved specimen on an
+  ivory _capsa_ or _pyxis_ dating from the period immediately preceding
+  the fall of the Roman Empire, preserved among the precious relics at
+  Xanten.
+
+  [Illustration: From Conrad Cichorius, _Die Reliefs der Traiansäule_,
+  by permission of Georg Reimer.
+
+  FIG. 1.--Roman Cornu and Buccina.]
+
+  After the fall of the Roman Empire, when instrumental music had fallen
+  into disrepute and had been placed under a ban by the church, the art
+  of playing upon such highly-developed instruments gradually died out
+  in western Europe. With the disappearance of the civilization and
+  culture of the Romans, the skilled crafts also gradually vanished, and
+  the art of making metal pipes of delicate calibre and of bending them
+  was completely forgotten, and had to be reacquired step by step during
+  the middle ages from the more enlightened East. The names of the
+  instruments and representations of them survived in MSS. and monuments
+  of art, and as long as the West was content to turn to late Roman and
+  Romano-Christian art for its models, no difficulties were created for
+  the future archaeologist. By the time the Western races had begun to
+  express themselves and to develop their own characteristics, in the
+  11th century, the arts of Persia, Arabia and the Byzantine Empire had
+  laid their mark upon the West, and confusion of models, and more
+  especially of names, ensued. The greatest confusion of all was created
+  by the numerous translations and glosses of the Bible and by the
+  attempts of miniaturists to illustrate the principal scenes. In
+  Revelation, for instance (ch. viii.), the seven angels with their
+  trumpets are diversely represented with long tubas, with curved horns
+  of various lengths, and with the buisine, busaun or posaune, the
+  descendant of the buccina.
+
+  We know from the colouring used in illuminated MSS., gold and pale
+  blue, that horns were made of metal early in the middle ages. The
+  metal was not cast in moulds but hammered into shape.
+  Viollet-le-Duc[27] reproduces a miniature from a MS. of the end of the
+  13th century (Paris, Bibliothèque du corps législatif), in which two
+  metal-workers are shown hammering two large horns.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Medieval Hunting Horn with the
+
+  Tablature in use in the 14th Century.]
+
+  The early medieval horns had no mouthpieces, the narrow end being
+  merely finished with a rim on which the lips rested. The tone suffered
+  in consequence, being uncertain, rough and tremulous, wherefore it was
+  indicated by the neume known as _quilisma_: "Est vox tremula; sicut
+  est sonus flatus tubae vel cornu et designatur per neumam, quae
+  vocatur _quilisma_."[28]
+
+  During the middle ages the bugle-horn or bull's horn was extensively
+  used as a signal instrument on land and sea (see BUGLE), by the
+  night-watchmen in cities, in the watch tower of the feudal castle and
+  by foresters and huntsmen. The hunting-horn was generally represented
+  as small in the hunting scenes which abound in illuminated MSS. and
+  early printed books; it was crescent-shaped and was worn slung by a
+  leather strap over one shoulder and resting on the opposite hip. When
+  played it was held with the wide end curving upwards in front of the
+  huntsman's head. A kind of tablature for the horn was in use in France
+  in the 14th century; an example of it is here reproduced (fig. 2) from
+  a 14th-century French MS. treatise on venery.[29] Only one note is
+  indicated, the various calls and signals being based chiefly on
+  rhythm, and the notes being left to the taste and skill of the
+  huntsman. The interpretation[30] of the _Cornure de chasse de veue_
+  seen in the figure is as follows:
+
+    First line = [music notes]
+
+    Second line = [music notes]
+
+    Third line = [music notes]
+
+  In the first poem is given a list of these signs with the names by
+  which they were known in venery.
+
+  In the 16th century in England the hunting-horn sometimes had a spiral
+  turn in the centre, half-way between mouthpiece and bell end; the
+  extra length was apparently added solely in order to lower the pitch,
+  the higher harmonics not being used for the hunting calls. In George
+  Turbevile's _Noble Arte of Venerie_ (1576, facsimile reprint, Oxford,
+  1908) the "measures of blowing according to the order which is
+  observed at these dayes in this Realme of Englande" are given for the
+  horn in D. One of these, given in fig. 3, is the English 16th-century
+  hunting call, corresponding to the 14th-century French _Cornure de
+  chasse de veue_ given above.
+
+  [Illustration: From Turbevile's _Noble Art of Venerie_ (1576), by
+  permission of the Clarendon Press.
+
+  FIG. 3.--Hunting Call.]
+
+  The hunting-horn, whether in its simplest form or with the one spiral,
+  was held with the bell upwards on a level with the huntsman's head or
+  just above it.[31]
+
+  A horn of the same fine calibre as the French horn, 3 or 4 ft. in
+  length, slightly bent to take the curve of the body, was in use in
+  Italy, it would seem, in the 15th century.[32] It was held slanting
+  across the body with the bell already slightly parabolic, at arm's
+  length to the left side.
+
+  The hunting- and post-horns were favourite emblems on medieval coats
+  of arms, more especially in Germany[33] and Bohemia.
+
+  It is necessary at this point to draw attention to the fact that the
+  French horn is a hybrid having affinities with both trumpet and
+  primitive animal horn, or with _buccina_ and _cornu_, and that both
+  types, although frequently misnamed and confused by medieval writers
+  and miniaturists, subsisted side by side, evolving independently until
+  they merged in the so-called French horn. Both buccina and cornu after
+  the fall of the Roman Empire, while Western arts and crafts were in
+  their infancy, were made straight, being then known as the busine or
+  straight trumpet (busaun or posaun in Germany), and the long horn,
+  _Herhorn_, slightly curved.[34]
+
+  [Illusration: FIG. 4.--Medieval Circular Horn.]
+
+  [Illusration: FIG. 5.--Medieval Circular Horn, 1589.]
+
+  From two medieval representations of instruments like the Roman cornu
+  one might be led to conclude that the instrument had been revived and
+  was in use from the 14th century. A wooden bas-relief on the under
+  part of the seats of the choir of Worcester cathedral,[35] said to
+  date from the 14th century, shows a musician in a robe with long
+  sleeves of fur playing the horn (fig. 4). The tube winds from the
+  mouth in a circle reaching to his waist, passes under the right arm
+  across the shoulders with the bell stretching out horizontally over
+  his left shoulder. The tube, of strictly conical bore, is made in
+  three pieces, the joints being strengthened by means of two rings. The
+  other example is German, and figures in the arms of the city of
+  Frankfort-on-Main.[36] Here in the two opposite corners are two
+  cherubs playing immense cornua. The bore of the instruments (fig. 5)
+  is of a calibre suggestive of the contrabass tuba; the circle formed
+  is of a diameter sufficiently large to accommodate the youthful
+  performer in a sitting posture; the bell is the forerunner of that of
+  the modern saxophone, shaped like a gloxinea; the mouthpiece is
+  cup-shaped. It is possible, of course, that these two examples are
+  attempts to reproduce the classic instrument, but the figures of the
+  musicians and the feeling of the whole scheme of ornamentation seem to
+  render such an explanation improbable. Moreover, Sebastian
+  Virdung,[37] writing on musical instruments at the beginning of the
+  16th century, gives a drawing of a cornu coiled round tightly, the
+  tubing being probably soldered together at certain points. Virdung
+  calls this instrument a _Jegerhorn_, and the short hunting-horn
+  _Acherhorn_ (Ackerhorn--the synonym of the modern Waldhorn). The scale
+  of the former could have consisted only of the first eight harmonics,
+  including the fundamental, which would be easily obtained on an
+  instrument of such a large calibre. Mersenne,[38] a century and a
+  quarter later, gives a drawing of the same kind of horn among his
+  _cors de chasse_, but does not in his description display his
+  customary intimate knowledge of his subject; it may be that he was
+  dealing at second-hand with an instrument of which he had had little
+  practical experience. Praetorius[39] gives as Jägerhorn only the
+  simple forms of crescent-shaped horns with a single spiral; the
+  spirally-wound horn of Virdung is replaced by a new instrument--the
+  _Jägertrummet_ (huntsman's trumpet)--of the same form, but less
+  cumbersome, of cylindrical bore excepting at the bell end and having a
+  crook inserted between the mouthpiece and the main coils. The tube,
+  which could not have been less than 8 ft. long, produced the harmonic
+  series of the cavalry trumpet from the 3rd to the 12th. The
+  restrictions placed upon the use of the cavalry trumpet would have
+  rendered it unavailable for use in the hunting-field, but the
+  snake-shaped model, as Praetorius describes it, was a decided
+  improvement on the horn, although inferior in resonance to the cavalry
+  model. Here then are the materials for the fusion of the trumpet and
+  hunting-horn into the natural or hand-horn of the 17th and 18th
+  centuries. There is evidence, however, that a century earlier, i.e. at
+  the end of the 15th century, the art of bending a brass tube of the
+  delicate proportions of the French horn, which is still a test of fine
+  workmanship, had been successfully practised. In an illustrated
+  edition of Virgil's works published in Strassburg in 1502 and
+  emanating from Grüninger's office, Brant being responsible for the
+  illustrations, the lines (_Aen._ viii. 1-2) "Ut belli signum Laurenti
+  Turnus ab arce Extulit: et rauco strepuerunt cornua cantu" are
+  illustrated by two soldiers, one with the sackbut (posaune, the
+  descendant of the buccina), the other with a horn wound spirally round
+  his body in three coils, which appear to have a conical bore from the
+  funnel-shaped mouthpiece to the bell which extends at the back of the
+  head horizontally over the left shoulder (fig. 6). There is ample
+  room for the performer's head and shoulders to pass through the
+  circle: the length of the tube could not therefore have been much less
+  than 16 ft. long, equivalent to the horn in C or B[flat] basso. In the
+  same book (pl. ccci.) is another horn, smaller, differing slightly in
+  the disposition of the coils and held like the modern horn in front.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Spirally Coiled Horn from Virgil's Works
+  (1502), folio cccviii. versa.]
+
+  These horns were not used for hunting but for war in conjunction with
+  the draw-trumpet. Brant could not have imagined these instruments, and
+  must have seen the originals or at least drawings of them; the
+  instruments probably emanated from the famed workshops of Nuremberg,
+  being intended mainly for use in Italy, and had not been generally
+  adopted in Germany. The significance of these drawings of natural
+  horns in a German work of the dawn of the 16th century will not be
+  lost. It disposes once and for all of the oft-repeated fable that the
+  hunting-horn first assumed its present form in France about 1680, a
+  statement accepted without question by authorities of all countries,
+  but without reference to any _pièce justificative_ other than the
+  story of the Bohemian Count Spörken first quoted by Gerber,[40] and
+  repeated in most musical works without the context. The account which
+  gave rise to this statement had been published in 1782 in a book by
+  Faustinus Prochaska:[41] "Vix Parisiis inflandi cornua venatoria
+  inventa ars quum delectatus suavitate cantus duos ex hominibus sibi
+  obnoxiis ea instituendos curavit. Id principium apud nos artis, qua
+  hodie Bohemi excellere putantur." In a preceding passage after the
+  count's name, Franz Anton, Graf von Spörken, are the words "anno
+  saeculi superioris octogesimo quum iter in externas provincias
+  suscepisset," &c. There is no reference here to the invention of the
+  horn in Paris or to the folding of the tube spirally, but only to the
+  manner of eliciting sound from the instrument. Count Spörken,
+  accustomed to the medieval hunting fanfares in which the tone of the
+  horn approximated to the blare of the trumpet, was merely struck by
+  the musical quality of the true horn tone elicited in Paris, and gave
+  France the credit of the so-called invention, which probably more
+  properly belonged to Italy. The account published by Prochaska a
+  hundred years after, without reference to the source from which it was
+  obtained, finds no corroboration from French sources. Had the French
+  really made any substantial improvement in the hunting-horn at the end
+  of the 17th century, transforming it from the primitive instrument
+  into an orchestral instrument, it would only be reasonable to expect
+  to find some evidence of this, considering the importance attached to
+  the art of music at the court of Louis XIV., whose musical
+  establishments, la Chapelle Musique,[42] la Musique de la Chambre du
+  Roi and la Musique de la Grande Écurie, included the most brilliant
+  French artists. One would expect to find horns of that period by
+  French makers among the relics of musical instruments in the museums
+  of Europe. This does not seem to be the case. Moreover, in Diderot and
+  d'Alembert's _Encyclopédie_ (1767) the information given under the
+  heading _trompe ou cor de chasse grand et petit_ is very vague, and
+  contains no hint of any special merit due to France for any
+  improvement in construction. Among the plates (vol. v., pl. vii.) is
+  given an illustration of a horn very similar to the instruments made
+  in England and Germany nearly a century earlier, but with a
+  funnel-shaped mouthpiece. Dr Julius Rühlmann states that there are two
+  horns by Raoux, bearing the date 1703,[43] in the Bavarian National
+  Museum in Munich,[44] but although fine examples, one in silver, the
+  other in brass (fig. 6) by Raoux, they turn out on inquiry[45] to bear
+  no date whatever. Rühlmann's statement in the same article, that in
+  the arms of the family of Wartenberg-Kolb (now extinct), which goes
+  back to 1169, there is a hunting-horn coiled round in a complete
+  circle is also misleading. The horn (a post-horn) did not appear in
+  the arms of the family in question until 1699, when the first peer
+  Casimir Johann Friedrich was created hereditary Post-Master. The
+  influence of such erroneous statements in the work of noted writers is
+  far-reaching. Inquiries at the department of National Archives in
+  Paris concerning Raoux, the founder of the afterwards famous firm of
+  horn-makers whose model with pistons is used in the British military
+  bands and at Kneller Hall, proved fruitless. Fétis states that he
+  worked during the second half of the 18th century. Albert Chouquet[46]
+  states that he has seen a trumpet by Raoux, "seul ordinaire du Roy,
+  Place du Louvre" dated 1695. The inscriptions on the horns in question
+  are: For No. 105, a silver horn of the simplest form of construction
+  in D, "Fait à Paris par Raoux"; for No. 106, a brass horn engraved
+  with a crown on an ermine mantle with the initials C. A. (Carl
+  Albert), "Fait à Paris par Raoux, seul ordinaire du Roy, Place du
+  Louvre." Both horns measure across the coils 56 cm. and across the
+  bell 27½. They are practically the same as the _cors de chasse_ now in
+  use in French and Belgian military bands, the large diameter of the
+  coil enabling the performer to carry it over his shoulder. The
+  orchestral horn was given a narrower diameter in order to facilitate
+  its being held in front of the performer in a convenient position for
+  stopping the bell with the right hand. No. 107 in the same collection,
+  a horn of German construction, bears the inscription "Macht Jacob
+  Schmid in Nürnberg" and the trademark "J. S." with a bird. A horn in
+  E[flat]] of French make, having fleur-de-lys stamped on the rim of the
+  bell, and measuring only 15 in. across the coils to the exterior edge
+  of the bell--therefore a very small horn--is preserved in the Grand
+  Ducal Museum at Darmstadt.[47] A horn in F[sharp] (probably F in
+  modern high pitch), having the rim ornamented as above and the
+  inscription "Fait à Paris, Carlin, ordinaire du Roy," readily gives
+  the harmonics from the 3rd to the 12th.[48] The extreme width is 20
+  in.[49] Carlin, who lived at rue Croix des Petits Champs, died about
+  1780. The earliest dated horn extant is believed to be the one
+  preserved in the Hohenzollern Museum in Sigmaringen, "Machts Wilhelm
+  Haas, Nürnberg, 1688."[50] Another early German horn engraved "Machts
+  Heinr. Rich. Pfeiffer in Leipzig, 1697,"[51] formerly in Paul de Wit's
+  museum in Leipzig and now transferred with the rest of the collection
+  to Cologne, is of similar construction.
+
+  [Illustration: From a Photo by K. Teufel.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Early Raoux Horn (Munich).]
+
+  The horn must have been well known at this time in England, for there
+  are 17th-century horns of English manufacture still extant, one, for
+  instance, in the collection of the Rev. F. W. Galpin by William Bull,
+  dated 1699.[52] In 1701 Clagget[53] invented a contrivance by means of
+  which two horns in different keys could be coupled and played by means
+  of one mouthpiece, a valve or key opening the passage into the airways
+  of one or the other of these horns at the will of the performer.
+  Another horn of English manufacture about 1700 was exhibited at the
+  South Kensington Museum in 1872, bearing No. 337 in the catalogue, in
+  which unfortunately no details are given. Enough examples have been
+  quoted to show that, judging from the specimens extant, Germany was
+  not behind France, if not actually ahead, in the manufacture of early
+  natural horns. Data are wanting concerning the instruments of Italy;
+  they would probably prove to be the earliest of all, and as brass
+  wind instruments are perishable are perhaps for that very reason
+  unrepresented at the present day.
+
+  The horn at the present stage in its evolution was also well
+  represented among the illustrations of the musical literature in
+  Germany[54] during the first half of the 18th century, and references
+  to it are frequent.
+
+
+    Music.
+
+  The earliest orchestral music for the horn occurs in the operas of
+  Cavalli and Cesti, leaders of the Venetian Opera in the 17th century.
+  Already in 1639 Cavalli in his opera _Le Nozze de Tito e Pelei_ (act
+  i. sc. 1) introduced a short scena, "Chiamata alla Caccia"[55] in C
+  major for four horns on a basso continuo. An examination of the
+  scoring in C clefs on the first, second, third and fourth lines shows,
+  by the use of the note [music notes] in the bass part and in the
+  second tenor of [music notes] the 5th harmonic of the series, that the
+  fundamental could have been no other than the 16-ft. C; the highest
+  note in the treble part is [music notes], the 12th harmonic of the
+  8-ft. alto horn in C, now obsolete. It is clear therefore that horns
+  with tubing respectively 8 ft. and 16 ft. long, which must have been
+  disposed in coils as in the present day, were in use in Italy before
+  the middle of the 17th century, fifty years before the date of their
+  reputed invention in Paris.
+
+  In the same opera, act i. sc. 4, "Coro di Cavalieri" is a stirring
+  call to arms of elemental grandeur, in which occur the words: "all'
+  armi, ò la guerrieri corni e tamburi e trombe, ogni campo ogni canto,
+  armi rimbombe." There are above the voice parts four staves with
+  treble and C clef signatures above the bass, and, although no
+  instruments are indicated, the music written thereon, which alternates
+  with the voices but does not accompany them, can have been intended
+  for no instruments but trumpets and horns, thus carrying out the
+  indications in the text. The horn is here once again put to the same
+  use as the Roman cornu, and associated in like manner with the
+  descendant of the buccina in a call to arms. It may be purely a
+  coincidence that the early illustration of a horn with the tubing
+  wound in coils round the body in the Strassburg Virgil mentioned above
+  was put to the same use and associated with the same instrument.
+
+  Cesti's operas likewise contain many passages evidently intended for
+  the horn, although the instruments are not specified in the score,
+  which was nothing unusual at the time. Lulli composed the incidental
+  music for a ballet, _La Princesse d'Elide_, which formed part of
+  Molière's divertissement, "Les plaisirs de l'île enchantée," written
+  for a great festival at Versailles on the 7th of May 1664. A copy of
+  the music for this ballet, made about 1680, is preserved in the
+  library of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The music contains a
+  piece entitled "Les violons et les cors de chasse," written in the
+  same style as Cavalli's scena; there are but two staves, and on both
+  the music is characteristic of the horn, with which the violins would
+  play in unison. The piece finishes on B[flat][music notes] and to play
+  this note as the second of the harmonic series, the fundamental not
+  being obtainable, the tube of the horn must have been over 17 ft.
+  long. Among Philidor's copies of Lulli's ballets preserved in the
+  library of the Paris Conservatoire of Music (vol. xlvii., p. 61) is a
+  more complete copy of the above. The second number is an "Air des
+  valets de chiens et des chasseurs avec les cors de chasse," which is
+  substantially the same as the one in the Fitzwilliam Museum, but set
+  for five horns in B[flat]. Here again the use of D, the fifth note of
+  the harmonic series, indicates that the fundamental was [music notes]
+  a tone lower than the C horn scored for by Cavalli, and known as
+  B[flat] basso. Victor Mahillon[56] considers that the music reveals
+  the fact that it was written for horns in B[flat], 35 degrees
+  (chromatic semitones) above 32-ft. C, or [music notes] having a
+  wave-length of 1.475 m. To this statement it is not possible to
+  subscribe. The quintette required four horns in B[flat] over 8 ft.
+  long and one B[flat] basso about 17 ft. long. It is obvious that the
+  present custom of placing the bass notes of the horn on the F clef an
+  octave too low, as is now customary, had not yet been adopted, for in
+  that case the bass horn would in several bars be playing above the
+  tenor.
+
+  In 1647 Cardinal Mazarin, wishing to create in France a taste for
+  Italian opera, had procured from Italy an orchestra, singers and
+  mise-en-scène. That he was not entirely successful in making Paris
+  appreciate Italian music is beside the mark; he developed instead a
+  demand for French opera, to which Lulli proved equal. The great
+  similarity in the style of the horn _scène_ by Cavalli and Lulli may
+  perhaps provide a clue to the mysterious and sudden apparition of the
+  natural horn in France, where nothing was known of the hybrid
+  instrument thirty years before, when Mersenne[57] wrote his careful
+  treatise on musical instruments.
+
+  The orchestral horn had been introduced from Italy. It is not
+  difficult to understand how the horn came to be called the _French_
+  horn in England; the term only appears after Gerber and other writers
+  had repeated the story of Count Spörken introducing the musical horn
+  into Bohemia.[58] By this time the firm of Raoux, established in Paris
+  a hundred years, had won for itself full recognition of its high
+  standard of workmanship in the making of horns.
+
+  This use of the horn by Lulli in the one ballet seems to be an
+  isolated instance; no other has yet been quoted. The introduction of
+  the natural horn into the orchestra of the French opera did not occur
+  until much later in 1735 in André Campra's _Achille et Deidamie_, and
+  then only in a fanfare. In the meantime the horn had already won a
+  place in most of the rising opera houses and ducal orchestras[59] of
+  Germany, and had been introduced by Handel into the orchestra in
+  London in his _Water-music_ composed in honour of George I.
+
+  Although the Italians were undoubtedly the first to introduce the horn
+  into the orchestra, it figured at first only as the characteristic
+  instrument of the chase, suggesting and accompanying hunting scenes or
+  calls to arms. For a more independent use of the horn in the orchestra
+  we must turn to Germany. Reinhard Keiser, the founder of German opera,
+  at the end of the 17th century in Hamburg, introduced two horns in C
+  into the opening chorus of his opera _Octavia_ in 1705, where the
+  horns are added to the string quartette and the oboes; they play again
+  in act i. sc. 3, and in act ii. sc. 6 and 9. The compass used by the
+  composer for the horns in C alto is the following:--
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  Wilhelm Kleefeld draws attention to the characterization, which
+  differed in the three acts. In _Henrico_ (1711), in _Diana_ (1712) and
+  in _L'Inganno Fedele_ (1714) F horns were used. This called forth from
+  Mattheson[60] his much-quoted eulogium, the earliest description of
+  the orchestral horn: "Die lieblich pompeusen Waldhörner sind bei
+  itziger Zeit sehr _en vogue_ kommen, weil sie theils nicht so rude von
+  Natur sind als die Trompeten, teils auch weil sie mit mehr _Facilité_
+  können tractiret werden. Die brauchbarsten haben F und mit den
+  Trompeten aus dem C gleichen _Ambitum_. Sie klingen auch dicker und
+  füllen besser aus als die übertäubende und schreyende Clarinen, weil
+  sie um eine ganze quinte tiefer stehen."
+
+  Lotti in his _Giove in Argo_, given in Dresden, 1717, scored for two
+  horns in C, writing for them soli in the aria for tenor[61] (act iii.
+  sc. 1). Examples of C. H. Graun's[62] scoring for horns in F and G
+  respectively in _Polydorus_ (1708-1729) and in _Iphigenia_ (1731) show
+  the complete emancipation of the instrument from its original
+  limitations; it serves not only as melody instrument but also to
+  enrich the harmony and emphasize the rhythm. A comparison of the early
+  scores of Cavalli and Lulli with those of Handel's
+  _Wasserfahrtmusik_[63] (1717) and of _Radamisto_, performed in London
+  in 1720, shows the rapid progress made by the horn, even at a time
+  when its technique was still necessarily imperfect.
+
+  While Bach was conductor of the prince of Anhalt-Cöthen's orchestra
+  (1717-1723), it is probable that horns in several keys were used. In
+  Dresden two Bohemian horn-players, Johann Adalbert Fischer and Franz
+  Adam Samm, were added to the court orchestra in 1711.[64] In Vienna
+  the addition is stated to have taken place in 1712 at the opera.[65]
+  It is probable that as in Paris so in Vienna there were solitary
+  instances in which the horn was heard in opera without attracting the
+  attention of musicians long before 1712, for instance in Cesti's _Il
+  Pomo d'Oro_, printed in Vienna in 1667 and 1668 and performed for the
+  wedding ceremonies of Kaiser Leopold and Margareta, infanta of Spain.
+  A horn in E (former F pitch) in the museum of the Brussels
+  conservatoire bears the inscription "Machts Michael Leicham Schneider
+  in Wien, 1713."[66] Fürstenau[67] gives a further list of operas in
+  Vienna during the first two decades of the 18th century.
+
+  It will be well before the next stage in the evolution is approached
+  to consider the compass of the natural horn. The pedal octave from the
+  fundamental to the 2nd harmonic was altogether wanting; the next
+  octave contained only the 2nd and 3rd harmonics or the octave and its
+  fifth; in the third octave, the 8ve, its major 3rd, 5th and minor 7th;
+  in the fourth octave, a diatonic scale with a few accidentals was
+  possible. It will be seen that the compass was very limited on any
+  individual horn, but by grouping horns in different keys, or by
+  changing the crooks, command was gained by the composer over a larger
+  number of open notes.
+
+  An important period in the development of the horn has now been
+  reached. Anton Joseph Hampel is generally credited[68] with the
+  innovation of adapting the crooks to the middle of the body of the
+  horn instead of near the mouthpiece, which greatly improved the
+  quality of the notes obtained by means of the crooks. The crooks
+  fitted into the two branches of U-shaped tubes, thus forming slides
+  which acted as compensators. Hampel's _Inventionshorn_, as it is
+  called in Germany (Fr. _cor harmonique_), is said to date from
+  1753,[69] the first instrument having been made for him by Johann
+  Werner, a brass instrument-maker of Dresden. The same invention is
+  also attributed to Haltenhof of Hanau.[70] Others again mention
+  Michael Wögel[71] of Carlsruhe and Rastadt, probably confusing his
+  adaptation of the _Invention_ or _Maschine_, as the slide contrivance
+  was called in Germany, to the trumpet in 1780. The Inventionshorn,
+  although embodying an important principle which has also found its
+  application in all brass wind instruments with valves as a means of
+  correcting defective intonation, did not add to the compass of the
+  horn. At some date before 1762 it would seem that Hampel[72] also
+  discovered the principle on which hand-stopping is founded.
+
+  By hand-stopping (Fr. _sons bouchés_, Ger. _gestöpfte Töne_) is
+  understood the practice of inserting the hand with palm outstretched
+  and fingers drawn together, forming a long, shallow cup, into the
+  bell of the horn; the effect is similar to that produced in wood wind
+  instruments, termed _d'amore_, by the pear-shaped bell with a narrow
+  opening, i.e. a veiled mysterious quality, and, according to the
+  arrangement of the hand and fingers (which cannot be taught
+  theoretically, being inter-dependent on other acoustic conditions), a
+  drop in pitch which enables the performer merely to correct the faulty
+  intonation of difficult harmonics or to lower the pitch exactly a
+  semitone or even a full tone by inserting the hand well up the bore of
+  the bell. J. Fröhlich[73] gives drawings of the two principal
+  positions of the hand in the horn. The same phenomenon may be observed
+  in the flute by closing all the holes, so that the fundamental note of
+  the pipe speaks, and then gradually bringing the palm of the hand
+  nearer the open end of the flute. As a probable explanation may be
+  offered the following suggestion. The partial closing of the opening
+  of the bell removes the boundary of ambient air, which determines the
+  ventral segment of the half wave-length some distance beyond the
+  normal length; this boundary always lies _beyond_ the end of the tube,
+  thus accounting for the discrepancy between the theoretical length of
+  the air-column and the practical length actually given to the
+  tube.[74] Hampel is also said to have been the first to apply the
+  _sordini_[75] (Fr. _sourdine_) or mute, already in use in the 17th
+  century for the trumpet,[76] to the horn. The original mute did not
+  affect the pitch of the instrument, but only the tone, and when
+  properly constructed may be used with the valve horn to produce the
+  mysterious veiled quality of the hand-stopped notes. No satisfactory
+  scientific explanation of the modifications in the pitch effected by
+  the partial obstruction of the bell, whether by the hand or by means
+  of certain mechanical devices, has as yet been offered. D. J. Blaikley
+  suggests that in cases when the effect of hand-stopping appears to be
+  to raise the pitch of the notes of the harmonic series, the real
+  result of any contraction of the bell mouth (as by the insertion of
+  the hand) is always a flattening of pitch accompanied by the
+  introduction of a distorted or inharmonic scale, of such a character
+  that for instance, the _c_, _d_, _e_, or 8th, 9th and 10th notes of
+  the original harmonic scale become not the c[sharp] d[sharp] e[sharp]
+  of a fundamental raised a semitone, but D[flat], E[flat], and f due to
+  the 9th, 10th and 11th notes of a disturbed or distorted scale having
+  a fundamental lower than that of the normal horn.
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  With regard to the discovery of this method of obtaining a chromatic
+  compass for the horn, which rendered the instrument very popular with
+  composers, instrumentalists and the public, and procured for it a
+  generally accredited position in the orchestra, the following is the
+  sum of evidence at present available. In the Kgl. öffentliche
+  Bibliothek, Dresden, is preserved, amongst the musical MSS., an
+  autograph volume of 152 pages, entitled _Lection pro Cornui_, bearing
+  the signature A. J. H[ampel], the name being filled in in pencil by a
+  different hand. There is no introduction, no letterpress of any
+  description belonging to the MS. method for the horn, nor is any book
+  or pamphlet explaining the Inventionshorn or the method of
+  hand-stopping by Hampel extant or known to have existed. He has
+  apparently left no record of his accomplishment. A few typical
+  extracts copied and selected from the original MS., courteously
+  communicated by the director of the Royal Library, Hofrath, P. E.
+  Richter (a practical musician and performer on horn and trumpet), do
+  not prove conclusively that they were intended to be played on
+  hand-stopped horns, with the exception, perhaps, of the A, 13th
+  harmonic from C, which could not easily be obtained except by
+  hand-stopping on the hand-horn. On the blank sheet preceding the
+  exercises is an inscription in the hand of Moritz Fürstenau, former
+  custodian of the Royal Private Musical Collection (incorporated with
+  the public library in 1896): "Anton Joseph Hampel, by whom these
+  exercises for the horn were written, was a celebrated horn-player, a
+  member of the Orchestra of the Electoral Prince of Saxony. He invented
+  the so-called Inventionshorn. Cf. _Neues biog.-hist. Lexicon der
+  Tonkünstler_ by Gerber, pt. i. col. 493; also _Zur Gesch. der Musik u.
+  des Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden_, by M. Fürstenau, Bd. ii." It will be
+  seen that Fürstenau gives Gerber as his authority for the attribution
+  of the invention to Hampel, although he searched the archives, to
+  which he had free access, for material for his book.
+
+  The first possessor of the MS., Franz Schubert (1768-1824), musical
+  director of the Italian opera in Dresden, wrote the following note in
+  pencil on the last page of the cover: "Franz Schubert. The complete
+  school of horn-playing by the Kgl. Polnischen u. Kursächs.
+  Cammermusicus Anton Joseph Hampel, a celebrated virtuoso, invented by
+  himself in 1762." Judging from the standard of modern technique, there
+  are many passages in the "Lection" which could not be played without
+  artificially humouring the production of harmonics with the lips, and
+  it is an open question to what extent this method of correcting
+  intonation and of altering the pitch was practised in the 18th
+  century. When, therefore, Franz Schubert states that the method was
+  _invented_ by Hampel, we may take this as indirectly confirming
+  Gerber's statements. Further confirmation is obtained from the text of
+  a work on the horn written by Heinrich Domnich[77] (b. 1760), the son
+  of a celebrated horn-player of Würtzburg contemporary with Hampel.
+  Domnich junior settled eventually in Paris, where he was appointed
+  first professor of the horn at the Conservatoire. According to him the
+  mute (sourdine) of metal, wood or cardboard in the form of a hollow
+  cone, having a hole in the base, was used to soften the tone of the
+  horn without altering the pitch. But Hampel, substituting for this the
+  pad of cotton wool used for a similar purpose with the oboe, found
+  with surprise that its effect in the bell of the horn was to _raise_
+  the pitch a semitone (see D. J. Blaikley's explanation above). By this
+  means, says Domnich, a diatonic and chromatic scale was obtained.
+  Later Hampel substituted the hand for the pad. Domnich duly ascribes
+  to Hampel the credit of the Inventionshorn, but erroneously states
+  that it was Haltenhoff of Hanau who made the first instrument. Domnich
+  further explains that Hampel, who had not practised the _bouché_ notes
+  in his youth, only made use of them in slow music, and that the credit
+  of making practical use of the discovery was due to his pupil Giovanni
+  Punto (Joh. Stich) the celebrated horn virtuoso, who was a friend of
+  Domnich's.
+
+  It may be well to draw attention to the fact that hand-stopping was
+  not possible so long as the tube of horn was folded in a circle wide
+  enough to be worn round the body. The reduction of the diameter of the
+  orchestral horn in order to allow the performer to hold the instrument
+  in front of him, thus bringing the bell in front of the right arm in a
+  convenient position for hand-stopping, must have preceded the
+  discovery of hand-stopping. In the absence of contrary evidence we may
+  suppose that the change was effected for the more convenient
+  arrangement and manipulation of the slides or _Inventions_. So radical
+  a change in the compass of the horn could not occur and be adopted
+  generally without leaving its mark on the horn music of the period;
+  this change does not occur, as far as we know, before the last decades
+  of the 18th century. The rapid acceptance in other countries of
+  Hampel's discovery of hand-stopping is evidenced by a passage from a
+  little English work on music, published in London in 1772 but bearing
+  at the end of the preface the date June 1766:[78] "Some eminent
+  Proficients have been so dexterous as very nearly to perform all the
+  defective notes of the scale on the Horn by management of Breath and
+  by a little stopping the bell with their hands."
+
+  Hampel's success gave a general impetus to the inventive faculty of
+  musical instrument makers in Europe. At first the result was negative.
+  Kölbel's attempt must, however, be mentioned, if only to correct a
+  misconception. Kölbel, a Bohemian horn virtuoso at the imperial
+  Russian court from 1754, spent many years in vain endeavours to
+  improve his instrument. At last, in 1760, he applied keys to the horn
+  or the bugle, calling it Klappenhorn (the bugle is known in Germany as
+  _Signal_ or _Buglehorn_). Kölbel's experiment did not become widely
+  known or adopted during his lifetime, but Anton Weidinger, court
+  trumpeter at Vienna, made a keyed trumpet[79] in 1801, which attracted
+  attention in musical circles and gave a fresh impetus in experimenting
+  with keys upon brass instruments. In 1813 Joseph Weidinger, the
+  twelve-year-old son of the above, gave a concert in Vienna on the
+  _Klappenwaldhorn_[80] (or keyed French horn), about which little seems
+  to be known. Victor Mahillon[81] describes such an instrument, but
+  ascribes the invention to Kölbel; there was but one key placed on the
+  bell, which on being opened had the effect of raising the pitch of the
+  instrument a whole tone. By alternately using the harmonic open notes
+  on the normal length of the tube, and then by the action of the key
+  shortening the air column, the following diatonic scale was obtained
+  in the third octave:
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  In 1812 Dikhuth,[82] horn-player in the orchestra of the grand-duke of
+  Baden at Mannheim, constructed a horn in which a slide on the
+  principle of that of the trombone was intended to replace
+  hand-stopping and to lower the pitch at will a semitone.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Modern Horn (Boosey & Co.)]
+
+  The most felicitous, far-reaching and important of all improvements
+  was the invention of valves (q.v.), pistons or cylinders (the
+  principle of which has already been explained), by Heinrich
+  Stölzel,[83] who applied them first of all to the horn, the trumpet
+  and the trombone,[84] thus endowing the brass wind with a chromatic
+  compass obtained with perfect ease throughout the compass. The
+  inherent defect of valve instruments already explained, which causes
+  faulty intonation needing correction when the pistons are used in
+  combination, has now been practically overcome. The numerous attempts
+  to solve the difficulty, made with varying success by makers of brass
+  instruments, are described under VALVE, BOMBARDEN and CORNET.[85]
+       (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Michael Praetorius, _De organographia_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618),
+    tab. viii., where crooks for lowering the key by one tone on trumpet
+    and trombone are pictured.
+
+  [2] See Victor Mahillon, _Les Éléments d'acoustique musicale et
+    instrumentale_ (Brussels, 1874), pp. 96, 97, &c.; Friedrich Zamminer,
+    _Die Musik und die musikalischen Instrumente_ (Giessen, 1855), p.
+    310, where diagrams of the mouthpieces are given.
+
+  [3] See Joseph Fröhlich, _Vollständige theoretisch-praktische
+    Musikschule_ (Bonn, 1811), iii. 7, where diagrams of the two
+    mouthpieces for first and second horn are given.
+
+  [4] See Gottfried Weber, "Zur Akustik der Blasinstrumente," in
+    _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ (Leipzig, 1816), p. 38.
+
+  [5] _Les Instruments de musique au musée du Conservatoire royal de
+    musique de Bruxelles_, "Instruments à vent," ii., "Le Cor, son
+    histoire, sa théorie, sa construction" (Brussels and London, 1907),
+    p. 28.
+
+  [6] _Die Akustik_ (Leipzig, 1802), p. 86, § 72.
+
+  [7] _Op. cit._ p. 13, § 20, and p. 15, §§ 24 and 25. This apparent
+    discrepancy between an early and a modern authority on the acoustics
+    of wind instruments is easily explained. Chladni, when speaking of
+    open and closed pipes, refers to the standard cylindrical and
+    rectangular organ-pipes. Mahillon, on the other hand, draws a
+    distinction in favour of the conical pipe, demonstrating in a
+    practical manner how, given a certain calibre, the conical pipe must
+    overblow the harmonics of the open pipe, whatever the method of
+    producing the sound.
+
+  [8] See Gottfried Weber, _loc. cit._
+
+  [9] See Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, _Wellenlehre_ (Leipzig,
+    1825), p. 519, § 281, and _A Text-Book of Physics_, part. ii.,
+    "Sound," by J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson (London, 1906), pp. 104
+    and 105.
+
+  [10] See Sedley Taylor, _Sound and Music_ (1896), p. 21.
+
+  [11] _Id._ pp. 23-25.
+
+  [12] See Gottfried Weber, _op. cit._, pp. 39-41, and Ernst H. and
+    Wilhelm Weber, _op. cit._ p. 522, end of § 285.
+
+  [13] See A. Ganot, _Elementary Treatise on Physics_, translated by E.
+    Atkinson (16th ed., London, 1902), p. 266, § 282, "In the horn
+    different notes are produced by altering the distance of the lips."
+    Such a vague and misleading statement is worse than useless. See also
+    Poynting and Thomson, _op. cit._ p. 113.
+
+  [14] "Le Cor," p. 22; p. 11, § 18; pp. 6 and 7, § 8.
+
+  [15] The phraseology alone is here borrowed from Sedley Taylor, (_op.
+    cit._ p. 55), who does not enter into the practical application of
+    the theory he expounds so clearly.
+
+  [16] See Dr Emil Schafhäutl's article on musical instruments, § iv.
+    of _Bericht der Beurtheilungs Commission bei der Allg. Deutschen
+    Industrie Ausstellung, 1854_ (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-170; also F.
+    Zamminer, _op. cit._
+
+  [17] The measurements are for the high philharmonic pitch a'=452.4.
+    V. Mahillon, "Le cor" (p. 32), gives a table of the lengths of crooks
+    in metres.
+
+  [18] Robert Eitner, editor of the Monatshefte für Musikwissenschaft,
+    published therein an article in 1881, p. 41 seq., "Wer hat die
+    Ventiltrompete erfunden," in which, after referring to the
+    _Klappenwaldhorn_ and _Trompete_ (keyed horn and trumpet) made by
+    Weidinger and played in public in 1802 and 1813 respectively, he goes
+    on to state that Schilling in his Lexicon makes the comical mistake
+    of looking upon the Klappentrompete (keyed trumpet) and
+    _Ventiltrompete_ (valve trumpet) as different instruments. He
+    accordingly sets matters right, as he thinks, by according to
+    Weidinger the honour of the invention of valves, hitherto wrongfully
+    attributed to Stölzel; and in the _Quellenlexikon_ (1904) he leaves
+    out Stölzel's name, and names Weidinger as the inventor of the
+    _Klappen_ or _Ventil_, referring readers for further particulars to
+    his article, just quoted, in the _Monatshefte_.
+
+  [19] See Hector Berlioz, _A Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and
+    Orchestration_, translated by Mary Cowden Clarke, new edition revised
+    by Joseph Bennett (1882), p. 141.
+
+  [20] See Victor Mahillon, _Catal. descriptif des instruments de
+    musique_, &c., vol. ii. p. 388, No. 1156, where an illustration is
+    given. See also Dr August Hammerich (French translation by E.
+    Beauvais), "Über altnordische Luren" in _Vierteljährschrift für
+    Musik-Wissenschaft_ x. (1894).
+
+  [21] See Major J. H. L. Archer, _The British Army Records_ (London,
+    1888), pp. 402, &c.
+
+  [22] _De re militari_, iii. 5 (Basel, 1532). The successive editions
+    and translations of this classic, both manuscript and printed,
+    throughout the middle ages afford useful evidence of the evolution of
+    these three wind instruments.
+
+  [23] See Wilhelm Froehner, _La Colonne Trajane d'après le surmoulage
+    exécuté à Rome en 1861-1862_ (Paris, 1872-1874). On pl. 51 is a cornu
+    framing the head of a cornicen or horn-player. See also the fine
+    plates in Conrad Cichorius, _Die Reliefs der Traiansäule_ (Berlin,
+    1896, &c.).
+
+  [24] Ermanno Ferrero, _L'Arc d'Auguste à Suse_ (Segusio, 9-8 B.C.)
+    (Turin, 1901).
+
+  [25] See the mouthpiece on the Pompeian buccinas preserved in the
+    museum at Naples, reproduced in the article Buccina. The museums of
+    the conservatoires of Paris and Brussels and the Collection Kraus in
+    Florence possess facsimiles of these instruments; see Victor
+    Mahillon, _Catalogue_, vol. ii. p. 30. Cf. also the pair of bronze
+    Etruscan cornua, No. 2734 in the department of Creek and Roman
+    antiquities at the British Museum, which possess well-preserved
+    cup-shaped mouthpieces.
+
+  [26] See Bock, "Gebrauch der Hörner im Mittelalter," in Gustav
+    Heider's _Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmäler Österreichs_ (Stuttgart,
+    1858-1860).
+
+  [27] _Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français_ (Paris, 1889), ii.
+    p. 246.
+
+  [28] Engelbertus Admontensis in _De Musica Scriptores_, by Martin
+    Gerbert, Bd. ii. lib. ii. cap. 29; and Edward Buhle, _Die
+    Musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen des frühen Mittelalters_,
+    pt. i., "Die Blasinstrumente" (Leipzig, 1903), p. 16.
+
+  [29] _Le Trésor de vénerie par Hardouin, seigneur de
+    Fontaines-Guérin_ (edited by H. Michelant, Metz, 1856); the first
+    part was edited by Jérome Pichon (Paris, 1855), with an historical
+    introduction by Bottée de Toulmon.
+
+  [30] As worked out by Edward Buhle, _op. cit._, p. 23.
+
+  [31] See Turbevile, _op. cit._, also J. du Fouilloux, _La Vénerie_
+    (Paris, 1628), p. 70; cf. also editions of 1650 and of 1562, where
+    the horn is called _trompe_, used with the verb _corner_; Juliana
+    Bernes, _Boke of St Albans_ (1496), the frontispiece of which is a
+    hunting scene showing a horn of very wide bore, without bell. Only
+    half the instrument is visible.
+
+  [32] See "Reliure italienne du xv^e siècle en argent niellé.
+    Collection du Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild, Vienne," in _Gazette
+    archéologique_ (Paris, 1880), xiii. p. 295, pl. 38, where other
+    instruments are also represented.
+
+  [33] See Jost Amman, _Wappen und Stammbuch_ (1589). A reprint in
+    facsimile has been published by Georg Hirth as vol. iii. of
+    _Liebhaber Bibliothek_ (Munich, 1881). See arms of Sultzberger aus
+    Tirol (p. 52), "Ein Jägerhörnlin," and of the Herzog von Wirtenberg;
+    cf. the latter with the arms of Wurthemberch in pl. xxii. vol. ii. of
+    Gelre's _Wappenboek ou armorial de 1334 à 1372_ (miniatures of coats
+    of arms in facsimile), edited by Victor Bouton (Paris, 1883).
+
+  [34] For illustrations see autotype facsimile of Utrecht Psalter, 9th
+    century; British Museum, Add. MS. 10,546, Ps. 150, 9th century; Add.
+    MS. 24,199, 10th century; Eadwine Psalter, Trin. Coll. Camb., 11th
+    century, and Cotton MS., Nero, D. IV., 8th century; also Edward
+    Buhle, _op. cit._, pl. ii. and pp. 12-24.
+
+  [35] See John Carter, _Specimens of Ancient Sculpture and Paintings_
+    (London, 1780-1794), i. p. 53 (plates unnumbered); also reproduced in
+    H. Lavoix, _Histoire de la musique_ (Paris, 1884).
+
+  [36] See Jost Amman, _op. cit._
+
+  [37] _Musica getutscht und ausgezogen_ (Basel, 1511), p. 30. The
+    names are not given under the drawings, but the above is the order in
+    which they occur, which is probably reversed.
+
+  [38] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), p. 245.
+
+  [39] _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pl. vii. No. 11, p. 39.
+
+  [40] _Historisch-biographisches Lexicon der Tonkünstler_ (Leipzig,
+    1790-1792 and 1812-1814).
+
+  [41] _De saecularibus Liberalium Artium in Bohemia et Moravia fatis
+    commentarius_ (Prague, 1784), p. 401.
+
+  [42] See Ernest Thoinan, _Les Origines de la chapelle musique des
+    souverains de France_ (Paris, 1864); F. J. Fétis, "Recherches sur la
+    musique des rois de France, et de quelques princes depuis Philippe le
+    Bel jusqu'à la fin du règne de Louis XIV.," _Revue musicale_ (Paris,
+    1832), xii. pp. 193, 217, 233, 241, 257; Castil-Blaze, _La Chapelle
+    musique des rois de France_ (Paris, 1882); Michel Brenet, "Deux
+    comptes de la chapelle musique des rois de France," _Intern. Mus.
+    Ges._, Smbd. vi., i. pp. 1-32; J. Ecorcheville, "Quelques documents
+    sur la musique de la grande écurie du roi," _Intern. Mus. Ges._,
+    Smbd. ii. 4 (Leipzig, 1901), pp. 608-642.
+
+  [43] _Neue Zeitschrift f. Musik_ (Leipzig, 1870), p. 309.
+
+  [44] See _Die Sammlung der Musikinstrumente des baierischen Nat.
+    Museum_ by K. A. Bierdimpfl (Munich, 1883), Nos. 105 and 106.
+
+  [45] Communication from Dr Georg Hagen, assistant director.
+
+  [46] See Musée du Conservatoire National de Musique. _Catalogue des
+    instruments de musique_ (Paris, 1884), p. 147.
+
+  [47] See Captain C. R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical
+    Instruments exhibited at the Military Exhibition_ (London, 1890), p.
+    147, No. 307.
+
+  [48] See V. Mahillon, _Catal._ vol. i. No. 468.
+
+  [49] See Captain C. R. Day, _Catal._ No. 309, p. 148.
+
+  [50] For an illustration see _Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of
+    Ancient Musical Instruments at South Kensington Museum 1872_ (London,
+    1873), p. 25, No. 332.
+
+  [51] See _Katalog des musikhistorischen Museums von Paul de Wit_
+    (Leipzig, 1904), p. 142, No. 564, where it is classified as a
+    Jägertrompete after Praetorius; it has a trumpet mouthpiece.
+
+  [52] For an illustration see F. J. Crowest, _English Music_, p. 449,
+    No. 12.
+
+  [53] See Ignatz and Anton Böck in _Baierisches Musik-Lexikon_ by
+    Felix J. Lipowski (Munich, 1811), p. 26, note.
+
+  [54] See, for instance, frontispiece of Walther's _Musikalisches
+    Lexikon_ (Leipzig, 1732); J. F. B. C. Majer's _Musik-Saal_
+    (Nuremberg, 1741, 2nd ed.), p. 54; Joh. Christ. Kolb, _Pinacotheca
+    Davidica_ (Augsburg, 1711); Ps. xci.; "Componimenti Musicali per il
+    cembalo Dr Theofilo Muffat, organista di sua Sacra Maesta Carlo VI.
+    Imp." (1690), title-page in _Denkmäler d. Tonkunst in Oesterreich_,
+    Bd. iii.
+
+  [55] See Hugo Goldschmidt, "Das Orchester der italienischen Oper im
+    17 Jahrhundert," _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Smbd. ii. 1, p. 73.
+
+  [56] See "Le Cor," pp. 23 and 24, and _Dictionnaire de l'acad. des
+    beaux arts_, vol. iv., art. "Cor."
+
+  [57] Mersenne's drawings of _cors de chasse_ are very crude; they
+    have no bell and are all of the large calibre suggestive of the
+    primitive animal horn. He mentions nevertheless that they were not
+    only used for signals and fanfares but also for little concerted
+    pieces in four parts for horns alone, or with oboes, at the
+    conclusion of the hunt.
+
+  [58] See William Tans'ur Senior, _The Elements of Musick_ (London,
+    1772); Br. V. Dictionary under "Horn." Also Scale of Horn in the hand
+    of Samuel Wesley; in Add. MS. 35011, fol. 166, Brit. Mus.
+
+  [59] A horn-player, Johann Theodor Zeddelmayer, was engaged in 1706
+    at the Saxon court at Weissenfels; see _Neue-Mitteilungen aus dem
+    Gebiete histor. antiqu. Forschungen_, Bd. xv. (2) (Halle, 1882), p.
+    503; also Wilhelm Kleefeld, "Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper,
+    1678-1738," _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Smbd. i. 2, p. 280, where the
+    appearance of the horn in the orchestras of Germany is traced.
+
+  [60] _Das neu-eröffnete Orchester_, i. 267.
+
+  [61] See Moritz Fürstenau, _Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters
+    zu Dresden_ (Dresden, 1861-1862), vol. ii. p. 60.
+
+  [62] See "Carl Heinrich Graun als Opernkomponist," by Albert
+    Mayer-Reinach, _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Smbd. i. 3 (Leipzig, 1900), pp.
+    516-517 and 523-524, where musical examples are given.
+
+  [63] Cf. Chrysander, _Haendel_, ii. 146.
+
+  [64] See Moritz Fürstenau, _op. cit._ ii. 58.
+
+  [65] See Ludwig von Köchel, _Die kaiserliche Hofkappelle in Wien_
+    (Vienna, 1869), p. 80.
+
+  [66] See Victor Mahillon, _Catalogue descriptif_, vol. ii. No. 1160,
+    p. 389.
+
+  [67] _Op. cit._ ii. 60.
+
+  [68] The Department of State Archives for Saxony in Dresden possesses
+    no documents which can throw any light upon this point, but, through
+    the courtesy of the director, the following facts have been
+    communicated. Two documents concerning Anton Joseph Hampel are
+    extant: (1) An application by his son, Johann Michael Hampel, to the
+    elector Friedrich August III. of Saxony, dated Dresden, April 3,
+    1771, in which he prays that the post of his father as horn-player in
+    the court orchestra--in which he had already served as deputy for his
+    invalid father--may be awarded to him. (2) A petition from the widow,
+    Aloisia Ludevica Hampelin, to the elector, bearing the same date
+    (April 3, 1771), wherein she announces the death of her husband on
+    the 30th of March 1771, who had been in the service of the house of
+    Saxony thirty-four years as horn-player, and prays for the grant of a
+    monthly pension for herself and her three delicate daughters, as she
+    finds herself in the most unfortunate circumstances. There is no
+    allusion in either letter to any musical merit of the deceased.
+
+  [69] There is an instrument of this early type, supposed to date from
+    the middle of the 18th century, in Paul de Wit's fine collection of
+    musical instruments formerly in Leipzig and now transferred to
+    Cologne; see _Katalog_, No. 645, p. 148.
+
+  [70] See _Dictionnaire de l'acad. des beaux arts_, vol. iv. (Paris),
+    article "Cor."
+
+  [71] See Dr Gustav Schilling, _Universal Lexikon der Tonkunst_
+    (Stuttgart, 1840), Bd. vi., "Trompete"; also Capt. C. R. Day, pp. 139
+    and 151, where the term _Invention_ is quite misunderstood and
+    misapplied. See Gottfried Weber in _Caecilia_ (Mainz, 1835), Bd.
+    xvii.
+
+  [72] Gerber in the first edition of his _Lexikon_ does not mention
+    Hampel or award him a separate biographical article; we may therefore
+    conclude that he was not personally acquainted with him, although
+    Hampel was still a member of the electoral orchestra in Dresden
+    during Gerber's short career in Leipzig. In the edition of 1812
+    Gerber renders him full justice.
+
+  [73] _Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Musikschule_ (Bonn, 1811),
+    pt. iii. p. 7.
+
+  [74] See Victor Mahillon, "Le Cor," p. 28; Chladni, _op. cit._ p. 87.
+
+  [75] See Fröhlich, _op. cit._ 7; and Gerber, _Lexikon_ (ed. 1812), p.
+    493; "Le Cor," pp. 34 and 53.
+
+  [76] See Praetorius and Mersenne, _op. cit._; the latter gives an
+    illustration of the trumpet mute.
+
+  [77] _Methode de premier et de second cor_ (Paris, c. 1807). The
+    passage in question was discovered and courteously communicated by
+    Hofrat P. E. Richter of the Royal Library, Dresden. There is no copy
+    of Domnich's work in the British Museum.
+
+  [78] See William Tans'ur Senior, _op. et loc. cit._
+
+  [79] See _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ (Leipzig), Nov. 1802, p.
+    158, and Jan. 1803, p. 245; and E. Hanslick, _Geschichte des
+    Concertwesens in Wien_ (Vienna, 1869), p. 119.
+
+  [80] See _Allgem. mus. Ztg._, 1815, p. 844.
+
+  [81] "Le Cor," pp. 34-35.
+
+  [82] See the description of the instrument and of other attempts to
+    obtain the same result by Gottfried Weber, "Wichtige Verbesserung des
+    Horns" in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1812), pp. 758, &c.; also
+    1815, pp. 637 and 638 (the regent or keyed bugle).
+
+  [83] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._, 1815, May, p. 309, the first
+    announcement of the invention in a paragraph by Captain G. B. Bierey.
+
+  [84] _Ibid._, 1817, p. 814, by F. Schneider, and Dec. p. 558; 1818,
+    p. 531. An announcement of the invention and of a patent granted for
+    the same for ten years, in which Blümel is for the first time
+    associated with Stölzel as co-inventor. See also _Caecilia_ (Mainz,
+    1835), Bd. xvii. pp. 73 seq., with illustrations, an excellent
+    article by Gottfried Weber on the valve horn and valve trumpet.
+
+  [85] For a very complete exposition of the operation of valves in the
+    horn, and of the mathematical proportions to be observed in
+    construction, see Victor Mahillon's "Le Cor," also the article by
+    Gottfried Weber in _Caecilia_ (1835), to which reference was made
+    above. A list of horn-players of note during the 18th century is
+    given by C. Gottlieb Murr in _Journal f. Kunstgeschichte_ (Nuremberg,
+    1776), vol. ii. p. 27. See also a good description of the style of
+    playing of the virtuoso J. Nisle in 1767 in Schubart, _Aesthetik d.
+    Tonkunst_, p. 161, and _Leben u. Gesinnungen_ (1791), Bd. ii. p. 92;
+    or in L. Schiedermair, "Die Blütezeit d. Ottingen-Wallensteinschen
+    Hofkapelle," _Intern. Mus. Ges._ Smbd. ix. (1), 1907, pp. 83-130.
+
+
+
+
+HORNBEAM (_Carpinus betulus_), a member of a small genus of trees of the
+natural order Corylaceae. The Latin name _Carpinus_ has been thought to
+be derived from the Celtic _car_, wood, and _pin_ or _pen_, head, the
+wood of hornbeams having been used for yokes of cattle (see Loudon,
+_Ency. of Pl._ p. 792, new ed. 1855, and Littré, Dict. ii. 556). The
+common hornbeam, or yoke-elm, _Carpinus betulus_ (Ger. _Hornbaum_ and
+_Hornbuche_, Fr. _charme_), is indigenous in the temperate parts of
+western Asia and of Asia Minor, and in Europe, where it ranges as high
+as 55° and 56° N. lat. It is common in woods and hedges in parts of
+Wales and of the south of England. The trunk is usually flattened, and
+twisted as though composed of several stems united; the bark is smooth
+and light grey; and the leaves are in two rows, 2 to 3 in. long,
+elliptic-ovate, doubly toothed, pointed, numerously ribbed, hairy below
+and opaque, and not glossy as in the beech, have short stalks and when
+young are plaited. The stipules of the leaves act as protecting
+scale-leaves in the winter-bud and fall when the bud opens in spring.
+The flowers appear with the leaves in April and May. The male catkins
+are about 1½ in. long, and have pale-yellow anthers, bearing tufts of
+hairs at the apex; the female attain a length in the fruiting stage of 2
+to 4 in., with bracts 1 to 1½ in. long. The green and angular fruit or
+"nut" ripens in October; it is about ¼ in. in length, is in shape like a
+small chestnut, and is enclosed in leafy, 3-lobed bracts. The hornbeam
+thrives well on stiff, clayey, moist soils, into which its roots
+penetrate deeply; on chalk or gravel it does not flourish. Raised from
+seed it may become a tree 40 to as much as 70 ft. in height, greatly
+resembling the beech, except in its rounder and closer head. It is,
+however, rarely grown as a timber-tree, its chief employment being for
+hedges. "In the single row," says Evelyn (_Sylva_, p. 29, 1664), "it
+makes the noblest and the stateliest _hedges_ for long Walks in Gardens
+or _Parks_, of any Tree whatsoever whose leaves are _deciduous_." As it
+bears clipping well, it was formerly much used in geometric gardening.
+The branches should not be lopped in spring, on account of their
+tendency to bleed at that season. The wood of the hornbeam is white and
+close-grained, and polishes ill, is of considerable tenacity and little
+flexibility, and is extremely tough and hard to work--whence, according
+to Gerard, the name of the tree. It has been found to lose about 8% of
+its weight by drying. As a fuel it is excellent; and its charcoal is
+much esteemed for making gunpowder. The inner part of the bark of the
+hornbeam is stated by Linnaeus to afford a yellow dye. In France the
+leaves serve as fodder. The tree is a favourite with hares and rabbits,
+and the seedlings are apt to be destroyed by mice. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._
+xxvi. 26), who describes its wood as red and easily split, classes the
+hornbeam with maples.
+
+The American hornbeam, blue or water beech, is _Carpinus americana_
+(also known as _C. caroliniana_); the common hop-hornbeam, a native of
+the south of Europe, is a member of a closely allied genus, _Ostrya
+vulgaris_, the allied American species, _O. virginiana_, is also known
+as ironwood from its very hard, tight, close-grained wood.
+
+
+
+
+HORNBILL, the English name long generally given to all the birds of the
+family _Bucerotidae_ of modern ornithologists, from the extraordinary
+horn-like excrescence (_epithema_) developed on the bill of most of the
+species, though to which of them it was first applied seems doubtful.
+Among classical authors Pliny had heard of such animals, and mentions
+them (_Hist. Nat._ lib. x. cap. lxx.) under the name of _Tragopan_; but
+he deemed their existence fabulous, comparing them with _Pegasi_ and
+_Gryphones_--in the words of Holland, his translator (vol. i. p.
+296)--"I thinke the same of the Tragopanades, which many men affirme to
+bee greater than the Ægle; having crooked hornes like a Ram on either
+side of the head, of the colour of yron, and the head onely red." Yet
+this is but an exaggerated description of some of the species with which
+doubtless his informants had an imperfect acquaintance. Medieval writers
+found Pliny's bird to be no fable, for specimens of the beak of one
+species or another seem occasionally to have been brought to Europe,
+where they were preserved in the cabinets of the curious, and thus
+Aldrovandus was able to describe pretty fairly and to figure
+(_Ornithologia_, lib. xii. cap. xx. tab. x. fig. 7) one of them under
+the name of "_Rhinoceros Avis_," though the rest of the bird was wholly
+unknown to him. When the exploration of the East Indies had extended
+farther, more examples reached Europe, and the "_Corvus Indicus
+cornutus_" of Bontius became fully recognized by Willughby and Ray,
+under the title of the "Horned Indian Raven or _Topau_ called the
+Rhinocerot Bird." Since the time of those excellent ornithologists our
+knowledge of the hornbills has been steadily increasing, but up to the
+third quarter of the 19th century there was a great lack of precise
+information, and the publication of D. G. Elliot's "_Monograph of the
+Bucerotidae_," then supplied a great want. He divides the family into
+two sections, the _Bucerotinae_ and the _Bucorvinae_. The former group
+contains most of the species, which are divided into many genera. Of
+these, the most remarkable is _Rhinoplax_, which seems properly to
+contain but one species, the _Buceros vigil_, _B. scutatus_ or _B.
+geleatus_ of authors, commonly known as the helmet-hornbill, a native of
+Sumatra and Borneo. This is easily distinguished by having the front of
+its nearly vertical and slightly convex _epithema_ composed of a solid
+mass of horn[1] instead of a thin coating of the light and cellular
+structure found in the others. So dense and hard is this portion of the
+"helmet" that Chinese and Malay artists carve figures on its surface, or
+cut it transversely into plates, which from their agreeable colouring,
+bright yellow with a scarlet rim, are worn as brooches or other
+ornaments. This bird, which is larger than a raven, is also remarkable
+for its long graduated tail, having the middle two feathers nearly twice
+the length of the rest. Nothing is known of its habits. Its head was
+figured by George Edwards in the 18th century, but little else had been
+seen of it until 1801, when John Latham described the plumage from a
+specimen in the British Museum, and the first figure of the whole bird,
+from an example in the Museum at Calcutta, was published by General
+Hardwicke in 1823 (_Trans. Linn. Society_, xiv. pl. 23). Yet more than
+twenty years elapsed before French naturalists became acquainted with
+it.
+
+[Illustration: Great Indian Hornbill (_B. bicornis_). (After Tickell's
+drawing in the Zoological Society's Library.)]
+
+In the _Bucorvinae_ we have only the genus _Bucorvus_, or _Bucorax_ as
+some call it, confined to Africa, and containing at least two and
+perhaps more species, distinguishable by their longer legs and shorter
+toes, the ground-hornbills of English writers, in contrast to the
+_Bucerotinae_ which are chiefly arboreal in their habits, and when not
+flying move by short leaps or hops, while the members of this group walk
+and run with facility. From the days of James Bruce at least there are
+few African travellers who have not met with and in their narratives
+more or less fully described one or other of these birds, whose large
+size and fearless habits render them conspicuous objects.
+
+As a whole the hornbills, of which more than 50 species have been
+described, form a very natural and in some respects an isolated group,
+placed by Huxley among his _Coccygomorphae_. It has been suggested that
+they have some affinity with the hoopoes (_Upupidae_), and this view is
+now generally accepted. Their supposed alliance to the toucans
+(_Rhamphastidae_) rests only on the apparent similarity presented by the
+enormous beak, and is contradicted by important structural characters.
+In many of their habits, so far as these are known, all hornbills seem
+to be much alike, and though the modification in the form of the beak,
+and the presence or absence of the extraordinary excrescence,[2] whence
+their name is derived, causes great diversity of aspect among them, the
+possession of prominent eyelashes (not a common feature in birds)
+produces a uniformity of expression which makes it impossible to mistake
+any member of the family. Hornbills are social birds, keeping in
+companies, not to say flocks, and living chiefly on fruits and seeds;
+but the bigger species also capture and devour a large number of snakes,
+while the smaller are great destroyers of insects. The older writers say
+that they eat carrion, but further evidence to that effect is required
+before the statement can be believed. Almost every morsel of food that
+is picked up is tossed into the air, and then caught in the bill before
+it is swallowed. They breed in holes of trees, laying large white eggs,
+and when the hen begins to sit the cock plasters up the entrance with
+mud or clay, leaving only a small window through which she receives the
+food he brings her during her incarceration.
+
+This remarkable habit, almost simultaneously noticed by Dr Mason in
+Burma, S. R. Tickell in India, and Livingstone in Africa, and since
+confirmed by other observers, especially A. R. Wallace[3] in the Malay
+Archipelago, has been connected by A. D. Bartlett (_Proc. Zool.
+Society_, 1869, p. 142) with a peculiarity as remarkable, which he was
+the first to notice. This is the fact that hornbills at intervals of
+time, whether periodical or irregular is not yet known, cast the
+epithelial layer of their gizzard, that layer being formed by a
+secretion derived from the glands of the proventriculus or some other
+upper part of the alimentary canal. The epithelium is ejected in the
+form of a sack or bag, the mouth of which is closely folded, and is
+filled with the fruit that the bird has been eating. The announcement of
+a circumstance so extraordinary naturally caused some hesitation in its
+acceptance, but the essential truth of Bartlett's observations was
+abundantly confirmed by Sir W. H. Flower and especially by Dr J. Murie.
+These castings form the hen bird's food during her confinement.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Apparently correlated with this structure is the curious
+    thickening of the "prosencephalic median septum" of the cranium as
+    also of that which divides the "prosencephalic" from the
+    "mesencephalic chamber," noticed by Sir R. Owen (_Cat. Osteol. Ser.
+    Mus. Roy. Coll. Surg. England_, i. 287); while the solid horny mass
+    is further strengthened by a backing of bony props, directed forwards
+    and meeting its base at right angles. This last singular arrangement
+    is not perceptible in the skull of any other species examined by the
+    present writer.
+
+  [2] Buffon, as was his manner, enlarges on the cruel injustice done
+    to these birds by Nature in encumbering them with this deformity,
+    which he declares must hinder them from getting their food with ease.
+    The only corroboration his perverted view receives is afforded by the
+    observed fact that hornbills, in captivity at any rate, never have
+    any fat about them.
+
+  [3] In _The Malay Archipelago_ (i. 213), Wallace describes a nestling
+    hornbill (_B. bicornis_) which he obtained as "a most curious object,
+    as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage on any part
+    of it. It was exceedingly plump and soft, and with a semi-transparent
+    skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet
+    stuck on, than like a real bird."
+
+
+
+
+HORNBLENDE, an important member of the amphibole group of rock-forming
+minerals. The name is an old one of German origin, and was used for any
+dark-coloured prismatic crystals from which metals could not be
+extracted. It is now applied to the dark-coloured aluminous members of
+the monoclinic amphiboles, occupying in this group the same position
+that augite occupies in the pyroxene group. The monoclinic crystals are
+prismatic in habit with a six-sided cross-section; the angle between the
+prism-faces (M), parallel to which there are perfect cleavages, is 55°
+49´. The colour (green, brown or black) and the specific gravity
+(3.0-3.3) vary with the amount of iron present. The pleochroism is
+always strong, and the angle of optical extinction on the plane of
+symmetry (x in the figure) varies from 0° to 37°. The chemical
+composition is expressed by mixtures in varying proportions of the
+molecules Ca(Mg, Fe)3(SiO3)4, (Mg, Fe)(Al, Fe)2SiO6 and NaAl(SiO3)2.
+Numerous varieties have been distinguished by special names: edenite,
+from Edenville in New York, is a pale-coloured aluminous amphibole
+containing little iron; pargasite, from Pargas near Abo in Finland, a
+green or bluish-green variety; common hornblende includes the
+greenish-black and black kinds containing more iron. The dark-coloured
+porphyritic crystals of basalts are known as basaltic hornblende.
+
+[Illustration.]
+
+Hornblende occurs as an essential constituent of many kinds of igneous
+rocks, such as hornblende-granite, syenite, diorite, hornblende-andesite,
+basalt, &c.; and in many crystalline schists, for example, amphibolite
+and hornblende-schist which are composed almost entirely of this mineral.
+Well-crystallized specimens are met with at many localities, for example:
+brilliant black crystals (syntagmatite) with augite and mica in the
+sanidine bombs of Monte Somma, Vesuvius; large crystals at Arendal in
+Norway, and at several places in the state of New York; isolated crystals
+from the basalts of Bohemia.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HORN-BOOK, a name originally applied to a sheet containing the letters
+of the alphabet, which formed a primer for the use of children. It was
+mounted on wood and protected with transparent horn. Sometimes the leaf
+was simply pasted against the slice of horn. The wooden frame had a
+handle, and it was usually hung at the child's girdle. The sheet, which
+in ancient times was of vellum and latterly of paper, contained first a
+large cross--the criss-crosse--from which the horn-book was called the
+Christ Cross Row, or criss-cross-row. The alphabet in large and small
+letters followed. The vowels then formed a line, and their combinations
+with the consonants were given in a tabular form. The usual
+exorcism--"in the name of the Father and of the Sonne and of the Holy
+Ghost, Amen"--followed, then the Lord's Prayer, the whole concluding
+with the Roman numerals. The horn-book is mentioned in Shakespeare's
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, v. i, where the _ba_, the _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_,
+_u_, and the horn, are alluded to by Moth. It is also described by Ben
+Jonson--
+
+  "The letters may be read, through the horn,
+   That make the story perfect."
+
+
+
+
+HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS (1825-1895), British admiral of the
+fleet, son of Admiral Sir Phipps Hornby, the first cousin and
+brother-in-law of the 13th earl of Derby, by a daughter of
+Lieut.-General Burgoyne, commonly distinguished as "Saratoga" Burgoyne,
+was born on the 20th of February 1825. At the age of twelve he was sent
+to sea in the flagship of Sir Robert Stopford, with whom he saw the
+capture of Acre in November 1840. He afterwards served in the flagship
+of Rear-Admiral Josceline Percy at the Cape of Good Hope, was
+flag-lieutenant to his father in the Pacific, and came home as a
+commander. When the Derby ministry fell in December 1852 young Hornby
+was promoted to be captain. Early in 1853 he married, and as the Derby
+connexion put him out of favour with the Aberdeen ministry, and
+especially with Sir James Graham, the first lord of the Admiralty, he
+settled down in Sussex as manager of his father's property. He had no
+appointment in the navy till 1858, when he was sent out to China to take
+command of the "Tribune" frigate and convey a body of marines to
+Vancouver Island, where the dispute with the United States about the
+island of San Juan was threatening to become very bitter. As senior
+naval officer there Hornby's moderation, temper and tact did much to
+smooth over matters, and a temporary arrangement for joint occupation of
+the island was concluded. He afterwards commanded the "Neptune" in the
+Mediterranean under Sir William Fanshawe Martin, was flag-captain to
+Rear-Admiral Dacres in the Channel, was commodore of the squadron on the
+west coast of Africa, and, being promoted to rear-admiral in January
+1869, commanded the training squadron for a couple of years. He then
+commanded the Channel Fleet, and was for two years a junior lord of the
+Admiralty. It was early in 1877 that he went out as commander-in-chief
+in the Mediterranean, where his skill in manoeuvring the fleet, his
+power as a disciplinarian, and the tact and determination with which he
+conducted the foreign relations at the time of the Russian advance on
+Constantinople, won for him the K. C. B. He returned home in 1880 with
+the character of being perhaps the most able commander on the active
+list of the navy. His later appointments were to the Royal Naval College
+as president, and afterwards to Portsmouth as commander-in-chief. On
+hauling down his flag he was appointed G. C. B., and in May 1888 was
+promoted to be admiral of the fleet. From 1886 he was principal naval
+aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria, and in that capacity, and as an admiral
+of the fleet, was appointed on the staff of the German emperor during
+his visits to England in 1889 and 1890. He died, after a short illness,
+on the 3rd of March 1895. By his wife, who predeceased him, he left
+several children, daughters and sons, one of whom, a major in the
+artillery, won the Victoria Cross in South Africa in 1900.
+
+  His life was written by his daughter, Mrs Fred. Egerton, (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HORNCASTLE, a market-town in the S. Lindsey or Horncastle parliamentary
+division of Lincolnshire, England, at the foot of a line of low hills
+called the Wolds, at the confluence of the Bain and Waring streams; the
+terminus of a branch line of the Great Northern railway, 130 m. N. from
+London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4038. The church of St Mary is
+principally Decorated and Perpendicular, with some Early English remains
+and an embattled western tower. Queen Elizabeth's grammar school was
+founded in 1562. Other buildings are an exchange, a court-house and a
+dispensary founded in 1789. The prosperity of the town is chiefly
+dependent on agriculture and its well-known horse fairs. Brewing and
+malting are carried on, and there is some trade in coal and iron.
+
+Remains have been found here which may indicate the existence of a Roman
+village. The manor of Horncastle (Hornecastre) belonged to Queen Edith
+in Saxon times and was royal demesne in 1086 and the head of a large
+soke. In the reign of Stephen it apparently belonged to Alice de Cundi,
+a partisan of the empress Maud, and passing to the crown on her death it
+was granted by Henry III. to Gerbald de Escald, from whom it descended
+to Ralph de Rhodes, who sold it to Walter Mauclerc, bishop of Carlisle
+in 1230. The see of Carlisle retained it till the reign of Edward VI.
+when it was granted to Edward, Lord Clinton, but was recovered in the
+following reign. In 1230 Henry III. directed the men of Horncastle to
+render a reasonable aid to the bishop, who obtained the right to try
+felons, hold a court leet and have free warren. An inquisition of 1275
+shows that the bishop had then, besides the return of writs, the assize
+of bread and ale and waifs and strays in the soke. Horncastle was a
+centre of the Lincolnshire rebellion of 1536. Royalist troops occupied
+the town in 1643, and were pursued through its streets after the battle
+fought at Winceby. It was never a municipal or parliamentary borough,
+but during the middle ages it was frequently the residence of the
+bishops of Carlisle. Its prosperity has always depended largely on its
+fairs, the great horse fair described by George Borrow in _Romany Rye_
+being granted to the bishop in 1230 for the octave of St Lawrence,
+together with the fair on the feast of St Barnabas. The three other
+fairs are apparently of later date.
+
+  See George Weir, _Historical and Descriptive Sketches of the Town and
+  Soke of Horncastle in the County of Lincoln and of Several Places
+  adjacent_ (London, 1820).
+
+
+
+
+HORN DANCE, a medieval dance, still celebrated during the September
+"wakes" at Abbots Bromley, a village on the borders of Needwood Forest,
+Staffordshire. Six or seven men, each wearing a deer's skull with
+antlers, dance through the streets, pursued by a comrade who bestrides a
+mimic horse, and whips the dancers to keep them on the move. The
+horn-dance usually takes place on the Monday after Wakes Sunday, which
+is the Sunday next after the 4th of September. Originally the dance took
+place on a Sunday.
+
+  See _Strand Magazine_ for November 1896; also _Folk-lore_, vol. vii.
+  (1896), p. 381.
+
+
+
+
+HORNE, GEORGE (1730-1792), English divine, was born on the 1st of
+November 1730, at Otham near Maidstone, and received his education at
+Maidstone school and University College, Oxford. In 1749 he became a
+fellow of Magdalen, of which college he was elected president in 1768.
+As a preacher he early attained great popularity, and was, albeit
+unjustly, accused of Methodism. His reputation was helped by several
+clever if somewhat wrong-headed publications, including a satirical
+pamphlet entitled _The Theology and Philosophy of Cicero's Somnium
+Scipionis_ (1751), a defence of the Hutchinsonians in _A Fair, Candid
+and Impartial State of the Case between Sir Isaac Newton and Mr
+Hutchinson_ (1753), and critiques upon William Law (1758) and Benjamin
+Kennicott (1760). In 1771 he published his well-known _Commentary on the
+Psalms_. a series of expositions based on the Messianic idea. In 1776
+he was chosen vice-chancellor of his university; in 1781 he was made
+dean of Canterbury, and in 1790 was raised to the see of Norwich. He
+died at Bath on the 17th of January 1792.
+
+  His collected _Works_ were published with a Memoir by William Jones in
+  1799.
+
+
+
+
+HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST (1803-1884), English poet and critic,
+was born in London on New Year's Day 1803. He was intended for the army,
+and entered at Sandhurst, but receiving no commission, he left his
+country and joined the Mexican navy. He served in the war against Spain,
+and underwent many adventures. Returning to England, he became a
+journalist, and in 1836-1837 edited _The Monthly Repository_. In 1837 he
+published two tragedies, _Cosmo de Medici_ and _The Death of Marlowe_,
+and in 1841 a _History of Napoleon_. The book, however, by which he
+lives is his epic of _Orion_, which appeared in 1843. It was published
+originally at a farthing, was widely read, and passed through many
+editions. In the next year he set forth a volume of critical essays
+called _A New Spirit of the Age_, in which he was assisted by Elizabeth
+Barrett (Mrs Browning), with whom, from 1839 to her marriage in 1846, he
+conducted a voluminous correspondence. In 1852 he went to Australia in
+company with William Howitt, and did not return to England until 1869.
+He received a Civil List pension in 1874, and died at Margate on the
+13th of March 1884. Horne possessed extraordinary versatility, but,
+except in the case of _Orion_, he never attained to a very high degree
+of distinction. That poem, indeed, has much of the quality of fine
+poetry; it is earnest, vivid and alive with spirit. But Horne early
+drove his talent too hard, and continued to write when he had little
+left to say. In criticism he had insight and quickness. He was one of
+the first to appreciate Keats and Tennyson, and he gave valuable
+encouragement to Mrs Browning when she was still Miss Elizabeth Barrett.
+
+
+
+
+HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL (1780-1862), English theologian and
+bibliographer, was born in London on the 20th of October 1780, and was
+educated at Christ's Hospital, with S. T. Coleridge as an elder
+contemporary. On leaving school he became clerk to a barrister, but
+showed a keen taste for authorship. As early as 1800 he published _A
+Brief View of the Necessity and Truth of the Christian Revelation_,
+which was followed by several minor works on very varied subjects. In
+1814, having been appointed librarian of the Surrey Institution, he
+issued his _Introduction to the Study of Bibliography_. This was
+followed in 1818 by his long matured work, the _Introduction to the
+Critical Study of the Holy Scriptures_, which rapidly attained
+popularity, and secured for its author widespread fame and an honorary
+M.A. degree from Aberdeen. In 1819 he received ordination from William
+Howley, bishop of London, and after holding two smaller livings was
+appointed rector of the united parishes of St Edmund the King and
+Martyr, and St Nicolas Acons in London. On the breaking up of the Surrey
+Institution in 1823, he was appointed (1824) senior assistant librarian
+in the department of printed books in the British Museum. After the
+project of making a classified catalogue had been abandoned, he took
+part in the preparation of the alphabetical one, and his connexion with
+the museum continued until within a few months of his death on the 27th
+of January 1862.
+
+  Horne's works exceed forty in number. The _Introduction_, edited by
+  John Ayre and S. P. Tregelles, reached a 12th edition in 1869; but,
+  owing to subsequent advances in biblical scholarship, it fell into
+  disuse.
+
+
+
+
+HORNELL, a city of Steuben county, New York, U.S.A., on the Canisteo
+river, 90 m. S.E. of Buffalo. Pop. (1890) 10,996; (1900) 11,918, of whom
+1230 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,617. Hornell is served by the
+Erie and the Pittsburg, Shawmut & Northern railways; the latter connects
+at Wayland (20 m. distant by rail) with the Delaware, Lackawanna &
+Western railroad. In the city are St Ann's Academy, the St James Mercy
+Hospital, the Steuben Sanitarium, a public library, and a county
+court-house--terms of the county court being held here as well as in
+Bath (pop. in 1905, 3695), the county-seat, and in Corning. Hornell has
+extensive car shops of the Erie railroad, and among its manufactures
+are silk goods (silk gloves being a specially important product), sash,
+doors and blinds, leather, furniture, shoes, white-goods, wire-fences,
+foundry and machine shop products, electric motors, and brick and tile.
+The value of the factory product in 1905 was $3,162,677, an increase of
+30.1% since 1900. The first settlement here was made in 1790, within the
+district of Erwin (then in Ontario county); after 1796 it was a part of
+Canisteo township, and the settlement itself was known as Upper Canisteo
+until 1820, when a new township was formed and named Hornellsville in
+honour of Judge George Hornell (d. 1813). The village of Hornellsville
+was incorporated in 1852, and in 1888 was chartered as a city; and by
+act of the state legislature the name was changed to Hornell in 1906.
+
+  See G. H. McMaster, _History of the Settlement of Steuben County_
+  (Bath, New York, 1849).
+
+
+
+
+HORNEMANN, FREDERICK (fl. 1796-1800), German traveller in Africa, was
+born at Hildesheim. He was a young man when, early in 1796, he offered
+his services to the African Association of London as an explorer in
+Africa. By the association he was sent to Göttingen University to study
+Arabic and otherwise prepare for an expedition into the unknown regions
+of North Africa from the east. In September 1797 he arrived in Egypt,
+where he continued his studies. On the invasion of the country by the
+French he was confined in the citadel of Cairo, to preserve him from the
+fanaticism of the populace. Liberated by the French, he received the
+patronage of Bonaparte. On the 5th of September 1798 he joined a caravan
+returning to the Maghrib from Mecca, attaching himself to a party of
+Fezzan merchants who accompanied the pilgrims. As an avowed Christian
+would not have been permitted to join the caravan Hornemann assumed the
+character of a young mameluke trading to Fezzan. He then spoke, but
+indifferently, both Arabic and Turkish, and he was accompanied as
+servant and interpreter by Joseph Freudenburg, a German convert to
+Islam, who had thrice made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Travelling by way of
+the oases of Siwa and Aujila, a "black rocky desert" was traversed to
+Temissa in Fezzan. Murzuk was reached on the 17th of November 1798. Here
+Hornemann lived till June 1799, going thence to the city of Tripoli,
+whence in August of the same year he despatched his journals to London.
+He then returned to Murzuk. Nothing further is known with certainty
+concerning him or his companion. In Murzuk Hornemann had collected a
+great deal of trustworthy information concerning the peoples and
+countries of the western Sahara and central Sudan, and when he left
+Tripoli it was his intention to go direct to the Hausa country, which
+region he was the first European definitely to locate. "If I do not
+perish in my undertaking," he wrote in his journal, "I hope in five
+years I shall be able to make the Society better acquainted with the
+people of whom I have given this short description." The British consul
+at Tripoli heard from a source believed to be trustworthy that about
+June 1803 Jusef (Hornemann's Mahommedan name) was at Casna, i.e.
+Katsena, in Northern Nigeria, "in good health and highly respected as a
+marabout." A report reached Murzuk in 1819 that the traveller had gone
+to "Noofy" (Nupe), and had died there. Hornemann was the first European
+in modern times to traverse the north-eastern Sahara, and up to 1910 no
+other explorer had followed his route across the Jebel-es-Suda from
+Aujila to Temissa.
+
+  The original text of Hornemann's journal, which was written in German,
+  was printed at Weimar in 1801; an English translation, _Travels from
+  Cairo to Mourzouk_, &c., with maps and dissertations by Major James
+  Rennell, appeared in London in 1802. A French translation of the
+  English work, made by order of the First Consul, and augmented with
+  notes and a memoir on the Egyptian oases by L. Langlès, was published
+  in Paris in the following year. The French version is the most
+  valuable of the three. Consult also the _Proceedings of the African
+  Association_ (1810), and the Geog. Jnl. Nov. 1906.
+
+
+
+
+HORNER, FRANCIS (1778-1817), British economist, was born at Edinburgh on
+the 12th of August 1778. After passing through the usual courses at the
+high school and university of his native city, he devoted five years,
+the first two in England, to comprehensive but desultory study, and in
+1800 was called to the Scottish bar. Desirous, however, of a wider
+sphere, Horner removed to London in 1802, and occupied the interval
+that elapsed before his admission to the English bar in 1807 with
+researches in law, philosophy and political economy. In February 1806 he
+became one of the commissioners for adjusting the claims against the
+nawab of Arcot, and in November entered parliament as member for St
+Ives. Next year he sat. for Wendover, and in 1812 for St Mawes, in the
+patronage of the marquis of Buckingham. In 1811, when Lord Grenville was
+organizing a prospective ministry, Horner had the offer, which he
+refused, of a treasury secretaryship. He had resolved not to accept
+office till he could afford to live out of office; and his professional
+income, on which he depended, was at no time proportionate to his
+abilities. His labours at last began to tell upon a constitution never
+robust, and in October 1816 his physicians ordered him to Italy, where,
+however, he sank under his malady. He died at Pisa, on the 8th of
+February 1817. He was buried at Leghorn, and a marble statue by Chantrey
+was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Without the advantages of rank, or wealth, or even of genius, Francis
+Horner rose to a high position of public influence and private esteem.
+His special field was political economy. Master of that subject, and
+exercising a sort of moral as well as intellectual influence over the
+House of Commons he, by his nervous and earnest rather than eloquent
+style of speaking, could fix its attention for hours on such dry topics
+as finance, and coinage, and currency. As chairman of the parliamentary
+committee for investigating the depreciation of bank-notes, for which he
+moved in 1810, he extended and confirmed his fame as a political
+economist by his share in the famous _Bullion Report_. It was chiefly
+through his efforts that the paper-issue of the English banks was
+checked, and gold and silver reinstated in their true position as
+circulating media; and his views on free trade and commerce have been
+generally accepted at their really high value. Horner was one of the
+promoters of the _Edinburgh Review_ in 1802. His articles in the early
+numbers of that publication, chiefly on political economy, form his only
+literary legacy.
+
+  See _Memoirs and Correspondence of Francis Horner, M.P._, published by
+  his brother (see below) in 1843. Also the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly
+  Reviews_ for the same year; and _Blackwood's Magazine_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+HORNER, LEONARD (1785-1864), Scottish geologist, brother of Francis
+Horner (above), was born in Edinburgh on the 17th of January 1785. His
+father, John Horner, was a linen merchant in Edinburgh, and Leonard, the
+third and youngest son, entered the university of Edinburgh in 1799.
+There in the course of the next four years he studied chemistry and
+mineralogy, and gained a love of geology from Playfair's _Illustrations
+of the Huttonian Theory_. At the age of nineteen he became a partner in
+a branch of his father's business, and went to London. In 1808 he joined
+the newly formed Geological Society and two years later was elected one
+of the secretaries. Throughout his long life he was ardently devoted to
+the welfare of the society; he was elected president in 1846 and again
+in 1860. In 1811 he read his first paper "On the Mineralogy of the
+Malvern Hills" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ vol. i.) and subsequently
+communicated other papers on the "Brine-springs at Droitwich," and the
+"Geology of the S.W. part of Somersetshire." He was elected F.R.S. in
+1813. In 1815 he returned to Edinburgh to take personal superintendence
+of his business, and while there (1821) he was instrumental in founding
+the Edinburgh School of Arts for the instruction of mechanics, and he
+was one of the founders of the Edinburgh Academy. In 1827 he was invited
+to London to become warden of the London University, an office which he
+held for four years; he then resided at Bonn for two years and pursued
+the study of minerals and rocks, communicating to the Geological Society
+on his return a paper on the "Geology of the Environs of Bonn," and
+another "On the Quantity of Solid Matter suspended in the Water of the
+Rhine." In 1833 he was appointed one of the commissioners to inquire
+into the employment of children in the factories of Great Britain, and
+he was subsequently selected as one of the inspectors. In later years he
+devoted much attention to the geological history of the alluvial lands
+of Egypt; and in 1843 he published his _Life_ of his brother Francis. He
+died in London on the 5th of March 1864.
+
+  See _Memoir of Leonard Horner_, by Katherine M. Lyell (1890)
+  (privately printed).
+
+
+
+
+HÖRNES, MORITZ (1815-1868), Austrian palaeontologist, was born in Vienna
+on the 14th of July 1815. He was educated in the university and
+graduated Ph.D. He then became assistant in the Vienna mineralogical
+museum. He was distinguished for his researches on the Tertiary mollusca
+of the Vienna Basin, and on the Triassic mollusca of Alpine regions.
+Most of his memoirs were published in the _Jahrbuch der K. K. geol.
+Reichsanstalt_. In 1864 he introduced the term Neogene to include
+Miocene and Pliocene, as these formations are not always to be clearly
+separated: the fauna of the lower division being subtropical and
+gradually giving place in the upper division to Mediterranean forms. He
+died in Vienna on the 4th of November 1868. His son Dr Rudolf Hörnes (b.
+1850), professor of geology and palaeontology in the university of Graz,
+has also carried on researches among the Tertiary mollusca, and is
+author of _Elemente der Palaeontologie_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HORNFELS (a German word meaning hornstone), the group designation for a
+series of rocks which have been baked and indurated by the heat of
+intrusive granitic masses and have been rendered massive, hard,
+splintery, and in some cases exceedingly tough and durable. Most
+hornfelses are fine-grained, and while the original rocks (such as
+sandstone, shale and slate, limestone and diabase) may have been more or
+less fissile owing to the presence of bedding or cleavage planes, this
+structure is effaced or rendered inoperative in the hornfels. Though
+they may show banding, due to bedding, &c., they break across this as
+readily as along it; in fact they tend to separate into cubical
+fragments rather than into thin plates. The commonest hornfelses (the
+"biotite hornfelses") are dark-brown to black with a somewhat velvety
+lustre owing to the abundance of small crystals of shining black mica.
+The "lime hornfelses" are often white, yellow, pale-green, brown and
+other colours. Green and dark-green are the prevalent tints of the
+hornfelses produced by the alteration of igneous rocks. Although for the
+most part the constituent grains are too small to be determined by the
+unaided eye, there are often larger crystals of garnet or andalusite
+scattered through the fine matrix, and these may become very prominent
+on the weathered faces of the rock.
+
+The structure of the hornfelses is very characteristic. Very rarely do
+any of the minerals show crystalline form, but the small grains fit
+closely together like the fragments of a mosaic; they are usually of
+nearly equal dimensions and from the resemblance to rough pavement work
+this has been called _pflaster_ structure or pavement structure. Each
+mineral may also enclose particles of the others; in the quartz, for
+example, small crystals of graphite, biotite, iron oxides, sillimanite
+or felspar may appear in great numbers. Often the whole of the grains
+are rendered semi-opaque in this way. The minutest crystals may show
+traces of crystalline outlines; undoubtedly they are of new formation
+and have originated _in situ_. This leads us to believe that the whole
+rock has been recrystallized at a high temperature and in the solid
+state, so that there was little freedom for the mineral molecules to
+build up well-individualized crystals. The regeneration of the rock has
+been sufficient to efface most of the original structures and to replace
+the former minerals more or less completely by new ones. But
+crystallization has been hampered by the solid condition of the mass and
+the new minerals are formless and have been unable to reject impurities,
+but have grown around them.
+
+Slates, shales and clays yield biotite hornfelses in which the most
+conspicuous mineral is black mica, in small scales which under the
+microscope are transparent and have a dark reddish-brown colour and
+strong dichroism. There is also quartz, and often a considerable amount
+of felspar, while graphite, tourmaline and iron oxides frequently occur
+in lesser quantity. In these biotite hornfelses the minerals, which
+consist of aluminium silicates, are commonly found; they are usually
+andalusite and sillimanite, but kyanite appears also in hornfelses,
+especially in those which have a schistose character. The andalusite may
+be pink and is then often pleochroic in thin sections, or it may be
+white with the cross-shaped dark enclosures of the matrix which are
+characteristic of chiastolite. Sillimanite usually forms exceedingly
+minute needles embedded in quartz. In the rocks of this group cordierite
+also occurs, not rarely, and may have the outlines of imperfect
+hexagonal prisms which are divided up into six sectors when seen in
+polarized light. In biotite hornfelses a faint striping may indicate the
+original bedding of the unaltered rock and corresponds to small changes
+in the nature of the sediment deposited. More commonly there is a
+distinct spotting, visible on the surfaces of the hand specimens. The
+spots are round or elliptical, and may be paler or darker than the rest
+of the rock. In some cases they are rich in graphite or carbonaceous
+matters; in others they are full of brown mica; some spots consist of
+rather coarser grains of quartz than occur in the matrix. The frequency
+with which this feature reappears in the less altered slates and
+hornfelses is rather remarkable, especially as it seems certain that the
+spots are not always of the same nature or origin. "Tourmaline
+hornfelses" are found sometimes near the margins of tourmaline granites;
+they are black with small needles of schorl which under the microscope
+are dark brown and richly pleochroic. As the tourmaline contains boron
+there must have been some permeation of vapours from the granite into
+the sediments. Rocks of this group are often seen in the Cornish
+tin-mining districts, especially near the lodes.
+
+A second great group of hornfelses are the calc-silicate-hornfelses
+which arise from the thermal alteration of impure limestones. The purer
+beds recrystallize as marbles, but where there has been originally an
+admixture of sand or clay lime-bearing silicates are formed, such as
+diopside, epidote, garnet, sphene, vesuvianite, scapolite; with these
+phlogopite, various felspars, pyrites, quartz and actinolite often
+occur. These rocks are fine-grained, and though often banded are tough
+and much harder than the original limestones. They are excessively
+variable in their mineralogical composition, and very often alternate in
+thin seams with biotite hornfels and indurated quartzites. When perfused
+with boric and fluoric vapours from the granite they may contain much
+axinite, fluorite and datolite, but the aluminous silicates (andalusite,
+&c.) are absent from these rocks.
+
+From diabases, basalts, andesites and other igneous rocks a third type
+of hornfels is produced. They consist essentially of felspar with
+hornblende (generally of brown colour) and pale pyroxene. Sphene,
+biotite and iron oxides are the other common constituents, but these
+rocks show much variety of composition and structure. Where the original
+mass was decomposed and contained calcite, zeolites, chlorite and other
+secondary minerals either in veins or in cavities, there are usually
+rounded areas or irregular streaks containing a suite of new minerals,
+which may resemble those of the calc silicate hornfelses above
+described. The original porphyritic, fluidal, vesicular or fragmental
+structures of the igneous rock are clearly visible in the less advanced
+stages of hornfelsing, but become less evident as the alteration
+progresses.
+
+In some districts hornfelsed rocks occur which have acquired a schistose
+structure through shearing, and these form transitions to schists and
+gneisses which contain the same minerals as the hornfelses, but have a
+schistose instead of a hornfels structure. Among these may be mentioned
+cordierite and sillimanite gneisses, andalusite and kyanite mica
+schists, and those schistose calc silicate rocks which are known as
+cipolins. That these are sediments which have undergone thermal
+alteration is generally admitted, but the exact conditions under which
+they were formed is not always clear. The essential features of
+hornfelsing are ascribed to the action of heat, pressure and permeating
+vapours, regenerating a rock mass without the production of fusion (at
+least on a large scale). It has been argued, however, that often there
+is extensive chemical change owing to the introduction of matter from
+the granite into the rocks surrounding it. The formation of new felspar
+in the hornfelses is pointed out as evidence of this. While this
+"felspathization" may have occurred in a few localities, it seems
+conspicuously absent from others. Most authorities at the present time
+regard the changes as being purely of a physical and not of a chemical
+nature.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+HORNING, LETTERS OF, a term in Scots law. Originally in Scotland
+imprisonment for debt was enforceable only in certain cases, but a
+custom gradually grew up of taking the debtor's oath to pay. If the
+debtor broke his oath, he became liable to the discipline of the Church.
+The civil power, further, stepped in to aid the ecclesiastical, and
+denounced him as a rebel, imprisoning his person and confiscating his
+goods. The method declaring a person a rebel was by giving three blasts
+on a horn and publicly proclaiming the fact; hence the expression, "put
+to the horn." The subsequent process, the warrant directing a
+messenger-at-arms to charge the debtor to pay or perform in terms of the
+letters, was called "letters of horning." This system of execution was
+simplified by an act of 1837 (Personal Diligence Act), and execution is
+now usually by diligence (see EXECUTION).
+
+
+
+
+HORNPIPE, originally the name of an instrument no longer in existence,
+and now the name of an English national dance. The sailors' hornpipe,
+although the most common, is by no means the only form of the dance, for
+there is a pretty tune known as the "College Hornpipe," and other
+specimens of a similar kind might be cited. The composition of hornpipes
+flourished chiefly in the 18th century, and even Handel did not disdain
+to use the characteristic rhythm. The hornpipe may be written in 3/2 or
+in common time, and is always of a lively nature.
+
+
+
+
+HORNSEY, a municipal borough in the Hornsey parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 6 m. N. of St Paul's Cathedral,
+on the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 44,523; (1901) 72,056. It is
+chiefly occupied by small residences of the working classes. The manor,
+called in the 13th century _Haringee_ (a name which survives as
+Harringay), belonged from an early date to the see of London, the
+bishops having a seat here. In 1387 the duke of Gloucester, uncle of
+Richard II., assembled in Hornsey Park the forces by the display of
+which he compelled the king to dismiss his minister de la Pole, earl of
+Suffolk; and in 1483 the park was the scene of the ceremonious reception
+of Edward V., under the charge of Richard, duke of Gloucester, by Edmund
+Shaw, lord mayor of London. The parish church of St Mary, Hornsey,
+retains its Perpendicular tower (c. 1500) and a number of interesting
+monuments. Finsbury Park, of 120 acres, and other smaller public
+grounds, are within the borough. Hornsey was incorporated in 1903 under
+a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 2875 acres.
+
+
+
+
+HOROWITZ, ISAIAH (c. 1555-c. 1630), Jewish rabbi and mystic, was born at
+Prague, and died at Safed, then the home of Jewish Kabbala. His largest
+work is called _Shelah_ (abbreviated from the initials of the full title
+_Shene luhoth ha-berit_, "Two Tables of the Covenant"). This is a
+compilation of ritual, ethics and mysticism, and had a profound
+influence on Jewish life. It has been often reprinted, especially in an
+abbreviated form.
+
+  For an account of the Jewish mystics at Safed see S. Schecter,
+  _Studies in Judaism_, series ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HORREUM, the Latin word for a magazine or storehouse for the storage of
+grain and other produce of the earth, and occasionally for that of
+agricultural implements. The storehouses of Rome were of the most
+extensive character, there being no fewer than 290 public horrea at the
+time of Constantine. They were used for the storage of food and
+merchandize of all kinds, being part of the great Roman system of
+providing food for the population, and they were supplied constantly
+with corn and other provisions from Africa, Spain and elsewhere.
+
+
+
+
+HORROCKS, JEREMIAH (1619-1641), English astronomer, was born in 1619 at
+Toxteth Park, near Liverpool. His family was poor, and the register of
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge, testifies to his entry as sizar on the 18th
+of May 1632. Isolated in his scientific tastes, and painfully straitened
+in means, he pursued amid innumerable difficulties his purpose of
+self-education. His university career lasted three years, and on its
+termination he became a tutor at Toxteth, devoting to astronomical
+observations his brief intervals of leisure. In 1636 he met with a
+congenial spirit in William Crabtree, a draper of Broughton, near
+Manchester; and encouraged by his advice he exchanged the guidance of
+Philipp von Lansberg, a pretentious but inaccurate Belgian astronomer,
+for that of Kepler. He now set himself to the revision of the Rudolphine
+Tables (published by Kepler in 1627), and in the progress of his task
+became convinced that a transit of Venus overlooked by Kepler would
+nevertheless occur on the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639. He was at this
+time curate of Hoole, near Preston, having recently taken orders in the
+Church of England, although, according to the received accounts, he had
+not attained the canonical age. The 24th of November falling on a
+Sunday, his clerical duties threatened fatally to clash with his
+astronomical observations; he was, however, released just in time to
+witness the punctual verification of his forecast, and carefully noted
+the progress of the phenomenon during half an hour before sunset (3.15
+to 3.45). This transit of Venus is remarkable as the first ever
+observed, that of 1631 predicted by Kepler having been invisible in
+western Europe. Notwithstanding the rude character of the apparatus at
+his disposal, Horrocks was enabled by his observation of it to introduce
+some important corrections into the elements of the planet's orbit, and
+to reduce to its exact value the received estimate of its apparent
+diameter.
+
+After a year spent at Hoole, he returned to Toxteth, and there, on the
+eve of a long-promised visit to his friend Crabtree, he died, on the 3rd
+of January 1641, when only in his twenty-second year. To the inventive
+activity of the discoverer he had already united the patient skill of
+the observer and the practical sagacity of the experimentalist. Before
+he was twenty he had afforded a specimen of his powers by an important
+contribution to the lunar theory. He first brought the revolutions of
+our satellite within the domain of Kepler's laws, pointing out that her
+apparent irregularities could be completely accounted for by supposing
+her to move in an ellipse with a variable eccentricity and directly
+rotatory major axis, of which the earth occupied one focus. These
+precise conditions were afterwards demonstrated by Newton to follow
+necessarily from the law of gravitation.
+
+In his speculations as to the physical cause of the celestial motions,
+his mind, though not wholly emancipated from the tyranny of gratuitous
+assumptions, was working steadily towards the light. He clearly
+perceived the significant analogy between terrestrial gravity and the
+force exerted in the solar system, and by the ingenious device of a
+circular pendulum illustrated the composite character of the planetary
+movements. He also reduced the solar parallax to 14´´ (less than a
+quarter of Kepler's estimate), corrected the sun's semi-diameter to 15´
+45´´, recommended decimal notation, and was the first to make tidal
+observations.
+
+  Only a remnant of the papers left by Horrocks was preserved by the
+  care of William Crabtree. After his death (which occurred soon after
+  that of his friend) these were purchased by Dr Worthington, of
+  Cambridge; and from his hands the treatise _Venus in sole visa_ passed
+  into those of Hevelius, and was published by him in 1662 with his own
+  observations on a transit of Mercury. The remaining fragments were,
+  under the directions of the Royal Society, reduced by Dr Wallis to a
+  compact form, with the heading _Astronomia Kepleriana defensa et
+  promota_, and published with numerous extracts from the letters of
+  Horrocks to Crabtree, and a sketch of the author's life, in a volume
+  entitled _Jeremiae Horroccii opera posthuma_ (London, 1672). A memoir
+  of his life by the Rev. Arundell Blount Whatton, prefixed to a
+  translation of the _Venus in sole visa_, appeared at London in 1859.
+
+  For additional particulars, see J. E. Bailey's _Palatine Note-Book_,
+  ii. 253, iii. 17; Bailey's "Writings of Horrocks and Crabtree" (from
+  _Notes and Queries_, Dec. 2, 1882); _Notes and Queries_, 3rd series,
+  vol. v., 5th series, vols. ii., iv.; Martin's _Biographia
+  philosophica_, p. 271 (1764); R. Brickel, _Transits of Venus,
+  1639-1874_ (Preston, 1874); _Astronomical Register_, xii. 293;
+  Hevelii, _Mercurius in sole visus_, pp. 116-140; S. Rigaud's
+  _Correspondence of Scientific Men_; Th. Birch, _History of the Royal
+  Society_, i. 386, 395, 470; Sir E. Sherburne's _Sphere of M.
+  Manilius_, p. 92 (1675); Sir J. A. Picton's _Memorials of Liverpool_,
+  ii. 561; M. Gregson's _Fragments relative to the Duchy of Lancaster_,
+  p. 166 (1817); _Liverpool Repository_, i. 570 (1826); _Phil. Trans.
+  Abridged_, ii. 12 (1809); C. Hutton's _Phil. and Math. Dictionary_
+  (1815); _Penny Cyclopaedia_ (De Morgan); _Nature_, viii. 117, 137; J.
+  B. J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 495; _Hist. de
+  l'astronomie au XVIII^e siècle_, pp. 28, 61, 74; W. Whewell, _Hist. of
+  the Inductive Sciences_, i. 331; R. Grant, _Hist. of Physical
+  Astronomy_, pp. 420, 545; J. Mädler, _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, i.
+  275; M. Marie, _Hist. des Sciences_, iv. 168, vi. 90; J. C. Houzeau,
+  _Bibl. Astr._ ii. 167.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HORROCKS, JOHN (1768-1804), British cotton manufacturer, was born at
+Edgeworth, near Bolton, in 1768. His father was the owner of a small
+quarry, and John Horrocks spent his early days in dressing and polishing
+millstones. The Lancashire cotton industry was then in its infancy, but
+Horrocks was greatly impressed with its future possibilities, and he
+managed to obtain a few spinning-frames which he erected in a corner of
+his father's offices. For a time he combined cotton-spinning on a very
+small scale with stone-working, but finally devoted himself entirely to
+cotton-spinning, working the frames with his own hands, and travelling
+through the Lancashire manufacturing districts to sell the yarn. His
+goods obtained a reputation for quality, and his customers increased so
+rapidly that in 1791 he removed to Preston, where he began to
+manufacture cotton shirtings and long-cloths in addition to spinning the
+cotton yarn. By taking full advantage of the machinery invented for
+manufacturing textiles, and by rigidly maintaining the quality of his
+goods, Horrocks rapidly developed his business, and with the aid of the
+capital of a local banker, whom he took into partnership, erected within
+a year of his arrival in Preston his first large mill, securing shortly
+afterwards from the East India Company a monopoly of the manufacture of
+cottons and muslins for the Indian market. The demand for Horrocks's
+goods continued to increase, and to cope with the additional work he
+took first an elder brother and in 1801 a Mr Whitehead and a Mr Miller
+into partnership, the title of the firm being altered to Horrockses,
+Miller & Co. In 1802 he entered parliament as tory member for Preston.
+He died in London in 1804 of brain-fever resulting from over-work.
+
+
+
+
+HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as _hors_,
+_hros_, _ros_; cf. the Ger. _ross_), a name properly restricted to the
+domesticated horse (_Equus caballus_) and its wild or half-wild
+representatives, but in a zoological sense used as a general term for
+all the members of the family Equidae.
+
+
+SPECIES
+
+The distinctive characteristics of the family, and its position in the
+zoological system, are given in the articles EQUIDAE and PERISSODACTYLA.
+Here attention is concentrated on the leading features of the horse as
+contrasted with the other members of the same family, and subsequently
+on the anatomical structure of the former animal. The evolution of the
+existing representatives of the family from primitive extinct animals is
+summarized in the article EQUIDAE.
+
+_Horse_, _Wild Horse_, _Pony_.--The horse (_Equus caballus_) is
+distinguished from the others by the long hairs of the tail being more
+abundant and growing quite or nearly from the base as well as the end
+and sides, and also by possessing a small bare callosity on the inner
+side of the hind leg, just below the "hock" or heel joint, in addition
+to the one on the inner side of the fore-arm above the carpus or "knee,"
+common to all the genus. The mane is also longer and more flowing, and
+the ears are shorter, the limbs longer, and the head smaller.
+
+Though existing horses are usually not marked in any definite manner, or
+only irregularly dappled, or spotted with light surrounded by a darker
+ring, many examples are met with showing a dark median dorsal streak
+like that found in all the other members of the genus, and even with
+dark stripes on the shoulders and legs.
+
+Two distinct types of horse, in many instances largely modified by
+interbreeding, appear to exist. (1) The northern, or dun type,
+represented by the dun ponies of Norway (_Equus caballus typicus_), the
+closely allied Celtic pony (_E. c. celticus_) of Iceland, the Hebrides,
+&c., and the wild pony of Mongolia (_E. c. przewalskii_), with which the
+now extinct tarpan of the Russian steppes appears to have been
+identical. The prevalent colour is yellow-dun, with dark brown or black
+mane, tail and legs; in the wild forms the muzzle is often white and the
+root of the tail short-haired; while the head is relatively large and
+heavy. No depression exists in the skull in front of the eye. Most of
+the ordinary horses of N.W. Europe are descended from the dun type, with
+more or less admixture of Barb blood. (2) The southern, or Barb type,
+represented by Barbs, Arabs, thoroughbreds, &c. (_E. c. asiaticus_ or
+_libycus_), in which the typical colour is bay with black "points" and
+often a white star on the forehead, and the mane and tail are long and
+full. The skull generally shows a slight depression in front of the
+socket of the eye, which, although now serving as the attachment for the
+muscle running to the nostril, may represent the face-gland of the
+extinct _Hipparion_. Many of the dark-coloured horses of Europe have
+Barb or Arab blood in their veins, this being markedly the case with the
+Old English black or Shire horse, the skull of which shows a distinct
+depression in front of the eye-socket. This depression is still more
+marked in the extinct Indian _E. sivalensis_, which may have been the
+ancestral form.
+
+In Europe wild horses were abundant in the prehistoric Neolithic or
+polished-stone period. Judging from the quantity of their remains found
+associated with those of the men of that time, the chase of these
+animals must have been among man's chief occupations, and horses must
+have furnished him with one of his most important food-supplies. The
+characters of the bones preserved, and certain rude but graphic
+representations carved on bones or reindeers' antlers, enable us to know
+that they were rather small in size and heavy in build, with large heads
+and rough shaggy manes and tails, much like, in fact, the recently
+extinct tarpans or wild horses of the steppes of the south of Russia,
+and the still-surviving Mongolian wild pony or "Przewalski's horse."
+These horses were domesticated by the inhabitants of Europe before the
+dawn of history. Horses are now diffused by the agency of man throughout
+almost the whole of the inhabited parts of the globe, and the great
+modifications they have undergone in consequence of domestication,
+crossing, and selective breeding are well exemplified by comparing such
+extreme forms as the Shetland pony, dwarfed by uncongenial climate, the
+thoroughbred racer, and the London dray-horse. In Australia, as in
+America, horses imported by European settlers have escaped into
+unreclaimed lands and multiplied to a prodigious extent, roaming in vast
+herds over the wide and uncultivated plains.
+
+_Ass_, _Zebra_, _Quagga_.--The next group is formed by the Asiatic wild
+asses, or kiangs and onagers, as they might well be called, in order to
+distinguish them from the wild asses of Africa. These asses have
+moderate ears, the tail rather long, and the back-stripe dark brown and
+running from head to tail. On the neck and withers this stripe is formed
+by the mane. There are two species of Asiatic wild ass, with several
+varieties. The first and largest has two races, the chigetai (_Equus
+hemionus_) of Mongolia, and the kiang (_E. h. kiang_) of Tibet, which is
+a redder animal. The onager (_E. onager_), of which there are several
+races, is smaller, with a broader dorsal stripe, bordered with white;
+the colour varying from sandy to greyish. This species ranges from
+Baluchistan and N.W. India to Persia, Syria and Arabia. These asses
+inhabit desert plains or open table-land; the kiang dwelling at
+elevations of about 14,000 ft. They are generally found in herds of from
+twenty to forty, although occasionally in larger numbers. All are fleet,
+and traverse rough ground with speed. On the lowlands they feed on dry
+grasses, and in Tibet on small woody plants. In India and Persia they
+are difficult to approach, although this is not the case in Tibet. Their
+sandy or chestnut colouring assimilates them to the horse, and separates
+them widely from the African wild asses, which are grey. The kiang has
+also larger and more horse-like hoofs, and the tail is haired higher up,
+thus approximating to _Equus caballus przewalskii_.
+
+Among the striped species, or zebras and quaggas of Africa, the large
+Grévy's zebra (_Equus grevyi_) of Somaliland and Abyssinia stands apart
+from the rest by the number and narrowness of its stripes, which have an
+altogether peculiar arrangement on the hind-quarters, the small size of
+the callosities on the fore-legs, the mane extending on to the withers
+and enormous rounded ears, thickly haired internally. The large size of
+the ears and the narrow stripes are in some degree at any rate
+adaptations to a life on scrub-clad plains.
+
+Next comes the closely allied species with small pointed ears, of which
+the true quagga (_E. quagga_) of South Africa is now extinct. This
+animal has the dark stripes limited to the head, neck and shoulders,
+upon a brown ground. In the typical form, now also extinct, of the
+bonte-quagga, dauw, or Burchell's zebra (_E. burchelli_), the
+ground-colour is white, and the stripes cover the body and upper part of
+the limbs. This was the commonest species in the great plains of South
+Africa, where it roamed in large herds, often in company with the quagga
+and numerous antelopes. The species ranges from the Orange river to the
+confines of Abyssinia, but its more northern representatives show a
+gradual increase in the striping of the legs, culminating in the
+north-east African _E. burchelli granti_, in which the stripes extend to
+the hoofs. The markings, too, are alternately black and white, in place
+of brown and creamy, with intermediate "shadow stripes," as in the
+southern races.
+
+Lastly, there is the true or mountain zebra (_E. zebra_), typically from
+the mountain ranges of Cape Colony, where it is now specially protected,
+but represented by _E. zebra penricei_ in south-west Africa. In its
+relatively long ears and general build it approaches the African wild
+asses, from which it chiefly differs by the striping (which is markedly
+different from that of the quagga-group) and the reversal of the
+direction of the hairs along the spine.
+
+The African wild ass (_E. asinus_) is the parent of the domesticated
+breed, and is a long-eared grey animal, with no forelock, and either a
+shoulder-stripe or dark barrings on the legs. There are two races, of
+which the Nubian _E. a. africanus_ is the smaller, and has a continuous
+dorsal stripe and a shoulder-stripe but no bars on the legs. The Somali
+race (_E. a somaliensis_), on the other hand, is a larger and greyer
+animal, with an interrupted dorsal and no shoulder-stripe, but distinct
+leg-barrings.
+
+_Hybrids._--There are thus eight modifications of the horse-type at
+present existing, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species by
+most zoologists, and easily recognizable by their external characters.
+They are, however, all so closely allied that each will, at least in a
+state of domestication or captivity, breed with any of the others. Cases
+of fertile union are recorded between the horse and the quagga, the
+horse and the bonte-quagga or Burchell's zebra, the horse and the onager
+and kiang or Asiatic wild asses, the common ass and the zebra, the ass
+and bonte-quagga, the ass and the onager, the onager and the zebra, and
+the onager and the bonte-quagga. The two species which are farthest
+removed in structure, the horse and the ass, produce, as is well known,
+hybrids or mules, which in certain qualities useful to man excel both
+their progenitors, and in some countries and for certain kinds of work
+are in greater requisition than either. Although occasional more or less
+doubtful instances have been recorded of female mules breeding with the
+males of one or other of the pure species, it is more than doubtful if
+any case has occurred of their breeding _inter se_, although the
+opportunities of doing so must have been great, as mules have been
+reared in immense numbers for at least several thousands of years. We
+may therefore consider it settled that the different species of the
+group are now in that degree of physiological differentiation which
+enables them to produce offspring with each other, but does not permit
+of the progeny continuing the race, at all events unless reinforced by
+the aid of one of the pure forms.
+
+The several members of the group show mental differences quite as
+striking as those exhibited by their external form, and more than
+perhaps might be expected from the similarity of their brains. The
+patience of the ass, the high spirit of the horse, the obstinacy of the
+mule, have long been proverbial. It is very remarkable that, out of so
+many species, two only should have shown any aptitude for
+domestication, and that these should have been from time immemorial the
+universal and most useful companions and servants of man, while all the
+others remain in their native freedom to this day. It is, however, still
+a question whether this really arises from a different mental
+constitution causing a natural capacity for entering into relations with
+man, or whether it may not be owing to their having been brought
+gradually into this condition by long-continued and persevering efforts
+when the need of their services was felt. It is possible that one reason
+why most of the attempts to add new species to the list of our domestic
+animals in modern times have ended in failure is that it does not answer
+to do so in cases in which existing species supply all the principal
+purposes to which the new ones might be put. It can hardly be expected
+that zebras and bonte-quaggas fresh from their native mountains and
+plains can be brought into competition as beasts of burden and draught
+with horses and asses, whose useful qualities have been augmented by the
+training of thousands of generations of progenitors.
+
+Not infrequently instances occur of domestic horses being produced with
+a small additional toe with complete hoof, usually on the inside of the
+principal toe, and, though far more rarely, three or more toes may be
+present. These malformations are often cited as instances of reversion
+to the condition of some of the earlier forms of equine animals
+previously mentioned. In some instances, however, the feet of such
+polydactyle horses bear little resemblance to those of the extinct
+_Hipparion_ or _Anchitherium_, but look rather as if due to that
+tendency to reduplication of parts which occurs so frequently as a
+monstrous condition, especially among domesticated animals, and which,
+whatever its origin, certainly cannot in many instances, as the cases of
+entire limbs superadded, or of six digits in man, be attributed to
+reversion.
+
+
+ANATOMY
+
+The anatomical structure of the horse has been described in detail in
+several works mentioned in the bibliography at the end of this section,
+though these have generally been written from the point of view of the
+veterinarian rather than of the comparative anatomist. The limits of the
+present article will only admit of the most salient points being
+indicated, particularly those in which the horse differs from other
+Ungulata. Unless otherwise specified, it must be understood that all
+that is stated here, although mostly derived from observation upon the
+horse, applies equally well to the other existing members of the group.
+
+  _Skeleton._--The skull as a whole is greatly elongated, chiefly in
+  consequence of the immense size of the face as compared with the
+  hinder or true cranial portion. The basal line of the cranium from the
+  lower border of the foramen magnum to the incisor border of the palate
+  is nearly straight. The orbit, of nearly circular form, though small
+  in proportion to the size of the whole skull, is distinctly marked,
+  being completely surrounded by a strong ring of bone with prominent
+  edges. Behind it, and freely communicating with it beneath the osseous
+  bridge (the post-orbital process of the frontal) forming the boundary
+  between them, is the small temporal fossa occupying the whole of the
+  side of the cranium proper, and in front is the great flattened
+  expanse of the "cheek," formed chiefly by the maxilla, giving support
+  to the long row of cheek-teeth, and having a prominent ridge running
+  forward from below the orbit for the attachment of the masseter
+  muscle. The lachrymal occupies a considerable space on the flat
+  surface of the cheek in front of the orbit, and below it the jugal
+  does the same. The latter sends a horizontal or slightly ascending
+  process backwards below the orbit to join the under surface of the
+  zygomatic process of the squamosal, which is remarkably large, and
+  instead of ending as usual behind the orbit, runs forwards to join the
+  greatly developed post-orbital process of the frontal, and even forms
+  part of the posterior and inferior boundary of the orbit, an
+  arrangement not met with in other mammals. The closure of the orbit
+  behind distinguishes the skull of the horse from that of its allies
+  the rhinoceros and tapir, and also from all of the perissodactyles of
+  the Eocene period. In front of the brain cavity, the great tubular
+  nasal cavities are provided with well-developed turbinal bones, and
+  are roofed over by large nasals, broad behind, and ending in front in
+  a narrow decurved point. The opening of the anterior nostrils is
+  prolonged backwards on each side of the face between the nasals and
+  the elongated slender premaxillae. The latter expand in front, and are
+  curved downwards to form the semicircular alveolar border which
+  supports the large incisor teeth. The palate is narrow in the interval
+  between the incisor and molar teeth, in which are situated the large
+  anterior palatine foramina. Between the molar teeth it is broader, and
+  it ends posteriorly in a rounded excavated border opposite the hinder
+  border of the penultimate molar tooth. It is mainly formed by the
+  maxillae, as the palatines are very narrow. The pterygoids are
+  delicate slender slips of bone attached to the hinder border of the
+  palatines, and supported externally by, and generally welded with, the
+  rough pterygoid plates of the alisphenoid, with no pterygoid fossa
+  between. They slope obliquely forwards, and end in curved, compressed,
+  hamular processes. There is a distinct alisphenoid canal for the
+  passage of the internal maxillary artery. The base of the cranium is
+  long and narrow; the alisphenoid is very obliquely perforated by the
+  foramen rotundum, but the foramen ovale is confluent with the large
+  foramen lacerum medium behind. The glenoid surface for the
+  articulation of the mandible is greatly extended transversely, concave
+  from side to side, convex from before backwards in front, and hollow
+  behind, and is bounded posteriorly at its inner part by a prominent
+  post-glenoid process. The squamosal enters considerably into the
+  formation of the temporal fossa, and, besides sending the zygomatic
+  process forwards, it sends down behind the meatus auditorius a
+  post-tympanic process which aids to hold in place the otherwise loose
+  tympano-periotic bone. Behind this the exoccipital gives off a long
+  paroccipital process. The periotic and tympanic are welded together,
+  but not with the squamosal. The former has a wide but shallow
+  floccular fossa on its inner side, and sends backwards a considerable
+  "pars mastoidea," which appears on the outer surface of the skull
+  between the post-tympanic process of the squamosal and the
+  exoccipital. The tympanic forms a tubular meatus auditorius externus
+  directed outwards and slightly backwards. It is not dilated into a
+  distinct bulla, but ends in front in a pointed rod-like process. It
+  completely embraces the truncated cylindrical tympanohyal, which is of
+  great size, corresponding with the large development of the whole
+  anterior arch of the hyoid. This consists mainly of a long and
+  compressed stylohyal, expanded at the upper end, where it sends off a
+  triangular posterior process. The basi-hyal is remarkable for the
+  long, median, pointed, compressed "glossohyal" process, which it sends
+  forward from its anterior border into the base of the tongue. A
+  similar but less developed process is found in the rhinoceros and
+  tapir. The lower jaw is large, especially the region of the angle,
+  which is expanded and flattened, giving great surface for the
+  attachment of the masseter muscle. The condyle is greatly elevated
+  above the alveolar border; its articular surface is very wide
+  transversely, and narrow and convex from before backwards. The
+  coronoid process is slender, straight, and inclined backwards. The
+  horizontal ramus, long, straight, and compressed, gradually narrows
+  towards the symphysis, where it expands laterally to form with the
+  ankylosed opposite ramus the wide, semicircular, shallow alveolar
+  border for the incisor teeth.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side view of Skull of Horse, with the bone
+  removed so as to expose the whole of the teeth.
+
+    PMx, Premaxilla.
+    Mx,  Maxilla.
+    Na,  Nasal bone.
+    Ma,  Jugal or malar bone.
+    L,   Lacrymal bone.
+    Fr,  Frontal bone.
+    Sq,  Squamosal bone.
+    Pa,  Parietal bone.
+    oc,  Occipital condyle.
+    pp,  Paroccipital process.
+    i¹, i², and i³, The three incisor teeth.
+    c,   The canine tooth.
+    pm¹, The situation of the rudimentary first premolar, which has been
+      lost in the lower, but is present in the upper jaw.
+    pm², pm³, and pm^4, The three fully developed premolar teeth.
+    m¹, m², and m³, The three true molar teeth.]
+
+  The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal, six
+  lumbar, five sacral, and fifteen to eighteen caudal vertebrae There
+  may be nineteen rib-bearing vertebrae, in which case five only will be
+  reckoned as belonging to the lumbar series. The odontoid process of
+  the axis is wide, flat, and hollowed above, as in the ruminants. The
+  bodies of the cervical vertebrae are elongated, strongly keeled, and
+  markedly opisthocoelous, or concave behind and convex in front. The
+  neural laminae are broad, the spines almost obsolete, except in the
+  seventh, and the transverse processes not largely developed. In the
+  trunk vertebrae the opisthocoelous character of the centrum gradually
+  diminishes. The spinous processes of the anterior thoracic region are
+  high and compressed. To these is attached the powerful elastic
+  ligament (_ligamentum nuchae_, or "paxwax") which, passing forwards in
+  the middle line of the neck above the neural arches of the cervical
+  vertebrae--to which it is also connected--is attached to the occiput
+  and supports the weight of the head. The transverse processes of the
+  lumbar vertebrae are long, flattened, and project horizontally
+  outwards or slightly forward from the arch. The metapophyses are
+  moderately developed, and there are no anapophyses. The caudal
+  vertebrae, except those quite at the base, are slender and
+  cylindrical, without processes and without chevron bones beneath. The
+  ribs are eighteen or nineteen in number on each side, flattened, and
+  united to the sternum by short, stout, tolerably well ossified sternal
+  ribs. The sternum consists of six pieces; the anterior or presternum
+  is compressed and projects forwards like the prow of a boat. The
+  segments which follow gradually widen, and the hinder part of the
+  sternum is broad and flat.
+
+  As in all other ungulates, there are no clavicles. The scapula is long
+  and slender, the supra-scapular border being rounded, and slowly and
+  imperfectly ossified. The spine is very slightly developed; rather
+  above the middle its edge is thickened and somewhat turned backwards,
+  but it gradually subsides at the lower extremity without forming any
+  acromial process. The coracoid is a prominent rounded nodule. The
+  humerus is stout and rather short. The ulna is rudimentary, being
+  represented by little more than the olecranon. The shaft gradually
+  tapers below and is firmly welded to the radius. The latter bone is of
+  nearly equal width throughout. The three bones of the first row of the
+  carpus (scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform) are subequal in size. The
+  second row consists of a broad and flat magnum, supporting the great
+  third metacarpal, having to its radial side the trapezoid, and to its
+  ulnar side the unciform, which are both small, and articulate
+  inferiorally with the rudimentary second and fourth metacarpals. The
+  pisiform is large and prominent, flattened and curved; it articulates
+  partly with the cuneiform and partly with the lower end of the radius.
+  The large metacarpal is called in veterinary anatomy "cannon bone";
+  the small lateral metacarpals, which gradually taper towards their
+  lower extremities, and lie in close contact with the large one, are
+  called "splint bones." The single digit consists of a moderate-sized
+  proximal (_os suffraginis_, or large pastern), a short middle (_os
+  coronae_, or small pastern), and a wide, semi-lunar, ungual phalanx
+  (_os pedis_, or coffin bone). There is a pair of large nodular
+  sesamoids behind the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation, and a single
+  large transversely-extended sesamoid behind the joint between the
+  second and third phalanx, called the "navicular bone."
+
+  The carpal joint, corresponding to the wrist of man, is commonly
+  called the "knee" of the horse, the joint between the metacarpal and
+  the first phalanx the "fetlock," that between the first and second
+  phalanges the "pastern," and that between the second and third
+  phalanges the "coffin joint."
+
+  In the hinder limb the femur is marked, as in other perissodactyles,
+  by the presence of a "third trochanter," a flattened process, curving
+  forwards and arising from the outer side of the bone, about one-third
+  of the distance from the upper end. The fibula is reduced to a mere
+  rod-like rudiment of the upper end. The lower part is absent or
+  completely fused with the tibia. The calcaneum has a long and
+  compressed calcaneal process. The astragalus has a large flat
+  articular surface in front for the navicular, and a small one for the
+  cuboid. The navicular and the external cuneiform bones are broad and
+  flat. The cuboid is small, and the internal and middle cuneiform bones
+  are small and united together. The metapodals and phalanges resemble
+  very closely those of the fore limb, but the principal metatarsal is
+  more laterally compressed at its upper end than is the corresponding
+  metacarpal. The joint between the femur and tibia, corresponding to
+  the knee of man, is called the "stifle-joint"; that between the tibia
+  and tarsus, corresponding to the ankle of man, the "hock." The bones
+  and joints of the foot have the same names as in the fore limb. The
+  horse is eminently "digitigrade," standing on the extremity of the
+  single digit of each foot, which is kept habitually in a position
+  approaching to vertical.
+
+  The muscles of the limbs are modified from those of the ordinary
+  mammalian type in accordance with the reduced condition of the bones
+  and the simple requirements of flexion and extension of the joints, no
+  such actions as pronation and supination, or opposition of digits,
+  being possible or needed. The muscles therefore which perform these
+  functions in other quadrupeds are absent or rudimentary.
+
+  Below the carpal and tarsal joints, the fore and hind limbs correspond
+  almost exactly in structure as well as function. On the anterior or
+  extensor surface of the limb a powerful tendon (7 in fig. 2), that of
+  the anterior extensor of the phalanges (corresponding to the _extensor
+  communis digitorum_ of the arm and _extensor longus digitorum_ of the
+  foot of man) passes down over the metacarpal bone and phalanges, to be
+  inserted mainly into the upper edge of the anterior surface of the
+  last phalanx or pedal bone. There is also a much smaller second
+  extensor on the outer side of this in each limb, the lateral extensor
+  of the phalanges. In the fore-leg the tendon of this muscle (which
+  corresponds with the _extensor minimi digiti_ of man) receives a slip
+  from that of the principal extensor, and is inserted into the first
+  phalanx. In the hind-leg (where it is the homologue apparently of the
+  _peroneus brevis_ of man) the tendon becomes blended with that of the
+  large extensor.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Foot of Horse.
+
+    1, Metacarpal bone.
+    2, First phalanx (_os suffraginis_).
+    3, Second phalanx (_os coronae_).
+    4, Third or ungual phalanx (_os pedis_, or coffin bone).
+    5, One of the upper sesamoid bones.
+    6, Lower sesamoid or navicular bone.
+    7, Tendon of anterior extensor of the phalanges.
+    8, Tendon of superficial flexor (_fl. perforatus_).
+    9, Tendon of deep flexor (_fl. perforans_).
+    10, Suspensory ligament of fetlock.
+    11, Inferior or short sesamoid ligament.
+    12, Derma or skin of the foot, covered with hair, and continued into
+    13, The coronary cushion,
+    14, The podophyllous or laminar membrane, and
+    15, The keratogenous membrane of the sole.
+    16, Plantar cushion.
+    17, Hoof.
+    18, Fatty cushion of fetlock.]
+
+  A strong ligamentous band behind the metapodium, arising from near the
+  upper extremity of its posterior surface, divides into two at its
+  lower end, and each division, being first connected with one of the
+  paired upper sesamoid bones, passes by the side of the first phalanx
+  to join the extensor tendon of the phalanges. This is called in
+  veterinary anatomy the "suspensory ligament of the sesamoids," or of
+  the "fetlock" (10 in fig. 2); but its attachments and relations, as
+  well as the occasional presence of muscular fibres in its substance,
+  show that it is the homologue of the interosseous muscles of other
+  mammals, modified in structure and function, to suit the requirements
+  of the horse's foot. Behind or superficial to this are placed the two
+  strong tendons of the flexor muscles, the most superficial, or _flexor
+  perforatus_ (8) dividing to allow the other to pass through, and then
+  inserted into the middle phalanx. The _flexor perforans_ (9) is as
+  usual inserted into the terminal phalange. In the fore-leg these
+  muscles correspond with those similarly named in man. In the hind-leg,
+  the perforated tendon is a continuation of that of the plantaris,
+  passing pulley-wise over the tuberosity of the calcaneum. The
+  perforating tendon is derived from the muscle corresponding with the
+  long flexor of man, and the smaller tendon of the oblique flexor
+  (_tibialis porticus_ of man) is united with it.
+
+  The hoof of the horse corresponds to the nail or claw of other
+  mammals, but is so constructed as to form a complete and solid case to
+  the expanded termination of the toe, giving a firm basis of support
+  formed of a non-sensitive substance, which is continually renewed by
+  the addition of material from within, as its surface wears away by
+  friction. The terminal phalange of the toe is greatly enlarged and
+  modified in form to support this hoof, and the size of the internal
+  framework of the foot is increased by a pair of lateral
+  fibro-cartilaginous masses attached on each side to the hinder edges
+  of the bone, and by a fibro-cellular and fatty plantar cushion in the
+  median part. These structures are all enclosed in the middle
+  subcorneous integument, a continuation of the ordinary skin of the
+  limb, but extremely vascular, and having its superficial extent
+  greatly increased by being developed into papillae or laminae. From
+  this the horny material which constitutes the hoof is exuded. A
+  thickened ring encircling the upper part, called coronary cushion (13)
+  and the sole (15), are covered with numerous thickly-set papillae or
+  villi, and take the greatest share in the formation of the hoof; the
+  intermediate part constituting the front and side of the foot (14),
+  corresponding with the wall of the hoof, is covered with parallel,
+  fine longitudinal laminae, which fit into corresponding depressions in
+  the inner side of the horny hoof.
+
+  The horny hoof is divided into a wall or crust consisting of the front
+  and sides, the flattened or concave sole, and the frog, a triangular
+  median prominence, notched posteriorly, with the apex turned forwards,
+  situated in the hinder part of the sole. It is formed of pavement
+  epithelial cells, mainly grouped in a concentric manner around the
+  vascular papillae of the subcorneous integument, so that a section
+  near the base of the hoof, cut transversely to the long axis of these
+  papillae, shows a number of small circular or oval orifices, with
+  cells arranged concentrically round them. The nearer the surface of
+  the hoof, or farther removed from the seat of growth, the more
+  indistinct the structure becomes.
+
+  Small round or oval plates of horny epithelium called "chestnuts,"
+  callosities growing like the hoof from enlarged papillae of the skin,
+  are found on the inner face of the fore-arm, above the carpal joint in
+  all species of Equidae, and in the horse (_E. caballus_) similar
+  structures occur near the upper extremity of the inner face of the
+  metatarsus. They are evidently rudimentary structures which it is
+  suggested may represent glands (Lydekker, _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_,
+  1903, vol. i.).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Longitudinal and Transverse Section of Upper
+  Incisor of Horse.
+
+    p, Pulp cavity.
+    d, Dentine or ivory.
+    e, Enamel.
+    c, Outer layer of cementum or crusta petrosa.
+    c´, Inner layer of cementum, lining a, the pit
+    or cavity of the crown of the tooth.]
+
+  _Dentition._--The dentition of the horse, when all the teeth are in
+  place, is expressed by the formula _i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 4/4 _m._
+  3/3 = 44. The incisors of each jaw are placed in close contact,
+  forming a semicircle. The crowns are broad, somewhat awl-shaped, and
+  of nearly equal size. They have all the great peculiarity, not found
+  in the teeth of any other mammal, and only in the Equidae of
+  comparatively recent geological periods (see also PALAEONTOLOGY), of
+  an involution of the external surface of the tooth (see fig. 3), by
+  which what should properly be the apex is carried deeply into the
+  interior of the crown, forming a pit, the bottom of which becomes
+  partially filled with cement. As the tooth wears, the surface, besides
+  the external enamel layer as in an ordinary simple tooth, shows in
+  addition a second inner ring of the same hard substance surrounding
+  the pit, which adds greatly to the efficiency of the tooth as an organ
+  for biting tough, fibrous substances. This pit, generally filled in
+  the living animal with particles of food, is conspicuous from its dark
+  colour, and constitutes the "mark" by which the age of the horse is
+  judged, as in consequence of its only extending to a certain depth in
+  the crown it becomes obliterated as the latter wears away, and then
+  the tooth assumes the character of that of an ordinary incisor,
+  consisting only of a core of dentine, surrounded by the external
+  enamel layer. It is not quite so deep in the lower as in the upper
+  teeth. The canines are either rudimentary or absent in the female. In
+  the male they are compressed, pointed, and smaller than the incisors,
+  from which they are separated by a slight interval. The teeth of the
+  cheek series are all in contact with each other, but separated from
+  the canines by a considerable toothless space. The anterior premolars
+  are quite rudimentary, sometimes not developed at all, and generally
+  fall by the time the animal attains maturity, so that there are but
+  six functional cheek teeth,--three that have predecessors in the
+  milk-dentition, and hence are considered as premolars, and three
+  molars, but otherwise, except the first and last of the series, not
+  distinguishable in form or structure. These teeth in both upper and
+  lower jaws are extremely long-crowned or hypsodont, successive
+  portions being pushed out as the surface wears away, a process which
+  continues until the animal becomes advanced in age. The enamelled
+  surface is infolded in a complex manner (a modification of that found
+  in other perissodactyles), the folds extending quite to the base of
+  the crown, and the interstices being filled and the surface covered
+  with a considerable mass of cement, which binds together and
+  strengthens the whole tooth. As the teeth wear, the folded enamel,
+  being harder than the other constituents, the dentine and cement,
+  forms projecting ridges on the surface arranged in a definite
+  pattern, which give it great efficiency as a grinding instrument (see
+  fig. 2, in article EQUIDAE). The free surfaces of the upper teeth are
+  quadrate, except the first and last, which are nearly triangular. The
+  lower teeth are much narrower than the upper.
+
+  The milk-dentition consists of i. 3/3, c. 0/0, m. 3/3 = 24,--the
+  canines and first or rudimentary premolars having apparently no
+  predecessors. In form and structure the milk-teeth much resemble the
+  permanent ones, having the same characteristic enamel-foldings. Their
+  eruption commences a few days after birth, and is complete before the
+  end of the first year, the upper teeth usually appearing somewhat
+  earlier than the lower. The first teeth which appear are the first and
+  second milk-molars (about five days), then the central incisor (from
+  seven to ten days); this is followed by the second incisor (at one
+  month), then the third molar, and finally the third incisor. Of the
+  permanent teeth the first molar appears a little after the end of the
+  first year, followed by the second molar before the end of the second
+  year. At about two and a half years the first premolar replaces its
+  predecessor. Between two and a half and three years the first incisor
+  appears. At three years the second and third premolars, and the third
+  molar have appeared, at from three and a half to four years the second
+  incisor, at four to four and a half years the canine, and, finally, at
+  five years, the third incisor, completing the permanent dentition. Up
+  to this period the age of the horse is clearly shown by the condition
+  of dentition, and for some time longer indications can be obtained
+  from the wear of the incisors, though this depends to a certain extent
+  upon the hardness of the food or other circumstances. As a general
+  rule, the depression caused by the infolding of the surface of the
+  incisor (the "mark") is obliterated in the first or central incisor at
+  six years, in the second at seven years, and in the third at eight
+  years. In the upper teeth, as the depressions are deeper, this
+  obliteration does not take place until about two years later. After
+  this period no certain indications can be obtained of the age of the
+  horse from the teeth.
+
+  _Digestive Organs._--The lips are flexible and prehensile; and the
+  membrane that lines them and the cheeks smooth. The palate is long and
+  narrow; its mucous surface has seventeen pairs of not very sharply
+  defined oblique ridges, extending as far back as the last molar tooth,
+  beyond which the _velum palati_ extends for about 3 in., having a soft
+  corrugated surface, and ending posteriorly in an arched border without
+  a uvula. This embraces the base of the epiglottis, and, except while
+  swallowing food, shuts off all communication between the cavity of the
+  mouth and the pharynx, respiration being, under ordinary
+  circumstances, exclusively through the nostrils. Between the mucous
+  membrane and the bone of the hard palate is a dense vascular and
+  nervous plexus. The membrane lining the jaws is soft and corrugated.
+  An elongated raised glandular mass, 3 in. long and 1 in. from above
+  downwards, extending backwards from the root of the tongue along the
+  side of the jaws, with openings on the surface leading into crypts
+  with glandular walls, represents the tonsil. The tongue, corresponding
+  to the form of the mouth, is long and narrow. It consists of a
+  compressed intermolar portion with a flat upper surface, broad behind
+  and becoming narrower in front, and of a depressed anterior part
+  rather shorter than the former, which is narrow behind and widens
+  towards the evenly rounded apex. The dorsal surface generally is soft
+  and smooth. There are two large circumvallate papillae near the base,
+  rather irregular in form, about a quarter of an inch in diameter and
+  half an inch apart. The conical papillae are small and close set,
+  though longer and more filamentous on the intermolar portion. There
+  are no fungiform papillae on the dorsum, but a few inconspicuous ones
+  scattered along the sides of the organ.
+
+  Of the salivary glands the parotid is by far the largest, elongated in
+  the vertical direction, and narrower in the middle than at either end.
+  Its upper extremity embraces the lower surface of the cartilaginous
+  ear-conch; its lower end reaches the level of the inferior margin of
+  the mandible, along the posterior margin of which it is placed. Its
+  duct leaves the inferior anterior angle, at first descends a little,
+  and runs forward under cover of the rounded inferior border of the
+  lower jaw, then curves up along the anterior margin of the masseter
+  muscle, becoming superficial, pierces the buccinator, and enters the
+  mouth by a simple aperture opposite the middle of the crown of the
+  third premolar tooth. It is not quite so thick as a goose-quill when
+  distended, and nearly a foot in length.
+
+  The submaxillary gland is of very similar texture to the last, but
+  much smaller; it is placed deeper, and lies with its main axis
+  horizontal. It is elongated and slender, and flattened from within
+  outwards. Its posterior end rests against the anterior surface of the
+  transverse process of the atlas, from which it extends forwards and
+  downwards, slightly curved, to beneath the ramus of the jaw. The duct
+  which runs along its upper and internal border passes forwards in the
+  usual course, lying in the inner side of the sublingual gland, to open
+  on the outer surface of a distinct papilla, situated on the floor of
+  the mouth, half an inch from the middle line, and midway between the
+  lower incisor teeth and the attachment of the fraenum linguae. The
+  sublingual is represented by a mass of glands lying just beneath the
+  mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth on the side of the tongue,
+  causing a distinct ridge, extending from the fraenum backwards, the
+  numerous ducts opening separately along the summit of the ridge. The
+  buccal glands are arranged in two rows parallel with the molar teeth.
+  The upper ones are the largest, and are continuous anteriorly with the
+  labial glands, the ducts of which open on the mucous membrane of the
+  upper lip.
+
+  The stomach of the horse is simple in its external form, with a
+  largely developed right _cul de sac_, and is a good deal curved on
+  itself, so that the cardiac and pyloric orifices are brought near
+  together. The _antrum pyloricum_ is small and not very distinctly
+  marked. The interior is divided by the character of the lining
+  membrane into two distinct portions, right and left. Over the latter
+  the dense white smooth epithelial lining of the oesophagus is
+  continued, terminating abruptly by a raised crenulated border. Over
+  the right part the mucous membrane has a greyish-red colour and a
+  velvety appearance, and contains numerous peptic glands, which are
+  wanting in the cardiac portion. The oesophageal orifice is small, and
+  guarded by a strong crescentic or horseshoe-like band of muscular
+  fibres, supposed to be the cause of the difficulty of vomiting in the
+  horse. The small intestine is of great length (80 to 90 ft.), its
+  mucous membrane being covered with numerous fine villi. The caecum is
+  of conical form, about 2 ft. long and nearly a foot in diameter; its
+  walls are sacculated, especially near the base, having four
+  longitudinal muscular bands; and its capacity is about twice that of
+  the stomach. It lies with its base near the lower part of the abdomen,
+  and its apex directed towards the thorax. The colon is about one-third
+  the length of the small intestine, and very capacious in the greater
+  part of its course. As usual it may be divided into an ascending,
+  transverse, and descending portion; but the middle or transverse
+  portion is folded into a great loop, which descends as low as the
+  pubis; so that the colon forms altogether four folds, generally
+  parallel to the long axis of the body. The descending colon is much
+  narrower than the rest, and not sacculated, and, being considerably
+  longer than the distance it has to traverse, is thrown into numerous
+  folds.
+
+  The liver is tolerably symmetrical in general arrangement, being
+  divided nearly equally into segments by a well-marked umbilical
+  fissure. Each segment is again divided by lateral fissures, which do
+  not extend quite to the posterior border of the organ; of the central
+  lobes thus cut off, the right is rather the larger, and has two
+  fissures in its free border dividing it into lobules. The extent of
+  these varies, however, in different individuals. The two lateral lobes
+  are subtriangular in form. The Spigelian lobe is represented by a flat
+  surface between the postal fissure and the posterior border, not
+  distinctly marked off from the left lateral by a fissure of the ductus
+  venosus, as this vessel is buried deep in the hepatic substance, but
+  the caudate lobe is distinct and tongue-shaped, its free apex reaching
+  nearly to the border of the right lateral lobe. There is no
+  gall-bladder, and the biliary duct enters the duodenum about 6 in.
+  from the pylorus. The pancreas has two lobes or branches, a long one
+  passing to the left and reaching the spleen, and a shorter right lobe.
+  The principal duct enters the duedenum with the bile-duct, and there
+  is often a second small duct opening separately.
+
+  _Circulatory and Respiratory Organs._--The heart has the form of a
+  rather elongated and pointed cone. There is one anterior vena cava,
+  formed by the union of the two jugular and two axillary veins. The
+  aorta gives off a large branch (the anterior aorta) very near its
+  origin, from which arise--first, the left axillary, and afterwards the
+  right axillary and the two carotid arteries.
+
+  Under ordinary circumstances the horse breathes entirely by the nasal
+  passages, the communication between the larynx and the mouth being
+  closed by the velum palati. The nostrils are placed laterally, near
+  the termination of the muzzle, and are large and dilatable, being
+  bordered by cartilages upon which several muscles act. Immediately
+  within the opening of the nostril, the respiratory canal sends off on
+  its upper and outer side a blind pouch ("false nostril") of conical
+  form, and curved, 2 to 3 in. in depth, lying in the notch formed
+  between the nasal and premaxillary bones. It is lined by mucous
+  membrane continuous with that of the nasal passage; its use is not
+  apparent. It is longer in the ass than in the horse. Here may be
+  mentioned the guttural pouches, large air-sacs from the Eustachian
+  tubes, and lying behind the upper part of the pharynx, the function of
+  which is also not understood. The larynx has the lateral sacculi well
+  developed, though entirely concealed within the alae of the thyroid
+  cartilage. The trachea divides into two bronchi.
+
+  _Nervous System._--The brain differs little, except in details of
+  arrangement of convolutions, from that of other ungulates. The
+  hemispheres are rather elongated and subcylindrical, the olfactory
+  lobes are large and project freely in front of the hemispheres, and
+  the greater part of the cerebellum is uncovered. The eye is provided
+  with a nictitating membrane or third eyelid, at the base of which open
+  the ducts of the Harderian gland.
+
+  _Reproductive System._--The testes are situated in a distinct sessile
+  or slightly pedunculated scrotum, into which they descend from the
+  sixth to the tenth month after birth. The accessory generative glands
+  are the two vesiculae seminales, with the median third vesicle, or
+  _uterus masculinus_, lying between them, the single bilobed prostate,
+  and a pair of globular Cowper's glands. The penis is very large,
+  cylindrical, with a truncated, expanded, flattened termination. When
+  in a state of repose it is retracted, by a muscle arising from the
+  sacrum, within the prepuce, a cutaneous fold attached below the
+  symphysis pubis.
+
+  The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina is often partially divided by a
+  membraneous septum or hymen. The teats are two, inguinally placed. The
+  surface of the chorion is covered evenly with minute villi,
+  constituting a diffuse non-deciduate placenta. The period of gestation
+  is eleven months.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R. I. Pocock, "The Species and Subspecies of Zebras,"
+  _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 6, vol. xx., 1897, and "A New Arrangement
+  of the Existing Species of Equidae," Op. cit. ser. 7, vol. x., 1902;
+  R. Lydekker, "Notes on the specimens of Wild Asses in English
+  Collections," _Novitates Zoologicae_, vol. xi., 1904; B. Salensky, "On
+  Equus przewalskii," _Mém. Acad. St Pétersburg_, 1902; M. S. Arloing,
+  "Organisation du pied chez le cheval," _Ann. Sci. Nat._, 1867, viii.
+  55-81; H. Burmeister, _Los caballos fosiles de la Pampa Argentina_
+  (Buenos Aires, 1875); Chauveau and Arloing, _Traité d'anatomie
+  comparée des animaux domestiques_ (Paris, 1871), and English edition
+  by G. Fleming (1873); A. Ecker, "Das Europäische Wildpferd und dessen
+  Beziehungen zum domesticirten Pferd," _Globus_, Bd. xxxiv. (Brunswick,
+  1878); Major Forsyth, "Beiträge zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde
+  besonders Italiens," _Abh. Schw. Pal. Ges._ iv. 1-16, pt. iv.; George,
+  "Études zool. sur les Hémiones et quelques autres espèces chevalines,"
+  _Ann. Sci. Nat._, 1869, xii. 5; E. F. Gurlt, _Anatomische Abbildungen
+  der Haussäugethiere_ (1824), and _Hand. der vergleich. Anat. der
+  Haussäugethiere_ (2 vols., 1822); Huet, "Croisement des diverses
+  espèces du genre cheval," _Nouv. Archives du Muséum_, 2nd ser., tom.
+  ii. p. 46, 1879; Leisering, _Atlas der Anatomie des Pferdes_ (Leipzig,
+  1861); O. C. Marsh, "Notice of New Equine Mammals from the Tertiary
+  Formation," _Am. Journ. of Science and Arts_, vol. vii., March 1874;
+  _Id._, "Fossil Horses in America," _Amer. Naturalist_, vol. viii., May
+  1874; _Id._, "Polydactyle Horses," _Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts_, vol.
+  xvii., June 1879; Franz Müller, _Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Pferdes_
+  (Vienna, 1853); R. Owen, "Equine Remains in Cavern of Bruniquel,"
+  _Phil. Trans._ vol. clix., 1870, p. 535; W. Percivall, _The Anatomy of
+  the Horse_ (1832); G. Stubbs, _Anatomy of the Horse_ (1766); W. H.
+  Flower, _The Horse_ (London, 1891); Ridgeway, _Origin of the
+  Thoroughbred Horse_ (1905).     (W. H. F; R. L.*)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+From the evidence of philology it appears that the horse was already
+known to the Aryans before the period of their dispersion.[1]
+
+The first mention of the British horse occurs in the well-known passages
+in Caesar (_B.G._ iv. 24. 33, v. 15. 16; cf. Pomp. Mela iii. 6), in
+which he mentions the native "essedarii" and the skill with which they
+handled their war chariots. We are left quite in the dark as to the
+character of the animal thus employed; but there would appear to be much
+probability in the surmise of W. Youatt, who conjectures the horse to
+have been, "then as ever, the creature of the country in which he lived.
+With short fare, and exposed to the rigour of the seasons, he was
+probably the little hardy thing we yet see him; but in the marshes of
+the Nen and the Witham, and on the borders of the Tees and the Clyde,
+there would be as much proportionate development of frame and strength
+as we find at the present day." After the occupation of the country by
+the Romans, it appears that the horses of their cavalry were crossed
+with the native mares, and thus there was infused into the breed new
+blood, consisting probably of strains from every quarter from which
+Roman remounts were procured. As to the effect of this cross we are not,
+however, in a position to judge. We are also quite uncertain as to the
+extent to which the Jutes and Saxons may in their turn have again
+introduced a new breed of horses into England; and even to the close of
+the Anglo-Saxon period of English history allusions to the horse are
+still very infrequent. The _horsthegn_ we know, however, was from an
+early period a high court official; and from such a law as that of
+Athelstan prohibiting the exportation of horses except as presents, it
+may be inferred that the English breed was not only much valued at home
+but also in great request abroad.[2]
+
+The period of the Norman Conquest marks an important stage in the
+history of the British horse. William the Conqueror's own horse was of
+the Spanish breed, and others of the same kind were introduced by the
+barons on their estates. But the Norman horses included many varieties,
+and there is no doubt that to the Conquest the inhabitants of Britain
+were indebted for a decided improvement in the native horse, as well as
+for the introduction of several varieties previously unknown. According
+to Giraldus Cambrensis, Roger de Bellesme, a follower of William I.,
+afterwards created earl of Shrewsbury, imported some stallions from
+Spain into England; their produce was celebrated by Drayton the poet. It
+is curious to notice that agriculture seems to be the last use to which
+the horse has been put. The earliest suggestion that horses were used in
+agriculture is derived from a piece of the Bayeux tapestry, where a
+horse is represented as drawing a harrow. This, however, must have been
+an exceptional case, for we know that oxen were used until a
+comparatively late time, and that in Wales a law existed forbidding
+horses to be used for ploughing.
+
+In 1121 two Eastern horses are said to have been imported,--one of them
+remaining in England, and the other being sent as a present by King
+Alexander I. to the church of St Andrews, in Scotland. It has been
+alleged that these horses were Barbs from Morocco, but a still more
+likely theory is that they existed only in name, and never reached
+either England or Scotland. The crusades were probably the means of
+introducing fresh strains of blood into England, and of giving
+opportunity for fresh crossings. The Spanish jennet was brought over
+about 1182. King John gave great encouragement to horse-breeding: one of
+his earliest efforts was to import a hundred Flemish stallions, and,
+having thus paved the way for improving the breed of agricultural
+horses, he set about acquiring a valuable stud for his own use.
+
+Edward III. was likewise an admirer of the horse; he procured fifty
+Spanish horses, probably jennets. At this time there was evidently a
+tendency to breed a somewhat lighter and speedier horse; but, while the
+introduction of a more active animal would soon have led to the
+displacement of the ponderous but powerful cavalry horse then in use,
+the substituted variety would have been unable to carry the weight of
+armour with which horse and rider were alike protected; and so in the
+end the old breed was kept up for a time. With the object of preserving
+to England whatever advantages might accrue from her care and skill in
+breeding an improved stamp of horses, Edward III. forbade their
+exportation; they consequently improved so rapidly in value that Richard
+II. compelled dealers to limit their prices to a fixed maximum. In the
+ninth year of his reign, Edward received from the king of Navarre a
+present of two running horses, supposed to have been valuable. The wars
+of 1346 checked the improvement of horses, and undid much of what had
+been previously accomplished, for we read that the cavalry taken into
+France by Edward III. were but indifferently mounted, and that in
+consequence he had to purchase large numbers of foreign horses from
+Hainault and elsewhere for remounts. The reign of Richard III. does not
+seem to have been remarkable for the furtherance of horse-breeding; but
+it was then that post-horses and stages were introduced.
+
+Our information on the whole subject is but scanty down to the reign of
+Henry VII., who continued the enactment against the exportation of
+stallions, but relaxed it in the case of mares above two years old. His
+object was to retain the best horses in the country, and to keep the
+price of them down by limiting the demand and encouraging the supply. In
+his reign gelding is believed to have had its origin, on account of
+numerous herds of horses belonging to different proprietors grazing
+together, especially in time of harvest. Henry VIII. was particularly
+careful that horse-breeding should be conducted on right principles, and
+his enactments, if somewhat arbitrary, were singularly to the point. In
+the thirty-second year of this reign, the "bill for the breed of horses"
+was passed, the preamble of which runs thus:--"Forasmuch as the
+generation and breed of good and strong horses within this realm
+extendeth not only to a great help and defence of the same, but also is
+a great commodity and profit to the inhabitants thereof, which is now
+much decayed and diminished, by reason that, in forests, chases, moors
+and waste grounds within this realm, little stoned horses and nags of
+small stature and of little value be not only suffered to pasture
+thereupon, but also to cover mares feeding there, whereof cometh in
+manner no profit or commodity." Section 2 of the act provides that no
+entire horse being above the age of two years, and not being of the
+height of 15 "handfulls," shall be put to graze on any common or waste
+land in certain counties; any one was to be at liberty to seize a horse
+of unlawful height, and those whose duty it was to measure horses, but
+who refused to do so, were to be fined 40s. By section 6 all forests,
+chases, commons, &c., were to be "driven" within fifteen days of
+Michaelmas day, and all horses, mares and colts not giving promise of
+growing into serviceable animals, or of producing them, were to be
+killed. The aim of the act was to prevent breeding from animals not
+calculated to produce the class of horse suited to the needs of the
+country. By another act (27 Henry VIII. chapter 6), after stating that
+the "breed of good strong horses" was likely to diminish, it was ordered
+that the owners of all parks and enclosed grounds of the extent of one
+mile should keep two mares 13 hands high for breeding purposes, or, if
+the extent of the ground was 4 m., four mares. The statute was not to
+extend to the counties of Westmorland, Cumberland, Northumberland or the
+bishopric of Durham. Henry took great pains to improve the royal stud:
+according to Sir Thomas Chaloner--a writer in the reign of Elizabeth--he
+imported horses from Turkey, Naples and Spain.
+
+Queen Elizabeth is reputed to have been an accomplished horsewoman, and
+to have indulged in riding late in life. In the first year of her reign
+she revived an act passed by Henry VIII. making it felony "to sell,
+exchange or deliver within Scotland, or to the use of any Scottishman,
+any horse"; this, however, was very naturally repealed by James I.
+Carriages were soon after introduced, and the use of them speedily
+became so fashionable that a bill was brought in "to restrain the
+excessive and superfluous use of coaches." Prior to the introduction of
+carriages horseback was the means of locomotion, and Queen Elizabeth
+rode in state to St Paul's on a pillion; but even after carriages were
+used, horseback was held to be more dignified, for James I. and his
+judges rode on horseback to Westminster Hall. One advantage of the
+introduction of carriages was that it created a demand for a lighter and
+quicker sort of horse, instead of the ponderous animal which, despite
+all attempts to banish him, was still the horse of England--the age of
+chivalry having been the first epoch of the British horse.
+
+Gunpowder, too, was invented; and now that the weight of the cavalry
+soldier was diminished by the substitution of lighter armour, a quicker
+and better bred horse was thought desirable for military service. The
+introduction of carriages and the invention of gunpowder thus opened out
+a new industry in breeding; and a decided change was gradually creeping
+on by the time that James I. came to the throne (1603), which commences
+the second epoch. James was a thorough sportsman, and his taste for
+racing, in which he freely indulged, caused him to think but little of
+the speed of even the best English horses. With the laudable motive,
+therefore, of effecting improvement in horses, he gave the then large
+sum of 500 guineas for an Arab stallion which had been procured from
+Constantinople by a Mr Markham, since known as the "Markham Arabian."
+This is the first authentic account we have of the importation of Arab
+blood, and the _Stud-Book_ says he was the first of that breed ever seen
+in England. The people having to do with horses at that time were as
+conservative in their notions as most of the grooms are now, and the
+"Markham Arabian" was not at all approved of. The duke of Newcastle, in
+his treatise on horsemanship, said that he had seen the above Arabian,
+and described him as a small bay horse and not of very excellent shape.
+In this instance, however, prejudice (and it is difficult to believe
+that it was anything else) was right, for King James's first venture
+does not appear to have been a success either as a race-horse or as a
+sire, and thus Arabian blood was brought into disrepute. The king,
+however, resolved to give Eastern blood another trial, and bought a
+horse known as Place's White Turk from a Mr Place, who subsequently held
+some office in connexion with the stable under Cromwell. Charles I.
+followed in the footsteps of James, and lent such patronage to the
+breeding of a better kind of horse that a memorial was presented to him,
+asking that some measures might be taken to prevent the old stamp of
+horse "fit for the defence of the country" from dying out.
+
+We now come to a very important period in the history of the British
+horse, for Charles II. warmly espoused the introduction of Eastern blood
+into England. He sent his master of the horse abroad to purchase a
+number of foreign horses and mares for breeding, and the mares brought
+over by him (as also many of their produce) were called "royal mares";
+they form a conspicuous feature in the annals of breeding. The
+_Stud-Book_ shows of what breed the royal mares really were: one of
+them, the dam of Dodsworth (who, though foaled in England, was a natural
+Barb), was a Barb mare; she was sold by the stud-master, after Charles
+II.'s death, for forty guineas, at twenty years old, when in foal by the
+Helmsley Turk.
+
+James II. was a good horseman, and had circumstances been more
+propitious he might have left his mark in the sporting annals of the
+country. In his reign, according to the _Stud-Book_, the Stradling or
+Lister Turk was brought into England by the duke of Berwick from the
+siege of Buda.
+
+The reign of William III. is noteworthy as the era in which, among other
+importations, there appeared the first of three Eastern horses to which
+the modern thoroughbred race-horse traces back as the founders of his
+lineage. This was the Byerly Turk, of whom nothing more is known than
+that--to use the words of the first volume of the _Stud-Book_--he was
+Captain Byerly's charger in Ireland in King William's wars. The second
+of the three horses above alluded to was the Darley Arabian, who was a
+genuine Arab, and was imported from Aleppo by a brother of Mr Darley of
+Aldby Park, Yorkshire, about the end of the reign of William III. or the
+beginning of that of Anne. The third horse of the famous trio, the
+Godolphin Arabian or Barb, brought to England about five-and-twenty
+years after the Darley Arabian, will be more particularly referred to
+further on. All the horses now on the turf or at the stud trace their
+ancestry in the direct male line to one or other of these three--the
+Byerly Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the Godolphin Arabian or Barb. In
+the female line their pedigrees can be traced to other sources, but for
+all practical purposes it suffices to regard one or other of these three
+animals as the _ultima Thule_ of racing pedigree. Of course there is a
+large interfusion of the blood of each of the trio through the dams of
+horses of the present day; indeed, it is impossible to find an English
+race-horse which does not combine the blood of all three.
+
+_The Race-horse._--The third and last epoch of the British horse, viz.
+that of the thoroughbred racer, may be taken to date from the beginning
+of the 18th century. By thoroughbred is meant a horse or mare whose
+pedigree is registered in the _Stud-Book_ kept by Messrs Weatherby, the
+official agents of the Jockey Club--originally termed the keepers of the
+match-book--as well as publishers of the _Racing Calendar_. The first
+attempt to evolve order out of the chaos which had long reigned supreme
+was made in 1791, for we find in the preface of the first volume of the
+Stud-Book, published in 1808, that "with a view to correct the then
+increasing evil of false and inaccurate pedigrees, the author was in the
+year 1791 prevailed upon to publish an _Introduction to a General
+Stud-Book_, consisting of a small collection of pedigrees which he had
+extracted from racing calendars and sale papers and arranged on a new
+plan." It will be seen that the compiler of the volume on which so much
+depends had to go back fully a century, with little else to guide him
+but odds and ends in the way of publications and tradition. Mistakes
+under such circumstances are pardonable. The _Stud-Book_ then (vol. i.),
+which is the oldest authority we have, contains the names and in most
+cases the pedigrees, obscure though they may be, of a very large number
+of horses and mares of note from the earliest accounts, but with two
+exceptions no dates prior to the 18th century are specified in it. These
+exceptions are the Byerly Turk, who was "Captain Byerly's charger in
+Ireland in King William's wars (1689, &c.)," and a horse called
+Counsellor, bred by Mr Egerton in 1694, by Lord D'Arcy's Counsellor by
+Lord Lonsdale's Counsellor by the Shaftesbury Turk out of sister to
+Spanker--all the dams in Counsellor's pedigree tracing back to Eastern
+mares. There is not the least doubt that many of the animals named in
+the _Stud-Book_ were foaled much earlier than the above dates, but we
+have no particulars as to time; and after all it is not of much
+consequence.
+
+The _Stud-Book_ goes on to say of the Byerly Turk that he did not cover
+many bred mares, but was the sire of the duke of Devonshire's Basto,
+Halloway's Jigg, and others. Jigg, or Jig, is a very important factor,
+as will be seen hereafter. The _Stud-Book_, although silent as to the
+date of his birth, says he was a common country stallion in Lincolnshire
+until Partner was six years old--and we know from the same authority
+that Partner was foaled in 1718; we may therefore conclude that Jigg was
+a later foal than Basto, who, according to Whyte's _History of the
+Turf_, was a brown horse foaled in 1703.
+
+The reign of Queen Anne, however (1702-1714), is that which will ever be
+inseparably connected with the thoroughbred race-horse on account of the
+fame during that period of the Darley Arabian, a bay stallion, from whom
+our very best horses are descended. According to the _Stud-Book_,
+"Darley's Arabian was brought over by a brother of Mr Darley of
+Yorkshire, who, being an agent in merchandise abroad, became member of a
+hunting club, by which means he acquired interest to procure this
+horse." The _Stud-Book_ is silent, and other authorities differ, as to
+the date of the importation of this celebrated Arab, some saying he came
+over in the year 1700, others that he arrived somewhat later; but we
+know from the _Stud-Book_ that Manica (foaled in 1707), Aleppo (1711),
+Almanzor (1713), and Flying Childers (1715) were got by him, as also was
+Bartlett's Childers, a younger brother of Flying Childers. It is
+generally believed that he was imported in Anne's reign, but the exact
+date is immaterial, for, assuming that he was brought over as early as
+1700 from Aleppo, he could scarcely have had a foal living before 1701,
+the first year of the 18th century. The Darley Arabian did much to
+remove the prejudice against Eastern blood which had been instilled into
+the public mind by the duke of Newcastle's denunciation of the Markham
+Arabian. Prince George of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne, was himself a
+large horse-owner; and it was in a great measure owing to his
+intervention that so many valuable stallions were imported during her
+reign.
+
+At this period we find, among a mass of horses and mares in the
+_Stud-Book_ without any dates against their names, many animals of note
+with the earliest chronology extant, from Grey Ramsden (1704) and Bay
+Bolton (1705) down to a mare who exercised a most important influence on
+the English blood-horse. This was Roxana (1718) by the Bald Galloway,
+her dam sister to Chanter by the Akaster Turk, from a daughter of
+Leedes's Arabian and a mare by Spanker. Roxana threw in 1732 the bay
+colt Lath by the Godolphin Arabian, the sorrel colt Roundhead by
+Childers in 1733, and the bay colt Cade by the Godolphin Arabian in
+1734, in which year she died within a fortnight after foaling, the
+produce--Cade--being reared on cow's milk. The Godolphin Barb or
+Arabian, as he was commonly called, was a brown bay about 15 hands in
+stature, with an unnaturally high crest, and with some white on his off
+hind heel. He is said to have been imported into England from France by
+Mr Coke, where, as the editor of the _Stud-Book_ was informed by a
+French gentlemen, he was so little thought of that he had actually drawn
+a cart in the streets of Paris. Mr Coke gave him to a Mr. Williams, who
+in his turn presented him to the earl of Godolphin. Although called an
+Arabian, there is little doubt he was a Barb pure and simple. In 1731,
+being then the property of Mr. Coke, he was teazer to Hobgoblin, and on
+the latter refusing his services to Roxana, the mare was put to the
+Godolphin, and the produce was Lath (1732), the first of his get, and
+the most celebrated race-horse of his day after Flying Childers. He was
+also the sire of Cade, own brother to Lath, and of Regulus the maternal
+grandsire of Eclipse. He died at Gogmagog in Cambridgeshire, in the
+possession of Lord Godolphin, in 1753, being then, as is supposed, in
+his twenty-ninth year. He is believed to have been foaled in Barbary
+about 1724, and to have been imported during the reign of George II.
+
+In regard to the mares generally, we have a record of the royal mares
+already alluded to, and likewise of three Turk mares brought over from
+the siege of Vienna in 1684, as well as of other importations; but it is
+unquestionable that there was a very large number of native mares in
+England, improved probably from time to time by racing, however much
+they may have been crossed at various periods with foreign horses, and
+that from this original stock were to some extent derived the size and
+stride which characterized the English race-horse, while his powers of
+endurance and elegant shape were no doubt inherited from the Eastern
+horses, most of which were of a low stature, 14 hands or thereabouts. It
+is only necessary to trace carefully back the pedigree of most of the
+famous horses of early times to discover faults on the side of the
+dam--that is to say, the expression "dam's pedigree unknown," which
+evidently means of original or native blood. Whatever therefore may be
+owing to Eastern blood, of which from the middle of the 17th to the
+beginning of the 18th century a complete wave swept over the British
+Isles, some credit is unquestionably due to the native mares (which
+Blaine says were mostly Cleveland bays) upon which the Arabian, Barb, or
+Turk blood was grafted, and which laid the foundation of the modern
+thoroughbred. Other nations may have furnished the blood, but England
+has made the race-horse.
+
+Without prosecuting this subject further, it may be enough here to
+follow out the lines of the Darley Arabian, the Byerly Turk, and the
+Godolphin Arabian or Barb, the main ancestors of the British
+thoroughbred of the 18th and 19th centuries, through several famous
+race-horses, each and all brilliant winners,--Flying Childers, Eclipse,
+Herod and Matchem,--to whom it is considered sufficient to look as the
+great progenitors of the race-horse of to-day.
+
+  1. The Darley Arabian's line is represented in a twofold
+  degree--first, through his son Flying Childers, his grandsons Blaze
+  and Snip, and his great-grandson Snap, and, secondly, through his
+  other son Bartlett's Childers and his great-great-grandson Eclipse.
+  Flying or Devonshire Childers, so called to distinguish him from other
+  horses of the same name, was a bay horse of entirely Eastern blood,
+  with a blaze in his face and four white feet, foaled in 1715. He was
+  bred by Mr Leonard Childers of Carr House near Doncaster, and was
+  purchased when young by the duke of Devonshire. He was got by the
+  Darley Arabian from Betty Leedes, by Careless from sister to Leedes,
+  by Leedes's Arabian from a mare by Spanker out of a Barb mare, who was
+  Spanker's own mother. Spanker himself was by D'Arcy's Yellow Turk from
+  a daughter of the Morocco Barb and Old Bald Peg, by an Arab horse from
+  a Barb mare. Careless was by Spanker from a Barb mare, so that
+  Childers's dam was closely in-bred to Spanker. Flying Childers--the
+  wonder of his time--was never beaten, and died in the duke of
+  Devonshire's stud in 1741, aged twenty-six years. He was the sire of,
+  among other horses, Blaze (1733) and Snip (1736). Snip too had a
+  celebrated son called Snap (1750), and it is chiefly in the female
+  line through the mares by these horses, of which there are fully
+  thirty in the _Stud-Book_, that the blood of Flying Childers is handed
+  down to us.
+
+  The other representative line of the Darley Arabian is through
+  Bartlett's Childers, also bred by Mr Leonard Childers, and sold to Mr
+  Bartlett of Masham, in Yorkshire. He was for several years called
+  Young Childers,--it being generally supposed that he was a younger
+  brother of his Flying namesake, but his date of birth is not on
+  record,--and subsequently Bartlett's Childers. This horse, who was
+  never trained, was the sire of Squirt (1732), whose son Marske (1750)
+  begat Eclipse and Young Marske (1762), sire of Shuttle (1793). This at
+  least is the generally accepted theory, although Eclipse's dam is said
+  to have been covered by Shakespeare as well as by Marske. Shakespeare
+  was the son of Hobgoblin by Aleppo, and consequently the male line of
+  the Darley Arabian would come through these horses instead of through
+  Bartlett's Childers, Squirt, and Marske; the _Stud-Book_, however,
+  says that Marske was the sire of Eclipse. This last-named celebrated
+  horse--perhaps the most celebrated in the annals of the turf--was
+  foaled on the 1st of April 1764, the day on which a remarkable eclipse
+  of the sun occurred, and he was named after it. He was bred by the
+  duke of Cumberland, after whose decease he was purchased by a Mr
+  Wildman, and subsequently sold to Mr D. O'Kelly, with whom he will
+  ever be identified. His dam Spiletta was by Regulus, son of the
+  Godolphin Barb, from Mother Western, by a son of Snake from a mare by
+  Old Montague out of a mare by Hautboy, from a daughter of Brimmer and
+  a mare whose pedigree was unknown. In Eclipse's pedigree there are
+  upwards of a dozen mares whose pedigrees are not known, but who are
+  supposed to be of native blood. Eclipse was a chestnut horse with a
+  white blaze down his face; his off hind leg was white from the hock
+  downwards, and he had black spots upon his rump--this peculiarity
+  coming down to the present day in direct male descent. His racing
+  career commenced at five years of age, viz. on the 3rd May 1769, at
+  Epsom, and terminated on the 4th October 1770, at Newmarket. He ran or
+  walked over for eighteen races, and was never beaten. It was in his
+  first race that Mr O'Kelly took the odds to a large amount before the
+  start for the second heat, that he would place the horses. When called
+  upon to declare, he uttered the exclamation, which the event
+  justified, "Eclipse first, and the rest nowhere."
+
+  Eclipse commenced his stud career in 1771, and had an enormous number
+  of foals, of which four only in the direct male line have come down to
+  us, viz. Potoooooooo, or, as he is commonly called, Pot-8-os (1773),
+  his most celebrated son, King Fergus (1775), Joe Andrews (1778), and
+  Mercury (1778), though several others are represented in the female
+  line. Pot-8-os was the sire of Waxy (1790) out of Maria (1777) by
+  Herod out of Lisette (1772) by Snap. Waxy, who has been not inaptly
+  termed the ace of trumps in the _Stud-Book_, begat Whalebone (1807),
+  Web (1808), Woful (1809), Wire (1811), Whisker (1812), and Waxy Pope
+  (1806), all but the last being out of Penelope (1798) by Trumpator
+  (1782) from Prunella (1788) by Highflyer out of Promise by Snap, while
+  Waxy Pope was out of Prunella, dam of Parasol (1800) by Pot-8-os.
+  Trumpator was a son of Conductor, who was by Matchem out of a mare by
+  Snap.
+
+  Whalebone's best sons were Camel (1822) and Sir Hercules (1826). Camel
+  was the sire of Defence (1824) and Touchstone (1831), while Sir
+  Hercules was the sire of Birdcatcher (1833) and Faugh-a-Ballagh
+  (1841), own brothers, and of Gemma di Vergy (1854). Touchstone was the
+  sire of Newminster (1848), who begat Lord Clifden, Adventurer, and the
+  Hermit, as well as of Orlando (1841), sire of Teddington (1848).
+  Whalebone's blood also descends through Waverley (1817) and his son
+  the Saddler (1828), while Whisker is represented by the Colonel (1825)
+  and by Economist (1825) and his son Harkaway (1834), sire of King Tom
+  (1851). Birdcatcher begat, besides Saunterer (1854), the Baron (1842),
+  sire of Stockwell (1849) and of Rataplan (1850). Stockwell, who was a
+  chestnut with black spots, was the sire of Blair Athol (1861), a
+  chestnut, and also of Doncaster (1870), another chestnut, but with the
+  characteristic black spots of his grandsire; and Doncaster was the
+  sire of the chestnut Bend Or (1877).
+
+  To turn to Eclipse's other sons. King Fergus (1775) was the sire of
+  Beningbrough (1791), whose son was Orville (1799), whence comes some
+  of the stoutest blood on the turf, including Emilius (1820) and his
+  son Priam (1827), Plenipotentiary (1831), Muley (1810), Chesterfield
+  (1834), and the Hero (1843). Joe Andrews (1778) was the sire of Dick
+  Andrews (1797), and from him descend Tramp (1810), Lottery (1820),
+  Liverpool (1828), Sheet Anchor (1832), Lanercost (1835), Weatherbit
+  (1842), Beadsman (1855), and Blue Gown (1865). Mercury was sire of
+  Gohanna (1790), who was foaled in the same year as Waxy, and the two,
+  who were both grandsons of Eclipse and both out of Herod mares, had
+  several contests, Waxy generally getting the better of his cousin.
+  Gohanna's descendants come down through Golumpus (1802), Catton
+  (1809), Mulatto (1823), Royal Oak (1823), and Slane (1833).
+
+  2. The Byerly Turk's line is represented by Herod, the Turk being the
+  sire of Jigg, who was the sire of Partner (1718), whose son Tartar
+  (1743) begat King Herod, or Herod as he was commonly called, foaled in
+  1758. Herod's dam was Cypron (1750) by Blaze (1733), son of Flying
+  Childers. Cypron's dam was Selima by Bethel's Arabian from a mare by
+  Graham's Champion from a daughter of the Darley Arabian and a mare who
+  claims Merlin for her sire, but whose mother's pedigree is unknown. In
+  Herod's pedigree there are fully a dozen dams whose pedigree is
+  unknown. Herod was a bay horse about 15 hands 3 inches high, possessed
+  both of substance and length,--those grand requisites in a
+  race-horse,--combined with uncommon power and stamina or lasting
+  qualities. He was bred by William, duke of Cumberland, uncle of King
+  George III. He commenced his racing career in October 1763, when he
+  was five years old, and ended it on the 16th of May 1767. He ran ten
+  times, winning six and losing four races. He died in 1780, and among
+  other progeny left two famous sons, Woodpecker (1773), whose dam was
+  Miss Ramsden (1760) by Cade, son of the Godolphin Barb, but descended
+  also on the dam's side from the Darley Arabian and the Byerly Turk,
+  and Highflyer (1774), whose dam was Rachel (1763) by Blank, son of the
+  Godolphin Barb from a daughter of Regulus, also son of the Godolphin.
+  These two horses have transmitted Herod's qualities down to the
+  present day in the direct male line, although in the female line he is
+  represented through some of his other sons and his daughters as well.
+  Woodpecker was the sire of Buzzard (1787), who in his turn became the
+  father of three celebrated sons, Castrel (1801), Selim (1802), and
+  Rubens (1803), all three chestnuts, and all out of an Alexander mare
+  (1790), who thereby became famous. This mare was by Eclipse's son
+  Alexander (1782) out of a mare by Highflyer (son of Herod) out of a
+  daughter of Alfred, by Matchem out of a daughter of Snap. Bustard
+  (1813), whose dam was a daughter of Shuttle, and his son Heron (1833),
+  Sultan (1816) and his sons Glencoe (1831) and Bay Middleton (1833) and
+  Middleton's sons Cowl (1842) and the Flying Dutchman (1846), Pantaloon
+  (1824) and his son Windhound (1847), Langar (1817) and his son Epirus
+  (1834) and grandson Pyrrhus the First (1843), are representatives of
+  Castrel and Selim.
+
+  Highflyer is represented through his greatly esteemed son Sir Peter
+  Teazle, commonly called Sir Peter (1784), whose dam was Papillon by
+  Snap. Sir Peter had five sons at the stud, Walton (1790), Stamford
+  (1794), and Sir Paul (1802) being the chief. Paulowitz (1813), Cain
+  (1822), Ion (1835), Wild Dayrell (1852), and his son Buccaneer (1857)
+  bring down Sir Paul's blood; whilst Walton is represented through
+  Phantom (1806), Partisan (1811) and his sons Glaucus (1829) and
+  Venison (1833) and Gladiator (1833), Venison's sons Alarm (1842) and
+  Kingston (1849), Gladiator's son Sweetmeat (1842), Sweetmeat's sons
+  Macaroni (1860) and Parmesan (1857), and Parmesan's sons Favonius
+  (1868) and Cremorne (1869). It may be added that in the first volume
+  of the _Stud-Book_ there are nearly a hundred Herod and Highflyer
+  mares registered.
+
+  3. The Godolphin Barb is represented by Matchem, as the former was the
+  sire of Cade (1734), and Cade begat Matchem, who was foaled in 1748.
+  He was thus ten years the senior of Herod, representing the Byerly
+  Turk, and sixteen years before Eclipse, though long subsequent to
+  Flying Childers, who represent the Darley Arabian. Matchem was a brown
+  bay horse with some white on his off hind heel, about 15 hands high,
+  bred by Sir John Holme of Carlisle, and sold to Mr W. Fenwick of
+  Bywell, Northumberland. His dam was sister to Miss Partner (1735) by
+  Partner out of Brown Farewell by Makeless (son of the Oglethorpe
+  Arabian) from a daughter of Brimmer out of Trumpet's dam, by Place's
+  White Turk from a daughter of the Barb Dodsworth and a Layton Barb
+  mare; while Brimmer was by D'Arcy's Yellow Turk from a royal mare.
+  Matchem commenced his racing career on the 2nd of August 1753, and
+  terminated it on 1st September 1758. Out of thirteen engagements he
+  won eleven and lost two. He died in 1781, aged thirty-three years. His
+  best son was Conductor (1767) out of a mare by Snap; Conductor was the
+  sire of Trumpator (1782), whose two sons, Sorcerer (1790) and Paynator
+  (1791), transmit the blood of the Godolphin down to modern times.
+  Sorcerer was the sire of Soothsayer (1808), Comus (1809), and
+  Smolensko (1810). Comus was the sire of Humphrey Clinker (1822), whose
+  son was Melbourne (1834), sire of West Australian (1850) and of many
+  valuable mares, including Canezou (1845) and Blink Bonny (1854), dam
+  of Blair Athol. Paynator was the sire of Dr Syntax (1811), who had a
+  celebrated daughter called Beeswing (1833), dam of Newminster by
+  Touchstone.
+
+  The gems of the three lines may be briefly enumerated thus: (1) of the
+  Darley Arab's line--Snap, Shuttle, Waxy, and Orville--the stoutest
+  blood on the turf; (2) of the Byerly Turk's line--Buzzard and Sir
+  Peter--speedy blood, the latter the stouter of the two; (3) of the
+  Godolphin Barb's line--Sorcerer--often producing large-sized animals,
+  but showing a tendency to die out, and becoming rare.
+
+
+On the principle that as a rule like begets like, it has been the
+practice to select as sires the best public performers on the turf, and
+of two horses of like blood it is sound sense to choose the better as
+against the inferior public performer. But there can be little doubt
+that the mating of mares with horses has been often pursued on a
+haphazard plan, or on no system at all; to this the _Stud-Book_
+testifies too plainly. In the article HORSE-RACING mention is made of
+some of the great horses of recent years; but the following list of the
+principal sires of earlier days indicates also how their progeny found a
+place among the winners of the three great races, the Derby (D), Oaks
+(O), and St Leger (L):--
+
+  _Eclipse_: Young Eclipse (D), Saltram (D), Sergeant (D), Annette (O).
+
+  _Herod_: Bridget (O), Faith (O), Maid of the Oaks (O), Phenomenon (L).
+
+  _Matchem_: Teetotum (O), Hollandaise (L).
+
+  _Florizel_ (son of Herod): Diomed (D), Eager (D), Tartar (L),
+  Ninety-three (L).
+
+  _Highflyer_: Noble (D), Sir Peter Teazle (D), Skyscraper (D), Violante
+  (O), Omphale (L), Cowslip (L), Spadille (L), Young Flora (L).
+
+  _Pot-8-os_: Waxy (D), Champion (D, L), Tyrant (D), Nightshade (O).
+
+  _Sir Peter_ (D): Sir Harry (D), Archduke (D), Ditto (D), Paris (D),
+  Hermione (O), Parasite (O), Ambrosio (L), Fyldener (L), Paulina (L),
+  Petronius (L).
+
+  _Waxy_ (D): Pope (D), Whalebone (D), Blucher (D), Whisker (D), Music
+  (O), Minuet (O), Corinne (O).
+
+  _Whalebone_ (D): Moses (D), Lapdog (D), Spaniel (D), Caroline (O).
+
+  _Woful_: Augusta (O), Zinc (O), Theodore (L).
+
+  _Whisker_ (D): Memnon (L), The Colonel (L).
+
+  _Phantom_: Cedric (D), Middleton (D), Cobweb (O).
+
+  _Orville_ (L): Octavius (D), Emilius (D), Ebor (L).
+
+  _Tramp_: St Giles (D), Dangerous (D), Barefoot (L).
+
+  _Emilius_ (D): Priam (D), Plenipotentiary (D), Oxygen (O), Mango (L).
+
+  _Priam_ (D): Miss Seltz (O), Industry (O), Crucifix (O).
+
+  _Sir Hercules_: Coronation (D), Faugh-a-Ballagh (L), Birdcatcher (L).
+
+  _Touchstone_ (L): Cotherstone (D), Orlando (D), Surplice (D, L),
+  Mendicant (O), Blue Bonnet (L), Newminster (L).
+
+  _Birdcatcher_ (L): Daniel O'Rourke (D), Songstress (O), Knight of St
+  George (L), Warlock (L), The Baron (L).
+
+  _The Baron_ (L): Stockwell (L).
+
+  _Melbourne_: West Australian (D, L), Blink Bonny (D, O), Sir Tatton
+  Sykes (L).
+
+  _Newminster_ (L): Musjid (D), Hermit (D), Lord Clifden (L).
+
+  _Sweetmeat_: Macaroni (D), Mincemeat (O), Mincepie (O).
+
+  _Stockwell_ (L): Blair Athol (D, L), Lord Lyon (D, L), Doncaster (D),
+  Regalia (O), St Albans (L), Caller Ou (L), The Marquis (L),
+  Achievement (L).
+
+  _King Tom_: Kingcraft (D), Tormentor (O), Hippia (O), Hannah (O, L).
+
+  _Rataplan_ (son of the Baron): Kettledrum (D).
+
+  _Monarque_: Gladiateur (D, L).
+
+  _Parmesan_ (son of Sweetmeat): Favonius (D), Cremorne (D).
+
+  _Buccaneer_: Kisber (D), Formosa (O, L), Brigantine (O).
+
+  _Lord Clifden_ (L): Jannette (O, L), Hawthornden (L), Wenlock (L),
+  Petrarch (L).
+
+  _Adventurer_: Pretender (D), Apology (O, L), Wheel of Fortune (O).
+
+  _Blair Athol_ (D, L): Silvio (D, L), Craig Millar (L).
+
+In regard to mares it has very frequently turned out that animals which
+were brilliant public performers have been far less successful as dams
+than others which were comparatively valueless as runners. Beeswing, a
+brilliant public performer, gave birth to a good horse in Newminster;
+the same may be said of Alice Hawthorn, dam of Thormanby, of Canezou,
+dam of Fazzoletto, of Crucifix, dam of Surplice, and of Blink Bonny, dam
+of Blair Athol; but many of the greatest winners have dropped nothing
+worth training. On the other hand, there are mares of little or no value
+as racers who have become the mothers of some of the most celebrated
+horses on the turf; among them we may cite Queen Mary, Pocahontas and
+Paradigm. Queen Mary, who was by Gladiator out of a daughter of
+Plenipotentiary and Myrrha by Whalebone, when mated with Melbourne
+produced Blink Bonny (winner of the Derby and Oaks); when mated with
+Mango and Lanercost she produced Haricot, dam of Caller Ou (winner of
+the St Leger). Pocahontas, perhaps the most remarkable mare in the
+_Stud-Book_, never won a race on the turf, but threw Stockwell and
+Rataplan to the Baron, son of Birdcatcher, King Tom to Harkaway, Knight
+of St Patrick to Knight of St George, and Knight of Kars to Nutwith--all
+these horses being 16 hands high and upwards, while Pocahontas was a
+long low mare of about 15 hands or a trifle more. She also gave birth to
+Ayacanora by Birdcatcher, and to Araucaria by Ambrose, both very
+valuable brood mares, Araucaria being the dam of Chamant by Mortemer,
+and of Rayon d'Or by Flageolet, son of Plutus by Touchstone. Paradigm
+again produced, among several winners of more or less celebrity, Lord
+Lyon (winner of the Two Thousand Guineas, Derby and St Leger) and
+Achievement (winner of the St Leger), both being by Stockwell. Another
+famous mare was Manganese (1853) by Birdcatcher from Moonbeam by Tomboy
+from Lunatic by the Prime Minister from Maniac by Shuttle. Manganese
+when mated with Rataplan threw Mandragora, dam of Apology, winner of the
+Oaks and St Leger, whose sire was Adventurer, son of Newminster. She
+also threw Mineral, who, when mated with Lord Clifden, produced Wenlock,
+winner of the St Leger, and after being sold to go to Hungary, was there
+mated with Buccaneer, the produce being Kisber, winner of the Derby.
+
+We append the pedigree of Blair Athol, winner of the Derby and St Leger
+in 1864, who, when subsequently sold by auction, fetched the then
+unprecedented sum of 12,000 guineas, as it contains, not only Stockwell
+(the emperor of stallions, as he has been termed), but Blink Bonny and
+Eleanor--in which latter animal are combined the blood of Eclipse,
+Herod, Matchem and Snap,--the mares that won the Derby in 1801 and 1857
+respectively, as well as those queens of the stud, Eleanor's
+great-granddaughter Pocahontas and Blink Bonny's dam Queen Mary. Both
+Eleanor and Blink Bonny won the Oaks as well as the Derby.
+
+                                                                       /Whalebone* (1807)   /Waxy* (1790)
+                                                         /Sir Hercules<                     \Penelope (1798)
+                                                         |  (1826)     \Peri (1823)         /Wanderer (1790)
+                                           /Birdcatcher <                                   \Thalestris (1809)
+                                           |  [++]       |             /Bob Booty (1804)    /Chanticleer (1787)
+                                           |  (1833)     |Guiccioli   <                     \Ierne (1790)
+                                           |             \  (1823)     \Flight (1809)       /Escape (1802)
+                             /The Baron[++]<                                                \Young Heroine
+                             |  (1842)     |                           /Whisker* (1812)     /Waxy* (1790)
+                             |             |             /Economist   <                     \Penelope (1798)
+                             |             |             |   (1825)    \Floranthe (1818)    /Octavian (1807)
+                             |             |Echidna     <                                   \Caprice (1797)
+                             |             \  (1838)     |             /Blacklock (1814)    /Whitelock (1803)
+                             |                           |Miss Pratt  <                     \Coriander mare (1799)
+                             |                           \  (1825)     \Gadabout (1812)     /Orville[++] (1709)
+              /Stockwell[++]<                                                               \Minstrel (1803)
+              |(1849)        |                                         /Selim (1802)        /Buzzard (1787)
+              |              |                           /Sultan      <                     \Alexander mare (1790)
+              |              |                           |  (1816)     \Bacchante (1809)    /Williamson's Ditto (1800)
+              |              |             /Glencoe     <                                   \Sister to Calomel (1791)
+              |              |             | (1831)      |             /Tramp (1810)        /Dick Andrews (1797)
+              |              |             |             |Trampoline  <                     \Gohanna mare
+              |              |             |             \  (1825)     \Web (1808)          /Waxy* (1790)
+              |              |Pocahontas  <                                                 \Penelope (1798)
+              |              \  (1837)     |                           /Orville[++] (1799)  /Beningbrough (1790)
+              |                            |             /Muley       <                     \Evelina (1791)
+              |                            |             |  (1810)     \Eleanor*[++] (1798) /Whiskey (1789)
+              |                            |Marpessa    <                                   \Young Giantess (1790)
+              |                            \  (1830)     |             /Marmion (1806)      /Whiskey (1789)
+              |                                          |Clare       <                     \Young Noisette (1789)
+              |                                          \  (1824)     \Harpalice (1814)    /Gohanna (1790)
+  Blair       |                                                                             \Amazon (1799)
+  Athol*[++] <                                                         /Sorcerer (1796)     /Trumpator (1782)
+  (1861)      |                                          /Comus       <                     \Young Giantess (1790)
+              |                                          |  (1809)     \Houghton Lass (1801)/Sir Peter* (1784)
+              |                            /Humphrey    <                                   \Alexina (1788)
+              |                            | Clinker     |             /Clinker (1805)      /Sir Peter* (1784)
+              |                            |  (1822)     |Clinkerina  <                     \Hyale (1797)
+              |                            |             \  (1812)     \Pewet (1786)        /Tandem (1773)
+              |               /Melbourne  <                                                 \Termagant
+              |               |  (1834)    |                           /Don Quixote (1784)  /Eclipse (1764)
+              |               |            |             /Cervantes   <                     \Grecian Princess (1770)
+              |               |            |             |  (1806)     \Evelina (1791)      /Highflyer (1774)
+              |               |            |Daughter of <                                   \Termagant
+              |               |            \  (1825)     |             /Golumpus (1802)     /Gohanna (1790)
+              |               |                          |Daughter of <                     \Catherine (1795)
+              |               |                          \  (1818)     \Daughter of (1810)  /Paynator (1791)
+              |Blink Bonny*[+]<                                                             \Sister to Zodiac
+              \  (1854)       |                                        /Walton (1799)       /Sir Peter* (1784)
+                              |                          /Partisan    <                     \Arethusa (1792)
+                              |                          |  (1811)     \Parasol (1800)      /Pot-8-os (1773)
+                              |            /Gladiator   <                                   \Prunella (1788)
+                              |            |  (1833)     |             /Moses* (1819)       /Whalebone* by Waxy* (1807)
+                              |            |             |Pauline     <                     \Gohanna mare
+                              |            |             \  (1826)     \Quadrille (1815)    /Selim (1802)
+                              |Queen Mary <                                                 \Canary Bird (1806)
+                              \(1843)      |                           /Emilius* (1820)     /Orville[++] (1799)
+                                           |             /Plenipote-  <                     \Emily (1810)
+                                           |             | ntiary*     \Harriett (1819)     /Pericles (1809)
+                                           |Daughter of <   (1831)                          \Selim mare (1812)
+                                           \  (1840)     |             /Whalebone* (1807)   /Waxy* (1790)
+                                                         |Myrrha      <                     \Penelope (1798)
+                                                         \  (1830)     \Gift (1818)         /Young Gohanna (1810)
+                                                                                            \Sister to Grazier by Sir
+                                                                                               Peter* (1808)
+
+   * Winner of the Derby.
+   + Winner of the Oaks.
+  ++ Winner of the St Leger.
+
+The shape of a race-horse is of considerable importance, although it is
+said with some degree of truth that they win in all shapes. There are
+the neat and elegant animals, like the descendants of Saunterer and
+Sweetmeat; the large-framed, plain-looking, and heavy-headed Melbournes,
+often with lop ears; the descendants of Birdcatcher, full of quality,
+and of more than average stature, though sometimes disfigured with curby
+hocks; and the medium-sized but withal speedy descendants of Touchstone,
+though in some cases characterized by somewhat loaded shoulders. In
+height it will be found that the most successful racers average from 15
+to 16½ hands, the former being considered somewhat small, while the
+latter is unquestionably very large; the mean may be taken as between
+15½ and 16 hands (the hand = 4 in.). The head should be light and lean,
+and well set on; the ears small and pricked, but not too short; the eyes
+full; the forehead broad and flat; the nostrils large and dilating; the
+muzzle fine; the neck moderate in length, wide, muscular, and yet light;
+the throat clean; the windpipe spacious and loosely attached to the
+neck; the crest thin, not coarse and arched. The withers may be
+moderately high and thin; the chest well developed, but not too wide or
+deep; the shoulder should lie well on the chest, and be oblique and well
+covered with muscle, so as to reduce concussion in galloping; the upper
+and lower arms should be long and muscular; the knees broad and strong;
+legs short, flat and broad; fetlock joints large; pasterns strong and of
+moderate length; the feet should be moderately large, with the heels
+open and frogs sound--with no signs of contraction. The body or barrel
+should be moderately deep, long and straight, the length being really in
+the shoulders and in the quarters; the back should be strong and
+muscular, with the shoulders and loins running well in at each end; the
+loins themselves should have great breadth and substance, this being a
+vital necessity for weight-carrying and propelling power uphill. The
+hips should be long and wide, with the stifle and thigh strong, long and
+proportionately developed, and the hind quarters well let down. The hock
+should have plenty of bone, and be strongly affixed to the leg, and show
+no signs of curb; the bones below the hock should be flat, and free from
+adhesions; the ligaments and tendons well developed, and standing out
+from the bone; the joints well formed and wide, yet without undue
+enlargement; the pasterns and feet similar to those of the forehand. The
+tail should be high set on, the croup being continued in a straight line
+to the tail, and not falling away and drooping to a low-set tail.
+Fine action is the best criterion of everything fitting properly, and
+all a horse's points ought to harmonize or be in proportion to one
+another, no one point being more prominent than another, such as good
+shoulders, fine loins or excellent quarters. If the observer is struck
+with the remarkable prominence of any one feature, it is probable that
+the remaining parts are deficient. A well-made horse wants dissecting in
+detail, and then if a good judge can discover no fault with any part,
+but finds each of good proportions, and the whole to harmonize without
+defect, deformity or deficiency, he has before him a well-shaped horse;
+and of two equally well-made and equitably proportioned horses the best
+bred one will be the best. As regards hue, the favourite colour of the
+ancients, according to Xenophon, was bay, and for a long time it was the
+fashionable colour in England; but for some time chestnut thoroughbreds
+have been the most conspicuous figure on English race-courses, so far as
+the more important events are concerned. Eclipse was a chestnut;
+Castrel, Selim and Rubens were chestnuts; so also were Glencoe and
+Pantaloon, of whom the latter had black spots on his hind quarters like
+Eclipse; and also Stockwell and Doncaster. Birdcatcher was a chestnut,
+so also were Stockwell and his brother Rataplan, Manganese, Mandragora,
+Thormanby, Kettledrum, St Albans, Blair Athol, Regalia, Formosa, Hermit,
+Marie Stuart, Doncaster, George Frederick, Apology, Craig Millar, Prince
+Charlie, Rayon d'Or and Bend Or. The dark browns or black browns, such
+as the Sweetmeat tribe, are not so common as the bays, and black or grey
+horses are almost as unusual as roans. The skin and hair of the
+throughbred are finer, and the veins which underlie the skin are larger
+and more prominent than in other horses. The mane and tail should be
+silky and devoid of curl, which is a sign of impurity.
+
+Whether the race-horse of to-day is as good as the stock to which he
+traces back has often been disputed, chiefly no doubt because he is
+brought to more early maturity, commencing to win races at two years
+instead of at five years of age, as in the days of Childers and Eclipse;
+but the highest authorities, and none more emphatically than the late
+Admiral Rous, have insisted that he can not only stay quite as long as
+his ancestors, but also go a good deal faster. In size and shape the
+modern race-horse is unquestionably superior, being on an average fully
+a hand higher than the Eastern horses from which he is descended; and in
+elegance of shape and beauty of outline he has certainly never been
+surpassed. That experiments, founded on the study of his nature and
+properties, which have from time to time been made to improve the breed,
+and bring the different varieties to the perfection in which we now find
+them, have succeeded, is best confirmed by the high estimation in which
+the horses of Great Britain are held in all parts of the civilized
+world; and it is not too much to assert that, although the cold, humid
+and variable nature of their climate is by no means favourable to the
+production of these animals in their very best form, Englishmen have by
+great care, and by sedulous attention to breeding, high feeding and good
+grooming, with consequent development of muscle, brought them to the
+highest state of perfection of which their nature is capable.
+     (E. D. B.)
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  SHIRE STALLION.
+  CLYDESDALE STALLION.
+  SUFFOLK STALLION.
+  HACKNEY STALLION.
+
+  BREEDS OF HORSES. (_From Photographs by F. Babbage._) The comparative
+  sizes of the horses are shown.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  THOROUGHBRED STALLION.
+  SHETLAND PONY STALLION.
+  COACHING STALLION.
+  POLO PONY STALLION.
+
+  BREEDS OF HORSES. (_From Photographs by F. Babbage._) The comparative
+  sizes of the horses are shown.]
+
+
+BREEDS OF HORSES
+
+The British breeds of _light_ horses include the Thoroughbred, the
+Yorkshire Coach-horse, the Cleveland Bay, the Hackney and the Pony; of
+_heavy_ horses, the Shire, the Clydesdale and the Suffolk.
+
+The _Thoroughbred_ is probably the oldest of the breeds, and it is known
+as the "blood-horse" on account of the length of time through which its
+purity of descent can be traced. The frame is light, slender and
+graceful. The points of chief importance are a fine, clean, lean head,
+set on free from collar heaviness; a long and strongly muscular neck,
+shoulders oblique and covered with muscle; high, long withers, chest of
+good depth and narrow but not extremely so; body round in type; back rib
+well down; depth at withers a little under half the height; length equal
+to the height at withers and croup; loins level and muscular; croup
+long, rather level; tail set on high and carried gracefully; the hind
+quarters long, strongly developed, and full of muscle and driving power;
+the limbs clean-cut and sinewy, possessing abundance of good bone,
+especially desired in the cannons, which are short, broad and flat;
+comparatively little space between the fore legs; pastern joints smooth
+and true; pasterns strong, clean and springy, sloping when at rest at an
+angle of 45°; feet medium size, wide and high at the heels, concave
+below and set on straight. The action in trotting is generally low, but
+the bending of the knee and the flexing of the hock is smooth, free and
+true. The thoroughbred is apt to be nervous and excitable, and impatient
+of common work, but its speed, resolution and endurance, as tested on
+the race-course, are beyond praise.
+
+Many of the best hunters in the United Kingdom are thoroughbreds, but of
+the substantial weight-carrying type. The Hunters Improvement Society,
+established in 1885, did not restrict entries to the _Hunters'
+Stud-Book_ to entirely clean-bred animals, but admitted those with
+breeding enough to pass strict inspection. This society acts in consort
+with two other powerful organizations (the Royal Commission on
+Horse-breeding, which began its work in 1888, and the Brood Mare
+Society, established in 1903), with the desirable object of improving
+the standard of light horse breeding. The initial efforts began by
+securing the services of thoroughbred stallions for specified districts,
+by offering a limited number of "Queen's Premiums," of £200 each, to
+selected animals of four years old and upwards. Since the formation of
+the Brood Mare Society mares have come within the sphere of influence of
+the three bodies, and well-conceived inducements are offered to breeders
+to retain their young mares at home. The efforts have met with
+gratifying success, and they were much needed, for while in 1904 the
+Dutch government took away 350 of the best young Irish mares, Great
+Britain was paying the foreigner over £2,000,000 a year for horses which
+the old system of management did not supply at home. The Royal Dublin
+Society also keeps a _Register of Thoroughbred Stallions_ under the
+horse-breeding scheme of 1892, which, like the British efforts, is now
+bearing fruit.
+
+The _Yorkshire Coach-horse_ is extensively bred in the North and East
+Ridings of Yorkshire, and the thoroughbred has taken a share in its
+development. The colour is usually bay, with black or brown points. A
+fine head, sloping shoulders, strong loins, lengthy quarters,
+high-stepping action, flat bone and sound feet are characteristic. The
+height varies from 16 hands to 16 hands 2 in.
+
+The _Cleveland Bay_ is an ancestor of the Yorkshire Coach-horse and is
+bred in parts of Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland. He is adapted
+alike for the plough, for heavy draught, and for slow saddle work. Some
+specimens make imposing-looking carriage horses, but they have low
+action and are lacking in quality. The colour is light or dark bay, with
+black legs. Though rather coarse-headed, the Cleveland Bay has a
+well-set shoulder and neck, a deep chest and round barrel. The height is
+from 16 to 17 hands.
+
+The _Hackney_ has come prominently to the front in recent years. The
+term _Nag_, applied to the active riding or trotting horse, is derived
+from the A.S. _hnegan_, to neigh. The Normans brought with them their
+own word _haquenée_, or _hacquenée_, a French derivative from the Latin
+_equus_, a horse, whence the name hackney. Both nag and hackney continue
+to be used as synonymous terms. Frequent mention is made of hackneys and
+trotters in old farm accounts of the 14th century. The first noteworthy
+trotting hackney stallion, of the modern type, was a horse foaled about
+1755, and known as the Schales, Shields or Shales horse, and most of the
+recognized hackneys of to-day trace back to him. The breeding of
+hackneys is extensively pursued in the counties of Norfolk, Cambridge,
+Huntingdon, Lincoln and York, and in the showyard competitions a keen
+but friendly rivalry is usually to be noticed between the
+hackney-breeding farmers of Norfolk and Yorkshire. The high hackney
+action is uncomfortable in a riding horse. Excellent results have
+sometimes followed the use of hackney sires upon half-bred mares, i.e.
+by thoroughbred stallions and trotting mares, but it is not always so.
+As regards the movement, or "action," of the hackney, he should go light
+in hand, and the knee should be well elevated and advanced during the
+trot, and, before the foot is put down, the leg should be well extended.
+The hackney should also possess good hock action, as distinguished from
+mere fetlock action, the propelling power depending upon the efficiency
+of the former. The hackney type of the day is "a powerfully built,
+short-legged, big horse, with an intelligent head, neat neck, strong,
+level back, powerful loins, and as perfect shoulders as can be obtained,
+good feet, flat-boned legs, and a height of from 15 hands 2 in. to 15
+hands 3½ in." Carriage-horses hackney-bred have been produced over 17
+hands high.
+
+The _Pony_ differs essentially from the hackney in height, the former
+not exceeding 14 hands. There is one exception, which is made clear in
+the following extract from Sir Walter Gilbey's _Ponies Past and Present_
+(1900):--
+
+  Before the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1883 the
+  dividing line between the horse and the pony in England was vague and
+  undefined. It was then found necessary to distinguish clearly between
+  horses and ponies, and, accordingly, all animals measuring 14 hands or
+  under were designated "ponies," and registered in a separate part of
+  the (Hackney) Stud-Book. This record of height, with other particulars
+  as to breeding, &c., serves to direct breeders in their choice of
+  sires and dams. The standard of height established by the Hackney
+  Horse Society was accepted and officially recognized by the Royal
+  Agricultural Society in 1889, when the prize-list for the Windsor show
+  contained pony classes for animals not exceeding 14 hands. The altered
+  polo-rule, which fixes the limit of height at 14 hands 2 in., may be
+  productive of some little confusion; but for all other purposes 14
+  hands is the recognized _maximum_ height of a pony. Prior to 1883
+  small horses were called indifferently Galloways, hobbies, cobs or
+  ponies, irrespective of their height.
+
+Native ponies include those variously known as Welsh, New Forest,
+Exmoor, Dartmoor, Cumberland and Westmorland, Fell, Highland, Highland
+Garron, Celtic, Shetland and Connemara. Ponies range in height from 14
+hands down to 8 hands, Shetland ponies eligible for the Stud-Book not
+exceeding the latter. As in the case of the hackney, so with the pony,
+thoroughbred blood has been used, and with good results, except in the
+case of those animals which have to remain to breed in their native
+haunts on the hills and moorlands. There the only possible way of
+improvement is by selecting the best native specimens, especially the
+sires, to breed from. The thin-skinned progeny of thoroughbred or Arab
+stock is too delicate to live unless when hand-fed--and hand-feeding is
+not according to custom. Excellent polo ponies are bred as first or
+second crosses by thoroughbred stallions on the mares of nearly all the
+varieties of ponies named. The defective formation of the pony, the
+perpendicular shoulder and the drooping hind quarters, are modified; but
+neither the latter, nor bent hocks, which place the hind legs under the
+body as in the zebra, are objected to, as the conformation is favourable
+to rapid turning. One object of the pony breeder, while maintaining
+hardiness of constitution, is to control size--to compress the most
+valuable qualities into small compass. He endeavours to breed an animal
+possessing a small head, good shoulders, true action and perfect
+manners. A combination of the best points of the hunter with the style
+and finish of the hackney produces a class of weight-carrying pony which
+is always saleable.
+
+The _Shire_ horse owes its happily-chosen name to Arthur Young's
+remarks, in the description of his agricultural tours during the closing
+years of the 18th century, concerning the large Old English Black Horse,
+"the produce principally of the _Shire_ counties in the heart of
+England." Long previous to this, however, the word Shire, in connexion
+with horses, was used in the statutes of Henry VIII. Under the various
+names of the War Horse, the Great Horse, the Old English Black Horse and
+the Shire Horse, the breed has for centuries been cultivated in the rich
+fen-lands of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and in many counties to
+the west. The Shire is the largest of draught horses, the stallion
+commonly attaining a height of 17 to 17.3 hands. Though the black colour
+is still frequently met with, bay and brown are more usually seen. With
+their immense size and weight--1800 lb. to 2200 lb.--the Shires combine
+great strength, and they are withal docile and intelligent. They stand
+on short stout legs, with a plentiful covering--sometimes too
+abundant--of long hair extending chiefly down the back but also round
+the front of the limbs from knees and hocks, and when in full feather
+obscuring nearly the whole of the hoofs. The head is a good size, and
+broad between the eyes; the neck fairly long, with the crest well arched
+on to the shoulders, which are deep and strong, and moderately oblique.
+The chest is wide, full and deep, the back short and straight, the ribs
+are round and deep, the hind quarters long, level and well let down into
+the muscular thighs. The cannon-bones should be flat, heavy and clean,
+and the feet wide, tough, and prominent at the heels. A good type of
+Shire horse combines symmetrical outlines and bold, free action. There
+is a good and remunerative demand for Shire geldings for use as draught
+horses in towns.
+
+The _Clydesdale_, the Scottish breed named from the valley of the Clyde,
+is not quite so large as the Shire, the average height of stallions
+being about 16 hands 2 in. The popular colour is bay, particularly if of
+a dark shade, or dappled. Black is not uncommon, but grey is not
+encouraged. White markings on one or more of the legs, with a white star
+or stripe on the face, are characteristic. The long hair on the legs is
+not so abundant as in the Shires, and it is finer in texture. It is
+regarded as an indication of good bone. The bones of the legs should be
+short, flat, clean and hard; the feet large, with hoofs deep and concave
+below. With its symmetry, activity, strength and endurance the
+Clydesdale is easily broken to harness, and makes an excellent draught
+horse. This breed is growing rapidly in favour in Canada, but in the
+United States the _Percheron_, with its round bone and short pasterns,
+holds the field. A blend of the Shire and Clydesdale strains of the
+British rough-legged draught horse (virtually sections of the same
+breed) is a better animal than either of the parents. It is an
+improvement upon the Shire due to the quality contributed by the
+Clydesdale, and it surpasses the Clydesdale in strength and substance,
+as a result of the Shire connexion. To secure success the two Stud-Books
+will require to be opened to animals eligible to be entered in either
+record. The blend is being established in U.S.A. as a National breed.
+
+The _Suffolk_ is a horse quite distinct from the Shire and the
+Clydesdale. Its body looks too heavy for its limbs, which are free from
+the "feather" so much admired in the two other heavy breeds; it
+possesses a characteristic chestnut colour. How long the Suffolks have
+been associated with the county after which they are named is unknown,
+but they are mentioned in 1586 in Camden's _Britannia_. With an average
+height of about 16 hands they often have a weight of as much as 2000
+lb., and this may explain the appearance which has given rise to the
+name of the Suffolk Punch, by which the breed is known. The Suffolk is a
+resolute and unwearying worker, and is richly endowed with many of the
+best qualities of a horse. The _Suffolk Stud-Book and History of the
+Breed_, published in 1880, is the most exhaustive record of its kind in
+England.     (W. Fr.; R. W.)
+
+
+MANAGEMENT
+
+_Breeding._--Animals to breed from should be of good blood, sound and
+compactly built, with good pluck and free from nervous excitability and
+vicious tendency. A mare used to be put to the horse at three years old,
+but latterly two has become the common age. Young sires begin to serve
+in moderation at two. May is considered the best month for a mare to
+foal, as there is abundance of natural food and the weather is mild
+enough for the mare to lie out. Show specimens generally profit by being
+born earlier. The period of gestation in the mare is about eleven
+months. No nursing mare should go to work, if this can possibly be
+avoided. A brood mare requires plenty of exercise at a slow pace and may
+work, except between shafts or on a road, till the day of foaling.
+
+To avoid colic an animal has to be gradually prepared by giving small
+quantities of green food for a few days before going to grass. Shelter
+against severe storms is needed. Succulent food encourages the flow of
+milk, and the success of the foal greatly depends on its milk supply.
+Mares most readily conceive when served at the "foal heat" eleven days
+after foaling. A mature stallion can serve from eighty to one hundred
+mares per annum.
+
+Foals are weaned when five or six months old, often in October, and
+require to be housed to save the foal-flesh, and liberally but not
+overfed; but from the time they are a month old they require to be
+"gentled" by handling and kindly treatment, and the elementary training
+of leading from time to time by a halter adjusted permanently to the
+head. When they are hand-reared on cow's milk foals require firm
+treatment and must have no fooling to teach them tricks. Young horses
+that are too highly fed are apt to become weak-limbed and top-heavy.
+
+_Breaking._--Systematic breaking begins at about the age of two years,
+and the method of subduing a colt by "galvayning" is as good as any. It
+is a more humane system than "rareying," which overcame by exhaustion
+under circumstances which were not fruitful of permanent results.
+Galvayning is accomplished by bending the horse's neck round at an angle
+of thirty-five to forty degrees and tieing the halter to the tail, so
+that when he attempts to walk forward he holds himself and turns "round
+and round, almost upon his own ground." The more strenuous his
+resistance the sooner he yields to the inevitable force applied by
+himself. A wooden pole, the "third hand," is then gently applied to all
+parts of the body until kicking or any form of resistance ceases.
+"Bitting" or "mouthing," or the familiarizing of an animal to the bit in
+his mouth, and to answer to the rein without bending his neck, is still
+a necessity with the galvayning method of breaking. Experience can only
+be gained by a horse continuing during a considerable time to practise
+what he has been taught.
+
+Three main characteristics of a successful horse-breaker are firmness,
+good temper and incessant vigilance. Carelessness in trusting too much
+to a young colt that begins its training by being docile is a fruitful
+source of untrustworthy habits which need never have developed. Driving
+with long reins in the field should precede the fastening of ropes to
+the collar, as it accustoms the animal to the pressure on the shoulders
+of the draught, later to be experienced in the yoke. If a young horse be
+well handled and accustomed to the dummy jockey, mounting it is not
+attended with much risk of resistance, although this should invariably
+be anticipated. An animal ought to be in good condition when being
+broken in, else it is liable to break out in unpleasant ways when it
+becomes high-spirited as a result of improved condition. It should be
+well but not overfed, and while young not overworked, as an overtired
+animal is liable to refuse to pull, and thus contract a bad habit. Most
+bad habits and stable tricks are the result of defective management and
+avoidable accidents.
+
+_Feeding._--Horses have small stomachs relatively to ruminating animals,
+and require small quantities of food frequently. While grazing they feed
+almost continually, preferring short pasture. No stable food for quick
+work surpasses a superior sample of fine-hulled whole oats like
+"Garton's Abundance" (120 lb. per week), and Timothy hay harvested in
+dry weather. The unbruised oats develop a spirit and courage in either a
+saddle or harness horse that no other food can. A double handful of
+clean chaff, or of bran mixed with the oats in the manger, prevents a
+greedy horse from swallowing a considerable proportion whole. Unchewed
+oats pass out in the faeces uninjured, so that they are capable of
+germination, and are of less than no value to a horse. Horses doing slow
+or other than "upper ten" work may have oats crushed, not ground, and a
+variety of additions made to the oats which are usually the basis of the
+feed--for example, a few old crushed beans, a little linseed meal,
+ground linseed cake or about a wine-glassful of unboiled linseed oil.
+Indian pulses are to be avoided on account of the danger of Lathyrus
+poisoning. A seasoning of ground fenugreek or spice is sometimes given
+to shy feeders to encourage them to eat. A little sugar or molascuit
+added to the food will sometimes serve the same purpose. Newly crushed
+barley or cracked maize, even in considerable proportion to the rest of
+the food, gives good results with draught, coach, 'bus and light
+harness horses generally. Boiled food of any kind is unnatural to a
+horse, and is risky to give, being liable to produce colic, especially
+if the animal bolts its food when hungry, although it generally produces
+a glossy coat. Too much linseed, often used in preparing horses for
+market, gives a similar appearance, but is liable to induce fatty
+degeneration of the liver; given in moderation it regulates the bowels
+and stimulates the more perfect digestion of other foods. In England
+red-clover hay, or, better still, crimson-clover or lucerne hay, is
+liberally fed to farm horses with about 10 lb. per day of oats, while
+they usually run in open yards with shelter sheds. Bean straw is
+sometimes given as part of the roughage in Scotland, but not in England.
+In England hunters and carriage horses are generally fed on natural hay,
+in Scotland on Timothy, largely imported from Canada, or ryegrass hay
+that has not been grown with nitrate of soda. Heavily nitrated hay is
+reputed to produce excessive urination and irritation of the bladder.
+Pease straw, if not sandy, and good bright oat straw are good fodder for
+horses; but with barley and wheat straw, in the case of a horse, more
+energy is consumed during its passage through the alimentary canal than
+the digested straw yields. Three or four Swedish turnips or an
+equivalent of carrots is an excellent cooling food for a horse at hard
+work. The greater number of horses in the country should have green
+forage given them during summer, when the work they do will permit of
+it, as it is their natural food, and they thrive better on it than on
+any dry food.
+
+When a horse has been overstrained by work the best remedy is a long
+rest at pasture, and, if it be lame or weak in the limbs, the winter
+season is most conducive to recovery. The horse becomes low in condition
+and moves about quietly, and the frost tends to brace up the limbs. In
+autumn all horses that have been grazing should be dosed with some
+vermifuge to destroy the worms that are invariably present, and thus
+prevent colic or an unthrifty or anaemic state. On a long journey a
+horse should have occasional short drinks, and near the end a long drink
+with a slower rate of progression with the object of cooling off. In the
+stable a horse should always be provided with rock salt, and water to
+drink at will by means of some such stall fixture as the Mundt hygienic
+water-supply fittings. Overhead hay-racks are unnatural and are liable
+to drop seeds into a horse's eye.
+
+  LITERATURE.--For riding, &c. see RIDING, DRIVING, HORSEMANSHIP, and
+  HORSE-RACING. For diseases of the horse see VETERINARY SCIENCE. The
+  literature about the horse and its history and uses is voluminous, and
+  is collected up to 1887 in Huth's _Works on Horses, &c._, a
+  bibliographical record of hippology. See also, besides the works
+  already mentioned, various books by Capt. M. Horace Hayes, _Points of
+  the Horse_ (1893, 2nd ed., 1897); _Stable Management and Exercise_
+  (1900); _Illustrated Horse-breaking_ (1889, 2nd ed., 1896); and _The
+  Horsewoman_ (1893) (with Mrs Hayes); E. L. Anderson, _Modern
+  Horsemanship_ (1884); W. Day, _The Horse: How to Breed and Rear Him_
+  (1888); W. Ridgeway, _Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse_
+  (1905); Major-General Tweedie, _The Arab Horse_ (1894); J. Wortley
+  Axe, _The Horse; its Treatment in Health and Disease_ (1906); R.
+  Wallace, _Farm Live Stock of Great Britain_ (1885, 4th ed., 1907);
+  Sydney Galvayne, _The Twentieth Century Book of the Horse_ (1905); C.
+  Bruce Low, _Breeding Racehorses by the Figure System_ (1895); J. H.
+  Wallace, _The Horse of America in his Derivation, &c._ (1897);
+  Weatherly's _Celebrated Racehorses_ (1887); Ruff's _Guide to the
+  Turf_; T. A. Cook, _History of the English Turf_ (1903); _The General
+  Stud-Book_ (issued quinquennially); and the _Stud-Books_ of the
+  various breed societies.     (R. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Compare Sans, _açva_, Zendish and Old Persian _açpa_, Lithuanian
+    _aszva_ (mare), Prussian _asvinan_ (mare's milk), O.H. Ger. _ehu_,
+    A.S. _eoh_, Icel. _iör_, Gothic _aihos_, _aihous_ (?), Old Irish
+    _ech_, Old Cambrian and Gaelic _ep_ (as in _Epona_, the horse
+    goddess), Lat. _equus_, Gr. [Greek: hippos] or [Greek: ikkos]. The
+    word seems, however, to have disappeared from the Slavonic languages.
+    The root is probably _ak_, with the idea of sharpness or swiftness
+    ([Greek: akros, ôkus], _acus_, _ocior_). See Pott, _Etym. Forsch_,
+    ii. 256, and Hehn, _Kulturpflanzen u. Hausthiere in ihrem Ueber gang
+    aus Asien nach Griechenland u. Italien sowie in das übrige Europa_
+    (3rd ed., 1877), p. 38. The last-named author, who points out the
+    absence of the horse from the Egyptian monuments prior to the
+    beginning of the 18th century B.C., and the fact that the earliest
+    references to this animal in Hebrew literature (Judges v. 22, 28; cf.
+    Josh, xi. 4) do not carry us any farther back, is of opinion that the
+    Semitic peoples as a whole were indebted for the horse to the lands
+    of Iran. He also shows that literature affords no trace of the horse
+    as indigenous to Arabia prior to about the beginning of the 5th
+    century A.D., although references abound in the pre-Islamitic poetry.
+    Horses were not numerous even in Mahomet's time (Sprenger, _Leb.
+    Moh._ iii. 139, 140). Compare Ignazio Guidi's paper "Della sede
+    primitiva dei popoli Semitici" in the _Transactions_ of the Accademia
+    dei Lincei (1878-1879), Professor W. Ridgeway, in his _Origin and
+    Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse_ (1905), reinvestigated the
+    historical mystery as to the Arab breed, and its connexion with the
+    English thoroughbred stock, but his conclusions have been hotly
+    controverted; archaeology and biology are in fact still in the dark
+    on the subject, but see the section on "Species" above. According to
+    Ridgeway, the original source of the finest equine blood is Africa,
+    still the home of the largest variety of wild Equidae; he concludes
+    that thence it passed into Europe at an early time, to be blended
+    with that of the indigenous Celtic species, and thence into western
+    Asia into the veins of an indigenous Mongolian species, still
+    represented by "Przewalski's horse"; not till a comparatively late
+    period did it reach Arabia, though the "Arab" now represents the
+    purest form of the Libyan blood. The controversy depends upon the
+    consideration of a wealth of detail, which should be studied in
+    Ridgeway's book; but zoological authorities are sceptical as to the
+    suggested species, _Equus caballus libycus_.
+
+  [2] Some fragments of legislation relating to the horse about this
+    period may be gleaned from _Ancient Laws and Institutes of England_
+    (fol., London, 1840), and _Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales_
+    (fol., London, 1841).
+
+
+
+
+HORSE LATITUDES, the belts of calms and variable breezes at the polar
+edge of the N.E. and S.E. trades. According to the _New English
+Dictionary_ two explanations have been given of the origin of the name:
+one that the calm kills horses on a sailing ship, the other that the
+name signifies the unruly and boisterous nature of these winds compared
+with the pleasant trades. The name is commonly applied to the permanent
+belt of high atmospheric pressure which encircles the globe in 30° to
+35° from the equator.
+
+
+
+
+HORSE-MACKEREL, the name applied to a genus of fishes (_Caranx_) found
+in abundance in almost all temperate and especially in tropical seas.
+The designation "cavalli," given to them by the early Portuguese
+navigators, and often met with in the accounts of the adventures of the
+buccaneers, is still in frequent use among the sailors of all nations.
+Some ninety different kinds are known--the majority being wholesome
+food, and some of the species attaining a length of 3 ft. and more. The
+fish to which the name horse-mackerel is applied in Great Britain is
+_Caranx trachurus_, distinguished by having the lateral line in its
+whole length armed with large but narrow bony plates. Horse-mackerel are
+found singly on the coast all the year round, but sometimes they
+congregate in shoals of many thousands. Although well-flavoured, they
+are much more frequently used for bait than for food. This species has a
+most extraordinary range, being found almost everywhere within the
+temperate and tropical zones of the northern and southern hemispheres.
+
+
+
+
+HORSEMANSHIP, the art of managing the horse from his back and
+controlling his paces and the direction and speed of his movement. The
+ordinary procedure is dealt with in the articles on RIDING and cognate
+subjects (see also HORSE: section _Management_). A special kind of skill
+is, however, needed in breaking, training, bitting and schooling horses
+for a game like polo, or for the evolutions of what is known as the
+_haute école_. It is with the latter, or "school" riding, that we deal
+here. The middle ages had seen chivalry developed into a social
+distinction, and horsemanship into a form of knightly prowess. The
+Renaissance introduced the cultivation of horsemanship as an art, with
+regular conditions and rules, instead of merely its skilful practice for
+utility and exercise. In Italy in the 16th century schools of
+horsemanship were established at Naples, Rome and other chief cities;
+thither flocked the nobility of France, Spain and Germany; and Henry
+VIII. of England and other monarchs of his time had Italians for their
+masters of the horse. The academy of Pignatelli at Naples was the most
+famous of the schools in the middle of the 16th century, but a score of
+other less renowned masters devoted themselves to teaching the riders
+and training the horses. Trappings of all sorts multiplied; the
+prescribed tricks, feats and postures involved considerable dexterity;
+they were fatiguing to both man and beast, and were really useless
+except for show. This elaborate art, enthusiastically followed among the
+Romance nations, was the parent of later developments of the _haute
+école_, and of the circus-performances of modern days. In England,
+however, the continental style did not find favour for long. The duke of
+Newcastle's _Méthode nouvelle de dresser les chevaux_ (1648) was the
+leading text-book of the day, and in 1761 the earl of Pembroke published
+his _Manual of Cavalry Horsemanship_. In France a simplification was
+introduced in the early part of the 18th century by La Guérinière
+(_École de cavalerie_) and others. The French military school thus
+became the model for Europe, though the English style remained in
+opposition, forming a sort of compromise with the ordinary method of
+riding across country. In more modern times France again came to the
+front in regard to the _haute école_, through the innovations of the
+vicomte d'Aure (1798-1863) and François Baucher (1796-1873). Baucher was
+a circus-rider who became the greatest master of his art, and who had an
+elaborate theory of the principles involved in training a horse. His
+system was carried on, with modifications, by masters and theorists like
+Captain Raabe, M. Barroil and M. Fillis. In more recent times the style
+of the _haute école_ has also been cultivated by various masters in the
+United States, such as H. L. de Bussigny at Boston.
+
+  See d'Aure, _Traité d'équitation_ (1847); Hundersdorf, _Équitation
+  allemande_ (Bruxelles, 1843); Baucher, _Passe-temps équestres_ (1840),
+  _Méthode d'équitation_ (1867); Raabe, _Méthode de haute école
+  d'équitation_ (1863); Barroil, _Art équestre_; Fillis, _Principes de
+  dressage_; Hayes, _Riding on the flat, &c._ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+HORSENS, a market town of Denmark, at the head of Horsens Fjord, on the
+east side of Jutland, 32 m. by rail S.W. of Aarhus, in the _amt_
+(county) of that name. Pop. (1901) 22,243. It is the junction of branch
+railways to Bryrup and to Törring inland, and to Juelsminde on the
+coast. The exports are chiefly bacon and butter; the imports, iron,
+yarn, coal and timber. The town is ancient; there is a disused convent
+church with tombs of the 17th century, and the Vor-Frelsers-Kirke has a
+carved pulpit of the same period. Horsens is the birthplace of the
+navigator Vitus Bering or Behring (1680), the Arctic explorer. To the
+north lies the picturesque lake district between Skanderborg and
+Silkeborg (see AARHUS).
+
+
+
+
+HORSE-POWER. The device, frequently seen in farmyards, by which the
+power of a horse is utilized to drive threshing or other machinery, is
+sometimes described as a "horse-power," but this term usually denotes
+the unit in which the performance of steam and other engines is
+expressed, and which is defined as the rate at which work is done when
+33,000 lb. are raised one foot in one minute. This value was adopted by
+James Watt as the result of experiments with strong dray-horses, but, as
+he was aware, it is in excess of what can be done by an average horse
+over a full day's work. It is equal to 746 watts. On the metric system
+it is reckoned as 4500 kilogram-metres a minute, and the French
+_cheval-vapeur_ is thus equal to 32,549 foot-pounds a minute, or 0.9863
+of an English horse-power, or 736 watts. The "nominal horse-power" by
+which engines are sometimes rated is an arbitrary and obsolescent term
+of indefinite significance. An ordinary formula for obtaining it is
+(1/15.6)D^2 [root 3]S for high-pressure engines, and (1/47)D^2 [root 3]S
+for condensing engines, where D is the diameter of the piston in inches
+and S the length of the stroke in feet, though varying numbers are used
+for the divisor. The "indicated horse-power" of a reciprocating engine
+is given by ASPN/33,000, where A is the area of the piston in square
+inches, S the length of the stroke in feet, P the mean pressure on the
+piston in lb. per sq. in., and N the number of effective strokes per
+minute, namely, one for each revolution of the crank shaft if the engine
+is single-acting, but twice as many if it is double-acting. The mean
+pressure P is ascertained from the diagram or "card" given by an
+indicator (see STEAM-ENGINE). In turbine engines this method is
+inapplicable. A statement of indicated horse-power supplies a measure of
+the force acting in the cylinder of an engine, but the power available
+for doing external work off the crank-shaft is less than this by the
+amount absorbed in driving the engine itself. The useful residue, known
+as the "actual," "effective" or "brake" horse-power, can be directly
+measured by a dynamometer (q.v.); it amounts to about 80% of the
+indicated horse-power for good condensing engines and about 85% for
+non-condensing engines, or perhaps a little more when the engines are of
+the largest sizes. When turbines, as often happens in land practice, are
+directly coupled to electrical generators, their horse-power can be
+deduced from the electrical output. When they are used for the
+propulsion of ships recourse is had to "torsion meters" which measure
+the amount of twist undergone by the propeller shafts while transmitting
+power. Two points are selected on the surface of the shaft at different
+positions along it, and the relative displacement which occurs between
+them round the shaft when power is being transmitted is determined
+either by electrical means, as in the Denny-Johnson torsion-meter, or
+optically, as in the Hopkinson-Thring and Bevis-Gibson instruments. The
+twist or surface-shear being proportional to the torque, the horse-power
+can be calculated if the modulus of rigidity of the steel employed is
+known or if the amount of twist corresponding to a given power has
+previously been ascertained by direct experiment on the shaft before it
+has been put in place.
+
+
+
+
+HORSE-RACING. Probably the earliest instance of the use of horses in
+racing recorded in literature occurs in _Il._ xxiii. 212-650, where the
+various incidents of the chariot-race at the funeral games held in
+honour of Patroclus are detailed with much vividness. According to the
+ancient authorities the four-horse chariot-race was introduced into the
+Olympic games as early as the 23rd Olympiad; to this the race with
+mounted horses was added in the 33rd; while other variations (such as
+two-horse chariot-races, mule races, loose-horse races, special races
+for under-aged horses) were admitted at a still later period. Of the
+training and management of the Olympic race-horse we are left in
+ignorance; but it is known that the equestrian candidates were required
+to enter their names and send their horses to Elis at least thirty days
+before the celebration of the games commenced, and that the charioteers
+and riders, whether owners or proxies, went through a prescribed course
+of exercise during the intervening month. At all the other national
+games of Greece (Pythian, Isthmian, Nemean), as well as at many of the
+local festivals (the Athenian Olympia and Panathenaea), similar contests
+had a prominent place. Some indication of the extent to which the
+passion for horse-racing was indulged in at Athens, for example, about
+the time of Aristophanes may be obtained from the scene with which _The
+Clouds_ opens; while it is a significant fact that the Boeotians termed
+one of the months of their year, corresponding to the Athenian
+Hecatombaeon, Hippodromius ("Horse-race month"; see Plutarch, _Cam._
+15). For the chariot-races and horse-races of the Greeks and Romans, see
+CIRCUS and GAMES.
+
+
+GREAT BRITAIN
+
+There is no direct historical evidence to show that the ancient Britons
+addicted themselves to any form of this amusement; but there are
+indications that among some at least of the Germanic tribes, from a very
+early period, horse-racing was an accompaniment of their religious
+cultus. There can be no doubt that the Romans encouraged the pursuit in
+Britain, if they did not introduce it; traces of race-courses belonging
+to the period of their occupation have been frequently discovered. The
+influence of the Christian Church was everywhere at first strongly
+against the practice. The opinion of Augustine and other fathers of the
+church with regard to attendance at the spectacles, whether of theatre
+or of circus, is well known; those who performed in them were rigidly
+excluded from church fellowship, and sometimes even those who merely
+frequented them. Thus the first council of Arles, in its fourth canon,
+declared that those members of the church who drove chariots at the
+public games should, so long as they continued in that employment, be
+denied communion. (Compare the rule in the _Ap. Const._ viii. 32; ap.
+Bingham. _Ant. Chr. Church_, xvi. 4, 10.) In many cases, however, the
+weight of ecclesiastical authority proved insufficient to cope with the
+force of old custom, or with the fascination of a sport the unchristian
+character of which was not very easily demonstrable; and ultimately in
+Germany and elsewhere the old local races appear to have been admitted
+to a recognized place among the ceremonies peculiar to certain Christian
+festivals.
+
+The first distinct indication which contemporary history affords of
+horse-racing as a sport occurs in the _Description of the City of
+London_ of William Fitzstephen (c. 1174). He says that in a certain
+"plane field without one of the gates (quidam planus campus re et
+nomine--_Smithfield_, quasi Smoothfield) every Friday, unless it be one
+of the more solemn festivals, is a noted show of well-bred (_nobilium_)
+horses exposed for sale. The earls, barons and knights who are resident
+in the city, as well as a multitude of citizens, flock thither either to
+look on or buy." After describing the different varieties of horses
+brought into the market, especially the more valuable chargers
+(_dextrarios preciosos_), he says: "When a race is to be run by such
+horses as these, and perhaps by others which, in like manner, according
+to their breed are strong for carriage and vigorous for the course, the
+people raise a shout and order the common horses to be withdrawn to
+another part of the field. The jockeys, who are boys expert in the
+management of horses, which they regulate by means of curb bridles,
+sometimes by threes and sometimes by twos, as the match is made, prepare
+themselves for the contest. Their chief aim is to prevent a competitor
+from getting before them. The horses too, after their manner, are eager
+for the race: their limbs tremble, and impatient of delay they cannot
+stand still; upon the signal being given they stretch out their limbs,
+hurry on the course, and are borne along with unremitting speed. The
+riders, inspired with the love of praise and the hope of victory, clap
+spurs to their flying horses, lashing them with whips, and inciting them
+by their shouts" (see Stow's Translation).
+
+In the reign of Richard I. knights rode at Whitsuntide on steeds and
+palfreys over a three-mile course for "forty pounds of ready gold,"
+according to the old romance of Sir Bevys of Hampton. The feats of the
+tilt-yard, however, seem to have surpassed horse-racing in popular
+estimation at the period of the crusades. That the sport was to some
+extent indulged in by King John is quite possible, as running horses are
+frequently mentioned in the register of royal expenditure; and we know
+that Edward III. had a number of running horses, but it is probable they
+were chiefly used for field sports.
+
+An evidence of the growing favour in which horse-racing was held as a
+popular amusement is furnished by the fact that public races were
+established at Chester in 1512. Randle Holme of that city tells us that
+towards the latter part of Henry VIII.'s reign, on Shrove Tuesday, the
+company of saddlers of Chester presented to "the drapers a wooden ball
+embellished with flowers, and placed upon the point of a lance. This
+ceremony was performed in the presence of the mayor at the cross of the
+Roody or Roodee, an open place near the city; but this year (1540) the
+ball was changed into a silver bell, valued at three shillings and
+sixpence or more, to be given to him who shall run best and furthest on
+horseback before them on the same day, Shrove Tuesday; these bells were
+denominated St George's bells." In the reign of Elizabeth there is
+evidence from the poems of Bishop Hall (1597) that racing was in vogue,
+though apparently not patronized by the queen, or it would no doubt have
+formed part of the pastimes at Kenilworth; indeed, it seems then to have
+gone much out of fashion.
+
+The accession of the Stuarts opened up an era of prosperity for the
+sport, for James I., who, according to Youatt, had encouraged if not
+established horse-racing in Scotland, greatly patronized it in England
+when he came to the throne. Not only did he run races at Croydon and
+Enfield, but he endeavoured to improve the breed of horses by the
+purchase for a high figure of the Arab stallion known as Markham's
+Arabian, which little horse, however, was beaten in every race he ran.
+
+In 1607, according to Camden's _Britannia_, races were run near York,
+the prize being a little golden bell. Camden also mentions as the prize
+for running horses in Gatherley Forest a little golden ball, which was
+apparently anterior to the bell. In 1609 Mr Robert Ambrye, sometime
+sheriff of the city of Chester, caused three silver bells to be made of
+good value, which bells he appointed to be run for with horses on St
+George's day upon the Roodee, the first horse to have the best bell and
+the money put in by the horses that ran--in other words, a
+sweepstake--the bells to be returned that day twelvemonth as challenge
+cups are now; towards the expenses he had an allowance from the city. In
+1613 subscription purses are first mentioned. Nicholls, in his _Progress
+of James I._, makes mention of racing in the years 1617 and 1619.
+Challenge bells appear to have continued to be the prizes at Chester,
+according to Randle Holme the younger, and Ormerod's _History of
+Chester_, until 1623 or 1624, when Mr John Brereton, mayor of Chester,
+altered the course and caused the horses to run five times round the
+Roodee, the bell to be of good value, £8 or £10, and to be a free bell
+to be held for ever--in other words, a presentation and not a challenge
+prize.
+
+During James's reign public race meetings were established at Gatherley
+or Garterley, near Richmond in Yorkshire, at Croydon in Surrey, and at
+Enfield Chase, the last two being patronized by the king, who not only
+had races at Epsom during his residence at Nonsuch, but also built a
+house at Newmarket for the purpose of enjoying hunting, and no doubt
+racing too, as we find a note of there having been horse-races at this
+place as early as 1605. Races are also recorded as having taken place at
+Linton near Cambridge, but they were probably merely casual meetings.
+The prizes were for the most part silver or gold bells, whence the
+phrase "bearing away the bell." The turf indeed appears to have
+attracted a great deal of notice, and the systematic preparation of
+running horses was studied, attention being paid to their feeding and
+training, to the instruction of jockeys--although private matches
+between gentlemen who rode their own horses were very common,--and to
+the adjustment of weights, which were usually about 10 stone. The sport
+also seems to have taken firm hold of the people, and to have become
+very popular.
+
+The reign of Charles I., which commenced in 1625, saw still more marked
+strides made, for the king not only patronized the racing at Newmarket,
+which we know was current In 1640, but thoroughly established it there,
+and built a stand house in 1667, since which year the races have been
+annual. Mention is likewise made in the comedy of the _Merry Beggars_,
+played in 1641, of races, both horse and foot, in Hyde Park, which were
+patronized by Charles I., who gave a silver cup, value 100 guineas, to
+be run for instead of bells. Butcher, in his survey of the town of
+Stamford (1646), also says that a race was annually run in that town for
+a silver and gilt cup and cover, of the value of £7 or £8, provided by
+the care of the aldermen for the time being out of the interest of a
+stock formerly made by the nobility and gentry of the neighbourhood.
+
+In 1648 Clarendon tells us that a meeting of Royalists was held at
+Banstead Downs, as Epsom Downs were then called, "under the pretence of
+a horse-race," so that horse-racing at Epsom was not unknown early in
+the 17th century; Pepys, too, in his _Diary_ of 1663, mentions his
+having intended to go to Banstead Downs to see a famous horse-race.
+Cromwell is said to have kept running horses in the year 1653, but in
+1654 he appears to have gone so far as to forbid racing for six and
+eight months respectively. After the Reformation in 1660, a new impetus
+was given to horse-racing, which had languished during the civil wars,
+and the races at Newmarket, which had been suspended, were restored and
+attended by the king; and as an additional spur to emulation, according
+to Youatt, royal plates were given at each of the principal courses, and
+royal mares, as they were called, were imported from abroad. Charles II.
+rebuilt the house originally erected at Newmarket by James I., which had
+fallen into decay. The Round course was made in 1666, and racing at the
+headquarters of the turf was regulated in the most systematic way, as to
+the course, weights and other conditions. Charles II. was the first
+monarch who entered and ran horses in his own name; and, besides being a
+frequent visitor at the races on Newmarket Heath, and on Burford Downs,
+near Stockbridge, where the Bibury Club meeting was held, he established
+races at Datchet. In the reign of James II. nothing specially noteworthy
+occurred, but William III. continued former crown donations and even
+added to them.
+
+Anne was much devoted to horse-racing, and not only gave royal plates to
+be competed for, but ran horses for them in her own name. In 1703
+Doncaster races were established, when 4 guineas a year were voted by
+the corporation towards a plate, and in 1716 the Town Plate was
+established by the same authority to be run on Doncaster Moor. Nearly a
+century, however, elapsed before the St Leger was instituted. Matches at
+Newmarket had become common, for we find that Basto, one of the earliest
+race-horses of whom we have any authentic account, won several matches
+there in 1708 and 1709. In the latter year, according to Camden, York
+races were established, the course at first being on Clifton Ings, but
+it was subsequently removed to Knavesmire, on which the races are now
+run. In 1710 the first gold cup said to have been given by the queen, of
+60 guineas value, was run for by six-year-old horses carrying 12 stone
+each, the best of three 4-mile heats, and was won by Bay Bolton. In 1711
+it was increased to 100 guineas. In 1712 Queen Anne's gelding Pepper ran
+for the Royal Cup of £100 at York, and her Mustard, a nutmeg-grey horse,
+ran for the same prize in 1713. Again in 1714 her Majesty's bay horse
+Star won a sweepstake of 10 guineas added to a plate of £40 at the same
+place, in four heats, carrying 11 stone. In 1716 the Ladies' Plate at
+York for five-year-olds was won by Aleppo, son of the Darley Arabian.
+Racing and match-making continued to be a regular sport at Newmarket,
+and at York and Hambleton, and we also find a record of a race at
+Lincoln in August 1717 for a silver tea-board, won by Brocklesby Betty,
+as was the Queen's Plate at Black Hambleton in the year before.
+
+Between 1714 and 1720 there were races at Pontefract in Yorkshire for
+plates or money. The best of two out of three heats was to be the
+winner, provided the said horse was not distanced in the third heat--the
+distance post being 1 furlong from the winning post; and this appears to
+have been a usual condition. In or about the year 1721 Flying Childers
+is said to have run a trial against Almanzor and Brown Betty over the
+Round course at Newmarket (3 m. 4 f. 93 y.) in 6 m. 40 s., and another
+trial over the Beacon course (4 m. 1 f. 138 y.) in 7 m. 30 s.--which is
+fast even for a six-year old; but it is just possible that in those days
+the art of time-taking was anything but perfect. In 1721 George I. gave
+100 guineas in specie in lieu of the gold cup at York presented by Anne,
+and the king's or queen's plates have been given in cash ever since. In
+1725 a ladies' plate was run for on the 14th of September by female
+riders on Ripon Heath in Yorkshire. In 1727 Mr John Cheney established
+the _Racing Calendar_--an historical list of all the horse matches run,
+and of all plates and prizes run for in England and Wales of the value
+of £10 or upwards in 1727, &c. No systematic records had till then been
+preserved of the running of the race-horses of the day, and it is only
+through the performances of certain celebrated horses and mares that we
+have any information of what actually took place, and even that is more
+or less of a fragmentary kind. At this time racing was thoroughly
+established as a national and popular sport, for there were upwards of a
+hundred meetings in England and Wales; but the plates or sweepstakes run
+for were for the most part of small value, as £10, £20, £30, £40, and
+sometimes £50. In 1727, according to Whyte, there were only a dozen
+royal plates run for in England: one at Newmarket in April for
+six-year-old horses at 12 stone each, in heats over the Round
+course--first called the King's Plate course; one for five-year-old
+mares at 10 stone each, in one heat, and another in October for
+six-year-old horses at 12 stone, in heats over the same course; one at
+York (which commenced in 1711) for six-year-old horses, 12 stone each,
+4-m. heats; one at Black Hambleton, Yorkshire (of which no regular
+account was kept until 1715), for five-year-old mares, 10 stone, 4 m.;
+one at each of the following places, Nottingham, Lincoln, Guildford,
+Winchester, Salisbury and Lewes, for six-year-old horses, 12 stone each,
+4-m. heats; and one at Ipswich for five-year-old horses, 10 stone each.
+A royal plate was also run for at Edinburgh in 1728 or 1729, and one at
+the Curragh of Kildare in 1741.
+
+In 1739 an act was passed to prevent racing by ponies and weak horses,
+13 Geo. II. cap. 10, which also prohibited prizes or plates of less
+value than £50. At this period the best horses seldom ran more than five
+or six times, and some not so often, there being scarcely any plates of
+note except royal ones, and very few sweepstakes or matches of value
+except at Newmarket until after 1750; moreover, as the races were run in
+heats, best three out of four, over a course of several miles in length,
+the task set the horses before winning a plate was very severe, and by
+no means commensurate with the value of the prize. In 1751 the great
+subscription races commenced at York, the city also giving £50 added
+money to each day's racing. At Newmarket there were only two meetings,
+one in April and the other in October, but in 1753 a second spring
+meeting was established, and in that year the Jockey Club, which was
+founded in 1750, established the present racing ground. In 1762 a second
+October meeting was added, in 1765 the July meeting, in 1770 the
+Houghton meeting, and in 1771 the Craven meeting. In 1766 Tattersall's
+was established at Hyde Park Corner by Richard Tattersall for the sale
+of horses; it remained the great emporium of horses, and the rendezvous
+for betting on horse races, until 1865, when, the lease of the premises
+at the Corner having run out, it was removed to Knightsbridge.
+
+We now come to a very important period--that at which the great
+three-year-old races were instituted.
+
+
+  The St Leger.
+
+The St Leger was established in 1776 by Colonel St Leger, who resided at
+Parkhill, near Doncaster. On the 24th of September, during the Doncaster
+races, which took place annually in the autumn, at his suggestion a
+sweepstake of 25 guineas each for three-year-old colts and fillies was
+run over a 2-m. course; there were six competitors, the property of as
+many subscribers,--a very small beginning, it must be owned. The race
+was won by a filly by Sampson, belonging to Lord Rockingham, which was
+afterwards named Allabaculia. In the following year the same stake had
+twelve subscribers and ten starters, and was won by Mr Sotheron's
+Bourbon. It was not, however, until the succeeding year, 1778, that it
+was named the St Leger, in compliment to the founder, at the suggestion
+of the marquis of Rockingham. The stakes were increased in 1832 to 50
+sovs. each, and the weights have been raised from time to time to keep
+pace with modern requirements. The Doncaster Cup, a weight for age race
+for three-year-olds and upwards, was established in 1801. The course is
+nearly flat, of an oval or kite shape, about 1¾ m. round the town-moor.
+
+
+  The Derby and Oaks.
+
+The Epsom Derby and Oaks were established in 1779 and 1780, the Oaks in
+the former and the Derby in the latter year. It is true that in 1730
+Epsom races became annual, but the prizes were nothing more than the
+usual plates run for in heats, the money required being raised by
+voluntary subscriptions, as well by the owners of booths on the downs as
+by the parties more immediately interested, whence arose the custom of
+charges being made by the lord of the manor for permission to erect
+booths, &c. during the race-meetings. On the 14th of May 1779 the
+twelfth earl of Derby originated the Oaks stakes (named after his seat
+or hunting-box "The Oaks" at Woodmansterne), a sweepstake for
+three-year-old fillies run on a course 1½ m. long. The race was won by
+Lord Derby's bay filly Bridget, bred by himself--her sire being Herod
+and her dam Jemima. In the following year the earl established a
+sweepstake of 50 sovs. each, half forfeit, for three-year-old colts.
+This, the first Derby, was won by Sir C. Bunbury's chestnut colt Diomed
+by Florizel, son of Herod, who beat eight opponents, including the duke
+of Bolton's Bay Bolton and Lord Grosvenor's Diadem. These two races have
+since been run for regularly every year, the Derby, which before 1839
+was run on the Thursday, now taking place on the Wednesday, and the Oaks
+on the Friday, in the same week at the end of May.
+
+
+  Ascot Races.
+
+Ascot races, which are held on Ascot Heath, were established by the duke
+of Cumberland, uncle of George III., and are patronized by royalty in
+state or semi-state. They are mentioned in the first _Racing Calendar_,
+published in 1727, but the races were for the most part plates and other
+prizes of small importance, though a royal plate for hunters appears to
+have been given in 1785. The Gold Cup was first given in 1807, and has
+been regularly competed for ever since, though from 1845 to 1853
+inclusive it went by the designation of the Emperor's Plate, the prize
+being offered by the emperor of Russia. In 1854, during the Crimean War,
+the cup was again called the Ascot Gold Cup, and was given from the race
+fund. The Queen's Vase was first given in 1838, and the Royal Hunt Cup
+in 1843, while in 1865 a new long-distance race for four-year-olds and
+upwards was established, and named the Alexandra Plate, after the
+Princess of Wales.
+
+
+  Goodwood.
+
+Goodwood races were established by the duke of Richmond on the downs at
+the northern edge of Goodwood Park in 1802, upon the earl of Egremont
+discontinuing races in his park at Petworth. The races take place at the
+end of July, on the close of the London season. The Goodwood Cup, the
+chief prize of the meeting, was first given in 1812; but from 1815 to
+1824 inclusive there was no race for it, with the single exception of
+1816.
+
+
+  Two Thousand, &c.
+
+During the latter half of the 18th century horse-racing declined very
+much in England, and numbers of meetings were discontinued, the wars
+which took place necessarily causing the change. From the beginning of
+the 19th century, and especially after the conclusion of the French war
+in 1815, racing rapidly revived, and many new meetings were either
+founded or renewed after a period of suspension, and new races were from
+time to time established. Among others the Two Thousand Guineas at
+Newmarket for three-year-old colts and fillies, and the One Thousand
+Guineas for fillies, were established in 1809 and 1814 respectively, the
+Goodwood Stakes in 1823, the Chester Cup and Brighton Stakes in 1824,
+the Liverpool Summer Cup in 1828, the Northumberland Plate in 1833, the
+Manchester Cup in 1834, the Ascot Stakes and the Cesarewitch and
+Cambridgeshire Handicaps at Newmarket in 1839, the Stewards' and
+Chesterfield Cups at Goodwood in 1840, the Great Ebor Handicap at York
+in 1843, and, to omit others, the City and Suburban Handicap at Epsom in
+1851, and the Lincoln Handicap in 1853.
+
+Two-year-old racing was established very shortly after the great
+three-year-old races, and on a similar footing, that is to say, the
+competitors carried the same weights, with the exception of a slight
+allowance for sex,--the July Stakes at the Newmarket Midsummer Meeting
+having been founded as early as 1786. The Woodcote Stakes at Epsom
+succeeded in 1807, the Champagne Stakes at Doncaster in 1823, the
+Criterion Stakes at the Houghton Meeting in 1829, the Chesterfield
+Stakes at the Newmarket July meeting in 1834, the New Stakes at Ascot in
+1843, the Middle Park Plate (or two-year-old Derby, as it is sometimes
+called) at the Newmarket Second October Meeting in 1866, the Dewhurst
+Plate at the Houghton Meeting in 1875, and the Richmond Stakes at
+Goodwood in 1877.     (E. D. B.)
+
+
+  Classic Races in England.
+
+_Present Conditions._--Horse-racing, usually described as "the national
+sport," has greatly advanced in general popularity in the British Isles.
+There is no doubt that the best specimens of the English thoroughbred
+horse are the finest animals of their kind in existence; the value of an
+infusion of the blood for chargers, hunters, hacks, and other varieties
+is scarcely to be overestimated; and the only way of ascertaining what
+animals may be most judiciously employed for breeding purposes is to
+submit them to the tests of preparation for and performance on the turf.
+Racing is therefore a practical necessity. On some accepted authority,
+the origin of which is not to be traced, five races run each season by
+three-year-olds are distinguished as "classic." Of these the chief, by
+universal consent, is the Derby, which takes place at Epsom during the
+week which includes the 31st May. The Epsom course, on which the Derby
+has been run since its origin in 1780, is by no means a good one, in
+consequence of the abrupt turn at Tattenham Corner; and the severe
+descent after this turn is made is also held to be a disadvantage,
+though a really good horse should be able to act on ascents, descents
+and level ground with equal relative facility. In many respects the St
+Leger, run at Doncaster about the middle of September, is a better test,
+as here colts and fillies meet when both are presumably able to do
+themselves the fullest justice. September, indeed, has been called "the
+Mares' Month," for though fillies are eligible to run in the Derby, they
+are very frequently out of sorts and always more or less uncertain in
+their performances during the summer--only four have been successful in
+129 contests for the stake--whereas in the autumn their numerous
+victories in the St Leger prove them to be at their best. It was the
+recognition of this fact which induced an alteration of the weights in
+the year 1882, previously to which fillies had carried 5 lb. less than
+colts; the weights, formerly 8 st. 10 lb. and 8 st. 5 lb., are now 9 st.
+and 8 st. 11 lb. The Doncaster course is superior for racing purposes to
+that at Epsom, where the Oaks, another of the "classic races," is run on
+the Friday following the Derby; the other two contests which come into
+this category being the Two Thousand Guineas for colts and fillies, and
+the One Thousand Guineas for fillies only. These races take place at
+Newmarket during the First Spring Meeting, the former always on a
+Wednesday, the latter on Friday. The expression "a Derby horse" is
+common, but has no precise significance, as the three-year-olds vary
+much in capacity from year to year. It is generally understood, for
+instance, that Ormonde, who won the Derby in 1886, must have been at
+least 21 lb. superior to Sir Visto or Jeddah, who were successful in
+1895 and 1898. By their ability to carry weight the value of horses is
+estimated on the turf. Thus one horse who beats another by a length over
+a distance of a mile would be described as a 5-lb. better animal.
+
+
+  Handicap Horses.
+
+The term "handicap horse" once had an adverse significance which it does
+not now possess. In handicaps horses carry weight according to their
+presumed capacity, as calculated by handicappers who are licensed by the
+Jockey Club and employed by the directors of different meetings. The
+idea of a handicap is to afford chances of success to animals who would
+have no prospect of winning if they met their rivals on equal terms; but
+of late years the value of handicaps has been so greatly increased that
+few owners resist the temptation of taking part in them. Horses nowadays
+who do not run in this kind of contest are very rare, though a few, such
+as Ormonde, Isinglass, and Persimmon, never condescended to this class
+of sport. The duke of Westminster did not hesitate to put his Derby
+winner Bend Or into some of the chief handicaps; and it is, of course, a
+great test of merit when horses carrying heavy weights show marked
+superiority in these contests to rivals of good reputation more lightly
+burdened. St Gatien, who dead-heated with Harvester in the Derby of
+1884; Robert the Devil, who won the St Leger in 1880 and on several
+occasions beat the Derby winner Bend Or; and La Flèche, who won the Oaks
+and the St Leger in 1892, added to the esteem in which they were held by
+their successes under heavy weights, the colts in the Cesarewitch, the
+filly in the Cambridgeshire. Of the chief handicaps of the year, special
+mention may be made of the City and Suburban, run at the Epsom Spring
+Meeting over 1¼ m.; the Kempton Park Jubilee, over 1 m.; the Ascot
+Stakes, 2 m., and the Royal Hunt Cup, 1 m.; the Stewards' Cup at
+Goodwood, six furlongs; the Cesarewitch Stakes and the Cambridgeshire
+Stakes at Newmarket, the former 2¼ m., the latter now a mile and a
+furlong--till lately it was "a mile and a distance"--"a distance" on the
+Turf being a fixed limit of 240 yds. The cups at Manchester, Newbury,
+and Liverpool are also handicaps of some note, though it may be remarked
+that the expression "a cup horse" is understood to imply an animal
+capable of distinguishing himself over a long distance at even weights
+against the best opponents. There are many other valuable stakes of
+almost equal importance, diminishing to what are known as "selling
+handicaps," the winners of which are always put up for sale by auction
+immediately after the race, in the lowest class of them the condition
+being that the winner is to be offered for £50. No stake of less than
+£100 can be run for under Jockey Club rules, which govern all reputable
+flat racing in England, nor is any horse ever entered to be sold for
+less than £50. As horses mature they are naturally able to carry heavier
+weights.
+
+  _Scale of Weight for Age._
+
+  The following scale of weight for age is published under the sanction
+  of the Stewards of the Jockey Club as a guide to managers of race
+  meetings, but is not intended to be imperative, especially as regards
+  the weights of two-and three-year olds relatively to the old horses in
+  selling races early in the year. It is founded on the scale published
+  by Admiral Rous, and revised by him in 1873, but has been modified in
+  accordance with suggestions from the principal trainers and practical
+  authorities.
+
+  +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |      Age.       |Mar. and|  May.  |  June. |  July. |  Aug.  | Sept.  |Oct. and|
+  |                 | April. |        |        |        |        |        |  Nov.  |
+  +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |_Five Furlongs_--|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|
+  |  Two years      | 6    0 | 6    2 | 6    7 | 6    9 | 7    0 | 7    4 | 7    7 |
+  |  Three years    | 8    2 | 8    3 | 8    5 | 8    7 | 8    9 | 8   10 | 8   11 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9    1 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |_Six Furlongs_-- |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Two years      | 6    0 | 6    4 | 6    7 | 6   11 | 7    0 | 7    5 | 7    7 |
+  |  Three years    | 8    4 | 8    6 | 8    8 | 8   10 | 8   12 | 9    0 | 9    2 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9    9 | 9    8 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 |
+  |_One Mile_--     |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Two years      |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   | 6    5 | 6    7 |
+  |  Three years    | 7    9 | 7   11 | 7   13 | 8    2 | 8    4 | 8    5 | 8    6 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9    4 | 9    3 | 9    2 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |_One Mile and a  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    Half_--      |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Two years      |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   | 6    0 | 6    4 |
+  |  Three years    | 7    7 | 7    9 | 7   11 | 7   13 | 8    1 | 8    3 | 8    5 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9    5 | 9    4 | 9    3 | 9    2 | 9    1 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |_Two Miles_--    |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Two years      |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   | 6    0 | 6    2 |
+  |  Three years    | 7    8 | 7   11 | 7   12 | 8    0 | 8    3 | 8    4 | 8    5 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9   10 | 9    9 | 9    8 | 9    7 | 9    6 | 9    5 | 9    4 |
+  |_Three Miles_--  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Three years    | 7    1 | 7    4 | 7    5 | 7    7 | 7    9 | 7   11 | 7   13 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |  Five years     | 9    8 | 9    7 | 9    6 | 9    5 | 9    5 | 9    4 | 9    3 |
+  |  Six and aged   | 9   10 | 9    8 | 9    7 | 9    6 | 9    5 | 9    4 | 9    3 |
+  +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+
+  £10,000 Races.
+
+In the year 1884 the managers of Sandown Park formulated the scheme of a
+race for a prize of £10,000, to be called the Eclipse Stakes, and to be
+run over a distance of 1¼ m. In order to secure a large entry, horses
+were to be nominated soon after their birth; owners who perceived the
+hopelessness of their nominations could withdraw at stated intervals by
+the payment of increasing forfeits; if their animals finally went to the
+post a stake amounting in all to £115 would have to be paid for them;
+and thus it will be seen that owners were really running for their own
+money, though if there were an insufficient number of entries the funds
+of the club might be taxed to supply the deficiency. The scheme was
+found to be attractive, and the example was followed at Leicester and at
+Manchester, at both of which places, however, it lapsed. At Newmarket,
+under the immediate auspices of the Jockey Club, the £10,000 races
+succeeded, and there were two of them each year. The Princess of Wales's
+Stakes was run for the first time in 1894 at the First July Meeting, and
+the Jockey Club Stakes at the First October. The former has, however,
+now been reduced to £2000 added to a sweepstake of £30 each with a minor
+forfeit. In the year 1900 a fourth race of similar character, the
+Century Stakes, was originated at Sandown, but the experiment proved a
+failure, and the contest was discontinued.
+
+
+  Two-year-old Races.
+
+The age of the thoroughbred horse is always dated from the 1st January.
+Foals are generally born in February, March or April, though not a few
+good horses have been born in May; they become yearlings, therefore, on
+the 1st January following, two-year-olds twelve months later, and many
+of them begin to race in the following March, for flat racing always
+starts during the week which contains the 25th, except when Easter falls
+unusually early. In France no two-year-olds run until the 1st August,
+and discussion is frequently raised as to the respective wisdom of the
+English and French systems. It happens, however, that some young horses
+"come to hand" soon, and deteriorate with equal rapidity. They are, in
+fact, able to win races at the beginning of the season, and fail to hold
+their own later in the year against bigger and more powerful animals of
+their own age who have taken longer to mature; so that there is some
+argument in favour of the earlier date. The first noteworthy
+two-year-old race is the Brocklesby Stakes, run at Lincoln during the
+first week of the season. Sometimes the winner of the Brocklesby is
+really a good animal, as was the case with The Bard in 1885 and Donovan
+in 1888, but as a general rule when the autumn comes he is found to be
+far inferior to the winners of subsequent two-year-old races of good
+class. It is seldom that a first-class two-year-old appears before the
+Ascot Meeting about the middle of June, though horses of character
+sometimes run for the Woodcote Stakes at Epsom and in other contests
+elsewhere. The names of many of the most famous horses on the turf are
+found in the list of winners of the New Stakes at Ascot, which was first
+run in 1843 and maintains its character. In 1890 the Coventry Stakes was
+originated, and is regarded as a race of practically equal importance.
+The July Stakes at Newmarket is the oldest of existing two-year-old
+races, having been first run in 1786. The list of winners is a brilliant
+one. The Chesterfield Stakes ranks with it. The best two-year-olds are
+usually seen out at Goodwood, and as a general rule those that have
+chiefly distinguished themselves during the year, and are to make names
+for themselves later in life, are found contesting the Middle Park Plate
+at the Newmarket Second October Meeting and the Dewhurst Plate at the
+Newmarket Houghton. The Middle Park Plate is generally worth over £2000,
+the other races named are between £1000 and £2000 in value; but these
+are not the richest two-year-old prizes of the year, the value of the
+National Breeders' Produce Stakes at Sandown, run on the day following
+the Eclipse, being between £4000 and £5000, and the Imperial Stakes at
+Kempton Park falling not very far short of £3000. As a rule, a colt who
+has been specially successful as a two-year-old maintains his capacity
+later in life, unless it be found that he cannot "stay"--that is to say,
+is unable to maintain his best speed over more than five or six
+furlongs; but it is frequently the case that fillies who have won good
+races as two-year-olds entirely lose their form and meet with little or
+no success afterwards.
+
+
+  Newmarket.
+
+  Ascot and other meetings.
+
+Newmarket is called with reason "the headquarters of the Turf." There
+are about forty training establishments in the town, each trainer being
+in charge of an average of thirty to forty horses, irrespective of
+mares, foals and yearlings. During the year eight race meetings are held
+on the Heath: the Craven; the First and Second Spring; the First and
+Second October--the First October usually occurring at the end of
+September; and the Houghton. These are contested on "the Flat," the
+course which includes the Rowley Mile. It is said that the Rowley Mile
+is so called from the fact of its having been a favourite race-ground
+with Charles II. The First and Second July Meetings take place on
+another course, known as "Behind the Ditch," the Ditch being the huge
+embankment which runs through several counties and has existed from time
+immemorial. The Craven Stakes for three-year-olds is an event of some
+importance at the first meeting of the year. It used to finish on an
+ascent at what is called the "Top of the Town," a course over which the
+handicap for the Cambridgeshire was run. This course has now been
+abandoned and the stand pulled down. At the First Spring Meeting the Two
+Thousand Guineas and the One Thousand Guineas occur, as already stated,
+but the names do not represent the values of the stakes, which are, in
+fact, usually worth close on £5000 each. The July Stakes and the
+Princess of Wales' Stakes are run at the First July Meeting. The Jockey
+Club Stakes is the leading event of the First October; the Cesarewitch
+and the Middle Park Plates follow in the Second October; the Criterion
+Stakes, another of the few races that once finished at the "Top of the
+Town," the Cambridgeshire and the Dewhurst Plate take place at the
+Houghton Meeting. The majority of races finish at the Rowley Mile post;
+but there are three other winning-posts along the Rowley Mile. "Behind
+the Ditch" races finish at two different posts, one of which enables
+horses to avoid the necessity of galloping up the severe ascent of the
+"Bunbury Mile." Although, as a rule, there is no better racing to be
+seen than the best events at Newmarket, the programmes are often spun
+out by selling plates and paltry handicaps, and a high level is nowhere
+so consistently maintained as at Ascot. The Ascot meeting is
+distinguished by the entire absence of selling plates, and much more
+"added money" is given than on any other course. Added money is the sum
+supplied by the directors of a race meeting, derived by them from the
+amounts paid for entrances to stands and enclosures; for in many
+races--the Ten Thousand prizes, for instance--owners run mainly or
+entirely for money which they have themselves provided. The Ascot Cup is
+generally spoken of as a race success in which sets the seal to the fame
+of a good horse. It is a prize of the highest distinction, and of late
+years has been of considerable value, the winner in 1909 having gained
+for his owner £3430. That the number of runners for this race should be
+invariably small--the average for many years past has been about six--is
+not a matter of surprise to those who are familiar with the Turf. There
+are very few horses possessing sufficient speed and staying power to
+make it worth the while of their owners to submit them to the
+exceedingly severe test of a preparation for this race, which is run
+over 2½ m. of ground at a time of year when the turf is almost always
+extremely hard everywhere, and harder at Ascot than almost anywhere
+else. There is no course on which more good horses have hopelessly
+broken down. All the prizes are handsome, and success at Ascot confers
+much prestige, for the reason that the majority of horses that run are
+good ones; but annually there is a list of victims that never recover
+from the effects of galloping on this ground. Goodwood also attracts
+horses of high character, though some unimportant races fill out the
+programme. Formerly there were many meetings around London, which fell
+into disrepute in consequence of the manner in which they were
+conducted. These have been replaced by well-managed gatherings in
+enclosed parks, and here the value of the prizes is often so high that
+the best horses in training are attracted. These meetings include
+Sandown, Kempton, Gatwick, Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park. Liverpool,
+Manchester, Birmingham, Brighton, York and various other towns have race
+meetings twice or oftener in the course of each year. At the various
+fixtures over half a million of money is annually given in stakes. The
+largest sum ever won by a horse was the £57,185 gained by Isinglass in
+1892-1895. Donovan follows with £54,935. In all probability these large
+totals would have been considerably exceeded had not Flying Fox--who had
+won in his first two seasons £40,090--been disqualified by the death of
+his owner, the duke of Westminster, as this colt was engaged in the four
+£10,000 races of 1900, in which to all appearance he could not have been
+beaten, so much was he superior to his contemporaries. The death of an
+owner of horses disqualifies the animals he has entered--a necessary
+regulation, as otherwise an heir might be burdened with a stable of
+horses the possession of which would entail heavy expense and serious
+responsibility on a person who perhaps had no knowledge of or taste for
+racing.
+
+
+  Value of horses.
+
+The value of an unquestionably good horse is enormous. It has been seen
+what handsome prizes are offered for competition, and when withdrawn
+from the Turf the horse may secure a large income to his owner at the
+stud. A stallion's fee of 600 guineas (as in the case of St Simon)
+should mean well over £20,000 a year; and fees of 100 guineas and more
+are common. Proved merit on the Turf is considered essential in a sire,
+though there have been instances of horses, unsuccessful during their
+racing career, who have distinguished themselves at the stud: Wisdom,
+sire of the Derby winner Sir Hugo, and several notable examples might be
+cited. Mares are much more uncertain in this respect. On the whole, the
+famous mares that have won the Oaks, the St Leger and other leading
+races, have been apt to fail in the paddocks; but there is always a hope
+of success with them, and the large sum of 12,600 guineas was paid for
+La Flèche when she had ceased from active service on the Turf. For
+None-the-Wiser 7200 guineas was given; and 4600 guineas for Wedlock when
+well advanced in years, on the strength of her having been the dam of a
+good horse called Best Man. Well-bred mares that have shown no capacity
+for racing are, however, frequently the dams of good winners. Breeding
+is a lottery. An Australian enthusiast some years since published a book
+the object of which was to enable breeders to produce good horses by a
+species of mathematical calculation; but the fallacy of the "Figure
+System" was at once proved by the simple circumstance that in very many
+cases the own brothers and sisters of good winners, whose breeding
+conformed entirely to the system, proved to be utterly worthless for
+racing purposes. It is a fact difficult of explanation that the majority
+of famous winners have been privately bred by their owners. Many persons
+breed for sale, in some cases sparing no expense or trouble in the
+endeavour to secure good results, and yearlings sold by auction have
+fetched prices of from 10,000 guineas (paid for Sceptre, a daughter of
+Persimmon and Ornament, in 1900) downwards; sums of over 1000 guineas
+being frequently given. That so large a proportion of high-priced
+yearlings should turn out failures is not at all a matter for surprise,
+considering the uncertainties of the Turf, but it by no means follows
+that a high-priced yearling is necessarily an expensive animal; 5500
+guineas was, for instance, given for La Flèche, who won for her owner
+£34,585 in stakes, and, as already observed, was subsequently sold for
+12,600 guineas. The principal yearling sales take place during the July
+meeting at Newmarket and the Doncaster meeting in September. There are
+also sales at Ascot and elsewhere. The Royal Stud at Bushey Park, where
+Memoir, La Flèche, Best Man and other good animals were bred, has now
+been abandoned.
+
+
+  Trainers and jockeys.
+
+In many cases trainers have graduated from jockeys. The usual charge to
+an owner is 50s. a week per horse, but, as regards the cost of a horse
+in training, to this there are various additions irrespective of
+entrances to races, forfeits, travelling, jockey's fees, &c. The
+recognized sum paid to a jockey is 3 guineas for a losing mount, 5
+guineas for winning. In many cases special terms are made; the principal
+owners usually have a claim on a rider's services, and for this call as
+much as £5000 per annum, exclusive of the usual riding fees, has been
+given.
+
+From time immemorial until within a very recent period jockeys rode in
+much the same style, though, of course, with varying degrees of skill.
+Many hundreds of boys exercise daily at Newmarket and other training
+grounds, all of them necessarily having a firm seat in the saddle, for
+the thoroughbred horse is, as a rule, high-couraged and apt to play
+violent tricks; but though most of these lads find chances to
+distinguish themselves in trials and races for apprentices, probably not
+5% grow into professional jockeys, increasing weight keeping many from
+the business, as a jockey has few chances unless he can ride well under
+9 stone. Knowledge of pace is a rare gift or acquisition which is
+essential to successful jockeyship. The rider must also be quick to
+perceive how his own horse is going--what he has "left in him"; he must
+understand at a glance which of his rivals are beaten and which are
+still likely to be dangerous; must know when the moment comes for the
+supreme effort to be made, and how to balance and prepare the horse for
+that critical struggle. At the beginning of the race the jockey used to
+stand in his stirrups, with the idea of removing weight from the horse's
+back and preserving perfect steadiness; towards the end of the race, if
+it were necessary to drive the animal home, he sat down "to finish."
+
+This method used to be adopted in all countries, but recently a new
+system came into practice in America. Instead of putting the saddle in
+the middle of the horse's back, where it had always been placed
+previously, it was shifted forward on to the animal's withers. The
+jockey rode with very short stirrups, leaning forward over the neck and
+grasping the reins within a few inches of the horse's mouth. The
+appearance of this was ungainly in the extreme and an entire departure
+from ancient ways (though Fordham and a few other riders of great
+reputation had always sat much more forward than their contemporaries),
+but it was found to be remarkably effective. From the position thus
+adopted there was less resistance to the wind, and though the saving in
+this respect was largely exaggerated, in racing, where success or
+failure is frequently a matter of a very few inches, every little that
+helps is to be considered. The value of the discovery lay almost
+entirely in the fact that the horse carries weight better--and is
+therefore able to stride out more freely--when it is placed well forward
+on his shoulders. With characteristic conservatism the English were slow
+to accept the new plan. Several American jockeys, however, came to
+England. In all the main attributes of horsemanship there was no reason
+to believe that they were in the least superior to English jockeys, but
+their constant successes required explanation, and the only way to
+account for them appeared to be that horses derived a marked advantage
+from the new system of saddling. A number of English riders followed the
+American lead, and those who did so met with an unusual degree of
+success. Race-riding, indeed, was in a very great measure revolutionized
+in the closing years of the 19th century.
+
+
+  Foreign horses.
+
+Of late years American horses--bred, it must always be remembered, from
+stock imported from England--have won many races in England. Australian
+horses have also been sent to the mother country, with results
+remunerative to their owners, and the intermixture of blood which will
+necessarily result should have beneficial consequences. French
+horses--i.e. horses bred in France from immediate or from more or less
+remote English parentage--have also on various occasions distinguished
+themselves on English race-courses. That coveted trophy, the Ascot Cup,
+was won by a French horse, Elf II., in 1898, it having fallen also to
+the French-bred Verneuil in 1878, to Boiard in 1874, to Henry in 1872
+and to Mortemer in 1871. In the Cesarewitch Plaisanterie (3 yrs., 7 st.
+8 lb.) and Ténébreuse (4 yrs., 8 st. 12 lb.) were successful in 1885 and
+1888; and Plaisanterie also carried off the Cambridgeshire as a
+three-year-old with the heavy weight of 8 st. 12 lb. in a field of 27
+runners. In most respects racing in France is conducted with
+praiseworthy discrimination. There are scarcely any of the five- and
+six-furlong scrambles for horses over two years old which are such
+common features of English programmes.
+
+
+  Time.
+
+That the horses who have covered various distances in the shortest times
+on record must have been exceptionally speedy animals is obvious. The
+times of races, however, frequently form a most deceptive basis in any
+attempt to gauge the relative capacity of horses. A good animal will
+often win a race in bad time, for the reason that his opponents are
+unable to make him exert himself to the utmost. Not seldom a race is
+described as having been "won in a canter," and this necessarily
+signifies that if the winner had been harder pressed he would have
+completed the course more quickly. The following figures show the
+shortest times that had been occupied in winning over various distances
+up to the spring of 1910:--
+
+                                                                       M. S.
+                           / Mirida (2 years), Epsom, 1905       \
+    Five furlongs         <  Le Buff (aged), Epsom, 1903          > 0  56(2/5)
+                           \ Master Willie (aged), Epsom, 1903   /
+    Six furlongs             Master Willie (5 years), Epsom, 1901   1   7(1/5)
+    Seven furlongs           Vav (4 years), Epsom, 1907             1  20(3/5)
+    Mile                     Caiman (4 years), Lingfield, 1900      1  33(1/5)
+    Mile and a quarter       Housewife (3 years), Brighton, 1904    2   1(4/5)
+    Mile and a half          Zinfandel (3 years), Manchester, 1903  2  28(4/5)
+    Mile and three quarters  Golden Measure (4 years), York, 1906   2  57(4/5)
+    Two miles                Pradella (aged), Ascot, 1906           3  19(2/5)
+    Two miles and a half     Bachelor's Button, Ascot, 1906         4  23(1/5)
+    Three miles              Corrie Roy, Ascot, 1884                5   9
+
+  It may be noted that, as compared with similar records in 1901, only
+  three of these latter held good in 1910, i.e. the mile, the six
+  furlongs and the three miles. The fastest times over a mile and a half
+  (the Derby and Oaks distance) up to 1901 may be repeated here as of
+  some interest: Avidity, 2 min. 30(4/5) secs., in September 1901 at
+  Doncaster; Santoi, 2 min. 31 secs., in May 1901 at Hurst Park; King's
+  Courier, 2 min. 31 secs., in 1900 at Hurst Park; Landrail, 2 min. 34
+  secs., in September 1899 at Doncaster; Carbiston, 2 min. 37(2/5)
+  secs., in August 1899 at York; Bend Or, 2 min. 40 secs., in 1881 at
+  Epsom (gold cup): Volodyovski won the Derby in 1901, and Memoir the
+  Oaks in 1890, in 2 min. 40(4/5) secs.
+
+As regards time in famous races, Ormonde, perhaps the best horse of the
+19th century--one, at any rate, that can scarcely have had a
+superior--occupied 2 minutes 45(3/5) seconds in winning the Derby; and
+Lonely, one of the worst mares that have won the Oaks, galloped the same
+mile and a half in 2 seconds less. Ormonde's St Leger time was 3 m.
+21(2/5) s., and Sir Visto, one of the poorest specimens of a winner of
+the great Doncaster race, took 3 m. 18(2/5) s. The regulation of the
+weight to be carried serves to "bring the horses together," as the
+popular sporting phrase runs--that is to say, it equalizes their chances
+of winning; hence handicaps, the carrying of penalties by winners of
+previous races, and the granting of "maiden allowances." A horse that
+has never won a race, and is therefore known as a "maiden," often has an
+allowance of as much as 7 lb. made in its favour.
+
+
+  The Jockey Club.
+
+Sport is carried on under the auspices of the Jockey Club, a
+self-elected body of the highest standing, whose powers are absolute and
+whose sway is judicious and beneficent. Three stewards, one of whom
+retires each year, when a successor is nominated, govern the active--and
+extremely arduous--work of the club. They grant licences to trainers and
+jockeys and all officials, and supervise the whole business of racing.
+The stewards of the Jockey Club are _ex officio_ stewards of Ascot,
+Epsom, Goodwood and Doncaster. All other meetings are controlled by
+stewards, usually well-known patrons of the Turf invited to act by the
+projectors of the fixture, who settle disputed points, hear and
+adjudicate on objections, &c., and, if special difficulties arise,
+report to the stewards of the Jockey Club, whose decision is final.
+
+
+  Steeplechasing.
+
+Steeplechasing has altered entirely since the first introduction of this
+essentially British sport. In early days men were accustomed to match
+their hunters against each other and ride across country to a fixed
+point near to some steeple which guided them on their way; and this is
+no doubt, in several respects, a class of sport superior to that now
+practised under the name of steeplechasing; for it tested the capacity
+of the horse to jump fences of all descriptions, and provided the rider
+with opportunities of showing his readiness and skill in picking the
+best line of country. But racing of this kind afforded spectators a very
+small chance of watching the struggle; and made-up steeplechase courses,
+the whole circuit of which could be viewed from the enclosures, came
+into existence. The steeplechase horse has also changed. The speed of
+the thoroughbred is so much greater than that of all other breeds that
+if one were in the field, if he only stood up and could jump a little,
+his success was certain; consequently, except in "point-to-point" races,
+organized by various hunts, where a qualification is that all starters
+must have been regularly ridden with hounds, few other than thoroughbred
+horses are nowadays ever found in races run under the rules of the
+National Hunt Committee, the body which governs the sport of
+steeplechasing. A considerable proportion of existing steeplechase
+horses have done duty on the flat. Members of certain equine families
+display a special aptitude for jumping; thus the descendants of Hermit,
+who won the Derby in 1867, are very frequently successful in
+steeplechases--Hermit's son Ascetic, the sire of Cloister, Hidden
+Mystery and other good winners, is a notable case in point. The sons and
+daughters of Timothy and of several other Hermit horses often jump well.
+When a flat-race horse appears to have comparatively poor prospects of
+winning under Jockey Club rules, he is frequently, if he "looks like
+jumping," schooled for steeplechasing, generally in the first place over
+hurdles, and subsequently over what is technically called "a country,"
+beginning with small fences, over which he canters, led by some steady
+animal who is to be depended on to show the way. A great many
+steeplechase horses also come from Ireland. They are usually
+recognizable as thoroughbred, though it is possible that in some cases
+the name of an ancestor may be missing from the Stud Book. Irish
+horse-masters are for the most part particularly skilful in schooling
+jumpers, and the grass and climate of Ireland appear to have beneficial
+effects on young stock; but, as a rule, the imported Irish horse
+improves considerably in an English training-stable, where he is better
+fed and groomed than in most Irish establishments. All steeplechase
+courses must at the present time contain certain regulation jumps, the
+nature of which is specified in the National Hunt rules:--
+
+  44. In all steeplechase courses there shall be at least twelve fences
+  (exclusive of hurdles) in the first 2 m., and at least six fences in
+  each succeeding m. There shall be a water jump at least 12 ft. wide
+  and 2 ft. deep, to be left open, or guarded only by a perpendicular
+  fence not exceeding 2 ft. in height. There shall be in each m. at
+  least one ditch 6 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep on the taking-off side of
+  the fence, which ditch may be guarded by a single rail, or left open,
+  and which fence must be 4 ft. 6 in. in height, and, if of dead
+  brushwood or gorse, 2 ft. in width.
+
+  45. In all hurdle-race courses there shall be not less than eight
+  flights of hurdles in the first 2 m., with an additional flight of
+  hurdles for every quarter of a m. or part of one beyond that distance,
+  the height of the hurdles being not less than 3 ft. 6 in. from the
+  bottom bar to the top bar.
+
+Natural fences would no doubt be desirable if they could be utilized;
+but it is obvious that fences must be made up, because when the same
+hedge is jumped frequently, and for the most part in the same place--as
+it is the object of riders to go the shortest way round--gaps would
+necessarily be made. The use of these made courses naturally renders
+the sport somewhat artificial, but under existing conditions this is
+unavoidable; and as a matter of fact, by reason of the conformation of
+the ground, the arrangement and make of the fences, courses do vary in
+no small degree. The steeplechase horse differs from the hunter in his
+method of jumping. In riding to hounds a man usually steadies his horse
+at a fence, and in almost every case the animal "dwells" more or less
+after the leap. In a steeplechase, where speed is everything, horses
+must be taught to dash resolutely at their jumps without hesitation, and
+to get away with no pause on the other side; as a rule, therefore, an
+old steeplechase horse who is employed as a hunter is rarely a pleasant
+mount for any but a bold rider. It has been remarked that steeplechase
+horses are usually in the first place schooled over hurdles, and many
+animals remain hurdle racers till the end. More speed is required for
+hurdles than for a steeplechase course, and there is more money to be
+won over hurdles than over "a country." No hurdle race is worth so much
+as the Grand National or the Lancashire Handicap Steeplechase, the two
+richest prizes now offered; but, with the exception of these,
+hurdle-race stakes are as a rule of greater value. Except as a
+spectacle, there is little to be said in defence of this mongrel
+business, which is neither one thing nor the other; but hurdle races are
+popular and are therefore likely to continue. A few years ago an attempt
+was made to discriminate between what were called "hunters" and handicap
+steeplechase horses, and certain races were only open to the former
+class. It proved, however, to be a distinction without a difference;
+thoroughbred horses crept into the ranks of the so-called hunters, and
+when nominal hunters began to be entered for, and in some cases to win,
+the Grand National and other important steeplechases, for which they
+could be nominated by abandoning their qualification of hunter, the
+meaningless title was relinquished. Still more absurd were the hunters'
+flat races of a former day. In order to compete in these the rule was
+that an owner must produce a certificate from a master of hounds to the
+effect that his horse had been hunted. Thoroughbreds who lacked speed to
+win under Jockey Club rules used to be ridden to a meet, perhaps
+cantered across a field or two, and were then supposed to have become
+hunters. Animals who were genuinely and regularly utilized for the
+pursuit of foxes had of course no chance against these race-horses in
+shallow disguise. What are called National Hunt flat races still exist,
+the qualification being that a horse must have been placed first, second
+or third in a steeplechase in Great Britain or Ireland, after having
+jumped all the fences and completed the whole distance of the race to
+the satisfaction of at least two of the stewards, to whom previous
+notice must have been given in writing. There are no handicaps for such
+animals, and none is allowed to carry less than 11 stone. No race under
+National Hunt rules can be of a shorter distance than 2 m., except for
+three-year-olds, who sometimes run a mile and a half over hurdles; and
+the lowest weight carried can never be less than 10 stone except in a
+handicap steeplechase of 3½ m. or upwards, when it may be 9 st. 7 lb.
+
+Horses are ridden in these races either by gentlemen, or qualified
+riders or jockeys. The first of these classes comprises officers on full
+pay in the army or navy, persons holding commissions under the Crown,
+bearing titles either in their own right or by courtesy, or members of
+certain social and racing clubs. Qualified riders may be farmers holding
+at least a hundred acres of land, their sons if following the same
+occupation, and persons elected by members of the National Hunt
+Committee, a proviso being that they must never have ridden for hire;
+but it is feared that this rule is in not a few cases evaded.
+Professional jockeys are paid £5 for each mount or £10 if they win. The
+sport is governed by the National Hunt Committee, a body which receives
+delegated powers from the Jockey Club, and six stewards are elected
+every year to supervise the business of the various meetings.
+Steeplechases and hurdle races are either handicaps or weight-for-age
+races according to the following scale:--
+
+  _For Steeplechases of 3 miles and upwards._
+
+    From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+      10 st. 3 lb.   11 st. 8 lb.     12 st. 3 lb.
+
+    From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+         11 st.       11 st. 12 lb.   12 st. 3 lb.
+
+  _For Steeplechases of less than 3 miles._
+
+    From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+      10 st. 10 lb.   11 st. 10 lb.   12 st. 3 lb.
+
+    From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+      11 st. 6 lb.       12 st.       12 st. 3 lb.
+
+  _For Hurdle Races._
+
+    From the 1st of January to the 31st of August, inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+      11 st. 6 lb.    11 st. 10 lb.   12 st. 0 lb.
+
+    From the 1st of September to the 31st of December, inclusive:--
+         3 yrs.          4 yrs.      5, 6, and aged
+      10 st. 7 lb.    11 st. 12 lb.   12 st. 3 lb.
+
+
+  The Grand National.
+
+The great test of merit in a steeplechase horse is success in the Grand
+National, which is always run at Liverpool during the first week of the
+flat-racing season. The course is 4½ m., and includes thirty jumps, the
+fences being for the most part larger than are found elsewhere. The
+average time occupied is well under ten minutes. The stake has varied in
+value since the race was originated in 1839; it now amounts to close on
+£2500. Only a very small percentage of steeplechase horses possess the
+speed and staying power to give them a chance in this race, and the
+number of entries year by year falls considerably short of a hundred,
+the prospects of many of these usually appearing hopeless to all but
+unduly sanguine owners. The average number of starters during the period
+1860-1901 was rather over twenty. As many as thirty-two competed in
+1909, when the French-bred Latteur III. won; in 1883, when Zoedone,
+ridden by her owner, Count Kinsky, was successful, only ten went to the
+post. Mishaps are almost invariably numerous; in most years about
+one-third complete the course. So severe is the task that for a long
+time many good judges of steeplechasing believed that no horse with more
+than 12 stone on his back could possibly win. In 1893, however, Cloister
+won in a canter by forty lengths carrying 12 st. 7 lb., and with the
+same weight Manifesto also won in 1899. The race which most nearly
+approaches the Grand National in importance is the Lancashire Handicap
+Steeplechase, run at Manchester over 3½ m. early in April. The stake is
+worth about £1750. An interesting steeplechase called the Grand Sefton
+takes place at Liverpool about the middle of November; the distance is 3
+m. During the winter, and extending into the spring, steeplechasing and
+hurdle racing are carried on at Sandown, Kempton, Gatwick, Lingfield,
+Newbury and Hurst Park; at Ludlow, Newmarket, Aldershot, Birmingham,
+Manchester, Windsor and other places. A race called the National Hunt
+Steeplechase, under the immediate patronage of the National Hunt
+Committee, is run annually over a 4-mile course, the stake being £1000.
+Managers of various courses bid for the privilege of having the race on
+their ground, and it is therefore found in different localities. A
+condition is that no horse who has ever won a race can compete; and, as
+few owners are willing to keep their animals with a view to success in
+this event, the field consists either of unknown horses or of those that
+have been beaten.
+
+
+  AUSTRALIA
+
+  Racing in Australia has its headquarters at Sydney, under the
+  government of the Australian Jockey Club, the principal course being
+  at Ranwick; and at Melbourne, where the Victoria Jockey Club is
+  supreme, the principal course being at Flemington. In New Zealand
+  sport is carried on under the authority of delegates from the chief
+  racing clubs, who meet in conference. There is a Sydney Derby and a
+  Victoria Derby, and a notable event at Flemington is the Champion
+  Race, weight-for-age, for three-year-olds and upwards, which usually
+  attracts the best horses in training, as the fee at which a sire
+  stands depends in a great measure on his success in this contest. This
+  race is over a distance of 3 m., and to ensure a good pace there is a
+  regulation that the time in which it is run must not exceed 5 minutes
+  40 seconds, though the stewards have power to extend this in case the
+  ground should be made exceptionally heavy by rainy weather. The
+  Melbourne Cup is regarded as one of the most important races in the
+  state. This is a handicap, and in comparison with English races may
+  perhaps be ranked with the Cesarewitch. The birth of horses dates from
+  the 1st of August, which corresponds as nearly as possible to the 1st
+  of February in England, so that the Australian horses are practically
+  seven months younger than the English--a matter of some importance in
+  the case of those sent to run in England. There are few races which
+  close long before the date of decision, and practically all the good
+  animals run in handicaps. The five- and six-furlong races for other
+  than two-year-olds, so common in Great Britain, are extremely rare;
+  and it is asserted by colonial sportsmen that their horses stay better
+  than those bred in England, a circumstance which is largely attributed
+  to the fact that mares and foals have much more liberty and exercise
+  than is the case in the mother country.
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+Horse-racing was indulged in to a limited extent in Maryland and
+Virginia as early as the middle of the 17th century, particularly in the
+latter colony. Most of the inhabitants of both were either from the
+British Isles or were descended from parents who had immigrated from
+them, and they inherited a taste for the sport. The animals used for
+this purpose, however, were not highly prized at the time, and the
+pedigree of not even one of them has been preserved. A horse called
+Bully Rock by the Darley Arabian out of a mare by the Byerly Turk,
+granddam by the Lister Turk, great-granddam a royal mare, foaled 1718,
+is the first recorded importation of a thoroughbred horse into America.
+He was imported into Virginia in 1730. In 1723 the duke of Bolton bred a
+mare named Bonny Lass by his celebrated horse Bay Bolton out of a
+daughter of the Darley Arabian. She became celebrated in England as a
+brood mare, and was the first thoroughbred mare, according to the
+records, that was carried to America. This is supposed to have been in
+or after 1740, as the _Stud-Book_ shows she produced in England after
+1739 a filly by Lord Lonsdale's Arabian, and subsequently became
+familiar to the public as the granddam of Zamora. The importations
+increased very rapidly from this period, and many valuable shipments
+were made before the war which resulted in a separation of the colonies
+from the mother country. This acquisition of thoroughbred stock
+increased the number and value of racing prizes, and extended the area
+of operations into the Carolinas in the South, and New Jersey and New
+York in the North. The first race run in South Carolina was in February
+1734 for £20. It took place over "the Green," on Charleston Neck. This
+shows that the earlier races in America were actually on the turf, as
+they have always been in England. The next year a Jockey Club was
+organized at Charleston (1735), and a course was prepared, such as those
+which came later into general use throughout the states, the turf being
+removed and the ground made as level as possible.
+
+After 1776, when the United States declared their independence of Great
+Britain, the importation of thoroughbred horses from England became
+quite common, and selections were made from the best stocks in the
+United Kingdom. This continued and even increased as the country became
+developed, down to 1840. The following Derby winners were among those
+carried into the states: Diomed, who won the first Derby in 1780;
+Saltram, winner in 1783; John Bull, winner in 1792; Spread Eagle, winner
+in 1795; Sir Harry, winner in 1798; Archduke, winner in 1799; and Priam,
+who won in 1830. The most important and valuable importations, however,
+proved to be Jolly Roger, Fearnought, Medley, Traveller, Diomed,
+Glencoe, Leviathan, Tranby, Lexington, Margrave, Yorkshire Buzzard,
+Albion and Leamington. The best results were obtained from Diomed and
+Glencoe. Diomed sired one horse, Sir Archy, who founded a family to
+which nearly all the blood horses of America trace back. He was foaled
+in 1805, in Virginia, and became celebrated as a sire. The superiority
+of his progeny was so generally conceded that they were greatly sought
+after. From this period, too, the number and value of races increased;
+still they were comparatively few in number, and could not compare in
+value with those of Great Britain. Up to 1860 the value of racing prizes
+was quite inadequate to develop large breeding establishments, or to
+sustain extensive training stables. Then the civil war between the North
+and the South broke out, which raged for four years. Breeding
+establishments were broken up during that time; the horses were taken by
+the armies for cavalry purposes, for which service they were highly
+prized; and racing was completely paralysed. It took some time to regain
+its strength; but an era of prosperity set in about 1870, and since then
+the progress in interest has been continuous.
+
+In the United States interest in trotting races more than rivals that
+felt in the contests of thoroughbred horses. This interest dates back to
+the importation to Philadelphia from England, in 1788, of the
+thoroughbred horse Messenger, a grey stallion, by Mambrino, 1st dam by
+Turf, 2nd dam by Regulus, 3rd dam by Starling, 4th dam by Fox, 5th dam
+Gipsey, by Bay Bolton, 6th dam by duke of Newcastle's Turk, 7th dam by
+Byerly Turk, 8th dam by Taffolet Barb, 9th dam by Place's White Turk. He
+was eight years old when imported to the United States. He was at the
+stud for twenty years, in the vicinity of Philadelphia and New York,
+serving a number of thoroughbred mares, but a far greater number of
+cold-blooded mares, and in the progeny of the latter the trotting
+instinct was almost invariably developed, while his thoroughbred sons,
+who became scattered over the country, were also noted for transmitting
+the trotting instinct. The first public trotting race of which there is
+any account in the United States was in 1818, when the grey gelding
+Boston Blue was matched to trot a mile in 3 minutes, a feat deemed
+impossible; but he won, though the time of his performance has not been
+preserved. From about that date interest in this gait began to increase;
+breeders of trotters sprang up, and horses were trained for trotting
+contests. The problem of breeding trotters has been necessarily found to
+be a much more complex one than that of breeding the thoroughbred, as in
+the latter case pure blood lines of long recognized value could be
+relied upon, while in the former the best results were constantly being
+obtained from most unexpected sources. Among the leading families came
+to be the Hambletonian, of which the modern head was Rysdyk's
+Hambletonian, a bay horse foaled in 1849, got by Abdallah (traced to
+imp. Messenger on the side of both sire and dam) out of the Charles Kent
+mare, by imp. (i.e. imported) Bellfounder, with two crosses to imp.
+Messenger on her dam's side; the Mambrinos, whose modern head was
+Mambrino Chief, foaled 1844, by Mambrino Paymaster, a grandson of imp.
+Messenger; the Bashaws, founded by Young Bashaw, foaled 1822, by Grand
+Bashaw, an Arabian horse, dam Pearl, by First Consul; the Clays,
+springing from Henry Clay, a grandson of Young Bashaw through Andrew
+Jackson; the Stars, springing from Stockholm's American Star, by Duroc,
+son of imp. Diomed; the Morgans, whose founder was Justin Morgan, foaled
+1793, by a horse called True Briton, or Beautiful Bay, who was probably
+thoroughbred; the Black Hawks, a branch of the Morgan family; the Blue
+Bulls, descended from Doyle's Blue Bull, foaled 1855, a pacer, sired by
+a pacer of the same name, dam by Blacknose, son of Medoc; the Canadians,
+whose best representatives were St Lawrence and pacing Pilot, horses of
+unknown pedigree; the Gold Dusts, another branch of the Morgan family;
+and the Royal Georges, springing from Tippoo, a horse who was probably
+by Ogden's Messenger, son of imp. Messenger. But trotters of great speed
+have been produced which do not trace to any of the sources mentioned.
+Very large prices are paid. Steinway, a three-year-old colt, was sold in
+1879, to go to California, for $13,000; and in 1878 $21,000 was paid for
+the four-year-old filly Maud S., after she had trotted a mile in public
+in 2 m. 17½ s. Much larger sums have been paid, however, for matured
+trotters, such as $40,000 for the stallion Smuggler, $38,000 for
+Pocahontas, $35,000 for Dexter, $36,000 for Rarus, and long prices for
+many others; St Julien, the trotter with the fastest record at the close
+of 1879, was held at $50,000, while Rysdyk's Hambletonian, Messenger
+Duroc and Volunteer were valued, in their prime, at $100,000 each.
+
+Compared with the early days of American trotting, the advance has been
+rapid and the changes marked. After the performance of Boston Blue,
+mentioned above, more attention was paid to the gait, but for a long
+time the races were generally under saddle, and at long distances, 3 m.
+being rather the favourite. The best of the old time trotters were Edwin
+Forrest, who trotted a mile in 2 m. 31½ s. in 1834; Dutchman, who did 3
+m. under saddle in 7 m. 32½ s.; Ripton; Lady Suffolk, who trotted a mile
+in 2 m. 26½ s. in 1843, and headed the list of performers; Mac, Tacony,
+&c. After 1850, however, the taste of the people settled upon the style
+of race called "mile heats, best three out of five, in harness" as the
+favourite. By "in harness" is meant that the horse draws a sulky, a
+light two-wheeled vehicle in which the driver sits close to the horse,
+with his legs on each side of his flanks. These sulkies often weigh less
+than 40 lb. The driver is required to weigh, with the blanket on which
+he sits, 150 lb., while for saddle races the regulation weight is 145
+lb., or 10 st. 5 lb. Each heat of a mile is a separate race; 20 minutes
+is allowed between heats; and the horse that first places three heats to
+his credit wins the race. There are various penalties imposed upon a
+horse that breaks into a run in a trotting race. The driver is required
+to pull him to a trot as quickly as possible; if the horse gains by
+running, the judges set him back at the finish twice the distance he has
+gained, in their estimation, by running; and for repeated "breaks" they
+can declare him distanced. The first-class tracks are of oval shape,
+with long stretches and easy curves, measuring 1 m. at 3 ft. distance
+from the "pole," as the inner railing of the track is called. The time
+in which the leading horse trots each heat is accurately kept, placed on
+a blackboard in front of the judges' stand for the information of the
+public, and also placed in the book of the course. The fastest time that
+any trotter has is thus entered as his "record." This is one of the
+distinctive features of trotting in America.
+
+Prior to 1866 purses for trotters were small; match races were more in
+vogue, and the trotting turf was in bad odour. In that year an
+association was formed at Buffalo, N.Y., which inaugurated its efforts
+by offering the then unprecedented sum of $10,500 for a trotting meeting
+of four days' duration. The experiment was successful; other cities
+followed the example of Buffalo; larger and larger purses were given;
+and at Buffalo in 1872 the prizes amounted to $70,000. Since then the
+amount offered in the United States and Canada, during a single year,
+has reached $1,500,000. Individual trotters, in the course of a long
+turf career, earn enormous amounts. A remarkable instance of this was
+the mare Goldsmith Maid, by Alexander's Abdallah (a son of Rysdyk's
+Hambletonian), out of an Abdallah mare. She began trotting in 1866, and
+left the turf in 1878, when twenty-one years old, and her winnings
+amounted to over $200,000.
+
+In 1869 the National Trotting Association was formed, under which an
+elaborate code of rules has been published.
+
+In trotting races, it will be noted, the time test is supreme, differing
+from running races, in which time is of comparatively little
+consequence. The animal which has the fastest record for 1 mile in
+harness is, until deposed, the king or queen of the trotting turf. Lady
+Suffolk, with her record of 2 m. 26½ s., in 1843, held this honour until
+1853, when Tacony trotted in 2 m. 25½ s. under saddle; Flora Temple
+wrested it from him in 1856 by trotting in 2 m. 24½ s. in harness. This
+latter mare, in 1859, trotted a mile in 2 m. 19¾ s., a feat which the
+best horsemen thought would never be repeated, but since that time
+forty-two trotters have beaten 2 m. 20 s. Dexter's record was 2 m. 17¼
+s. in 1867, and Goldsmith Maid's in 1871 was 2 m. 17 s., which she
+reduced, by successive efforts, to 2 m. 16¾ s., 2 m. 16 s., 2 m. 15 s.,
+2 m. 14¾ s., and finally, in 1874, to 2 m. 14 s. In 1878 Rarus trotted a
+mile in 2 m. 13¼ s., and in October 1879 the bay gelding St Julien, by
+Volunteer, son of Rysdyk's Hambletonian, dam by Henry Clay, trotted a
+mile in California in 2 m. 12¾ s. Other notable performances reducing
+the record were Maud S. in 1881, 2 m. 10¼ s.; Maud S. in 1885, 2 m. 8¾
+s.; Sunol in 1891, 2 m. 8¼ s.; Nancy Hanks in 1892, 2 m. 4 s.; Alix in
+1894, 2 m. 3¾ s.; Cresceus in 1901, 2 m. 2¼ s.; Lou Dillon in 1905, 1 m.
+58½ s. Improved times have doubtless been the result of improved
+methods, as well as of care in the breeding of the trotter. Some very
+severe training rules used to be sedulously observed; about 1870, for
+instance, a horse never had water the night before a race, and the
+system generally appears to have overtaxed the animal's strength. A
+prominent consideration in trotting races is the adjustment of
+toe-weights, which are fastened on to the horses' feet to equalize their
+action, and it is found that horses improve their time to the extent of
+several seconds when properly shod.
+
+Pacing races are also frequent in the United States. In trotting the
+action may be described as diagonal; the pacer moves both legs on the
+same side at the same time, and both feet stride as one. A similar
+"gait," to employ the American term, was called in England some
+centuries ago an "amble." The pacer moves more easily and with
+apparently less exertion than the trotter, and the mile record (made by
+Prince Alert in 1903) stands at 1 m. 57 s.
+
+Owing to the vast size of the country there are various centres of
+sport, which can be classified with reasonable accuracy as follows: the
+Eastern States, dominated by the Jockey Club, founded in New York in
+1894, and recognized by a state law in 1895; the Middle Western States,
+under the control of the Western Jockey Club, whose headquarters are in
+Chicago; the Pacific Coast, with San Francisco for its centre; and the
+Southern and South-Western States, with Louisville as the most important
+centre. The passage of the racing law in New York State marked the
+opening of a new era. Supreme even over the Jockey Club is a State
+Racing Commission of three, appointed by the governor of the state.
+While the Jockey Club is only recognized by law in its native state, it
+has assumed and maintains control of all racing on the eastern seaboard,
+within certain lines of latitude and longitude, extending as far north
+as the Canadian border and south to Georgia. There is small question
+that other states, both east and west, will follow suit and enact
+similar laws. The Western Jockey Club, though not recognized by law,
+controls practically all the racing through the middle west, south-west
+and south; but the racing associations of the Pacific Coast have
+maintained a position of independence.
+
+What New York is to the east, Chicago is to the middle west, and a very
+large proportion of American racing is conducted close to these centres.
+In New York State the Coney Island Jockey Club, at Sheepshead Bay; the
+Brooklyn Jockey Club, at Gravesend; the Westchester Racing Association,
+at Morris Park; the Brighton Beach Racing Association, at Brighton
+Beach; the Queen's County Jockey Club, at Aqueduct; and the Saratoga
+Racing Association, at Saratoga, are the leading organizations; and all
+these race-courses, with the exception of Saratoga, are within a radius
+of 20 miles of the city. The Empire City Jockey Club, near Yonkers, and
+another club with headquarters near Jamaica, Long Island, have also
+become prominent institutions. The Washington Park Club, at Chicago, is
+the leading Turf body of the west, and the only one on an equal footing
+with the prominent associations of New York State. With this single
+exception the most important and valuable stakes of the American Turf
+are given in the east; and so great has the prosperity of the Turf been
+since the Jockey Club came into existence that the list of rich prizes
+is growing at a surprising rate. In this respect the principal fault is
+the undue encouragement given to the racing of two-year-olds. At the
+winter meetings held at New Orleans and San Francisco, two-year-olds are
+raced from the very beginning of the year; and under the rules of the
+Jockey Club of New York they run as early as March. The Westchester
+Racing Association, with which are closely identified some of the
+principal members of the Jockey Club, gives valuable two-year-old stakes
+in May. The Futurity Stakes, the richest event of the year--on one
+occasion it reached a value of $67,675--is for two-year-olds, and is run
+at Sheepshead Bay in the autumn. The institution of races, either
+absolutely or practically at weight-for-age, and over long courses, has
+engaged much attention. The Coney Island Jockey Club has the leading
+three-year-old stake in the Lawrence Realization, over 1 mile 5
+furlongs, with an average value of about $30,000. The Westchester Racing
+Association's two principal three-year-old stakes, the Withers, over a
+mile, run in May, and the Belmont, 1 mile and 3 furlongs, run later in
+the same month, are of less value, but are much older-established and
+have a species of "classic" prestige, dating from the old Jerome Park
+race-course in the 'sixties. The Coney Island Jockey Club's Century and
+the Annual Champion Stakes, both for three-year-olds and upwards, over a
+mile and a half and two miles and a quarter respectively, are fair
+specimens of the races the associations have founded. At Saratoga a
+stake of $50,000 for three-year-olds and upwards, distance a mile and a
+quarter, was opened, and run for first in 1904. The hope is to wean
+owners from the practice of overtaxing their two-year-olds, which has
+resulted practically in a positive dearth, almost a total absence, of
+good four-year-olds and upwards of late years. Handicaps play a more
+important part than in England. The principal events of this character,
+such as the Brooklyn Handicap at Gravesend and the Suburban at
+Sheepshead Bay, have for years drawn the largest attendances of the
+racing season.
+
+Practically all flat racing in the United States is held on
+"dirt-tracks," i.e. courses with soil specially prepared for racing,
+instead of turf courses. At Sheepshead Bay there is a turf course, but
+it is only used for a minority of races. Dirt-tracks, which are, like
+many other things in American racing, a legacy from the once hugely
+popular harness-racing, are conducive to great speed, but are costly in
+the extreme strain on horses' legs. Steeplechases are run on turf. This
+branch of the sport in the east is now flourishing under the
+administration of the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association, a
+sister body of the Jockey Club. Comparatively few races are, however,
+run under these rules, as the weather conditions render it impossible to
+have a separate season for cross-country sport and steeplechases, and
+hurdle races are incorporated in programmes of flat racing held through
+the spring, summer and autumn, though the ground is frequently so hard
+as to be unsafe. Since the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association
+assumed control, regulation courses, practically similar in every
+respect to those used in England, have been insisted upon in the east,
+the "open ditch" figuring under the name of the "Liverpool." In the west
+and south there is not the same uniformity, and so far the sport has not
+flourished.
+
+
+FRANCE
+
+Racing in France as conducted on modern lines may be said to date from
+the year 1833, when the French _Stud-Book_ was originated, and a body
+formed, somewhat after the model of the English Jockey Club, under the
+title of the Société d'Encouragement pour l'Amélioration des Races de
+Chevaux en France. Races took place in the Champs de Mars, and an
+unsuccessful attempt was made in 1834 to arrange for a course, or
+"hippodrome," as it is termed in France, at Maisons Laffitte. Chantilly
+was, however, fixed upon as the principal racing centre; on the 22nd
+April 1836 the first meeting was held there, with five races on the
+card, the principal being the Prix d'Orléans, a stake of 3500 francs,
+named after the due d'Orléans, one of the chief promoters of the
+fixture. Next day the first race for the Prix du Jockey Club was run,
+and won by Frank, the property of Lord Henry Seymour, who was at the
+time taking a very active part in French sport. The Prix du Jockey Club
+was then worth 5000 francs; the value has since increased to 200,000
+francs. This race occupies in France the place of the English Derby. The
+Prix de Diane, which corresponds to the English Oaks, was first run in
+1843. Chantilly still continues an important centre of the French Turf,
+and a great many horses are trained in the district. Attempts had been
+made to popularize racing at Longchamps prior to the year 1856, when the
+Société d'Encouragement obtained a lease, erected stands, laid out the
+course, and held their first meeting on the 27th August 1857. Next
+season two meetings were held, one of four days in the spring and
+another of three in the autumn; at the present time the sport is
+vigorously carried on from March to the end of October, except during a
+summer recess. In 1857 meetings under the auspices of the Société
+d'Encouragement began to take place at Amiens, Caen, Nantes,
+Versailles, Moulins and other towns; and there were stakes for
+two-year-olds in the spring, though of late years the appearance of the
+young horses has been postponed to the 1st of August. Progress was
+rapid, and in 1863 two important events were contested for the first
+time, the Prix du Prince Impérial, which was designed to balance the
+English St Leger, but for obvious reasons faded out of the programme,
+and the Grand Prix de Paris, an international race for three-year-olds,
+run at Longchamps over a distance of 1 mile 7 furlongs, and now the most
+valuable stake in Europe. In 1909 the prize was £14,071. The first Grand
+Prix fell to an English horse, Mr Savile's The Ranger; two years later
+it was won by Gladiateur, winner of the English Derby and the property
+of the comte de Lagrange, who raced equally in France and in England;
+the duke of Beaufort's Ceylon was successful in 1866, and the marquis of
+Hastings' Earl in 1868. Mr Savile's Cremorne followed up his Derby
+victory by a victory at Longchamps in 1872, as did Mr Baltazzi's Kisber
+four years later. English horses were also victorious in 1874 (Mr W. R.
+Marshall's Trent), in 1878 (Prince Soltykoff's Thurio), in 1880 (Mr C.
+Brewer's Robert the Devil), in 1881 (Mr Keene's Foxhall, who, however,
+should rather rank as an American horse), in 1882 (Mr Rymill's Bruce),
+in 1885 (Mr Cloete's Paradox), in 1886 (Mr Vyner's Minting); and in 1906
+Major Eustace Loder's Derby winner Spearmint. During the first 23 years
+of the Grand Prix (owing to the war the race did not take place in 1871)
+the stake fell to English horses--if Kisber and Foxhall be included--on
+twelve occasions, and generally to English jockeys. In recent years,
+however, French owners have held their own. In not a few respects racing
+is managed more judiciously than in England. The courses, for one thing,
+are better tended and maintained. The five- and six-furlong races for
+others than two-year-olds, which are so common at English meetings, are
+comparatively rare in France, and the value of the prizes in an average
+day's racing is considerably higher across the Channel than in England.
+A very large percentage of trainers and jockeys are English, and the
+former are, as a rule, quite as expert as at Newmarket and elsewhere.
+Transatlantic methods have been introduced by American jockeys since
+1899. From the middle of February until the middle of December a race
+meeting within easy reach of Paris takes place almost every day, except
+during August, when the sport is carried on in the provinces, notably at
+Deauville. Near Paris, the chief centre after Longchamps is Maisons
+Laffitte. At Longchamps, early in October, a race called the Prix du
+Conseil Municipal, worth £4000, for three-year-olds and upwards, over a
+mile and a half, was organized in 1893, and has usually attracted
+English horses, Mr Wallace Johnstone's Best Man having been successful
+in 1894, and Mr Sullivan's Winkfield's Pride the following year. Except
+when the Whip is challenged for and the challenge decided over the
+Beacon Course at Newmarket, no race is run in England over a longer
+distance than two miles and 6 furlongs; but in France the Prix
+Gladiateur, of £1200 and a work of art value £100, 3 miles 7 furlongs,
+creates considerable interest at Longchamps in the autumn.
+
+
+  Steeplechasing.
+
+The first recognized steeplechase in France took place at Croix de
+Berny, and was won by the comte de Vaublanc's May-fly, all the horses at
+that time being ridden by gentlemen. Sport does not seem to have been
+carried on with much spirit, for it is said that the death of an animal
+called Barcha, in 1839, nearly led to the abandonment of the meeting;
+and it was not till 1863, when the Société des Steeplechases de France
+was founded, that the business was resolutely taken in hand. Gravelle
+and Vincennes were the principal centres until 1873, when the Société
+obtained possession of the ground at Auteuil, where the excellent course
+now in use was laid out. In 1874 twelve days' racing took place here,
+the card each day including three steeplechases and a hurdle race, the
+"hurdles," however, being small fences, as they are at present. The
+Grand Steeplechase d'Auteuil was then for a stake of 30,000 francs, at
+the time the most valuable offered in any country; but, as in racing on
+the flat, the stakes have enormously increased in value, and in 1901 the
+Paris Grand Steeplechase, as the chief event is now called, credited the
+winner with £6020, the hurdle race being worth rather more than half as
+much. In England there is scarcely any steeplechasing between March and
+November, except at hunt meetings, but in Paris cross-country sport is
+pursued almost all through the year, the chief races at Auteuil taking
+place in June, about the time of the Grand Prix, which is usually run
+for between the English Epsom and Ascot meetings. The Auteuil course is
+laid out in the shape of the figure 8, with varied fences, several of
+which really test a horse's jumping capacity; and variety is further
+obtained by starting the fields in different places and traversing the
+course in different ways. St Ouen, a meeting within half an hour's drive
+of the Louvre, is entirely devoted to steeplechasing; and jumping is
+also carried on at Vincennes, Colombes, Enghien, and elsewhere near
+Paris, as also at Nice in the winter, at Dieppe and other places in
+August. As a rule, the stakes run for, especially at Auteuil, are very
+much larger than in England. There are none of the clubs and special
+enclosures such as at Sandown, Kempton, Hurst, Lingfield, Gatwick, &c.,
+though portions of the stand are set apart for privileged persons. A fee
+of 20 francs is charged for admission to the chief French race-courses,
+with half as much for a lady's voucher, and the tickets give access
+everywhere but to the very few reserved portions. At Vincennes, St
+Cloud, and some other courses trotting races are also contested.
+
+  _Other Countries._--Racing in Germany is mainly conducted under the
+  authority of the Union Club of Berlin, the principal course being the
+  Hoppegarten. Two-year-olds do not run until the 1st of June, except in
+  Saxony, where they appear a month earlier. During the month of August
+  there are several days' racing at Baden-Baden, steeplechases as well
+  as flat races being run. Some of the more valuable stakes are usually
+  contested by a proportion of horses from France and other countries, a
+  few being occasionally sent from England. For years past blood-stock
+  has been imported from England. In Austria the two centres of racing
+  are Vienna and Budapest, each of which has its Jockey Club. Racing in
+  Belgium derives no little support from the contiguity of the country
+  to France. The headquarters of the Belgium Jockey Club are in the Bois
+  de la Cambre at Boisfort, and meetings are held at Ostend, Antwerp,
+  Spa, Bruges and elsewhere. Steeplechases take place at Groenenval and
+  on other Belgian courses, but are not of high class. Racing has not
+  reached a great degree of excellence in Italy, though attempts have
+  been made to improve competitors by the purchase of Melton, who won
+  the Derby of 1885, and of other notable animals. Meetings take place
+  at Florence, Padua, Bologna and other places, but the stakes are
+  usually small.     (A. E. T. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HORSERADISH (Ger. _Meerrettig_; Fr. _raifort_ = _racine forte_, _cran de
+Bretagne_; Swed. _Peppar-rot_; Russ. _chren_), known botanically as
+_Cochlearia Armoracia_, a perennial plant of the natural order
+Cruciferae, having a stout cylindrical rootstock from the crown of which
+spring large radical leaves on long stalks, 4 to 6 in. broad, and about
+a foot in length with a deeply crenate margin, and coarsely veined; the
+stem-leaves are short-stalked or sessile, elongated and tapering to
+their attachment, the lower ones often deeply toothed. The flowers,
+which appear in May and June, are 3/8 in. in width, in flat-topped
+panicles, with purplish sepals and white petals; the fruit is a small
+silicula, which does not ripen in the climate of England. The
+horseradish is indigenous to eastern Europe. Into western Europe and
+Great Britain, where it is to be met with on waste ground, it was
+probably introduced. It was wild in various parts of England in Gerard's
+time.
+
+The root, the _armoraciae radix_ of pharmacy, is ½ to 2 in. or more in
+diameter, and commonly 1 ft., sometimes 3 ft. in length; the upper part
+is enlarged into a crown, which is annulated with the scars of fallen
+leaves; and from the numerous irregular lateral branches are produced
+vertical stolons, and also adventitious buds, which latter render the
+plant very difficult of extirpation. From the root of Aconite (q.v.),
+which has occasionally been mistaken for it, horseradish root differs in
+being more or less cylindrical from a little below the crown, and in its
+pale yellowish (or brownish) white hue externally, acrid and penetrating
+odour when scraped or bruised, and pungent and either sweetish or
+bitter taste. Under the influence of a ferment which it contains, the
+fresh root yields on distillation with water about .05% of a volatile
+oil, butyl sulphocyanide, C4H9CNS. After drying, the root has been found
+to afford 11.15% of ash. Horseradish root is an ingredient in the
+_spiritus armoraciae compositus_ (dose 1-2 drachms) of the British
+Pharmacopoeia. It is an agreeable flavouring agent. In common with other
+species of _Cochlearia_, the horseradish was formerly in high repute as
+an antiscorbutic. The root was, as well as the leaves, taken with food
+by the Germans in the middle ages, whence the old French name for it,
+_moutarde des Allemands_; and Coles, writing in 1657, mentions its use
+with meat in England, where it is still chiefly employed as a condiment
+with beef.
+
+For the successful cultivation of the horseradish, a light and friable
+damp soil is the most suitable; this having been trenched 3 ft. deep in
+autumn, and the surface turned down with a liberal supply of farm-yard
+manure, a second dressing of decomposed manure should in the ensuing
+spring be dug in 2 ft. deep, and pieces of the root 6 in. in length may
+then be planted a foot apart in narrow trenches. During summer the
+ground requires to be kept free of weeds; and the application of liquid
+manure twice or thrice in sufficient quantity to reach the lowest roots
+is an advantage. When dug the root may be long preserved in good
+condition by placing it in sand.
+
+  See Gerard, _Herball_, p. 240, ed. Johnson (1636); Flückiger and
+  Hanbury, _Pharmacographia_, p. 71 (2nd ed., 1879); Bentley and Trimen,
+  _Med. Pl._, i. 21 (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HORSE-SHOES. The horny casing of the foot of the horse and other
+Solidungulates, while quite sufficient to protect the extremity of the
+limb under natural conditions, is found to wear away and break,
+especially in moist climates, when the animal is subjected to hard work
+of any kind. This, however, can be obviated by the simple device of
+attaching to the hoof a rim of iron, adjusted to the shape of the hoof.
+The animal itself has been in a very marked manner modified by shoeing,
+for without this we could have had neither the fleet racers nor the
+heavy and powerful cart-horses of the present day. Though the ancients
+were sufficiently impressed by the damage done to horses' hoofs to
+devise certain forms of covering for them (in the shape of socks or
+sandals), the practice of nailing iron plates or rim-shoes to the hoof
+does not appear to have been introduced earlier than the 2nd century
+B.C., and was not commonly known till the close of the 5th century A.D.,
+or in regular use till the middle ages. The evidence for the earlier
+date depends on the doubtful interpretations of designs on coins, &c. As
+time went on, however, the profession of the farrier and the art of the
+shoesmith gradually grew in importance. It was only in the 19th century
+that horse-shoeing was introduced in Japan, where the former practice
+was to attach to the horse's feet slippers of straw, which were renewed
+when necessary, a custom which may indicate the usage of early peoples.
+In modern times much attention has been devoted to horse-shoeing by
+veterinary science, with the result of showing that methods formerly
+adopted caused cruel injury to horses and serious loss to their owners.
+The evils resulted from (1) paring the sole and frog; (2) applying shoes
+too heavy and of faulty shape; (3) employing too many and too large
+nails; (4) applying shoes too small and removing the wall of the hoof to
+make the feet fit the shoes, and (5) rasping the front of the hoof. In
+rural districts, where the art of the farrier is combined with general
+blacksmith work, too little attention is apt to be given to
+considerations which have an important bearing on the comfort,
+usefulness and life of the horse. According to modern principles (1)
+shoes should be as light as compatible with the wear demanded of them;
+(2) the ground face of the shoe should be concave, and the face applied
+to the foot plain; (3) heavy draught horses alone should have toe and
+heel calks on their shoes to increase foothold; (4) the excess growth of
+the wall or outer portion of horny matter should only be removed in
+re-shoeing, care being taken to keep both sides of the hoof of equal
+height; (5) the shoe should fit accurately to the circumference of the
+hoof, and project slightly beyond the heel; (6) the shoes should be
+fixed with as few nails as possible, six or seven in fore-shoes and
+eight in hind-shoes, and (7) the nails should take a short thick hold of
+the wall, so that old nail-holes may be removed with the natural growth
+and paring of the horny matter. Horse-shoes and nails are now made with
+great economy by machinery, and special forms of shoe or plate are made
+for race-horses and trotters, or to suit abnormalities of the hoof.
+
+
+
+
+HORSETAIL (_Equisetum_), the sole genus of the botanical natural order
+Equisetaceae, consisting of a group of vascular cryptogamous plants (see
+PTERIDOPHYTA) remarkable for the vegetative structure which resembles in
+general appearance the genera of flowering plants _Casuarina_ and
+_Ephedra_. They are herbaceous plants growing from an underground
+much-branched rootstock from which spring slender aerial shoots which
+are green, ribbed, and bear at each node a whorl of leaves reduced to a
+toothed sheath. From the nodes spring whorls of similar but more slender
+branches. Some shoots are sterile while others are fertile, bearing at
+the apex the so-called fructification--a dense oval, oblong conical or
+cylindrical spike, consisting of a number of shortly-stalked peltate
+scales, each of which has attached to its under surface a circle of
+spore-cases (sporangia) which open by a longitudinal slit on their
+inner side. The spores differ from those of ferns in their outer coat
+(_exospore_) being split up into four club-shaped hygroscopic threads
+(_elaters_) which are curled when moist, but become straightened when
+dry. In most species the fertile and sterile shoots are alike, both
+being green and leaf-bearing, but in a few species the fertile are more
+or less different, e.g. in _E. arvense_ the fertile shoots appear first,
+in the spring, and are unbranched and not green. Any portion of the
+underground rhizome when broken off is capable of producing a new plant;
+hence the difficulty of eradicating them when once established. There
+are 24 known species of the genus which is universally distributed.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+_Equisetum arvense._
+
+  A, Fertile shoot, springing from the rhizome, which also bears tubers;
+    the vegetative shoots have not yet unfolded.
+  F, Sterile vegetative shoot.
+  B, C, Sporophylls bearing sporangia, which in C have opened.
+  D, Spore showing the two spiral bands of the perinium.
+  E, Dry spores showing the expanded spiral bands.
+  (A, F, reduced. B, C, D, E, enlarged.)]
+
+The corn horsetail _E. arvense_, one of the commonest species, is a
+troublesome weed in clayey cornfields (see fig.). The fructification
+appears in March and April, terminating in short unbranched stems. It is
+said to produce diarrhoea in such cattle as eat it. The bog horsetail,
+_E. palustre_, is said to possess similar properties. It grows in
+marshes, ditches, pools and drains in meadows, and sometimes obstructs
+the flow of water with its dense matted roots. The fructification in
+this species is cylindrical, and in that of _E. limosum_, which grows in
+similar situations, it is ovate in outline. The largest British species,
+_E. maximum_, grows in wet sandy declivities by railway embankments or
+streams, &c., and is remarkable for its beauty, due to the abundance of
+its elegant branches and the alternately green and white appearance of
+the stem. In this species the fructification is conical or lanceolate,
+and is found in April on short, stout, unbranched stems which have large
+loose sheaths. Horses appear to be fond of this species, and in Sweden
+it is stored for use as winter fodder. _E. hyemale_, commonly known as
+the Dutch rush, is much more abundant in Holland than in Britain; it is
+used for polishing purposes. _E. variegatum_ grows on wet sandy ground,
+and serves by means of its fibrous roots to bind the sand together. The
+horsetails are remarkable for the large quantity of silica they contain
+in the cuticle (hence their value in polishing), which often amounts to
+half the weight of the ash yielded by burning them; the roots contain a
+quantity of starch.
+
+
+
+
+HORSHAM, a market town in the Horsham parliamentary division of Sussex,
+England, 38 m. S. by W. from London by the London, Brighton and South
+Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 9446. It is pleasantly
+situated in the midst of a fertile country near the source of the Arun.
+A picturesque avenue leads to the church of St Mary, principally Early
+English and Perpendicular, with remains of Norman work, having a lofty
+tower surmounted by a spire, and containing several fine monuments,
+tombs and brasses. Other buildings include the grammar school, founded
+in 1532 and rebuilt in 1893, a town hall and corn exchange, erected in
+1866 in Italian style, with an assembly room. In the vicinity are
+several fine mansions. The buildings of Christ's Hospital (q.v.) at West
+Horsham were opened in 1902, the school being removed hither from
+London. The town has industries of tanning, founding, carriage-building
+and flour-milling.
+
+Some neolithic remains have been found at Horsham. The town is not
+mentioned in Domesday Book, but the Rape of Bramber, in which it lies,
+belonged at that time to William de Braose. His descendants held the
+borough and the manor of Horsham, and through them they passed to the
+family of Mowbray, afterwards dukes of Norfolk. There are traces of
+burgage tenure at Horsham in 1210, and it was called a borough in 1236.
+It has no charter of incorporation. Horsham sent two representatives to
+parliament from 1295 until 1832, when the number was reduced to one. In
+1885 it was disfranchised. In 1233 Henry III. granted William de Braose
+a yearly three-days' fair at his manor of Horsham. In the reign of
+Edward I. William de Braose claimed to have a free market on Wednesdays
+and Saturdays. Fairs are held on the 5th of April, 18th of July, 17th of
+November and 27th of November. Market days are Monday and Wednesday.
+"Glovers" of Horsham are mentioned in a patent roll of 1485, and a
+brewery existed here in the time of Queen Anne.
+
+
+
+
+HORSLEY, JOHN (c. 1685-1732), British archaeologist. John Hodgson
+(1779-1845), the historian of Northumberland, in a short memoir
+published in 1831, held that he was born in 1685, at Pinkie House, in
+the parish of Inveresk, Midlothian, and that his father was a
+Northumberland Nonconformist, who had migrated to Scotland, but returned
+to England soon after the Revolution of 1688. J. H. Hinde, in the
+_Archaeologia Aeliana_ (Feb. 1865), held that he was a native of
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, the son of Charles Horsley, a member of the Tailors'
+Company of that town. He was educated at Newcastle, and at Edinburgh
+University, where he graduated M.A. on the 29th of April 1701. There is
+evidence that he "was settled in Morpeth as a Presbyterian minister as
+early as 1709." Hodgson, however, thought that up to 1721, at which time
+he was residing at Widdrington, "he had not received ordination, but
+preached as a licentiate." Even if he was ordained then, his stay at the
+latter place was probably prolonged beyond that date; for he
+communicated to the _Philosophical Transactions_ (xxxii. 328) notes on
+the rainfall there in the years 1722 and 1723. Hinde shows that during
+these years "he certainly followed a secular employment as agent to the
+York Buildings Company, who had contracted to purchase and were then in
+possession of the Widdrington estates." At Morpeth Horsley opened a
+private school. Respect for his character and abilities attracted pupils
+irrespective of religious connexion, among them Newton Ogle, afterwards
+dean of Westminster. He gave lectures on mechanics and hydrostatics in
+Morpeth, Alnwick and Newcastle, and was elected F.R.S. on the 23rd of
+April 1730. It is as an archaeologist that Horsley is now known. His
+great work, _Britannia Romana, or the Roman Antiquities of Britain_
+(London, 1732), one of the scarcest and most valuable of its class,
+contains the result of patient labour. There is in the British Museum a
+copy with notes by John Ward (c. 1679-1758), biographer of the Gresham
+professors. Horsley died of apoplexy on the 12th of January 1732, on the
+eve of the publication of the _Britannia Romana_. He also published two
+sermons and a handbook to his lectures on mechanics, &c., and projected
+a history of Northumberland and Durham, collections for which were found
+among his papers.
+
+  J. P. Wood (d. 1838) (_Parish of Cramond_, 1794, and _Anecdotes of
+  Bowyer_, 1782, p. 371) says that his wife was a daughter of William
+  Hamilton, D.D., minister of Cramond, afterwards professor of divinity
+  in Edinburgh University, but probably the John Horsley in question was
+  another, the father of Samuel Horsley (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT (1817-1903), English painter, son of William
+Horsley, the musician, and grand-nephew of Sir Augustus Callcott, was
+born in London, on the 29th of January 1817. He studied painting in the
+Academy schools, and in 1836 exhibited "The Pride of the Village"
+(Vernon Gallery) at the Royal Academy. This was followed by numerous
+_genre_ pictures at subsequent exhibitions up to 1893, the best known of
+these being "Malvolio," "L'Allegro and il Penseroso" (painted for the
+Prince Consort), "Le Jour des Morts," "A Scene from Don Quixote," &c. In
+1843 his cartoon of "St Augustine Preaching" won a prize in the
+Westminster Hall competition, and in 1844 he was selected as one of the
+six painters commissioned to execute frescoes for the Houses of
+Parliament, his "Religion" (1845) being put in the House of Lords; he
+also painted the "Henry V. assuming the Crown" and "Satan surprised at
+the Ear of Eve." In 1864 he became R.A., and in 1882 was elected
+treasurer, a post which he held till 1897, when he resigned and became a
+"retired Academician." Mr Horsley had much to do with organizing the
+winter exhibitions of "Old Masters" at Burlington House after 1870.
+When, during the 'eighties, the example of the French Salon began to
+affect the Academy exhibitors, and paintings of the nude became the
+fashion, he protested against the innovation, and his attitude caused
+_Punch_ to give him the punning sobriquet of "Mr J. C(lothes) Horsley."
+He died on the 18th of October 1903. His son, Sir Victor Horsley (b.
+1857), became famous as a surgeon and neuropathologist, and a prominent
+supporter of the cause of experimental research.
+
+
+
+
+HORSLEY, SAMUEL (1733-1806), English divine, was born in London on the
+15th of September 1733. Entering Trinity College, Cambridge, he became
+LL.B. in 1758 without graduating in arts, and in the following year
+succeeded his father in the living of Newington Butts in Surrey. Horsley
+was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767; and secretary in
+1773, but, in consequence of a difference with the president (Sir Joseph
+Banks) he withdrew in 1784. In 1768 he attended the eldest son of the
+4th earl of Aylesford to Oxford as private tutor; and, after receiving
+through the earl and Bishop Lowth various minor preferments, which by
+dispensations he combined with his first living, he was installed in
+1781 as archdeacon of St Albans. Horsley now entered in earnest upon his
+famous controversy with Joseph Priestley, who denied that the early
+Christians held the doctrine of the Trinity. In this controversy,
+conducted on both sides in the fiercest polemical spirit, Horsley showed
+the superior learning and ability. His aim was to lessen the influence
+which the prestige of Priestley's name gave to his views, by indicating
+inaccuracies in his scholarship and undue haste in his conclusions. For
+the energy displayed in the contest Horsley was rewarded by Lord
+Chancellor Thurlow with a prebendal stall at Gloucester; and in 1788 the
+same patron procured his promotion to the see of St David's. As a
+bishop, Horsley was energetic both in his diocese, where he strove to
+better the position of his clergy, and in parliament. The efficient
+support which he afforded the government was acknowledged by his
+successive translations to Rochester in 1793, and to St Asaph in 1802.
+With the bishopric of Rochester he held the deanery of Westminster. He
+died at Brighton on the 4th of October 1806.
+
+  Besides the controversial _Tracts_, which appeared in 1783-1784-1786,
+  and were republished in 1789 and 1812, Horsley's more important works
+  are:--_Apollonii Pergaei inclinationum libri duo_ (1770); _Remarks on
+  the Observation ... for determining the acceleration of the Pendulum
+  in Lat. 70° 51´_ (1774); _Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae extant Omnia_,
+  with a commentary (5 vols. 4to, 1779-1785); _On the Prosodies of the
+  Greek and Latin Languages_ (1796); _Disquisitions on Isaiah xviii._
+  (1796); _Hosea, translated ... with Notes_ (1801); _Elementary
+  Treatises on ... Mathematics_ (1801); _Euclidis elementorum libri
+  priores XII._ (1802); _Euclidis datorum liber_ (1803); _Virgil's Two
+  Seasons of Honey_, &c. (1805); and papers in the _Philosophical
+  Transactions_ from 1767 to 1776. After his death there
+  appeared--_Sermons_ (1810-1812); _Speeches in Parliament_ (1813);
+  _Book of Psalms, translated with Notes_ (1815); _Biblical Criticism_
+  (1820); _Collected Theological Works_ (6 vols. 8vo, 1845).
+
+
+
+
+HORSLEY, WILLIAM (1774-1858), English musician, was born on the 15th of
+November 1774. He became in 1790 the pupil of Theodore Smith, an
+indifferent musician of the time, who, however, taught him sufficient to
+obtain in 1794 the position of organist at Ely Chapel, Holborn. This
+post he resigned in 1798, to become organist at the Asylum for Female
+Orphans, as assistant to Dr Callcott, with whom he had long been on
+terms of personal and artistic intimacy, and whose eldest daughter he
+married. In 1802 he became his friend's successor upon the latter's
+resignation. Besides holding this appointment he became in 1812 organist
+of Belgrave Chapel, Halkin Street, and in 1838 of the Charter House. He
+died on the 12th of June 1858. Horsley's compositions are numerous, and
+include amongst other instrumental pieces three symphonies for full
+orchestra. Infinitely more important are his glees, of which he
+published five books (1801-1807) besides contributing many detached
+glees and part songs to various collections. His glees, "By Celia's
+arbour," "O nightingale," "Now the storm begins to lower," and others,
+are amongst the finest specimens of this peculiarly English class of
+compositions. Horsley's son Charles Edward (1822-1876), also enjoyed a
+certain reputation as a musician. He studied in Germany under Hauptmann
+and Mendelssohn, and on his return to England composed several oratorios
+and other pieces, none of which had permanent success. In 1808 he
+emigrated to Australia, and in 1872 went to America; he died in New
+York.
+
+
+
+
+HORSMAN, EDWARD (1807-1876), English politician, was the son of a
+well-to-do gentleman of Stirling, and connected on the mother's side
+with the earls of Stair. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and
+was called to the Scotch bar in 1832, but then took to politics. He was
+elected to parliament as a Liberal for Cockermouth in 1836, and
+represented that constituency till 1852, when he was defeated; in 1853
+he was returned for Stroud, and sat there till 1868; and from 1869 till
+he died he was member for Liskeard. He was a junior lord of the treasury
+in Lord Melbourne's administration for a few months during 1841, and
+became prominent for attacking Lord John Russell's ecclesiastical policy
+in 1847 and subsequent years. In 1855, under Lord Palmerston, he was
+made chief secretary for Ireland, but resigned in 1857. He gradually
+took up a position as an independent Liberal, and was well known for his
+attacks on the Church, and his exposures of various "jobs." But his name
+is principally connected with his influence over Robert Lowe (Lord
+Sherbrooke) in 1866 at the time of Mr Gladstone's Reform Bill, to which
+he and Lowe were hostile; and it was in describing the Lowe-Horsman
+combination that John Bright spoke of the "Cave of Adullam." Horsman
+died at Biarritz on the 30th of November 1876.
+
+
+
+
+HORST, the term used In physical geography and geology for a block of
+the earth's crust that has remained stationary while the land has sunk
+on either side of it, or has been crushed in a mountain range against
+it. The Vosges and Black Forest are examples of the former, the Table,
+Jura and the Dôle of the latter result. The word is also applied to
+those larger areas, such as the Russian plain, Arabia, India and Central
+South Africa, where the continent remains stable, with horizontal
+table-land stratification, in distinction to folded regions such as the
+Eurasian chains.
+
+
+
+
+HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY (1828-1892), English theologian, was born in
+Dublin on the 23rd of April 1828, the great-grandson of Josiah Hort,
+archbishop of Tuam in the 18th century. In 1846 he passed from Rugby to
+Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was the contemporary of E. W.
+Benson, B. F. Westcott and J. B. Lightfoot. The four men became lifelong
+friends and fellow-workers. In 1850 Hort took his degree, being third in
+the classical tripos, and in 1852 he became fellow of his college. In
+1854, in conjunction with J. E. B. Mayor and Lightfoot, he established
+the _Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology_, and plunged eagerly
+into theological and patristic study. He had been brought up in the
+strictest principles of the Evangelical school, but at Rugby he fell
+under the influence of Arnold and Tait, and his acquaintance with
+Maurice and Kingsley finally gave his opinions a direction towards
+Liberalism. In 1857 he married, and accepted the college living of St
+Ippolyts, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, where he remained for fifteen
+years. During his residence there he took some part in the discussions
+on university reform, continued his studies, and wrote essays for
+various periodicals. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the committee
+for revising the translation of the New Testament, and in 1871 he
+delivered the Hulsean lectures before the university. Their title was
+_The Way, the Truth, and the Life_, but they were not prepared for
+publication until many years after their delivery. In 1872 he accepted a
+fellowship and lectureship at Emmanuel College; in 1878 he was made
+Hulsean professor of divinity, and in 1887 Lady Margaret reader in
+divinity. In the meantime he had published, with his friend Westcott, an
+edition of the text of the New Testament. The Revision Committee had
+very largely accepted this text, even before its publication, as a basis
+for their translation of the New Testament. The work on its appearance
+created an immense sensation among scholars, and was vehemently attacked
+in many quarters, but on the whole it was received as being much the
+nearest approximation yet made to the original text of the New Testament
+(see BIBLE: _New Testament_, "Textual Criticism"). The introduction was
+the work of Hort, and its depth and fulness convinced all who read it
+that they were under the guidance of a master. Hort died on the 30th of
+November 1892, worn out by intense mental labour. Next to his Greek
+Testament his best-known work is _The Christian Ecclesia_ (1897). Other
+publications are: _Judaistic Christianity_ (1894); _Village Sermons_
+(two series); _Cambridge and other Sermons_; _Prolegomena to ...
+Romans and Ephesians_ (1895); _The Ante-Nicene Fathers_ (1895); and two
+_Dissertations_, on the reading [Greek: monogenês theos] in John i. 18,
+and on _The Constantinopolitan and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth
+Century_. All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of
+materials.
+
+  His _Life and Letters_ was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart.
+  (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HORTA, the capital of an administrative district comprising the islands
+of Pico, Fayal, Flores and Corvo, in the Portuguese archipelago of the
+Azores. Pop. (1900) 6574. Horta is a seaport on the south-east coast of
+Fayal. It is defended by two castles and a wall, but these
+fortifications are obsolete. The harbour, a bay 2 m. long and nearly 1
+m. broad, affords good anchorage in 5 to 20 fathoms of water, but is
+dangerous in south-westerly and south-easterly winds. It is the
+headquarters of profitable whale, tunny, bonito and mullet fisheries.
+Its exports include sperm-oil, fruit, wine and grain. Between 1897 and
+1904 the port annually accommodated about 140 vessels of 220,000 tons,
+mostly of British or Portuguese nationality.
+
+
+
+
+HORTEN, a seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg-Laurvik _amt_ (county),
+beautifully situated on the west bank of the Christiania Fjord, opposite
+Moss, 38 m. by water and 66 by rail S. of Christiania. Pop. (1900) 8460.
+It is practically united with Karl-Johansvaern, which is defended by
+strong fortifications, is the headquarters of the Norwegian fleet, and
+possesses an arsenal and shipbuilding yards. There are also an
+observatory and a nautical museum.
+
+
+
+
+HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (114-50 B.C.), surnamed Hortalus, Roman orator and
+advocate. At the age of nineteen he made his first speech at the bar,
+and shortly afterwards successfully defended Nicomedes III. of Bithynia,
+one of Rome's dependants in the East, who had been deprived of his
+throne by his brother. From that time his reputation as an advocate was
+established. As the son-in-law of Q. Lutatius Catulus he was attached to
+the aristocratic party. During Sulla's ascendancy the courts of law were
+under the control of the senate, the judges being themselves senators.
+To this circumstance perhaps, as well as to his own merits, Hortensius
+may have been indebted for much of his success. Many of his clients were
+the governors of provinces which they were accused of having plundered.
+Such men were sure to find themselves brought before a friendly, not to
+say a corrupt, tribunal, and Hortensius, according to Cicero (_Div. in
+Caecil._ 7), was not ashamed to avail himself of this advantage. Having
+served during two campaigns (90-89) in the Social War, he became
+quaestor in 81, aedile in 75, praetor in 72, and consul in 69. In the
+year before his consulship he came into collision with Cicero in the
+case of Verres, and from that time his supremacy at the bar was lost.
+After 63 Cicero was himself drawn towards the party to which Hortensius
+belonged. Consequently, in political cases, the two men were often
+engaged on the same side (e.g. in defence of Rabirius, Murena, Publius
+Cornelius Sulla, and Milo). After Pompey's return from the East in 61,
+Hortensius withdrew from public life and devoted himself to his
+profession. In 50, the year of his death, he successfully defended
+Appius Claudius Pulcher when accused of treason and corrupt practices by
+P. Cornelius Dolabella, afterwards Cicero's son-in-law.
+
+Hortensius's speeches are not extant. His oratory, according to Cicero,
+was of the Asiatic style, a florid rhetoric, better to hear than to
+read. He had a wonderfully tenacious memory (Cicero, _Brutus_, 88, 95),
+and could retain every single point in his opponent's argument. His
+action was highly artificial, and his manner of folding his toga was
+noted by tragic actors of the day (Macrobius, _Sat._ iii. 13. 4). He
+also possessed a fine musical voice, which he could skilfully command.
+The vast wealth he had accumulated he spent on splendid villas, parks,
+fish-ponds and costly entertainments. He was the first to introduce
+peacocks as a table delicacy at Rome. He was a great buyer of wine,
+pictures and works of art. He wrote a treatise on general questions of
+oratory, erotic poems (Ovid, _Tristia_, ii. 441), and an _Annales_,
+which gained him considerable reputation as an historian (Vell. Pat. ii.
+16. 3).
+
+His daughter HORTENSIA was also a successful orator. In 42 she spoke
+against the imposition of a special tax on wealthy Roman matrons with
+such success that part of it was remitted (Quint. _Instit._ i. 1. 6;
+Val. Max. viii. 3. 3).
+
+  In addition to Cicero (_passim_), see Dio Cassius xxxviii. 16, xxxix.
+  37; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ix. 81, x. 23, xiv. 17, xxxv. 40; Varro,
+  _R.R._ iii. 13. 17.
+
+
+
+
+HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS, dictator of Rome 286 B.C. When the people, pressed
+by their patrician creditors, "seceded" to the Janiculum, he was
+commissioned to put an end to the strife. He passed a law whereby the
+resolutions of the multitude (_plebiscita_) were made binding on all the
+citizens, without the approval of the senate being necessary. This was
+not a mere re-enactment of previous laws. Another law, passed about the
+same time, which declared the _nundinae_ (market days) to be _dies
+fasti_ (days on which legal business might be transacted), is also
+attributed to him. He is said to have died while still dictator.
+
+  Aulus Gellius xv. 27; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 15; Macrobius,
+  _Saturnalia_ i. 16; Livy, _Epit._ ii.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6, by Various
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6
+       "Home, Daniel" to "Hortensius, Quintus"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 13, 2012 [EBook #39127]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 6 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE VI<br /><br />
+Home, Daniel to Hortensius, Quintus</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HOPKINS, ESEK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HOME, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HOPKINS, MARK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HOMEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HOPKINS, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HOME OFFICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HOPKINS, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HOMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HOPKINSON, FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HOMER, WINSLOW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HOPKINSON, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HOMESTEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HOPKINSVILLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HOPPNER, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HOP-SCOTCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HOMICIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HOMILETICS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HOR, MOUNT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HOMILY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HORACE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HOMOEOPATHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HORAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HOMONYM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HORAPOLLON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HOMS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HORATII and CURIATII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HO-NAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HORATIUS COCLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HONAVAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HORDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HONDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HOREB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D&rsquo;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HOREHOUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HONDURAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HORGEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HONE, NATHANIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HORIZON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HONE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HORMAYR, JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HORMISDAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HONEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HORMIZD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HONEYCOMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HORMUZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HONEY-EATER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HORN, ARVID BERNHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HONEY-GUIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HONEY LOCUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HORN</a> (English hero)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HONEYMOON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HORN</a> (of animals)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HONEYSUCKLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HORN</a> (wind instrument)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HONFLEUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HORNBEAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HONG-KONG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HORNBILL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HONITON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HORNBLENDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HONNEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HORN-BOOK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HONOLULU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HONORIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HORNCASTLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HONORIUS, FLAVIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HORN DANCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HONOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HORNE, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HONOURABLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HONTHORST, GERARD VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HORNELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HOOCH, PIETER DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HORNEMANN, FREDERICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HOOD, JOHN BELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HORNER, FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HORNER, LEONARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HOOD, SIR SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HÖRNES, MORITZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HOOD, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HORNFELS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HOOD, TOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HORNING, LETTERS OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR WILLIAM ACLAND HOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HORNPIPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HORNSEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HOROWITZ, ISAIAH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HORREUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HOOK, JAMES CLARKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HORROCKS, JEREMIAH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HORROCKS, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HORSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HOOKAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HORSE LATITUDES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HOOKE, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HORSE-MACKEREL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HOOKER, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HORSEMANSHIP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HORSENS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HOOKER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HORSE-POWER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HOOKER, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HORSE-RACING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HORSERADISH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HOOLE, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HORSE-SHOES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HOOLIGAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HORSETAIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HOOPER, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HORSHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HOOPOE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HORSLEY, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HOORN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HOOSICK FALLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HORSLEY, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HOP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HORSLEY, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HOPE, ANTHONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HORSMAN, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HOPE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HORST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HOPEDALE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HORTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HOPFEN, HANS VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HORTEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HOPI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS</a> (Roman orator)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HÖPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS</a> (dictator of Rome)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1833-1886), Scottish spiritualist,
+was born near Edinburgh on the 20th of March 1833, his father
+being said to be a natural son of the 10th earl of Home, and his
+mother a member of a family credited with second sight. He
+went with his mother to America, and on her death was adopted
+by an aunt. In the United States he came out as a spiritualistic
+medium, though, it should be noted, he never sought to make
+money out of his exhibitions. In 1855 he came to England and
+gave numerous séances, which were attended by many well-known
+people. Robert Browning, the poet, went to one of these,
+but without altering his contempt for spiritualism, and he
+subsequently gave his impression of Home in the unflattering
+poem of &ldquo;Sludge the Medium&rdquo; (1864); Home, nevertheless,
+had many disciples, and gave séances at several European courts.
+He became a Roman Catholic, but was expelled from Rome as
+a sorcerer. In 1866 Mrs Lyon, a wealthy widow, adopted him
+as her son, and settled £60,000 upon him. Repenting, however,
+of her action, she brought a suit for the return of her money,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span>
+on the ground that it had been obtained by &ldquo;spiritual&rdquo; influence.
+It was held that the burden of establishing the validity of the
+gift lay on Home, and as he failed to do so the case was decided
+against him. He continued, however, to give séances, mostly
+on the Continent, and in 1871 appeared before the tsar of Russia
+and two Russian scientists, who attested the phenomena evoked.
+Returning to England he submitted to a series of experiments
+designed to test his pretensions before Professor (subsequently
+Sir William) Crookes, which the latter declared to be thoroughly
+genuine; and Professor von Boutlerow, of the Russian Academy
+of Science, after witnessing a similar series of experiments,
+expressed the same opinion. Home published two volumes
+of <i>Incidents of my Life and Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism</i>.
+He married successively two well-connected Russian ladies.
+He died at Auteuil, France, on the 21st of June 1886.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOME, JOHN<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1722-1808), Scottish dramatic poet, was born
+on the 22nd of September 1722 at Leith, where his father,
+Alexander Home, who was distantly related to the earls of
+Home, filled the office of town-clerk. He was educated at the
+grammar school of his native town, and at the university of
+Edinburgh, where he graduated M.A. in 1742. Though he
+showed a fondness for the profession of arms, he studied divinity,
+and was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh in 1745. In
+the same year he joined as a volunteer against the Pretender,
+and was taken prisoner at the battle of Falkirk (1746). With
+many others he was carried to the castle of Doune in Perthshire,
+but soon effected his escape. In July 1746 Home was presented
+to the parish of Athelstaneford, Haddingtonshire, vacant by
+the death of Robert Blair, the author of <i>The Grave</i>. He had
+leisure to visit his friends and became especially intimate with
+David Hume who belonged to the same family as himself. His
+first play, <i>Agis: a tragedy</i>, founded on Plutarch&rsquo;s narrative,
+was finished in 1747. He took it to London and submitted it
+to Garrick for representation at Drury Lane, but it was rejected
+as unsuitable for the stage. The tragedy of <i>Douglas</i> was suggested
+to him by hearing a lady sing the ballad of <i>Gil Morrice</i>
+or <i>Child Maurice</i> (F. J. Child, <i>Popular Ballads</i>, ii. 263). The
+ballad supplied him with the outline of a simple and striking
+plot. After five years&rsquo; labour he completed his play, which
+he took to London for Garrick&rsquo;s opinion. It also was rejected,
+but on his return to Edinburgh his friends resolved that it
+should be brought out in that city. It was produced on the
+14th of December 1756 with overwhelming success, in spite
+of the opposition of the presbytery, who summoned Alexander
+Carlyle to answer for having attended its representation. Home
+wisely resigned his charge in 1757, after a visit to London, where
+<i>Douglas</i> was brought out at Covent Garden on the 14th of March.
+Peg Woffington played Lady Randolph, a part which found a
+later exponent in Mrs Siddons. David Hume summed up his
+admiration for <i>Douglas</i> by saying that his friend possessed
+&ldquo;the true theatric genius of Shakespeare and Otway, refined
+from the unhappy barbarism of the one and licentiousness of
+the other.&rdquo; Gray, writing to Horace Walpole (August, 1757),
+said that the author &ldquo;seemed to have retrieved the true language
+of the stage, which has been lost for these hundred years,&rdquo; but
+Samuel Johnson held aloof from the general enthusiasm, and
+averred that there were not ten good lines in the whole play
+(Boswell, <i>Life</i>, ed. Croker, 1848, p. 390). In 1758 Home became
+private secretary to Lord Bute, then secretary of state, and was
+appointed tutor to the prince of Wales; and in 1760 his patron&rsquo;s
+influence procured him a pension of £300 per annum and in
+1763 a sinecure worth another £300. Garrick produced <i>Agis</i>
+at Drury Lane on the 21st of February 1758. By dint of good
+acting and powerful support, according to Genest (<i>Short Account</i>
+&amp;c., iv. 513 seq.), the piece kept the stage for eleven days, but
+it was lamentably inferior to <i>Douglas</i>. In 1760 his tragedy,
+<i>The Siege of Aquileia</i>, was put on the stage, Garrick taking the
+part of Aemilius. In 1769 his tragedy of <i>The Fatal Discovery</i>
+had a run of nine nights; <i>Alonzo</i> also (1773) had fair success
+in the representation; but his last tragedy, <i>Alfred</i> (1778), was
+so coolly received that he gave up writing for the stage. In
+1778 he joined a regiment formed by the duke of Buccleuch.
+He sustained severe injuries in a fall from horseback which
+permanently affected his brain, and was persuaded by his
+friends to retire. From 1767 he resided either at Edinburgh
+or at a villa which he built at Kilduff near his former parish.
+It was at this time that he wrote his <i>History of the Rebellion of
+1745</i>, which appeared in 1802. Home died at Merchiston
+Bank, near Edinburgh, on the 5th of September 1808, in his
+eighty-sixth year.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Works of John Home</i> were collected and published by Henry
+Mackenzie in 1822 with &ldquo;An Account of the Life and Writings
+of Mr John Home,&rdquo; which also appeared separately in the same year,
+but several of his smaller poems seem to have escaped the editor&rsquo;s
+observation. These are&mdash;&ldquo;The Fate of Caesar,&rdquo; &ldquo;Verses upon
+Inveraray,&rdquo; &ldquo;Epistle to the Earl of Eglintoun,&rdquo; &ldquo;Prologue on the
+Birthday of the Prince of Wales, 1759&rdquo; and several &ldquo;Epigrams,&rdquo;
+which are printed in vol. ii. of <i>Original Poems by Scottish Gentlemen</i>
+(1762). See also Sir W. Scott, &ldquo;The Life and Works of John Home&rdquo;
+in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> (June, 1827). <i>Douglas</i> is included in numerous
+collections of British drama. Voltaire published his <i>Le Caffé, ou
+l&rsquo;Écossaise</i> (1760), <i>Londres</i> (really Geneva), as a translation from the
+work of Mr Hume, described as <i>pasteur de l&rsquo;église d&rsquo;Édimbourg</i>, but
+Home seems to have taken no notice of the mystification.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMEL,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gomel</span>, a town of Russia, in the government of
+Mogilev, and 132 m. by rail S.S.E. of the town of Mogilev, on
+the Sozh, a tributary of the Dnieper. Pop. (1900) 45,081,
+nearly half of whom are Jews. It is an important junction of
+the railways from Vilna to Odessa and from Orel to Poland,
+and is in steamer communication with Kiev and Mogilev. In
+front of Prince Paskevich&rsquo;s castle stands an equestrian statue
+of the Polish general Joseph Poniatowski, and in the cathedral
+is the tomb of the chancellor Nikolai Petrovich Rumantsev,
+by Canova. The town carries on a brisk trade in hops, corn
+and timber; there are also paper-pulp mills and oil factories.
+Homel was founded in the 12th century, and after changing
+hands several times between Poles and Russians was annexed
+to Russia in 1772. In 1648 it suffered at the hands of the Cossack
+chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOME OFFICE,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a principal government department in the
+United Kingdom, the creation of which dates from 1782, when
+the conduct of foreign affairs, which had previously been divided
+between the northern and southern secretaries, was handed
+over to the northern department (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Foreign Office</a></span>). The
+home department retained control of Irish and colonial affairs,
+and of war business until 1794, when an additional secretary
+of state was re-appointed. In 1801 the colonial business was
+transferred from the home department, which now attends only
+to domestic affairs. The head of the department, the principal
+secretary of state for home affairs, or home secretary, is a
+member of the government for the time being, and of the cabinet,
+receiving a salary of £5000 a year. He is the proper medium
+of communication between the sovereign and the subject, and
+receives petitions addressed to the crown. He is responsible
+for the maintenance of the king&rsquo;s peace and attends to the
+administration of criminal justice, police and prisons, and
+through him the sovereign exercises his prerogative of mercy.
+Within his department is the supervision of lunatic asylums,
+reformatories and industrial schools, and it is his duty to see
+after the internal well-being of the country, to enforce the rules
+made for the health or safety of the community generally,
+and especially of those classes employed in special trades or
+dangerous occupations. He is assisted by a permanent under-secretary,
+a parliamentary secretary and several assistant
+under-secretaries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Anson, <i>Law and Custom of the Constitution</i>. (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMER<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<span class="grk" title="Homêros">&#8011;&#956;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>), the great epic poet of Greece. Many of
+the works once attributed to him are lost; those which remain
+are the two great epics, the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>, thirty-three
+<i>Hymns</i>, a mock epic (the <i>Battle of the Frogs and Mice</i>), and
+some pieces of a few lines each (the so-called <i>Epigrams</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Ancient Accounts of Homer.</i>&mdash;Of the date of Homer probably
+no record, real or pretended, ever existed. Herodotus (ii. 53)
+maintains that Hesiod and Homer lived not more than 400 years
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span>
+before his own time, consequently not much before 850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+From the controversial tone in which he expresses himself it is
+evident that others had made Homer more ancient; and accordingly
+the dates given by later authorities, though very various,
+generally fall within the 10th and 11th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But none
+of these statements has any claim to the character of external
+evidence.</p>
+
+<p>The extant lives of Homer (edited in Westermann&rsquo;s <i>Vitarum
+Scriptores Graeci minores</i>) are eight in number, including the
+piece called the <i>Contest of Hesiod and Homer</i>. The longest is
+written in the Ionic dialect, and bears the name of Herodotus,
+but is certainly spurious. In all probability it belongs to the
+time which was fruitful beyond all others in literary forgeries,
+viz. the 2nd century of our era.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The other lives are certainly not
+more ancient. Their chief value consists in the curious short
+poems or fragments of verse which they have preserved&mdash;the
+so-called <i>Epigrams</i>, which used to be printed at the end of
+editions of Homer. These are easily recognized as &ldquo;Popular
+Rhymes,&rdquo; a form of folk-lore to be met with in most countries,
+treasured by the people as a kind of proverbs.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In the Homeric
+<i>epigrams</i> the interest turns sometimes on the characteristics
+of particular localities&mdash;Smyrna and Cyme (<i>Epigr.</i> iv.), Erythrae
+(<i>Epigr.</i> vi., vii.), Mt Ida (<i>Epigr.</i> x.). Neon Teichos (<i>Epigr.</i> i.);
+others relate to certain trades or occupations&mdash;potters (Epigr.
+xiv.), sailors, fishermen, goat herds, &amp;c. Some may be fragments
+of longer poems, but evidently they are not the work of any
+one poet. The fact that they were all ascribed to Homer merely
+means that they belong to a period in the history of the Ionian
+and Aeolian colonies when &ldquo;Homer&rdquo; was a name which drew
+to itself all ancient and popular verse.</p>
+
+<p>Again, comparing the &ldquo;epigrams&rdquo; with the legends and
+anecdotes told in the Lives of Homer, we can hardly doubt that
+they were the chief source from which these Lives were
+derived. Thus in Epigr. iv. we find a blind poet, a native of
+Aeolian Smyrna, through which flows the water of the sacred
+Meles. Here is doubtless the source of the chief incident of the
+Herodotean Life&mdash;the birth of Homer &ldquo;Son of the Meles.&rdquo; The
+epithet Aeolian implies high antiquity, inasmuch as according
+to Herodotus Smyrna became Ionian about 688 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Naturally
+the Ionians had their own version of the story&mdash;a version which
+made Homer come out with the first Athenian colonists.</p>
+
+<p>The same line of argument may be extended to the <i>Hymns</i>,
+and even to some of the lost works of the post-Homeric or
+so-called &ldquo;Cyclic&rdquo; poets. Thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The hymn to the Delian Apollo ends with an address of
+the poet to his audience. When any stranger comes and asks
+who is the sweetest singer, they are to answer with one voice,
+the &ldquo;blind man that dwells in rocky Chios; his songs deserve
+the prize for all time to come.&rdquo; Thucydides, who quotes this
+passage to show the ancient character of the Delian festival,
+seems to have no doubt of the Homeric authorship of the hymn.
+Hence we may most naturally account for the belief that Homer
+was a Chian.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Margites</i>&mdash;a humorous poem which kept its ground
+as the reputed work of Homer down to the time of Aristotle&mdash;began
+with the words, &ldquo;There came to Colophon an old man,
+a divine singer, servant of the Muses and Apollo.&rdquo; Hence
+doubtless the claim of Colophon to be the native city of Homer&mdash;a
+claim supported in the early times of Homeric learning by the
+Colophonian poet and grammarian Antimachus.</p>
+
+<p>3. The poem called the <i>Cypria</i> was said to have been given
+by Homer to Stasinus of Cyprus as a daughter&rsquo;s dowry. The
+connexion with Cyprus appears further in the predominance given
+in the poem to Aphrodite.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Little Iliad</i> and the <i>Phocaïs</i>, according to the Herodotean
+life, were composed by Homer when he lived at Phocaea with
+a certain Thestorides, who carried them off to Chios and there
+gained fame by reciting them as his own. The name Thestorides
+occurs in <i>Epigr.</i> v.</p>
+
+<p>5. A similar story was told about the poem called the <i>Taking
+of Oechalia</i> (<span class="grk" title="Oichalias Halôsis">&#927;&#7984;&#967;&#945;&#955;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#7949;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>), the subject of which was one
+of the exploits of Heracles. It passed under the name of Creophylus,
+a friend or (as some said) a son-in-law of Homer; but
+it was generally believed to have been in fact the work of the
+poet himself.</p>
+
+<p>6. Finally the <i>Thebaid</i> always counted as the work of Homer.
+As to the <i>Epigoni</i>, which carried on the Theban story, some
+doubt seems to have been felt.</p>
+
+<p>These indications render it probable that the stories connecting
+Homer with different cities and islands grew up after his poems
+had become known and famous, especially in the new and
+flourishing colonies of Aeolis and Ionia. The contention for
+Homer, in short, began at a time when his real history was lost,
+and he had become a sort of mythical figure, an &ldquo;eponymous
+hero,&rdquo; or personification of a great school of poetry.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting confirmation of this view from the negative
+side is furnished by the city which ranked as chief among the
+Asiatic colonies of Greece, viz. Miletus. No legend claims for
+Miletus even a visit from Homer, or a share in the authorship of
+any Homeric poem. Yet Arctinus of Miletus was said to have
+been a &ldquo;disciple of Homer,&rdquo; and was certainly one of the earliest
+and most considerable of the &ldquo;Cyclic&rdquo; poets. His <i>Aethiopis</i>
+was composed as a sequel to the <i>Iliad</i>; and the structure and
+general character of his poems show that he took the <i>Iliad</i> as
+his model. Yet in his case we find no trace of the disputed
+authorship which is so common with other &ldquo;Cyclic&rdquo; poems.
+How has this come about? Why have the works of Arctinus
+escaped the attraction which drew to the name of Homer such
+epics as the <i>Cypria</i>, the <i>Little Iliad</i>, the <i>Thebaid</i>, the <i>Epigoni</i>,
+the <i>Taking of Oechalia</i> and the <i>Phocais</i>. The most obvious
+account of the matter is that Arctinus was never so far forgotten
+that his poems became the subject of dispute. We seem through
+him to obtain a glimpse of an early post-Homeric age in Ionia,
+when the immediate disciples and successors of Homer were
+distinct figures in a trustworthy tradition&mdash;when they had not
+yet merged their individuality in the legendary &ldquo;Homer&rdquo; of the
+Epic Cycle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Recitation of the Poems.</i>&mdash;The recitation of epic poetry was
+called in historical times &ldquo;rhapsody&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="rhapsôdia">&#8165;&#945;&#968;&#8179;&#948;&#943;&#945;</span>). The word
+<span class="grk" title="rhapsôdos">&#8165;&#945;&#968;&#8179;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span> is post-Homeric, but was known to Pindar, who gives
+two different explanations of it&mdash;&ldquo;singer of stitched verse&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="rhaptôn hepeôn aoidoi">&#8165;&#945;&#960;&#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7952;&#960;&#941;&#969;&#957; &#7936;&#959;&#953;&#948;&#959;&#943;</span>), and &ldquo;singer with the wand&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="rhabdos">&#8165;&#945;&#946;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span>).
+Of these the first is etymologically correct (except that it should
+rather be &ldquo;stitcher of verse&rdquo;); the second was suggested by
+the fact, for which there is early evidence, that the reciter was
+accustomed to hold a wand in his hand&mdash;perhaps, like the
+sceptre in the Homeric assembly, as a symbol of the right to a
+hearing.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The first notice of rhapsody meets us at Sicyon, in the reign
+of Cleisthenes (600-560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who &ldquo;put down the rhapsodists
+on account of the poems of Homer, because they are all about
+Argos and the Argives&rdquo; (Hdt. v. 67). This description applies
+very well to the <i>Iliad</i>, in which Argos and Argives occur on
+almost every page. It may have suited the <i>Thebaid</i> still better,
+but there is no need to understand it only of that poem, as Grote
+does. The incident shows that the poems of the Ionic Homer had
+gained in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and in the Doric parts of the Peloponnesus,
+the ascendancy, the national importance and the
+almost canonical character which they ever afterwards retained.</p>
+
+<p>At Athens there was a law that the Homeric poems should be
+recited (<span class="grk" title="rhapsôdeisthai">&#8165;&#945;&#968;&#8179;&#948;&#949;&#8150;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>) on every occasion of the Panathenaea.
+This law is appealed to as an especial glory of Athens by the
+orator Lycurgus (<i>Leocr.</i> 102). Perhaps therefore the custom
+of public recitation was exceptional,<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and unfortunately we do
+not know when or by whom it was introduced. The Platonic
+dialogue <i>Hipparchus</i> attributes it to Hipparchus, son of Peisistratus.
+This, however, is part of the historical romance of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span>
+which the dialogue mainly consists. The author makes (perhaps
+wilfully) all the mistakes about the family of Peisistratus which
+Thucydides notices in a well-known passage (vi. 54-59). In one
+point, however, the writer&rsquo;s testimony is valuable. He tells us
+that the law required the rhapsodists to recite &ldquo;taking each
+other up in order (<span class="grk" title="ex hypolêpseôs ephexês">&#7952;&#958; &#8017;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#942;&#968;&#949;&#969;&#962; &#7952;&#966;&#949;&#958;&#8134;&#962;</span>), as they still do.&rdquo; This
+recurs in a different form in the statement of Diogenes Laertius
+(i. 2. 57) that Solon made a law that the poems should be recited
+&ldquo;with prompting&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="ex hypobolês">&#7952;&#958; &#8017;&#960;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#8134;&#962;</span>). The question as between
+Solon and Hipparchus cannot be settled; but it is at least clear
+that a due order of recitation was secured by the presence of
+a person charged to give the rhapsodists their cue (<span class="grk" title="hypoballein">&#8017;&#960;&#959;&#946;&#940;&#955;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>).
+It was necessary, of course, to divide the poem to be recited into
+parts, and to compel each contending rhapsodist to take the part
+assigned to him. Otherwise they would have chosen favourite
+or show passages.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of poets or rhapsodists contending for the prize
+at the great religious festivals is of considerable antiquity,
+though apparently post-Homeric. It is brought vividly before us
+in the Hymn to Apollo (see the passage mentioned above),
+and in two Hymns to Aphrodite (v. and ix.). The latter of these
+may evidently be taken to belong to Salamis in Cyprus and the
+festival of the Cyprian Aphrodite, in the same way that the
+Hymn to Apollo belongs to Delos and the Delian gathering.
+The earliest trace of such contests is to be found in the story
+of Thamyris, the Thracian singer, who boasted that he could
+conquer even the Muses in song (<i>Il.</i> ii. 594 ff.).</p>
+
+<p>Much has been made in this part of the subject of a family
+or clan (<span class="grk" title="genos">&#947;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>) of Homeridae in the island of Chios. On the one
+hand, it seemed to follow from the existence of such a family that
+Homer was a mere &ldquo;eponymus,&rdquo; or mythical ancestor; on the
+other hand, it became easy to imagine the Homeric poems
+handed down orally in a family whose hereditary occupation it
+was to recite them, possibly to add new episodes from time to
+time, or to combine their materials in new ways, as their poetical
+gifts permitted. But, although there is no reason to doubt the
+existence of a family of &ldquo;Homeridae,&rdquo; it is far from certain that
+they had anything to do with Homeric poetry. The word
+occurs first in Pindar (<i>Nem.</i> 2. 2), who applies it to the rhapsodists
+(<span class="grk" title="Homêridai rhaptôn epeôn aoidoi">&#8009;&#956;&#951;&#961;&#943;&#948;&#945;&#953; &#8165;&#945;&#960;&#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7952;&#960;&#941;&#969;&#957; &#7936;&#959;&#943;&#948;&#959;&#943;</span>). On this a scholiast says
+that the name &ldquo;Homeridae&rdquo; denoted originally descendants
+of Homer, who sang his poems in succession, but afterwards was
+applied to rhapsodists who did not claim descent from him.
+He adds that there was a famous rhapsodist, Cynaethus of
+Chios, who was said to be the author of the Hymn to Apollo, and
+to have first recited Homer at Syracuse about the 69th Olympiad.
+Nothing here connects the Homeridae with Chios. The statement
+of the scholiast is evidently a mere inference from the
+patronymic form of the word. If it proves anything, it proves
+that Cynaethus, who was a Chian and a rhapsodist, made no
+claim to Homeric descent. On the other hand our knowledge of
+Chian Homeridae comes chiefly from the lexicon of Harpocration,
+where we are told that Acusilaus and Hellanicus said that they
+were so called from the poet; whereas Seleucus pronounced
+this to be an error. Strabo also says that the Chians put forward
+the Homeridae as an argument in support of their claim to
+Homer. These Homeridae, then, belonged to Chios, but there
+is no indication of their being rhapsodists. On the contrary,
+Plato and other Attic writers use the word to include interpreters
+and admirers&mdash;in short, the whole &ldquo;spiritual kindred&rdquo;&mdash;of
+Homer. And although we hear of &ldquo;descendants of Creophylus&rdquo;
+as in possession of the Homeric poems, there is no similar story
+about descendants of Homer himself. Such is the evidence on
+which so many inferences are based.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the notices now collected is to show that the
+early history of epic recitation consists of (1) passages in the
+Homeric hymns showing that poets contended for the prize at
+the great festivals, (2) the passing mention in Herodotus of
+rhapsodists at Sicyon, and (3) a law at Athens, of unknown
+date, regulating the recitation at the Panathenaea. Let us now
+compare these data with the account given in the Homeric poems.
+The word &ldquo;rhapsode&rdquo; does not yet exist; we hear only of the
+&ldquo;singer&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="aoidos">&#7936;&#959;&#953;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span>), who does not carry a wand or laurel-branch,
+but the lyre (<span class="grk" title="phormigx">&#966;&#972;&#961;&#956;&#953;&#947;&#958;</span>), with which he accompanies his &ldquo;song.&rdquo;
+In the <i>Iliad</i> even the epic &ldquo;singer&rdquo; is not met with. It is
+Achilles himself who sings the stories of heroes (<span class="grk" title="klea andrôn">&#954;&#955;&#941;&#945; &#7936;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#8182;&#957;</span>)
+in his tent, and Patroclus is waiting (<i>respondere paratus</i>), to
+take up the song in his turn (<i>Il.</i> ix. 191). Again we do not hear
+of poetical contests (except in the story of Thamyris already
+mentioned) or of recitation of epic poetry at festivals. The
+<i>Odyssey</i> gives us pictures of two great houses, and each has its
+singer. The song is on a subject taken from the Trojan war, at
+some point chosen by the singer himself, or by his hearers.
+Phemius pleases the suitors by singing of the calamitous return of
+the Greeks; Demodocus sings of a quarrel between Ulysses and
+Achilles, and afterwards of the wooden horse and the capture
+of Troy.</p>
+
+<p>It may be granted that the author of the <i>Odyssey</i> can hardly
+have been just such a singer as he himself describes. The songs
+of Phemius and Demodocus are too short, and have too much
+the character of improvisations. Nor is it necessary to suppose
+that epic poetry, at the time to which the picture in the <i>Odyssey</i>
+belongs, was confined to the one type represented. Yet in
+several respects the conditions under which the singer finds himself
+in the house of a chieftain like Odysseus or Alcinous are more
+in harmony with the character of Homeric poetry than those of
+the later rhapsodic contests. The subdivision of a poem like
+the <i>Iliad</i> or <i>Odyssey</i> among different and necessarily unequal
+performers must have been injurious to the effect. The highly
+theatrical manner of recitation which was fostered by the spirit
+of competition, and by the example of the stage, cannot have
+done justice to the even movement of the epic style. It is not
+certain indeed that the practice of reciting a long poem by the
+agency of several competitors was ancient, or that it prevailed
+elsewhere than at Athens; but as rhapsodists were numerous,
+and popular favour throughout Greece became more and more
+confined to one or two great works, it must have become almost
+a necessity. That it was the mode of recitation contemplated
+by the author of the <i>Iliad</i> or <i>Odyssey</i> it is impossible to believe.</p>
+
+<p>The difference made by substituting the wand or branch of
+laurel for the lyre of the Homeric singer is a slighter one, though
+not without significance. The recitation of the Hesiodic poems
+was from the first unaccompanied by the lyre, <i>i.e.</i> they were
+confessedly <i>said</i>, not <i>sung</i>; and it was natural that the example
+should be extended to Homer. For it is difficult to believe that
+the Homeric poems were ever &ldquo;sung&rdquo; in the strict sense of the
+word. We can only suppose that the lyre in the hands of the
+epic poet or reciter was in reality a piece of convention, a &ldquo;survival&rdquo;
+from the stage in which narrative poetry had a lyrical
+character. Probably the poets of the Homeric school&mdash;that
+which dealt with war and adventure&mdash;were the genuine descendants
+of minstrels whose &ldquo;lays&rdquo; or &ldquo;ballads&rdquo; were the amusement
+of the feasts in an earlier heroic age; whereas the Hesiodic
+compositions were non-lyrical from the first, and were only in
+verse because that was the universal form of literature.</p>
+
+<p>It seems, then, that if we imagine Homer as a singer in a royal
+house of the Homeric age, but with more freedom regarding the
+limits of his subject, and a more tranquil audience than is allowed
+him in the rapid movement of the <i>Odyssey</i>, we shall probably
+not be far from the truth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Time and Place of Homer.</i>&mdash;The oldest direct references to
+the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> are in Herodotus, who quotes from both
+poems (ii. 53). The quotation from the <i>Iliad</i> is of interest
+because it is made in order to show that Homer supported the
+story of the travels of Paris to Egypt and Sidon (whereas the
+Cyclic poem called the <i>Cypria</i> ignored them), and also because
+the part of the <i>Iliad</i> from which it comes is cited as the &ldquo;Aristeia
+of Diomede.&rdquo; This was therefore a recognized part of the poem.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest mention of the name of Homer is found in a
+fragment of the philosopher Xenophanes (of the 6th century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or possibly earlier), who complains of the false notions
+implanted through the teaching of Homer. The passage shows,
+not merely that Homer was well known at Colophon in the time
+of Xenophanes, but also that the great advance in moral and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span>
+religious ideas which forced Plato to banish Homer from his
+republic had made itself felt in the days of the early Ionic
+philosophers.</p>
+
+<p>Failing external testimony, the time and place of the Homeric
+poems can only be determined (if at all) by internal evidence.
+This is of two main kinds: (<i>a</i>) evidence of history, consisting
+in a comparison of the political and social condition, the
+geography, the institutions, the manners, arts and ideas of
+Homer with those of other times; (<i>b</i>) evidence of language,
+consisting in a comparison with later dialects, in respect of
+grammar and vocabulary. To these may be added, as occasionally
+of value, (<i>c</i>) much evidence of the direct influence of Homer
+upon the subsequent course of literature and art.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The political condition of Greece in the earliest times
+known to history is separated from the Greece of Homer by an
+interval which can hardly be overestimated. The great national
+names are different: instead of Achaeans, Argives, Danai, we
+find Hellenes, subdivided into Dorians, Ionians, Aeolians&mdash;names
+either unknown to Homer, or mentioned in terms more
+significant than silence. At the dawn of Greek history Mycenae
+is no longer the seat of empire; new empires, polities and
+civilizations have grown up&mdash;Sparta with its military discipline,
+Delphi with its religious supremacy, Miletus with its commerce
+and numberless colonies, Aeolis and Ionia, Sicily and Magna
+Graecia.</p>
+
+<p>While the political centre of Homeric Greece is at Mycenae,
+the real centre is rather to be found In Boeotia. The Catalogue
+of the Ships begins with Boeotia; the list of Boeotian towns is
+much the longest; and they sail, not from the bay of Argos,
+but from the Boeotian harbour of Aulis. This position is not
+due to its chiefs, who are all of inferior rank. The importance of
+Boeotia for Greek civilization is further shown by the ancient
+worship of the Muses on Mount Helicon, and the fact that the
+oldest poet whose birthplace was known was the Boeotian
+Hesiod. Next to Boeotia and the neighbouring countries, it
+appears that the Peloponnesus, Crete and Thessaly were the
+most important seats of Greek population.</p>
+
+<p>In the Peloponnesus the face of things was completely altered
+by the Dorian conquest, no trace of which is found in Homer.
+The only Dorians known in Homer are those that the <i>Odyssey</i>
+(xix. 177) places in Crete. It is difficult to connect them with the
+Dorians of history.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern shores of the Aegean, which the earliest historical
+records represent to us as the seat of a brilliant civilization, giving
+way before the advance of the great military empires (Lydia
+and afterwards Persia), are almost a blank in Homer&rsquo;s map.
+The line of settlements can be traced in the Catalogue from
+Crete to Rhodes, and embraces the neighbouring islands of Cos
+and Calymnos. The colonization of Rhodes by Tlepolemus is
+related (<i>Il.</i> ii. 661 ff.), and seems to mark the farthest point
+reached in the Homeric age. Between Rhodes and the Troad
+Homer knows of but one city, Miletus&mdash;which is a Carian ally
+of Troy&mdash;and the mouth of one river, the Cayster. Even the
+Cyclades&mdash;Naxos, Paros, Melos&mdash;are unknown to the Homeric
+world. The disposition of the Greeks to look to the west for the
+centres of religious feeling appears in the mention of Dodona and
+the Dodonaean Zeus, put in the mouth of the Thessalian Achilles.</p>
+
+<p>To the north we find the Thracians, known from the stories
+of Thamyris the singer (<i>Il.</i> ii. 595), and Lycurgus, the enemy of
+the young god Dionysus (<i>Il.</i> vi. 130). Here the Trojan empire
+begins. It does not appear, however, that the Trojans are thought
+of as people of a different language. As this is expressly said of
+the Carians, and of the Trojan allies who were &ldquo;summoned from
+afar,&rdquo; the contrary rather is implied regarding Troy itself.</p>
+
+<p>The mixed type of government described by Homer&mdash;consisting
+of a king guided by a council of elders, and bringing all
+important resolutions before the assembly of the fighting men&mdash;does
+not seem to have been universal in Indo-European communities,
+but to have grown up in many different parts of the
+world under the stress of similar conditions. The king is the
+commander in war, and the office probably owed its existence to
+military necessities. It is not surrounded with any special
+sacredness. There were ruling families, laying claim to divine
+descent, from whom the king was naturally chosen, but his own
+fitness is the essence of his title. The aged Laertes is set aside;
+the young Telemachus does not succeed as a matter of course.
+Nor are any very definite rights attached to the office. Each
+tribe in the army before Troy was commanded by its own king
+(or kings); but Agamemnon was supreme, and was &ldquo;more a
+king&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="basileiteros">&#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#943;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>) than any other. The assembly is summoned
+on all critical occasions, and its approval is the ultimate sanction.
+A king therefore stands in almost as much need of oratory as of
+warlike skill and prowess. Even the division of the spoil is not
+made in the <i>Iliad</i> by Agamemnon, but by &ldquo;the Achaeans&rdquo;
+(<i>Il.</i> i. 162, 368). The taking of Briseïs from Achilles was an
+arbitrary act, and against all rule and custom. The council
+is more difficult to understand. The &ldquo;elders&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="gerontes">&#947;&#941;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>) of the
+<i>Iliad</i> are the same as the subordinate &ldquo;kings&rdquo;; they are
+summoned by Agamemnon to his tent, and form a small council
+of nine or ten persons. In Troy we hear of elders of the people
+(<span class="grk" title="dêmogerontes">&#948;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#947;&#941;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>) who are with Priam, and are men past the
+military age. So in Ithaca there are elders who have not gone to
+Troy with the army. It would seem therefore that the meeting
+in Agamemnon&rsquo;s tent was only a copy or adaptation of the true
+constitutional &ldquo;council of elders,&rdquo; which indeed was essentially
+unfitted for the purposes of military service. The king&rsquo;s palace,
+if we may judge from Tiryns and Mycenae, was usually in a strong
+situation on an &ldquo;acropolis.&rdquo; In the later times of democracy the
+acropolis was reserved for the temples of the principal gods.</p>
+
+<p>Priesthood in Homer is found in the case of particular temples,
+where an officer is naturally wanted to take charge of the sacred
+inclosure and the sacrifices offered within it. It is perhaps an
+accident that we do not hear of priests in Ithaca. Agamemnon
+performs sacrifice himself, not because a priestly character was
+attached to the kingly office, but simply because he was &ldquo;master
+in his own house.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The conception of &ldquo;law&rdquo; is foreign to Homer. The later
+words for it (<span class="grk" title="nomos">&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="rhêtra">&#8165;&#942;&#964;&#961;&#945;</span>) are unknown, and the terms which
+he uses (<span class="grk" title="dikê">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#951;</span> and <span class="grk" title="themis">&#952;&#941;&#956;&#953;&#962;</span>) mean merely &ldquo;custom.&rdquo; Judicial
+functions are in the hands of the elders, who &ldquo;have to do with
+suits&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="dikaspoloi">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#963;&#960;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#953;</span>), and &ldquo;uphold judgments&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="themistas
+eiryatai">&#952;&#941;&#956;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#962; &#949;&#7984;&#961;&#973;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>). On such matters as the compensation in cases of
+homicide, it is evident that there were no rules, but merely a
+feeling, created by use and wont, that the relatives of the slain
+man should be willing to accept payment. The sense of anger
+which follows a violation of custom has the name of
+&ldquo;Nemesis&rdquo;&mdash;righteous
+displeasure.</p>
+
+<p>As there is no law in Homer, so there is no morality. That
+is to say, there are no general principles of action, and no words
+which indicate that acts have been classified as good or bad,
+right or wrong. Moral <i>feeling</i>, indeed, existed and was denoted
+by &ldquo;Aidos&rdquo;; but the numerous meanings of this word&mdash;shame,
+veneration, pity&mdash;show how rudimentary the idea was. And
+when we look to practice we find that cruel and even treacherous
+deeds are spoken of without the least sense that they deserve
+censure. The heroes of Homer are hardly more moral agents
+than the giants and enchanters of a fairy tale.</p>
+
+<p>The religious ideas of Homer differ in some important points
+from those of later Greece. The Apollo of the <i>Iliad</i> has the
+character of a local Asiatic deity&mdash;&ldquo;ruler of Chryse and goodly
+Cilla and Tenedos.&rdquo; He may be compared with the Clarian
+and the Lycian god, but he is unlike the Apollo of Dorian times,
+the &ldquo;deliverer&rdquo; and giver of oracles. Again, the worship of
+Dionysus, and of Demeter and Persephone, is mainly or wholly
+post-Homeric. The greatest difference, however, lies in the
+absence of hero-worship from the Homeric order of things.
+Castor and Polydeuces, for instance, are simply brothers of
+Helen who died before the expedition to Troy (<i>Il.</i> iii. 243.)</p>
+
+<p>The military tactics of Homer belong to the age when the
+chariot was the principal engine of warfare. Cavalry is unknown,
+and the battles are mainly decided by the prowess of the chiefs.
+The use of the trumpet is also later. It has been supposed
+indeed that the art of riding was known in Homer&rsquo;s own time,
+because it occurs in comparisons. But the riding which he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span>
+describes (<i>Il.</i> xv. 679) is a mere exhibition of skill, such as we may
+see in a modern circus. And though he mentions the trumpet
+(<i>Il.</i> xviii. 219), there is nothing to show that it was used, as in
+historical times, to give the signal for the charge.</p>
+
+<p>The chief industries of Homeric times are those of the carpenter
+(<span class="grk" title="tektôn">&#964;&#941;&#954;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>), the worker in leather (<span class="grk" title="skutotomos">&#963;&#954;&#965;&#964;&#959;&#964;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>), the smith or
+worker in metal (<span class="grk" title="chalkeus">&#967;&#945;&#955;&#954;&#949;&#973;&#962;</span>)&mdash;whose implements are the hammer
+and pincers&mdash;and the potter (<span class="grk" title="kerameus">&#954;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#949;&#973;&#962;</span>); also spinning and
+weaving, which were carried on by the women. The fine arts
+are represented by sculpture in relief, carving in wood and ivory,
+embroidery. Statuary is later; it appears to have come into
+existence in the 7th century, about the time when casting in
+metal was invented by Rhoecus of Samos. In general, as was
+well shown by A. S. Murray,<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Homeric art does not rise above the
+stage of <i>decoration</i>, applied to objects in common use; while
+in point of style it is characterized by a richness and variety
+of ornament which is in the strongest contrast to the simplicity
+of the best periods. It is the work, in short, not of artists but of
+skilled workmen; the ideal artist is &ldquo;Daedalus,&rdquo; a name which
+implies mechanical skill and intricate workmanship, not beauty
+of design.</p>
+
+<p>One art of the highest importance remains. The question
+whether writing was known in the time of Homer was raised in
+antiquity, and has been debated with especial eagerness ever
+since the appearance of Wolf&rsquo;s <i>Prolegomena</i>. In this case we
+have to consider not merely the indications of the poems, but
+also the external evidence which we possess regarding the use
+of writing in Greece. This latter kind of evidence is much more
+considerable now than it was in Wolf&rsquo;s time. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span>
+elsewhere in these volumes.)</p>
+
+<p>The oldest known stage of the Greek alphabet appears to be
+represented by inscriptions of the islands of Thera, Melos and
+Crete, which are referred to the 40th Olympiad (620 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The
+oldest specimen of a distinctively Ionian alphabet is the famous
+inscription of the mercenaries of Psammetichus, in Upper Egypt,
+as to which the only doubt is whether the Psammetichus in
+question is the first or the second, and consequently whether
+the inscription is to be dated Ol. 40 or Ol. 47. Considering that
+the divergence of two alphabets (like the difference of two
+dialects) requires both time and familiar use, we may gather
+from these facts that writing was well known in Greece early in
+the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The rise of prose composition in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> has
+been thought to mark the time when memory was practically
+superseded by writing as a means of preserving literature&mdash;the
+earlier use of letters being confined to short documents,
+such as lists of names, treaties, laws, &amp;c. This conclusion,
+however, is by no means necessary. It may be that down to
+comparatively late rimes poetry was not commonly read, but
+was recited from memory. But the question is&mdash;From what
+time are we to suppose that the preservation of long poems was
+generally secured by the existence of written copies? Now,
+without counting the Homeric poems&mdash;which doubtless had
+exceptional advantages in their fame and popularity&mdash;we find
+a body of literature dating from the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to which
+the theory of oral transmission is surely inapplicable. In the
+Trojan cycle alone we know of the two epics of Arctinus, the
+<i>Little Iliad</i> of Lesches, the <i>Cypria</i>, the <i>Nostoi</i>. The Theban
+cycle is represented by the <i>Thebaid</i> (which Callinus, who was
+of the 7th century, ascribed to Homer) and the <i>Epigoni</i>. Other
+ancient epics&mdash;ancient enough to have passed under the name
+of Homer&mdash;are the <i>Taking of Oechalia</i>, and the <i>Phocaïs</i>. Again,
+there are the numerous works attributed to Hesiod and other
+poets of the didactic, mythological and quasi-historical schools&mdash;Eumelus
+of Corinth, Cinaethon of Sparta, Agias of Troezen, and
+many more. The preservation of this vast mass can only be
+attributed to writing, which must therefore have been in use for
+two centuries or more before there was any considerable prose
+literature. Nor is this in itself improbable.</p>
+
+<p>The further question, whether the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> were
+originally written, is much more difficult. External evidence
+does not reach back so far, and the internal evidence is curiously
+indecisive. The only passage which can be interpreted as a
+reference to writing occurs in the story of Bellerophon, told by
+Glaucus in the sixth book of the <i>Iliad</i>. Proetus, king of Corinth,
+sent Bellerophon to his father-in-law the king of Lycia, and gave
+him &ldquo;baneful tokens&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="sêmata lugra">&#963;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#955;&#965;&#947;&#961;&#940;</span>, <i>i.e.</i> tokens which were
+messages of death), &ldquo;scratching on a folded tablet many spirit-destroying
+things, and bade him show this to his father-in-law,
+that he might perish.&rdquo; The king of Lycia asked duly (on the
+tenth day from the guest&rsquo;s coming) for a token (<span class="grk" title="hêtee sêma
+idesthai">&#8084;&#964;&#949;&#949; &#963;&#8134;&#956;&#945; &#7984;&#948;&#941;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>), and then knew what Proetus wished to be done. In
+this account there is nothing to show exactly how the message
+of Proetus was expressed. The use of writing for the purpose of
+the token between &ldquo;guest-friends&rdquo; (<i>tessera hospitalis</i>) is certainly
+very ancient. Mommsen (<i>Röm. Forsch</i>. i. 338 ff.) aptly compares
+the use in treaties, which are the oldest species of public
+documents. But we may suppose that tokens of some kind&mdash;like
+the marks which the Greek chiefs make on the lots (<i>Il.</i> vii.
+175 ff.)&mdash;were in use before writing was known. In any system
+of signs there were doubtless means of recommending a friend,
+or giving warning of the presence of an enemy. There is no
+difficulty, therefore, in understanding the message of Proetus
+without alphabetical writing. But, on the other hand, there
+is no reason for so understanding it.</p>
+
+<p>If the language of Homer is so ambiguous where the use
+of writing would naturally be mentioned, we cannot expect to
+find more decisive references elsewhere. Arguments have been
+founded upon the descriptions of the blind singers in the <i>Odyssey</i>,
+with their songs inspired directly by the Muse; upon the appeals
+of the poet to the Muses, especially in such a place as the opening
+of the Catalogue; upon the Catalogue itself, which is a kind of
+historical document put into verse to help the memory; upon
+the shipowner in the <i>Odyssey</i>, who has &ldquo;a good memory for his
+cargo,&rdquo; &amp;c. It may be answered, however, that much of this
+is traditional, handed down from the time when all poetry was
+unwritten. Moreover it is one thing to recognize that a literature
+is essentially oral in its form, characteristic of an age which was
+one of hearing rather than of reading, and quite another to hold
+that the same literature was preserved entirely by oral transmission.</p>
+
+<p>The result of these various considerations seems to be that
+the age which we may call the Homeric&mdash;the age which is brought
+before us in vivid outlines in the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>&mdash;lies beyond
+the earliest point to which history enables us to penetrate.
+And so far as we can draw any conclusion as to the author
+(or authors) of the two poems, it is that the whole debate between
+the cities of Aeolis and Ionia was wide of the mark. The author
+of the <i>Iliad</i>, at least, was evidently a European Greek who
+lived before the colonization of Asia Minor; and the claims
+of the Asiatic cities mean no more than that in the days of their
+prosperity these were the chief seats of the fame of Homer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>This is perhaps the place to consider whether the poems are to be
+regarded as possessing in any degree the character; of historical
+record. The question is one which in the absence of satisfactory
+criteria will generally be decided by taste and predilection. A few
+suggestions, however, may be made.</p>
+
+<p>1. The events of the <i>Iliad</i> take place in a real locality, the general
+features of which are kept steadily in view. There is no doubt
+about Sigeum and Rhoeteum, or the river Scamander, or the islands
+Imbros, Lemnos and Tenedos. It is at least remarkable that a legend
+of the national interest of the &ldquo;tale of Troy&rdquo; should be so definitely
+localized, and that in a district, which was never famous as a seat of
+Greek population. It may be urged, too, that the story of the <i>Iliad</i>
+is singularly free from the exaggerated and marvellous character
+which belongs as a rule to the legends of primitive peoples. The
+apple of discord, the arrows of Philoctetes, the invulnerability of
+Achilles, and similar fancies, are the additions of later poets. This
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span>
+sobriety, however, belongs not to the whole <i>Iliad</i>, but to the events
+and characters of the war. Such figures as Bellerophon, Nïobe, the
+Amazons, which are thought of as traditions from an earlier generation,
+show the marvellous element at work.</p>
+
+<p>2. Certain persons and events in the story have a distinctly
+mythical stamp. Helen is a figure of this kind. There was another
+story according to which she was carried off by Theseus, and recovered
+by her brothers the Dioscuri. There are even traces of a
+third version, in which the Messenian twins, Idas and Lynceus,
+appear.</p>
+
+<p>3. The analogy of the French epic, the <i>Chanson de Roland</i>,
+favours the belief that there was some nucleus of fact. The defeat
+of Roncevaux was really suffered by a part of Charlemagne&rsquo;s army.
+But the Saracen army is purely mythical, the true enemy having
+been the Gascons. If similarly we leave, as historical, the plain of
+Troy, and the name Agamemnon, we shall perhaps not be far wrong.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The dialect of Homer is an early or &ldquo;primitive&rdquo; form of
+the language which we know as that of Attica in the classical
+age of Greek literature. The proof of this proposition is to be
+obtained chiefly by comparing the grammatical formation and
+the syntax of Homer with those of Attic. The comparison of
+the vocabulary is in the nature of things less conclusive on the
+question of date. It would be impossible to give the evidence
+in full without writing a Homeric grammar, but a few specimens
+may be of interest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The first aorist in Greek being a &ldquo;weak&rdquo; tense, <i>i.e.</i> formed
+by a suffix (<span class="grk" title="-sa">-&#963;&#8112;</span>), whereas the second aorist is a &ldquo;strong&rdquo; tense,
+distinguished by the form of the root-syllable, we expect to find a
+constant tendency to diminish the number of second aorists in use.
+No new second aorists, we may be sure, were formed any more than
+new &ldquo;strong&rdquo; tenses, such as <i>came</i> or <i>sang</i>, can be formed in
+English. Now in Homer there are upwards of 80 second aorists
+(not reckoning aorists of &ldquo;Verbs in <span class="grk" title="mi">&#956;&#953;</span>,&rdquo; such as <span class="grk" title="hestên">&#7957;&#963;&#964;&#951;&#957;</span>, <span class="grk" title="ebên">&#7956;&#946;&#951;&#957;</span>), whereas
+in all Attic prose not more than 30 are found. In this point therefore
+the Homeric language is manifestly older. In Attic poets, it is true,
+the number of such aorists is much larger than in prose. But here
+again we find that they bear witness to Homer. Of the poetical
+aorists in Attic the larger part are also Homeric. Others are not
+really Attic at all, but borrowed from earlier Aeolic and Doric
+poetry. It is plain, in short, that the later poetical vocabulary was
+separated from that of prose mainly by the forms which the influence
+of Homer had saved from being forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>2. While the whole class of &ldquo;strong&rdquo; aorists diminished, certain
+smaller groups in the class disappeared altogether. Thus we find in
+Homer, but not in the later language:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The second aorist middle without the &ldquo;thematic&rdquo; &epsilon; or &omicron;: as
+<span class="grk" title="eblê-to">&#7957;&#946;&#955;&#951;-&#964;&#959;</span>, <i>was struck</i>; <span class="grk" title="ephi-to">&#7956;&#966;&#952;&#953;-&#964;&#959;</span>, <i>perished</i>;
+<span class="grk" title="al-to">&#8118;&#955;-&#964;&#959;</span>, <i>leaped</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The aorist formed by reduplication: as <span class="grk" title="dedaev">&#948;&#941;&#948;&#945;&#949;&#957;</span>, <i>taught</i>;
+<span class="grk" title="lelabesthai">&#955;&#949;&#955;&#945;&#946;&#941;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>, <i>to seize</i>. These constitute a distinct formation, generally
+with a &ldquo;causative&rdquo; meaning; the solitary Attic specimen is <span class="grk" title="êgagon">&#7972;&#947;&#945;&#947;&#959;&#957;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>3. It had long been known that the subjunctive in Homer often
+takes a short vowel (<i>e.g.</i> in the plural, <span class="grk" title="-omen">-&#959;&#956;&#949;&#957;</span>, <span class="grk" title="-ete">-&#949;&#964;&#949;</span> instead of <span class="grk" title="-ômen">-&#969;&#956;&#949;&#957;</span>,
+<span class="grk" title="-ête">-&#951;&#964;&#949;</span>, and in the Mid. <span class="grk" title="-omai">-&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>, &amp;c. instead of <span class="grk" title="-ômai">-&#969;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>, &amp;c.). This was
+generally said to be done by &ldquo;poetic licence,&rdquo; or <i>metri gratia</i>. In
+fact, however, the Homeric subjunctive is almost quite &ldquo;regular,&rdquo;
+though the rule which it obeys is a different one from the Attic. It
+may be summed up by saying that the subjunctive takes &omega; or &eta; when
+the indicative has &omicron; or &epsilon;, and not otherwise. Thus Homer has
+<span class="grk" title="i-men">&#7988;-&#956;&#949;&#957;</span>, <i>we go</i>, <span class="grk" title="i-o-men">&#7988;-&#959;-&#956;&#949;&#957;</span>, <i>let us go</i>. The later <span class="grk" title="i-ô-men">&#7988;-&#969;-&#956;&#949;&#957;</span> was at first a solecism,
+an attempt to conjugate a &ldquo;verb in <span class="grk" title="mi">&#956;&#953;</span>&rdquo; like the &ldquo;verbs in &omega;.&rdquo;
+It will be evident that under this rule the perfect and first aorist
+subjunctive should always take a short vowel; and this accordingly
+is the case, with very few exceptions.</p>
+
+<p>4. The article (<span class="grk" title="ho, hê, to">&#8001;, &#7969;, &#964;&#972;</span>) in Homer is chiefly used as an independent
+pronoun (<i>he, she, it</i>), a use which in Attic appears only in a few combinations
+(such as <span class="grk" title="ho mèn ... ho de">&#8001; &#956;&#8050;&#957; ... &#8001; &#948;&#941;</span>, <i>the one ... the other</i>). This difference
+is parallel to the relation between the Latin <i>ille</i> and the article
+of the Romance languages.</p>
+
+<p>5. The prepositions offer several points of comparison. What the
+grammarians called &ldquo;tmesis,&rdquo; the separation of the preposition from
+the verb with which it is compounded, is peculiar to Homer. The
+true account of the matter is that in Homer the place of the preposition
+is not rigidly fixed, as it was afterwards. Again, &ldquo;with&rdquo;
+is in Homer <span class="grk" title="syn">&#963;&#973;&#957;</span> (with the dative), in Attic prose <span class="grk" title="meta">&#956;&#949;&#964;&#940;</span> with the
+genitive. Here Attic poetry is intermediate; the use of <span class="grk" title="syn">&#963;&#973;&#957;</span> is
+retained as a piece of poetical tradition.</p>
+
+<p>6. In addition to the particle <span class="grk" title="an">&#7940;&#957;</span>, Homer has another, <span class="grk" title="ken">&#954;&#949;&#957;</span>, hardly
+distinguishable in meaning. The Homeric uses of <span class="grk" title="an">&#7940;&#957;</span> and <span class="grk" title="ken">&#954;&#949;&#957;</span> are
+different in several respects from the Attic, the general result being
+that the Homeric syntax is more elastic. And yet it is perfectly
+definite and precise. Homer uses no constructions loosely or without
+corresponding differences of meaning. His rules are equally strict
+with those of the later language, but they are not the same rules.
+And they differ chiefly in this, that the less common combinations
+of the earlier period were disused altogether in the later.</p>
+
+<p>7. In the vocabulary the most striking difference is that many
+words appear from the metre to have contained a sound which they
+afterwards lost, viz. that which is written in some Greek alphabets
+by the &ldquo;digamma&rdquo; &#989; Thus the words <span class="grk" title="anax, asty, ergon, epos">&#7940;&#957;&#945;&#958;, &#7940;&#963;&#964;&#965;, &#7956;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#957;, &#7956;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+and many others must have been written at one time <span class="grk" title="wanax, wasty,
+wergon, wepos">&#989;&#940;&#957;&#945;&#958;, &#989;&#940;&#963;&#964;&#965;, &#989;&#941;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#957;, &#989;&#941;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>. This letter, however, died out earlier in Ionic than
+in most dialects, and there is no proof that the Homeric poems were
+ever written with it.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These are not, speaking generally, the differences that are
+produced by the gradual divergence of dialects in a language.
+They are rather to be classed with those which we find between
+the earlier and the later stages of every language which has
+had a long history. The Homeric dialect has passed into New
+Ionic and Attic by gradual but ceaseless development of the
+same kind as that which brought about the change from Vedic
+to classical Sanskrit, or from old high German to the present
+dialects of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The points that have been mentioned, to which many others
+might be added, make it clear that the Homeric and Attic dialects
+are separated by differences which affect the whole structure
+of the language, and require a considerable time for their development.
+At the same time there is hardly one of these differences
+which cannot be accounted for by the natural growth of the
+language. It has been thought indeed that the Homeric dialect
+was a mixed one, mainly Ionic, but containing Aeolic and even
+Doric forms; this, however, is a mistaken view of the processes
+of language. There are doubtless many Homeric forms which
+were unknown to the later Ionic and Attic, and which are found
+in Aeolic or other dialects. In general, however, these are <i>older</i>
+forms, which must have existed in Ionic at one time, and may
+very well have belonged to the Ionic of Homer&rsquo;s time. So too
+the digamma is called &ldquo;Aeolic&rdquo; by grammarians, and is found
+on Aeolic and Doric inscriptions. But the letter was one of the
+original alphabet, and was retained universally as a numeral.
+It can only have fallen into disuse by degrees, as the sound
+which it denoted ceased to be pronounced. The fact that there
+are so many traces of it in Homer is a strong proof of the antiquity
+of the poems, but no proof of admixture with Aeolic.</p>
+
+<p>There is one sense, however, in which an admixture of dialects
+may be recognized. It is clear that the variety of forms in
+Homer is too great for any actual spoken dialect. To take a
+single instance: it is impossible that the genitives in <span class="grk" title="-oio">-&#959;&#953;&#959;</span> and
+in <span class="grk" title="-ou">-&#959;&#965;</span> should both have been in everyday use together. The
+form in <span class="grk" title="-oio">-&#959;&#953;&#959;</span> must have been poetical or literary, like the old
+English forms that survive in the language of the Bible. The
+origin of such double forms is not far to seek. The effect of
+dialect on style was always recognized in Greece, and the dialect
+which had once been adopted by a particular kind of poetry
+was ever afterwards adhered to. The Epic of Homer was doubtless
+formed originally from a spoken variety of Greek, but
+became literary and conventional with time. It is Homer
+himself who tells us, in a striking passage (<i>Il.</i> iv. 437) that all
+the Greeks spoke the same language&mdash;that is to say, that they
+understood one another, in spite of the inevitable local differences.
+Experience shows how some one dialect in a country gains a
+literary supremacy to which the whole nation yields. So Tuscan
+became the type of Italian, and Anglian of English. But as
+soon as the dialect is adopted, it begins to diverge from the
+colloquial form. Just as modern poetical Italian uses many
+older grammatical forms peculiar to itself, so the language of
+poetry, even in Homeric times, had formed a deposit (so to
+speak) of archaic grammar. There were doubtless poets before
+Homer, as well as brave men before Agamemnon; and indeed
+the formation of a poetical dialect such as the Homeric must
+have been the work of several generations. The use of that
+dialect (instead of Aeolic) by the Boeotian poet Hesiod, in a
+kind of poetry which was not of the Homeric type, tends to
+the conclusion that the literary ascendancy of the epic dialect
+was anterior to the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>, and independent of the
+influence exercised by these poems.</p>
+
+<p>What then was the original language of Homer? Where
+and when was it spoken? [The answer given to this question
+by Aug. Fick (in 1883) and still held, with modifications, by
+some European scholars can no longer be maintained. Fick&rsquo;s
+original statement was that in or about the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span>
+the poems, which had originally worn an Aeolic dress, were
+transposed into Ionic. To this it is easily answered that such
+an event is not only unique in history, but contrary to all that
+we know of the Greek genius. At the period in question an
+Aeolic literature, the lyrics of Sappho and Alcaeus, were in
+existence. If it was found necessary to transpose the Aeolic
+Homer, why did the Aeolic lyric verse escape? If, however,
+as is the view of some of Fick&rsquo;s followers, the transposition took
+place several centuries earlier, before species of literature had
+appropriated particular dialects, then the linguistic facts upon
+which Fick relied to distinguish the &ldquo;Aeolic&rdquo; and &ldquo;Ionic&rdquo;
+elements in Homer disappear. We have no means of knowing
+what the Aeolic and Ionic of say the 9th century were, or if
+there were such dialects at all. Certain prominent historical
+differences between Aeolic and Ionic (the digamma and <span class="ov">&alpha;</span>) are
+known to be unoriginal. The view that Homer underwent
+at any time a passage from one dialect to another may be dismissed.
+The tendency of modern dialectologists is to divide
+the Greek dialects into Dorian and non-Dorian. The non-Dorian
+dialects, Ionic, Attic and the various forms of Aeolic,
+are regarded as relatively closely akin, and go by the common
+name &ldquo;Achaean.&rdquo; They formed the common language of Greece
+before the Doric invasion. As the scene which Homer depicts
+is prae-Dorian Greece, it is reasonable to call his language
+Achaean. The historical divergences of Achaean into Aeolian
+and Ionic were later than the Migration, and were due to the
+well-known effects of change of soil and air.</p>
+
+<p>To what local variety of Achaean Homeric Greek belonged
+it is idle to ask. Thessaly, Boeotia and Mycenae have equal
+claims. It seems clearer that when once this local variety of
+Achaean had been used by poets of eminence as their vehicle
+for national history, it established its right to be considered
+the one poetical language of Hellas. As the dialect of the Arno
+in Italy, of Castille in Spain, by the virtue of the genius
+of the singers who used them, became literary &ldquo;Italian&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Spanish,&rdquo; so this variety of Achaean elevated itself to the
+position of the <i>volgare illustre</i> of Greece.<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a>]</p>
+<div class="author">(T. W. A.)</div>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The influence of Homer upon the subsequent course of
+Greek literature is a large subject, even if we restrict it to the
+centuries which immediately followed the Homeric age. It
+will be enough to observe that in the earliest elegiac poets, such
+as Archilochus, Tyrtaeus and Theognis, reminiscences of Homeric
+language and thought meet us on every page. If the same
+cannot be said of the ancient epic poems, that is because of the
+extreme scantiness of the existing fragments. Much, however,
+is to be gathered from the arguments of the Trojan part of the
+Epic Cycle (preserved in the <i>Codex Venetus</i> of the <i>Iliad</i>, a full
+discussion of which will be found in the <i>Journal of Hellenic
+Studies</i>, 1884, pp. 1-40). An examination of these arguments
+throws light on two chief aspects of the relation between Homer
+and his &ldquo;cyclic&rdquo; successors.</p>
+
+<p>1. The later poets sought to complete the story of the Trojan
+war by supplying the parts which did not fall within the <i>Iliad</i>
+and <i>Odyssey</i>&mdash;the so-called <i>ante-homerica</i> and <i>post-homerica</i>.
+They did so largely from hints and passing references in Homer.
+Thus the successive episodes of the siege related at length in
+the <i>Little Iliad</i>, and ending with the story of the Wooden Horse,
+are nearly all taken from passages in the <i>Odyssey</i>. Much the
+same may be said of the <i>Nosti</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. With this process of expansion and development (so to speak)
+of Homeric themes is combined the addition of new characters.
+Such, in the <i>Little Iliad</i> (<i>e.g.</i>), are the story of the Palladium
+and of the treachery of Sinon. Such, too, in the <i>Cypria</i> are the
+new legendary figures&mdash;Palamedes, Iphigenia, Telephus, Laocoon.
+These new elements in the narrative are evidently due not only
+to the natural growth of legend in a people highly endowed
+with imagination, but in a large proportion also to the new
+races and countries with which the Greeks came into contact,
+as well as to their own rapid advance in wealth and civilization.
+It will be observed that the two poems of Arctinus are remarkable
+for the proportion of new matter of the latter kind. The
+<i>Aethiopis</i> shows us the allies of Troy reinforced by two peoples
+that are evidently creations of oriental fancy, the Amazons and
+Memnon with his Aethiopians. The <i>Iliu Persis</i>, again, was
+the oldest authority for the story of Laocoon and of the consequent
+escape of Aeneas&mdash;a story which connected a surviving
+branch of the house of Priam with the later inhabitants of the
+Troad. On the other hand the fate of Creusa (<i>sed me magna
+deum genetrix his detinet oris</i>) is a link with the worship of Cybele.
+The journey of Calchas to Colophon and his death there, as told
+in the <i>Nosti</i>, is another instance of the kind. These facts point
+to a familiarity with the Greek colonies in Asia which contrasts
+strongly with the silence of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Study of Homer.</i>&mdash;<i>The Homeric Question.</i>&mdash;The critical study of
+Homer began in Greece almost with the beginning of prose writing.
+The first name is that of Theagenes of Rhegium, contemporary of
+Cambyses (525 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who is said to have founded the &ldquo;new
+grammar&rdquo; (the older &ldquo;grammar&rdquo; being the art of reading and
+writing), and to have been the inventor of the allegorical interpretations
+by which it was sought to reconcile the Homeric mythology
+with the morality and speculative ideas of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+The same attitude in the &ldquo;ancient quarrel of poetry and philosophy&rdquo;
+was soon afterwards taken by Anaxagoras; and after him by his
+pupil Metrodorus of Lampsacus, who explained away all the gods,
+and even the heroes, as elementary substances and forces (Agamemnon
+as the upper air, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>The next writers on Homer of the &ldquo;grammatical&rdquo; type were
+Stesimbrotus of Thasos (contemporary with Cimon) and Antimachus
+of Colophon, himself an epic poet of mark. The <i>Thebaid</i> of Antimachus,
+however, was not popular, and seems to have been a
+great storehouse of mythological learning rather than a poem of the
+Homeric school.</p>
+
+<p>Other names of the pre-Socratic and Socratic times are mentioned
+by Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle. These were the &ldquo;ancient
+Homerics&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="hoi archaioi Homêrikoi">&#959;&#7985; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#953; &#8009;&#956;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>), who busied themselves much with
+the hidden meanings of Homer; of whom Aristotle says, with his
+profound insight, that they see the small likenesses and overlook
+the great ones (<i>Metaph.</i> xii.).</p>
+
+<p>The text of Homer must have attracted some attention when
+Antimachus came to be known as the &ldquo;corrector&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="diorthôtês">&#948;&#953;&#959;&#952;&#969;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>) of a
+distinct edition (<span class="grk" title="ekdosis">&#7956;&#954;&#948;&#959;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>), Aristotle is said himself to have made a
+recension for the use of Alexander the Great. This is unlikely. His
+remarks on Homer (in the <i>Poetics</i> and elsewhere) show that he had
+made a careful study of the structure and leading ideas of the poems,
+but do not throw much light on the text.</p>
+
+<p>The real work of criticism became possible only when great collections
+of manuscripts began to be made by the princes of the generation
+after Alexander, and when men of learning were employed to
+sift and arrange these treasures. In this way the great Alexandrian
+school of Homeric criticism began with Zenodotus, the first chief of
+the museum, and was continued by Aristophanes and Aristarchus.
+In Aristarchus ancient philology culminated, as philosophy had done
+in Socrates. All earlier learning either passed into his writings, or
+was lost; all subsequent research turned upon his critical and
+grammatical work.</p>
+
+<p>The means of forming a judgment of the Alexandrine criticism
+are scanty. The literary form which preserved the works of the
+great historians was unfortunately wanting, or was not sufficiently
+valued, in the case of the grammarians. Abridgments and newer
+treatises soon drove out the writings of Aristarchus and other
+founders of the science. Moreover, a recension could not be reproduced
+without new errors soon creeping in. Thus we find that
+Didymus, writing in the time of Cicero, does not quote the readings
+of Aristarchus as we should quote a <i>textus receptus</i>. Indeed, the
+object of his work seems to have been to determine what those
+readings were. Enough, however, remains to show that Aristarchus
+had a clear notion of the chief problems of philology (except perhaps
+those concerning etymology). He saw, for example, that it was
+not enough to find a meaning for the archaic words (the <span class="grk" title="glôssai">&#947;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#953;</span>, as
+they were called), but that common words (such as <span class="grk" title="ponos, phobos">&#960;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#962;, &#966;&#972;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>)
+had their Homeric uses, which were to be gathered by due induction.
+In the same spirit he looked upon the ideas and beliefs of Homer as
+a consistent whole, which might be determined from the evidence
+of the poems. He noticed especially the difference between the
+stories known to Homer and those given by later poets, and made
+many comparisons between Homeric and later manners, arts and
+institutions. Again, he was sensible of the paramount value of
+manuscript authority, and appears to have introduced no readings
+from mere conjecture. The frequent mention in the Scholia of
+&ldquo;better&rdquo; and &ldquo;inferior&rdquo; texts may indicate a classification made
+by him or by the general opinion of critics. His use of the &ldquo;obelus&rdquo;
+to distinguish spurious verses, which made so large a part of his fame
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span>
+in antiquity, has rather told against him with modern scholars.<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+It is chiefly interesting as a proof of the confusion in which the text
+must have been before the Alexandrian times; for it is impossible to
+understand the readiness of Aristarchus to suspect the genuineness
+of verses unless the state of the copies had pointed to the existence
+of numerous interpolations. On this matter, however, we are left
+to conjecture.</p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of Alexandrian criticism is derived almost wholly
+from a single document, the famous <i>Iliad</i> of the library of St Mark
+in Venice (<i>Codex Venetus</i> 454, or <i>Ven. A</i>), first published by the
+French scholar Villoison in 1788 (<i>Scholia antiquissima ad Homeri
+Iliadem</i>). This manuscript, written in the 10th century, contains
+(1) the best text of the <i>Iliad</i>, (2) the critical marks of Aristarchus and
+(3) Scholia, consisting mainly of extracts from four grammatical
+works, viz. Didymus (contemporary of Cicero) on the recension of
+Aristarchus, Aristonicus (fl. 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) on the critical marks of Aristarchus,
+Herodian (fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 160) on the accentuation, and Nicanor
+(fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 127) on the punctuation, of the <i>Iliad</i>.</p>
+
+<p>These extracts present themselves in two distinct forms. One
+series of scholia is written in the usual way, on a margin reserved
+for the purpose. The other consists of brief scholia, written in very
+small characters (but of the same period) on the narrow space left
+vacant round the text. Occasionally a scholium of this kind gives
+the substance of one of the longer extracts; but as a rule they are
+distinct. It would seem, therefore, that after the manuscript was
+finished the &ldquo;marginal scholia&rdquo; were discovered to be extremely
+defective, and a new series of extracts was added in a form which
+interfered as little as possible with the appearance of the book.<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The mention of the Venetian Scholia leads us at once to the
+Homeric controversy; for the immortal <i>Prolegomena</i> of F. A. Wolf<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
+appeared a few years after Villoison&rsquo;s publication, and was founded
+in great measure upon the fresh and abundant materials which it
+furnished. Not that the &ldquo;Wolfian theory&rdquo; of the Homeric poems
+is directly supported by anything in the Scholia; the immediate
+object of the <i>Prolegomena</i> was not to put forward that theory, but
+to elucidate the new and remarkable conditions under which the
+text of Homer had to be settled, viz. the discovery of an <i>apparatus
+criticus</i> of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The questions regarding the original
+structure and early history of the poems were raised (forced upon
+him, it may be said) by the critical problem; but they were really
+originated by facts and ideas of a wholly different order.</p>
+
+<p>The 18th century, in which the spirit of classical correctness had
+the most absolute dominion, did not come to an end before a powerful
+reaction set in, which affected not only literature but also speculation
+and politics. In this movement the leading ideas were concentrated
+in the word Nature. The natural condition of society, natural law,
+natural religion, the poetry of nature, gained a singular hold, first on
+the English philosophers from Hume onwards, and then (through
+Rousseau chiefly) on the general drift of thought and action in Europe.
+In literature the effect of these ideas was to set up a false opposition
+between nature and art. As political writers imagined a patriarchal
+innocence prior to codes of law, so men of letters sought in popular
+unwritten poetry the freshness and simplicity which were wanting
+in the prevailing styles. The blind minstrel was the counterpart of
+the noble savage. The supposed discovery of the poems of Ossian
+fell in with this train of sentiment, and created an enthusiasm for the
+study of early popular poetry. Homer was soon drawn into the circle
+of inquiry. Blackwell (Professor of Greek at Aberdeen) had insisted,
+in a book published in 1735, on the &ldquo;naturalness&rdquo; of Homer; and
+Wood (<i>Essay on the Original Genius of Homer</i>, London, 1769) was the
+first who maintained that Homer composed without the help of
+writing, and supported his thesis by ancient authority, and also by
+the parallel of Ossian. Both these books were translated into
+German, and their ideas passed into the popular philosophy of the
+day. Everything in short was ripe for the reception of a book that
+brought together, with masterly ease and vigour, the old and the
+new Homeric learning, and drew from it the historical proof that
+Homer was no single poet, writing according to art and rule, but a
+name which stood for a golden age of the true spontaneous poetry
+of genius and nature.</p>
+
+<p>The part of the <i>Prolegomena</i> which deals with the original form
+of the Homeric poems occupies pp. xl.-clx. (in the first edition).
+Wolf shows how the question of the date of writing meets us on the
+threshold of the textual criticism of Homer and accordingly enters
+into a full discussion, first of the external evidence, then of the
+indications furnished by the poems. Having satisfied himself that
+writing was unknown to Homer, he is led to consider the real mode
+of transmission, and finds this in the Rhapsodists, of whom the
+Homeridae were an hereditary school. And then comes the conclusion
+to which all this has been tending: &ldquo;the die is cast&rdquo;&mdash;the
+<i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> cannot have been composed in the form in which
+we know them without the aid of writing. They must therefore
+have been, as Bentley had said, &ldquo;a sequel of songs and rhapsodies,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;loose songs not collected together in the form of an epic poem till
+about 500 years after.&rdquo; This conclusion he then supports by the
+character attributed to the &ldquo;Cyclic&rdquo; poems (whose want of unity
+showed that the structure of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> must be the work
+of a later time), by one or two indications of imperfect connexion,
+and by the doubts of ancient critics as to the genuineness of certain
+parts. These, however, are matters of conjecture. &ldquo;Historia
+loquitur.&rdquo; The voice of antiquity is unanimous in declaring that
+&ldquo;Peisistratus first committed the poems of Homer to writing, and
+reduced them to the order in which we now read them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The appeal of Wolf to the &ldquo;voice of all antiquity&rdquo; is by no means
+borne out by the different statements on the subject. According to
+Heraclides Ponticus (pupil of Plato), the poetry of Homer was first
+brought to the Peloponnesus by Lycurgus, who obtained it from the
+descendants of Creophylus (<i>Polit.</i> fr. 2). Plutarch in his <i>Life of
+Lycurgus</i> (c. 4) repeats this story, with the addition that there was
+already a faint report of the poems in Greece, and that certain detached
+fragments were in the possession of a few persons. Again,
+the Platonic dialogue <i>Hipparchus</i> (which though not genuine is
+probably earlier than the Alexandrian times) asserts that Hipparchus,
+son of Peisistratus, first brought the poems to Athens, and obliged
+the rhapsodists at the Panathenaea to follow the order of the text,
+&ldquo;as they still do,&rdquo; instead of reciting portions chosen at will. The
+earliest authority for attributing any work of the kind to Peisistratus
+is the well-known passage of Cicero (<i>De Orat.</i> 3. 34: &ldquo;Quis doctior
+eisdem temporibus illis, aut cujus eloquentia litteris instructior fuisse
+traditur quam Pisistrati? qui primus Homeri libros, confusos antea,
+sic disposuisse dicitur ut nunc habemus&rdquo;). To the same effect
+Pausanias (vii. p. 594) says that the change of the name Donoessa to
+Gonoessa (in <i>Il.</i> ii. 573) was thought to have been made by
+&ldquo;Peisistratus or one of his companions,&rdquo; when he collected the poems,
+which were then in a fragmentary condition. Finally, Diogenes
+Laertius (i. 57) says that Solon made a law that the poems should be
+recited with the help of a prompter so that each rhapsodist should
+begin where the last left off; and he argues from this that Solon did
+more than Peisistratus to make Homer known. The argument is
+directed against a certain Dieuchidas of Megara, who appears to have
+maintained that the verses about Athens in the Catalogue (<i>Il.</i> ii.
+546-556) were interpolated by Peisistratus. The passage is unfortunately
+corrupt, but it is at least clear that in the time of Solon,
+according to Diogenes, there were complete copies of the poems, such
+as could be used to control the recitations. Hence the account of
+Diogenes is quite irreconcilable with the notices on which Wolf relied.</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to examine the attempts which have been made to
+harmonize these accounts. Such attempts usually start with the
+tacit assumption that each of the persons concerned&mdash;Lycurgus,
+Solon, Peisistratus, Hipparchus&mdash;must have done <i>something</i> for the
+text of Homer, or for the regulation of the rhapsodists. But we
+have first to consider whether any of the accounts come to us on
+such evidence that we are bound to consider them as containing a
+nucleus of truth.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the statement that Lycurgus obtained the poems
+from descendants of Creophylus must be admitted to be purely
+mythical. But if we reject it, have we any better reason for believing
+the parallel assertion in the Platonic <i>Hipparchus</i>? It is true that
+Hipparchus is undoubtedly a real person. On the other hand it is
+evident that the Peisistratidae soon became the subject of many
+fables. Thucydides notices as a popular mistake the belief that
+Hipparchus was the eldest son of Peisistratus, and that consequently
+he was the reigning &ldquo;tyrant&rdquo; when he was killed by Aristogiton.
+The Platonic <i>Hipparchus</i> follows this erroneous version, and may
+therefore be regarded as representing (at best) mere local tradition.
+We may reasonably go further, and see in this part of the dialogue a
+piece of historical romance, designed to put the &ldquo;tyrant&rdquo; family
+in a favourable light, as patrons of literature and learning.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the account of the <i>Hipparchus</i> is contradicted by Diogenes
+Laërtius, who says that Solon provided for the due recitation of the
+Homeric poems. The only good authorities as to this point are the
+orators Lycurgus and Isocrates, who mention the law prescribing the
+recitation, but do not say when or by whom it was enacted. The
+inference seems a fair one, that the author of the law was really
+unknown.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the statements which attribute some work in connexion
+with Homer to Peisistratus, it was noticed by Wolf that Cicero,
+Pausanias and the others who mention the matter do so <i>nearly in
+the same words</i>, and, therefore, appear to have drawn from a common
+source. This source was in all probability an epigram quoted in two
+of the short lives of Homer, and there said to have been inscribed
+on the statue of Peisistratus at Athens. In it Peisistratus is made to
+say of himself that he &ldquo;collected Homer, who was formerly sung
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span>
+in fragments, for the golden poet was a citizen of ours, since we
+Athenians founded Smyrna.&rdquo; The other statements repeat these
+words with various minor additions, chiefly intended to explain how
+the poems had been reduced to this fragmentary condition, and how
+Peisistratus set to work to restore them. Thus all the authority for
+the work of Peisistratus &ldquo;reduces itself to the testimony of a single
+anonymous inscription&rdquo; (Nutzhorn p. 40). Now, what is the value
+of that testimony? It is impossible of course to believe that a
+statue of Peisistratus was set up at Athens in the time of the free
+republic. The epigram is almost certainly a mere literary exercise.
+And what exactly does it say? Only that Homer was <i>recited in
+fragments</i> by the rhapsodists, and that these partial recitations were
+made into a continuous whole by Peisistratus; which does not
+necessarily mean more than that Peisistratus did what other authorities
+ascribe to Solon and Hipparchus, viz. regulated the recitation.</p>
+
+<p>Against the theory which sees in Peisistratus the author of the
+first complete text of Homer we have to set the absolute silence
+of Herodotus, Thucydides, the orators and the Alexandrian
+grammarians. And it can hardly be thought that their silence is
+accidental. Herodotus and Thucydides seem to tell us all that they
+know of Peisistratus. The orators Lycurgus and Isocrates make a
+great deal of the recitation of Homer at the Panathenaea, but know
+nothing of the poems having been collected and arranged at Athens,
+a fact which would have redounded still more to the honour of the
+city. Finally, the Scholia of the <i>Ven. A</i> contain no reference or
+allusion to the story of Peisistratus. As these Scholia are derived in
+substance from the writings of Aristarchus, it seems impossible to
+believe that the story was known to him. The circumstance that
+it is referred to in the <i>Scholia Townleiana</i> and in Eustathius, gives
+additional weight to this argument.</p>
+
+<p>The result of these considerations seems to be that nothing rests
+on good evidence beyond the fact that Homer was recited by law at
+the Panathenaic festival. The rest of the story is probably the
+result of gradual expansion and accretion. It was inevitable that
+later writers should speculate about the authorship of such a law,
+and that it should be attributed with more or less confidence to
+Solon or Peisistratus or Hipparchus. The choice would be determined
+in great measure by political feeling. It is probably not an
+accident that Dieuchidas, who attributed so much to Peisistratus,
+was a Megarian. The author of the <i>Hipparchus</i> is evidently influenced
+by the anti-democratical tendencies in which he only followed
+Plato. In the times to which the story of Peisistratus can be traced,
+the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the substitution of the &ldquo;tyrant&rdquo; for the
+legislator was extremely natural. It was equally natural that the
+importance of his work as regards the text of Homer should be
+exaggerated. The splendid patronage of letters by the successors of
+Alexander, and especially the great institutions which had been
+founded at Alexandria and Pergamum, had made an impression on
+the imagination of learned men which was reflected in the current
+notions of the ancient despots. It may even be suspected that anecdotes
+in praise of Peisistratus and Hipparchus were a delicate form of
+flattery addressed to the reigning Ptolemy. Under these influences
+the older stories of Lycurgus bringing Homer to the Peloponnesus,
+and Solon providing for the recitation at Athens, were thrown into
+the shade.</p>
+
+<p>In the later Byzantine times it was believed that Peisistratus was
+aided by seventy grammarians, of whom Zenedotus and Aristarchus
+were the chief. The great Alexandrian grammarians had become
+figures in a new mythology. It is true that Tzetzes, one of the
+writers from whom we have this story, gives a better version, according
+to which Peisistratus employed four men, viz. Onomacritus,
+Zopyrus of Heraclea, Orpheus of Croton, and one whose name
+is corrupt (written <span class="grk" title="epikogkylos">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#947;&#954;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>). Many scholars (among them
+Ritschl) accept this account as probable. Yet it rests upon no better
+evidence than the other.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of Wolf&rsquo;s <i>Prolegomena</i> was so overwhelming that,
+although a few protests were made at the time, the true Homeric
+controversy did not begin till after Wolf&rsquo;s death (1824). His speculations
+were thoroughly in harmony with the ideas and sentiment of
+the time, and his historical arguments, especially his long array of
+testimonies to the work of Peisistratus, were hardly challenged.</p>
+
+<p>The first considerable antagonist of the Wolfian school was G. W.
+Nitzsch, whose writings cover the years 1828-1862, and deal with
+every side of the controversy. In the earlier part of his <i>Meletemata</i>
+(1830) he took up the question of written or unwritten literature,
+on which Wolf&rsquo;s whole argument turned, and showed that the art
+of writing must be anterior to Peisistratus. In the later part of
+the same series of discussions (1837), and in his chief work (<i>Die
+Sagenpoesie der Griechen</i>, 1852), he investigated the structure of
+the Homeric poems, and their relation to the other epics of the
+Trojan cycle. These epics had meanwhile been made the subject
+of a work which for exhaustive learning and delicacy of artistic
+perception has few rivals in the history of philology, the <i>Epic Cycle</i>
+of F. G. Welcker. The confusion which previous scholars had made
+between the ancient post-Homeric poets (Arctinus, Lesches, &amp;c.) and
+the learned mythological writers (such as the &ldquo;scriptor cyclicus&rdquo; of
+Horace) was first cleared up by Welcker. Wolf had argued that if
+the cyclic writers had known the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> which we possess,
+they would have imitated the unity of structure which distinguishes
+these two poems. The result of Welcker&rsquo;s labours was to show that
+the Homeric poems had influenced both the form and the substance
+of epic poetry.</p>
+
+<p>In this way there arose a conservative school who admitted more
+or less freely the absorption of pre-existing lays in the formation of
+the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>, and also the existence of considerable interpolations,
+but assigned the main work of formation to prehistoric
+times, and to the genius of a great poet. Whether the two epics
+were by the same author remained an open question; the tendency
+of this group of scholars was decidedly towards separation. Regarding
+the use of writing, too, they were not unanimous. K. O. Müller,
+for instance, maintained the view of Wolf on this point, while he
+strenuously combated the inference which Wolf drew from it.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Prolegomena</i> bore on the title-page the words &ldquo;Volumen I.&rdquo;;
+but no second volume ever appeared, nor was any attempt made by
+Wolf himself to carry his theory further. The first important steps
+in that direction were taken by Gottfried Hermann, chiefly in two
+dissertations, <i>De interpolationibus Homeri</i> (Leipzig, 1832), and <i>De
+iteratis Homeri</i> (Leipzig, 1840), called forth by the writings of Nitzsch.
+As the word &ldquo;interpolation&rdquo; implies, Hermann did not maintain
+the hypothesis of a congeries of independent &ldquo;lays.&rdquo; Feeling the
+difficulty of supposing that all the ancient minstrels sang of the
+&ldquo;wrath of Achilles&rdquo; or the &ldquo;return of Ulysses&rdquo; (leaving out even
+the capture of Troy itself), he was led to assume that two poems of no
+great compass dealing with these two themes became so famous at an
+early period as to throw other parts of the Trojan story into the background,
+and were then enlarged by successive generations of rhapsodists.
+Some parts of the <i>Iliad</i>, moreover, seemed to him to be
+older than the poem on the wrath of Achilles; and thus in addition
+to the &ldquo;Homeric&rdquo; and &ldquo;post-Homeric&rdquo; matter he distinguished a
+&ldquo;pre-Homeric&rdquo; element.</p>
+
+<p>The conjectures of Hermann, in which the Wolfian theory found
+a modified and tentative application, were presently thrown into
+the shade by the more trenchant method of Lachmann, who (in two
+papers read to the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841) sought to
+show that the <i>Iliad</i> was made up of sixteen independent &ldquo;lays,&rdquo;
+with various enlargements and interpolations, all finally reduced
+to order by Peisistratus. The first book, for instance, consists of a
+lay on the anger of Achilles (1-347), and two continuations, the
+return of Chryseis (430-492) and the scenes in Olympus (348-429,
+493-611). The second book forms a second lay, but several passages,
+among them the speech of Ulysses (278-332), are interpolated. In
+the third book the scenes in which Helen and Priam take part (including
+the making of the truce) are pronounced to be interpolations;
+and so on. Regarding the evidence on which these sweeping results
+are founded, opinions will vary. The degree of smoothness or consistency
+which is to be expected on the hypothesis of a single author
+will be determined by taste rather than argument. The dissection
+of the first book, for instance, turns partly on a chronological inaccuracy
+which might well escape the poet as well as his hearers.
+In examining such points we are apt to forget that the contradictions
+by which a story is shown to be untrue are quite different from those
+by which a confessedly untrue story would be shown to be the work
+of different authors.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Structure of the Iliad.</i>&mdash;The subject of the Iliad, as the first
+line proclaims, is the &ldquo;anger of Achilles.&rdquo; The manner in which
+this subject is worked out will appear from the following summary
+in which we distinguish (1) the plot, <i>i.e.</i> the story of the quarrel,
+(2) the main course of the war, which forms a sort of underplot,
+and (3) subordinate episodes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl">Quarrel of Achilles with Agamemnon and the Greek army&mdash;Agamemnon,
+having been compelled to give up his
+prize Chryseis, takes Briseïs from Achilles&mdash;Thereupon
+Achilles appeals to his mother Thetis, who obtains from
+Zeus a promise that he will give victory to the Trojans
+until the Greeks pay due honour to her son&mdash;Meanwhile
+Achilles takes no part in the war.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl1">Agamemnon is persuaded by a dream sent from
+Zeus to take the field with all his forces.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">His attempt to test the temper of the army
+nearly leads to their return.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">Catalogue of the army (probably a later addition).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl1">Trojan muster&mdash;Trojan catalogue.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl1">Meeting of the Armies&mdash;Paris challenges Menelaus&mdash;Truce
+made.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">&ldquo;Teichoscopy,&rdquo; Helen pointing out to Priam
+the Greek leaders.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl1">The duel&mdash;Paris is saved by Aphrodite.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">IV.</td> <td class="tcl1">Truce broken by Pandarus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl1">Advance of the armies&mdash;Battle.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">V.</td> <td class="tcl2">Aristeia of Diomede&mdash;his combat with Aphrodite.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">VI.</td> <td class="tcl2">&mdash;Meeting with Glaucus&mdash;Visit of Hector to the</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">(1-311)</td> <td class="tcl2">city, and offering of a peplus to Athena.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">(312-529)</td> <td class="tcl2">Visit of Hector to Paris&mdash;to Andromache.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">VII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Return of Hector and Paris to the field.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">Duel of Ajax and Hector.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl1">Truce for burial of dead.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl1">The Greeks build a wall round their camp.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">VIII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Battle&mdash;The Trojans encamp on the field.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">IX.</td> <td class="tcl">Agamemnon sends an embassy by night, offering Achilles
+     restitution and full amends&mdash;Achilles refuses.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">X.</td> <td class="tcl2">Doloneia&mdash;Night expedition of Odysseus and
+                     Diomede (in all probability added later).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XI.</td> <td class="tcl1">Aristeia of Agamemnon&mdash;he is wounded&mdash;Wounding
+                of Diomede and Odysseus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">Achilles sends Antilochus to inquire about Machaon.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Storming of the wall&mdash;the Trojans reach the ships.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XIII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Zeus ceases to watch the field&mdash;Poseidon secretly
+                comes to the aid of the Greeks.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XIV.</td> <td class="tcl1">Sleep of Zeus, by the contrivance of Hera.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XV.</td> <td class="tcl1">Zeus awakened&mdash;Restores the advantage to the Trojans&mdash;Ajax
+                alone defends the ships.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XVI.</td> <td class="tcl">Achilles is persuaded to allow Patroclus to take the field.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl1">Patroclus drives back the Trojans&mdash;kills Sarpedon&mdash;is
+                himself killed by Hector.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XVII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Battle for the body of Patroclus&mdash;Aristeia of Menelaus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XVIII.</td> <td class="tcl">News of the death of Patroclus is brought to Achilles&mdash;Thetis
+         comes with the Nereids&mdash;promises to obtain new
+         armour for him from Hephaestus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl1">The shield of Achilles described.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XIX.</td> <td class="tcl">Reconciliation of Achilles&mdash;His grief and desire to avenge
+       Patroclus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XX.</td> <td class="tcl1">The gods come down to the plain&mdash;Combat of Achilles
+                with Aeneas and Hector, who escape.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XXI.</td> <td class="tcl1">The Scamander is choked with slain&mdash;rises against
+                Achilles, who is saved by Hephaestus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XXII.</td> <td class="tcl1">Hector alone stands against Achilles&mdash;his flight
+                round the walls&mdash;he is slain.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XXIII.</td> <td class="tcl2">Burial of Patroclus&mdash;Funeral games.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">XXIV.</td> <td class="tcl2">Priam ransoms the body of Hector&mdash;his burial.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Such is the &ldquo;action&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="praxis">&#960;&#961;&#8118;&#958;&#953;&#962;</span>) which in Aristotle&rsquo;s opinion
+showed the superiority of Homer to all later epic poets. But the
+proof that his scheme was the work of a great poet does not
+depend merely upon the artistic unity which excited the wonder
+of Aristotle. A number of separate &ldquo;lays&rdquo; might conceivably
+be arranged and connected by a man of poetical taste in a
+manner that would satisfy all requirements. In such a case,
+however, the connecting passages would be slight and weak.
+Now, in the <i>Iliad</i> these passages are the finest and most characteristic.
+The element of connexion and unity is the story of the
+&ldquo;wrath of Achilles&rdquo;; and we have only to look at the books
+which give the story of the wrath to see how essential they are.
+Even if the ninth book is rejected (as Grote proposed), there
+remain the speeches of the first, sixteenth and nineteenth books.
+These speeches form the cardinal points in the action of the <i>Iliad</i>&mdash;the
+framework into which everything else is set; and they
+have also the best title to the name of Homer.</p>
+
+<p>The further question, however, remains,&mdash;What shorter
+narrative piece fulfilling the conditions of an independent poem
+has Lachmann succeeded in disengaging from the existing
+<i>Iliad</i>? It must be admitted that when tried by this test his
+&ldquo;lays&rdquo; generally fail. The &ldquo;quarrel of the chiefs,&rdquo; the &ldquo;muster
+of the army,&rdquo; the &ldquo;duel of Paris and Menelaus,&rdquo; &amp;c., are excellent
+beginnings, but have no satisfying conclusion. And the reason
+is not far to seek. The <i>Iliad</i> is not a history, nor is it a series
+of incidents in the history, of the siege. It turns entirely upon
+a single incident, occupying a few days only. The several
+episodes of the poem are not so many distinct stories, each with
+an interest of its own. They are only parts of a single main
+event. Consequently the type of epic poem which would be
+produced by an aggregation of shorter lays is not the type
+which we have in the <i>Iliad</i>. Rather the <i>Iliad</i> is itself a single
+lay which has grown with the growth of poetical art to the
+dimensions of an epic.</p>
+
+<p>But the original nucleus and parts of the incidents may be
+the work of a single great poet, and yet other episodes may be
+of different authorship, wrought into the structure of the poem
+in later times. Various theories have been based on this supposition.
+Grote in particular held that the original poem, which
+he called the Achilleïs, did not include books ii.-vii., ix., x., xxiii.,
+xxiv. Such a view may be defended somewhat as follows.</p>
+
+<p>Of the books which relate the events during the absence of
+Achilles from the Greek ranks (ii.-xv.), the last five are directly
+related to the main action. They describe the successive steps
+by which the Greeks are driven back, first from the plain to
+the rampart, then to their ships. Moreover, three of the chief
+heroes, Agamemnon, Diomede and Ulysses, are wounded, and
+this circumstance, as Lachmann himself admitted, is steadily
+kept in mind throughout. It is otherwise with the earlier books
+(especially ii.-vii.). The chief incidents in that part of the poem&mdash;the
+panic rush to the ships, the duels of Paris and Menelaus, and
+of Hector and Ajax, the Aristeia of Diomede&mdash;stand in no
+relation to the mainspring of the poem, the promise made by
+Zeus to Thetis. It is true that in the thirteenth and fourteenth
+books the purpose of Zeus is thwarted for a time by other gods;
+but in books ii.-vii. it is not so much thwarted as ignored.
+Further, the events follow without sufficient connexion. The
+truce of the third book is broken by Pandarus, and Agamemnon
+passes along the Greek ranks with words of encouragement, but
+without a hint of the treachery just committed. The Aristeia
+of Diomede ends in the middle of the sixth book; he is uppermost
+in all thoughts down to ver. 311, but from this point, in the
+meetings of Hector with Helen and Andromache, and again in
+the seventh book when Hector challenges the Greek chiefs,
+his prowess is forgotten. Once more, some of the incidents
+seem to belong properly to the beginning of the war. The joy
+of Menelaus on seeing Paris, Priam&rsquo;s ignorance of the Greek
+leaders, the speeches of Agamemnon in his review of the ranks
+(in book iv.), the building of the wall&mdash;all these are in place after
+the Greek landing, but hardly in the ninth year of the siege.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it may be said, the second book opens
+with a direct reference to the events of the first, and the mention
+of Achilles in the speech of Thersites (ii. 239 sqq.) is sufficient to
+keep the main course of events in view. The Catalogue is connected
+with its place in the poem by the lines about Achilles
+(686-694). When Diomede is at the height of his Aristeia Helenus
+says (<i>Il.</i> vi. 99), &ldquo;We did not so fear even Achilles.&rdquo; And when
+in the third book Priam asks Helen about the Greek captains, or
+when in the seventh book nine champions come forward to
+contend with Hector, the want of the greatest hero of all is
+sufficiently felt. If these passages do not belong to the period
+of the wrath of Achilles, how are we to account for his conspicuous
+absence?</p>
+
+<p>Further, the want of smoothness and unity which is visible in
+this part of the <i>Iliad</i> may be due to other causes than difference
+of date or authorship. A national poet such as the author of
+the <i>Iliad</i> cannot always choose or arrange his matter at his own
+will. He is bound by the traditions of his art, and by the feelings
+and expectations of his hearers. The poet who brought the
+exploits of Diomede into the <i>Iliad</i> doubtless had his reasons for
+doing so, which were equally strong whether he was the poet of
+the Achilleïs or a later Homerid or rhapsodist. And if some of the
+incidents (those of the third book in particular) seem to belong
+to the beginning of the war, it must be considered that poetically,
+and to the hearers of the <i>Iliad</i>, the war opens in the third book,
+and the incidents are of the kind that is required in such a place.
+The truce makes a pause which heightens the interest of the
+impending battle; the duel and the scene on the walls are
+effective in bringing some of the leading characters on the stage,
+and in making us acquainted with the previous history. The
+story of Paris and Helen especially, and the general position of
+affairs in Troy, is put before us in a singularly vivid manner.
+The book in short forms so good a <i>prologue</i> to the action of the
+war that we can hardly be wrong in attributing it to the genius
+which devised the rest of the <i>Iliad</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The case against the remaining books is of a different kind.
+The ninth and tenth seem like two independent pictures of the
+night before the great battle of xi.-xvii. Either is enough to fill
+the space in Homer&rsquo;s canvas; and the suspicion arises (as when
+two Platonic dialogues bear the same name) that if either had
+been genuine, the other would not have come into existence.
+If one of the two is to be rejected it must be the tenth, which is
+certainly the less Homeric. It relates a picturesque adventure,
+conceived in a vein more approaching that of comedy than any
+other part of the <i>Iliad</i>. Moreover, the language in several places
+exhibits traces of post-Homeric date. The ninth book, on the
+other hand, was rejected by Grote, chiefly on the grounds that
+the embassy to Achilles ought to have put an end to the quarrel,
+and that it is ignored in later passages, especially in the speeches
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span>
+of Achilles (xi. 609; xvi. 72, 85). His argument, however,
+rests on an assumption which we are apt to bring with us to the
+reading of the <i>Iliad</i>, but which is not borne out by its language,
+viz. that there was some definite atonement demanded by
+Achilles, or due to him according to the custom and sentiment
+of the time. But in the <i>Iliad</i> the whole stress is laid on the anger
+of Achilles, which can only be satisfied by the defeat and extreme
+peril of the Greeks.<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a> He is influenced by his own feeling, and
+by nothing else. Accordingly, in the ninth book, when they
+are still protected by the rampart (see 348 sqq.), he rejects gifts and
+fair words alike; in the sixteenth he is moved by the tears and
+entreaties of Patroclus, and the sight of the Greek ships on fire;
+in the nineteenth his anger is quenched in grief. But he makes
+no conditions, either in rejecting the offers of the embassy or in
+returning to the Greek army. And this conduct is the result,
+not only of his fierce and inexorable character, but also (as the
+silence of Homer shows) of the want of any general rules or
+principles, any code of morality or of honour, which would have
+required him to act in a different way.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, Grote objected to the two last books that they prolong
+the action of the <i>Iliad</i> beyond the exigencies of a coherent
+scheme. Of the two, the twenty-third could more easily be
+spared. In language, and perhaps in style and manner, it is
+akin to the tenth; while the twenty-fourth is in the pathetic
+vein of the ninth, and like it serves to bring out new aspects
+of the character of Achilles.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dr E. Kammer has given some strong reasons for doubting the
+genuineness of the passage in book xx. describing the duel between
+Achilles and Aeneas (79-352). The incident is certainly very much
+out of keeping with the vehement action of that part of the poem,
+and especially with the moment when Achilles returns to the field,
+eager to meet Hector and avenge the death of his friend. The
+interpolation (if it is one) is probably due to local interests. It
+contains the well-known prophecy that the descendants of Aeneas are
+to rule over the Trojans,&mdash;pointing to the existence of an Aenead
+dynasty in the Troad. So, too, the legend of Anchises in the Hymn
+to Aphrodite is evidently local; and Aeneas becomes more prominent
+in the later epics, especially the <i>Cypria</i> and the <span class="grk" title="Iliou persis">&#7992;&#955;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#960;&#941;&#961;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> of
+Arctinus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Structure of the Odyssey.</i>&mdash;In the <i>Odyssey</i>, as in the <i>Iliad</i>, the
+events related fall within a short space of time. The difficulty
+of adapting the long wanderings of Ulysses to a plan of this
+type is got over by the device&mdash;first met with in the <i>Odyssey</i>&mdash;of
+making the hero tell the story of his own adventures. In
+this way the action is made to begin almost immediately before
+the actual return of Ulysses. Up to the time when he reaches
+Ithaca it moves on three distinct scenes: we follow the fortunes
+of Ulysses, of Telemachus on his voyage in the Peloponnesus,
+and of Penelope with the suitors. The art with which these
+threads are woven together was recognized by Wolf himself,
+who admitted the difficulty of applying his theory to the
+&ldquo;admirabilis summa et compages&rdquo; of the poem. Of the
+comparatively few attempts which have been made to dissect
+the <i>Odyssey</i>, the most moderate and attractive is that of Professor
+A. Kirchhoff of Berlin.<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>According to Kirchhoff, the <i>Odyssey</i> as we have it is the result of
+additions made to an original nucleus. There was first of all a
+&ldquo;Return of Odysseus,&rdquo; relating chiefly the adventures with the
+Cyclops, Calypso and the Phaeacians; then a continuation, the
+scene of which lay in Ithaca, embracing the bulk of books xiii.-xxiii.
+The poem so formed was enlarged at some time between Ol. 30 and
+Ol. 50 by the stories of books x.-xii. (Circe, the Sirens, Scylla, &amp;c.),
+and the adventures of Telemachus. Lastly, a few passages were
+interpolated in the time of Peisistratus.</p>
+
+<p>The proof that the scenes in Ithaca are by a later hand than the
+ancient &ldquo;Return&rdquo; is found chiefly in a contradiction discussed by
+Kirchhoff in his sixth dissertation (pp. 135 sqq., ed. 1869). Sometimes
+Ulysses is represented as aged and worn by toil, so that Penelope,
+for instance, cannot recognize him; sometimes he is really in the
+prime of heroic vigour, and his appearing as a beggarly old man is
+the work of Athena&rsquo;s wand. The first of these representations is
+evidently natural, considering the twenty eventful years that have
+passed; but the second, Kirchhoff holds, is the Ulysses of Calypso&rsquo;s
+island and the Phaeacian court. He concludes that the aged Ulysses
+belongs to the &ldquo;continuation&rdquo; (the change wrought by Athena&rsquo;s
+wand being a device to reconcile the two views), and hence that the
+continuation is the work of a different author.</p>
+
+<p>Ingenious as this is, there is really very slender ground for
+Kirchhoff&rsquo;s thesis. The passages in the second half of the <i>Odyssey</i>
+which describe the appearance of Ulysses do not give <i>two</i> well-marked
+representations of him. Sometimes Athena disguises him
+as a decrepit beggar, sometimes she bestows on him supernatural
+beauty and vigour. It must be admitted that we are not told
+exactly how long in each case the effect of these changes lasted.
+But neither answers to his natural appearance, or to the appearance
+which he is imagined to present in the earlier books. In the palace
+of Alcinous, for instance, it is noticed that he is vigorous but
+&ldquo;marred by many ills&rdquo; (<i>Od.</i> viii. 137); and this agrees with the
+scenes of recognition in the latter part of the poem.</p>
+
+<p>The arguments by which Kirchhoff seeks to prove that the stories
+of books x.-xii. are much later than those of book ix. are not more
+convincing. He points out some resemblances between these three
+books and the Argonautic fables, among them the circumstance that
+a fountain Artacia occurs in both. In the Argonautic story this
+fountain is placed in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus, and answers to
+an actual fountain known in historical times. Kirchhoff argues that
+the Artacia of the Argonautic story must have been taken from the
+real Artacia, and the Artacia of the <i>Odyssey</i> again from that of the
+Argonautic story. And as Cyzicus was settled from Miletus, he
+infers that both sets of stories must be comparatively late. It is
+more probable, surely, that the name Artacia occurred independently
+(as most geographical names are found to occur) in more than
+one place. Or it may be that the Artacia of the <i>Odyssey</i> suggested
+the name to the colonists of Cyzicus, whence it was adopted into
+the later versions of the Argonautic story. The further argument
+that the <i>Nostoi</i> recognized a son of Calypso by Ulysses but no son
+of Circe, consequently that Circe was unknown to the poet of the
+<i>Nostoi</i>, rests (in the first place) upon a conjectural alteration of a
+passage in Eustathius, and, moreover, has all the weakness of an
+argument from silence, in addition to the uncertainty arising from
+our very slight knowledge of the author whose silence is in question.
+Finally, when Kirchhoff finds traces in books x.-xii. of their having
+been originally told by the poet himself instead of being put in the
+mouth of his hero, we feel that inaccuracies of this kind are apt to
+creep in wherever a fictitious story is thrown into the form of an
+autobiography.</p>
+
+<p>Inquiries conducted with the refinement which characterizes
+those of Kirchhoff are always instructive, and his book contains very
+many just observations; but it is impossible to admit his main
+conclusions. And perhaps we may infer that no similar attempt can
+be more successful. It does not indeed follow that the <i>Odyssey</i> is
+free from interpolations. The <span class="grk" title="Nekuia">&#925;&#949;&#954;&#965;&#943;&#945;</span> of book xi. may be later (as
+Lauer maintained), or it may contain additions, which could easily
+be inserted in a description of the kind. And the last book is probably
+by a different hand, as the ancient critics believed. But the
+unity of the <i>Odyssey</i> as a whole is apparently beyond the reach of
+the existing weapons of criticism.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Chorizontes.</i>&mdash;When we are satisfied that each of the great
+Homeric poems is either wholly or mainly the work of a single
+poet, a question remains which has been matter of controversy
+in ancient as well as modern times&mdash;Are they the work of the
+same poet? Two ancient grammarians, Xeno and Hellanicus,
+were known as the &ldquo;separators&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="oi chôrizontes">&#959;&#7985; &#967;&#969;&#961;&#943;&#950;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>); and Aristarchus
+appears to have written a treatise against their heresy.
+In modern times some of the greatest names have been on the
+side of the &ldquo;Chorizontes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>If, as has been maintained in the preceding pages, the external
+evidence regarding Homer is of no value, the problem now
+before us may be stated in this form: Given two poems of
+which nothing is known except that they are of the same school
+of poetry, what is the probability that they are by the same
+author? We may find a fair parallel by imagining two plays
+drawn at hazard from the works of the great tragic writers.
+It is evident that the burden of proof would rest with those
+who held them to be by the same hand.</p>
+
+<p>The arguments used in this discussion have been of very various
+calibre. The ancient Chorizontes observed that the messenger
+of Zeus is Iris in the <i>Iliad</i>, but Hermes in the <i>Odyssey</i>; that the
+wife of Hephaestus is one of the Charites in the <i>Iliad</i>, but
+Aphrodite in the <i>Odyssey</i>; that the heroes in the <i>Iliad</i> do not
+eat fish; that Crete has a hundred cities according to the
+<i>Iliad</i>, and only ninety according to the <i>Odyssey</i>; that <span class="grk" title="proparoithe">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#960;&#940;&#961;&#959;&#953;&#952;&#949;</span>
+is used in the <i>Iliad</i> of place, in the <i>Odyssey</i> of time, &amp;c. Modern
+scholars have added to the list, especially by making careful
+comparisons of the two poems in respect of vocabulary and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span>
+grammatical forms. Nothing is more difficult than to assign
+the degree of weight to be given to such facts. The difference
+of subject between the two poems is so great that it leads to
+the most striking differences of detail, especially in the vocabulary.
+For instance, the word <span class="grk" title="phobos">&#966;&#972;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>, which in Homer means
+&ldquo;flight in battle&rdquo; (not &ldquo;fear&rdquo;), occurs thirty-nine times in
+the <i>Iliad</i>, and only once in the <i>Odyssey</i>; but then there are
+no battles in the <i>Odyssey</i>. Again, the verb <span class="grk" title="rhêgnymi">&#8165;&#942;&#947;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#953;</span>, &ldquo;to
+break,&rdquo; occurs forty-eight times in the <i>Iliad</i>, and once in
+the <i>Odyssey</i>,&mdash;the reason being that it is constantly used of
+breaking the armour of an enemy, the gate of a city, the hostile
+ranks, &amp;c. Once more, the word <span class="grk" title="skotos">&#963;&#954;&#972;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;darkness,&rdquo; occurs
+fourteen times in the <i>Iliad</i>, once in the <i>Odyssey</i>. But in every
+one of the fourteen places it is used of &ldquo;darkness&rdquo; coming
+over the sight of a fallen warrior. On the other side, if words
+such as <span class="grk" title="asaminthos">&#7936;&#963;&#940;&#956;&#953;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;a bath,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="chernips">&#967;&#941;&#961;&#957;&#953;&#968;</span>, &ldquo;a basin for the hands,&rdquo;
+<span class="grk" title="leschê">&#955;&#941;&#963;&#967;&#951;</span>, &ldquo;a place to meet and talk,&rdquo; &amp;c., are peculiar to the
+<i>Odyssey</i>, we have only to remember that the scene in the <i>Iliad</i>
+is hardly ever laid within any walls except those of a tent.
+These examples will show that mere statistics of the occurrence
+of words prove little, and that we must begin by looking to the
+subject and character of each poem. When we do so, we at
+once find ourselves in the presence of differences of the broadest
+kind. The <i>Iliad</i> is much more historical in tone and character.
+The scene of the poem is a real place, and the poet sings (as
+Ulysses says of Demodocus) as though he had been present
+himself, or had heard from one who had been. The supernatural
+element is confined to an interference of the gods, which to the
+common eye hardly disturbs the natural current of affairs.
+The <i>Odyssey</i>, on the contrary, is full of the magical and romantic&mdash;&ldquo;speciosa
+miracula,&rdquo; as Horace called them. Moreover, these
+marvels&mdash;which in their original form are doubtless as old as
+anything in the <i>Iliad</i>, since in fact they are part of the vast
+stock of popular tales (<i>Märchen</i>) diffused all over the world&mdash;are
+mixed up in the <i>Odyssey</i> with the heroes of the Trojan war.
+This has been especially noticed in the case of the story of
+Polyphemus, one that is found in many countries, and in versions
+which cannot all be derived from Homer. W. Grimm has pointed
+out that the behaviour of Ulysses in that story is senseless and
+foolhardy, utterly beneath the wise and much-enduring Ulysses
+of the Trojan war. The reason is simple; he is not the Ulysses
+of the Trojan war, but a being of the same world as Polyphemus
+himself&mdash;the world of giants and ogres. The question then is&mdash;How long must the name of Ulysses have been familiar in the
+legend (<i>Sage</i>) of Troy before it made its way into the tales of
+giants and ogres (<i>Märchen</i>), where the poet of the <i>Odyssey</i>
+found it?</p>
+
+<p>Again, the Trojan legend has itself received some extension
+between the time of the <i>Iliad</i> and that of the <i>Odyssey</i>. The
+story of the Wooden Horse is not only unknown to the <i>Iliad</i>,
+but is of a kind which we can hardly imagine the poet of the
+<i>Iliad</i> admitting. The part taken by Neoptolemus seems also
+to be a later addition. The tendency to amplify and complete
+the story shows itself still more in the Cyclic poets. Between
+the <i>Iliad</i> and these poets the <i>Odyssey</i> often occupies an intermediate
+position.</p>
+
+<p>This great and significant change in the treatment of the heroic
+legends is accompanied by numerous minor differences (such
+as the ancients remarked) in belief, in manners and institutions,
+and in language. These differences bear out the inference that
+the <i>Odyssey</i> is of a later age. The progress of reflection is especially
+shown in the higher ideas entertained regarding the gods. The
+turbulent Olympian court has almost disappeared. Zeus has
+acquired the character of a supreme moral ruler; and although
+Athena and Poseidon are adverse influences in the poem, the
+notion of a direct contest between them is scrupulously avoided.
+The advance of morality is shown in the more frequent use of
+terms such as &ldquo;just&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="dikaios">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>), &ldquo;piety&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="hoshiê">&#8001;&#963;&#943;&#951;</span>), &ldquo;insolence&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="hubris">&#8021;&#946;&#961;&#953;&#962;</span>), &ldquo;god-fearing&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="theoudês">&#952;&#949;&#959;&#965;&#948;&#942;&#962;</span>), &ldquo;pure&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="hagnos">&#7937;&#947;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>); and also
+in the plot of the story, which is distinctly a contest between
+right and wrong. In matters bearing upon the arts of life it
+is unsafe to press the silence of the <i>Iliad</i>. We may note, however,
+the difference between the house of Priam, surrounded by distinct
+dwellings for his many sons and daughters, and the houses of
+Ulysses and Alcinous, with many chambers under a single roof.
+The singer, too, who is so prominent a figure in the <i>Odyssey</i>
+can hardly be thought to be absent from the <i>Iliad</i> merely
+because the scene is laid in a camp.</p>
+
+<p><i>Style of Homer.</i>&mdash;A few words remain to be said on the style
+and general character of the Homeric poems, and on the comparisons
+which may be made between Homer and analogous
+poetry in other countries.</p>
+
+<p>The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer have been pointed
+out once for all by Matthew Arnold. &ldquo;The translator of Homer,&rdquo;
+he says, &ldquo;should above all be penetrated by a sense of four
+qualities of his author&mdash;that he is eminently rapid; that he
+is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought
+and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in
+his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance
+of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally,
+that he is eminently noble&rdquo; (<i>On Translating Homer</i>, p. 9).</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his
+use of the hexameter verse. It is characteristic of early literature
+that the evolution of the thought&mdash;that is, the grammatical
+form of the sentence&mdash;is guided by the structure of the verse;
+and the correspondence which consequently obtains between the
+rhythm and the grammar&mdash;the thought being given out in lengths,
+as it were, and these again divided by tolerably uniform pauses&mdash;produces
+a swift flowing movement, such as is rarely found
+when the periods have been constructed without direct reference
+to the metre. That Homer possesses this rapidity without
+falling into the corresponding faults&mdash;that is, without becoming
+either &ldquo;jerky&rdquo; or monotonous&mdash;is perhaps the best proof of
+his unequalled poetical skill. The plainness and directness,
+both of thought and of expression, which characterize Homer
+were doubtless qualities of his age; but the author of the <i>Iliad</i>
+(like Voltaire, to whom Arnold happily compares him) must
+have possessed the national gift in a surpassing degree. The
+<i>Odyssey</i> is in this respect perceptibly below the level of the <i>Iliad</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression and
+plainness of thought, these are not the distinguishing qualities
+of the great epic poets&mdash;Virgil, Dante, Milton. On the contrary,
+they belong rather to the humbler epico-lyrical school for which
+Homer has been so often claimed. The proof that Homer does
+not belong to that school&mdash;that his poetry is not in any true
+sense &ldquo;ballad-poetry&rdquo;&mdash;is furnished by the higher artistic
+structure of his poems (already discussed), and as regards style
+by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold&mdash;the
+quality of <i>nobleness</i>. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained
+through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates
+Homer from all forms of &ldquo;ballad-poetry&rdquo; and &ldquo;popular epic.&rdquo;<a name="fa14a" id="fa14a" href="#ft14a"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p>
+
+<p>But while we are on our guard against a once common error,
+we may recognize the historical connexion between the <i>Iliad</i>
+and <i>Odyssey</i> and the &ldquo;ballad&rdquo; literature which undoubtedly
+preceded them in Greece. It may even be admitted that the
+swift-flowing movement, and the simplicity of thought and
+style, which we admire in the <i>Iliad</i> are an inheritance from the
+earlier &ldquo;lays&rdquo;&mdash;the <span class="grk" title="klea andrôn">&#954;&#955;&#941;&#945; &#7936;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#8182;&#957;</span> such as Achilles and Patroclus
+sang to the lyre in their tent. Even the metre&mdash;the hexameter
+verse&mdash;may be assigned to them. But between these lays and
+Homer we must place the cultivation of epic poetry as an art.<a name="fa15a" id="fa15a" href="#ft15a"><span class="sp">15</span></a>
+The pre-Homeric lays doubtless furnished the elements of such
+a poetry&mdash;the alphabet, so to speak, of the art; but they must
+have been refined and transmuted before they formed poems
+like the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A single example will illustrate this. In the scene on the
+walls of Troy, in the third book of the <i>Iliad</i>, after Helen has
+pointed out Agamemnon, Ulysses and Ajax in answer to Priam&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span>
+questions, she goes on unasked to name Idomeneus. Lachmann,
+whose mind is full of the ballad manner, fastens upon this as an
+irregularity. &ldquo;The unskilful transition from Ajax to Idomeneus,
+about whom no question had been asked,&rdquo; he <span class="correction" title="amended from cannnot">cannot</span> attribute to
+the original poet of the lay (<i>Betrachtungen</i>, p. 15, ed. 1865).
+But, as was pointed out by A. Römer<a name="fa16a" id="fa16a" href="#ft16a"><span class="sp">16</span></a>, this is exactly the variation
+which a <i>poet</i> would introduce to relieve the primitive
+<i>ballad-like</i> sameness of question and answer; and moreover it
+forms the transition to the lines about the Dioscuri by which the
+scene is so touchingly brought to a close.</p>
+
+<p><i>Analogies.</i>&mdash;The development of epic poetry (properly so
+called) out of the oral songs or ballads of a country is a process
+which in the nature of things can seldom be observed. It seems
+clear, however, that the hypothesis of epics such as the <i>Iliad</i>
+and <i>Odyssey</i> having been formed by putting together or even
+by working up shorter poems finds no support from analogy.</p>
+
+<p>Narrative poetry of great interest is found in several countries
+(such as Spain and Servia), in which it has never attained to
+the epic stage. In Scandinavia, in Lithuania, in Russia, according
+to Gaston Paris (<i>Histoire poétique de Charlemagne</i>, p. 9), the
+national songs have been arrested in a form which may be called
+intermediate between contemporary poetry and the epic. The
+true epics are those of India, Persia, Greece, Germany, Britain and
+France. Most of these, however, fail to afford any useful points of
+comparison, either from their utter unlikeness to Homer, or
+because there is no evidence of the existence of anterior popular
+songs. The most instructive, perhaps the only instructive,
+parallel is to be found in the French &ldquo;chansons de geste,&rdquo; of
+which the <i>Chanson de Roland</i> is the earliest and best example.
+These poems are traced back with much probability to the 10th
+century. They are epic in character, and were recited by professional
+<i>jongleurs</i> (who may be compared to the <span class="grk" title="aoidoi">&#7936;&#959;&#953;&#948;&#959;&#943;</span> of
+Homer). But as early as the 7th century we come upon traces
+of short lays (the so-called cantilènes) which were in the mouths
+of all and were sung in chorus. It has been held that the
+chansons de geste were formed by joining together &ldquo;bunches&rdquo;
+of these earlier cantilènes, and this was the view taken by
+Léon Gautier in the first edition of <i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (1865).
+In the second edition, of which the first volume appeared in
+1878, he abandoned this theory. He believes that the epics
+were generally composed under the influence of earlier songs.
+&ldquo;Our first epic poets,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;did not actually and materially
+patch together pre-existent cantilènes. They were only inspired
+by these popular songs; they only borrowed from them the
+traditional and legendary elements. In short, they took nothing
+from them but the ideas, the spirit, the life; they &lsquo;found&rsquo;
+(ils ont trouvé) all the rest&rdquo; (p. 80). But he admits that &ldquo;some
+of the old poems may have been borrowed from tradition, without
+any intermediary&rdquo; (<i>ibid.</i>); and when it is considered that the
+traces of the &ldquo;cantilènes&rdquo; are slight, and that the degree in
+which they inspired the later poetry must be a matter of impression
+rather than of proof, it does not surprise us to find
+other scholars (notably Paul Meyer) attaching less importance
+to them, or even doubting their existence.<a name="fa17a" id="fa17a" href="#ft17a"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>
+
+<p>When Léon Gautier shows how history passes into legend,
+and legend again into romance, we are reminded of the difference
+noticed above between the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>, and between
+Homer and the early Cyclic poems. And the peculiar degradation
+of Homeric characters which appears in some poets (especially
+Euripides) finds a parallel in the later chansons de geste.<a name="fa18a" id="fa18a" href="#ft18a"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The comparison of Homer with the great literary epics calls
+for more discursive treatment than would be in place here.
+Some external differences have been already indicated. Like
+the French epics, Homeric poetry is indigenous, and is distinguished
+by this fact, and by the ease of movement and the
+simplicity which result from it, from poets such as Virgil, Dante
+and Milton. It is also distinguished from them by the comparative
+absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil&rsquo;s
+poetry a sense of the greatness of Rome and Italy is the leading
+motive of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the &ldquo;chosen
+delicacy&rdquo; of his language. Dante and Milton are still more
+faithful exponents of the religion and politics of their time.
+Even the French epics are pervaded by the sentiment of fear and
+hatred of the Saracens. But in Homer the interest is purely
+dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or religion;
+the war turns on no political event; the capture of Troy lies
+outside the range of the <i>Iliad</i>. Even the heroes are not the chief
+national heroes of Greece. The interest lies wholly (so far as we
+can see) in the picture of human action and feeling.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;A complete bibliography of Homer would fill
+volumes. The following list is intended to include those books
+only which are of first-rate importance.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>editio princeps</i> of Homer, published at Florence in 1488, by
+Demetrius Chalcondylas, and the Aldine editions of 1504 and 1517,
+have still some value beyond that of curiosity. The chief modern
+critical editions are those of Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804-1807),
+Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836), Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn,
+1858), La Roche (<i>Odyssey</i>, 1867-1868; <i>Iliad</i>, 1873-1876, both at
+Leipzig); Ludwich (<i>Odyssey</i>, Leipzig, 1889-1891; <i>Iliad</i>, 2 vols.,
+1901 and 1907): W. Leaf (<i>Iliad</i>, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902);
+Merry and Riddell (<i>Odyssey</i> i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886);
+Monro (<i>Odyssey</i> xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901); Monro
+and Allen (<i>Iliad</i>), and Allen (<i>Odyssey</i>, 1908, Oxford). The commentaries
+of Barnes, Clarke and Ernesti are practically superseded;
+but Heyne&rsquo;s <i>Iliad</i> (Leipzig, 1802) and Nitzsch&rsquo;s commentary
+on the <i>Odyssey</i> (books i.-xii., Hanover, 1826-1840) are still useful.
+Nägelbach&rsquo;s <i>Anmerkungen zur Ilias</i> (A, B 1-483, &Gamma;) is of great value,
+especially the third edition (by Autenrieth, Nuremberg, 1864). The
+unique <i>Scholia Veneta</i> on the <i>Iliad</i> were first made known by Villoison
+(<i>Homeri Ilias ad veteris codicis Veneti fidem recensita, Scholia in
+eam antiquissima ex eodem codice aliisque nunc primum edidit, cum
+Asteriscis, Obeliscis, aliisque signis criticis, Joh. Baptista Caspar
+d&rsquo;Ansse de Villoison</i>, Venice, 1788); reprinted, with many additions
+from other MSS., by Bekker (<i>Scholia in Homeri Iliadem</i>, Berlin,
+1825-1826). A new edition has been published by the Oxford Press
+(<i>Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem</i>, ed. Gul. Dindorfius); six volumes
+have appeared (1875-1888), the last two edited by Professor E.
+Maass. The vast commentary of Eustathius was first printed at
+Rome in 1542; the last edition is that of Stallbaum (Leipzig, 1827).
+The Scholia on the <i>Odyssey</i> were published by Buttmann (Berlin,
+1821), and with greater approach to completeness by W. Dindorf
+(Oxford, 1855). Although Wolf at once perceived the value of the
+Venetian Scholia on the <i>Iliad</i>, the first scholar who thoroughly explored
+them was C. Lehrs (<i>De Aristarchi studiis Homericis</i>, Königsberg,
+1833; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1865). Of the studies in the same
+field which have appeared since, the most important are: Aug.
+Nauck, <i>Aristophanis Byzantii fragmenta</i> (Halle, 1848); L. Friedländer,
+<i>Aristonici</i> <span class="grk" title="peri sêmeiôn &rsquo;Iliados">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#963;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#7992;&#955;&#953;&#945;&#948;&#959;&#962; </span> <i>reliquiae</i> (Göttingen, 1853);
+M. Schmidt, <i>Didymi Chalcenteri fragmenta</i> (Leipzig, 1854); L.
+Friedländer, <i>Nicanoris</i> <span class="grk" title="peri Iliakês stigmês">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7992;&#955;&#953;&#945;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#963;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#8134;&#962;</span> <i>reliquiae</i> (Berlin, 1857);
+Aug. Lentz, <i>Herodiani Technici reliquiae</i> (Leipzig, 1867); J. La
+Roche, <i>Die homerische Textkritik im Alterthum</i> (Leipzig, 1866) and
+<i>Homerische Untersuchungen</i> (Leipzig, 1869); Ad. Römer, <i>Die Werke
+der Aristarcheer im Cod. Venet. A.</i> (Munich, 1875); A. Ludwich,
+<i>Aristarch&rsquo;s Homerische Textkritik</i> (2 vols. Leipzig, 1884-1885); and
+<i>Die Homervulgata als vor-Alexandrinisch erwiesen</i> (Leipzig, 1898).</p>
+
+<p>The literature of the &ldquo;Homeric Question&rdquo; begins practically with
+Wolf&rsquo;s <i>Prolegomena</i> (Halle, 1795). Of the earlier books Wood&rsquo;s
+<i>Essay on the Original Genius and Writings of Homer</i> is the most
+interesting. Wolf&rsquo;s views were skilfully popularized in W. Müller&rsquo;s
+<i>Homerische Vorschule</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1836). G. Hermann&rsquo;s
+dissertations <i>De interpolationibus Homeri</i> (1832) and <i>De iteratis apuà
+Homerum</i> (1840) are reprinted in his <i>Opuscula</i>. Lachmann&rsquo;s two
+papers (<i>Betrachtungen über Homer&rsquo;s Ilias</i>) were edited together by
+M. Haupt (2nd ed., Berlin, 1865). Besides the somewhat voluminous
+writings of Nitzsch, and the discussions contained in the histories
+of Greek literature by K. O. Müller, Bernhardy, Ulrici and Th.
+Bergk, and in Grote&rsquo;s <i>History of Greece</i>, see Welcker, <i>Der epische</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span>
+<i>Cyclus oder die homerischen Dichter</i> (Bonn, 1835-1849); on Proclus
+and the Cycle reference may also be made to Wilamowitz-Möllendorf
+p. 328 seq.; E. Bethe, <i>Rhein. Mus.</i> (1891), xxvi. p. 593 seq.; O.
+Immisch, <i>Festschrift Th. Gomperz dargebracht</i> (1902), p. 237 sq.;
+Lauer, <i>Geschichte der homerischen Poesie</i> (Berlin, 1851); Sengebusch,
+two dissertations prefixed to the two volumes of W. Dindorf&rsquo;s <i>Homer</i>
+in the Teubner series (1855-1856); Friedländer, <i>Die homerische
+Kritik von Wolf bis Grote</i> (Berlin, 1853); Nutzhorn, <i>Die Entstehungsweise
+der homerischen Gedichte, mit Vorwort von J. N. Madvig</i>
+(Leipzig, 1869); E. Kammer, <i>Zur homerischen Frage</i> (Königsberg,
+1870); and <i>Die Einheit der Odyssee</i> (Leipzig, 1873); Ä. Kirchhoff,
+<i>Die Composition der Odyssee</i> (Berlin, 1869); Volkmann, <i>Geschichte
+und Kritik der Wolf&rsquo;schen Prolegomena</i> (Leipzig, 1874); K. Sittl, <i>Die
+Wiederholungen in der Odyssee</i> (München, 1882); U. v. Wilamowitz-Möllendorf,
+<i>Homerische Untersuchungen</i> (Berlin, 1884); O. Seeck,
+<i>Die Quellen der Odyssee</i> (Berlin, 1887); F. Blass, <i>Die Interpolationen
+in der Odyssee</i> (Leipzig, 1905). The interest taken in the question by
+English students is sufficiently shown in the writings of W. E.
+Gladstone, F. A. Paley, Henry Hayman (in the Introduction to his
+<i>Odyssey</i>), P. Geddes, R. C. Jebb and A. Lang (see especially the
+latter&rsquo;s <i>Homer and his Age</i>, 1907).</p>
+
+<p>The Homeric dialect must be studied in the books (such as those
+of G. Curtius) that deal with Greek on the comparative method.
+The best special work is the brief <i>Griechische Formenlehre</i> of H. L.
+Ahrens (Göttingen, 1852). Other important works are those of Aug.
+Fick: <i>Die homerische Odyssee in der ursprünglichen Sprachform
+wiederhergestelt</i> (Göttingen, 1883); <i>Die homerische Ilias</i> (<i>ibid.</i>,
+1886); W. Schulze, <i>Quaestiones epicae</i> (Güterslohe, 1892). On
+Homeric syntax the chief book is B. Delbrück&rsquo;s <i>Syntactische Forschungen</i>
+(Halle, 1871-1879), especially vols. i. and iv.; on metre, &amp;c.,
+Hartel&rsquo;s <i>Homerische Studien</i> (i.-iii., Vienna); Knös, <i>De digammo
+Homerico quaestiones</i> (Upsala, 1872-1873-1878); Thumb, <i>Zur
+Geschichte des griech. Digamma, Indogermanische Forschungen</i> (1898),
+ix. 294 seq. The papers reprinted in Bekker&rsquo;s <i>Homerische Blätter</i>
+(Bonn, 1863-1872) and Cobet&rsquo;s <i>Miscellanea Crilica</i> (Leiden, 1876)
+are of the highest value. Hoffmann&rsquo;s <i>Quaestiones Homericae</i> (Clausthal,
+1842) is a useful collection of facts. Buttmann&rsquo;s <i>Lexilogus</i>, as
+an example of method, is still worth study.</p>
+
+<p>The antiquities of Homer&mdash;using the word in a wide sense&mdash;may
+be studied in the following books: Völcker, <i>Über homerische
+Geographie und Weltkunde</i> (Hanover, 1830); Nägelsbach&rsquo;s <i>Homerische
+Theologie</i> (2nd ed., Nuremberg, 1861); H. Brunn, <i>Die Kunst bei
+Homer</i> (Munich, 1868); W. W. Lloyd, <i>On the Homeric Design of
+the Shield of Achilles</i> (London, 1854); Buchholz, <i>Die homerischen
+Realien</i> (Leipzig, 1871-1873); W. Helbig, <i>Das homerische Epos
+aus den Denkmälern erläutert</i> (Leipzig, 1884; 2nd ed., <i>ibid.</i>, 1887);
+W. Reichel, <i>Über homerische Waffen</i> (Vienna, 1894); C. Robert,
+<i>Studien zur Ilias</i> (Berlin, 1901); W. Ridgeway, <i>The Early Age of
+Greece</i> (Cambridge, 1901); V. Bérard, <i>Les Phéniciens et l&rsquo;Odyssée</i>
+(Paris, 1902-1903); C. Robert, &ldquo;Topographische Probleme der
+Ilias,&rdquo; in <i>Hermes</i>, xlii., 1907, pp. 78-112.</p>
+
+<p>Among other aids should be mentioned the <i>Index Homericus</i> of
+Seber (Oxford, 1780); Prendergast&rsquo;s <i>Concordance to the Iliad</i>
+(London, 1875); Dunbar&rsquo;s <i>id.</i> to the <i>Odyssey and Hymns</i> (Oxford,
+1880); Frohwein, <i>Verbum Homericum</i>, (Leipzig, 1881); Gehring,
+<i>Index Homericus</i> (Leipzig, 1891); the <i>Lexicon Homericum</i>, edited
+by H. Ebeling (Leipzig, 1880-1885) and the facsimile of the
+cod. Ven. A (Sijthoff; Leiden, 1901), with an introduction by
+D. Comparetti.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. B. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This article was thoroughly revised by Dr D. B. Monro before his
+death in 1905; a few points have since been added by Mr. T. W.
+Allen.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a>  See a paper in the <i>Diss. Philol. Halenses</i>, ii. 97-219.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Compare the <i>Popular Rhymes of Scotland</i>, published by Robert
+Chambers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Compare the branch of myrtle at an Athenian feast (Aristoph.,
+<i>Nub.</i>, 1364).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The <i>Iliad</i> was also recited at the festival of the Brauronia, at
+Brauron in Attica (Hesych. <i>s.v.</i> <span class="grk" title="branrôniois">&#946;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#961;&#969;&#957;&#943;&#959;&#953;&#962;</span>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Contemporary Review</i>, vol. xxiii. p. 218 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The fact that the Phoenician Vau (&#989;) was retained in the Greek
+alphabets, and the vowel &upsilon; added, shows that when the alphabet was
+introduced the sound denoted by &#989; was still in full vigour. Otherwise
+&#989; would have been used for the vowel &upsilon;, just as the Phoenician
+consonant Yod became the vowel &iota;. But in the Ionic dialect the
+sound of &#989; died out soon after Homer&rsquo;s time, if indeed it was still
+pronounced then. It seems probable therefore that the introduction
+of the alphabet is not later than the composition of the Homeric
+poems.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See D. B. Monro&rsquo;s <i>Homer&rsquo;s Odyssey</i>, books xiii.-xxiv. (Oxford,
+1901, p. 455 sqq.), and the abstract of his paper on the Homeric
+Dialect read to the Congress of Historical Sciences at Rome, 1903:
+<i>Atti del Congresso internazionale di scienze storiche</i>, ii. 152, 153, 1905,
+&ldquo;Il Dialetto omerico.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See the chapter in Cobet&rsquo;s <i>Miscellanea critica</i>, pp. 225-239.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The existence of two groups of the Venetian Scholia was first
+noticed by Jacob La Roche, and they were first distinguished in
+the edition of W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1875). There is also a group of
+Scholia, chiefly exegetical, a collection of which was published by
+Villoison from a MS. Ven. 453 (s. xi.) in his edition of 1788, and has
+been again edited by W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1877). The most important
+collection of this group is contained in the <i>Codex Townleianus</i>
+(Burney 86 s. xi.) of the British Museum, edited by E. Maass,
+(Oxford, 1887-1888). The vast commentary of Eustathius (of the
+12th century) marks a third stage in the progress of ancient Homeric
+learning.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Prolegomena ad Homerum, sive de operum Homericorum prisca et
+genuina forma variisque mutationibus et probabili ratione emendandi.</i>
+scripsit Frid. Aug. Wolfius, volumen i. (1795).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> On this point see a paper by Professor Packard in the <i>Trans. of
+the American Philological Association</i> (1876).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Die Composition der Odyssee</i> (Berlin, 1869). A full discussion of
+this book is given by Dr E. Kammer, <i>Die Einheit der Odyssee</i> (Leipzig,
+1873).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> &ldquo;As a poet Homer must be acknowledged to excel Shakespeare in
+the truth, the harmony, the sustained grandeur, the satisfying completeness
+of his images&rdquo; (Shelley, <i>Essays</i>, &amp;c., i. 51, ed. 1852).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> &ldquo;The old English balladist may stir Sir Philip Sidney&rsquo;s heart like
+a trumpet, and this is much; but Homer, but the few artists in the
+grand style, can do more&mdash;they can refine the raw natural man, they
+can transmute him&rdquo; (<i>On Translating Homer</i>, p. 61).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Die exegetischen Scholien der Ilias</i>, p. vii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> &ldquo;On comprend que des chants populaires nés d&rsquo;un événement
+éclatant, victoire ou défaite, puissent contribuer à former la tradition,
+à en arrêter les traits; ils peuvent aussi devenir le centre de légendes
+qui se forment pour les expliquer; et de la sorte leur substance au
+moins arrive au poëte épique qui l&rsquo;introduit dans sa composition.
+Voilà ce qui a pu se produire pour de chants très-courts, dont il est
+d&rsquo;ailleurs aussi difficile d&rsquo;affirmer que de nier l&rsquo;existence. Mais on
+peut expliquer la formation des chansons de geste par une autre hypothèse&rdquo;
+(Meyer, <i>Recherches sur l&rsquo;épopée française</i>, p. 65). &ldquo;Ce qui
+a fait naître la théorie des chants &lsquo;lyrico-épiques&rsquo; ou des cantilènes,
+c&rsquo;est le système de Wolf sur les poëmes homériques, et de Lachmann
+sur les <i>Nibelungen</i>. Mais, au moins en ce qui concerne ce dernier
+poëme, le système est détruit.... On tire encore argument des
+romances espagnoles, qui, dit-on, sont des &lsquo;cantilènes&rsquo; non encore
+arrivées à l&rsquo;épopée.... Et c&rsquo;est le malheur de cette théorie: faute
+de preuves directes, elle cherche des analogies au dehors: en Espagne,
+elle trouve des &lsquo;cantilènes,&rsquo; mais pas d&rsquo;épopée; en Allemagne, une
+épopée, mais pas de cantilènes!&rdquo; (<i>Ibid.</i> p. 66).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18a" id="ft18a" href="#fa18a"><span class="fn">18</span></a> A. Lang, <i>Contemporary Review</i>, vol. xvii., N.S., p. 588.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMER, WINSLOW<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1836-1910), American painter, was born
+in Boston, U.S.A., on the 24th of February 1836. At the age
+of nineteen he was apprenticed to a lithographer. Two years
+later he opened a studio in Boston, and devoted much of his
+time to making drawings for wood-engravers. In 1859 he removed
+to New York, where he studied in the night-school of the
+National Academy of Design. During the American Civil War
+he was with the troops at the front, and contributed sketches to
+<i>Harper&rsquo;s Weekly</i>. The war also furnished him with the subjects
+for the first two pictures which he exhibited (1863), one of which
+was &ldquo;Home, Sweet Home.&rdquo; His &ldquo;Prisoners from the Front&rdquo;&mdash;perhaps
+his most generally popular picture&mdash;was exhibited in
+New York in 1865, and also in Paris in 1867, where he was spending
+the year in study. Among his other paintings in oil are
+&ldquo;Snap the Whip&rdquo; (which was exhibited at the Philadelphia
+Centennial Exhibition of 1876, and, in company with &ldquo;The
+Country Schoolroom,&rdquo; at the Paris Salon the following year),
+&ldquo;Eating Water-melon,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Cotton Pickers,&rdquo; &ldquo;Visit from the
+Old Mistress, Sunday Morning,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Life-Line&rdquo; and &ldquo;The
+Coming of the Gale.&rdquo; His genius, however, has perhaps shown
+better in his works in water-colour, among which are his marine
+studies painted at Gloucester, Mass., and his &ldquo;Inside the Bar,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Voice from the Cliffs&rdquo; (pictures of English fisherwomen),
+&ldquo;Tynemouth,&rdquo; &ldquo;Wrecking of a Vessel&rdquo; and &ldquo;Lost on the
+Grand Banks.&rdquo; His work, which principally consists of <i>genre</i>
+pictures, is characterized by strength, rugged directness and
+unmistakable freshness and originality, rather than by technical
+excellence, grace of line or beauty of colour. He was little
+affected by European influences. His types and scenes, apart
+from his few English pictures, are distinctly American&mdash;soldiers
+in blue, New England children, negroes in the land of cotton,
+Gloucester fishermen and stormy Atlantic seas. Besides being
+a member of the Society of Painters in Water-color, New York,
+he was elected in 1864 an associate and the following year a
+member of the National Academy of Design.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMESTEAD,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, 8 m. S.E. of Pittsburg.
+Pop. (1890) 7911; (1900) 12,554, of whom 3604 were foreign-born
+and 640 were negroes; (U.S. census, 1910) 18,713. It is served
+by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg &amp; Lake Erie railways,
+and by the short Union Railroad, which connects with the
+Bessemer &amp; Lake Erie and the Wabash railways. The borough
+has a Carnegie library and the C.M. Schwab Manual Training
+School. Partly in Homestead but chiefly in the adjoining borough
+of Munhall (and therefore not reported as in Homestead by the
+U.S. Census) is one of the largest plants in the United States for
+the manufacture of steel used in the construction of bridges and
+steel-frame buildings and of steel armour-plate, and this is
+its chief industry; among Homestead&rsquo;s other manufactures are
+glass and fire-bricks. The water-works are owned and operated
+by the municipality. Homestead was first settled in 1871, and
+it was incorporated in 1880. In 1892 a labour strike lasting
+143 days and one of the most serious in the history of the United
+States was carried on here by the National Amalgamated
+Association of Iron and Steel Workers of the United States
+against the Carnegie Steel Company. The arrival (on the 6th
+of July) of a force of about 200 Pinkerton detectives from New
+York and Chicago resulted in a fight in which about 10 men
+were killed, and to restore order two brigades of the state militia
+were called out. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strikes and Lockouts</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> laws (principally
+in the United States) designed primarily either to aid the head
+of a family to acquire title to a place of residence or to protect
+the owner against loss of that title through seizure for debt.
+These laws have all been enacted in America since about the
+middle of the 19th century, and owe their origin to the demand
+for a population of the right sort in a new country, to the conviction
+that the freeholder rather than the tenant is the natural
+supporter of popular government, to the effort to prevent
+insolvent debtors from becoming useless members of society, and
+to the belief that such laws encourage the stability of the family.</p>
+
+<p>By the cessions of several of the older states, and by various
+treaties with foreign countries, public lands have been acquired
+for the United States in every state and territory of the Union
+except the original thirteen, and Maine, Vermont, Kentucky,
+Tennessee and Texas. For a time they were regarded chiefly
+as a source of revenue, but about 1820, as the need of revenue
+for the payment of the national debt decreased and the inhabitants
+of an increasing number of new states became eager to
+have the vacant lands within their bounds occupied, the demand
+that the public lands should be disposed of more in the interest
+of the settler became increasingly strong, and the homestead
+idea originated. Until the advent of railways, however, the
+older states of the North were opposed to promoting the development
+of the West in this manner, and soon afterwards the
+Southern representatives in Congress opposed the general
+homestead bills in the interests of slavery, so that except in
+isolated cases where settlers were desired to protect some frontier,
+as in Florida and Oregon, and to a limited extent in the case of
+the Pre-emption Act of 1841 (see below), the homestead principle
+was not applied by the national government until the Civil
+War had begun. A general homestead bill was passed by Congress
+in 1860, but this was vetoed by President James Buchanan;
+two years later, however, a similar bill became a law. The act
+of 1862 originally provided that any citizen of the United States,
+or applicant for citizenship, who was the head of a family, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span>
+twenty-one years of age, or, if younger, had served not less than
+fourteen days in the army or navy of the United States during an
+actual war, might apply for 160 acres or less of unappropriated
+public lands, and might acquire title to this amount of land by
+residing upon and cultivating it for five years immediately
+following, and paying such fees as were necessary to cover the
+cost of administration; a homestead acquired in this manner
+was exempted from seizure for any debt contracted prior to the
+date of issuing the patent. A commutation clause of this act
+permitted title to be acquired after only six months of residence
+by paying $1.25 per acre, as provided in the Pre-emption Act
+of 1841. Act of 1872, amended in 1901, allows any soldier or
+seaman, who has served at least ninety days in the army or navy
+of the United States during the Civil War, the Spanish-American
+War or in the suppression of the insurrection in the Philippines,
+and was honourably discharged, to apply for a homestead, and
+permits the deduction of the time of such service, or, if discharged
+on account of wounds or other disability incurred in the line of
+duty, the full term of his enlistment, from the five years otherwise
+required for perfecting title, except that in any case he shall
+have resided upon and cultivated the land at least one year
+before the passing of title. Since 1866 mineral lands have been
+for the most part excluded from entry as homesteads.</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with the provisions of the homestead law,
+718,930 homesteads, containing 96,495,414 acres, were established
+in forty-two years, and besides this principal act, Congress
+has passed several minor ones of a like nature, that is, acts designed
+to benefit the actual settler who improves the land. Thus the
+Pre-emption Act of 1841 gave to any head of a family or any single
+person over twenty-one years of age, who was a citizen of the
+United States or had declared his intention to become one,
+permission to purchase not to exceed 160 acres of public lands
+after he had resided upon and improved the same for six months;
+the Timber-Culture Act of 1873 allowed title to 160 acres of
+public prairie-land to be given to any one who should plant upon
+it 40 acres of timber, and keep the same in good growing condition
+for ten years; and the Desert-Land Act of 1877 gave to
+any citizen of the United States, or to any person who had
+declared his intention to become one, the privilege of acquiring
+title to 640 acres of such public land as was not included in
+mineral or timber lands, and would not without irrigation produce
+an agricultural crop, by paying twenty-five cents an acre and
+creating for the tract an artificial water-supply. These several
+land acts, however, invited fraud to such an extent that in time
+they promoted the establishment of large land holdings by
+ranchmen and others quite as much as they encouraged settlement
+and cultivation, and so great was this evil that in 1891 the
+Timber-Culture and Pre-emption Acts were repealed, the total
+amount of land that could be acquired by any one person under
+the several land laws was limited to 320 acres, the Desert-Land
+Act was so amended as to require an expenditure of at least three
+dollars an acre for irrigation, and the original Homestead Act
+was so amended as to disqualify any person who was already
+proprietor of more than 160 acres in any state or Territory of
+the Union for acquiring any more land under its provisions;
+and in 1896 a residence of fourteen months was required before
+permitting commutation or the purchase of title. But even
+these measures were inadequate to prevent fraud. In 1894
+Congress, in what is known as the Carey Act, donated to California,
+Oregon, Nevada, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Utah,
+Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico and the Dakotas so much of
+1,000,000 acres each of desert-lands as each should cause to be
+irrigated, reclaimed and occupied within ten years,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> not less than
+20 acres of each 160 acres to be cultivated by actual settlers;
+and in several of these states and territories irrigating companies
+have been formed and land offered to settlers in amounts not
+exceeding 160 acres to each, on terms requiring the settler to
+purchase ample and perpetual water-rights. In 1902, Congress
+appropriated the proceeds of the sales of public lands in these
+states and territories to form a reclamation fund to be used for
+the construction and maintenance of irrigation works, and lands
+reclaimed by this means are open to homestead entries, the entry-man
+being required to pay for the cost of reclamation in ten
+equal annual instalments without interest. When Texas was
+admitted to the Union the disposal of its public lands was
+reserved to the state, and under its laws every person who is the
+head of a family and without a homestead may acquire title
+to 160 acres of land by residing upon and improving it for
+three years; every unmarried man eighteen years of age or over
+may acquire title to 80 acres in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>A short time before the National Homestead Act for aiding
+citizens to acquire homesteads went into operation, some of
+the state legislatures had passed homestead and exemption
+laws designed to protect homesteads or a certain amount of property
+against loss to the owners in case they should become
+insolvent debtors, and by the close of the century the legislature
+of nearly every state in the Union had passed a law of this nature.
+These laws vary greatly. In most states the exemption of a
+homestead or other property from liability for debts can be
+claimed only by the head of a family, but in Georgia it may be
+claimed by any aged or infirm person, by any trustee of a family
+of minor children, or by any person on whom any woman or
+girls are dependent for support; and in California, although
+the head of a family may claim exemption for a homestead valued
+at $5000, any other person may claim exemption for a homestead
+valued at $1000. In some states exemptions may be claimed
+either for a farm limited to 40, 80, 160 or 200 acres, or for a
+house and one or more lots, usually limited in size, in a town,
+village or city; in other states the homestead for which exemption
+may be claimed is limited in value, and this value varies
+from $500 to $5000. With the homestead are usually included
+the appurtenances thereto, and the courts invariably interpret
+the law liberally; but many states also exempt a specified
+amount of personal property, including wearing apparel, furniture,
+provisions, tools, libraries and in some cases domestic
+animals and stock in trade. A few states exempt no homestead
+and only a small amount of personal property; Maryland,
+for example, exempts only $100 worth of property besides money
+payable in the nature of insurance, or for relief, in the event
+of sickness, injury or death. To some debts the exemption
+does not usually apply; the most common of these are taxes,
+purchase money, a debt secured by mortgage on the homestead
+and debts contracted in making improvements upon it; in
+Maryland the only exception is a judgment for breach of promise
+to marry or in case of seduction. If the homestead belongs to
+a married person, the consent of both husband and wife is
+usually required to mortgage it. Finally, some states require
+that the homestead for which exemption is to be claimed shall
+be previously entered upon record, others require only occupancy,
+and still others permit the homestead to be designated whenever
+a claim is presented.</p>
+
+<p>Following the example of either the United States Congress
+or the state legislatures, the governments of several British
+colonial states and provinces have passed homestead laws. In
+Quebec every settler on public lands is allowed, after receiving
+a patent, an exemption of not to exceed 200 acres from that
+of his widow, of his, her or their children and descendants in
+the direct line. In Ontario an applicant for a homestead may
+have not to exceed 200 acres of unappropriated public land for
+farming purposes by building a house thereon, occupying it
+for five years, and bringing at least fifteen acres under cultivation;
+the exemption of such a homestead from liability to
+seizure for debts is, however, limited to twenty years from
+the date of application for the land, and does not extend even
+during that period to rates or taxes. Manitoba, British Columbia,
+Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia, West Australia
+and New Zealand also have liberal homestead and exemption
+laws.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. B. Sanborn, &ldquo;Some Political Aspects of Homestead Legislation,&rdquo;
+in <i>The American Historical Review</i> (1900); Edward Manson,
+&ldquo;The Homestead Acts,&rdquo; in the <i>Journal of the Society of Comparative
+Legislation</i> (London, 1899); S. D. Thompson, <i>A Treatise on</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span>
+<i>Homesteads and Exemptions</i> (San Francisco, 1886); P. Bureau,
+<i>Le Homestead ou l&rsquo;Insaisissabilité de la petite propriété foncière</i>
+(Paris, 1894), and L. Vacher, <i>Le Homestead aux États-Unis</i> (Paris,
+1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. D. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In 1901 it was provided that the ten years should date from the
+segregation of the lands from the public domain.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1795-1874), German jurist,
+was born on the 13th of August 1795 at Wolgast in Pomerania.
+After studying law at the universities of Berlin, Göttingen
+and Heidelberg (1813-1817), he settled as a <i>Privatdocent</i>, in
+1821, at the university of Berlin, where he became ordinary
+professor of law in 1827. His principal works are his edition
+of the <i>Sachsenspiegel</i> (in 3 vols., 1827, 3rd ed., 1861, containing
+also some other important sources of Saxon or Low German
+law), which is still unsurpassed in accuracy and sagacity of
+research, and his book on <i>Die Haus- und Hofmarken</i> (1870),
+in which he has given a history of the use of trade-marks among
+all the Teutonic nations of Europe, and which is full of important
+elucidations of the history of law and also contains valuable
+contributions to the history of art and civilization. In 1850
+Homeyer was elected a member of the Berlin Academy of
+Sciences, in the <i>Transactions</i> of which he published various
+papers exhibiting profound learning (<i>Über die Heimat</i>, 1852;
+<i>Genealogie der Handschriften des Sachsenspiegels</i>, 1859; <i>Die
+Stadtbücher des Mittelalters</i>, 1860; <i>Der Dreissigste</i>, 1864, &amp;c.).
+He died on the 20th of October 1874.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMICIDE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (Lat. <i>homicidium</i>), the general and neutral term
+for the killing of one human being by another. The nature
+of the responsibility of the slayer to the state and to the relatives
+of the slain has been one of the chief concerns of all systems
+of law from the earliest times, and it has been variously considered
+from the points of view of the sanctity of human life,
+the interests of the sovereign, the injury to the family of the
+slain and the moral guilt, <i>i.e.</i> the motives and intentions, of
+the slayer.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest recorded laws (those of Khammurabi) do not
+contain any sweeping general provision as to the punishment
+of homicide. The death penalty is freely imposed but not
+for homicide. &ldquo;If a man strike a gentleman&rsquo;s daughter that
+she dies, his own daughter is to be put to death, if a poor man&rsquo;s
+the slayer pays ½ mina.&rdquo; In the Mosaic law the general command
+&ldquo;Thou shalt not kill&rdquo; of the Decalogue is in terms absolute.
+In primitive law homicide, however innocent, subjected the
+slayer to the lawful vengeance of the kindred of the slain, unless
+he could make some composition with him. This <i>lex talionis</i>
+(a life for a life) resulted: (1) in a course of private justice
+which still survives in the vendetta of Corsica and Albania, and
+the blood feuds arising out of &ldquo;difficulties&rdquo; in the southern and
+western parts of the United States; (2) in the recognition of
+sanctuaries and cities of refuge within which the avenger of
+blood might not penetrate to kill an innocent manslayer; and
+(3) in the system of wite, bote and wer, by which the life of
+every man had its assessed price payable to his chief and his
+next of kin.</p>
+
+<p>It took long to induce the relatives of the slain to appreciate
+anything beyond the fact of the death of their kinsman or
+to discriminate between intentional and accidental homicide.
+By the laws of Khammurabi (206, 208) striking a man in a
+quarrel without deadly intent but with fatal effect was treated
+as a matter for compensation according to the rank of the slain.
+The Pentateuch discriminates between the man &ldquo;who lieth in
+wait for&rdquo; or &ldquo;cometh presumptuously&rdquo; on &ldquo;his neighbour to
+slay him with guile&rdquo; (Exodus xxi. 13, 14), and the man &ldquo;who
+killeth his neighbour ignorantly whom he hated not in time past&rdquo;
+(Deut. xix. 4). But even killing by misadventure exposed the
+slayer to the avenger of blood. &ldquo;As a man goeth into the
+wood with his neighbour to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth
+a stroke with the axe to cut down a tree and the head slippeth
+from the helve and lighteth upon his neighbour that he die:
+he shall flee into one of these cities (of refuge) and live&rdquo; (Deut.
+xix. 5).</p>
+
+<p>Under the early laws of Teutonic and Celtic communities
+the inconveniences of the blood feud were gradually mitigated
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminal Law</a></span>) by the system of wite and wer (or eric),
+but the blood feud continued long in Friesland and Lower
+Saxony, and in parts of Switzerland until the 16th century.
+In England under the Norman system homicide became a plea
+of the crown, and the rights of the kindred to private vengeance
+and to compensation were gradually superseded in favour of
+the right of the king to forfeitures where the homicide amounted
+to a crime (felony).</p>
+
+<p>Though homicide was thus made a public offence and not
+a matter for private vengeance, it took long to discriminate
+between those forms of homicide which should and those which
+should not be punished.</p>
+
+<p>The terms of act in English law used to describe <i>criminal</i>
+homicide are murder (<i>mord</i>, <i>meurtre</i>, <i>murdrum</i>), manslaughter
+and <i>felo de se</i> (or suicide by a person of sound mind).</p>
+
+<p>The original meaning of the word &ldquo;murder&rdquo; seems to have
+been secret homicide,&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Murdrum proprie dicitur mors alicujus
+occulta cujus interfector ignoratur</i>&rdquo; (<i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i> i, x.);
+and Glanville says: <i>Duo sunt genera homicidii, unum est quod
+dicitur murdrum quod nullo vidente nullo sciente clam perpetratur,
+ita quod non assignatur clamor popularis</i> (hue and cry), <i>est et
+aliud homicidium quod diciter simplex homicidium</i>. After the
+Conquest, and for the protection of the ruling race, a fine (also
+called <i>murdrum</i>) was levied for the king on the hundred or other
+district in which a stranger was found dead, if the slayer was not
+brought to justice and the blood kin of the slain did not present
+Englishry, there being a presumption (in favour of the Exchequer)
+that the deceased was a Frenchman. After the assize of Clarendon
+(1166) the distinction between the killing of Normans and
+Englishmen gradually evaporated and the term murder came to
+acquire its present meaning of deliberate as distinct from
+secret homicide. In 1267 it was provided that the murder fine
+should not be levied in cases of death by &ldquo;misadventure&rdquo;
+(<i>per infortunium</i>).<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But at that date and for long afterwards
+homicide in self-defence or by misadventure or even while of
+unsound mind involved at the least a forfeiture of goods, and
+required a pardon. These pardons, and restitution of the goods,
+became a matter of course, and the judges appear at a later date
+to have been in the habit of directing an acquittal in such cases.
+But it was not until 1828 that the innocence of excusable homicide
+was expressly declared. The rule is now expressed in s. 7 of the
+Offences against the Person Act 1861: &ldquo;No punishment or
+forfeiture shall be incurred by any person who shall kill another
+by misfortune, or in his own defence, or in any other manner
+without felony.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The further differentiation between different degrees of
+criminal homicide was marked by legislation of Henry VIII.
+(1531) taking away benefit of clergy in the case of &ldquo;wilful
+murder with malice prepensed&rdquo; (aforethought), and that phrase
+is still the essential element in the definition of &ldquo;wilful murder,&rdquo;
+which is committed &ldquo;when a person of sound memory and
+discretion unlawfully killeth any reasonable creature or being
+and under the king&rsquo;s peace with malice aforethought either
+express or implied&rdquo; (3 Co. Inst. 47). The whole development
+of the substantive law as to murder rests on judicial rulings as
+to the meaning of malice prepense coupled with the extrajudicial
+commentaries of Coke, Hale and Foster; for parliament, though
+often tempted by bills and codes, has never ventured on a
+legislative definition. Much discussion has ranged round the
+phrase &ldquo;malice aforethought,&rdquo; and it has undoubtedly been
+expanded by judicial decision so as to create what is described
+as &ldquo;constructive&rdquo; murder. According to the view of the
+criminal code commissioners of 1879 (<i>Parl. Pap.</i>, 1879, c. 23, 45,
+p. 23) the term &ldquo;malice aforethought&rdquo; is now a common name
+for all the following states of mind:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed list">
+<p>1. An intent, preceding the act, to kill or do grievous bodily harm
+to the person or to any other person:</p>
+
+<p>2. Knowledge that the act done is <i>likely</i> to produce such consequences,
+whether coupled with an intention to produce them
+or not:</p>
+
+<p>3. An intent to commit any felony: or</p>
+
+<p>4. An intent to resist an officer of police in the execution of his duty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span></p>
+
+<p>The third form of malice aforethought has been much
+controverted. When it was first recognized as creating a liability
+for wilful murder almost all felonies were capital offences: but
+even at the end of the 17th century Lord Holt expressed a view
+that it should be limited to felonies involving violence or danger
+to life, <i>e.g.</i> assault with intent to rob, or setting fire to a dwelling-house.
+And Sir James Stephen&rsquo;s opinion is that, to justify
+conviction of murder by an act done with intent to commit a
+felony, the act done must be one dangerous to life or known
+to be likely to cause death.</p>
+
+<p>Starting with the definition above given, English law still
+retains so much of its medieval character as to presume all
+homicide to be &ldquo;malicious, and therefore murder, unless it is
+either <i>justified</i> by the command or permission of the law, <i>excused</i>
+on the ground of accident or self-preservation, or <i>alleviated</i>
+into manslaughter by being the involuntary consequence of some
+act not strictly lawful or occasioned by some sudden and sufficiently
+violent provocation.&rdquo; The truth of the facts alleged in
+justification, excuse or alleviation, is for the jury to determine:
+the question whether if true they support the plea for which they
+are put forward is for the court.</p>
+
+<p>In the administration of the English criminal law as to homicide
+the consequences of too strict an adherence to the technical
+definitions of the offences are avoided (<i>a</i>) by the exercise of the
+jury of their powers to convict of manslaughter only even in
+cases where they are directed that the offence is murder or
+nothing; (<i>b</i>) by the report of the judge as to the particular
+circumstances of each case in which a conviction of murder has
+been followed by the statutory sentence of death; (<i>c</i>) by the
+examination of all the evidence in the case by the Home Office
+in order to enable the secretary of state to determine whether the
+prerogative of mercy should be exercised.</p>
+
+<p>Homicide is justifiable and not criminal when the killing is
+done in the execution of the law. The most important case of
+justifiable homicide is the execution of a criminal in due course
+of public justice. This condition is most stringently interpreted.
+&ldquo;To kill the greatest of malefactors deliberately, uncompelled,
+and extrajudicially is murder.... And further, if judgment of
+death be given by a judge not authorized by lawful commission,
+and execution is done accordingly, the judge is guilty of murder&rdquo;
+(Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>, book vi. c. iv.). The execution must
+be carried out by the proper officer or his deputy: any person
+executing the sentence without such authority, were it the judge
+himself, would be guilty of murder. And the sentence must be
+strictly pursued: to execute a criminal by a kind of death other
+than that to which he has been judicially condemned is murder.</p>
+
+<p>Homicide committed by an officer of justice in the course of
+carrying out his duty, as such, is also justifiable; <i>e.g.</i> where a
+felon resists a legal arrest and is killed in the effort to arrest him
+(see 2 Pollock and Maitland, 476); where officers in dispersing
+a riotous assemblage kill any of the mob, &amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riot</a></span>). In these
+cases the homicide must be shown to have been absolutely
+necessary. Again, homicide is justifiable if committed in the
+defence of person or property against forcible and heinous crime,
+such as murder, violent robbery, rape or burglary. In this connexion
+there has been much discussion as to whether the person
+attacked is under a duty to retreat: and in substance the
+justification depends on the continuous necessity of attack or
+defence In order to prevent the commission by the deceased of
+the crime threatened.</p>
+
+<p>Homicide is excusable and not criminal at all when committed
+either by misadventure or in self-defence. In the former case
+the homicide is excused; where a man in the course of doing some
+lawful work, accidentally and without intention kills another,
+<i>e.g.</i> shooting at a mark and undesignedly hitting and killing a
+man. The act must be strictly lawful, and death by misadventure
+in unlawful sports is not a case of excusable homicide. Homicide
+in self-defence is excusable when the slayer is himself in immediate
+danger of death, and has done all he could to avoid the assault.
+Accordingly, if he strikes and kills his assailant after the assault
+is over, this is not excusable homicide. But if the assault has
+been premeditated, as in the ease of a duel, the death of either
+antagonist has under English law always been held to be murder
+and not excusable homicide. The excuse of self-defence covers
+the case in which a person in defence of others whom it is his
+duty to protect&mdash;children, wife, master, &amp;c.&mdash;kills an assailant.
+It has been considered doubtful whether the plea of self-defence
+is available to one who has himself provoked a fray, in the course
+of which he is so pressed by his antagonist that his only resource
+is to kill him.</p>
+
+<p>In English law the term &ldquo;manslaughter&rdquo; is applied to those
+forms of homicide which though neither justifiable nor excusable
+are attended by alleviating circumstances which bring them
+short of wilful murder. The offence is not defined by statute,
+but only by judicial rulings. Its punishment is as a maximum
+penal servitude for life, and as a minimum a fine or recognizances
+to be of good behaviour. The quantum of punishment between
+the limits above stated is in the discretion of the court, and not,
+as under continental codes, with fixed minima; and the offence
+includes acts and omissions of very varying gravity, from acts
+which only by the charitable appreciation of a jury fall short
+of wilful murder, to acts or omissions which can only technically
+be described as criminal, <i>e.g.</i> where one of two persons engaged
+in poaching, by pure accident gets caught in a hedge so that
+his gun goes off and kills his fellow-poacher. This may be
+described as an extreme instance of &ldquo;constructive crime.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There are two main forms of &ldquo;manslaughter&rdquo;:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. &ldquo;Voluntary&rdquo; homicide under grave and sudden provocation
+or on a sudden quarrel in the heat of passion, without the
+slayer taking undue advantage or acting in an unusual manner.
+The substance of the alleviation of guilt lies in the absence of
+time for cool reflection or the formation of a premeditated design
+to kill. Under English law the provocation must be by acts
+and not by words or gestures, and must be serious and not trivial,
+and the killing must be immediately after provocation and
+while the slayer has lost his self-control in consequence of the
+provocation. The provocation need not be by assault or violence,
+and perhaps the best-recognized example is the slaying by a
+husband of a man found committing adultery with the slayer&rsquo;s
+wife. In the case of a sudden quarrel it does not matter who
+began or provoked the quarrel. This used to be called &ldquo;chance
+medley.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>2. &ldquo;Involuntary&rdquo; homicide as a result of great rashness
+or gross negligence in respect of matters involving danger to
+human life, <i>e.g.</i> in driving trains or vehicles, or in dealing with
+dangerous weapons, or in performing surgical operations, or in
+taking care of the helpless.</p>
+
+<p>The innumerable modes in which criminal liability for killing
+others has been adjudged under the English definitions of
+murder and manslaughter cannot be here stated, and can only
+be studied by reference to the judicial decisions collected and
+discussed in <i>Russell on Crimes</i> and other English text-books, and
+in the valuable work by Mr J. D. Mayne on the criminal law of
+India, in which the English common law rulings are stated
+side by side with the terms and interpretations of the Indian
+penal code. Much labour has been expended by many jurists
+in efforts to create a scientific and acceptable classification of
+the various forms of unlawful homicide which shall properly
+define the cases which should be punishable by law and the
+appropriate punishment. Their efforts have resulted in the
+establishment in almost every state except the United Kingdom
+of statutory definitions of the crime, beginning with the French
+penal code and going down to the criminal code of Japan. In
+the case of England, as a result of the labours of Sir James
+Stephen, a code bill was submitted to parliament in 1878. In 1879
+a draft code was prepared by Blackburn, Lush and Barry, and was
+presented to parliament. It was founded on and prepared with
+Sir J. Stephen, and is a revision of his digest of the criminal law.</p>
+
+<p>After defining homicide and culpable homicide, the draft
+code (cl. 174) declares culpable homicide to be murder in the
+following cases: (<i>a</i>) if the offender means to cause the death
+of the person killed; (<i>b</i>) if the offender means to cause to the
+person killed any bodily injury which is known to the offender
+to be likely to cause death, and if the offender, whether he does
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span>
+or does not mean to cause death, is reckless whether death ensues
+or not; (<i>c</i>) if the offender means to cause death or such bodily
+injury as aforesaid to one person, so that if that person be killed
+the offender would be guilty of murder, and by accident or
+mistake the offender kills another person though he does not
+mean to hurt the person killed; (<i>d</i>) if the offender for any unlawful
+object does an act which he knows or ought to have known
+to be likely to cause death, and thereby kills any person, though
+he may have desired that his object should be effected without
+hurting any one.</p>
+
+<p>Further (cl. 175), it is murder (whether the offender means
+or not death to ensue, or knows or not that death is likely to
+ensue) in the following cases:&mdash;&ldquo;(<i>a</i>) if he means to inflict
+grievous bodily injury for the purpose of facilitating the commission
+of any of the offences hereinafter mentioned, or the
+flight of the offender upon the commission or attempted commission
+thereof, and death ensues from his violence; (<i>b</i>) if he
+administers any stupefying thing for either of the purposes
+aforesaid and death ensues from the effects thereof; (<i>c</i>) if he
+by any means wilfully stops the breath of any person for either
+of the purposes aforesaid and death ensues from such stopping
+of the breath.&rdquo; The following are the offences referred to:&mdash;&ldquo;high
+treason and other offences against the king&rsquo;s authority,
+piracy and offences deemed to be piracy, escape or rescue from
+prison or lawful custody, resisting lawful apprehension, murder,
+rape, forcible abduction, robbery, burglary, arson.&rdquo; Cl. 176
+reduces culpable homicide to manslaughter if the person who
+causes death does so &ldquo;in the heat of passion caused by sudden
+provocation&rdquo;; and &ldquo;any <i>wrongful act or insult</i> of such a nature
+as to be sufficient to deprive any ordinary person of the power
+of self-control may be provocation if the offender acts upon it
+on the sudden, and before there has been time for his passion
+to cool. Whether any particular wrongful act or insult amounts
+to provocation and whether the offender was deprived of self-control
+shall be questions of fact; but no one shall be deemed
+to give provocation by doing that which he had a legal right to
+do, or which the offender incited him to do in order to provide
+an excuse for killing him or doing grievous bodily harm to any
+person.&rdquo; Further, &ldquo;an arrest shall not necessarily reduce the
+offence from murder to manslaughter because an arrest was
+illegal, but if the illegality was known to the offender it may be
+evidence of provocation&rdquo;; (cl. 177) &ldquo;culpable homicide not
+amounting to murder is manslaughter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The definitions embodied in these clauses though not yet
+accepted by the British legislature, have in substance been
+embodied in the criminal codes of Canada (1892 ss. 227-230),
+New Zealand (1893, ss. 163-166), Queensland (1899, ss. 300-305),
+and Western Australia (1901, ss. 275-280).</p>
+
+<p>From the point of view of civil as distinct from criminal
+responsibility homicide does not by the common law give any
+cause of action against the person causing the death of another
+in favour of the wife or blood relations of the deceased. In
+early law this was otherwise; and the wer or eric of the deceased
+came historically before the right of chief or state. But under
+English law the rights of relations, except by way of appeal for
+felony,<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> were swept aside in favour of the crown, on the principle
+that every homicide is presumed felonious (murder) unless the
+contrary is proved, and that in all cases of homicide not justifiable
+by law a forfeiture was incurred. The rights of the relatives
+were also defeated by application of the maxim &ldquo;<i>actio personalis
+moritur cum personâ</i>&rdquo; (&ldquo;a personal action dies with the person&rdquo;)
+to all proceedings for injury to the person or to reputation. In
+Scotland the old theory was preserved in the law as to
+assythement.</p>
+
+<p>In England the law was altered at the instance of Lord
+Campbell in 1846 (9 &amp; 10 V. c. 93) so as to give a right of a
+claim by the husband, wife, parent or child of a person killed
+by a wrongful (or even criminal) act, neglect or default
+by another which would have given the deceased if he had survived
+a cause of action against the wrongdoer. The compensation
+payable is what the surviving relative has lost by
+the death, and under the Workmen&rsquo;s Compensation Act 1906
+(in all cases to which it applies) the employer is liable even
+without negligence to compensate the dependants of an employee
+killed by an accident arising out of and in the course of the
+employment; and in such cases even if the death was due to
+serious and wilful misconduct by the employee, compensation is
+payable.</p>
+
+<p>In the Indian penal code the definitions of murder are so
+drawn as to limit the offences to cases where it was actually
+intended to cause death or bodily injury by the acts or omissions
+of the slayer, and the definition of culpable homicide short
+of murder is so drawn as to exclude the forms of unintentional
+manslaughter due to neglect of duty, <i>e.g.</i> in the conduct of
+trains or ships or vehicles. This last omission was supplied
+in 1870. The Indian code does not treat as murder either
+duelling or helping Hindu widows to commit <i>suttee</i> (s. 301,
+exception 5). In most of the British possessions in Asia and
+in east Africa the Indian definitions of homicide have been
+adopted. In the rest of the colonies, except South Africa, the
+law of homicide depends on the English common law as modified
+by colonial codes or statutes. In South Africa it rests mainly
+on the Roman Dutch law.</p>
+
+<p><i>Europe.</i>&mdash;In European codes distinctions corresponding to
+those of the English law are drawn between premeditated
+and other forms of criminal homicide; but more elaborate
+distinctions are drawn between the degrees of deliberation
+or criminality manifested in the slaying, and the minimum or
+maximum penalty is varied accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>In the French penal code voluntary homicide is called murder
+(<i>meurtre</i>, art. 295): but if committed with premeditation or
+lying in wait is styled <i>assassinat</i> (<i>guet-apens</i>) (296-298). Poisoning
+(even if the poison is not fatal), is specially punished, as
+is parricide (on the lines of the obsolete English offence of petty
+treason), and infanticide, <i>i.e.</i> the killing of newly-born infants.
+Assassination, poisoning and parricide are at present capital
+offences; but a bill to abolish the death sentence has been
+laid before the French parliament.</p>
+
+<p>The German code distinguishes between voluntary homicide
+which is done with deliberation and such homicide committed
+without deliberation (ss. 211, 212), and provides for mitigation
+of punishment where the slaying was provoked without fault
+in the slayer by any wrongful act or serious insult upon the
+slayer or his relatives by the slain (213). Parricide and infanticide
+are specially punished (214, 215), as is killing another
+person at his express and earnest request (216)&mdash;an offence
+which would in England be murder&mdash;and it is a separate offence
+to cause the death of another, the penalty being increased
+if the offender was peculiarly bound by office, calling or trade
+to use a care which he did not use (222).</p>
+
+<p>The Italian code punishes as homicide those who with intention
+to kill cause the death of another (364). The death penalty is
+not imposed, but scales of punishment are provided to deal
+with aggravated forms of the offence. Thus <i>ergastolo</i> (penal
+servitude for life) is the punishment in the case of homicide
+of ascendants and descendants, or with premeditation, or under
+the sole impulse of brutal ferocity or with gross cruelty (<i>gravi
+sevizie</i>), or by means of arson, inundation, drowning and certain
+other crimes, or to secure the gains or conceal the commission,
+or to secure immunity from the consequences, of another crime
+(366). Personal violence resulting in death inflicted without
+intention to kill is punishable <i>minore poenâ</i> (368), and it is
+criminal to cause the death of another by imprudence, negligence
+or lack of skill in an art or profession (<i>imperitia nella propria
+arte o professione</i>), or by non-observance of regulations, orders
+or instructions.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish code has like those of Italy and France special
+punishments for parricide (417) and for assassination, in which
+are included killing for reward or promise of reward or by
+inundation (418), and for aiding another to commit suicide (421).
+Both the Italian and the Spanish codes afford a special mitigation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span>
+to infanticide committed to avoid dishonour to the mother of
+the infant or her family.</p>
+
+<p><i>America.</i>&mdash;The most notable difference between England
+and the United States in regard to the law on this subject is
+the recognition by state legislation of degrees in murder. English
+law treats all unlawful killing not reducible to manslaughter
+as of the same degree of guilt in law. American statutes seek
+to discriminate for purposes of punishment between the graver
+and the less culpable forms of murder. Thus an act of the
+legislature of Pennsylvania (22nd of April 1794) declares &ldquo;all
+murder which shall be perpetrated by means of poison or by
+lying in wait or by any other kind of wilful, deliberate and
+premeditated killing, or which shall be committed in the perpetration
+of or attempt to perpetrate any arson, rape, robbery
+or burglary shall be deemed murder of the first degree; and all
+other kinds of murder shall be deemed murder of the second
+degree.&rdquo; This legislation has been copied or adopted in many
+if not most of the other states. There are also statutory degrees
+of manslaughter in the legislation of some of the states. The
+differences of legislation, coupled with the power of the jury
+in some states to determine the sentence, and the limitations on
+the right of the judges to comment on the testimony adduced,
+lead to very great differences between the administration of the
+law as to homicide in the two countries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Stephen, <i>Hist. Cr. Law, Digest Criminal Law</i>;
+<i>Russell on Crimes</i> (7th ed., 1909); Archbold, <i>Criminal Pleading</i> (23rd
+ed., 1905); Bishop, <i>American Criminal Law</i> (8th ed.); Pollock
+and Maitland, <i>Hist. English Law</i>; Pike, <i>History of Crime</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Select Pleas of Crown, 1 (Selden Society Publ.); Pollock and
+Maitland, <i>Hist. Eng. Law</i>, ii. 458, 476, 478.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Appeals remained in the law till 1819, but were long before this
+disused. In the middle ages they were used as a means of getting
+compensation.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMILETICS<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="homilêtikos">&#8001;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="homilein">&#8001;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to assemble
+together), in theology the application of the general principles of
+rhetoric to the specific department of public preaching. It
+may be further defined as the science that treats of the analysis,
+classification, preparation, composition and delivery of sermons.
+The formation during recent years of such lectureships as the
+&ldquo;Lyman Beecher&rdquo; course at Yale University has resulted
+in increased attention being given to homiletics, and the published
+volumes of this series are the best contribution to the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The older literature is cited exhaustively in W. G. Blaikie, <i>For
+the Work of the Ministry</i> (1873); and D. P. Kidder, <i>Treatise on
+Homiletics</i> (1864).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMILY,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a simple religious address, less elaborate than
+a sermon, and confining itself to the practical exposition of
+some ethical topic or some passage of Scripture. The word
+<span class="grk" title="homilia">&#8001;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span> from <span class="grk" title="homilein">&#8001;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span> (<span class="grk" title="homou, eilô">&#8001;&#956;&#959;&#8166;, &#949;&#7988;&#955;&#969;</span>), meaning communion, intercourse,
+and especially interchange of thought and feeling by
+means of words (conversation), was early employed in classical
+Greek to denote the instruction which a philosopher gave to
+his pupils in familiar talk (Xenophon, <i>Memorabilia</i>, I. ii. 6. 15).
+This usage of the word was long preserved (Aelian, <i>Varia Historia</i>,
+iii. 19); and the <span class="grk" title="homilêsas">&#8001;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#942;&#963;&#945;&#962;</span> of Acts xx. 11 may safely be taken
+to assign not only a free and informal but also a didactic character
+to the apostle Paul&rsquo;s discourse in the upper chamber of Troas,
+when &ldquo;he talked a long while, even till break of day.&rdquo; That
+the &ldquo;talk&rdquo; on that occasion partook of the nature of the &ldquo;exposition&rdquo;
+(<span title="drasha">&#1491;&#1512;&#1513;&#1492;</span>) of Scripture, which, undertaken by a priest,
+elder or other competent person, had become a regular part
+of the service of the Jewish synagogue,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> may also with much
+probability be assumed. The custom of delivering expositions
+or comments more or less extemporaneous on the lessons of the
+day at all events passed over soon and readily into the Christian
+Church, as may be gathered from the first <i>Apology</i> (c. 67) of
+Justin Martyr, where we read that, in connexion with the practice
+of reading portions from the collected writings of the prophets
+and from the memoirs of the apostles, it had by that time become
+usual for the presiding minister to deliver a discourse in which
+&ldquo;he admonishes the people, stirring them up to an imitation
+of the good works which have been brought before their notice.&rdquo;
+This discourse, from its explanatory character, and from the
+easy conversational manner of its delivery, was for a long time
+called <span class="grk" title="homilia">&#8001;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span> rather than <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>: it was regarded as part of
+the regular duty of the bishop, but he could devolve it, if he
+thought fit, on a presbyter or deacon, or even on a layman.
+An early and well-known instance of such delegation is that
+mentioned by Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vi. 19) in the case of Origen
+(216 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In course of time the exposition of the lesson
+for the day came more frequently to assume a more elaborate
+character, and to pass into the category of a <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span> or even
+<span class="grk" title="philosophia">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#963;&#959;&#966;&#943;&#945;</span> or <span class="grk" title="philosophêma">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#963;&#972;&#966;&#951;&#956;&#945;</span>; but when it did so the fact was as
+far as possible denoted by a change of name, the word <span class="grk" title="homilia">&#8001;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span>
+being reserved for the expository or exegetical lecture as distinguished
+from the pulpit oration or sermon.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> While the church
+of the 3rd and 4th centuries could point to a brilliant succession
+of great preachers, whose discourses were wont to be taken
+down in shorthand and circulated among the Christian public
+as edifying reading, it does not appear that the supply of ordinary
+homiletical talent kept pace with the rapidity of church extension
+throughout the Roman empire. In the smaller and remoter
+communities it not uncommonly happened that the minister
+was totally unqualified to undertake the work of preaching;
+and though, as is curiously shown by the case of Rome (Sozomen,
+<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vii. 19), the regular exposition of the appointed
+lessons was by no means regarded as part of the necessary
+business of a church, it was generally felt to be advisable that
+some provision should be made for the public instruction of
+congregations. Even in Jerome&rsquo;s time (<i>De Vir. Ill.</i> c. 115),
+accordingly, it had become usual to read, in the regular meetings
+of the churches which were not so fortunate as to possess a competent
+preacher, the written discourses of celebrated fathers;
+and at a considerably later period we have on record the canon
+of at least one provincial council (that of Vaux, probably the
+third, held in 529 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), positively enjoining that if the presbyter
+through any infirmity is unable himself to preach, &ldquo;homilies
+of the holy fathers&rdquo; (homiliae sanctorum patrum) are to be
+read by the deacons. Thus the finally fixed meaning of the
+word homily as an ecclesiastical term came to be a written discourse
+(generally possessing the sanction of some great name)
+read in church by or for the officiating clergyman when from
+any cause he was unable to deliver a sermon of his own. As
+the standard of clerical education sank during the dark ages,
+the habit of using the sermons of others became almost universal.
+Among the authors whose works were found specially serviceable
+in this way may be mentioned the Venerable Bede, who is credited
+with no fewer than 140 homilies in the Basel and Cologne editions
+of his works, and who certainly was the author of many <i>Homiliae
+de Tempore</i> which were much in vogue during the 8th and
+following centuries. Prior to Charlemagne it is probable that
+several other collections of homilies had obtained considerable
+popularity, but in the time of that emperor these had suffered
+so many mutilations and corruptions that an authoritative
+revision was felt to be imperatively necessary. The result was
+the well-known <i>Homiliarium</i>, prepared by Paul Warnefrid,
+otherwise known as Paulus Diaconus (<i>q.v.</i>).<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It consists of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span>
+176 homilies arranged in order for all the Sundays and festivals
+of the ecclesiastical year; and probably was completed before
+the year 780. Though written in Latin, its discourses were
+doubtless intended to be delivered in the vulgar tongue; the
+clergy, however, were often too indolent or too ignorant for this,
+although by more than one provincial council they were enjoined
+to exert themselves so that they might be able to do so.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Hence
+an important form of literary activity came to be the translation
+of the homilies approved by the church into the vernacular.
+Thus we find Alfred the Great translating the homilies of Bede;
+and in a similar manner arose Ælfric&rsquo;s Anglo-Saxon <i>Homilies</i>
+and the German <i>Homiliarium</i> of Ottfried of Weissenburg.
+Such <i>Homiliaria</i> as were in use in England down to the end of
+the 15th century were at the time of the Reformation eagerly
+sought for and destroyed, so that they are now extremely rare,
+and the few copies which have been preserved are generally
+in a mutilated or imperfect form.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Books of Homilies</i> referred to in the 35th article of the
+Church of England originated at a convocation in 1542, at
+which it was agreed &ldquo;to make certain homilies for stay of such
+errors as were then by ignorant preachers sparkled among
+the people.&rdquo; Certain homilies, accordingly, composed by dignitaries
+of the lower house, were in the following year produced
+by the prolocutor; and after some delay a volume was published
+in 1547 entitled <i>Certain sermons or homilies appointed by the
+King&rsquo;s Majesty to be declared and read by all parsons, vicars,
+or curates every Sunday in their churches where they have cure</i>.
+In 1563 a second <i>Book of Homilies</i> was submitted along with
+the 39 Articles to convocation; it was issued the same year
+under the title <i>The second Tome of Homilies of such matters
+as were promised and instituted in the former part of Homilies,
+set out by the authority of the Queen&rsquo;s Majesty, and to be read in
+every Parish Church agreeably</i>. Of the twelve homilies contained
+in the first book, four (the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) are probably
+to be attributed to Cranmer, and one (the 12th) possibly to
+Latimer; one (the 6th) is by Bonner; another (the 5th) is
+by John Harpsfield, archdeacon of London, and another (the
+11th) by Thomas Becon, one of Cranmer&rsquo;s chaplains. The
+authorship of the others is unknown. The second book consists
+of twenty-one homilies, of which the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 7th, 8th, 9th,
+16th and 17th have been assigned to Jewel, the 4th to Grindal,
+the 5th and 6th to Pilkington and the 18th to Parker. See the
+critical edition by Griffiths, Oxford, 1869. The homilies are not
+now read publicly, though they are sometimes appealed to in
+controversies affecting the doctrines of the Anglican Church.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Philo, <i>Quod omnis probus liber</i>, sec. 12 (ed. Mangey ii. 458;
+cf. ii. 630).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sozomen (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vii. 19) mentions that in Alexandria in his
+day the bishop alone was in the custom of preaching; but this, he
+implies, was a very exceptional state of matters, dating only from the
+time of Arius.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> To the more strictly exegetical lectures the names <span class="grk" title="exêgêseis,
+exêgêmata, exêgêtika, ektheseis">&#7952;&#958;&#951;&#947;&#942;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;, &#7952;&#958;&#951;&#947;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;, &#7952;&#958;&#951;&#947;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#940;, &#7952;&#954;&#952;&#941;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>, were sometimes applied. But as no
+popular discourse delivered from the pulpit could ever be exclusively
+expository and as on the other hand every sermon professing to be
+based on Scripture required to be more or less &ldquo;exegetical&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;textual,&rdquo; it would obviously be sometimes very hard to draw the
+line of distinction between <span class="grk" title="homilia">&#8001;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span> and <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>. It would be difficult to
+define very precisely the difference in French between a &ldquo;conférence&rdquo;
+and a &ldquo;sermon&rdquo;; and the same difficulty seems to have been experienced
+in Greek by Photius, who says of the eloquent pulpit orations
+of Chrysostom, that they were <span class="grk" title="homiliai">&#8001;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span> rather than <span class="grk" title="logoi">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#953;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Manuscript copies are preserved at Heidelberg, Darmstadt,
+Frankfort, Giessen, Cassel and other places. It was first printed at
+Spires in 1482. In the Cologne edition of 1530 the title runs&mdash;<i>Homiliae
+seu mavis sermones sive conciones ad populum, praestantissimorum
+ecclesiae doctorum Hieronymi, Augustini, Ambrosii, Gregorii,
+Origenis, Chrysostomi, Bedae, &amp;c., in hunc ordinem digestae per
+Alchuinum levitam, idque injungente ei Carolo M. Rom. Imp. cui a
+secretis fuit</i>. Though thus attributed here to Alcuin, who is known
+to have revised the Lectionary or <i>Comes Hieronymi</i>, the compilation
+of the <i>Homiliarium</i> is in the emperor&rsquo;s own commission entrusted to
+Paul, to whom it is assigned in the earlier printed editions also. A
+comparison of different editions shows that the contents increased
+with the ever-growing number of saints&rsquo; days and festivals, new
+discourses by later preachers like Bernard being constantly added.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Neander, <i>Church History</i>, v. 174 (Eng. trans. of 1851).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> An ancient English metrical homiliarium is preserved in the
+library of the university of Cambridge. Earlier versions of it have
+existed, and a portion of perhaps the earliest copy, dating from about
+the middle of the 13th century, was published in 1862 by Mr J. Small,
+librarian to the university of Edinburgh.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMOEOPATHY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (from the Greek <span class="grk" title="homoios">&#8005;&#956;&#959;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, like, and <span class="grk" title="pathos">&#960;&#940;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+feeling). The distinctive system of therapeutics which bears
+the name of homoeopathy is based upon the law <i>similia similibus
+curentur</i>,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the originator of which was S. C. F. Hahnemann, a
+native of Meissen in Germany, who discovered his new principle
+while he was experimenting with cinchona bark in 1790, and
+announced it in 1796.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The essential tenets of homoeopathy&mdash;with
+which is contrasted the &ldquo;allopathy&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="allos">&#7940;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, other) of
+the &ldquo;orthodox&rdquo; therapeutics&mdash;are that the cure of disease
+is effected by drugs that are capable of producing in a healthy
+individual symptoms similar to those of the disease to be treated,
+and that to ascertain the curative virtues of any drug it must
+be &ldquo;proved&rdquo; upon healthy persons&mdash;that is, taken by individuals
+of both sexes in a state of health in gradually increasing doses.
+The manifestations of drug action thus produced are carefully
+recorded, and this record of &ldquo;drug-diseases,&rdquo; after being verified
+by repetition on many &ldquo;provers,&rdquo; constitutes the distinguishing
+feature of the homoeopathic materia medica, which, while it
+embraces the sources, preparation and uses of drugs as known
+to the orthodox pharmacopoeia, contains, in addition, the
+various &ldquo;provings&rdquo; obtained in the manner above described.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the promulgation of the doctrine of similars, Hahnemann
+also enunciated a theory to account for the origin of all
+chronic diseases, which he asserted were derived either directly
+or remotely from psora (the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or
+sycosis (fig-wart disease). This doctrine, although at first
+adopted by some of the enthusiastic followers of Hahnemann,
+was almost immediately discarded by very many who had a
+firm belief in his law of cure. In the light of advancing science
+such theories are entirely untenable, and it was unfortunate for
+the system of medicine which he founded that Hahnemann
+should have promulgated such an hypothesis. It served as a
+target for the shafts of ridicule showered upon the system by
+those who were its opponents, and even at the present time
+there still exists in the minds of many misinformed persons
+the conviction that homoeopathy is a system of medicine that
+bases the origin of all chronic disease on the itch or on syphilis
+or fig-warts.</p>
+
+<p>Another peculiar feature of homoeopathy is its posology or
+theory of dose. It may be asserted that homoeopathic posology
+has nothing more to do with the original law of cure than the
+psora (itch) theory has, and that it was one of the later creations
+of Hahnemann&rsquo;s mind. Most homoeopathists believe more or
+less in the action of minute doses of medicine, but it must not
+be considered as an integral part of the system. The dose is
+the corollary, not the principle. Yet in the minds of many,
+infinitesimal doses of medicine stand for homoeopathy itself,
+the real law of cure being completely put into the background.
+The question of dose has also divided the members of the homoeopathic
+school into bitter factions, and is therefore a matter for
+careful consideration. Many employ low potencies,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> mother
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span>
+tinctures, first, second, sixth dilutions, &amp;c., while others use
+hundred-thousandths and millionths.</p>
+
+<p>Some homoeopathists of the present day still believe with
+Hahnemann that, even after the material medicinal particles
+of a drug have been subdivided to the fullest extent, the continuation
+of the dynamization or trituration or succussion develops a
+spiritual acurative agency, and that the higher the potency, the
+more subtle and more powerful is the curative action. Hahnemann
+says (<i>Organon</i>, 3rd American edition, p. 101), &ldquo;It is only
+by means of the spiritual influence of a morbific agent that our
+spiritual vital power can be diseased, and in like manner only
+by the spiritual operation of medicine can health be restored.&rdquo;
+This is absolutely denied by others. Thus there exist two schools
+among the adherents of homoeopathy. On the one hand there
+are the Hahnemannians, the &ldquo;Purists&rdquo; or &ldquo;High Potency&rdquo;
+men, who still profess to regard the <i>Organon</i> as their Bible,
+who believe in all the teachings of Hahnemann, who adhere
+in their prescriptions to the single dose, the single medicine, and
+the highest possible potency, and regard the doctrine of the
+spiritual dynamization acquired by trituration and succussion
+as indubitable. On the other side there are the &ldquo;Rational&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;Low Potency&rdquo; men, who believe in the universality of
+the law of cure, but think that it cannot always be applied, on
+account of an imperfect materia medica and a lack of knowledge
+on the part of the physician. They believe that in many
+cases of severe and acute pain palliatives are required, and that
+they are free to use all the adjuvants at present known to science
+for the relief of suffering humanity&mdash;massage, balneology,
+electricity, hygiene, &amp;c. The American Institute of Homoeopathy,
+the national body of the United States, has adopted the
+following resolution and ordered it to be published conspicuously
+in each number of the <i>Transactions</i> of the society: &ldquo;A homoeopathic
+physician is one who adds to his knowledge of medicine
+a special knowledge of homoeopathic therapeutics. All that
+pertains to the great field of medical learning is his by tradition,
+by inheritance, by right.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is claimed that the effect produced upon both the laity and
+the general profession of medicine by the introduction of homoeopathy
+was salutary in many ways. It diminished the quantity
+of medicine that was formerly considered necessary for the
+eradication of disease, and thus revealed the fact that the
+<i>vis medicatrix naturae</i> is often sufficient, with occasional and
+gentle assistance, to cure many diseases, especially those fevers
+that run a definite and regular course. Corroboration of the
+law <i>similia similibus curentur</i> is seen, according to homoeopathists,
+in the adoption of the serum therapy, which consists in the
+treatment of the most malignant diseases (diphtheria, lock-jaw,
+typhoid fever, tuberculosis, bubonic plague) by introducing
+into the system a modified form (similar) of those poisons that
+produce them in the healthy individual. Hahnemann undoubtedly
+deserves the credit of being the first to break decidedly
+with the old school of medical practice, in which, forgetful of
+the teachings of Hippocrates, nature was either overlooked or
+rudely opposed by wrong and ungentle methods. We can
+scarcely now estimate the force of character and of courage
+which was implied in his abandoning the common lines of
+medicine. More than this, he and his followers showed results
+in the treatment of disease which compared very favourably
+with the results of contemporary orthodox practice.</p>
+
+<p>Homoeopathy has given prominence to the therapeutical
+side of medicine, and has done much to stimulate the study
+of the physiological action of drugs. It has done service in
+directing more special attention to various powerful drugs,
+such as aconite, nux vomica, belladonna, and to the advantage
+of giving them in simpler forms than were common before the
+days of Hahnemann. But in the medical profession homoeopathy
+nevertheless remains under the stigma of being a dissenting
+sect. It has been publicly announced that if the homoeopathists
+would abolish the name &ldquo;homoeopathy,&rdquo; and remove it from
+their periodicals, colleges, hospitals, dispensaries and asylums,
+they would be received within the fold of the regular profession.
+These conditions have been accepted by a few homoeopathists
+who have become members of the most prominent medical
+association in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Homoeopathy as it exists to-day can, in the opinion of its
+adherents, stand by itself, and its progress for a century in face
+of prolonged and determined opposition appears to its upholders
+to be evidence of its truth. There are still, indeed, in both
+schools of medical thought, men who stand fast by their old
+principles. There are homoeopathists who can see nothing
+but evil in the practice of their brothers of the orthodox school,
+as there are allopathists who still regard homoeopathy as a
+humbug and a sham. There are, however, liberal-minded men
+in both schools, who look upon the adoption of any safe and
+efficient method of curing disease as the birthright of the true
+physician, and who allow every man to prescribe for his patients
+as his conscience may dictate, and, provided he be educated
+in all the collateral branches of medical science, are ready to
+exchange views for the good of suffering humanity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Great Britain.</i>&mdash;Homoeopathy is not rapidly extending in Great
+Britain, and its recognition has been slow. The first notice taken
+of the new system of therapeutics was by the Medical Society of
+London in 1826. In 1827 the physician of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg,
+Dr F. H. F. Quin (1799-1878), who had previously studied
+homoeopathy in Germany and practised it in Italy, came to England,
+and it was through his efforts that the system was introduced.
+Three other physicians, Dr Belluomini, Dr Romani and Dr Tagliani,
+claimed priority, but careful research established Dr Quin&rsquo;s title.
+Quin was a successful man professionally and socially, and brought
+upon himself in a short time the anathema of the Royal College of
+Physicians. In 1844 Dr William Henderson, professor of pathology
+in the university of Edinburgh, embraced the Hahnemannian system.
+A storm of opposition arose, and Professor J. Y. Simpson (the discoverer
+of chloroform anaesthesia) published a volume, with the
+alliterative title, <i>Homoeopathy, its Tenets and Tendencies, Theoretical,
+Theological, and Therapeutical</i>. This brochure was answered by
+Professor Henderson, the title of his book being <i>Homoeopathy Fairly
+Represented</i>. From 1827 to 1837 there were but a dozen practitioners
+of homoeopathy in London, but during 1837 to 1847 the number
+increased to between seventy and eighty. In 1857 there were
+upwards of two hundred practitioners in the kingdom, with thirty-three
+institutions in which the law of similars was used as a basis of
+practice. In 1867 the increase was not so rapid, the number being
+261. A society was formed about this period for &ldquo;the protection of
+homoeopathic practitioners and students,&rdquo; which proved of great
+value in binding the sect together. In 1870 congresses were established,
+and annual meetings held, which have continued to the present
+time. In 1901 there were over three hundred homoeopathic physicians
+in the British Isles, of whom between seventy and eighty were in
+London alone. There were seventy-nine chemists, of whom seventeen
+were located in London, and eighty-two towns and cities in the
+country contained from one to ten homoeopathic practitioners each,
+together with many established chemists for dispensing homoeopathic
+medicines. The British Homoeopathic Society was founded by
+Quin in 1844, and has numerous members and fellows, besides
+corresponding members in all portions of the world, including
+Australia, India and Tasmania. The London Homoeopathic Hospital
+was founded in 1850, also largely through the efforts of Quin, and a
+few years afterwards moved to Great Ormond Street. During the
+cholera epidemic of 1854 the statistics of this hospital showed a
+mortality of 16.4%, against 51.8% of other metropolitan charities.
+The London Homoeopathic Hospital has a convalescent home under
+its management at Eastbourne. There are also dispensaries in Ealing
+and West Middlesex, Kensington, Notting Hill and Bayswater.
+Similar institutions are located in Bath, Birkenhead, Birmingham,
+Bootle, Bournemouth, Brighton, Bristol, Bromley, Cheltenham,
+Cheshire, Croydon, Dublin, Eastbourne, Edinburgh, Folkestone,
+Hastings and St Leonards, Ipswich, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool,
+Newcastle, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Plymouth, Torquay,
+Tunbridge Wells, Weston-super-Mare. The homoeopathic journals
+include the <i>Homoeopathic World</i>, the <i>London Homoeopathic Hospital</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span>
+<i>Reports</i>, the <i>Journal of the British Homoeopathic Society</i>, and the
+<i>British Homoeopathic Review</i>, the last being issued by the British
+Homoeopathic Association, which was founded in 1902 for the purpose
+of developing and extending homoeopathy in Great Britain. The
+<i>British Journal of Homoeopathy</i> was first published in 1843, and was
+edited by Drs Drysdale, Russell and Black. For many years it was
+the foremost homoeopathic journal in the world. Its motto was <i>In
+certis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus charitas</i>. One reason why
+homoeopathy has not advanced as rapidly in the British Isles as in
+America is said to be the discrimination exercised against it by the
+General Medical Council, and another is want of cohesion amongst
+the homoeopaths themselves.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;Homoeopathy was introduced into the United
+States by Dr Hans Birch Gram, who was born in Boston. His
+father being Danish, Gram in his eighteenth year went to Copenhagen,
+where he graduated in 1814. In 1823 he became acquainted
+with homoeopathy, and brought a knowledge of it to America in
+1825 when he settled in New York. The first homoeopathic association
+was formed in 1833 in Philadelphia, the second in New York,
+1834, and homoeopathy became known in the different states somewhat
+in the following order: New York, 1825; Pennsylvania,
+1828; Louisiana, 1836; Connecticut, 1837; Massachusetts, 1837-1838;
+Maryland, 1837; Delaware, 1837; Kentucky, 1837; Vermont,
+1838; Rhode Island, 1839; Ohio, 1839; New Jersey, 1840;
+Maine, 1840; New Hampshire, 1840; Michigan, 1841; Georgia,
+1842; Wisconsin, 1842; Alabama, 1843; Illinois, 1843; Tennessee,
+1844; Missouri, 1844; Texas, 1848; Minnesota, 1852; Nebraska,
+1862; Colorado, 1863; Iowa, 1871. After 1871 the spread of the
+system was rapid throughout every state in the Union, and it is in
+the United States that homoeopathy principally flourishes. There
+are thousands of homoeopathic physicians, and their clients number
+several millions. It may be noted that departments of homoeopathy
+are connected with the universities of Boston, Michigan, Iowa,
+Minnesota and Kansas City.</p>
+
+<p><i>Canada.</i>&mdash;The early history of homoeopathy can be traced back
+nearly to 1850 in the province of Quebec. In the Dominion of
+Canada the various provinces control the licensing of physicians,
+excepting in Quebec, which is the only province having a separate
+homoeopathic board of examiners. This is under the control of the
+Montreal homoeopathic Association, and is known as the College
+of Homoeopathic Physicians and Surgeons of Montreal. Three
+examiners are annually appointed by the association. Successful
+candidates receive the diploma of the college, and are entitled to
+add to their degree the letters M.C.H.P.S. A certificate of successful
+examination is forwarded to the lieutenant-governor at Quebec, who,
+&ldquo;if satisfied of the loyalty, integrity and good morals of the applicant,
+may grant him a license to practise surgery, physic and midwifery, or
+either of them, in the province of Quebec.&rdquo; The word &ldquo;loyalty&rdquo; has
+been decided by the provincial secretary to mean a British subject.
+This is the only government medical license now issued in the British
+empire, the others being by provincial boards or colleges of physicians
+and surgeons. In 1894 there was no homoeopathic institution in
+the province; at present the Montreal Homoeopathic Hospital is in
+active operation. Two homoeopathic papers are published monthly&mdash;the
+<i>Homoeopathic Record</i> in Montreal, and the <i>Homoeopathic Messenger</i>
+in Toronto. In 1870, in the province of Ontario, the three schools,
+allopathic, homoeopathic and eclectic, united for examining purposes
+into one board called the medical council, seventeen members representing
+the old school and five the other two systems. Finally the
+eclectics were merged in the old school, the board appointing five of
+Hahnemann&rsquo;s followers for examining purposes. Grace Hospital at
+Toronto (erected 1892) was begun as a dispensary in 1887.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germany.</i>&mdash;In 1810 Hahnemann published his <i>Organon</i>, which
+was the starting-point of homoeopathy in Germany. In 1811 an
+endeavour was made to found an institution in Leipzig in which
+practitioners might learn the new method of treatment theoretically
+and practically, but it was not a success, as the entire tide of professional
+opinion was against the system. In 1829, at the celebration
+of the fiftieth anniversary of Hahnemann&rsquo;s doctorate, the
+German Central Society was organized, holding its first meeting in
+1830. In the university hospital of Munich some experiments
+were made to test the efficacy of homoeopathic medicines, but
+these were not successful. In 1831 the government prohibited
+homoeopathists from dispensing their own medicines; this was a
+severe blow to the system. In 1834 there was a division among the
+homoeopathists themselves, which much retarded the progress of
+the school. A homoeopathic hospital was established about this
+time (January 1833) in Leipzig, but there was such constant wrangling
+among the physicians connected with it that its sphere of usefulness
+was curtailed, and it was finally converted into a dispensary.
+The Baden Homoeopathic Society was established in 1834. The
+homoeopathic hospital in Munich was established in 1836, but
+suffered a similar fate to that of Leipzig, and was converted into a
+dispensary. The rather equivocal success of these hospitals in
+Saxony and Bavaria was in direct contrast to the fate of two newly
+established hospitals in Austria, one in Vienna and the other in Linz,
+which were very successful, and aroused great interest both among
+physicians and laymen. During the political confusion of 1846 and
+1849 there was complete stagnation of everything medical in Germany.
+But during all these years, though the public institutions were few,
+the literature on homoeopathic subjects became very extensive, and
+exercised a significant influence upon the system in all parts of the
+world. Hahnemann died in 1843, and on the 10th of August 1851 a
+bronze monument to him was unveiled at Leipzig. The Leipzig
+dispensary lived thirty-three years. From 1842 to 1874 there were
+treated in this institution 65,106 patients. In 1901 there were about
+250 homoeopathic physicians in Germany; they appeared to be
+strongest at Berlin, in the province of Brandenburg, in Pomerania
+and Westphalia, Saxony, Hessen and in Württemberg.</p>
+
+<p><i>Austria-Hungary.</i>&mdash;Homoeopathy was introduced into Austria
+about 1817, and in 1819 its practice was forbidden by law. Shortly
+afterwards the physician attending the archduke John became a
+homoeopath. In 1825 the doctrine was introduced into Vienna.
+To test the efficacy of the system Francis I. ordered that experiments
+be made with homoeopathic medicines, and for this purpose a ward
+furnished with twelve beds was allotted. The results were satisfactory
+to the new system, and it made gigantic strides in Vienna.
+During the cholera epidemic of 1836 an increased impetus was given
+to the new school by the reported brilliant successes of the treatment.
+Societies were founded and journals published. In 1846 a second
+hospital was founded. In 1850 a third hospital was opened, and
+clinical lectures upon the system were delivered. In 1873 the Society
+of Homoeopathic Physicians was formed. Between the years 1873
+and 1893 homoeopathy declined. In 1901, in thirty-seven cities
+and towns there were to be found about fifty physicians and two
+hospitals, and it was estimated that about seventy-five more were
+scattered in Moravia, Bohemia, Tirol, Salzburg and the coast
+provinces. There is a professorship of homoeopathy at the University
+of Budapest, and homoeopathic clinics are held at the new Rochus
+Hospital in Üllöi Street, and also in the homoeopathic department
+of the Hospital Bethesda of the Reformed Community. The
+Elizabeth Hospital, exclusively homoeopathic, has existed for many
+years.</p>
+
+<p><i>Russia.</i>&mdash;The homoeopathic system was introduced into Russia in
+1823. In 1825 great impetus was given to the new doctrine by the
+conversion of Dr Bigel, physician to the grand duke Constantine.
+In 1829 the grand duke ordered a series of experiments to be conducted
+to prove the truth or fallacy of homoeopathy, and they
+demonstrated the success of the new school. In 1841 a hospital was
+established in Moscow, and in 1849 similar institutions were founded
+in Nizhniy-Novgorod. Since then homoeopathy has been steadily
+practised, and has penetrated to the remotest parts of Russia. In
+1881 the civil engineers proposed to commemorate the virtues of the
+emperor Alexander II. by the erection of a hospital; a committee for
+collecting funds was created, and 58,064 roubles were handed to the
+Charity Society of the followers of homoeopathy at St Petersburg for
+the erection and founding of a homoeopathic hospital. The foundation
+stone of the edifice was laid on 19th June 1893, the emperor
+Alexander III. giving 5000 roubles. The inauguration of a new
+dispensary and a pharmacy took place on the 19th of April 1898, and
+the hospital itself, intended originally for fifty beds, was opened on
+the 1st of November 1898. There are sixteen free beds, three of them
+being in the name of the emperor Nicholas, the empress Maria
+Feodorovna, and the emperor Alexander III. On the 28th of
+January 1899 an imperial edict was issued granting the rights of
+public service to the doctors of the hospital and dispensaries of the
+Charity Society, thus placing them on an equality with the doctors
+of the prevailing medical school.</p>
+
+<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;Homoeopathy was first introduced into France in 1830
+by Count de Guidi, doctor of medicine, doctor of science, and
+inspector of the university, who practised in Lyons. About the
+same year Dr Antoine Petroz, widely known by his <i>Grand dictionnaire
+des sciences médicales</i>, began practising homoeopathy in Paris,
+and his establishment became the headquarters of the new system
+there. In 1835 Hahnemann himself came to the capital. In 1832
+the homoeopathic method of treating disease was introduced into
+the Hospice de Choisy, and in 1842 into the hospital of Carentan.
+Tessier practised the new doctrine in his wards in the Hospital St
+Marguérite, and in the Children&rsquo;s Hospital up to the year 1862, when
+he retired. The first homoeopathic society was established in 1832
+(the Société Gallicain), Hahnemann becoming president in 1835;
+in 1845 the Société de Médecine Homéopathique was organized;
+and in 1860 the two were united for the better interests of the school.
+In 1901 there were at Paris three hospitals&mdash;the Hospital St Jacques
+with fifty-five beds, the Hahnemann Hospital with thirty-five beds,
+and the new Protestant Hospital for Children with twenty-five-beds.
+At Lyons there is the Hospital St Luc. The medical journals include
+<i>L&rsquo;Art médical, La Revue homéopathique belge, Journal belge d&rsquo;homéopathie,
+La Thérapeutique Intégrale, La Revue homéopathique française</i>.
+In the year 1900 the medical officers of the republic having supervision
+over the medical department of the International Exhibition
+officially recognized the members of the homoeopathic school, and
+arranged for the proper accommodation and reception of the International
+Congress of Homoeopathic Physicians held in June. On
+the 30th of that month, with appropriate ceremonies, the remains of
+Hahnemann were removed from the cemetery of Montmartre and
+deposited in Père-la-Chaise, and a monument bearing a suitable
+inscription was erected to the memory of the founder of homoeopathy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Italy.</i>&mdash;The Austrians when they entered Naples in 1821 brought
+homoeopathy into Italy, the general in command of the army being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span>
+a devoted friend of Hahnemann. In 1828 Dr Count Sebastian de
+Guidi came from Lyons and assisted in spreading the doctrine.
+During the period from 1830 to 1860 many physicians practised
+homoeopathy, and the literature on the subject became extensive.
+A homoeopathic clinic was established and a ward opened in Trinity
+Hospital at Naples, and a homoeopathic physician was appointed
+to the count of Syracuse. During the severe cholera epidemics of
+1854, 1855, 1865 the success of homoeopathic treatment of that
+disease was so marked under the care of Dr Rubini that the attention
+of the authorities was directed to the system. In 1860 the homoeopathic
+practice was introduced into the Spedale della Cesarea, and
+since that period homoeopathy has been recognized with more or less
+favour in most of the cities. The Italian Homoeopathic Institute
+is recognized by royal warrant as an established institution, and its
+regulations are approved by the government. In Turin the legal
+seat of the Homoeopathic Institute, there is a hospital under the
+management of the State Association. The homoeopathic medical
+press consists of the <i>Revista Omiopatica</i>, established in 1855, and
+<i>L&rsquo;Omiopatico in Italia</i>, the organ of the Italian Homoeopathic
+Institute, which first appeared in 1884.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spain.</i>&mdash;Homoeopathy was introduced into Spain in 1829 by a
+physician to the Royal Commission sent by the king of Naples to
+attend the marriage of Maria Christina with Don Ferdinand VII.
+Shortly after this, a merchant of Cadiz visited Hahnemann in
+Coethen, and was cured of a serious disorder; he returned to Spain
+with a supply of homoeopathic literature, and immediately sent a
+medical student to Leipzig to study the new system. In 1843
+many cases of cholera were treated homoeopathically in Madrid.
+The civil war, which did not terminate until 1840, arrested all
+medical investigation in Spain, but in 1843 there still existed in
+Madrid five pharmacies and a number of homoeopathic physicians.
+About this time Dr Tosi Nuñez returned from an investigation of
+the new system with Hahnemann, and owing to his success in the
+treatment of disease was created one of the physicians of the bedchamber
+to the queen, who soon afterwards conferred upon him the
+title of marquis, with the grand crosses of the Charles III. and of the
+Civil Order of Beneficiencia. This recognition by high authority
+gave an impetus to homoeopathy which has continued ever since.</p>
+
+<p><i>Denmark.</i>&mdash;Homoeopathy was unknown in Denmark until the
+year 1821, when Hans Christian Lund, a medical practitioner,
+adopted it. Hahnemann, however, had been both before and after
+that time consulted by Danes, and consequently homoeopathic
+therapeutics was recognized in different parts of the country.
+Lund translated many of Hahnemann&rsquo;s works into Danish, as well
+as those of other eminent members of the new school.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. T. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An interesting controversy has been carried on between the
+members of the homoeopathic school as to the proper construction of
+the Latin motto which constitutes its acknowledged basis. For
+many years the verb at the conclusion of the sentence was used in the
+indicative mood, <i>curantur</i>, thus making the sentence a positive one.
+After extended research it has been discovered that Hahnemann
+himself never employed the word <i>curantur</i> as descriptive of his law
+of cure, but always wrote <i>curentur</i>, which greatly modifies the meaning
+of the phrase. If the subjunctive mood be used, the motto reads,
+&ldquo;Let similars be treated by similars,&rdquo; or &ldquo;similars should be treated
+by similars.&rdquo; The reading <i>similia similibus curentur</i> was officially
+adopted as the correct reading of the sentence by the American
+Institute of Homoeopathy at its session held in Atlantic City, N.J.,
+on the 20th of June 1899; and the words are so inscribed on the
+monument erected to the memory of Hahnemann and unveiled in
+Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of June 1900, and also are those
+carved upon the tomb of Hahnemann in Père-la-Chaise, Paris.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Some points of Hahnemann&rsquo;s system were borrowed from
+previous writers&mdash;as he himself, though imperfectly, admits. Not
+to mention others, he was anticipated by Hippocrates, and especially
+by Paracelsus (1495-1541). The identical words <i>similia similibus
+curantur</i> occur in the Geneva edition (1658) of the works of Paracelsus,
+as a marginal heading of one of the paragraphs; and in the &ldquo;Fragmenta
+Medica,&rdquo; <i>Op. Omnia</i>, i. 168, 169, occurs the following
+passage:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Simile similis cura; non contrarium.</i></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Quisquis enim cum laude agere Medicum volet, is has nugas
+longe valere jubeat. Nec enim ullus unquam morbus calidus per
+frigida sanatus fuit, nec frigidus per calida. Simile autem suum
+simile frequenter curavit, scilicet Mercurius sulphur, et sulphur
+Mercurium; et sal ilia, velut et illa sal. Interdum quidem cum
+proprietate junctum frigidum sanavit calidum; sed id non factum
+est ratione frigidi, verum ratione naturae alterius, quam a primo illo
+omnino diversam facimus.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is very remarkable that in Hahnemann&rsquo;s enumeration of authors
+who anticipated him in regard to the doctrine of <i>Similia</i>, he makes
+no mention of the views of Paracelsus, though the very words seem
+to be taken from the works of that physician. The other point in
+Hahnemann&rsquo;s doctrine&mdash;that medicines should be tried first on
+healthy persons&mdash;he admits to have been enunciated by Haller.
+Roughly it has been acted on by physicians in all ages, but certainly
+more systematically since Hahnemann&rsquo;s time. In the most characteristic
+feature of Hahnemann&rsquo;s practice&mdash;&ldquo;the potentizing,&rdquo; &ldquo;dynamizing,&rdquo;
+of medicinal substances&mdash;he appears to have been original.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Two methods of preparing medicines are recognized, one on the
+decimal, the other on the centesimal scale. The pure tinctures are denominated
+&ldquo;mother tinctures,&rdquo; and represented by the Greek &phi;. To
+make a first decimal dilution or first decimal trituration, 10 drops of
+the mother tincture, or 10 grains of a crude substance, are mixed with
+90 drops of alcohol, or 90 grains of <i>saccharum lactis</i> (sugar of milk)
+respectively. The liquid is thoroughly shaken, or the powder carefully
+triturated, and the bottles containing them marked 1 X, meaning
+first decimal dilution or trituration. To make the 2 X potency,
+10 drops or 10 grains of this first dilution or trituration are mixed
+with 90 drops of pure alcohol, or 90 grains of milk sugar, and are
+succussed or triturated as above described, and marked 2 X dilution
+or trituration. This subdivision of particles may be continued to an
+indefinite degree. On the Hahnemannian or centesimal scale the
+medicines are prepared in the same manner, the difference being that
+1 drop or grain is mixed with 99 drops or grains, to make the first
+centesimal, which is marked 1 c or 1 simply, and so on for the second
+and higher dilutions.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMONYM<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="homônomos">&#8001;&#956;&#974;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, having the same name, from
+<span class="grk" title="homos">&#8005;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, same, alike, and <span class="grk" title="onoma">&#8004;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#945;</span>, name), a term in philology for
+those words which differ in sense but are alike either in sound
+or spelling or both. Words alike only in spelling but not in sound,
+<i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;bow,&rdquo; are sometimes called <i>homographs</i>; and words alike
+only in sound but not in spelling, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;meat,&rdquo; &ldquo;meet,&rdquo; <i>homophones</i>.
+Skeat (<i>Etymol. Dict.</i>) gives a list of English homonyms.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOMS,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hums</span> (anc. <i>Emesa</i> or <i>Emessa</i>, near the Hittite
+<i>Kadesh</i>), a town of Syria, on the right bank of the Orontes,
+and capital of a sanjak in the vilayet of Syria (Damascus).
+Pop. 30,000 (20,000 Moslem, 10,000 Christian). The importance
+of the place arises from its command of the great north road
+from Egypt, Palestine and Damascus by the Orontes valley.
+Invading armies from the south have often been opposed near
+Homs, from the time of Rameses II., who had to fight the
+battle of Kadesh, to that of Ibrahim Pasha, who broke the first
+line of Ottoman defence in 1831 by his victory there. Ancient
+Emesa, in the district of Apamea, was a very old Syrian city,
+devoted to the worship of Baal, the sun god, of whose great
+temple the emperor Heliogabalus was originally a priest (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+218). As a centre of native influences it was overawed by the
+Seleucid foundation of Apamea; but it opposed the Roman
+advance. There Aurelian crushed, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 272, the Syrian
+national movement led by Zenobia. Caracalla made it a Roman
+colony, and later it became the Capital of a small province,
+<i>Phoenicia Libanesia</i> or <i>ad Libanum</i>. About 630 it was captured
+by the Moslem leader, Khalid ibn Walid, who is buried there.
+It now became the capital of a <i>jund</i>, or military district, which
+under the Omayyad Caliphs extended from Palmyra to the
+sea. Under the Arabs it was one of the largest cities in Syria,
+with walls and a strong citadel, which stood on a hill, occupying
+perhaps the site of the great sun temple. The ruins of this
+castle, blown up by Ibrahim Pasha, are still the most conspicuous
+feature of Homs, and contain many remains of ancient
+buildings. Its men were noted for their courage in war, and its
+women for their beauty. The climate was extolled for its
+excellence, and the land for its fertility. A succession of gardens
+bordered the Orontes, and the vineyards were remarkable for
+their abundant yield of grapes. When the place capitulated
+the great church of St John was divided between the Christians
+and Moslems, an arrangement which apparently lasted until
+the arrival of the Turks. At the end of the 11th century it
+fell into crusading hands, but was recovered by the Moslems
+under Saladin in 1187. Its decay probably dates from the
+invasion of the Mongols (1260), who fought two important
+battles with the Egyptians (1281 and 1299) in its vicinity. The
+construction of a carriage road to Tripoli led to a partial revival
+of prosperity and to an export of cereals and fruit, and this
+growth has, in turn, been accentuated by the railway, which now
+connects it with Aleppo and the Damascus-Beirut line. The
+district is well planted with mulberries and produces much silk,
+most of which is worked up on the spot.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HO-NAN,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a central province of China, bounded N. partly
+by the Hwang-ho (which it crosses to the west of Ho-nan Fu,
+forming an arm northwards between the provinces of Shan-si
+and Chih-li), on the W. by Shen-si, on the S. by Hu-peh, and
+on the E. by Ngan-hui. It occupies an area of 81,000 sq. m.,
+with a population of about 22,100,000, and contains nine
+prefectural cities. Its capital is K&rsquo;ai-fêng Fu. The prefecture
+of Hwai-k&rsquo;ing, north of the Hwang-ho, consists of a fertile plain,
+&ldquo;rendered park-like by numerous plantations of trees and
+shrubs, among which thick bosquets of bamboo contrast with
+the gloomy groves of cypress.&rdquo; All kinds of cereals grow
+luxuriantly, and the general productiveness of the district
+is indicated by the extreme denseness of the population. The
+most noticeable feature in that portion of the province which
+is properly called Ho-nan is the Fu-niu Shan range, which runs
+east and west across this part of the province. Coal is found on
+the south of the Hwang-ho in the districts of Ho-nan Fu, the
+ancient capital, Lushan and Ju Chow. The chief products
+of the province are, however, agricultural, especially in the
+valley of the Tang-ho and Pai-ho, which is an extensive and
+densely populated plain running north and south from the
+Fu-niu Shan. Cotton is also grown extensively and forms
+the principal article of export, and a considerable quantity
+of wild silk is produced from the Fu-niu Shan. Three roads
+from the east and south unite at Ho-nan Fu, and one from the
+west. The southern road leads to Ju Chow, where it forks,
+one branch going to Shi-ki-chên, connecting the trade from
+Fan-cheng, Han-kow, and the Han river generally, and the other
+to Chow-kia-k&rsquo;ow near the city of Ch&rsquo;ên-chow Fu, at the confluence
+of the three rivers which unite to form the Sha-ho; the
+second road runs parallel with the Hwang-ho to K&rsquo;ai-fêng Fu;
+the third crosses the Hwang-ho at Mêngching Hien, and passes
+thence in a north-easterly direction to Hwai-k&rsquo;ing Fu, Sew-wu
+Hien and Wei-hui Fu, at which place it joins the high road
+from Peking to Fan-cheng; and the western road follows the
+southern bank of the Hwang-ho for 250 m. to its great bend
+at the fortified pass known as the Tung-kwan, where it joins the
+great wagon road leading through Shan-si from Peking to Si-gan
+Fu. Ho-nan is now traversed north to south by the Peking-Hankow
+railway (completed 1905). The line crosses the Hwang-ho
+by Yung-tse and runs east of the Fu-niu Shan. Branch lines
+serve Ho-nan Fu and K&rsquo;ai-fêng Fu.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONAVAR,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Onore</span>, a seaport of British India, in the
+North Kanara district of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 6929. It is
+mentioned as a place of trade as early as the 16th century, and
+is associated with two interesting incidents in Anglo-Indian
+history. In 1670, the English factors here had a bull-dog
+which unfortunately killed a sacred bull, in revenge for which
+they were all murdered, to the number of eighteen persons,
+by an enraged mob. In 1784 it was bravely defended for three
+months by Captain Torriano and a detachment of sepoys against
+the army of Tippoo Sultan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONDA,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> or <span class="sc">San Bartolomeo de Honda</span>, a town of the
+department of Tolima, Colombia, on the W. bank of the Magdalena
+river, 580 m. above its mouth. In 1906 Mr F. Loraine Petre
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span>
+estimated the population at 7000. It is about 650 ft. above
+sea-level and stands at the entrance to a narrow valley formed
+by spurs of the Central Cordillera, through which a picturesque
+little stream, called the Guali, flows into the Magdalena. The
+town overlooks the rapids of the Magdalena, and is shut in
+closely by spurs of the Eastern and Central Cordilleras. The
+climate is hot and damp and the temperature frequently rises
+to 102° F. in the shade. Honda dates back to the beginning of
+the 17th century, and has been one of the important centres of
+traffic in South America for three hundred years. Within the
+city there is an iron bridge across the Guali, and there is a suspension
+bridge across the Magdalena at the head of the rapids. A
+railway 18 m. long connects with the landing place of La Dorada,
+or Las Yeguas, where the steamers of the lower Magdalena
+discharge and receive their cargoes (the old landing at Carocali
+nearer the rapids having been abandoned), and with Arrancaplumas,
+1½ m. above, where navigation of the upper river
+begins. Up to 1908 the greater part of the traffic for Bogotá
+crossed the river at this point, and was carried on mule-back
+over the old <i>camino real</i>, which was at best only a rough bridlepath
+over which transportation to Bogotá (67 m. distant) was
+laborious and highly expensive; now the transshipment is
+made to smaller steamboats on the upper river for carriage to
+Girardot, 93 m. distant, from which place a railway runs to the
+Bogotá plateau. Honda was nearly destroyed by an earthquake
+in 1808.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D&rsquo;<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1636-1695), Dutch
+painter, was born at Utrecht, it is said, about 1636, and died
+at Amsterdam on the 3rd of April 1695. Old historians say
+that, being the grandson of Gillis and son of Gisbert d&rsquo;Hondecoeter,
+as well as nephew of J. B. Weenix, he was brought up
+by the last two to the profession of painting. Of Weenix we
+know that he married one Josina d&rsquo;Hondecoeter in 1638.
+Melchior was, therefore, related to Weenix, who certainly
+influenced his style. As to Gillis and Gisbert some points still
+remain obscure, and it is difficult to accept the statement that
+they stood towards each other in the relation of father and son,
+since both were registered as painters at Utrecht in 1637. Both
+it appears had practised art before coming to Utrecht, but where
+they resided or what they painted is uncertain. Unhappily
+pictures scarcely help us to clear up the mystery. In the Fürstenberg
+collection at Donaueschingen there is a &ldquo;Concert of Birds&rdquo;
+dated 1620, and signed with the monogram G. D. H.; and we
+may presume that G. D. H. is the man whose &ldquo;Hen and Chickens
+in a Landscape&rdquo; in the gallery of Rotterdam is inscribed &ldquo;G. D.
+Hondecoeter, 1652&rdquo;; but is the first letter of the monogram
+to stand for Gillis or Gisbert? In the museums of Dresden and
+Cassel landscapes with sportsmen are catalogued under the
+name of Gabriel de Heusch (?), one of them dated 1529, and
+certified with the monogram G. D. H., challenging attention
+by resemblance to a canvas of the same class inscribed G. D.
+Hond. in the Berlin Museum. The question here is also whether
+G. means Gillis or Gisbert. Obviously there are two artists
+to consider, one of whom paints birds, the other landscapes
+and sportsmen. Perhaps the first is Gisbert, whose son Melchior
+also chose birds as his peculiar subject. Weenix too would
+naturally teach his nephew to study the feathered tribe. Melchior,
+however, began his career with a different speciality from that
+by which he is usually known. Mr de Stuers affirms that he
+produced sea-pieces. One of his earliest works is a &ldquo;Tub with
+Fish,&rdquo; dated 1655, in the gallery of Brunswick. But Melchior
+soon abandoned fish or fowl. He acquired celebrity as a painter
+of birds only, which he represented not exclusively, like Fyt,
+as the gamekeeper&rsquo;s perquisite after a day&rsquo;s shooting, or stock
+of a poulterer&rsquo;s shop, but as living beings with passions, joys,
+fears and quarrels, to which naturalists will tell us that birds
+are subject. Without the brilliant tone and high finish of Fyt,
+his Dutch rival&rsquo;s birds are full of action; and, as Bürger truly
+says, Hondecoeter displays the maternity of the hen with as
+much tenderness and feeling as Raphael the maternity of
+Madonnas. But Fyt was at home in depicting the coat of
+deer and dogs us well as plumage. Hondecoeter cultivates a
+narrower field, and seldom goes beyond a cock-fight or a display
+of mere bird life. Very few of his pictures are dated, though
+more are signed. Amongst the former we should note the &ldquo;Jackdaw
+deprived of his Borrowed Plumes&rdquo; (1671), at the Hague,
+of which Earl Cadogan has a variety; or &ldquo;Game and Poultry&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;A Spaniel hunting a Partridge&rdquo; (1672), in the gallery of
+Brussels; or &ldquo;A Park with Poultry&rdquo; (1686) at the Hermitage of
+St Petersburg. Hondecoeter, in great favour with the magnates
+of the Netherlands, became a member of the painters&rsquo; academy
+at the Hague in 1659. William III. employed him to paint his
+menagerie at Loo, and the picture, now at the Hague museum,
+shows that he could at a pinch overcome the difficulty of
+representing India&rsquo;s cattle, elephants and gazelles. But he
+is better in homelier works, with which he adorned the royal
+chateaux of Bensberg and Oranienstein at different periods
+of his life (Hague and Amsterdam). In 1688 Hondecoeter took
+the freedom of the city of Amsterdam, where he resided till his
+death. His earliest works are more conscientious, lighter and
+more transparent than his later ones. At all times he is bold
+Of touch and sure of eye, giving the motion of birds with great
+spirit and accuracy. His masterpieces are at the Hague and at
+Amsterdam. But there are fine examples in private collections
+in England, and in the public galleries of Berlin, Caen, Carlsruhe,
+Cassel, Cologne, Copenhagen, Dresden, Dublin, Florence,
+Glasgow, Hanover, London, Lyons, Montpellier, Munich, Paris,
+Rotterdam, Rouen, St Petersburg, Stuttgart and Vienna.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONDURAS,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a republic of Central America, bounded on the
+N. by the Caribbean Sea, E. by Nicaragua, S. by Nicaragua,
+the Pacific Ocean and Salvador, and W. by Guatemala. (For
+map see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>.) Pop. (1905) 500,136; area,
+about 46,500 sq. m. Honduras is said to owe its name, meaning
+in Spanish &ldquo;depths,&rdquo; to the difficulty experienced by its original
+Spanish explorers in finding anchorage off its shores; Cape
+Gracias à Dios (Cape &ldquo;Thanks to God&rdquo;) is the name bestowed,
+for analogous reasons, on its easternmost headland, which
+shelters a small harbour, now included in Nicaragua. Modern
+navigators are not confronted by the same difficulty; for,
+although the north coast is unbroken by any remarkable inlet
+except the Carataska Lagoon, a land-locked lake on the east,
+with a narrow entrance from the sea, there are many small
+bays and estuaries, such as those of Puerto Cortes, Omoa, Ulua,
+La Ceiba and Trujillo, which serve as harbours. The broad
+basin of the Caribbean Sea, bounded by Honduras, Guatemala
+and British Honduras, is known as the bay or gulf of Honduras.
+Several islets and the important group of the Bay Islands
+(<i>q.v.</i>) belong to the republic. On the Pacific the Hondurian
+littoral is short but of great commercial value; for it consists
+of a frontage of some 60 m. on the Bay of Fonseca (<i>q.v.</i>), one of
+the finest natural harbours in the world. The islands of Tigre,
+Sacate Grande and Gueguensi, in the bay, belong to Honduras.</p>
+
+<p>The frontier which separates the republic from Nicaragua
+extends across the continent from E.N.E to W.S.W. It is
+defined by the river Segovia, Wanks or Coco, for about one-third
+of the distance; it then deflects across the watershed on
+the east and south of the river Choluteca, crosses the main
+Nicaraguan Cordillera (mountain chain) and follows the river
+Negro to the Bay of Fonseca. The line of separation from
+Salvador is irregularly drawn, first in a northerly and then in
+a westerly direction; beginning at the mouth of the river
+Goascoran, in the Bay of Fonseca, it ends 12 m. W. of San
+Francisco city. At this point begins the Guatemalan frontier,
+the largest section of which is delimited along the crests of the
+Sierra de Merendon. On the Caribbean seaboard the estuary
+of the Motagua forms the boundary between Honduras and
+Guatemala.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physical Features.</i>&mdash;The general aspect of the country is mountainous;
+its southern half is traversed by a continuation of the main
+Nicaraguan Cordillera. The chain does not, in this republic, approach
+within 50 or 60 m. of the Pacific; nor does it throughout maintain
+its general character of an unbroken range, but sometimes turns
+back on itself, forming interior basins or valleys, within which are
+collected the headwaters of the streams that traverse the country in
+the direction of the Atlantic Ocean. Nevertheless, viewed from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span>
+Pacific, it presents the appearance of a great natural wall, with many
+volcanic peaks towering above it and with a lower range of mountains
+intervening between it and the sea. It would almost seem that at
+one time the Pacific broke at the foot of the great mountain barrier,
+and that the subordinate coast range was subsequently thrust up by
+volcanic forces. At one point the main range is interrupted by a
+great transverse valley or plain known as the plain of Comayagua,
+which has an extreme length of about 40 m., with a width of from
+5 to 15 m. From this plain the valley of the river Humuya extends
+north to the Atlantic, and the valley of the Goascoran extends south
+to the Pacific. These three depressions collectively constitute a
+great transverse valley reaching from sea to sea, which was pointed
+out soon after the conquest as an appropriate course for inter-oceanic
+communication. The mountains of the northern half of
+Honduras are not volcanic in character and are inferior in altitude to
+those of the south, which sometimes exceed 10,000 ft. The relief of
+all the highlands of the Atlantic watershed is extremely varied;
+its culminating points are probably in the mountain mass about the
+sources of the Choluteca, Sulaco and Roman, and in the Sierra de
+Pija, near the coast. Farther eastward the different ranges are less
+clearly marked and the surface of the country resembles a plateau
+intersected by numerous watercourses.</p>
+
+<p>The rivers of the Atlantic slope of Honduras are numerous and
+some of them of large size and navigable. The largest is the Ulua,
+with its tributary the Humuya. It rises in the plain of Comayagua
+and flows north to the Atlantic; it drains a wide expanse of territory,
+comprehending nearly one-third of the entire state, and probably
+discharges a greater amount of water into the sea than any other
+river of Central America, the Segovia excepted. It may be navigated
+by steamers of light draught for the greater part of its course.
+The Rio Roman or Aguan is a large stream falling into the Atlantic
+near Trujillo, with a total length of about 120 m. Its largest tributary
+is the Rio Mangualil, celebrated for its gold washings, and it may be
+ascended by boats of light draft for 80 m. Rio Tinto, Negro or
+Black River, called also Poyer or Poyas, is a considerable stream,
+navigable by small vessels for about 60 m. Some English settlements
+were made on its banks during the 18th century. The Patuca
+rises near the frontier of Nicaragua, and enters the Atlantic east
+of the Brus or Brewer lagoon. The Segovia is the longest river
+in Central America, rising within 50 m. of the Bay of Fonseca,
+and flowing into the Caribbean Sea at Cape Gracias à Dios (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nicaragua</a></span>). Three considerable rivers flow into the Pacific&mdash;the
+Goascoran, Nacaome and Choluteca, the last named having a length
+of about 150 m. The Goascoran, which almost interlocks with
+the Humuya, in the plain of Comayagua, has a length of about
+80 m. The lake of Yojoa or Taulébe is the only large inland lake in
+Honduras, and is about 25 m. in length, by 6 to 8 in breadth. Its
+surface is 2050 ft. above the sea. It has two outlets on the south,
+the rivers Jaitique and Sacapa, which unite about 15 m. from the
+lake; and it is drained on the north by the Rio Blanco, a narrow,
+deep stream falling into the Ulua. It has also a feeder on the north,
+in the form of a subterranean stream of beautiful clear water, which
+here comes to the surface. The Carataska or Caratasca lagoon is a
+shallow salt-water lake connected by a narrow channel with the
+Atlantic, and near the mouth of the Segovia. It contains several
+large sandy islands.</p>
+
+<p>Honduras resembles the neighbouring countries in the general
+character of its geological formations, fauna and flora. Here, as in
+other Central American states, there are but two seasons, the wet,
+from May to November, and the dry, from November to May. On
+the moist lowlands of the Atlantic coast the climate is oppressive,
+but on the highlands of the interior it is delightful. At Tegucigalpa,
+on the uplands, a year&rsquo;s observations showed the maximum temperature
+to be 90° F. in May, and the minimum to be 50° F. in December,
+the range of variation during the whole year being within 40° F.</p>
+
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>: <i>Geology</i>, <i>Fauna</i>, <i>Flora</i>, <i>Climate</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>&mdash;The inhabitants of Honduras are in many
+cases of the Indian or aboriginal type, and the European element
+is very small, although it shares in the social, political and
+economic preponderance of the Spanish-speaking half-castes
+(<i>Ladinos</i> or <i>Mestizos</i>), who are the most numerous section of
+the population. Throughout the country there are many
+interesting relics of the native civilization which was destroyed
+by the Spanish invaders in the 16th century. In the eastern
+portion of the state, between the Rio Roman, Cape Gracias
+à Dios, and the Segovia river, the country is almost exclusively
+occupied by native Indian tribes, known under the general
+names of Xicaques and Poyas. In many districts the Indians
+are known as Lencas, a generic name which includes several
+tribes akin to the Mayans of Guatemala. Portions of all of these
+tribes have accepted the Roman Catholic religion, and live
+in peaceful neighbourhood and good understanding with the
+white inhabitants. There are, however, considerable numbers,
+probably about 90,000 in all, who live among the mountains
+and still conform closely to the aboriginal modes of life. They
+all cultivate the soil, and are good and industrious labourers.
+A small portion of the coast, above Cape Gracias, is occupied
+by the Sambos, a mixed race of Indians and negroes, which,
+however, is fast disappearing. Spreading along the entire
+north coast are the Caribs, a vigorous race, descendants of the
+Caribs of St Vincent, one of the Windward Islands. These,
+to the number of 5000, were deported in 1796 by the English
+and landed on the island of Roatan. They still retain their
+native language, although it tends to disappear and be replaced
+by Spanish and a bastard dialect of English; they are active,
+industrious and provident, forming the chief reliance of the
+mahogany cutters on the coast. A portion of them, who have
+a mixture of negro blood, are called the Black Caribs. They
+profess the Roman Catholic religion, but retain many of their
+native rites and superstitions. In the departments of Gracias,
+Comayagua and Choluteca are many purely Indian towns.</p>
+
+<p>The aggregate population, according to an official estimate
+made in 1905, is 500,136, but a complete and satisfactory
+census cannot be taken throughout the country, since the
+ignorant masses of the people, and especially the Indians, avoid
+a census as in some way connected with military conscription
+or taxation. The bulk of the Spanish population exists on the
+Pacific slope of the continent, while on the Atlantic declivity
+the country is uninhabited or but sparsely occupied by Indian
+tribes, of which the number is wholly unknown. In 1905 there
+were fewer than 11 inhabitants per sq. m., but all the available
+data tend to show that the population increases rapidly, owing
+to the continuous excess of births over deaths. The first census,
+taken in 1791, gave the total population as only 95,500. There
+is little emigration or immigration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chief Towns.</i>&mdash;The capital is Tegucigalpa (pop. 1905, about
+35,000); other important towns are Jutigalpa (18,000), Comayagua
+(8000), and the seaports of Amapala (4000), Trujillo (4000),
+and Puerto Cortes (2500). These are described in separate
+articles. The towns of Nacaome, La Esperanza, Choluteca
+and Santa Rosa have upwards of 10,000 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Means of communication are very defective.
+In 1905 the only railway in the country was that from Puerto Cortes
+to La Pimienta, a distance of 57 m. This is a section of the proposed
+inter-oceanic railway for which the external debt of the republic was
+incurred. For the completion of the line concessions, one after
+another, were granted, and expired or were revoked. Other railways
+are projected, including one along the Atlantic coast, an extension
+from La Pimienta to La Brea on the Pacific, and a line from Tegucigalpa
+to the port of San Lorenzo. The capital is connected with
+other towns by fairly well made roads, which, however, are not kept
+in good repair. In the interior generally, all travelling and transport
+are by mules and ox-carts over roads which defy description.</p>
+
+<p>Honduras joined the Postal Union in 1879, The telegraph service
+is conducted by the government and is inefficient. Telephones are
+in use in Tegucigalpa and a few of the more important towns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce and Industry.</i>&mdash;Although grants of land for mining and
+agricultural purposes are readily made by the state to companies
+and individual capitalists, the economic development of Honduras
+has been a very slow process, impeded as it has been by political
+disturbances and in modern times by national bankruptcy, heavy
+import and export duties, and the scarcity of both labour and
+capital. The natural wealth of the country is great and consists
+especially in its vegetable products. The mahogany and cedar of
+Honduras are unsurpassed, but reckless destruction of these and of
+other valuable cabinet-woods and dye-woods has much reduced the
+supply available for export. Rubber-planting, a comparatively
+modern industry, has proved successful, and tends to supplement the
+almost exhausted stock of wild rubber. Of still greater importance
+are the plantations of bananas, especially in the northern maritime
+province of Atlantida, where coco-nuts are also grown. Coffee,
+tobacco, sugar, oranges, lemons, maize and beans are produced in all
+parts, rice, cocoa, indigo and wheat over more limited areas. Cattle
+and pigs are bred extensively; cattle are exported to Cuba, and
+dairy-farming is carried on with success. Sheep-farming is almost an
+unknown industry. Turtle and fish are obtained in large quantities
+off the Atlantic seaboard. In its mineral resources Honduras ranks
+first among the states of Central America. Silver is worked by a
+British company, gold by an American company. Gold-washing
+was practised in a primitive manner even before the Spanish conquest,
+and in the 18th century immense quantities of gold and silver were
+obtained by the Spaniards from mines near Tegucigalpa. Opals,
+platinum, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, antimony, iron, lignite and
+coal have been found but the causes already enumerated have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span>
+prevented the exploitation of any of these minerals on a large scale,
+and the total value of the ores exported was only £174,800 in 1904
+and £239,426 in 1905. The total value of the exports in a normal
+year ranges from about £500,000 to £600,000, and that of the imports
+from £450,000 to £550,000. Apart from minerals the most valuable
+commodity exported is bananas (£209,263 in 1905); coco-nuts,
+timber, hides, deer-skins, feathers, coffee, sarsaparilla and rubber are
+items of minor importance. Nearly 90% of the exports are shipped
+to the United States, which also send to Honduras more than half of
+its imports. These chiefly consist of cotton goods, hardware and
+provisions. The manufacturing industries of Honduras include the
+plaiting of straw hats, cigar-making, brick-making and the distillation
+of spirits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;Owing to the greater variety of its products and the
+possession of a metallic currency, Honduras is less affected by
+fluctuations of exchange than the neighbouring republics, in which
+little except paper money circulates. The monetary unit is the silver
+<i>peso</i> or dollar of 100 cents, which weighs 25 grammes, .900 fine, and
+is worth about 1s. 8d.; the gold dollar is worth about 4s. The
+principal coins in circulation arc the 1-cent copper piece, 5, 10, 20,
+25 and 50 cents, and 1 peso silver pieces, and 1, 5, 10 and 20 dollar
+gold pieces. The metric system of weights and measures, adopted
+officially on the 1st of April 1897, has not supplanted the older
+Spanish standards in general use. There is only one bank in the
+republic, the <i>Banco de Honduras</i>, with its head office at Tegucigalpa.
+Its bills are legal tender for all debts due to the state.</p>
+
+<p>In July 1909 the foreign debt of Honduras, with arrears of interest,
+amounted to £22,470,510, of which more than £17,000,000 were for
+arrears of interest. The principal was borrowed between 1867 and
+1870, chiefly for railway construction; but it was mainly devoted to
+other purposes and no interest has been paid since 1872. The
+republic is thus practically bankrupt. The revenue, derived chiefly
+from customs and from the spirit, gunpowder and tobacco monopolies
+reached an average of about £265,000 during the five years 1901-1905;
+the expenditure in normal years is about £250,000. The
+principal spending departments are those of war, finance, public
+works and education.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Constitution and Government.</i>&mdash;The constitution of Honduras,
+promulgated in 1839 and frequently amended, was to a great
+extent recast in 1880. It was again remodelled in 1894, when
+a new charter was proclaimed. This instrument gives the
+legislative power to a congress of deputies elected for four
+years by popular vote, in the ratio of one member for every
+10,000 <span class="correction" title="amended from imhabitants">inhabitants</span>. Congress meets on the 1st of January
+and sits for sixty consecutive days. The executive is entrusted
+to the president, who is nominated and elected for four years
+by popular vote, and is re-eligible for a second but not for a third
+consecutive term. He is assisted by a council of ministers
+representing the departments of the interior, war, finance,
+public works, education and justice. For purposes of local
+administration the republic is divided into sixteen departments.
+The highest judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, which
+consists of five popularly elected judges; there are also four
+Courts of Appeal, besides subordinate departmental and district
+tribunals. The active army consists of about 500 regular soldiers
+and 20,000 militia, recruited by conscription from all able-bodied
+males between the ages of twenty and thirty. Service
+in the reserve is obligatory for a further period of ten years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Religion and Education.</i>&mdash;Roman Catholicism is the creed of a very
+large majority of the population; but the constitution grants complete
+liberty to all religious communities, and no Church is supported
+by public funds or receives any other special privilege. Education is
+free, secular and compulsory for children between the ages of seven
+and fifteen. There are primary schools in every convenient centre,
+but the percentage of illiterates is high, especially among the Indians.
+The state maintains a central institute and a university at Tegucigalpa,
+a school of jurisprudence at Comayagua, and colleges for
+secondary education, with special schools for teachers, in each department.
+The annual cost of primary education is about £11,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;It was at Cape Honduras that Columbus first
+landed on the American continent in 1502, and took possession
+of the country on behalf of Spain. The first settlement was
+made in 1524 by order of Hernando Cortes, who had heard
+rumours of rich and populous empires in this region, and sent
+his lieutenant Christobal de Olid to found a Spanish colony.
+Olid endeavoured to establish an independent principality, and,
+in order to resume control of the settlers, Cortes was compelled
+to undertake the long and arduous march across the mountains
+of southern Mexico and Guatemala. In the spring of 1525 he
+reached the colony and founded the city which is now Puerto
+Cortes. He entrusted the administration to a new governor,
+whose successors were to be nominated by the king, and returned
+to Mexico in 1526. By 1539, when Honduras was incorporated
+in the captaincy-general of Guatemala, the mines of the province
+had proved to be the richest as yet discovered in the New World
+and several large cities had come into existence. The system
+under which Honduras was administered from 1539 to 1821,
+when it repudiated the authority of the Spanish crown, the
+effects of that system, the part subsequently played by Honduras
+in the protracted struggle for Central American unity, and the
+invasion by William Walker and his fellow-adventurers (1856-1860),
+are fully described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>War and revolution had stunted the economic growth of
+the country and retarded every attempt at social or political
+reform; its future was mortgaged by the assumption of an
+enormous burden of debt in 1869 and 1870. A renewal of war
+with Guatemala in 1871, and a revolution three years later
+in the interests of the ex-president Medina, brought about
+the intervention of the neighbouring states and the provisional
+appointment to the presidency of Marco Aurelio Soto, a nominee
+of Guatemala. This appointment proved successful and was
+confirmed by popular vote in 1877 and 1880, when a new constitution
+was issued and the seat of government fixed at Tegucigalpa.
+Fresh outbreaks of civil war occurred frequently between
+1883 and 1903; the republic was bankrupt and progress again
+at a standstill. In 1903 Manuel Bonilla, an able, popular and
+experienced general, gained the presidency and seemed likely
+to repeat the success of Soto in maintaining order. As his term
+of office drew to a close, and his re-election appeared certain,
+the supporters of rival candidates and some of his own dissatisfied
+adherents intrigued to secure the co-operation of Nicaragua
+for his overthrow. Bonilla welcomed the opportunity of consolidating
+his own position which a successful war would offer;
+José Santos Zelaya, the president of Nicaragua, was equally
+ambitious; and several alleged violations of territory had
+embittered popular feeling on both sides. The United States
+and Mexican governments endeavoured to secure a peaceful
+settlement without intervention, but failed. At the outbreak
+of hostilities in February 1907 the Hondurian forces were commanded
+by Bonilla in person and by General Sotero Barahona
+his minister of war. One of their chief subordinates was Lee
+Christmas, an adventurer from Memphis, Tennessee, who
+had previously been a locomotive-driver. Honduras received
+active support from his ally, Salvador, and was favoured by
+public opinion throughout Central America. But from the
+outset the Nicaraguans proved victorious, largely owing to
+their remarkable mobility. Their superior naval force enabled
+them to capture Puerto Cortes and La Ceiba, and to threaten
+other cities on the Caribbean coast; on land they were aided
+by a body of Hondurian rebels, who also established a provisional
+government. Zelaya captured Tegucigalpa after severe
+fighting, and besieged Bonilla in Amapala. Lee Christmas
+was killed. The surrender of Amapala on the 11th of April
+practically ended the war. Bonilla took refuge on board the
+United States cruiser &ldquo;Chicago.&rdquo; A noteworthy feature
+of the war was the attitude of the American naval officers, who
+landed marines, arranged the surrender of Amapala, and prevented
+Nicaragua prolonging hostilities. Honduras was now
+evacuated by the Nicaraguans and her provisional government
+was recognized by Zelaya. Miguel R. Davila was president in
+1908 and 1909.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Official documents such as the annual presidential
+message and the reports of the ministries are published in
+Spanish at Tegucigalpa. Other periodical publications which throw
+much light on the movement of trade and politics are the British
+Foreign Office reports (London, annual), United States consular
+reports (Washington, monthly), bulletins of the Bureau of American
+Republics (Washington), and reports of the Council of the Corporation
+of Foreign Bondholders (London, annual). For a more comprehensive
+account of the country and its history, the works of
+K. Sapper, E. G. Squier, A. H. Keane and T. Child, cited under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>, are important. See also E. Pelletier, <i>Honduras
+et ses ports: documents officiels sur le chemin-de-fer interocéanique</i>
+(Paris, 1869); E. G. Squier, <i>Honduras: Descriptive, Historical and
+Statistical</i> (London, 1870); C. Charles, <i>Honduras</i> (Chicago, 1890);
+<i>Handbook of Honduras</i>, published by the Bureau of American
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span>
+Republics (1892); T. R. Lombard, <i>The New Honduras</i> (New York,
+1887); H. Jalhay, <i>La République de Honduras</i> (Antwerp, 1898);
+Perry, <i>Directorio nacional de Honduras</i> (New York, 1899); H. G.
+Bourgeois, <i>Breve noticia sobre Honduras</i> (Tegucigalpa, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONE, NATHANIEL<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1718-1784), British painter, was the
+son of a merchant at Dublin, and without any regular training
+acquired in his youth much skill as a portrait-painter. Early
+in his career he left Dublin for England and worked first in
+various provincial towns, but ultimately settled in London,
+where he soon made a considerable reputation. His oil-paintings
+were decidedly popular, but he gained his chief success by his
+miniatures and enamels, which he executed with masterly
+capacity. He became a member of the Incorporated Society
+of Artists and afterwards a foundation member of the Royal
+Academy; but he had several disagreements with his fellow-members
+of that institution, and on one occasion they rejected
+two of his pictures, one of which was regarded as a satire on
+Reynolds and the other on Angelica Kauffman. Most of his
+contributions to the Academy exhibitions were portraits.
+The quality of his work varied greatly, but the merit of his
+miniatures and enamels entitles him to a place among the ablest
+artists of the British school. He executed also a few mezzotint
+plates of reasonable importance, and some etchings. His
+portrait, painted by himself two years before his death, is in
+the possession of the Royal Academy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONE, WILLIAM<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1780-1842), English writer and bookseller,
+was born at Bath on the 3rd of June 1780. His father brought
+up his children with the sectarian narrowness that so frequently
+produces reaction. Hone received no systematic education,
+and was taught to read from the Bible only. His father having
+removed to London in 1783, he was in 1790 placed in an attorney&rsquo;s
+office. After two and a half years spent in the office of a solicitor
+at Chatham he returned to London to become clerk to a solicitor
+in Gray&rsquo;s Inn. But he disliked the law, and had already acquired
+a taste for free-thought and political agitation. Hone married
+in 1800, and started a book and print shop with a circulating
+Library in Lambeth Walk. He soon removed to St Martin&rsquo;s
+Churchyard, where he brought out his first publication, Shaw&rsquo;s
+<i>Gardener</i> (1806). It was at this time that he and his friend,
+John Bone, tried to realize a plan for the establishment of popular
+savings banks, and even had an interview on the subject with
+the president of the Board of Trade. This scheme, however,
+failed. Bone joined him next in a bookseller&rsquo;s business; but
+Hone&rsquo;s habits were not those of a tradesman, and bankruptcy
+was the result. He was in 1811 chosen by the booksellers as
+auctioneer to the trade, and had an office in Ivy Lane. Independent
+investigations carried on by him into the condition of
+lunatic asylums led again to business difficulties and failure,
+but he took a small lodging in the Old Bailey, keeping himself
+and his now large family by contributions to magazines and
+reviews. He hired a small shop, or rather box, in Fleet Street
+but this was on two separate nights broken into, and valuable
+books lent for show were stolen. In 1815 he started the <i>Traveller</i>
+newspaper, and endeavoured vainly to exculpate Eliza Fenning,
+a poor girl, apparently quite guiltless, who was executed on a
+charge of poisoning. From February 1 to October 25, 1817,
+he published the <i>Reformer&rsquo;s Register</i>, writing in it as the serious
+critic of the state abuses, which he soon after attacked in the
+famous political squibs and parodies, illustrated by George
+Cruikshank. In April 1817 three <i>ex-officio</i> informations were
+filed against him by the attorney-genera, Sir William Garrow.
+Three separate trials took place in the Guildhall before special
+juries on the 18th, 19th and 20th of December 1817. The first,
+for publishing Wilkes&rsquo;s <i>Catechism of a Ministerial Member</i>
+(1817), was before Mr Justice Abbot (afterwards Lord Tenterden);
+the second, for parodying the litany and libelling the prince
+regent, and the third, for publishing the <i>Sinecurist&rsquo;s Creed</i>
+(1817), a parody on the Athanasian creed, were before Lord
+Ellenborough (<i>q.v.</i>). The prosecution took the ground that the
+prints were calculated to injure public morals, and to bring the
+prayer-book and even religion itself into contempt. But there
+can be no doubt that the real motives of the prosecution were
+political; Hone had ridiculed the habits and exposed the corruption
+of the prince regent and of other persons in power. He
+went to the root of the matter when he wished the jury &ldquo;to
+understand that, had he been a publisher of ministerial parodies,
+he would not then have been defending himself on the floor of
+that court.&rdquo; In spite of illness and exhaustion Hone displayed
+great courage and ability, speaking on each of the three days
+for about seven hours. Although his judges were biassed against
+him he was acquitted on each count, and the result was received
+with enthusiastic cheers by immense crowds within and without
+the court. Soon after the trials a subscription was begun which
+enabled Hone to get over the difficulties caused by his prosecution.
+Among Hone&rsquo;s most successful political satires were <i>The Political
+House that Jack built</i> (1819), <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Matrimonial Ladder</i>
+(1820), in favour of Queen Caroline, <i>The Man in the Moon</i>
+(1820), <i>The Political Showman</i> (1821), all illustrated by Cruikshank.
+Many of his squibs are directed against a certain &ldquo;Dr
+Slop,&rdquo; a nickname given by him to Dr (afterwards Sir John)
+Stoddart, of <i>The Times</i>. In researches for his defence he had
+come upon some curious and at that time little trodden literary
+ground, and the results were shown by his publication in 1820
+of his <i>Apocryphal New Testament</i>, and in 1823 of his <i>Ancient
+Mysteries Explained</i>. In 1826 he published the <i>Every-day
+Book</i>, in 1827-1828 the <i>Table-Book</i>, and in 1829 the <i>Year-Book</i>;
+all three were collections of curious information on manners,
+antiquities and various other subjects. These are the works
+by which Hone is best remembered. In preparing them he had
+the approval of Southey and the assistance of Charles Lamb,
+but pecuniarily they were not successful, and Hone was lodged
+in King&rsquo;s Bench prison for debt. Friends, however, again came
+to his assistance, and he was established in a coffee-house in
+Gracechurch Street; but this, like most of his enterprises, ended
+in failure. Hone&rsquo;s attitude of mind had gradually changed to
+that of extreme devoutness, and during the latter years of his
+life he frequently preached in Weigh House Chapel, Eastcheap.
+In 1830 he edited Strutt&rsquo;s <i>Sports and Pastimes</i>, and he contributed
+to the first number of the <i>Penny Magazine</i>. He was also
+for some years sub-editor of the <i>Patriot</i>. He died at Tottenham
+on the 6th of November 1842.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONE<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>hán</i>, cognate with Swed. <i>hen</i>; the root
+appears in Skt. <i>çána</i>, <i>ço</i> to sharpen), a variety of finely siliceous
+stone employed for whetting or sharpening edge tools, and for
+abrading steel and other hard surfaces. Synonyms are honestone,
+whetstone, oilstone and sharpening stone. Hones are
+generally prepared in the form of flat slabs or small pencils or
+rods, but some are made with the outline of the special instrument
+they are designed to sharpen. Their abrading action is
+due to the quartz or silica which is always present in predominating
+proportion, some kinds consisting of almost pure quartz,
+while in others the siliceous element is very intimately mixed
+with aluminous or calcareous matter, forming a uniform compact
+stone, the extremely fine siliceous particles of which impart a
+remarkably keen edge to the instruments for the sharpening
+of which they are applied. In some cases the presence of minute
+garnets or magnetite assists in the cutting action. Hones
+are used either dry, with water, or with oil, and generally the
+object to be sharpened is drawn with hand pressure backward
+and forward over the surface of the hone; but sometimes the
+stone is moved over the cutting edge.</p>
+
+<p>The coarsest type of stone which can be included among hones
+is the bat or scythe stone, a porous fine-grained sandstone used
+for sharpening scythes and cutters of mowing machines, and for
+other like purposes. Next come the ragstones, which consist of
+quartzose mica-schist, and give a finer edge than any sandstone.
+Under the head of oilstones or hones proper the most famous
+and best-known qualities are the German razor hone, the Turkey
+oilstone, and the Arkansas stone. The German razor hone,
+used, as its name implies, chiefly for razors, is obtained from
+the slate mountains near Ratisbon, where it forms a yellow
+vein of from 1 to 18 in. in the blue slate. It is sawn into thin
+slabs, and these are cemented to slabs of slate which serve as
+a support. Turkey oilstone is a close-grained bluish stone
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span>
+containing from 70 to 75% of silica in a state of very fine
+division, intimately blended with about 20 to 25% of calcite.
+It is obtained only in small pieces, frequently flawed and not
+tough, so that the slabs must have a backing of slate or wood.
+It is one of the most valuable of all whetstones, abrading the
+hardest steel, and possessing sufficient compactness to resist
+the pressure required for sharpening gravers. The stone comes
+from the interior of Asia Minor, whence it is carried to Smyrna.
+Of Arkansas stones there are two varieties, both found in the
+same district, Garland and Saline counties, Arkansas, United
+States. The finer kind, known as Arkansas hone, is obtained
+in small pieces at the Hot Springs, and the second quality, distinguished
+as Washita stone, comes from Washita or Ouachita
+river. The hones yield on analysis 98% of silica, with small
+proportions of alumina, potash and soda, and mere traces of
+iron, lime, magnesia and fluorine. They are white in colour,
+extremely hard and keen in grit, and not easily worn down
+or broken. Geologically the materials are called novaculites,
+and are supposed to be metamorphosed sandstone silt, chert
+or limestone resulting from the permeation through the mass of
+heated alkaline siliceous waters. The finer kind is employed
+for fine cutting instruments, and also for polishing steel pivots
+of watch-wheels and similar minute work, the second and coarser
+quality being used for common tools. Both varieties are largely
+exported from the United States in the form of blocks, slips,
+pencils, rods and wheels. Other honestones are obtained in
+the United States from New York, New Hampshire, Vermont,
+Ohio (Deerlick stone) and Indiana (Hindostan or Orange stone).
+Among hones of less importance in general use may be noted
+the Charley Forest stone&mdash;or Whittle Hill honestone&mdash;a good
+substitute for Turkey oilstone; Water of Ayr stone, Scotch
+stone, or snake stone, a pale grey carboniferous shale hardened
+by igneous action, used for tools and for polishing marble
+and copper-plates; Idwal or Welsh oilstone, used for small
+articles; and cutlers&rsquo; greenstone from Snowdon, very hard and
+close in texture, used for giving the last edge to lancets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONEY<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Chin. <i>m&#275;</i>; Sansk. <i>madhu</i>, mead, honey; cf. A.S.
+<i>medo</i>, <i>medu</i>, mead; Gr. <span class="grk" title="meli">&#956;&#941;&#955;&#953;</span>, in which &theta; or &delta; is changed into
+&lambda;; Lat. <i>mel</i>; Fr. <i>miel</i>; A.S. <i>hunig</i>; Ger. <i>Honig</i>),<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a sweet
+viscid liquid, obtained by bees (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bee</a></span>, <i>Bee-keeping</i>) chiefly
+from the nectaries of flowers, <i>i.e.</i> those parts of flowers specially
+constructed for the elaboration of honey, and, after transportation
+to the hive in the proventriculus or crop of the insects, discharged
+by them into the cells prepared for its reception. Whether the
+nectar undergoes any alteration within the crop of the bee
+is a point on which authors have differed. Some wasps, <i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Myrapetra scutellaris</i><a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and the genus <i>Nectarina</i>, collect honey.
+A honey-like fluid, which consists of a nearly pure solution of
+uncrystallizable sugar having the formula C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">7</span> after drying
+in vacuo, and which is used by the Mexicans in the preparation
+of a beverage, is yielded by certain inactive individuals of
+<i>Myrmecocystus mexicanus</i>, Wesmael, the honey-ants or pouched
+ants (<i>hormigas mieleras</i> or <i>mochileras</i>) of Mexico.<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The abdomen
+in these insects, owing to the distensibility of the membrane
+connecting its segments, becomes converted into a globular
+thin-walled sac by the accumulation within it of the nectar
+supplied to them by their working comrades (Wesmael, <i>Bull.
+de l&rsquo;Acad. Roy. de Brux.</i> v. 766, 1838). By the Rev. H. C.
+M&lsquo;Cook, who discovered the insect in the Garden of the Gods,
+Colorado, the honey-bearers were found hanging by their feet,
+in groups of about thirty, to the roofs of special chambers in
+their underground nests, their large globular abdomens causing
+them to resemble &ldquo;bunches of small Delaware grapes&rdquo; (<i>Proc.
+Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i>, 1879, p. 197). A bladder-like formation
+on the metathorax of another ant, <i>Crematogaster inflatus</i> (F.
+Smith, <i>Cat. of Hymenoptera</i>, pt. vi. pp. 136 and 200, pl. ix. fig. 1),
+which has a small circular orifice at each posterior lateral angle,
+appears to possess a function similar to that of the abdomen
+in the honey-ant.</p>
+
+<p>It is a popular saying that where is the best honey there
+also is the best wool; and a pastoral district, since it affords a
+greater profusion of flowers, is superior for the production of
+honey to one under tillage.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Dry warm weather is that most
+favourable to the secretion of nectar by flowers. This they protect
+from rain by various internal structures, such as papillae,
+cushions of hairs and spurs, or by virtue of their position (in
+the raspberry, drooping), or the arrangement of their constituent
+parts. Dr A. W. Bennett (<i>How Flowers are Fertilized</i>,
+p. 31, 1873) has remarked that the perfume of flowers is generally
+derived from their nectar; the blossoms of some plants, however,
+as ivy and holly, though almost scentless, are highly
+nectariferous. The exudation of a honey-like or saccharine
+fluid, as has frequently been attested, is not a function exclusively
+of the flowers in all plants. A sweet material, the manna of
+pharmacy, <i>e.g.</i> is produced by the leaves and stems of a species
+of ash, <i>Fraxinus Ornus</i>; and honey-secreting glands are to be
+met with on the leaves, petioles, phyllodes, stipules (as in <i>Vicia
+sativa</i>), or bracteae (as in the <i>Maregraviaceae</i>) of a considerable
+number of different vegetable forms. The origin of the honey-yielding
+properties manifested specially by flowers among the
+several parts of plants has been carefully considered by Darwin,
+who regards the saccharine matter in nectar as a waste product
+of chemical changes in the sap, which, when it happened to be
+excreted within the envelopes of flowers, was utilized for the
+important object of cross-fertilization, and subsequently was
+much increased in quantity, and stored in various ways (see <i>Cross
+and Self Fertilization of Plants</i>, pp. 402 sq., 1876). It has been
+noted with respect to the nectar of the fuchsia that it is most
+abundant when the anthers are about to dehisce, and absent
+in the unexpanded flower.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Pettigrew is of opinion that few bees go more than 2 m. from
+home in search of honey. The number of blossoms visited in order
+to meet the requirements of a single hive of bees must be very great;
+for it has been found by A. S. Wilson (&ldquo;On the Nectar of Flowers,&rdquo;
+<i>Brit. Assoc. Rep.</i>, 1878, p. 567) that 125 heads of common red clover,
+which is a plant comparatively abundant in nectar, yield but one
+gramme (15.432 grains) of sugar; and as each head contains about
+60 florets, 7,500,000 distinct flower-tubes must on this estimate be
+exhausted for each kilogramme (2.204 &#8468;) of sugar collected. Among
+the richer sources of honey are reckoned the apple, asparagus, asters,
+barberry, basswood (<i>Tilia americana</i>), and the European lime or
+linden (<i>T. europaea</i>), beans, bonesets (<i>Eupatorium</i>), borage, broom,
+buckwheat, catnip, or catmint (<i>Nepeta Cataria</i>), cherry, cleome,
+clover, cotton, crocus, currant, dandelion, eucalyptus, figwort
+(<i>Scrophularia</i>), furze, golden-rod (<i>Solidago</i>), gooseberry, hawthorn,
+heather, hepatica, horehound, hyacinth, lucerne, maple, mignonette,
+mint, motherwort (<i>Leonurus</i>), mustard, onion, peach, pear, poplar,
+quince, rape, raspberry, sage, silver maple, snapdragon, sour-wood
+(<i>Oxydendron arboreum</i>, D.C.), strawberry, sycamore, teasel, thyme,
+tulip-tree (more especially rich in pollen), turnip, violet and willows,
+and the &ldquo;honey-dew&rdquo; of the leaves of the whitethorn (Bonner),
+oak, linden, beech and some other trees.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Honey contains dextroglucose and laevoglucose (the former
+practically insoluble, the latter soluble in <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> pt. of cold strong
+alcohol), cane-sugar (according to some), mucilage, water, wax,
+essential oil, colouring bodies, a minute quantity of mineral
+matter and pollen. By a species of fermentation, the cane-sugar
+is said to be gradually transformed into inverted sugar
+(laevoglucose with dextroglucose). The pollen, as a source of
+nitrogen, is of importance to the bees feeding on the honey.
+It may be obtained for examination as a sediment from a mixture
+of honey and water. Other substances which have been discovered
+in honey are mannite (Guibourt), a free acid which
+precipitates the salts of silver and of lead, and is soluble in water
+and alcohol (Calloux), and an uncrystallizable sugar, nearly
+related to inverted sugar (Soubeiran, <i>Compt. Rend.</i> xxviii.
+774-775, 1849). Brittany honey contains couvain, a ferment
+which determines its active decomposition (Wurtz, <i>Dict. de
+Chem.</i> ii. 430). In the honey of <i>Polybia apicipennis</i>, a wasp
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span>
+of tropical America, cane-sugar occurs in crystals of large size
+(Karsten, <i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, C. 550). Dr J. Campbell Brown (&ldquo;On
+the Composition of Honey,&rdquo; <i>Analyst</i> iii. 267, 1878) is doubtful
+as to the presence of cane-sugar in any one of nine samples,
+from various sources, examined by him. The following average
+percentage numbers are afforded by his analyses: laevulose,
+36.45; dextrose, 36.57; mineral matter, .15; water expelled
+at 100° C., 18.5, and at a much higher temperature, with loss,
+7.81: the wax, pollen and insoluble matter vary from a trace
+to 2.1%. The specific gravity of honey is about 1.41.
+The rotation of a polarized ray by a solution of 16.26 grammes
+of crude honey in 100 c.c. of water is generally from &minus;3.2° to
+&minus;5° at 60° F.; in the case of Greek honey it is nearly &minus;5.5°.
+Almost all pure honey, when exposed for some time to light
+and cold, becomes more or less granular in consistency. Any
+liquid portion can be readily separated by straining through
+linen. Honey sold out of the comb is commonly clarified by
+heating and skimmimg; but according to Bonner it is always
+best in its natural state. The <i>mel depuratum</i> of British pharmacy
+is prepared by heating honey in a water-bath, and straining
+through flannel previously moistened with warm water.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;virgin-honey&rdquo; (A.-S., <i>hunigtear</i>) is applied to
+the honey of young bees which have never swarmed, or to
+that which flows spontaneously from honeycomb with or without
+the application of heat. The honey obtained from old hives,
+considered inferior to it in quality, is ordinarily darker, thicker
+and less pleasant in taste and odour. The yield of honey is less
+in proportion to weight in old than in young or virgin combs.
+The far-famed honey of Narbonne is white, very granular and
+highly aromatic; and still finer honey is that procured from
+the Corbières Mountains, 6 to 9 m. to the south-west. The
+honey of Gâtinais is usually white, and is less odorous and
+granulates less readily than that of Narbonne. Honey from
+white clover has a greenish-white, and that from heather a
+rich golden-yellow hue. What is made from honey-dew is dark
+in colour, and disagreeable to the palate, and does not candy
+like good honey. &ldquo;We have seen aphide honey from sycamores,&rdquo;
+says F. Cheshire (<i>Pract. Bee-keeping</i>, p. 74), &ldquo;as deep in tone
+as walnut liquor, and where much of it is stored the value of
+the whole crop is practically nil.&rdquo; The honey of the stingless
+bees (<i>Meliponia</i> and <i>Trigona</i>) of Brazil varies greatly in quality
+according to the species of flowers from which it is collected,
+some kinds being black and sour, and others excellent (F. Smith,
+<i>Trans. Ent. Soc.</i>, 3d ser., i. pt. vi., 1863). That of <i>Apis Peronii</i>,
+of India and Timor, is yellow, and of very agreeable flavour
+and is more liquid than the British sorts. <i>A. unicolor</i>, a bee
+indigenous to Madagascar, and naturalized in Mauritius and
+the island of Réunion, furnishes a thick and syrupy, peculiarly
+scented green honey, highly esteemed in Western India. A
+rose-coloured honey is stated (<i>Gard. Chron.</i>, 1870, p. 1698)
+to have been procured by artificial feeding. The fine aroma
+of Maltese honey is due to its collection from orange blossoms.
+Narbonne honey being harvested chiefly from Labiate plants,
+as rosemary, an imitation of it is sometimes prepared by flavouring
+ordinary honey with infusion of rosemary flowers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Adulterations of honey are starch, detectable by the microscope,
+and by its blue reaction with iodine, also wheaten flour, gelatin,
+chalk, gypsum, pipe-clay, added water, cane-sugar and common
+syrup, and the different varieties of manufactured glucose. Honey
+sophisticated with glucose containing copperas as an impurity is
+turned of an inky colour by liquids containing tannin, as tea. Elm
+leaves have been used in America for the flavouring of imitation
+honey. Stone jars should be employed in preference to common
+earthenware for the storage of honey, which acts upon the lead
+glaze of the latter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Honey is mildly laxative in properties. Some few kinds
+are poisonous, as frequently the reddish honey stored by the
+Brazilian wasp <i>Nectarina</i> (<i>Polistes</i>, Latr.<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a>) <i>Lecheguana</i>, Shuck.,
+the effects of which have been vividly described by Aug. de
+Saint-Hilaire,<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the spring honey of the wild bees of East Nepaul,
+said to be rendered noxious by collection from rhododendron
+flowers (Hooker, <i>Himalayan Journals</i>, i. 190, ed. 1855), and the
+honey of Trebizond, which from its source, the blossoms, it is
+stated, of <i>Azalea pontica</i> and <i>Rhododendron ponticum</i> (perhaps
+to be identified with Pliny&rsquo;s <i>Aegolethron</i>), acquires the qualities
+of an irritant and intoxicant narcotic, as described by Xenophon
+(<i>Anab.</i> iv. 8). Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxi. 45) describes as noxious
+a livid-coloured honey found in Persia and Gaetulia. Honey
+obtained from <i>Kalmia latifolia</i>, L., the calico bush, mountain
+laurel or spoon-wood of the northern United States, and allied
+species, is reputed deleterious; also that of the sour-wood is
+by some good authorities considered to possess undeniable
+griping properties; and G. Bidie (<i>Madras Quart. Journ. Med.
+Sci.</i>, Oct, 1861, p. 399) mentions urtication, headache, extreme
+prostration and nausea, and intense thirst among the symptoms
+produced by a small quantity only of a honey from Coorg jungle.
+A South African species of <i>Euphorbia</i>, as was experienced
+by the missionary Moffat (<i>Miss. Lab.</i> p. 32, 1849), yields a
+poisonous honey. The nectar of certain flowers is asserted to
+cause even in bees a fatal kind of vertigo. As a demulcent
+and flavouring agent, honey is employed in the <i>oxymel</i>, <i>oxymel
+scillae</i>, <i>mel boracis</i>, <i>confectio piperis</i>, <i>conf. scammonii</i> and <i>conf.
+terebinthinae</i> of the <i>British Pharmacopoeia</i>. To the ancients
+honey was of very great importance as an article of diet, being
+almost their only available source of sugar. It was valued
+by them also for its medicinal virtues; and in recipes of the
+Saxon and later periods it is a common ingredient.<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Of the
+eight kinds of honey mentioned by the great Indian surgical
+writer Susruta, four are not described by recent authors, viz.
+<i>argha</i> or wild honey, collected by a sort of yellow bee; <i>chhatra</i>,
+made by tawny or yellow wasps; <i>audálaka</i>, a bitter and acrid
+honey-like substance found in the nest of white ants; and
+<i>dála</i> or unprepared honey occurring on flowers. According to
+Hindu medical writers, honey when new is laxative, and when
+more than a year old astringent (U. C. Dutt, <i>Mat. Med. of the
+Hindus</i>, p. 277, 1877). Ceromel, formed by mixing at a gentle
+heat one part by weight of yellow wax with four of clarified
+honey, and straining, is used in India and other tropical countries
+as a mild stimulant for ulcers in the place of animal fats, which
+there rapidly become rancid and unfit for medicinal purposes.
+The <i>Koran</i>, in the chapter entitled &ldquo;The Bee,&rdquo; remarks with
+reference to bees and their honey: &ldquo;There proceedeth from
+their bellies a liquor of various colour, wherein is a medicine
+for men&rdquo; (Sale&rsquo;s <i>Koran</i>, chap. xvi.). Pills prepared with
+honey as an excipient are said to remain unindurated, however
+long they may be kept (<i>Med. Times</i>, 1857, i. 269). Mead, of
+yore a favourite beverage in England (vol. iv. p. 264), is made
+by fermentation of the liquor obtained by boiling in water
+combs from which the honey has been drained. In the preparation
+of sack-mead, an ounce of hops is added to each gallon
+of the liquor, and after the fermentation a small quantity of
+brandy. Metheglin, or hydromel, is maufactured by fermenting
+with yeast a solution of honey flavoured with boiled hops
+(see Cooley, <i>Cyclop.</i>). A kind of mead is largely consumed
+in Abyssinia (vol. i. p. 64), where it is carried on journeys in
+large horns (Stern, <i>Wanderings</i>, p. 317, 1862). In Russia a
+drink termed <i>lipez</i> is made from the delicious honey of the
+linden. The <i>mulsum</i> of the ancient Romans consisted of honey,
+wine and water boiled together. The <i>clarre</i>, or <i>piment</i>, of Chaucer&rsquo;s
+time was wine mixed with honey and spices, and strained till
+clear; a similar drink was <i>bracket</i>, made with wort of ale instead
+of wine. L. Maurial (<i>L&rsquo;Insectologie Agricole</i> for 1868, p. 206)
+reports unfavourably as to the use of honey for the production
+of alcohol; he recommends it, however, as superior to sugar
+for the thickening of liqueurs, and also as a means of sweetening
+imperfectly ripened vintages. It is occasionally employed
+for giving strength and flavour to ale. In ancient Egypt it
+was valued as an embalming material; and in the East, for
+the preservation of fruit, and the making of cakes, sweetmeats,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span>
+and other articles of food, it is largely consumed. Grafts, seeds
+and birds&rsquo; eggs, for transmission to great distances, are sometimes
+packed in honey. In India a mixture of honey and milk,
+or of equal parts of curds, honey and clarified butter (Sansk.,
+<i>madhu-parka</i>), is a respectful offering to a guest, or to a bridegroom
+on his arrival at the door of the bride&rsquo;s father; and
+one of the purificatory ceremonies of the Hindus (Sansk., <i>madhu-pr&#257;sana</i>)
+is the placing of a little honey in the mouth of a newborn
+male infant. Honey is frequently alluded to by the writers
+of antiquity as food for children; it is not to this, however,
+as already mentioned, that Isa. vii. 15 refers. Cream or fresh
+butter together with honey, and with or without bread, is
+a favourite dish with the Arabs.</p>
+
+<p>Among the observances at the Fandròana or New Year&rsquo;s
+Festival, in Madagascar, is the eating of mingled rice and honey
+by the queen and her guests; in the same country honey is
+placed in the sacred water of sprinkling used at the blessing
+of the children previous to circumcision (Sibree, <i>The Great
+African Is.</i> pp. 219, 314, 1880). Honey was frequently employed
+in the ancient religious ceremonies of the heathen, but
+was forbidden as a sacrifice in the Jewish ritual (Lev. ii. 11).
+With milk or water it was presented by the Greeks as a libation
+to the dead (<i>Odyss.</i> xi. 27; Eurip. <i>Orest.</i> 115). A honey-cake
+was the monthly food of the fabled serpent-guardian
+of the Acropolis (Herod, viii. 41). By the aborigines of Peru
+honey was offered to the sun.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Hebrew word translated &ldquo;honey&rdquo; in the authorized version
+of the English Bible is <i>debash</i>, practically synonymous with which
+are <i>ja&rsquo;ar</i> or <i>ja&rsquo;arith had-debash</i> (1 Sam. xix. 25-27; cf. Cant. v. 1) and
+nopheth (Ps. xix. 10, &amp;c.), rendered &ldquo;honey-comb.&rdquo; <i>Debash</i> denotes
+bee-honey (as in Deut. xxxii. 13 and Jud. xiv. 8); the manna
+of trees, by some writers considered to have been the &ldquo;wild honey&rdquo;
+eaten by John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4); the syrup of dates or the
+fruits themselves; and probably in some passages (as Gen. xliii. 11
+and Ez. xxvii. 17) the syrupy boiled juice of the grape, resembling
+thin molasses, in use in Palestine, especially at Hebron, under the
+name of <i>dibs</i> (see Kitto, <i>Cyclop.</i>, and E. Robinson, <i>Bibl. Res.</i> ii. 81).
+Josephus (B.J., iv. 8, 3) speaks highly of a honey produced at Jericho,
+consisting of the expressed juice of the fruit of palm trees; and
+Herodotus (iv. 194) mentions a similar preparation made by the
+Gyzantians in North Africa, where it is still in use. The honey
+most esteemed by the ancients was that of Mount Hybla in Sicily,
+and of Mount Hymettus in Attica (iii. 59). Mahaffy (<i>Rambles in
+Greece</i>, p. 148, 2nd ed., 1878) describes the honey of Hymettus as by
+no means so good as the produce of other parts of Greece&mdash;not to
+say of the heather hills of Scotland and Ireland. That of Thebes,
+and more especially that of Corinth, which is made in the thymy
+hills towards Cleonae, he found much better (cf. xi. 88). Honey
+and wax, still largely obtained in Corsica (vi. 440), were in olden
+times the chief productions of the island. In England, in the
+13th and 14th centuries, honey sold at from about 7d. to 1s. 2d.
+a gallon, and occasionally was disposed of by the swarm or hive, or
+<i>ruscha</i> (Rogers, <i>Hist. of Agric. and Prices in Eng.</i>, 1. 418). At
+Wrexham, Denbigh, Wales, two honey fairs are annually held, one
+on the Thursday next after the 1st of September, and the other&mdash;the
+more recently instituted and by far the larger&mdash;on the Thursday
+following the first Wednesday in October. In Hungary the amounts
+of honey and of wax are in favourable years respectively about
+190,000 and 12,000 cwt., and in unfavourable years, as, <i>e.g.</i> 1874,
+about 12,000 and 3000 cwt. The hives there in 1870 numbered
+617,407 (or 40 per 1000 of the population, against 45 in Austria).
+Of these 365,711 were in Hungary Proper, and 91,348 (87 per 1000
+persons) in the Military Frontier (Keleti, <i>Übersicht der Bevölk.
+Ungarns</i>, 1871; Schwicker, <i>Statistik d. K. Ungarn</i>, 1877). In Poland
+the system of bee-keeping introduced by Dolinowski has been found
+to afford an average of 40 &#8468; of honey and wax and two new swarms
+per hive, the common peasant&rsquo;s hive yielding, with two swarms,
+only 3 &#8468; of honey and wax. In forests and places remote from
+villages in Podolia and parts of Volhynia, as many as 1000 hives may
+be seen in one apiary. In the district of Ostrolenka, in the government
+of Plock, and in the woody region of Polesia, in Lithuania, a
+method is practised of rearing bees in excavated trunks of trees
+(Stanton, &ldquo;On the Treatment of Bees in Poland,&rdquo; <i>Technologist</i>, vi.
+45, 1866). When, in August, in the loftier valleys of Bormio, Italy,
+flowering ceases, the bees in their wooden hives are by means of
+spring-carts transported at night to lower regions, where they obtain
+from the buckwheat crops the inferior honey which serves them for
+winter consumption (<i>Ib.</i> p. 38).</p>
+
+<p>In Palestine, &ldquo;the land flowing with milk and honey&rdquo;<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (Ex. iii.
+17; Numb. xiii. 27), wild bees are very numerous, especially in the
+wilderness of Judaea, and the selling of their produce, obtained from
+crevices in rocks, hollows in trees and elsewhere, is with many of
+the inhabitants a means of subsistence. Commenting on 1 Sam.
+xiv. 26, J. Roberts (<i>Oriental Illust.</i>) remarks that in the East &ldquo;the
+forests literally flow with honey; large combs may be seen hanging
+on the trees, as you pass along, full of honey.&rdquo; In Galilee, and at
+Bethlehem and other places in Palestine, bee-keeping is extensively
+carried on. The hives are sun-burnt tubes of mud, about 4 ft. in
+length and 8 in. in diameter, and, with the exception of a small
+central aperture for the passage of the bees, closed at each end with
+mud. These are laid together in long rows, or piled pyramidally,
+and are protected from the sun by a covering of mud and of boughs.
+The honey is extracted, when the ends have been removed, by means
+of an iron hook. (See Tristram, <i>Nat. Hist. of the Bible</i>, pp. 322 sqq.,
+2nd ed., 1868). Apiculture in Turkey is in a very rude condition.
+The Bali-dagh, or &ldquo;Honey Mount,&rdquo; in the plain of Troy, is so called
+on account of the numerous wild bees tenanting the caves in its
+precipitous rocks to the south. In various regions of Africa, as on
+the west, near the Gambia, bees abound. Cameron was informed by
+his guides that the large quantities of honey at the cliffs by the river
+Makanyazi were under the protection of an evil spirit, and not one
+of his men could be persuaded to gather any (<i>Across Africa</i>, i. 266).
+On the precipitous slopes of the Teesta valley, in India, the procuring
+of honey from the pendulous bees&rsquo;-nests, which are sometimes large
+enough to be conspicuous features at a mile&rsquo;s distance, is the only
+means by which the idle poor raise their annual rent (Hooker, <i>Him.
+Journ.</i> ii. 41).</p>
+
+<p>To reach the large combs of <i>Apis dorsata</i> and <i>A. testacea</i>, the
+natives of Timor, by whom both the honey and young bees are
+esteemed delicacies, ascend the trunks of lofty forest trees by the
+use of a loop of creeper. Protected from the myriads of angry insects
+by a small torch only, they detach the combs from the under surface
+of the branches, and lower them by slender cords to the ground
+(Wallace, <i>Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool.</i>, vol. xi.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. H. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The term honey in its various forms is peculiar to the Teutonic
+group of languages, and in the Gothic New Testament is wanting, the
+Greek word being there translated <i>melith</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See A. White, in <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vii. 315, pl. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Wetherill (<i>Chem. Gaz.</i> xi. 72, 1853) calculates that the average
+weight of the honey is 8.2 times that of the body of the ant, or 0.3942
+grammes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Compare Isa. vii. 15, 22, where curdled milk (A.V. &ldquo;butter&rdquo;)
+and honey as exclusive articles of diet are indicative of foreign invasion,
+which turns rich agricultural districts into pasture lands or
+uncultivated wastes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Mémoires du Muséum</i>, xi. 313 (1824).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Ib.</i> xii. 293, pl. xii. fig. B (1825). The honey, according to
+Lassaigne (<i>ib.</i> ix. 319), is almost entirely soluble in alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For a list of fifteen treatises concerning honey, dating from 1625
+to 1868, see Waring, <i>Bibl. Therap.</i> ii. 559, New Syd. Soc. (1879).
+On sundry ancient uses for honey, see Beckmann, <i>Hist. of Invent.</i> i.
+287 (1846).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> In Sanskrit, <i>madhu-kuly&#257;</i>, a stream of honey, is sometimes used
+to express an overflowing abundance of good things (Monier Williams,
+<i>Sansk.-Eng. Dict.</i>, p. 736, 1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:281px; height:161px" src="images/img655.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HONEYCOMB,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a cloth, so called because of the particular
+arrangement of the crossing of the warp and weft threads which
+form cells somewhat similar to those of the real honeycomb.
+They differ from the latter in that they are rectangular instead
+of hexagonal. The bottom of the cell is formed by those threads
+and picks which weave &ldquo;plain,&rdquo; while the ascending sides of
+the figure are formed by the gradually increasing length of float
+of the warp and weft yarns.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The figure shows two of the commonest designs which are used for
+these cloths, design A being what is often termed the &ldquo;perfect honeycomb&rdquo;;
+in the figure it will
+be seen that the highest
+number of successive white
+squares is seven, while the
+corresponding highest number
+of successive black
+squares is five. Two of
+each of these maximum
+floats form the top or
+highest edges of the cell,
+and the number of successive
+like squares decreases as the bottom of the cell is reached
+when the floats are one of black and one of white (see middle
+of design, &amp;c.). The weave produces a reversible cloth, and it is
+extensively used for the embellishment of quilts and other fancy
+goods. It is also largely used in the manufacture of cotton and linen
+towels. B is, for certain purposes, a more suitable weave than A,
+but both are very largely used for the latter class of goods.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONEY-EATER,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Honey-sucker</span>, names applied by many
+writers in a very loose way to a large number of birds, some of
+which, perhaps, have no intimate affinity; here they are used in
+a more restricted sense for what, in the opinion of a good many
+recent authorities,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> should really be deemed the family <i>Meliphagidae</i>&mdash;excluding
+therefrom the <i>Nectariniidae</i> or <span class="sc">Sun-birds</span>
+(<i>q.v.</i>) as well as the genera <i>Promerops</i> and <i>Zosterops</i> with whatever
+allies they may possess. Even with this restriction, the
+extent of the family must be regarded as very indefinite, owing
+to the absence of materials sufficient for arriving at a satisfactory
+conclusion, though the existence of such a family is
+probably indisputable. Making allowance, then, for the imperfect
+light in which they must at present be viewed, what are here
+called <i>Meliphagidae</i> include some of the most characteristic
+forms of the ornithology of the great Australian region&mdash;members
+of the family inhabiting almost every part of it, and a
+single species only, <i>Ptilotis limbata</i>, being said to occur outside
+its limits. They all possess, or are supposed to possess, a long
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span>
+protrusible tongue with a brush-like tip, differing, it is believed,
+in structure from that found in any other bird&mdash;<i>Promerops</i>
+perhaps excepted&mdash;and capable of being formed into a suctorial
+tube, by means of which honey is absorbed from the nectary
+of flowers, though it would seem that insects attracted by the
+honey furnish the chief nourishment of many species, while
+others undoubtedly feed to a greater or less extent on fruits.
+The <i>Meliphagidae</i>, as now considered, are for the most part
+small birds, never exceeding the size of a missel thrush; and
+they have been divided into more than 20 genera, containing
+above 200 species, of which only a few can here be particularized.
+Most of these species have a very confined range, being found
+perhaps only on a single island or group of islands in the region,
+but there are a few which are more widely distributed&mdash;such
+as <i>Glycyphila rufifrons</i>, the white-throated<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> honey-eater, found
+over the greater part of Australia and Tasmania. In plumage
+they vary much. Most of the species of <i>Ptilotis</i> are characterized
+by a tuft of white, or in others of yellow, feathers springing
+from behind the ear. In the greater number of the genus
+<i>Myzomela</i><a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> the males are recognizable by a gorgeous display
+of crimson or scarlet, which has caused one species, <i>M. sanguinolenta</i>,
+to be known as the soldier-bird to Australian colonists;
+but in others no brilliant colour appears, and those of several
+genera have no special ornamentation, while some have a
+particularly plain appearance. One of the most curious forms
+is <i>Prosthemadera</i>&mdash;the tui or parson-bird of New Zealand, so
+called from the two tufts of white feathers which hang beneath
+its chin in great contrast to its dark silky plumage, and suggest
+a likeness to the bands worn by ministers of several religious
+denominations when officiating.<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The bell-bird of the same
+island, <i>Anthornis melanura</i>&mdash;whose melody excited the admiration
+of Cook the morning after he had anchored in Queen
+Charlotte&rsquo;s Sound&mdash;is another member of this family, and
+unfortunately seems to be fast becoming extinct. But it would
+be impossible here to enter much further into detail, though
+the wattle-birds, <i>Anthochaera</i>, of Australia have at least to be
+named. Mention, however, must be made of the friar-birds,
+<i>Tropidorhynchus</i>, of which nearly a score of species, five of them
+belonging to Australia, have been described. With their stout
+bills, mostly surmounted by an excrescence, they seem to be
+the most abnormal forms of the family, and most of them are
+besides remarkable for the baldness of some part at least of their
+head. They assemble in troops, sitting on dead trees, with a
+loud call, and are very pugnacious, frequently driving away
+hawks and crows. A. R. Wallace (<i>Malay Archipelago</i>, ii.
+150-153) discovered the curious fact that two species of this
+genus&mdash;<i>T. bourensis</i> and <i>T. subcornutus</i>&mdash;respectively inhabiting
+the islands of Bouru and Ceram, were the object of natural
+&ldquo;mimicry&rdquo; on the part of two species of oriole of the genus
+<i>Mimeta</i>, <i>M. bourouensis</i> and <i>M. forsteni</i>, inhabiting the same
+islands, so as to be on a superficial examination identical in
+appearance&mdash;the honey-eater and the oriole of each island presenting
+exactly the same tints&mdash;the black patch of bare skin
+round the eyes of the former, for instance, being copied in the
+latter by a patch of black feathers, and even the protuberance
+on the beak of the <i>Tropidorhynchus</i> being imitated by a similar
+enlargement of the beak of the <i>Mimeta</i>. The very reasonable
+explanation which Wallace offers is that the pugnacity of the
+former has led the smaller birds of prey to respect it, and it
+is therefore an advantage for the latter, being weaker and less
+courageous, to be mistaken for it.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Among them especially A. R. Wallace, <i>Geogr. Distr. Animals</i>, ii
+275.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The young of this species has the throat yellow.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> W. A. Forbes published a careful monograph of this genus in
+the <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i> for 1879, pp. 256-279.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This bird, according to Sir Walter Buller (<i>Birds of New Zealand</i>,
+p. 88), while uttering its wild notes, indulges in much gesticulation,
+which adds to the suggested resemblance. It has great power of
+mimicry, and is a favourite cage-bird both with the natives and
+colonists. On one occasion, says Buller, he had addressed a large
+meeting of Maories on a matter of considerable political importance,
+when &ldquo;immediately on the conclusion of my speech, and before the
+old chief to whom my arguments were chiefly addressed had time to
+reply, a tui, whose netted cage hung to a rafter overhead, responded
+in a clear, emphatic way, &lsquo;Tito!&rsquo; (false). The circumstance naturally
+caused much merriment among my audience, and quite upset the
+gravity of the venerable old chief, Nepia Taratoa. &lsquo;Friend,&rsquo; said he,
+laughing, &lsquo;your arguments are very good; but my <i>mokai</i> is a very
+wise bird, and he is not yet convinced!&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONEY-GUIDE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a bird so called from its habit of pointing
+out to man and to the ratel (<i>Mellivora capensis</i>) the nests of
+bees. Stories to this effect have been often told, and may be
+found in the narratives of many African travellers, from Bruce
+to Livingstone. But Layard says (<i>B. South Africa</i>, p. 242)
+that the birds will not infrequently lead any one to a leopard
+or a snake, and will follow a dog with vociferations, though its
+noisy cry and antics unquestionably have in many cases the
+effect signified by its English name. If not its first discoverer,
+Sparrman, in 1777, was the first who described and figured this
+bird, which he met with in the Cape Colony (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>,
+lxvii. 42-47, pl. i.), giving it the name of <i>Culculus indicator</i>,
+its zygodactylous feet with the toes placed in pairs&mdash;two before
+and two behind&mdash;inducing the belief that it must be referred
+to that genus. Vicillot in 1816 elevated it to the rank of a genus,
+<i>Indicator</i>; but it was still considered to belong to the family
+<i>Cuculidae</i> (its asserted parasitical habits lending force to that
+belief) by all systematists except Blyth and Jerdon, until it
+was shown by Blanford (<i>Obs. Geol. and Zool. Abyssinia</i>, pp.
+308, 309) and Sclater (<i>Ibis</i>, 1870, pp. 176-180) that it was more
+allied to the barbets, <i>Capitonidae</i>, and, in consequence, was then
+made the type of a distinct family, <i>Indicatoridae</i>. In the meanwhile
+other species had been discovered, some of them differing
+sufficiently to warrant Sundevall&rsquo;s foundation of a second genus,
+<i>Prodotiscus</i>, of the group. The honey-guides are small birds,
+the largest hardly exceeding a lark in size, and of plain plumage,
+with what appears to be a very sparrow-like bill. Bowdler
+Sharpe, in a revision of the family published in 1876 (<i>Orn.
+Miscellany</i>, i. 192-209), recognizes ten species of the genus
+<i>Indicator</i>, to which another was added by Dr Reichenow (<i>Journ.
+für Ornithologie</i>, 1877, p. 110), and two of <i>Prodotiscus</i>. Four
+species of the former, including <i>I. sparrmani</i>, which was the
+first made known, are found in South Africa, and one of the
+latter. The rest inhabit other parts of the same continent,
+except <i>I. archipelagicus</i>, which seems to be peculiar to Borneo,
+and <i>I. xanthonotus</i>, which occurs on the Himalayas from the
+borders of Afghanistan to Bhutan. The interrupted geographical
+distribution of this genus is a very curious fact, no species having
+been found in the Indian or Malayan peninsula to connect
+the outlying forms with those of Africa, which must be regarded
+as their metropolis.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONEY LOCUST,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> the popular name of a tree, <i>Gleditsia
+triacanthos</i>, a member of the natural order Leguminosae, and
+a native of the more eastern United States of North America.
+It reaches from 75 to 140 ft. in height with a trunk 2 or 3, or
+sometimes 5 or 6 ft. in diameter, and slender spreading branches
+which form a broad, flattish crown. The branchlets bear numerous
+simple or three-forked (whence the species-name <i>triacanthos</i>)
+sharp stiff spines, 3 to 4 in. long, at first red in colour, then
+chestnut brown; they are borne above the leaf-axils and
+represent undeveloped branchlets; sometimes they are borne
+also on the trunk and main branches. The long-stalked leaves
+are 7 to 8 in. long with eight to fourteen pairs of narrowly
+oblong leaflets. The flowers, which are of two kinds, are borne
+in racemes in the leaf-axils; the staminate flowers in larger
+numbers. The brown pods are often 12 to 18 in. long, have
+thin, tough walls, and contain a quantity of pulp between the
+seeds; they contract spirally when drying. The tree was first
+cultivated in Europe towards the end of the 17th century
+by Bishop Compton in his garden at Fulham, near London,
+and is now extensively planted as an ornamental tree. The
+name of the genus commemorates Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch
+(1714-1786), a friend of Linnaeus, and the author of one of
+the earliest works on scientific forestry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONEYMOON,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> the first month after marriage. Lord Avebury
+in his <i>Origin of Civilization</i> suggests that the seclusion usually
+associated with this period is a survival of marriage by capture,
+and answers to the period during which the husband kept his
+wife in retirement, to prevent her from appealing to her relatives
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span>
+for release. Others suggest that as the moon commences to
+wane as soon as it is at its full, so does the mutual affection
+of the wedded pair, the &ldquo;honeymoon&rdquo; (with this derivation)
+not necessarily referring to any definite period of time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:468px" src="images/img657.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Honeysuckle.&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Flowering branch;
+(<i>b</i>) Flower, nat. size; (<i>c</i>) fruit, slightly
+reduced.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HONEYSUCKLE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (Mid. Eng., <i>honysocle</i>, <i>i.e.</i> any plant from
+which honey may be sucked,&mdash;cf. A.-S. <i>huni-suge</i>, privet; Ger.
+<i>Geissblatt</i>; Fr. <i>chèvrefeuille</i>), botanical name <i>Lonicera</i>, a genus
+of climbing, erect or prostrate shrubs, of the natural order
+<i>Caprifoliaceae</i>, so named after the 16th-century German botanist
+Adam Lonicer. The British species is <i>L. Periclymenum</i>, the
+woodbine; <i>L. Caprifolium</i> and <i>L. Xylosteum</i> are naturalized
+in a few counties in the south and east of England. Some of
+the garden varieties of the woodbine are very beautiful, and
+are held in high esteem for their delicious fragrance, even the
+wild plant, with its pale flowers, compensating for its sickly looks
+&ldquo;with never-cloying odours.&rdquo; The North American sub-evergreen
+<i>L. sempervirens</i>, with its fine heads of blossoms,
+commonly called the
+trumpet honeysuckle,
+the most handsome of
+all the cultivated honeysuckles,
+is a distinct and
+beautiful species producing
+both scarlet and
+yellow flowered varieties,
+and the Japanese
+<i>L. flexuosa</i> var. <i>aureoreticulata</i>
+is esteemed
+for its charmingly variegated
+leaves netted with
+golden yellow. The fly
+honeysuckle, <i>L. Xylosteum</i>,
+a hardy shrub of
+dwarfish, erect habit,
+and <i>L. tatarica</i>, of
+similar habit, both
+European, are amongst
+the oldest English garden
+shrubs, and bear
+axillary flowers of
+various colours, occurring
+two on a peduncle.
+There are numerous
+other species, many of
+them introduced to our gardens, and well worth cultivating in
+shrubberies or as climbers on walls and bowers, either for their
+beauty or the fragrance of their blossoms.</p>
+
+<p>In the western counties of England, and generally by agriculturists,
+the name honeysuckle is applied to the meadow clover,
+<i>Trifolium pratense</i>. Another plant of the same family (Leguminosae)
+<i>Hedysarum coronarium</i>, a very handsome hardy
+biennial often seen in old-fashioned collections of garden plants,
+is commonly called the French honeysuckle. The name is
+moreover applied with various affixes to several other totally
+different plants. Thus white honeysuckle and false honeysuckle
+are names for the North American <i>Azalea viscosa</i>; Australian
+or heath honeysuckle is the Australian <i>Banksia serrata</i>, Jamaica
+honeysuckle, <i>Passiflora laurifolia</i>, dwarf honeysuckle the widely
+spread <i>Cornus suecica</i>, Virgin Mary&rsquo;s honeysuckle the European
+<i>Pulmonaria officinalis</i>, while West Indian honeysuckle is <i>Tecoma
+capensis</i>, and is also a name applied to <i>Desmodium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The wood of the fly honeysuckle is extremely hard, and
+the clear portions between the joints of the stems, when their
+pith has been removed, were stated by Linnaeus to be utilized
+in Sweden for making tobacco-pipes. The wood is also employed
+to make teeth for rakes; and, like that of <i>L. tatarica</i>, it is a
+favourite material for walking-sticks.</p>
+
+<p>Honeysuckles (<i>Lonicera</i>) flourish in any ordinary garden soil,
+but are usually sadly neglected in regard to pruning. This
+should be done about March, cutting out some of the old wood,
+and shortening back some of the younger growths of the preceding
+year.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. Ws.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONFLEUR,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a seaport of north-western France, in the
+department of Calvados, 57 m. N.E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906)
+8735. The town is situated at the foot of a semicircle of hills,
+on the south shore of the Seine estuary, opposite Havre, with
+which it communicates by steamboat. Honfleur, with its dark
+narrow lanes and old houses, has the typical aspect of an old-fashioned
+seaport. The most noteworthy of its buildings is the
+church of St Catherine, constructed entirely of timber work,
+with the exception of the façade added in the 18th century,
+and consisting of two parallel naves, of which the more ancient
+is supposed to date from the end of the 15th century. Within
+the church are several antique statues and a painting by J.
+Jordaens&mdash;&ldquo;Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane.&rdquo; The church
+tower stands on the other side of a street. St Leonard&rsquo;s dates
+from the 17th century, with the exception of its fine ogival
+portal and rose-window belonging to the 16th, and its octagonal
+tower erected in the 18th. The ruins of a 16th-century castle
+known as the Lieutenance and several houses of the same period
+are also of antiquarian interest. The hôtel de ville contains
+a library and a museum. On the rising ground above the town
+is the chapel of Nôtre-Dame-de-Grâce, a shrine much resorted
+to by pilgrim sailors, which is said to have been founded in 1034
+by Robert the Magnificent of Normandy and rebuilt in 1606.
+The town has a tribunal and a chamber of commerce and a
+communal college. The port, which is protected from the
+west winds by the height known as the Côte de Grâce, consists
+of the tidal harbour and four floating basins&mdash;The West basin,
+dating from the 17th century, and the Centre, East and Carnot
+basins. A reservoir affords the means of sluicing the channel and
+supplying the basins. The surface available for vessels is about 27
+acres. Numerous fishing and coasting vessels frequent the
+harbour. In 1907 there entered 375 vessels, of 133,872 tons,
+more than half this tonnage being British. The exports go mainly
+to England and include poultry, butter, eggs, cheese, chocolate,
+vegetables, fruit, seeds and purple ore. There is regular communication
+by steamer with Southampton. Timber from
+Scandinavia, English coal and artificial manures form the
+bulk of the imports. There are important saw-mills, as well
+as shipbuilding yards, manufactories of chemical manures and
+iron foundries.</p>
+
+<p>Honfleur dates from the 11th century and is thus four or
+five hundred years older than its rival Havre, by which it was
+supplanted during the 18th century. During the Hundred
+Years&rsquo; War it was frequently taken and re-taken, the last occupation
+by the English ending in 1440. In 1562 the Protestant
+forces got possession of it only after a regular siege of the suburb
+of St Leonard; and though Henry IV. effected its capture in
+1590 he had again to invest it in 1594 after all the rest of
+Normandy had submitted to his arms. In the earlier years of
+the 17th century Honfleur colonists founded Quebec, and Honfleur
+traders established factories in Java and Sumatra and a
+fishing establishment in Newfoundland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONG-KONG<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (properly <span class="sc">Hiang-Kiang</span>, the place of &ldquo;sweet
+lagoons&rdquo;), an important British island-possession, situated
+off the south-east coast of China, opposite the province of
+Kwang-tung, on the east side of the estuary of the Si-kiang,
+38 m. E. of Macao and 75 S.E. of Canton, between 22° 9&prime; and
+22° 1&prime; N., and 114° 5&prime; and 114° 18&prime; E. It is one of a small cluster
+named by the Portuguese &ldquo;Ladrones&rdquo; or Thieves, on account
+of the notorious habits of their old inhabitants. Extremely
+irregular in outline, it has an area of 29 sq. m., measuring 10½ m.
+in extreme length from N.E. to S.W., and varying in breadth
+from 2 to 5 m. A good military road about 22 m. long encircles
+the island. From the mainland it is separated by a narrow
+channel, which at Hong-Kong roads, between Victoria, the island
+capital), and Kowloon Point, is about 1 m. broad, and which
+narrows at Ly-ee-mun Pass to little over a ¼ m. The
+southern coast in particular is deeply indented; and there
+two bold peninsulas, extending for several miles into the sea,
+form two capacious natural harbours, namely, Deep Water
+Bay, with the village of Stanley to the east, and Tytam Bay,
+which has a safe, well-protected entrance showing a depth of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span>
+10 to 16 fathoms. An in-shore island on the west coast, called
+Aberdeen, or Taplishan, affords protection to the Shekpywan
+or Aberdeen harbour, an inlet provided with a granite graving
+dock, the caisson gate of which is 60 ft. wide, and the Hope
+dock, opened in 1867, with a length of 425 ft. and a depth of
+24 ft. Opposite the same part of the coast, but nearly 2 m.
+distant, rises the largest of the surrounding islands, Lamma,
+whose conspicuous peak, Mount Stenhouse, attains a height of
+1140 ft. and is a landmark for local navigation. On the northern
+shore of Hong-Kong there is a patent slip at East or Matheson
+Point, which is serviceable during the north-east monsoon,
+when sailing vessels frequently approach Victoria through the
+Ly-ee-mun Pass. The ordinary course for such vessels is from
+the westward, on which side they are sheltered by Green Island
+and Kellett Bank. There is good anchorage throughout the
+entire channel separating the island from the mainland, except
+in the Ly-ee-mun Pass, where the water is deep; the best
+anchorage is in Hong-Kong roads, in front of Victoria, where,
+over good holding ground, the depth is 5 to 9 fathoms. The
+inner anchorage of Victoria Bay, about ½ m. off shore and
+out of the strength of the tide, is 6 to 7 fathoms. Victoria,
+the seat of government and of trade, is the chief centre of
+population, but a tract on the mainland is covered with public
+buildings and villa residences. Practically an outlying suburb
+of Victoria, Kowloon or (Nine Dragons) is free from the extreme
+heat of the capital, being exposed to the south-west monsoon.
+Numerous villas have also been erected along the beautiful
+western coast of the island, while Stanley, in the south, is
+favoured as a watering-place.</p>
+
+<p>The island is mountainous throughout, the low granite ridges,
+parted by bleak, tortuous valleys, leaving in some places a
+narrow strip of level coast-land, and in others overhanging the
+sea in lofty precipices. From the sea, and especially from the
+magnificent harbour which faces the capital, the general aspect
+of Hong-Kong is one of singular beauty. Inland the prospect
+is wild, dreary and monotonous. The hills have a painfully
+bare appearance from the want of trees. The streams, which
+are plentiful, are traced through the uplands and glens by a
+line of straggling brushwood and rank herbage. Nowhere is
+the eye relieved by the evidences of cultivation or fertility.
+The hills, which are mainly composed of granite, serpentine
+and syenite, rise in irregular masses to considerable heights,
+the loftiest point, Victoria Peak, reaching an altitude of 1825 ft.
+The Peak lies immediately to the south-west of the capital, in
+the extreme north-west corner of the island, and is used as a
+station for signalling the approach of vessels. Patches of land,
+chiefly around the coast, have been laid under rice, sweet
+potatoes and yams, but the island is hardly able to raise a
+home-supply of vegetables. The mango, lichen, pear and
+orange are indigenous, and several fruits and esculents have been
+introduced. One of the chief products is building-stone, which
+is quarried by the Chinese. The animals are few, comprising
+a land tortoise, the armadillo, a species of boa, several poisonous
+snakes and some woodcock. The public works suffer from the
+ravages of white ants. Water everywhere abounds, and is
+supplied to the shipping by means of tanks.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Peking Treaty of 1860 the peninsula of Kowloon
+(about 5 m. in area) was added to Hong-Kong. The population
+is about 27,000. There are several docks and warehouses,
+and manufactures are being developed.
+<span class="sidenote">Mainland territory.</span>
+Granite is quarried in the peninsula. An agreement
+was entered into in 1898 whereby China leased to
+Great Britain for ninety-nine years the territory behind Kowloon
+peninsula up to a line drawn from Mirs Bay to Deep Bay and
+the adjoining islands, including Lantao. The new district,
+which extends to 376 sq. m. in area, is mountainous, with
+extensive cultivated valleys of great fertility, and the coastline
+is deeply indented by bays. The alluvial soil of the valleys
+yields two crops of rice in the year. Sugar-cane, indigo, hemp,
+peanuts, potatoes of different varieties, yam, taro, beans,
+sesamum, pumpkins and vegetables of all kinds are also grown.
+The mineral resources are as yet unknown. The population
+is estimated at about 100,000. It consists of Puntis (or
+Cantonese), Hakkas (&ldquo;strangers&rdquo;) and Tankas. The Puntis
+are agricultural and inhabit the valleys, and they make excellent
+traders. The Hakkas are a hardy and frugal race, belonging
+mainly to the hill districts. The Tankas are the boat people
+or floating population. In the government of the new territory
+the existing organization is as far as possible utilized.</p>
+
+<p>Hong-Kong or Victoria harbour constantly presents an
+animated appearance, as many as 240 guns having been fired
+as salutes in a single day. Its approaches are strongly
+fortified. The steaming distance from Singapore is
+<span class="sidenote">Victoria.</span>
+1520 m. Victoria, the capital, often spoken of as Hong-Kong
+(population over 166,000, of whom about 6000 are European
+or American), stretches for about 4 m. along the north coast.
+Its breadth varies from ½ m. in the central portions to 200
+or 300 yds. in the eastern and western portions. The town
+is built in three layers. The &ldquo;Praya&rdquo; or esplanade, 50 ft.
+wide, is given up to shipping. The Praya reclamation scheme
+provided for the extension of the land frontage of 250 ft. and
+a depth of 20 ft. at all states of the tide. A further extension
+of the naval dockyard was begun in 1902, and a new commercial
+pier was opened in 1900. The main commercial street runs
+inland parallel with the Praya. Beyond the commercial portion,
+on each side, lie the Chinese quarters, wherein there is a closely
+packed population. In 1888, 1600 people were living in the
+space of a single acre, and over 100,000 were believed to be
+living within an area not exceeding ½ m.; and the overcrowding
+does not tend to diminish, for in one district, in 1900,
+it was estimated that there were at the rate of 640,000 persons
+on the sq. m. The average, however, for the whole of
+the city is 126 per acre, or 80,640 per sq. m. The second
+stratum of the town lies ten minutes&rsquo; climb up the side of the
+island. Government house and other public buildings are in
+this quarter. There abound &ldquo;beautifully laid out gardens,
+public and private, and solidly constructed roads, some of them
+bordered with bamboos and other delicately-fronded trees,
+and fringed with the luxuriant growth of semi-tropical vegetation.&rdquo;
+Finally, the third layer, known as &ldquo;the Peak,&rdquo; and reached
+by a cable tramway, is dotted over with private houses and
+bungalows, the summer health resort of those who can afford
+them; here a new residence for the governor was begun in 1900.
+Excellent water is supplied to the town from the Pokfolum
+and Tytam reservoirs, the former containing 68 million gallons,
+the latter 390 millions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The temperature has a yearly range of from 45° to 99°,
+but it occasionally falls below 40°, and ice occurs on the Peak. In
+January 1893 ice was found at sea-level. The wet season begins in
+May, after showers in March and April, and continues until the
+beginning of August. During this period rain falls almost without
+intermission. The rainfall varies greatly, but the mean is about
+90 in. In 1898 only 57.025 in. fell, while in 1897 there were 100.03
+in.; in 1899, 72.7 in. and in 1900, 73.7 in. The damp is extremely
+penetrating. During the dry season the climate is healthy, but
+dysentery and intermittent fever are not uncommon. Bilious
+remittent fever occurs in the summer months, and smallpox prevails
+from November to March. The annual death-rate per 1000 for the
+whole population in 1902 was 21.70.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The following table shows the increase of
+population:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Europe and<br />American<br />Civil.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Chinese Civil.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total (including<br />Military and Naval<br />Establishments and<br />Indians, &amp;c.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,040</td> <td class="tcc rb">148,850</td> <td class="tcc rb">160,402</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,195</td> <td class="tcc rb">208,383</td> <td class="tcc rb">221,441</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,860</td> <td class="tcc rb">274,543</td> <td class="tcc rb">283,978</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12,174</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">306,130</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">326,961</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Education is provided by a few government schools and by a
+large number receiving grants-in-aid. The foundation-stone of Hong-Kong
+University was laid in March 1910, the buildings being the gift of
+Sir Hormusjee Mody, a colonial broker. The Queen&rsquo;s College provides
+secondary education for boys. There are several hospitals, one of
+which is a government institution. The Hong-Kong savings bank
+has deposits amounting to about $1,100,000. There is a police force
+composed of Europeans, Indian Sikhs and Chinese; and a strong
+military garrison.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;Beyond the cultivation of vegetable gardens there
+is practically no agricultural industry in the colony. But although
+only 400 acres are cultivated on Hong-Kong island, and the same
+number of acres in Kowloon, there are 90,000 acres under cultivation
+in the new territory, of which over 7000 acres were in 1900
+planted with sugar-cane. Granite quarries are worked. The chief
+industries are sugar-refining, the manufacture of cement, paper,
+bamboo and rattan ware, carving in wood and ivory, working in
+copper and iron, gold-beating and the production of gold, silver
+and sandal-wood ware, furniture making, umbrella and jinricksha
+making, and industries connected with kerosene oil and matches.
+The manufacture of cotton has been introduced. Ship and boat
+building, together with subsidiary industries, such as rope and sail
+making, appear less subject to periods of depression than other
+industries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trade.</i>&mdash;Hong-Kong being a free port, there are no official figures
+as to the amount of trade; but the value of the exports and imports
+is estimated as about £50,000,000 in the year. Among the principal
+goods dealt with are tea, silk, opium, sugar, flax, salt, earthenware,
+oil, amber, cotton and cotton goods, sandal-wood, ivory, betel,
+vegetables, live stock and granite. There is an extensive Chinese
+passenger trade. The following are the figures of ships cleared and
+entered:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Tonnage.</td> <td class="tcc allb">British.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,359,994</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,758,160</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,676,293</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,994,919</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,265,780</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,705,648</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">19,709,451</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,945,976</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Chinese ships rank next to British ships in the amount of
+trade. German and Japanese ships follow next.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;The revenue and expenditure are given below:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Revenue.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Expenditure.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">$1,069,948</td> <td class="tcr rb">$948,014</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,995,220</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,915,350</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,918,159</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,841,805</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,901,073</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,752,444</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The main sources of revenue are licences, rent of government
+property, the post-office and land sales. The light dues were reduced
+in 1898 from 2½ cents to 1 cent per ton. There is a public debt
+of about £340,000, borrowed for public works, which is being paid
+off by a sinking fund. The only legal tender is the Mexican dollar,
+and the British and Hong-Kong dollar, or other silver dollars of
+equivalent value duly authorized by the governor. There are
+small silver and copper coins, which are legal tenders for amounts
+not exceeding two dollars and one dollar respectively. There is
+also a large paper currency in the form of notes issued by the
+Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, the Hong-Kong
+and Shanghai Banking Corporation and the National Bank of
+China, Limited. The foundation of new law courts was laid in 1900.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration.</i>&mdash;Formerly an integral part of China, the island
+of Hong-Kong was first ceded to Great Britain in 1841, and the
+cession was confirmed by the treaty of Nanking in 1842, the charter
+bearing the date 5th of April 1843. The colony is administered by a
+governor, executive council and legislative council. The executive
+council consists of the holders of certain offices and of such other
+members as the crown may nominate. In 1890 there were nine
+members. The legislative council consists of the same officials and
+of six unofficial members. Of these, three are appointed by the
+governor (of whom one must be, and two at present are, members of
+the Chinese community); one is elected from the chamber of
+commerce, and one from the justices of the peace.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Sir G. W. des V&oelig;ux, <i>Report on Blue-book of 1888</i>;
+<i>A Handbook to Hong-Kong</i> (Hong-Kong, 1893); <i>The China Sea
+Directory</i> (vol. iii., 3rd ed., 1894); Henry Norman, <i>The Peoples and
+Politics of the Far East</i> (London, 1895); Sir E. Hertslet, <i>Treaties
+between Great Britain and China and China and Foreign Powers</i>
+(London, 1896); A. R. Colquhoun, <i>China in Transformation</i>
+(London, 1898); <i>Colonial Possessions Report</i>, No. 84; and other
+<i>Colonial Annual Reports</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONITON,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the
+Honiton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
+pleasantly situated on rising ground on the left bank of the Otter,
+16½ m. E.N.E. of Exeter by the London &amp; South-Western
+railway. Pop. (1901) 3271. The town consists of one wide
+street, down which a stream of water runs, extending for about
+1 m., and crossed at right angles by a lesser street. The restored
+church of St Michael, formerly a parish church, but standing
+on a hill about ½ m. from the town, was built by Courtenay,
+bishop of Exeter, about 1482. It retains a curiously carved
+screen, and the black marble tomb of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s physician,
+Marwood, who attained the age of 105. Allhallows Grammar
+School, founded in 1614, was enlarged in 1893; St Margaret&rsquo;s
+hospital, founded as a lazar-house in the 14th century, is converted
+into almshouses. Honiton is famous for its lace industry,
+established by refugees from Flanders under Queen Elizabeth.
+The delicate fabric made by hand on the pillow was long in
+demand; its sale was, however, greatly diminished by the
+competition of cheaper machine-made goods, and a school of
+lace-making was opened to promote its recovery. The town
+possesses breweries, tanneries, malthouses, flour-mills, saw-mills,
+brick and tile works, potteries and an iron foundry; its trade in
+butter is considerable. It is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen
+and 18 councillors. Area, 3134 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Honiton (<i>Honetona</i>, <i>Huneton</i>) is situated on the British
+Icknield Street, and was probably the site of an early settlement,
+but it does not appear in history before the Domesday Survey,
+when it was a considerable manor, held by Drew (Drogo) under
+the count of Mortain, who had succeeded Elmer the Saxon,
+with a subject population of 33, a flock of 80 sheep, a mill and 2
+salt-workers. The borough was founded before 1217 by William
+de Vernon, earl of Devon, whose ancestor Richard de Redvers
+had received the manor from Henry I. In the 14th century it
+passed to the Courtenays, and in 1698 Sir William Courtenay
+was confirmed in the right of holding court leet, view of frank-pledge
+and the nomination of a portreeve, these privileges
+having been surrendered to James II. The borough was represented
+by two members in parliament in 1300 and 1311, and then
+not again till 1640, from which date it returned two members
+until disfranchised by the act of 1868, the returning officer being
+the portreeve, who was also the chief magistrate of the borough
+until its incorporation by charter of 1846. In 1221 Falkes de
+Breauté, then custodian of the borough, rendered a palfrey for
+holding a three days&rsquo; fair at the feast of All Saints, transferred
+in 1247 to the feast of St Margaret, and still held under that grant.
+A great market for corn and other produce is still held on Saturday
+by prescription. The wool manufacture flourished at Honiton
+in the reign of Henry VII., and it is said to have been the first
+town at which serges were made, but the industry entirely
+declined during the 19th century. The lace manufacture was
+introduced by Flemish refugees, and was flourishing in the reign
+of Charles I.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Devonshire</i>; A. Farquharson, <i>History
+of Honiton</i> (Exeter, 1868).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONNEF<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>, a town and climatic health resort of Germany,
+beautifully situated on the right bank of the Rhine, at the foot
+of the Siebengebirge, 8 m. above Bonn by the railway
+Cologne-Königswinter-Horchheim.
+Pop. (1905) 6183. It has an Evangelical
+and a Roman Catholic church, a sanatorium for consumptives,
+and does a considerable trade in wine. The town is
+surrounded by vineyards and orchards, and has annually a large
+number of visitors. A mineral spring called the Drachenquelle
+is used both for drinking and bathing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONOLULU<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>, a city, port of entry, and the capital of Hawaii,
+situated in the &ldquo;city and county of Honolulu,&rdquo; on the S. coast
+of the island of Oahu, at the mouth of Nuuanu Valley, 2100 m.
+S.W. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890) 22,907; (1900) 39,306,
+of whom 24,746 were males, 14,560 were females; about 10,000
+were Hawaiians, 15,000 Asiatics, and 5000 Portuguese;
+(1910) 52,183. Honolulu is served by the Oahu railway, by
+electric lines to the principal suburbs, and by steamship lines
+to San Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, Manila, Salina Cruz
+(Mexico), Victoria, Sydney, and Chinese and Japanese ports.
+The business section and the older residence quarters occupy
+low ground, but many of the newer residences are built on the
+sides of neighbouring hills and mountains, of which there are
+several from 500 to 2000 ft. in height. The Punch Bowl (behind
+the city), a hill rising about 500 ft. above the sea, Diamond Head,
+a crater about 760 ft. in height, 4 m. to the S.E., and the Nuuanu
+Pali, a lofty and picturesque precipice 6 m. up the valley, are
+especially known for their commanding views. In front of the
+city is the small harbour, well protected from all winds except
+those from the S.; in and after 1892 the Hawaiian government
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span>
+deepened its entrance from 21 ft. to 30 ft. Six miles to the W.
+is the much more spacious Pearl Harbor (a U.S. Naval Station),
+the bar at the entrance of which was removed (1903) by the U.S.
+government. Pearl Harbor and the harbour of Honolulu are the
+only safe ports in the archipelago. The streets of Honolulu are
+wide, and are macadamized with crushed or broken lava. The
+business houses are mostly of brick or stone, and range from two
+to six storeys in height. About most of the residences there are
+many tropical trees, flowering shrubs and plants. Wood is
+the most common material of which the residences are built;
+a large portion of these residences are one-storey cottages;
+broad verandahs are common; and of the more pretentious
+residences the lanai, a semi-outdoor drawing-room with conservatories
+adjoining, is a notable feature. Throughout the city
+there is a marked absence of poverty and squalor. There are
+good hotels in the city and its suburbs. The government
+buildings are extensive and have a pleasing appearance; that
+of the executive, in a beautiful park, was formerly the royal
+palace and still contains many relics of royalty. Facing the
+judiciary building is an heroic statue in bronze of Kamehameha
+the Great. About 2 m. W. of the business centre of the city is the
+Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, a fine stone building on a commanding
+site, and containing a large collection of Hawaiian and
+Polynesian relics and curios, especially Hawaiian feather-work,
+and notable collections of fish and of Hawaiian land shells and
+birds. Four miles S.E. of the business centre, at the foot of
+Diamond Head, is Waikiki sea-beach, noted for its surf-riding,
+boating and bathing, and Kapiolani Park, a pleasure resort, near
+which is a famous aquarium of tropical fishes. Honolulu has
+other parks, a fine Botanical Garden, created by the Bureau of
+Agriculture, several public squares, several hospitals, a maternity
+home, the Lunalilo Home for aged Hawaiians, an asylum for the
+insane, several schools of high rank both public and private&mdash;notably
+Oahu College on the E. edge of the city, first founded as
+a school for the children of missionaries in 1841; the Honolulu
+High School, founded in 1833 as the Oahu Charity School, to
+teach English to the half whites; the Royal School, which was
+founded in 1840 for the sons of chiefs; and the Normal School,
+housed in what was in 1906 the most expensive building on the
+island of Oahu&mdash;a library containing about 14,000 volumes and
+the collections of the Hawaiian Historical Society, a number of
+benevolent, literary, social and political societies, and an art
+league, and is the see of both an Anglican and a Roman Catholic
+bishop. In 1907 the Pacific Scientific Institution for the
+advancement of scientific knowledge of the Pacific, its islands
+and their people, was established here. Among the clubs of the
+city are the Pacific Club, founded in 1853 as the British Club;
+the Scottish Thistle Club (1891), of which Robert Louis Stevenson
+was a member; the Hawaii Yacht Club, and the Polo, Country
+and University Clubs. There are various journals and periodicals,
+five languages being represented. The chief industries are
+the manufacture of machinery (especially machinery for sugar-refineries)
+and carriages, rice-milling and ship-building. Honolulu&rsquo;s
+total exports for the fiscal year 1908 were valued at
+$42,238,455, and its imports at $19,985,724. There is a privately
+owned electric street car service in the city. The water-works and
+electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the Territorial
+government, and to the plentiful water-supply is partly due
+the luxuriant vegetation of the city. Honolulu&rsquo;s safe harbour,
+discovered in 1794, made it a place of resort for vessels (especially
+whalers) and traders from the beginning of the 19th century.
+Kamehameha I. (the Great) lived here from 1803 until 1811.
+In 1816 was built a fort which stood until 1857. In 1820 the
+city became the principal residence of the sovereign and soon
+afterwards of foreign consuls, and thus practically the seat of
+government. In 1907 an act was passed by which the former
+county of Oahu, including the island of Oahu and the small
+islands adjacent, was made a municipal corporation under the
+name of the &ldquo;city and county of Honolulu&rdquo;; this act came into
+effect on the 1st of January 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONORIUS,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> the name of four popes and one antipope
+(Honorius II; <i>i.e.</i> 2 below).</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Honorius I.</span>, pope from 625 to 638, was of a noble Roman
+family, his father Petronius having been consul. He was very
+active in carrying on the work of Gregory the Great, especially
+in England; Bede (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> ii. 17) gives a letter of his to King
+Edwin of Northumbria, in which he admonishes him diligently
+to study Gregory&rsquo;s writings; and it was at Edwin&rsquo;s request
+that Honorius conferred the pallium on the bishops of Canterbury
+and York (ib. ii. 18). He also admonished the Irish for not
+following the custom of the Catholic Church in the celebration
+of Easter (<i>ib.</i> ii. 19), and commissioned Birinus to preach
+Christianity in Wessex (<i>ib.</i> iii. 7). It is, however, in connexion
+with the Monothelite heresy that Honorius is most remembered,
+his attitude in this matter having acquired fresh importance
+during the controversy raised by the promulgation of the dogma
+of papal infallibility in 1870. In his efforts to consolidate the
+papal power in Italy, Honorius had been hampered by the
+schism of &ldquo;the three chapters&rdquo; in Istria and Venetia, a schism
+that was ended by the deposition in 628 of the schismatic
+patriarch Fortunatus of Aquileia-Grado and the elevation of
+a Roman sub-deacon to the patriarchate. It is suggested that
+help rendered to him in this matter by the emperor Heraclius,
+or by the Greek exarch, may have inclined the pope to take the
+emperor&rsquo;s side in the Monothelite controversy, which broke out
+shortly afterwards in consequence of the formula proposed by
+the emperor with a view to reconciling the Monophysites and
+the Catholics. However that may be, he joined the patriarchs
+of Constantinople and Alexandria in supporting the doctrine
+of &ldquo;one will&rdquo; in Christ, and expounded this view forcibly, if
+somewhat obscurely, in two letters to the patriarch Sergius
+(Epist. 4 and 5 in Migne, <i>Patrologia. Ser. Lat.</i> lxxx. 470, 474).
+For this he was, more than forty years after his death (October
+638), anathematized by name along with the Monothelite heretics
+by the council of Constantinople (First Trullan) in 681; and this
+condemnation was subsequently confirmed by more than one
+pope, particularly by Leo II. See Hefele, <i>Die Irrlehre des
+Honorius u. die vaticanische Lehre der Unfehlbarkeit</i> (1871),
+who, however, modified his view in his <i>Conciliengeschichte</i> (1877).
+Honorius I. was succeeded by Severinus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the articles by R. Zöpffel and G. Krüger in Herzog-Hauck,
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 1900), and by T. Grisar in Wetzer and Welte&rsquo;s
+<i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (Freiburg, 1889). In addition to the bibliographies
+there given see also U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist.</i>, &amp;c.,
+Bio-bibliographie, s. &ldquo;Honorius I.&rdquo; (Paris, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Honorius II.</span> (d. 1072), antipope, was the name taken
+by Peter Cadalus, who was born at Verona and became bishop
+of Parma in 1046. After the death of Pope Nicholas II. in July
+1061 he was chosen pope by some German and Lombard bishops
+at Basel in opposition to Alexander II., who had been elected
+by the party led by Hildebrand, afterwards Pope Gregory VII.
+Taking the name of Honorius II., Cadalus was thus the representative
+of those who were opposed to reforms in the Church.
+Early in 1062 he advanced towards Rome, and though his
+supporters defeated the forces of his rival outside the city, he
+soon returned to Parma to await the decision of the advisers
+of the young German king, Henry IV., whose mother Agnes
+had supported his election. About this time, however, Agnes
+was deprived of her power, and the chief authority in Germany
+passed to Anno, archbishop of Cologne, who was hostile to
+Cadalus. Under these circumstances the antipope again marched
+towards Rome in 1063 and entered the city, but was soon
+forced to take refuge in the castle of St Angelo. The ensuing
+war between the rival popes lasted for about a year, and then
+Cadalus left Rome as a fugitive. Refusing to attend a council
+held at Mantua in May 1064, he was deposed, and he died in
+1072, without having abandoned his claim to the papal chair.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the article on Honorius II. in Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>,
+Band viii. (Leipzig, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Honorius II.</span> (Lamberto Scannabecchi), pope from the
+15th of December 1124 to the 13th of February 1130, a native
+of Fagnano near Imola, of considerable learning and great
+religious zeal, successively archdeacon at Bologna, cardinal-priest
+of Sta Prassede under Urban II., cardinal-bishop of Ostia
+and Velletri under Paschal II., shared the exile of Gelasius II.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span>
+in France, and helped Calixtus II. to conclude the Concordat
+of Worms (1122), which settled the investiture contest. He
+owed his election in large measure to force employed by the
+Frangipani, but was consecrated with general consent on the
+21st of December 1124. By means of a close alliance with that
+powerful family, he was enabled to maintain peace at Rome,
+and the death of Emperor Henry V. (1125) further strengthened
+the papal position. He recognized the Saxon Lothair III. as
+king of the Romans and later as emperor, and excommunicated
+his rival, Conrad of Hohenstaufen. He sanctioned the Praemonstratensian
+order and that of the Knights Templars. He
+excommunicated Count William of Normandy for marriage
+in prohibited degree; brought to an end, through the influence
+of Bernard of Clairvaux, the struggle with Louis VI. of France;
+and arranged with Henry I. for the reception of papal legates
+in England. He laid claim as feudal overlord to the Norman
+possessions in southern Italy (July 1127), and excommunicated
+the claimant, Duke Roger of Sicily, but was unable to prevent
+the foundation of the Neapolitan monarchy, for Duke Roger
+defeated the papal army and forced recognition in August
+1128. Honorius appealed to Lothair for assistance, but died
+before it arrived. His successor was Innocent II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief sources for the life of Honorius II. are his &ldquo;Epistolae et
+Privilegia,&rdquo; in J. P. Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> vol. 166, and the <i>Vitae</i> of
+Cardinals Pandulf and Boso in J. M. Watterich, <i>Pontif. Roman.
+vitae</i>, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862); also &ldquo;Codice diplomatico e bollario di
+Onorio II.&rdquo; in <i>Fr. Liverani opere</i>, vol. 4 (Macerata, 1859), and
+Jaffé-Wattenbach, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman</i>. (1885-1888).</p>
+
+<p>See J. Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
+Innocenz III.</i> (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle
+Ages</i>, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); H. H.
+Milman, <i>Latin Christianity</i>, vol. 4 (London, 1899); Fr. Liverani,
+&ldquo;Lamberto da Fiagnano&rdquo; in <i>Opere</i>, vol. 3 (Macerata, 1859); A.
+Wagner, <i>Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum 1086-1150</i>
+(Breslau, 1885); E. Bernheim, <i>Zur Geschichte des Wormser
+Concordats</i> (Göttingen, 1878); Volkmar, &ldquo;Das Verhältnis Lothars
+III. zur Investiturfrage,&rdquo; in <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>,
+vol. 26.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. Ha)</div>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Honorius III.</span> (Cencio Savelli), pope from the 18th of
+July 1216 to the 18th of March 1227, a highly-educated and
+pious Roman, successively canon of Sta Maria Maggiore, cardinal-deacon
+of Sta Lucia in Silice, vice-chancellor, chamberlain
+and cardinal-priest of Sti Giovanni e Paolo, was the successor
+of Innocent III. He made peace with Frederick II., in accordance
+with which the emperor was crowned with his wife Constance
+in St Peter&rsquo;s on the 22nd of November 1220, and swore to accord
+full liberty to the church and to undertake a crusade. Honorius
+was eager to carry out the decrees of the Lateran Council of 1215
+against the Albigenses and to further the crusade proclaimed
+by his predecessor. He crowned Peter of Courtenay emperor
+of Byzantium in April 1217; espoused the cause of the young
+Henry III. of England against the barons; accepted the Isle
+of Man as a perpetual fief; arbitrated differences between
+Philip II. of France and James of Aragon; and made special
+ecclesiastical regulations for the Scandinavian countries. He
+sanctioned the Dominican order (22nd of November 1216),
+making St Dominic papal major-domo in 1218; approved the
+Franciscan order by bull of the 29th of November 1223; and
+authorized many of the tertiary orders. He maintained, on
+the whole, a tranquil rule at Rome; but Frederick II.&rsquo;s refusal
+to interrupt his reforms in Sicily in order to go on the crusade
+gave the pope much trouble. Honorius died in 1227, before
+the emperor had fulfilled his oath, and was succeeded by
+Gregory IX.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Honorius III. left many writings which have been collected and
+published by Abbé Horoy in the <i>Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica</i>,
+vols. i.-ii. (Paris, 1879-1883). Among them are five books of
+decretals, compiled about 1226; a continuation of the <i>Liber Pontificalis</i>;
+a life of Gregory VII; a coronation form; and a large
+number of sermons. His most important work is the <i>Liber censuum
+Romanae ecclesiae</i>, written in 1192 and containing a record of the
+income of the Roman Church and of its relations with secular
+authorities. The last named is admirably edited by P. Fabre in
+<i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d&rsquo;Athènes et de Rome</i> (Paris, 1892).
+The letters of Honorius are in F. Liverani, <i>Spicilegium Liberianum</i>
+(1863). There are good <i>Regesta</i> in Latin and Italian, edited by
+P. Pressutti (Rome, 1888, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>See J. Clausen, <i>Papst Honorius III.</i> (1895); P. T. Masetti, <i>I
+Pontefici Onorio III. ed Innocenzo IV. a fronte dell&rsquo; Imperatore
+Federico II. net secolo XIII.</i> (1884); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the
+Middle Ages</i>, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902);
+K. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, vol. 5, 2nd ed.;
+H. H. Milman, <i>Latin Christianity</i>, vol. 5 (London, 1899); T.
+Frantz, <i>Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit
+des Hohenstaufen Friedrich II.</i> (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, <i>Das
+Papsttum u. Byzanz</i> (Berlin, 1903); M. Tangl, <i>Die päpstlichen
+Kanzleiordungen von 1200-1500</i> (Innsbruck, 1894); Caillemer, <i>Le
+Pape Honorius III. et le droit civil</i> (Lyons, 1881); F. Vernet, <i>Études
+sur les sermons d&rsquo;Honorius III.</i> (Lyons, 1888). There is an excellent
+article, with exhaustive bibliography, by H. Schulz in Hauck&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd edition.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div>
+
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Honorius</span> IV. (Jacopo Savelli), pope from the 2nd of
+April 1285 to the 3rd of April 1287, a member of a prominent
+Roman family and grand-nephew of Honorius III., had studied
+at the university of Paris, been made cardinal-deacon of Sta
+Maria in Cosmedin, and succeeded Martin IV. Though aged
+and so crippled that he could not stand alone he displayed
+remarkable energy as pope. He maintained peace in the states
+of the Church and friendly relations with Rudolph of Habsburg,
+and his policy in the Sicilian question was more liberal than that
+of his predecessor. He showed special favours to the mendicant
+orders and formally sanctioned the Carmelites and Augustinian
+Eremites. He was the first pope to employ the great banking
+houses in northern Italy for the collection of papal dues. He
+died at Rome and was succeeded by Nicholas IV.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Bouquet, <i>Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France</i>,
+new ed., vols. 20-22 (Paris, 1894), for the chief sources; A.
+Potthast, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman</i>, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); M. Prou,
+&ldquo;Les registres d&rsquo;Honorius IV.&rdquo; in <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises
+d Athènes et de Rome</i> (Paris, 1888); B. Pawlicki, <i>Papst Honorius IV.</i>
+(Münster, 1896); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. 5,
+trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONORIUS, FLAVIUS<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (384-423), son of Theodosius I.,
+ascended the throne as &ldquo;emperor of the West&rdquo; in 395. The
+history of the first thirteen years of the reign of Honorius is
+inseparably connected with the name of Stilicho (<i>q.v.</i>), his
+guardian and father-in-law. During this period the revolt of
+the African prince Gildo was suppressed (398); Italy was
+successfully defended against Alaric, who was defeated at
+Pollentia (402) and Verona (403); and the barbarian hordes
+under the Goth Radagaisus were destroyed (406). After the
+downfall and murder of Stilicho (408), the result of palace
+intrigues, the emperor was under the control of incompetent
+favourites. In the same year Rome was besieged, and in 410,
+for the second time in its history, taken and sacked by Alaric,
+who for a short time set up the city prefect Attalus as a rival
+emperor, but soon deposed him as incapable. Alaric died in
+the same year, and in 412 Honorius concluded peace with his
+brother-in-law and successor, Ataulphus (Adolphus), who married
+the emperor&rsquo;s sister Placidia and removed with his troops to
+southern Gaul. A number of usurpers laid claim to the throne,
+the most important of whom was Constantine. In 409 Britain
+and Armorica declared their independence, which was confirmed
+by Honorius himself, and were thus practically lost to the empire.
+Honorius was one of the feeblest emperors who ever occupied
+the throne, and the dismemberment of the West was only temporarily
+averted by the efforts of Stilicho, and, later, of Constantius,
+a capable general who overthrew the usurpers and was rewarded
+with a share in the government. It was only as a supporter
+of the orthodox church and persecutor of the heathen that
+Honorius displayed any energy. In 399 the exercise of the
+pagan cult was prohibited, and the revenues of the temples,
+which were to be appropriated for the use of the public or pulled
+down, were confiscated to defray the expenses of the army.
+Honorius was equally severe on heretics, such as the Donatists
+and Manichaeans. He is also to be credited with the abolition
+of the gladiatorial shows in 404 (although there is said to be
+evidence of their existence later), a reduction of the taxes,
+improvements in criminal law, and the reorganization of the
+<i>defensores civitatum</i>, municipal officers whose duty it was to
+defend the rights of the people and set forth their grievances.
+Honorius at first established his court at Milan, but, on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span>
+report of the invasion of Italy, fled to Ravenna, where he resided
+till his death on the 27th of August 423.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, chs. 28-33; J. B. Bury, <i>Later
+Roman Empire</i>, i. chs. 1-5, ii. chs. 4, 6; E. A. Freeman, &ldquo;Tyrants of
+Britain, Gaul and Spain&rdquo; in <i>Eng. Hist. Review</i> (January 1886);
+T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i> (Oxford, 1892), i. chs. 13, 15-18.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONOUR<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Lat. <i>honos</i> or <i>honor</i>, <i>honoris</i>; in English the
+word was spelled with or without the <i>u</i> indifferently until
+the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashionable
+to spell the word &ldquo;honor&rdquo;; Johnson&rsquo;s and Webster&rsquo;s
+Dictionaries stereotyped the English and American spellings
+respectively), a term which may be defined as respect, esteem
+or deference paid to, or received by, a person in consideration
+of his character, worth or position; also the state or condition
+of the person exciting the feeling or expression of such esteem;
+particularly a high personal character coupled with conduct
+in accordance with or controlled by a nice sense of what is right
+and true and due to the position so held. Further, the word is
+commonly used of the dignities, distinctions or titles, granted
+as a mark of such esteem or as a reward for services or merit,
+and quite generally of the credit or renown conferred by a
+person or thing on the country, town or particular society to
+which he or it belongs. The standard of conduct may be laid
+down not only by a scrupulous sense of what is due to lofty
+personal character but also by the conventional usages of society,
+hence it is that debts which cannot be legally enforced, such
+as gambling debts, are called &ldquo;debts of honour.&rdquo; Similarly
+in the middle ages and later, courts, known as &ldquo;courts of honour,&rdquo;
+sat to decide questions such as precedence, disputes as to coat
+armour &amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chivalry</a></span>); such courts, chiefly military,
+are found in countries where duelling has not fallen into desuetude
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Duel</a></span>). In the British House of Lords, when the peers
+sit to try another peer on a criminal charge or at an impeachment,
+on the question being put whether the accused be guilty or not,
+each peer, rising in his place in turn, lays his right hand on his
+breast and returns his verdict &ldquo;upon my honour.&rdquo; As a title
+of address, &ldquo;his honour&rdquo; or &ldquo;your honour&rdquo; is applied in the
+United States of America to all judges, in the United Kingdom
+only to county court judges; in university or other examinations,
+those who have won particular distinction, or have undergone
+with success an examination of a standard higher than
+that required for a &ldquo;pass&rdquo; degree, are said to have passed
+&ldquo;with honours,&rdquo; or an &ldquo;honours&rdquo; examination or to have taken
+an &ldquo;honours degree.&rdquo; In many games of cards the ace, king,
+queen and knave of trumps are the &ldquo;honours.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Funeral or military honours are paid to a dead officer or
+soldier. The usual features of such a burial are as follows:
+the coffin is carried on a gun-carriage and attended by troops;
+it is covered by the national flag, on which rests the soldier&rsquo;s
+head-dress, sword or bayonet; if the deceased had been a
+mounted soldier, his charger follows with the boots reversed
+in the stirrups; three volleys are fired over the grave after
+committal, and &ldquo;last post&rdquo; or another call is sounded on
+the bugles or a roll on the drums is given.</p>
+
+<p>A military force is said to be accorded &ldquo;the honours of war&rdquo;
+when, after a specially honourable defence, it has surrendered
+its post, and is permitted, by the terms of capitulation to march
+out with colours flying, bands playing, bayonets fixed, &amp;c.
+and retaining possession of the field artillery, horses, arms and
+baggage. The force remains free to act as combatants for the
+remainder of the war, without waiting for exchange or being
+considered as prisoners. Usually some point is named to which
+the surrendering troops must be conveyed before recommencing
+hostilities; thus, during the Peninsular War, at the Convention
+of Cintra 1808, the French army under Junot was conveyed
+to France by British transports before being free to rejoin
+the combatant troops in the Peninsula. By far the most usual
+case of the granting of the &ldquo;honours of war&rdquo; is in connexion
+with the surrender of a fortress. Of historic examples may be
+mentioned the surrender of Lille by Marshal Boufflers to Prince
+Eugene in 1708, that of Huningen by General Joseph Barbanègre
+(1772-1830) to the Austrians in 1815, and that of
+Belfort by Colonel P. Denfert Rochereau to the Germans in
+1871.</p>
+
+<p>In English law the term &ldquo;honour&rdquo; is used of a seigniory
+of several manors held under one baron or lord paramount. The
+formation of such lordships dates back to the Anglo-Saxon
+period, when jurisdiction of sac and soc was frequently given
+in the case of a group of estates lying close together. The
+system was encouraged by the Norman lords, as tending to
+strengthen the principles of feudal law, but the legislation
+of Henry II., which increased the power of the central administration,
+undoubtedly tended to discourage the creation
+of new honours. Frequently, they escheated to the crown,
+retaining their corporate existence and their jurisdictions;
+they then either remained in the possession of the king or were
+regranted, diminished in extent. Although an honour contained
+several manors, one court day was held for all, but the various
+manors retained their separate organizations, having their
+&ldquo;quasi several and distinct courts.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONOURABLE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Fr. <i>honorable</i>, from Lat. <i>honorabilis</i>, worthy
+of honour), a style or title of honour common to the United
+Kingdom, the British colonies and the United States of America.
+The terms <i>honorabilis</i> and <i>honorabilitas</i> were in use in the middle
+ages rather as a form of politeness than as a stereotyped style;
+and though Gibbon assimilates the late Roman title of <i>clarissimus</i>
+to &ldquo;honourable,&rdquo; as applied to the lowest of the three grades
+of rank in the imperial hierarchy, the analogy was good even in
+his day only in so far as both styles were applicable to those who
+belonged to the less exalted ranks of the titled classes, for the
+title &ldquo;honourable&rdquo; was not definitely confined to certain classes
+until later. As a formal address it is found frequently in the
+<i>Paston Letters</i> (15th century), but used loosely and interchangeable
+with other styles; thus John, Viscount Beaumont, is
+addressed alternately as &ldquo;my worshipful and reverent Lord&rdquo;
+(ii. 88, ed. 1904) and as &ldquo;my right honorabull Lord&rdquo; (ii. 118),
+while John Paston, a plain esquire, is &ldquo;my right honurabyll
+maister.&rdquo; More than two centuries later Selden, in his <i>Titles
+of Honor</i> (1672), does not include &ldquo;honourable&rdquo; among the
+courtesy titles given to the children of peers. The style was,
+in fact, used extremely loosely till well on into the 18th century.
+Thus we find in the registers of Westminster Abbey records of the
+burial (in 1710) of &ldquo;The Hon. George Churchill, Esq.,&rdquo; who was
+only a son of Sir Winston Churchill, and of &ldquo;The Hon. Sir
+William Godolphin,&rdquo; who had only been created a baronet;
+in 1717 was buried &ldquo;The Hon. Colonel Henry Cornwall,&rdquo; who
+was only an esquire and the son of one; in 1743 a rear-admiral
+was buried as &ldquo;The Hon. Sir John Jennings, Kt.&rdquo;; in 1746
+&ldquo;The Hon. Major-General Lowther,&rdquo; whose father was only a
+Dublin merchant; and finally, in 1747, &ldquo;The Hon. Lieutenant-General
+Guest,&rdquo; who is said to have begun life as an hostler.
+From this time onwards the style of &ldquo;honourable&rdquo; tended to
+become more narrowly applied; but the whole matter is full
+of obscurity and contradictions. The baronets, for instance,
+allege that they were usually styled &ldquo;the honourable&rdquo; until
+the end of the 18th century, and in 1835 they petitioned for the
+style as a prefix to their names. The Heralds&rsquo; College officially
+reported on the petition (31st of October 1835) that the evidence
+did not prove the right of baronets to the style, and that its use
+&ldquo;has been no more warranted by authority than when the same
+style has been applied to Field Officers in the Army and others.&rdquo;
+They added that &ldquo;the style of the Honourable is given to the
+<i>Judges</i> and to the <i>Barons of the Exchequer</i> with others because by
+the Decree of 10 James I., for settling the place and precedence
+of the Baronets, the Judges and Barons of the Exchequer were
+declared to have place and precedence before the younger sons
+of Viscounts and Barons.&rdquo; This seems to make the style a
+consequence of the precedence; yet from the examples above
+given it is clear that it was applied, <i>e.g.</i> in the case of field
+officers, where no question of precedence arose. It is not, indeed,
+until 1874 that we have any evidence of an authoritative limitation
+of the title. In this year the wives of lords of appeal, life
+peers, were granted style and precedence as baronesses; but
+it was provided that their children were not &ldquo;to assume or use
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span>
+the prefix of Honourable, or to be entitled to the style, rank or
+precedence of the children of a Baron.&rdquo; In 1898, however,
+this was revoked, and it was ordained &ldquo;that such children shall
+have and enjoy on all occasions the style and title enjoyed by
+the children of hereditary Barons together with the rank and
+precedence, &amp;c.&rdquo; By these acts of the Crown the prefix of
+&ldquo;honourable&rdquo; would seem to have been restricted and stereotyped
+as a definite title of honour; yet in legal documents the
+sons of peers are still styled merely &ldquo;esquire,&rdquo; with the addition
+of &ldquo;commonly called, &amp;c.&rdquo; This latter fact points to the time
+when the prefix &ldquo;honourable&rdquo; was a mark of deference paid
+by others rather than a style assumed by right, and relics of this
+doubtless survive in the United Kingdom in the conventions
+by which an &ldquo;honourable&rdquo; does not use the title on his visiting
+card and is not announced as such.</p>
+
+<p>As to the actual use and social significance of the style, the
+practice in the United Kingdom differs considerably from that
+in the colonies or in the United States. In the United Kingdom
+marquesses are &ldquo;most honourable&rdquo;; earls, viscounts and
+barons &ldquo;right honourable,&rdquo; a style also borne by all privy
+councillors, including the lord mayor of London and lord provost
+of Edinburgh during office. The title of &ldquo;honourable&rdquo; is in the
+United Kingdom, except by special licence of the Crown (<i>e.g.</i> in
+the case of retired colonial or Indian officials), mainly confined
+to the sons and daughters of peers, and is the common style of
+the younger sons of earls and of the children of viscounts,
+barons and legal life peers. The eldest sons of dukes, marquesses
+and earls bear &ldquo;by courtesy&rdquo; their father&rsquo;s second title, the
+younger sons of dukes and marquesses having the courtesy
+title Lord prefixed to their Christian name; while the daughters
+of dukes, marquesses and earls are styled Lady. The title of
+&ldquo;honourable&rdquo; is also given to all present or past maids of
+honour, and to the judges of the high court being lords
+justices or lords of appeal (who are &ldquo;right honourable&rdquo;). A county
+court judge is, however, &ldquo;his honour.&rdquo; The epithet is also
+applied to the House of Commons as a body and to individual
+members during debate (&ldquo;the honourable member for X.&rdquo;).
+Certain other corporate bodies have, by tradition or grant, the
+right to bear the style; <i>e.g.</i> the Honourable Irish Society,
+the Inns of Court (Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, &amp;c.)
+and the Honourable Artillery Company; the East India Company
+also had the prefix &ldquo;honourable.&rdquo; The style may not be
+assumed by corporate bodies at will, as was proved, in the case
+of the Society of Baronets, whose original style of &ldquo;Honourable&rdquo;
+Society was dropped by command.</p>
+
+<p>In the British colonies the title &ldquo;honourable&rdquo; is given to
+members of the executive and legislative bodies, to judges, &amp;c.,
+during their term of service. It is sometimes retained by royal
+licence after a certain number of years&rsquo; service.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States of America the title is very widespread,
+being commonly given to any one who holds or has held any office
+of importance in state or nation, more particularly to members
+of Congress or of the state legislatures, judges, justices, and
+certain other judicial and executive officials. Popular amenity
+even sometimes extends the title to holders of quite humble
+government appointments, and consoles with it the defeated
+candidates for a post. See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Precedence</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1701-1790), German
+historian and theologian, was born on the 27th of January 1701
+at Trier. He belonged to a noble family which had been for
+many generations connected with the court and diocese of the
+archbishop-electors, his father, Kaspar von Hontheim, being
+receiver-general of the archdiocese. At the age of twelve young
+Hontheim was given by his maternal uncle, Hugo Friedrich
+von Anethan, canon of the collegiate church of St Simeon
+(which at that time still occupied the Roman Porta Nigra at
+Trier), a prebend in his church, and on the 13th of May 1713 he
+received the tonsure. He was educated by the Jesuits at Trier
+and at the universities of Trier, Louvain and Leiden, taking
+his degree of doctor of laws at Trier in 1724. During the following
+years he travelled in various European countries, spending
+some time at the German College in Rome; in 1728 he was
+ordained priest and, formally admitted to the chapter of St
+Simeon in 1732, he became a professor at the university of Trier.
+In 1738 he went to Coblenz as official to the archbishop-elector.
+In this capacity he had plentiful opportunity of studying the
+effect of the interference of the Roman Curia in the internal
+affairs of the Empire, notably in the negotiations that preceded
+the elections of the emperors Charles VII. and Francis I. in which
+Hontheim took part as assistant to the electoral ambassador.
+It appears that it was the extreme claims of the papal nuncio on
+these occasions and his interference in the affairs of the electoral
+college that first suggested to Hontheim that critical examination
+of the basis of the papal pretensions, the results of which he
+afterwards published to the world under the pseudonym of
+&ldquo;Febronius.&rdquo; In 1747, broken down by overwork, he resigned
+his position as official and retired to St Simeon&rsquo;s, of which he was
+elected dean in the following year. In May 1748 he was appointed
+by the archbishop-elector Francis George (von Schönborn) as
+his suffragan, being consecrated at Mainz, in February 1749,
+under the title of bishop of Myriophiri <i>in partibus</i>. The archbishop
+of Trier was practically a great secular prince, and upon
+Hontheim as suffragan and vicar-general fell the whole spiritual
+administration of the diocese; this work, in addition to that of
+pro-chancellor of the university, he carried on single-handed until
+1778, when Jean Marie Cuohot d&rsquo;Herbain was appointed his
+coadjutor. On the 21st of April 1779 he resigned the deanery
+of St Simeon&rsquo;s on the ground of old age. He died on the 2nd of
+September 1790 at his chateau at Montquentin near Orval,
+an estate which he had purchased. He was buried at first in St
+Simeon&rsquo;s; but the church was ruined by the French during the
+revolutionary wars and never restored, and in 1803 the body
+of Hontheim was transferred to that of St Gervasius.</p>
+
+<p>As a historian Hontheim&rsquo;s reputation rests on his contributions
+to the history of Trier. He had, during the period of his activity
+as official at Coblenz, found time to collect a vast mass of printed
+and MS. material which he afterwards embodied in three works
+on the history of Trier. Of these the <i>Historia Trevirensis
+diplomatica et pragmatica</i> was published in 3 vols. folio in 1750,
+the <i>Prodromus historiae Trevirensis</i> in 2 vols. in 1757. They give,
+besides a history of Trier and its constitution, a large number
+of documents and references to published authorities. A third
+work, the <i>Historiae scriptorum et monumentarum Trevirensis
+amplissima collectio</i>, remains in MS. at the city library of Trier.
+These books, the result of an enormous labour in collation and
+selection in very unfavourable circumstances, entitle Hontheim
+to the fame of a pioneer in modern historical methods. It is,
+however, as &ldquo;Febronius&rdquo; that Hontheim is best remembered.
+The character and effect of his book on &ldquo;the state of the Church
+and the lawful power of the Roman pontiff&rdquo; is described elsewhere
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Febronianism</a></span>). The author of the book was known
+at Rome almost as soon as it was published; but it was not
+till some years afterwards (1778) that he was called on to retract.
+The terrors of the spiritual power were reinforced by a threat
+of the archbishop-elector to deprive not only him but all his
+relations of their offices, and Hontheim, after much wavering
+and correspondence, signed a submission which was accepted
+at Rome as satisfactory, though he still refused to admit, as
+demanded, <i>ut proinde merito monarchicum ecclesiae regimen a
+catholicis doctoribus appelletur</i>. The removal of the censure
+followed (1781) when Hontheim published at Frankfort what
+purported to be a proof that his submission had been made of
+his own free will (<i>Justini Febronii acti commentarius in suam
+retractationem</i>, &amp;c.). This book, however, which carefully
+avoided all the most burning questions, rather tended to show&mdash;as
+indeed his correspondence proves&mdash;that Hontheim had
+not essentially shifted his standpoint. But Rome left him
+thenceforth in peace.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Otto Mejer, <i>Febronius, Weihbischof Johann Nikolaus von
+Hontheim und sein Widerruf</i> (Tübingen, 1880), with many original
+letters. Of later date is the biography by F. X. Kraus in the <i>Allgemeine
+deutsche Biographie</i> (1881), which gives numerous references.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HONTHORST, GERARD VAN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1590-1656), Dutch painter
+of Utrecht, was brought up at the school of Bloemart, who
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span>
+exchanged the style of the Franckens for that of the pseudo-Italians
+at the beginning of the 16th century. Infected thus
+early with a mania which came to be very general in Holland,
+Honthorst went to Italy, where he copied the naturalism and
+eccentricities of Michelangelo da Caravaggio. Home again
+about 1614, after acquiring a considerable practice in Rome,
+he set up a school at Utrecht which flourished exceedingly;
+and he soon became so fashionable that Sir Dudley Carleton,
+then English envoy at the Hague, recommended his works to
+the earl of Arundel and Lord Dorchester. At the same time
+the queen of Bohemia, sister of Charles I. and electress palatine,
+being an exile in Holland, gave him her countenance and asked
+him to teach her children drawing; and Honthorst, thus approved
+and courted, became known to Charles I., who invited
+him to England. There he painted several portraits, and a vast
+allegory, now at Hampton Court, of Charles and his queen as
+Diana and Apollo in the clouds receiving the duke of Buckingham
+as Mercury and guardian of the king of Bohemia&rsquo;s children.
+Charles I., whose taste was flattered alike by the energy of Rubens
+and the elegance of Van Dyck, was thus first captivated by the
+fanciful mediocrity of Honthorst, who though a poor executant
+had luckily for himself caught, as Lord Arundel said, &ldquo;much
+of the manner of Caravaggio&rsquo;s colouring, then so much esteemed
+at Rome.&rdquo; It was his habit to transmute every subject into
+a night scene, from the Nativity, for which there was warrant
+in the example of Correggio, to the penitence of the Magdalen,
+for which there was no warrant at all. But unhappily this
+caprice, though &ldquo;sublime in Allegri and Rembrandt,&rdquo; was but
+a phantasm in the hands of Honthorst, whose prosaic pencil
+was not capable of more than vulgar utterances, and art gained
+little from the repetition of these quaint vagaries. Sandrart
+gave the measure of Honthorst&rsquo;s popularity at this period
+when he says that he had as many as twenty apprentices at one
+time, each of whom paid him a fee of 100 florins a year. In 1623
+he was president of his gild at Utrecht. After that he went
+to England, returning to settle anew at Utrecht, where he married.
+His position amongst artists was acknowledged to be important,
+and in 1626 he received a visit from Rubens, whom he painted
+as the honest man sought for and found by Diogenes Honthorst.
+In his home at Utrecht Honthorst succeeded in preserving
+the support of the English monarch, for whom he finished in
+1631 a large picture of the king and queen of Bohemia &ldquo;and all
+their children.&rdquo; For Lord Dorchester about the same period
+he completed some illustrations of the <i>Odyssey</i>; for the king of
+Denmark he composed incidents of Danish history, of which
+one example remains in the gallery of Copenhagen. In the
+course of a large practice he had painted many likenesses&mdash;Charles
+I. and his queen, the duke of Buckingham, and the king
+and queen of Bohemia. He now became court painter to the
+princess of Orange, settled (1637) at the Hague, and painted in
+succession at the Castle of Ryswick and the House in the Wood.
+The time not consumed in producing pictures was devoted to
+portraits. Even now his works are very numerous, and amply
+represented in English and Continental galleries. His most
+attractive pieces are those in which he cultivates the style of
+Caravaggio, those, namely, which represent taverns, with players,
+singers and eaters. He shows great skill in reproducing scenes
+illuminated by a single candle. But he seems to have studied
+too much in dark rooms, where the subtleties of flesh colour
+are lost in the dusky smoothness and uniform redness of tints
+procurable from farthing dips. Of great interest still, though
+rather sharp in outline and hard in modelling, are his portraits
+of the Duke of Buckingham and Family (Hampton Court),
+the King and Queen of Bohemia (Hanover and Combe Abbey),
+Mary de Medici (Amsterdam town-hall), 1628, the Stadtholders
+and their Wives (Amsterdam and Hague), Charles Louis and
+Rupert, Charles I.&rsquo;s nephews (Louvre, St Petersburg, Combe
+Abbey and Willin), and Lord Craven (National Portrait
+Gallery). His early form may be judged by a Lute-player
+(1614) at the Louvre, the Martyrdom of St John in S. M.
+della Scala at Rome, or the Liberation of Peter in the Berlin
+Museum; his latest style is that of the House in the Wood
+(1648), where he appears to disadvantage by the side of
+Jordaens and others.</p>
+
+<p>Honthorst was succeeded by his brother William, born
+at Utrecht in 1604, who died, it is said, in 1666. He lived
+chiefly in his native place, temporarily at Berlin. But he
+has left little behind except a portrait at Amsterdam,
+and likenesses in the Berlin Museum of William and Mary of
+England.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOCH, PIETER DE<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1629-?1678), Dutch painter, was
+born in 1629, and died in Amsterdam probably shortly after
+1677. He was a native of Rotterdam, and wandered early to
+Haarlem and the Hague. In 1654 we find him again at Rotterdam,
+where in that year he married a girl of Delft, Jannetje
+van der Burch. From 1655 to 1657 he was a member of the
+painter&rsquo;s gild of Delft, but after that date we have no traces
+of his doings until about 1668, when his presence is recorded
+in Amsterdam. His dated pictures prove that he was still
+alive in 1677, but his death followed probably soon after this
+year. De Hooch is one of the kindliest and most charming
+painters of homely subjects that Holland has produced. He
+seems to have been born at the same time and taught in the
+same school as van der Meer and Maes. All three are disciples
+of the school of Rembrandt. Houbraken mentions Nicolas
+Berchem as De Hooch&rsquo;s teacher. De Hooch only once painted
+a canvas of large size, and that unfortunately perished in a fire
+at Rotterdam in 1864. But his small pieces display perfect
+finish and dexterity of hand, combined with great power of
+discrimination. Though he sometimes paints open-air scenes,
+these are not his favourite subjects. He is most at home in
+interiors illuminated by different lights, with the radiance of the
+day, in different intensities, seen through doors and windows.
+He thus brings together the most delicate varieties of tone,
+and produces chords that vibrate with harmony. The themes
+which he illustrates are thoroughly suited to his purpose. Sometimes
+he chooses the drawing-room where dames and cavaliers
+dance, or dine, or sing; sometimes&mdash;mostly indeed&mdash;he prefers
+cottages or courtyards, where the housewives tend their children
+or superintend the labours of the cook. Satin and gold are as
+familiar to him as camlet and fur; and there is no article of
+furniture in a Dutch house of the middle class that he does
+not paint with pleasure. What distinguishes him most besides
+subtle suggestiveness is the serenity of his pictures. One of his
+most charming was the canvas formerly in the Ashburton
+collection, now burnt, where an old lady with a dish of apples
+walks with a child along a street bounded by a high wall,
+above which gables and a church steeple are seen, while the
+sun radiates joyfully over the whole. Fine in another way is
+the &ldquo;Mug of Beer&rdquo; in the Amsterdam Museum, an interior
+with a woman coming out of a pantry and giving a measure
+of beer to a little girl. The light flows in here from a small
+closed window; but through the door to the right we look into
+a drawing-room, and through the open sash of that room we
+see the open air. The three lights are managed with supreme
+cunning. Beautiful for its illumination again is the &ldquo;Music
+Party,&rdquo; with its contending indoor and outdoor lights, a gem in
+the late A. Thieme collection at Leipzig. More subtly suggestive,
+in the museum of Berlin, is the &ldquo;Mother seated near a Cradle.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;A Card Party,&rdquo; dated 1658, at Buckingham Palace, is a good
+example of De Hooch&rsquo;s drawing-room scenes, counterpart as
+to date and value of a &ldquo;Woman and Child&rdquo; in the National
+Gallery, and the &ldquo;Smoking Party,&rdquo; formerly in Lord Enfield&rsquo;s
+collection. Another very fine example is the &ldquo;Interior&rdquo; with
+two women, bought by Sir Julius Wernher. Other pictures
+later in the master&rsquo;s career are&mdash;the &ldquo;Lady and Child in a
+Courtyard,&rdquo; of 1665, in the National Gallery, and the &ldquo;Lady
+receiving a Letter,&rdquo; of 1670, in the Amsterdam Museum (Van
+der Hoop collection).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It is possible to bring together over 250 examples of De Hooch.
+There are three at St Petersburg, three in Buckingham Palace, three
+in the National Gallery, two in the Wallace Collection, six in the Amsterdam
+Museum, some in the Louvre and at Munich and Darmstadt;
+many others are in private galleries in England. For England was
+the first country to recognize the merit of De Hooch who only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span>
+began to be valued in Holland in the middle of the 18th century. A
+celebrated picture at Amsterdam, sold for 450 florins in 1765, fetched
+4000 in 1817, and in 1876 the Berlin Museum gave £5400 for a De
+Hooch at the Schneider sale&mdash;&ldquo;A Dutch Dwelling-room&rdquo; (820 B).</p>
+
+<p>See Hofstede de Groot&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue raisonné</i>, vol. i., London, 1907.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOD, JOHN BELL<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1831-1879), American soldier, lieut.-general
+of the Confederate army, was born at Owingsville,
+Kentucky, in 1831, and graduated from West Point military
+academy in 1853. As an officer of the 2nd U.S. cavalry (Colonel
+Sidney Johnston) he saw service against Indians, and later he
+was cavalry instructor at West Point. He resigned from the
+U.S. service in 1861, and became a colonel in the Confederate
+army. He was soon promoted brigadier-general, and at the
+battle of Gaines&rsquo;s Mill, where he was wounded, won the
+brevet of major-general for his gallant conduct. With the
+famous, &ldquo;Texas brigade&rdquo; of the Army of Northern Virginia
+he served throughout the campaign of 1862. At Gettysburg
+he commanded one of the divisions of Longstreet&rsquo;s corps,
+receiving a wound which disabled his arm. With Longstreet
+he was transferred in the autumn of 1863 to the Army of
+Tennessee. At the battle of Chickamauga (September 19th,
+20th) Hood was severely wounded again and his leg was amputated,
+but after six months he returned to duty undaunted.
+He remained with the Army of Tennessee as a corps commander,
+and when the general dissatisfaction with the Fabian policy of
+General J. E. Johnston brought about the removal of that officer,
+Hood was put in his place with the temporary rank of general.
+He had won a great reputation as a fighting general, and it was
+with the distinct understanding that battles were to be fought
+that he was placed at the head of the Army of Tennessee. But
+in spite of skill and courage he was uniformly unsuccessful in
+the battles around Atlanta. In the end he had to abandon the
+place, but he forthwith sought to attack Sherman in another
+direction, and finally invaded Tennessee. His march was pushed
+with the greatest energy, but he failed to draw the main body
+of the enemy after him, and, while Sherman with a picked force
+made his &ldquo;March to the Sea,&rdquo; Thomas collected an army to
+oppose Hood. A severe battle was fought at Franklin on the
+30th of November, and finally Hood was defeated and his army
+almost annihilated in the battle of Nashville. He was then
+relieved at his own request (January 23rd, 1865). After the war
+he was engaged in business in New Orleans, where he died of
+yellow fever on the 30th of August 1879. His experiences in
+the Civil War are narrated in his <i>Advance and Retreat</i> (New
+Orleans, 1880). Hood&rsquo;s reputation as a bold and energetic
+leader was well deserved, though his reckless vigour proved
+but a poor substitute for Johnston&rsquo;s careful husbanding of his
+strength at this declining stage of the Confederacy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (1724-1816), British
+admiral, was the son of Samuel Hood, vicar of Butleigh in
+Somerset, and prebendary of Wells. He was born on the 12th
+of December 1724, and entered the navy on the 6th of May
+1741. He served part of his time as midshipman with Rodney
+in the &ldquo;Ludlow,&rdquo; and became lieutenant in 1746. He was
+fortunate in serving under active officers, and had opportunities
+of seeing service in the North Sea. In 1753 he was made commander
+of the &ldquo;Jamaica&rdquo; sloop, and served in her on the
+North American station. In 1756, while still on the North
+American station, he attained to post rank. In 1757, while in
+temporary command of the &ldquo;Antelope&rdquo; (50), he drove a French
+ship ashore in Audierne Bay, and captured two privateers.
+His zeal attracted the favourable notice of the Admiralty and
+he was appointed to a ship of his own. In 1759, when captain
+of the &ldquo;Vestal&rdquo; (32), he captured the French &ldquo;Bellona&rdquo;
+(32) after a sharp action. During the war his services were wholly
+in the Channel, and he was engaged under Rodney in 1759
+in destroying the vessels collected by the French to serve as
+transports in the proposed invasion of England. In 1778 he
+accepted a command which in the ordinary course would have
+terminated his active career. He became commissioner of the
+dockyard at Portsmouth and governor of the Naval Academy.
+These posts were generally given to officers who were retiring
+from the sea. In 1780, on the occasion of the king&rsquo;s visit to
+Portsmouth, he was made a baronet. The circumstances of
+the time were not ordinary. Many admirals declined to serve
+under Lord Sandwich, and Rodney, who then commanded
+in the West Indies, had complained of want of proper support
+from his subordinates, whom he accused of disaffection. The
+Admiralty was naturally anxious to secure the services of
+trustworthy flag officers, and having confidence in Hood promoted
+him rear-admiral out of the usual course on the 26th of
+September 1780, and sent him to the West Indies to act as
+second in command under Rodney, to whom he was personally
+known. He joined Rodney in January 1781, and remained
+in the West Indies or on the coast of North America till the
+close of the War of American Independence. The calculation
+that he would work harmoniously with Rodney was not altogether
+justified by the results. The correspondence of the two shows
+that they were far from being on cordial personal terms with
+one another, but Hood always discharged his duty punctually,
+and his capacity was so great, and so signally proved, that no
+question of removing him from the station ever arose. The
+unfortunate turn taken by the campaign of 1781 was largely
+due to Rodney&rsquo;s neglect of his advice. If he had been allowed
+to choose his own position there can be no doubt that he could
+have prevented the comte de Grasse (1722-1788) from reaching
+Fort Royal with the reinforcements from France in April (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodney, Lord</a></span>). When the fleet went on to the coast of North
+America during the hurricane months of 1781 he was sent to
+serve with Admiral Graves (1725?-1802) in the unsuccessful
+effort to relieve the army at Yorktown. But his subordinate
+rank gave him no chance to impart a greater measure of energy
+to the naval operations. When, however, he returned to the
+West Indies he was for a time in independent command owing
+to Rodney&rsquo;s absence in England for the sake of his health. The
+French admiral, the comte de Grasse, attacked the British islands
+of St Kitts and Nevis with a much superior force to the squadron
+under Hood&rsquo;s command. The attempt Hood made in January
+1782 to save them from capture, with 22 ships to 29, was not
+successful, but the series of bold movements by which he first
+turned the French out of their anchorage at the Basse Terre
+of St Kitts, and then beat off the attacks of the enemy, were
+the most brilliant things done by any British admiral during the
+war. He was made an Irish peer for his share in the defeat of
+the comte de Grasse on the 9th and 12th of April near Dominica.
+During the peace he entered parliament as member for Westminster
+in the fiercely contested election of 1784, was promoted
+vice-admiral in 1787, and in July of 1788 was appointed to
+the Board of Admiralty under the second earl of Chatham. On
+the outbreak of the revolutionary war he was sent to the Mediterranean
+as commander-in-chief. His period of command,
+which lasted from May 1793 to October 1794, was very busy.
+In August he occupied Toulon on the invitation of the French
+royalists, and in co-operation with the Spaniards. In December
+of the same year the allies, who did not work harmoniously
+together, were driven out, mainly by the generalship of Napoleon.
+Hood now turned to the occupation of Corsica, which he had
+been invited to take in the name of the king of England by
+Paoli. The island was for a short time added to the dominions
+of George III., chiefly by the exertions of the fleet and the
+co-operation of Paoli. While the occupation of Corsica was being
+effected, the French at Toulon had so far recovered that they
+were able to send a fleet to sea. In June Hood sailed in the
+hope of bringing it to action. The plan which he laid to attack
+it in the Golfe Jouan in June may possibly have served to some
+extent as an inspiration, if not as a model, to Nelson for the
+battle of the Nile, but the wind was unfavourable, and the attack
+could not be carried out. In October he was recalled to England
+in consequence of some misunderstanding with the admiralty,
+or the ministry, which has never been explained. He had
+attained the rank of full admiral in April of 1794. He held no
+further command at sea, but in 1796 he was named governor
+of Greenwich Hospital, a post which he held till his death
+on the 27th of January 1816. A peerage of Great Britain was
+conferred on his wife as Baroness Hood of Catherington in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span>
+1795, and he was himself created Viscount Hood of Whitley in
+1796. The titles descended to his son, Henry (1753-1836),
+the ancestor of the present Viscount Hood. There are several
+portraits of Lord Hood by Abbot in the Guildhall and in the
+National Portrait Gallery. He was also painted by Reynolds
+and Gainsborough.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is no good life of Lord Hood, but a biographical notice of him
+by M&lsquo;Arthur, his secretary during the Mediterranean command, is in
+the <i>Naval Chronicle</i>, vol. ii. Charnock&rsquo;s <i>Biogr. Nav.</i> vi., Ralfe, <i>Nav.
+Biog.</i> i., may also be consulted. His correspondence during his
+command in America has been published by the Navy Record
+Society. The history of his campaigns will be found in the historians
+of the wars in which he served: for the earlier years, Beatson&rsquo;s
+<i>Naval and Military Memoirs</i>; for the later, James&rsquo;s <i>Naval History</i>,
+vol. i., for the English side, and for the French, Troudes, <i>Batailles
+navales de la France</i>, ii. and iii., and Chevalier&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la marine
+française pendant la guerre de l&rsquo;indépendance américaine and Pendant
+la République</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOD, SIR SAMUEL<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1762-1814), British vice-admiral,
+cousin of Lord Hood and of Lord Bridport, entered the Royal
+Navy in 1776. His first engagement was the battle off Ushant
+in 1778, and, soon afterwards transferred to the West Indies,
+he was present, under the command of his cousin Sir Samuel
+Hood, at all the actions which culminated in Rodney&rsquo;s victory
+of April 12th, 1782. After the peace, like many other British
+naval officers, he spent some time in France, and on his return
+to England was given the command of a sloop, from which he
+proceeded in succession to various frigates. In the &ldquo;Juno&rdquo;
+his gallant rescue of some shipwrecked seamen won him a
+vote of thanks and a sword of honour from the Jamaica assembly.
+Early in 1793 the &ldquo;Juno&rdquo; went to the Mediterranean under
+Lord Hood, and her captain distinguished himself by an audacious
+feat of coolness and seamanship in extricating his vessel from
+the harbour of Toulon, which he had entered in ignorance of
+Lord Hood&rsquo;s withdrawal. Soon afterwards he was put in command
+of a frigate squadron for the protection of Levantine
+commerce, and in 1797 he was given the &ldquo;Zealous&rdquo; (74), in which
+he was present at Nelson&rsquo;s unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz.
+It was Captain Hood who conducted the negotiations which
+relieved the squadron from the consequences of its failure.
+The part played by the &ldquo;Zealous&rdquo; at the battle of the Nile
+was brilliant. Her first opponent she put out of action in twelve
+minutes, and, passing on, Hood immediately engaged other
+ships, the &ldquo;Guerrier&rdquo; being left powerless to fire a shot. When
+Nelson left the coast of Egypt, Hood commanded the blockading
+force off Alexandria and Rosetta. Later he rejoined Nelson
+on the coast of the two Sicilies, receiving for his services the
+order of St Ferdinand.</p>
+
+<p>In the &ldquo;Venerable&rdquo; Hood was present at the action of
+Algesiras and the battle in the Straits of Gibraltar (1801). In
+the Straits his ship suffered heavily, losing 130 officers and men.
+A year later Captain Hood was employed in Trinidad as a commissioner,
+and, upon the death of the flag officer commanding
+the Leeward station, he succeeded him as Commodore. Island
+after island fell to him, and soon, outside Martinique, the French
+had scarcely a foothold in the West Indies. Amongst other
+measures taken by Hood may be mentioned the garrisoning
+of Diamond Rock, which he commissioned as a sloop-of-war
+to blockade the approaches of Martinique (see James, <i>Naval
+History</i>, iii, 245). For these successes he received, amongst
+other rewards, the K.B. In command next of the squadron
+blockading Rochefort, Sir Samuel Hood had a sharp fight, on
+25th September 1805, with a small French squadron which was
+trying to escape. Amongst the few casualties on this occasion
+was the Commodore, who lost an arm. Promoted rear-admiral
+a few days after this action, Hood was in 1807 entrusted with the
+operations against Madeira, which he brought to a successful
+conclusion, and a year later went to the Baltic, with his flag
+in the &ldquo;Centaur,&rdquo; to take part in the war between Russia and
+Sweden. In one of the actions of this war the &ldquo;Centaur&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Implacable,&rdquo; unsupported by the Swedish ships (which
+lay to leeward), cut out the Russian 80-gun ship &ldquo;Sevolod&rdquo;
+from the enemy&rsquo;s line and, after a desperate fight, forced her
+to strike. The king of Sweden rewarded the admiral with the
+Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword. Present in the roads of
+Corunna at the re-embarkation of the army of Sir John Moore,
+Hood thence returned to the Mediterranean, where for two
+years he commanded a division of the British fleet. In 1811
+he became vice-admiral. In his last command, that of the
+East Indies station, he carried out many salutary reforms,
+especially in matters of discipline and victualling. He died
+at Madras, 24th December 1814. A lofty column was raised
+to his memory on a hill near Butleigh, Somersetshire, and in
+Butleigh Church is another memorial, with an inscription
+written by Southey.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Naval Chronicle</i>, xvii. 1 (the material was furnished by Hood
+himself; it does not go beyond 1806).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His elder brother, Captain <span class="sc">Alexander Hood</span> (1758-1798),
+entered the Royal Navy in 1767, and accompanied Captain
+Cook in his second voyage round the world. Under Howe and
+Rodney he distinguished himself in the West Indies, and at the
+victory of April 12th, 1782, he was in command of one of Rodney&rsquo;s
+frigates. Under Sir Samuel Hood he then proceeded to the
+Mona passage, where he captured the French corvette &ldquo;Cérès.&rdquo;
+With the commander of his prize, the Baron de Peroy, Hood
+became very intimate, and during the peace he paid a long
+visit to France as his late prisoner&rsquo;s guest. In the early part of
+the Revolutionary war, ill health kept him at home, and it was
+not until 1797 that he went afloat again. His first experience
+was bitter; his ship, the &ldquo;Mars,&rdquo; was unenviably prominent
+in the mutiny at Spithead. On April 21st, 1798, occurred the
+famous duel of the &ldquo;Mars&rdquo; with the &ldquo;Hercule,&rdquo; fought in
+the dusk near the Bec du Raz. The two ships were of equal force,
+but the &ldquo;Hercule&rdquo; was newly commissioned, and after over
+an hour&rsquo;s fighting at close quarters she struck her flag, having
+lost over three hundred men. The captain of the &ldquo;Mars&rdquo;
+was mortally wounded early in the fight, and died as the sword
+of the French captain was being put in his hand. The latter,
+L&rsquo;Heritier, also died of his wounds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Naval Chronicle</i>, vi. 175; Ralfe, <i>Naval Biographies</i>, iv. 48;
+James, <i>Naval History</i>, and Chevalier, <i>Hist. de la marine française
+sous la première république</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1799-1845), British humorist and poet,
+the son of Thomas Hood, bookseller, was born in London on
+the 23rd of May 1799. &ldquo;Next to being a citizen of the world,&rdquo;
+writes Thomas Hood in his <i>Literary Reminiscences</i>, &ldquo;it must
+be the best thing to be born a citizen of the world&rsquo;s greatest
+city.&rdquo; On the death of her husband in 1811 Mrs Hood removed
+to Islington, where Thomas Hood had a schoolmaster who
+appreciated his talents, and, as he says, &ldquo;made him feel it impossible
+not to take an interest in learning while he seemed so
+interested in teaching.&rdquo; Under the care of this &ldquo;decayed
+dominie,&rdquo; whom he has so affectionately recorded, he earned a
+few guineas&mdash;his first literary fee&mdash;by revising for the press a
+new edition of <i>Paul and Virginia</i>. Admitted soon after into
+the counting-house of a friend of his family, he &ldquo;turned his
+stool into a Pegasus on three legs, every foot, of course, being
+a dactyl or a spondee&rdquo;; but the uncongenial profession affected
+his health, which was never strong, and he was transferred to
+the care of his father&rsquo;s relations at Dundee. There he led a
+healthy outdoor life, and also became a large and indiscriminate
+reader, and before long contributed humorous and poetical
+articles to the provincial newspapers and magazines. As a proof
+of the seriousness with which he regarded the literary vocation,
+it may be mentioned that he used to write out his poems in printed
+characters, believing that that process best enabled him to understand
+his own peculiarities and faults, and probably unconscious
+that Coleridge had recommended some such method of criticism
+when he said he thought &ldquo;print settles it.&rdquo; On his return to
+London in 1818 he applied himself assiduously to the art of
+engraving, in which he acquired a skill that in after years became
+a most valuable assistant to his literary labours, and enabled
+him to illustrate his various humours and fancies by a profusion
+of quaint devices, which not only repeated to the eye
+the impressions of the text, but, by suggesting amusing analogies
+and contrasts, added considerably to the sense and effect of
+the work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1821 Mr John Scott, the editor of the <i>London Magazine</i>,
+was killed in a duel, and that periodical passed into the hands
+of some friends of Hood, who proposed to make him sub-editor.
+His installation into this congenial post at once introduced him
+to the best literary society of the time; and in becoming the
+associate of Charles Lamb, Cary, de Quincey, Allan Cunningham,
+Proctor, Talfourd, Hartley Coleridge, the peasant-poet Clare
+and other contributors to the magazine, he gradually developed
+his own intellectual powers, and enjoyed that happy intercourse
+with superior minds for which his cordial and genial character
+was so well adapted, and which he has described in his best
+manner in several chapters of <i>Hood&rsquo;s Own</i>. He had married
+in 1825, and <i>Odes and Addresses</i>&mdash;his first work&mdash;was written
+in conjunction with his brother-in-law Mr J. H. Reynolds, the
+friend of Keats. S. T. Coleridge wrote to Charles Lamb averring
+that the book must be his work. <i>The Plea of the Midsummer
+Fairies</i> (1827) and a dramatic romance, Lamia, published
+later, belong to this time. <i>The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies</i>
+was a volume of serious verse, in which Hood showed himself
+a by no means despicable follower of Keats. But he was known
+as a humorist, and the public, which had learned to expect
+jokes from him, rejected this little book almost entirely. There
+was much true poetry in the verse, and much sound sense and
+keen observation in the prose of these works; but the poetical
+feeling and lyrical facility of the one, and the more solid qualities
+of the other, seemed best employed when they were subservient
+to his rapid wit, and to the ingenious coruscations of his fancy.
+This impression was confirmed by the series of the <i>Comic Annual</i>,
+dating from 1830, a kind of publication at that time popular,
+which Hood undertook and continued, almost unassisted, for
+several years. Under that somewhat frivolous title he treated
+all the leading events of the day in a fine spirit of caricature,
+entirely free from grossness and vulgarity, without a trait
+of personal malice, and with an under-current of true sympathy
+and honest purpose that will preserve these papers, like the
+sketches of Hogarth, long after the events and manners they
+illustrate have passed from the minds of men. But just as the
+agreeable jester rose into the earnest satirist, one of the most
+striking peculiarities of his style became a more manifest defect.
+The attention of the reader was distracted, and his good taste
+annoyed, by the incessant use of puns, of which Hood had written
+in his own vindication:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;However critics may take offence,</p>
+<p class="i05">A double meaning has double sense.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Now it is true that the critic must be unconscious of some
+of the subtlest charms and nicest delicacies of language who
+would exclude from humorous writing all those impressions
+and surprises which depend on the use of the diverse sense
+of words. The history, indeed, of many a word lies hid in
+its equivocal uses; and it in no way derogates from the dignity
+of the highest poetry to gain strength and variety from the
+ingenious application of the same sounds to different senses,
+any more than from the contrivances of rhythm or the accompaniment
+of imitative sounds. But when this habit becomes
+the characteristic of any wit, it is impossible to prevent it
+from degenerating into occasional buffoonery, and from supplying
+a cheap and ready resource, whenever the true vein of humour
+becomes thin or rare. Artists have been known to use the
+left hand in the hope of checking the fatal facility which practice
+had conferred on the right; and if Hood had been able to
+place under some restraint the curious and complex machinery
+of words and syllables which his fancy was incessantly producing,
+his style would have been a great gainer, and much real
+earnestness of object, which now lies confused by the brilliant
+kaleidoscope of language, would have remained definite and clear.
+He was probably not unconscious of this danger; for, as he gained
+experience as a writer, his diction became more simple, and his
+ludicrous illustrations less frequent. In another annual called
+the <i>Gem</i> appeared the poem on the story of &ldquo;Eugene Aram,&rdquo;
+which first manifested the full extent of that poetical vigour
+which seemed to advance just in proportion as his physical
+health declined. He started a magazine in his own name,
+for which he secured the assistance of many literary men of
+reputation and authority, but which was mainly sustained
+by his own intellectual activity. From a sick-bed, from which
+he never rose, he conducted this work with surprising energy,
+and there composed those poems, too few in number, but immortal
+in the English language, such as the &ldquo;Song of the Shirt&rdquo;
+(which appeared anonymously in the Christmas number of
+<i>Punch</i>, 1843), the &ldquo;Bridge of Sighs&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Song of the
+Labourer,&rdquo; which seized the deep human interests of the time,
+and transported them from the ground of social philosophy
+into the loftier domain of the imagination. They are no clamorous
+expressions of anger at the discrepancies and contrasts
+of humanity, but plain, solemn pictures of conditions of life,
+which neither the politician nor the moralist can deny to exist,
+and which they are imperatively called upon to remedy. Woman,
+in her wasted life, in her hurried death, here stands appealing
+to the society that degrades her, with a combination of eloquence
+and poetry, of forms of art at once instantaneous and permanent,
+and with great metrical energy and variety.</p>
+
+<p>Hood was associated with the <i>Athenaeum</i>, started in 1828
+by J. Silk Buckingham, and he was a regular contributor for
+the rest of his life. Prolonged illness brought on straitened
+circumstances; and application was made to Sir Robert Peel
+to place Hood&rsquo;s name on the pension list with which the British
+state so moderately rewards the national services of literary
+men. This was done without delay, and the pension was continued
+to his wife and family after his death, which occurred
+on the 3rd of May 1845. Nine years after a monument, raised
+by public subscription, in the cemetery of Kensal Green, was
+inaugurated by Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) with a
+concourse of spectators that showed how well the memory
+of the poet stood the test of time. Artisans came from a great
+distance to view and honour the image of the popular writer
+whose best efforts had been dedicated to the cause and the
+sufferings of the workers of the world; and literary men of all
+opinions gathered round the grave of one of their brethren
+whose writings were at once the delight of every boy and the
+instruction of every man who read them. Happy the humorist
+whose works and life are an illustration of the great moral truth
+that the sense of humour is the just balance of all the faculties
+of man, the best security against the pride of knowledge and
+the conceits of the imagination, the strongest inducement
+to submit with a wise and pious patience to the vicissitudes of
+human existence. This was the lesson that Thomas Hood left
+behind him. (H.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The list of Hood&rsquo;s separately published works is
+as follows: <i>Odes and Addresses to Great People</i> (1825); <i>Whims and
+Oddities</i> (two series, 1826 and 1827); <i>The Plea of the Midsummer
+Fairies, Hero and Leander, Lycus the Centaur and other Poems</i> (1827),
+his only collection of serious verse; <i>The Dream of Eugene Aram, the
+Murderer</i> (1831); <i>Tylney Hall</i>, a novel (3 vols., 1834); <i>The Comic
+Annual</i> (1830-1842); <i>Hood&rsquo;s Own; or, Laughter from Year to Year</i>
+(1838, second series, 1861); <i>Up the Rhine</i> (1840); <i>Hood&rsquo;s Magazine
+and Comic Miscellany</i> (1844-1848); <i>National Tales</i> (2 vols., 1837), a
+collection of short novelettes; <i>Whimsicalities</i> (1844), with illustrations
+from Leech&rsquo;s designs; and many contributions to contemporary
+periodicals.</p>
+
+<p>The chief sources of his biography are: <i>Memorials of Thomas
+Hood, collected, arranged and edited by his daughter</i> (1860); his
+&ldquo;Literary Reminiscences&rdquo; in <i>Hood&rsquo;s Own</i>; Alexander Elliot, <i>Hood
+in Scotland</i> (1885). See also the memoir of Hood&rsquo;s friend C. W. Dilke,
+by his grandson Sir Charles Dilke, prefixed to <i>Papers of a Critic</i>; and
+M. H. Spielmann&rsquo;s <i>History of Punch</i>. There is an excellent edition of
+the <i>Poems of Thomas Hood</i> (2 vols., 1897), with a biographical introduction
+of great interest by Canon Alfred Ainger.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOD, TOM<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1835-1874), English humorist, son of the poet
+Thomas Hood, was born at Lake House, Wanstead, Essex,
+on the 19th of January 1835. After attending University College
+School and Louth Grammar School he entered Pembroke College,
+Oxford, in 1853, where he passed all the examinations for the
+degree of B.A., but did not graduate. At Oxford he wrote his
+<i>Farewell to the Swallows</i> (1853) and <i>Pen and Pencil Pictures</i>
+(1857). He began to write for the <i>Liskeard Gazette</i> in 1856, and
+edited that paper in 1858-1859. He then obtained a position in
+the War Office, which he filled for five years, leaving in 1865
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span>
+to become editor of <i>Fun</i>, the comic paper, which became very
+popular under his direction. In 1867 he first issued <i>Tom Hood&rsquo;s
+Comic Annual</i>. In 1861 had appeared <i>The Daughters of King
+Daker, and other Poems</i>, after which he published in conjunction
+with his sister, Frances Freeling Broderip, a number of amusing
+books for children. His serious novels, of which <i>Captain Masters&rsquo;s
+Children</i> (1865) is the best, were not so successful. Hood drew
+with considerable facility, among his illustrations being those
+of several of his father&rsquo;s comic verses. In private life his geniality
+and sincere friendliness secured him the affection and esteem of a
+wide circle of acquaintance. He died on the 20th of November
+1874.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A memoir by his sister, F. F. Broderip, is prefixed to the edition
+of his poems published in 1877.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR WILLIAM ACLAND HOOD,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Baron</span> (1824-1901), English admiral, born on the 14th of July
+1824, was the younger son of Sir Alexander Hood of St Andries,
+Somerset, 2nd baronet, and grandson of Captain Alexander
+Hood, R.N., who, when in command of the &ldquo;Mars,&rdquo; fell in
+action with the French 74-gun ship &ldquo;Hercule,&rdquo; 21st of April
+1798. At the age of twelve Hood entered the navy, and whilst
+still a boy saw active service on the north coast of Spain, and
+afterwards on the coast of Syria. After passing through the
+established course of gunnery on board the &ldquo;Excellent&rdquo; in
+1844-1845, he went out to the Cape of Good Hope as gunnery
+mate of the &ldquo;President,&rdquo; the flagship of Rear-Admiral Dacres,
+by whom, on the 9th of January 1846, he was promoted to be
+lieutenant. As gunnery lieutenant he continued in the &ldquo;President&rdquo;
+till 1849; and in the following year he was appointed
+to the &ldquo;Arethusa&rdquo; frigate, then commissioned for the Mediterranean
+by Captain Symonds, afterwards the well-known
+admiral of the fleet. The outbreak of the Russian war made
+the commission a very long one; and on the 27th of November
+1854 Hood was promoted to be commander in recognition
+of his service with the naval brigade before Sebastopol. In
+1855 he married Fanny Henrietta, daughter of Sir C. F. Maclean.
+In 1856 he commissioned the &ldquo;Acorn&rdquo; brig for the China
+station, and arrived in time to take part in the destruction
+of the junks in Fatshan creek on the 1st of June 1857, and
+in the capture of Canton in the following December, for which,
+in February 1858, he received a post-captain&rsquo;s commission.
+From 1862 to 1866 he commanded, the &ldquo;Pylades&rdquo; on the
+North American station, and was then appointed to the command
+of the &ldquo;Excellent&rdquo; and the government of the Royal Naval
+College at Portsmouth. This was essentially a gunnery appointment,
+and on the expiration of three years Hood was made
+Director of Naval Ordnance. He was thoroughly acquainted
+with the routine work of the office and the established armament
+of the navy, but he had not the power of adapting himself
+to the changes which were being called for, and still less of
+initiating them; so that during his period of office the armament
+of the ships remained sadly behind the general advance. In
+June 1874 he was appointed to the command of the &ldquo;Monarch&rdquo;
+in the Channel Fleet, from which he was relieved in March
+1876 by his promotion to flag rank. From 1877 to 1879 he was
+a junior lord of the Admiralty, and from 1880 to 1882 he commanded
+the Channel Fleet, becoming vice-admiral on 23rd
+July 1880. In June 1885 he was appointed first sea lord of the
+Admiralty. The intense conservatism of his character, however,
+and his antagonistic attitude towards every change, regardless
+of whether it was necessary or not, had much to do with the
+alarming state of the navy towards 1889. In that year, on
+attaining the age of sixty-five, he was placed on the retired
+list and resigned his post at the Admiralty. After two years
+of continued ill-health, he died on the 15th of November 1901,
+and was buried at Butleigh on the 23rd. He had been promoted
+to the rank of admiral on the 18th of January 1886; was made
+K.C.B, in December 1885; G.C.B. in September 1889; and in
+February 1892 was raised to the peerage as Lord Hood of
+Avalon, but on his death the title became extinct.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. K. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOD,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a covering for the head. The word is in O. Eng. <i>hod</i>,
+cognate with Dutch <i>hoed</i> and Ger. <i>Hut</i>, hat, both masculine;
+&ldquo;hood&rdquo; and &ldquo;hat&rdquo; are distantly related; they may be connected
+with the feminine <i>hoed</i> or <i>Hut</i>, meaning charge, care,
+Eng. &ldquo;heed.&rdquo; Some form of hood as a loose covering easily
+drawn on or off the head has formed a natural part of outdoor
+costume both for men and women at all times and in all quarters
+of the globe where climatic conditions called for it. In the
+middle ages and later both men and women are found wearing
+it, but with men it tended to be superseded by the hat before
+it became merely an occasional and additional head-covering
+in time of bad weather or in particularly rigorous climates.
+For illustrations and examples of the hood as worn by men and
+women in medieval and later times see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>;
+for the hood or cowl as part of the dress of a religious see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cowl</a></span>,
+and as forming a distinctive mark of degree in academic costume
+see Robes. The word is applied to many objects resembling
+a hood in function or shape, such as a folding cover for a carriage
+to protect the occupants from rain or wind, the belled covering
+for the head of a hawk trained for falconry, the endmost planks
+in a ship&rsquo;s bottom at bow or stern, and, in botany and zoology,
+certain parts of a flower or of the neck of an animal which in
+arrangement of structure or of colour recall this article of dress.</p>
+
+<p>In architecture a &ldquo;hood-mould&rdquo; is a projecting moulding
+carried outside the arch of a door or window; it is weathered
+underneath, and when continued horizontally is better known
+as a dripstone. The ends of the hood-mould are generally stopped
+on a corbel, plain or carved with heads in European churches,
+but in those of central Syria terminating in scrolls. Although
+in its origin the object of the projecting and weathered hood-mould
+was to protect the face of the wall below from rain,
+it gives more importance to, and emphasizes, the arch-moulds,
+so that it is often employed decoratively inside churches.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The suffix &ldquo;-hood,&rdquo; like the cognate &ldquo;-head,&rdquo; was originally a
+substantive meaning rank, status or quality, and was constantly used
+in combination with other substantives; cf. in O. Eng. <i>cild-hod</i>, child-hood;
+later it ceased to be used separately and became a mere suffix
+denoting condition added to adjectives; cf. &ldquo;falsehood,&rdquo; as well as
+to substantives.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1581-1647), Dutch poet
+and historian, was born at Amsterdam on the 16th of March
+1581. His father was one of the leading citizens of Holland,
+both in politics and in the patronage of letters, and for some
+time burgomaster of Amsterdam. As early as 1598 the young
+man was made a member of the chamber of rhetoric <i>In Liefde
+bloeiende</i>, and produced before that body his tragedy of <i>Achilles
+and Polyxena</i>, not printed until 1614. In June 1598 he left
+Holland and proceeded to Paris, where on the 10th of April
+1599 he saw the body of Gabrielle d&rsquo;Estrées lying in state. He
+went a few months later to Venice, Florence and Rome, and in
+1600 to Naples. During his Italian sojourn he made a deep
+and fruitful study of the best literature of Italy. In July 1600
+he sent home to the <i>In Liefde bloeiende</i> a very fine letter in verse,
+expressing his aspirations for the development of Dutch poetry.
+He returned through Germany, and after an absence of three
+years and a half found himself in Amsterdam again on the 8th
+of May 1601. In 1602 he brought out his second tragedy,
+<i>Theseus and Ariadne</i>, printed at Amsterdam in 1614. In 1605
+he completed his beautiful pastoral drama <i>Granida</i>, not published
+until 1615. He studied law and history at Leiden from 1606
+to 1609, and in June of the latter year received from Prince
+Maurice of Orange the appointment of steward of Muiden,
+bailiff of Gooiland, and lord of Weesp, a joint office of great
+emolument. He occupied himself with repairing and adorning
+the decayed castle of Muiden, which was his residence during
+the remainder of his life. There he entertained the poet Vondel,
+the scholar Barlaeus,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Constantin Huygens, Vossius, Laurens
+Reael and others. Hooft had been a suitor for the hand of
+Anna Roemer Visscher, and after the death of Roemer Visscher
+both the sisters visited Muiden. Anna&rsquo;s sympathies were in
+time diverted to the school of Jacob Cats, but Marie Tesselschade
+maintained close ties with Hooft, who revised her translation
+of Tasso. In August 1610 he married Christina van Erp, an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span>
+accomplished lady who died in 1623, and four years later he
+married Eleonora Hellemans. In 1612 Hooft produced his
+national tragedy of <i>Geeraerdt van Velzen</i> (pr. 1613), a story of
+the reign of Count Floris V. In 1614 was performed at Coster&rsquo;s
+academy Hooft&rsquo;s comedy of <i>Ware-nar</i>, an adaptation of the
+<i>Aulularia</i> of Plautus, first printed in 1617. In 1616 he wrote
+another tragedy, <i>Baeto, or the Origin of the Dutch</i>, not printed
+until 1626. It was in 1618 that he abandoned poetry for history,
+and in 1626 he published the first of his great prose works, the
+<i>History of Henry the Great</i> (Henry IV. of France). His next
+production was his <i>Miseries of the Princes of the House of Medici</i>
+(Amsterdam, 1638). In 1642 he published at Amsterdam a
+folio comprising the first twenty books of his <i>Dutch History</i>,
+embracing the period from 1555 to 1585, a magnificent performance,
+to the perfecting of which he had given fifteen years
+of labour. The seven concluding books were published posthumously
+in 1654. His idea of history was gained from Tacitus,
+whose works he translated. Hooft died on a visit to the Hague,
+whither he had gone to attend the funeral of Prince Frederick
+Henry, on the 21st of May 1647, and was buried in the New
+Church at Amsterdam.</p>
+
+<p>Hooft is one of the most brilliant figures that adorn Dutch
+literature at its best period. He was the first writer to introduce
+a modern and European tone into belles lettres, and the first
+to refresh the sources of native thought from the springs of
+antique and Renaissance poetry. His lyrics and his pastoral
+of <i>Granida</i> are strongly marked by the influence of Tasso and
+Sannazaro; his later tragedies belong more exactly to the
+familiar tone of his native country. But high as Hooft stands
+among the Dutch poets, he stands higher&mdash;he holds perhaps the
+highest place&mdash;among writers of Dutch prose. His historical
+style has won the warmest eulogy from so temperate a critic
+as Motley, and his letters are the most charming ever published
+in the Dutch language. After Vondel, he may on the whole
+be considered the most considerable author that Holland has
+produced.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hooft&rsquo;s poetical and dramatic works were collected in two volumes
+(1871, 1875) by P. Leendertz. His letters were edited by B. Huydecoper
+(Leiden, 1738) and by van Vloten (Leiden, 4 vols., 1855). The
+best original account of Hooft is given by G. Bradt in his <i>Leven van
+P. C. Hooft</i> (1677), and his funeral address (1647), edited together by
+J. C. Matthes (Groningen, 1874). There is an account of the Muiden
+circle in Edmund Gosse&rsquo;s <i>Literatures of Northern Europe</i>. Many
+editions exist of his prose works.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Kaspar van Baerle (1584-1648), professor of rhetoric at
+Amsterdam, and famous as a Latin poet.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> Dutch painter,
+was born, it is said, in 1627 at the Hague, and died at Dort
+on the 19th of October 1678. This artist, who was first a pupil
+of his father, lived at the Hague and at Dort till about 1640,
+when on the death of Dirk Hoogstraten he changed his residence
+to Amsterdam and entered the school of Rembrandt. A short
+time afterwards he started as a master and painter of portraits,
+set out on a round of travels which took him (1651) to Vienna,
+Rome and London, and finally retired to Dort, where he married
+in 1656, and held an appointment as &ldquo;provost of the mint.&rdquo;
+Hoogstraten&rsquo;s works are scarce; but a sufficient number of
+them has been preserved to show that he strove to imitate
+different styles at different times. In a portrait dated 1645
+in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna he imitates Rembrandt;
+and he continues in this vein as late as 1653, when he produced
+that wonderful figure of a Jew looking out of a casement, which
+is one of the most characteristic examples of his manner in the
+Belvedere at Vienna. A view of the Vienna Hofburg, dated
+1652, in the same gallery displays his skill as a painter of architecture,
+whilst in a piece at the Hague representing a Lady
+Reading a Letter as she crosses a Courtyard, or a Lady Consulting
+a Doctor, in the Van der Hoop Museum at Amsterdam, he
+imitates de Hooch. One of his latest works is a portrait of
+Mathys van den Brouck, dated 1670, in the gallery of Amsterdam.
+The scarcity of Hoogstraten&rsquo;s pictures is probably due to his
+versatility. Besides directing a mint, he devoted some time
+to literary labours, wrote a book on the theory of painting
+(1678) and composed sonnets and a tragedy. We are indebted
+to him for some of the familiar sayings of Rembrandt. He
+was an etcher too, and some of his plates are still preserved.
+His portrait, engraved by himself at the age of fifty,
+still exists.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOK, JAMES CLARKE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1819-1907), English painter, was
+born in London on the 21st of November 1819. His father,
+James Hook, a Northumbrian by descent, Judge Arbitrator
+of Sierra Leone, married the second daughter of Dr Adam
+Clarke, the commentator on the Bible, who gave to the painter
+his second name. Young Hook&rsquo;s first taste of the sea was on
+board the Berwick smacks which took him on his way to Wooler.
+He drew with rare facility, and determined to become an artist;
+and accordingly, without any supervision, he set to work for
+more than a year in the sculpture galleries of the British Museum.
+In 1836 he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy,
+where he worked for three years, and elsewhere learned a good
+deal of the scientific technique of painting from a nephew of
+Opie. His first picture, called &ldquo;The Hard Task,&rdquo; was exhibited
+in 1837, and represented a girl helping her sister with a lesson.
+Unusual facility in portraiture and a desire to earn his own
+living took the student into Ireland to paint likenesses of the
+Waterford family and others; here he produced landscapes of
+the Vale of Avoca, and much developed his taste for pastoral
+art; later, he was similarly engaged in Kent and Somersetshire.
+In 1842 his second exhibited work was a portrait of &ldquo;Master
+J. Finch Smith&rdquo;: in this year he gained silver medals at the
+Royal Academy, and in 1843 he was one of the competitors
+in the exhibition of cartoons in Westminster Hall, with a 10
+by 7 ft. design of &ldquo;Satan in Paradise.&rdquo; In 1844 the Academy
+contained a picture of a kind with which his name was long
+associated, an illustration of the <i>Decameron</i>, called &ldquo;Pamphilius
+relating his Story,&rdquo; a meadow scene in bright light, with
+sumptuous ladies, richly clad, reclining on the grass. The British
+Institution, 1844 and 1845, set forth two of Hook&rsquo;s idylls, subjects
+taken from Shakespeare and Burns, which, with the above,
+showed him to be cultivating those veins of romantic sentiment
+and the picturesque which were then in vogue, but in a characteristically
+fresh and vigorous manner. &ldquo;The Song of Olden
+Times&rdquo; (Royal Academy, 1845) marked the artist&rsquo;s future path
+distinctly in most technical respects. It was in this year Hook
+won the Academy gold medal for an oil picture of &ldquo;The Finding
+the Body of Harold.&rdquo; The travelling studentship in painting
+was awarded to him for &ldquo;Rizpah watching the Dead Sons of
+Saul&rdquo; in 1846; and he went for three years to Italy, having
+married Miss Rosalie Burton before he left England. Hook
+passed through Paris, worked diligently for some time in the
+Louvre, traversed Switzerland, and, though he stayed only
+part of three years in Italy, gained much from studies of Titian,
+Tintoret, Carpaccio, Mansueti and other Venetians. Their
+influence thenceforth dominated the coloration of his pictures,
+and enabled him to apply the principles to which they had
+attained to the representation (as Bonington before him had
+done) of romantic subjects and to those English themes of the
+land and sea with which the name of the artist is inseparably
+associated. &ldquo;A Dream of Ancient Venice&rdquo; (R.A., 1848)&mdash;the
+first fruit of these Italian studies&mdash;&ldquo;Bayard of Brescia&rdquo;
+(R.A., 1849), &ldquo;Venice&rdquo; (B.I., 1849) and other works assured
+for Hook the Associateship of the Royal Academy in 1851.
+Soon afterwards an incomparable series of English subjects was
+begun, in many pastorals and fine brilliant idylls of the sea
+and rocks. &ldquo;A Rest by the Wayside&rdquo; and &ldquo;A Few Minutes
+to Wait before Twelve o&rsquo;clock&rdquo; proved his title to appear,
+in 1854, as a new and original painter. After these came
+&ldquo;A Signal on the Horizon&rdquo; (1857), &ldquo;A Widow&rsquo;s Son going to
+Sea,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Ship-boy&rsquo;s Letter,&rdquo; &ldquo;Children&rsquo;s Children are the
+Crown of Old Men,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Coast-boy gathering Eggs,&rdquo; a scene
+at Lundy; the perfect &ldquo;Luff, Boy!&rdquo; (1859), about which
+Ruskin broke into a dithyrambic chant, &ldquo;The Brook,&rdquo; &ldquo;Stand
+Clear!&rdquo; &ldquo;O Well for the Fisherman&rsquo;s Boy!&rdquo; (1860), &ldquo;Leaving
+Cornwall for the Whitby Fishing,&rdquo; &ldquo;Sea Urchins,&rdquo; and a score
+more as fine as these. The artist was elected a full Academician
+on the 6th of March 1860, in the place of James Ward. He died
+on the 14th of April 1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. H. Palmer, &ldquo;J. C. Hook, R.A.,&rdquo; <i>Portfolio</i> (1888); F. G.
+Stephens, &ldquo;J. C. Hook, Royal Academician: His Life and Work,&rdquo;
+<i>Art Annual</i> (London, 1888); P. G. Hamerton, <i>Etching and Etchers</i>
+(London, 1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1788-1841), English author,
+was born in London on the 22nd of September 1788. He spent
+a year at Harrow, and subsequently matriculated at Oxford,
+but he never actually resided at the university. His father,
+James Hook (1746-1827), the composer of numerous popular
+songs, took great delight in exhibiting the boy&rsquo;s extraordinary
+musical and metrical gifts, and the precocious Theodore became
+&ldquo;the little pet lion of the green room.&rdquo; At the age of sixteen,
+in conjunction with his father, he scored a dramatic success
+with <i>The Soldier&rsquo;s Return</i>, a comic opera, and this he rapidly
+followed up with a series of over a dozen sparkling ventures,
+the instant popularity of which was hardly dependent on the
+inimitable acting of John Liston and Charles Mathews. But Hook
+gave himself up for some ten of the best years of his life to the
+pleasures of the town, winning a foremost place in the world of
+fashion by his matchless powers of improvisation and mimicry,
+and startling the public by the audacity of his practical jokes.
+His unique gift of improvising the words and the music of songs
+eventually charmed the prince Regent into a declaration that
+&ldquo;something must be done for Hook.&rdquo; The prince was as good
+as his word, and Hook, in spite of a total ignorance of accounts,
+was appointed accountant-general and treasurer of the Mauritius
+with a salary of £2000 a year. For five delightful years he
+was the life and soul of the island, but in 1817, a serious deficiency
+having been discovered in the treasury accounts, he was arrested
+and brought to England on a criminal charge. A sum of about
+£12,000 had been abstracted by a deputy official, and for this
+amount Hook was held responsible.</p>
+
+<p>During the tardy scrutiny of the audit board he lived obscurely
+and maintained himself by writing for magazines and newspapers.
+In 1820 he launched the newspaper <i>John Bull</i>, the champion of
+high Toryism and the virulent detractor of Queen Caroline.
+Witty, incisive criticism and pitiless invective secured it a large
+circulation, and from this source alone Hook derived, for the
+first year at least, an income of £2000. He was, however,
+arrested for the second time on account of his debt to the state,
+which he made no effort to defray. In a sponging-house, where
+he was confined for two years, he wrote the nine volumes of stories
+afterwards collected under the title of <i>Sayings and Doings</i>
+(1826-1829). In the remaining twenty-three years of his life
+he poured forth no fewer than thirty-eight volumes, besides
+numberless articles, squibs and sketches. His novels are not
+works of enduring interest, but they are saved from mediocrity
+by frequent passages of racy narrative and vivid portraiture.
+The best are <i>Maxwell</i> (1830), <i>Love and Pride</i> (1833), the autobiographic
+<i>Gilbert Gurney</i> (1836), <i>Jack Brag</i> (1837), <i>Gurney Married</i>
+(1838), and <i>Peregrine Bunce</i> (1842). Incessant work had already
+begun to tell on his health, when Hook returned to his old social
+habits, and a prolonged attempt to combine industry and dissipation
+resulted in the confession that he was &ldquo;done up in purse,
+in mind and in body too at last.&rdquo; He died on the 24th of August
+1841. His writings in great part are of a purely ephemeral
+character; and the greatest triumphs of the improvisatore
+may be said to have been writ in wine. Putting aside, however,
+his claim to literary greatness, Hook will be remembered as one
+of the most brilliant, genial and original figures of Georgian
+times.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the Rev. R. H. D. Barham&rsquo;s <i>Life and Remains of Hook</i> (3rd ed.,
+1877); and an article by J. G. Lockhart in the <i>Quarterly Review</i>
+(May 1843).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1798-1875), English divine,
+nephew of the witty Theodore, was born in London on the 13th
+of March 1798. Educated at Tiverton and Winchester, he
+graduated at Oxford (Christ Church) in 1821, and after holding
+an incumbency in Coventry, 1829-1837, and in Leeds, 1837-1859,
+was nominated dean of Chichester by Lord Derby. He
+received the degree of D.D. in 1837. His friendship towards
+the Tractarians exposed him to considerable persecution, but
+his simple manly character and zealous devotion to parochial
+work gained him the support of widely divergent classes. His
+stay in Leeds was marked by vigorous and far-reaching church
+extension, and his views on education were far in advance of
+his time. Among his many writings are <i>An Ecclesiastical
+Biography, containing the Lives of Ancient Fathers and Modern
+Divines</i> (8 vols., 1845-1852), <i>A Church Dictionary, The Means
+of Rendering more Effectual the Education of the People,
+The Cross of Christ</i> (1873), <i>The Church and its Ordinances</i>
+(sermons, 4 vols., 1876), and <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i>
+(12 vols., 1860-1876). He died on the 20th of October
+1875.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life and Letters of Dean Hook</i>, by his son-in-law, W. R. W.
+Stephens (2 vols., 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOKAH<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (the English spelling of the Persian and Hindustani
+<i>huqqu</i>, an adaptation of the Arabic <i>huqqah</i>, a vase or casket,
+and by transference a pipe for smoking, probably derived from
+the Arabie <i>huqq</i>, a hollow place), a pipe with a long flexible
+tube attached to a large bowl containing water, often scented,
+and resting upon a tripod or stand. The smoke of the tobacco
+is made to pass through the water in the bowl, and is thus cooled
+before reaching the smoker. The <i>narghile</i> of India is in principle
+the same as that of the hookah; the word is derived from <i>nargil</i>,
+an Indian name for the coco-nut tree, as when the <i>narghile</i>
+was first made the water was placed in a coco-nut. This receptacle
+is now often made of porcelain, glass or metal. In
+the <i>hubble-bubble</i> the pipe is so contrived that the water in
+the bowl makes a bubbling noise while the pipe is being
+smoked. This pipe is common in India, Egypt and the East
+generally.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOKE, ROBERT<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1635-1703), English experimental
+philosopher, was born on the 18th of July 1635 at Freshwater,
+in the Isle of Wight, where his father, John Hooke, was minister
+of the parish. After working for a short time with Sir Peter
+Lely, he went to Westminster school; and in 1653 he entered
+Christ Church, Oxford, as servitor. After 1655 he was employed
+and patronized by the Hon. Robert Boyle, who turned his skill
+to account in the construction of his air-pump. On the 12th
+of November 1662 he was appointed curator of experiments
+to the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1663,
+and filled the office during the remainder of his life. In 1664
+Sir John Cutler instituted for his benefit a mechanical lectureship
+of £50 a year, and in the following year he was nominated
+professor of geometry in Gresham College, where he subsequently
+resided. After the Great Fire of 1666 he constructed a model
+for the rebuilding of this city, which was highly approved, although
+the design of Sir C. Wren was preferred. During the progress
+of the works, however, he acted as surveyor, and accumulated
+in that lucrative employment a sum of several thousand pounds,
+discovered after his death in an old iron chest, which had
+evidently lain unopened for above thirty years. He fulfilled
+the duties of secretary to the Royal Society during five years
+after the death of Henry Oldenburg in 1677, publishing in 1681-1682
+the papers read before that body under the title of <i>Philosophical
+Collections</i>. A protracted controversy with Johann
+Hevelius, in which Hooke urged the advantages of telescopic
+over plain sights, brought him little but discredit. His reasons
+were good; but his offensive style of argument rendered them
+unpalatable and himself unpopular. Many circumstances
+concurred to embitter the latter years of his life. The death,
+in 1687, of his niece, Mrs Grace Hooke, who had lived with him
+for many years, caused him deep affliction; a law-suit with Sir
+John Cutler about his salary (decided, however, in his favour
+in 1696) occasioned him prolonged anxiety; and the repeated
+anticipation of his discoveries inspired him with a morbid
+jealousy. Marks of public respect were not indeed wanting to
+him. A degree of M.D. was conferred on him at Doctors&rsquo;
+Commons in 1691, and the Royal Society made him, in 1696,
+a grant to enable him to complete his philosophical inventions.
+While engaged on this task he died, worn out with disease,
+on the 3rd of March 1703 in London, and was buried in St
+Helen&rsquo;s Church, Bishopsgate Street.</p>
+
+<p>In personal appearance Hooke made but a sorry show. His
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span>
+figure was crooked, his limbs shrunken; his hair hung in dishevelled
+locks over his haggard countenance. His temper was
+irritable, his habits penurious and solitary. He was, however,
+blameless in morals and reverent in religion. His scientific
+achievements would probably have been more striking if they
+had been less varied. He originated much, but perfected
+little. His optical investigations led him to adopt in an imperfect
+form the undulatory theory of light, to anticipate the doctrine
+of interference, and to observe, independently of though subsequently
+to F. M. Grimaldi (1618-1663), the phenomenon of
+diffraction. He was the first to state clearly that the motions
+of the heavenly bodies must be regarded as a mechanical problem,
+and he approached in a remarkable manner the discovery of
+universal gravitation. He invented the wheel barometer,
+discussed the application of barometrical indications to meteorological
+forecasting, suggested a system of optical telegraphy,
+anticipated E. F. F. Chladni&rsquo;s experiment of strewing a vibrating
+bell with flour, investigated the nature of sound and the function
+of the air in respiration and combustion, and originated the
+idea of using the pendulum as a measure of gravity. He is
+credited with the invention of the anchor escapement for clocks,
+and also with the application of spiral springs to the balances
+of watches, together with the explanation of their action by
+the principle <i>Ut tensio sic vis</i> (1676).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal writings are <i>Micrographia</i> (1664); <i>Lectiones Cutlerianae</i>
+(1674-1679); and <i>Posthumous Works</i>, containing a sketch
+of his &ldquo;Philosophical Algebra,&rdquo; published by R. Waller in 1705.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, JOSEPH<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1814-1879), American general, was born
+in Hadley, Massachusetts, on the 13th of November 1814.
+He was educated at the military academy at West Point (1833-1837),
+and on graduating entered the 1st U.S. Artillery. In the
+war with Mexico (1846-48) he served as a staff officer, and rose
+by successive brevets for meritorious services to the rank of
+lieutenant-colonel. In 1853 he left the service and bought a large
+farm near Sonoma, Cal., which he managed successfully till
+1858, when he was made superintendent of military roads in
+Oregon. Upon the opening of hostilities in the Civil War of
+1861-65, he sacrificed his fine estate and offered his sword to the
+Federal Government. He was commissioned brigadier-general
+of volunteers on the 17th of May 1861 and major-general
+on the 5th of May 1862. The engagement of Williamsburg
+(May 5th) brought him and his subordinate Hancock into
+prominence, and Hooker received the soubriquet of &ldquo;Fighting
+Joe.&rdquo; He was engaged at the battle of Fair Oaks, and did
+splendid service to the Union army during the &ldquo;Seven Days.&rdquo;
+In the campaign of Northern Virginia, under General Pope
+(August 1862), he led his division with fiery energy at Bristoe
+Station, Manassas and Chantilly. In the Maryland campaign
+(September) he was at the head of the I. corps, Army of the
+Potomac, forced the defile of South Mountain and opened the
+way for the advance of the army. The I. corps opened the great
+battle of the Antietam, and sustained a sanguinary fight with the
+Confederates under Stonewall Jackson. Hooker himself was
+severely wounded. He was commissioned brigadier-general
+in the United States army on the 20th of September 1862, and
+in the battle of Fredericksburg (<i>q.v.</i>), under Burnside, he commanded
+the centre grand division (III. and V. corps). He had
+protested against the useless slaughter of his men on that
+disastrous field, and when Burnside resigned the command
+Hooker succeeded him. The new leader effected a much-needed
+re-organization in the army, which had fought many battles
+without success. In this task, as in subordinate commands
+in battle, Hooker was excelled by few. But his grave defects
+as a commander-in-chief were soon to be obvious. By a well-planned
+and well-executed flanking movement, he placed himself
+on the enemy&rsquo;s flank, but at the decisive moment he checked
+the advance of his troops. Lee turned upon him, Jackson
+surprised and destroyed a whole army corps, and the battle of
+Chancellorsville (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness</a></span>), in which Hooker was himself
+disabled, ended in a retreat to the old position. Yet Hooker
+had not entirely forfeited the confidence of his men, to whom
+he was still &ldquo;Fighting Joe.&rdquo; The second advance of Lee into
+Union territory, which led to the battle of Gettysburg, was
+strenuously resisted by Hooker, who would have inflicted a
+heavy blow on Lee&rsquo;s scattered forces had he not been condemned
+to inaction by orders from Washington. Even then Hooker
+followed the Confederates a day only behind them, until, finding
+himself distrusted and forbidden to control the movements of
+troops within the sphere of operations, he resigned the command
+on the eve of the battle (June 28, 1863). Faults of temper
+and an excessive sense of responsibility made his continued
+occupation of the command impossible, but when after a signal
+defeat Rosecrans was besieged in Chattanooga, and Grant
+with all the forces of the West was hurried to the rescue, two
+corps of the Army of the Potomac were sent over by rail, and
+Hooker, who was at least one of the finest fighting generals
+of the service, went with them in command. He fought and won
+the &ldquo;Battle above the Clouds&rdquo; on Lookout Mountain which
+cleared the way for the crowning victory of the army of the
+Cumberland on Missionary Ridge (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chattanooga</a></span>). And in
+command of the same corps (consolidated as the XX. corps)
+he took part in all the battles and combats of the Atlanta
+campaign of 1864. When General McPherson was killed before
+Atlanta, the command of Grant&rsquo;s old Army of the Tennessee
+fell vacant. Hooker, who, though only a corps commander,
+was senior to the other army commanders, Thomas and Schofield,
+was normally entitled to receive it, but General Sherman feared
+to commit a whole army to the guidance of a man of Hooker&rsquo;s
+peculiar temperament, and the place was given to Howard.
+Hooker thereupon left the army. He was commissioned brevet-major-general
+in the United States army on the 13th of March
+1865, and retired from active service with the full rank of major-general
+on the 15th of October 1868, in consequence of a
+paralytic seizure. The last years of his life were passed in the
+neighbourhood of New York. He died at Garden City, Long
+Island, on the 31st of October 1879.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1817-&emsp;&emsp;), English
+botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir
+W. J. Hooker, was born on the 30th of June 1817, at Halesworth,
+Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost
+immediately after taking his M.D. degree there in 1839 joined
+Sir James Ross&rsquo;s Antarctic expedition, receiving a commission
+as assistant-surgeon on the &ldquo;Erebus.&rdquo; The botanical fruits of the
+three years he thus spent in the Southern Seas were the <i>Flora
+Antarctica</i>, <i>Flora Novae Zelandiae</i> and <i>Flora Tasmanica</i>, which
+he published on his return. His next expedition was to the
+northern frontiers of India (1847-1851), and the expenses in
+this case also were partially defrayed by the government. The
+party had its full share of adventure. Hooker and his friend
+Dr Campbell were detained in prison for some time by the raja of
+Sikkim, but nevertheless they were able to bring back important
+results, both geographical and botanical. Their survey of
+hitherto unexplored regions was published by the Calcutta
+Trigonometrical Survey Office, and their botanical observations
+formed the basis of elaborate works on the rhododendrons
+of the Sikkim Himalaya and on the flora of India. Among
+other journeys undertaken by Hooker may be mentioned those
+to Palestine (1860), Morocco (1871), and the United States
+(1877), all yielding valuable scientific information. In the midst
+of all this travelling in foreign countries he quickly built up for
+himself a high scientific reputation at home. In 1855 he was
+appointed assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and in 1865 he
+succeeded his father as full director, holding the post for twenty
+years. At the early age of thirty he was elected a fellow of the
+Royal Society, and in 1873 he was chosen its president; he
+received three of its medals&mdash;a Royal in 1854, the Copley in
+1887 and the Darwin in 1892. He acted as president of the
+British Association at its Norwich meeting of 1868, when his
+address was remarkable for its championship of Darwinian
+theories. Of Darwin, indeed, he was an early friend and supporter:
+it was he who, with Lyell, first induced Darwin to
+make his views public, and the author of <i>The Origin of Species</i>
+has recorded his indebtedness to Hooker&rsquo;s wide knowledge and
+balanced judgment. Sir Joseph Hooker is the author of numerous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span>
+scientific papers and monographs, and his larger books include,
+in addition to those already mentioned, a standard <i>Student&rsquo;s
+Flora of the British Isles</i> and a monumental work, the <i>Genera
+plantarum</i>, based on the collections at Kew, in which he had the
+assistance of Bentham. On the publication of the last part of
+his <i>Flora of British India</i> in 1897 he was created G.C.S.I., of
+which order he had been made a knight commander twenty
+years before; and twenty years later, on attaining the age of
+ninety, he was awarded the Order of Merit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, RICHARD<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1553-1600), English writer, author of
+the <i>Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity</i>, son of Richard Vowell or Hooker,
+was born at Heavitree, near the city of Exeter, about the end of
+1553 or beginning of 1554. Vowell was the original name of
+the family, but was gradually dropped, and in the 15th century
+its members were known as Vowell <i>alias</i> Hooker. At school,
+not only his facility in mastering his tasks, but his intellectual
+inquisitiveness and his fine moral qualities, attracted the special
+notice of his teacher, who strongly recommended his parents
+to educate him for the church. Though well connected, they
+were, however, somewhat straitened in their worldly circumstances,
+and Hooker was indebted for admission to the university
+to his uncle, John Hooker <i>alias</i> Vowell, chamberlain of Exeter,
+and in his day a man of some literary repute, who induced
+Bishop Jewel to become his patron and to bestow on him a
+clerk&rsquo;s place in Corpus Christi College, Oxford. To this Hooker
+was admitted in 1568. Bishop Jewel died in September 1571,
+but Dr William Cole, president of the college, from the strong
+interest he felt in the young man, on account at once of his
+character and his abilities, spontaneously offered to take the
+bishop&rsquo;s place as his patron; and shortly afterwards Hooker,
+by his own labours as a tutor, became independent of gratuitous
+aid. Two of his pupils, and these his favourite ones, were Edwin
+Sandys, afterwards author of <i>Europae speculum</i>, and George
+Cranmer, grand-nephew of the archbishop. Hooker&rsquo;s reputation
+as a tutor soon became very high, for he had employed his
+five years at the university to such good purpose as not only to
+have acquired great proficiency in the learned languages, but
+to have joined to this a wide and varied culture which had
+delivered him from the bondage of learned pedantry; in addition
+to which he is said to have possessed a remarkable talent for
+communicating knowledge in a clear and interesting manner,
+and to have exercised a special influence over his pupils&rsquo; intellectual
+and moral tendencies. In December 1573 he was
+elected scholar of his college; in July 1577 he proceeded to M.A.,
+and in September of the same year he was admitted a fellow.
+In 1579 he was appointed by the chancellor of the university
+to read the public Hebrew lecture, a duty which he continued
+to discharge till he left Oxford. Not long after his admission
+into holy orders, about 1581, he was appointed to preach at
+St Paul&rsquo;s Cross; and, according to Walton, he was so kindly
+entertained by Mrs Churchman, who kept the Shunamite&rsquo;s
+house where the preachers were boarded, that he permitted
+her to choose him a wife, &ldquo;promising upon a fair summons to
+return to London and accept of her choice.&rdquo; The lady selected
+by her was &ldquo;her daughter Joan,&rdquo; who, says the same authority,
+&ldquo;found him neither beauty nor portion; and for her conditions
+they were too like that wife&rsquo;s which is by Solomon compared to
+a dripping house.&rdquo; It is probable that Walton has exaggerated
+the simplicity and passiveness of Hooker in the matter, but
+though, as Keble observes with justice, his writings betray
+uncommon shrewdness and quickness of observation, as well as
+a vein of keenest humour, it would appear that either gratitude
+or some other impulse had on this occasion led his judgment
+astray. After his marriage he was, about the end of 1584, presented
+to the living of Drayton Beauchamp in Buckinghamshire.
+In the following year he received a visit from his two pupils,
+Edwin Sandys and George Cranmer, who found him with the
+<i>Odes</i> of Horace in his hand, tending the sheep while the servant
+was at dinner, after which, when they on the return of the
+servant accompanied him to his house, &ldquo;Richard was called
+to rock the cradle.&rdquo; Finding him so engrossed by worldly
+and domestic cares, &ldquo;they stayed but till the next morning,&rdquo;
+and, greatly grieved at his narrow circumstances and unhappy
+domestic condition, &ldquo;left him to the company of his wife Joan.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The visit had, however, results of the highest moment, not
+only in regard to the career of Hooker, but in regard to English
+literature and English philosophical thought. Sandys prevailed
+on his father, the archbishop of York, to recommend Hooker
+for presentation to the mastership of the Temple, and Hooker,
+though his &ldquo;wish was rather to gain a better country living,&rdquo;
+having agreed after some hesitation to become a candidate, the
+patent conferring upon him the mastership was granted on the
+17th of March 1584/5. The rival candidate was Walter Travers,
+a Presbyterian and evening lecturer in the same church. Being
+continued in the lectureship after the appointment of Hooker,
+Travers was in the habit of attempting a refutation in the evening
+of what Hooker had spoken in the morning, Hooker again
+replying on the following Sunday; so it was said &ldquo;the forenoon
+sermon spake Canterbury, the afternoon Geneva.&rdquo; On account
+of the keen feeling displayed by the partisans of both, Archbishop
+Whitgift deemed it prudent to prohibit the preaching of Travers,
+whereupon he presented a petition to the council to have the
+prohibition recalled. Hooker published an <i>Answer to the Petition
+of Mr Travers</i>, and also printed several sermons bearing on special
+points of the controversy; but, feeling strongly the unsatisfactory
+nature of such an isolated and fragmentary discussion of separate
+points, he resolved to compose an elaborate and exhaustive
+treatise, exhibiting the fundamental principles by which the
+question in dispute must be decided. It is probable that the
+work was begun in the latter half of 1586, and he had made
+considerable progress with it before, with a view to its completion,
+he petitioned Whitgift to be removed to a country parsonage,
+in order that, as he said, &ldquo;I may keep myself in peace and
+privacy, and behold God&rsquo;s blessing spring out of my mother
+earth, and eat my own bread without oppositions.&rdquo; His desire
+was granted in 1591 by a presentation to the rectory of Boscombe
+near Salisbury. There he completed the volume containing the
+first four of the proposed <i>Eight Books of the Laws of Ecclesiastical
+Polity</i>. It was entered at Stationers&rsquo; Hall on the 9th of March
+1592, but was not published till 1593 or 1594. In July 1595 he
+was promoted by the crown to the rectory of Bishopsbourne near
+Canterbury, where he lived to see the completion of the fifth
+book in 1597. In the passage from London to Gravesend some
+time in 1600 he caught a severe cold from which he never
+recovered; but, notwithstanding great weakness and constant
+suffering, he &ldquo;was solicitous in his study,&rdquo; his one desire being
+&ldquo;to live to finish the three remaining books of <i>Polity</i>.&rdquo; His death
+took place on the 2nd of November of the same year. A volume
+professing to contain the sixth and eighth books of the <i>Polity</i>
+was published at London in 1648, but the bulk of the sixth
+book, as has been shown by Keble, is an entire deviation from
+the subject on which Hooker proposed to treat, and doubtless
+the genuine copy, known to have been completed, has been
+lost. The seventh book, which was published in a new edition
+of the work by Gauden in 1662, and the eighth book, may be
+regarded as in substance the composition of Hooker; but, as,
+in addition to wanting his final revision, they have been very
+unskilfully edited, if they have not been manipulated for theological
+purposes, their statements in regard to doubtful matters
+must be received with due reserve, and no reliance can be placed
+on their testimony where their meaning contradicts that of
+other portions of the <i>Polity</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of Hooker in his later years, which we form
+from the various accessible sources, is that of a person of low
+stature and not immediately impressive appearance, much bent
+by the influence of sedentary and meditative habits, of quiet
+and retiring manners, and discoloured in complexion and worn
+and marked in feature from the hard mental toil which he had
+expended on his great work. There seems, however, exaggeration
+in Walton&rsquo;s statement as to the meanness of his dress;
+and Walton certainly misreads his character when he portrays
+him as a kind of ascetic mystic. Though he was unworldly
+and simple in his desires, and engrossed in the purpose to which
+he had devoted his life&mdash;the &ldquo;completion of the <i>Polity</i>&rdquo;&mdash;his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span>
+writings indicate that he possessed a cheerful and healthy
+disposition, and that he was capable of discovering enjoyment
+in everyday pleasures, and of appreciating human life and character
+in a wide variety of aspects. He seems to have had a special
+delight in outward nature&mdash;as he expressed it, he loved &ldquo;to see
+God&rsquo;s blessing spring out of his mother earth&rdquo;; and he spent
+much of his spare time in visiting his parishioners, his deference
+towards them, if excessive, being yet mingled with a grave
+dignity which rendered unwarrantable liberties impossible. As
+a preacher, though singularly devoid of the qualities which win
+the applause of the multitude, he always excited the interest
+of the more intelligent, the breadth and finely balanced wisdom
+of his thoughts and the fascination of his composition greatly
+modifying the impression produced by his weak voice and
+ineffective manner. Partly, doubtless, on account of his dim-sightedness,
+he never removed his eye from his manuscript,
+and, according to Fuller, &ldquo;he may be said to have made good
+music with his fiddle and stick alone, having neither pronunciation
+nor gesture to grace his matter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>To accede without explanation to the claim put forth for the
+<i>Ecclesiastical Polity</i> of Hooker, that it marks an epoch in English
+prose literature and English thought, would both be to do some
+injustice to writers previous to him, and, if not to overestimate his
+influence, to misinterpret its character. By no means can his excursions
+in English prose be regarded as chiefly those of a pioneer;
+and not only is his intellectual position inferior to that of Shakespeare,
+Spenser and Bacon,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> who alone can be properly reckoned
+as the master spirits of the age, but in reality what effect he may
+have had upon the thought of his contemporaries was soon disregarded
+and swept out of sight in the hand-to-hand struggle with
+Puritanism, and his influence, so far from being immediate and
+confined to one particular era, has since the reaction against Puritanism
+been slowly and imperceptibly permeating and colouring English
+thought. His work is, however, the earliest in English prose with
+enough of the preserving salt of excellence to adapt it to the mental
+palate of modern readers. Attempts more elaborate than those of
+the old chroniclers had been made two centuries previously to employ
+English prose both for narrative and for discussion; and, a few years
+before him, Roger Ascham, Sir Thomas More, Latimer, Sir Philip
+Sidney, the compilers of the prayer book, and various translators of
+the Bible, had in widely different departments of literature brought
+to light many samples of the rich wealth of expression that was
+latent in the language; but Hooker&rsquo;s is the first independent work
+in English prose of notable power and genius, and the vigour and
+grasp of its thought are not more remarkable than the felicity of its
+literary style. Its more usual and obvious excellences are clearness
+of expression, notwithstanding occasionally complicated methods;
+great aptness and conciseness in the formation of individual clauses,
+and such a fine sense of proportion and rhythm in their arrangement
+as almost conceals the difficulties of syntax by which he was
+hampered; finished simplicity, notwithstanding a stateliness too
+uniform and unbroken; a nice discrimination in the choice of words
+and phrases, so as both to portray the exact shade of his meaning,
+and to express each of his thoughts with that degree of emphasis
+appropriate to its place in his composition. In regard to qualities
+more relating to the matter than the manner we may note the subtle
+and partly hidden humour; the strong enthusiasm underlying that
+seemingly calm and passionless exposition of principles which continually
+led him away from the minutiae of temporary disputes, and has
+earned for him the somewhat misleading epithet of &ldquo;judicious;&rdquo;
+the solidity of learning, not ostentatiously displayed, but indicated
+in the character and variety of his illustrations and his comprehensive
+mastery of all that relates to his subject; the breadth of his
+conceptions, and the sweep and ease of his movements in the highest
+regions of thought; the fine poetical descriptions occasionally introduced,
+in which his eloquence attains a grave, rich and massive
+harmony that compares not unfavourably with the finest prose of
+Milton. His manner is, of course, defective in the flexibility and
+variety characteristic of the best models of English prose literature
+after the language had been enriched and perfected by long use, and
+his sentences, constructed too much according to Latin usages, are
+often tautological and too protracted into long concatenations of
+clauses; but if, when regarded superficially, his style presents in
+some respects a stiff and antiquated aspect, it yet possesses an
+original and innate charm that has retained its freshness after the
+lapse of nearly three centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The direct interest in the <i>Ecclesiastical Polity</i> is now philosophical
+and political rather than theological, for what theological importance
+it possessed was rather in regard to the spirit and method in which
+theology should be discussed than in regard to the decision of strictly
+theological points. Hooker bases his reasoning on principles which
+he discovered in Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, but the intellectual
+atmosphere of his age was different from that which surrounded
+them; he was acted upon by new and more various impulses enabling
+him to imbibe more thoroughly the spirit of Greek thought which
+was the source of their inspiration, and thus to reach a higher and
+freer region than scholasticism, and in a sense to inaugurate modern
+philosophy in England. It may be admitted that his principles are
+only partially and in some degree capriciously wrought out&mdash;that if
+he is not under the dominion of intellectual tendencies leading to
+opposite results there are occasional blanks and gaps in his argument
+where he seems sometimes to be groping after a meaning which he
+cannot fully grasp; but he is often charged with obscurity simply
+because readers of various theological schools, beholding in his
+principles what seem the outline and justification of their own ideas,
+are disappointed when they find that these outlines instead of acquiring
+as they narrowly examine them the full and definite form of
+their anticipations, widen out into a region beyond their notions and
+sympathies, and therefore from their point of view enveloped in mist
+and shade. It is the exposition of philosophical principles in the first
+and second books of the <i>Polity</i>, and not the application of these
+principles in the remaining books that gives the work its standard
+place in English literature. It was intended to be an answer to the
+attacks of the Presbyterians on the Episcopalian polity and customs,
+but no attempt is made directly to oust Presbyterianism from the
+place it then held in the Church of England. The work must rather
+be regarded as a remonstrance against the narrow ground chosen by
+the Presbyterians for their basis of attack, Hooker&rsquo;s exact position
+being that &ldquo;a necessity of polity and regiment may be held in all
+churches without holding any form to be necessary.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The general purpose of his reasoning is to vindicate Episcopacy
+from objections that had been urged against it, but he attains a result
+which has other and wider consequences than this. The fundamental
+principle on which he bases his reasoning is the unity and all-embracing
+character of law&mdash;law &ldquo;whose seat,&rdquo; he beautifully says,
+&ldquo;is the bosom of God, whose voice the harmony of the world.&rdquo; Law&mdash;as
+operative in nature, as regulating each man&rsquo;s individual character
+and actions, as seen in the formations of societies and governments&mdash;is
+equally a manifestation and development of the divine order
+according to which God Himself acts, is the expression in various
+forms of the divine reason. He makes a distinction between natural
+and positive laws, the one being eternal and immutable, the other
+varying according to external necessity and expediency; and he
+includes all the forms of government under laws that are positive and
+therefore alterable according to circumstances. Their application is
+to be determined by reason, reason enlightened and strengthened by
+every variety of knowledge, discipline and experience. The leading
+feature in his system is the high place assigned to reason, for, though
+affirming that certain truths necessary to salvation could be made
+known only by special divine revelation, he yet elevates reason into
+the criterion by which these truths are to be judged, and the standard
+to determine what in revelation is temporal and what eternal. &ldquo;It
+is not the word of God itself,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;which doth or possibly can
+assure us that we do well to think it His word.&rdquo; At the same time he
+saves himself from the dangers of abstract and rash theorizing by a
+deep and absolute regard for facts, the diligent and accurate study of
+which he makes of the first importance to the proper use of reason.
+&ldquo;The general and perpetual voice of men is,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;as the
+sentence of God Himself. For that which all men have at all times
+learned, nature herself must needs have taught; and, God being the
+author of nature, her voice is but His instrument.&rdquo; Applying his
+principles to man individually, the foundation of morality is, according
+to Hooker, immutable, and rests &ldquo;on that law which God from
+the beginning hath set Himself to do all things by&rdquo;; this law is to be
+discovered by reason; and the perfection which reason teaches us to
+strive after is stated, with characteristic breadth of conception and
+regard to the facts of human nature, to be &ldquo;a triple perfection: first
+a sensual, consisting in those things which very life itself requireth,
+either as necessary supplements, or as beauties or ornaments thereof;
+then an intellectual, consisting in those things which none
+underneath man is either capable of or acquainted with; lastly, a
+spiritual or divine, consisting in those things whereunto we tend by
+supernatural means here, but cannot here attain unto them.&rdquo;
+Applying his principles to man as a member of a community, he
+assigns practically the same origin and sanctions to ecclesiastical as
+to civil government. His theory of government forms the basis of the
+<i>Treatise on Civil Government</i> by Locke, although Locke developed
+the theory in a way that Hooker would not have sanctioned. The
+force and justification of government Hooker derives from public
+approbation, either given directly by the parties immediately
+concerned, or indirectly through inheritance from their ancestors.
+&ldquo;Sith men,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;naturally have no full and perfect power to
+command whole politic multitudes of men, therefore utterly without
+our consent we could in such sort be at no man&rsquo;s commandment
+living. And to be commanded we do consent, when that society
+whereof we are part hath at any time before consented, without
+revoking the same after, by the like universal agreement.&rdquo; His
+theory as he stated it is in various of its aspects and applications
+liable to objection; but taken as a whole it is the first philosophical
+statement of the principles which, though disregarded in the succeeding
+age, have since regulated political progress in England
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span>
+and gradually modified its constitution. One of the corollaries of his
+principles is his theory of the relation of church and state, according
+to which, with the qualifications implied in his theory of government,
+he asserts the royal supremacy in matters of religion, and
+identifies the church and commonwealth as but different aspects of
+the same government.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;A life of Hooker by Dr Gauden was published in
+his edition of Hooker&rsquo;s works (London, 1662). To correct the errors
+in this life Walton wrote another, which was published in the 2nd
+edition of Hooker&rsquo;s works in 1666. The standard modern edition
+of Hooker&rsquo;s works is that by Keble, which first appeared in 1836, and
+has since been several times reprinted (1888 edition, revised by Dean
+Church and Bishop Paget). The first book of the <i>Laws of Ecclesiastical
+Polity</i> was edited for the Clarendon Press by Dean R. W.
+Church (1868-1876).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> If Bacon was the author of <i>The Christian Paradoxes</i>, his philosophical
+standpoint in reference to religion was not only less advanced
+than that of Hooker, but in a sense directly opposed to it.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, THOMAS<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1586-1647), New England theologian,
+was born, probably on the 7th of July 1586, at Marfield, in the
+parish of Tilton, County of Leicester, England. He graduated
+B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611 at Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
+the intellectual centre of Puritanism, remained there as a fellow
+for a few years, and then preached in the parish of Esher in
+Surrey. About 1626 he became lecturer to the church of St
+Mary at Chelmsford, Essex, delivering on market days and
+Sunday afternoons evangelical addresses which were notable
+for their moral fervour. In 1629 Archbishop Laud took measures
+to suppress church lectureships, which were an innovation of
+Puritanism. Hooker was placed under bond and retired to
+Little Baddow, 4 m. from Chelmsford. In 1630 he was cited
+to appear before the Court of High Commission, but he forfeited
+his bond and fled to Holland, whence in 1633 he emigrated
+to the Colony of Massachusetts Bay in America, and became
+pastor at Newtowne (now Cambridge), Mass., of a company
+of Puritans who had arrived from England in the previous year
+and in expectation of his joining them were called &ldquo;Mr Hooker&rsquo;s
+Company.&rdquo; Hooker seems to have been a leader in the formation
+of that sentiment of discontent with the Massachusetts government
+which resulted in the founding of Connecticut. He publicly
+criticized the limitation of suffrage to church members, and,
+according to a contemporary historian, William Hubbard
+(<i>General History of New England</i>), &ldquo;after Mr Hooker&rsquo;s coming
+over it was observed that many of the freemen grew to be very
+jealous of their liberties.&rdquo; He was a leader of the emigrants
+who in 1636 founded Hartford, Connecticut. In a sermon before
+the Connecticut General Court of 1638, he declared that &ldquo;the
+choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God&rsquo;s
+own allowance&rdquo; and that &ldquo;they who have the power to appoint
+officers and magistrates, it is in their power, also, to set the
+bounds and limitations of the power and place unto which they
+call them.&rdquo; Though this theory was in advance of the age,
+Hooker had no idea of the separation of church and state&mdash;&ldquo;the
+privilege of election, which belongs to the people,&rdquo; he said,
+must be exercised &ldquo;according to the blessed will and law of God.&rdquo;
+He also defended the right of magistrates to convene synods,
+and in the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639), which
+he probably framed, the union of church and state is presupposed.
+Hooker was pastor of the Hartford church until his death on
+the 7th of July 1647. He was active in the negotiations which
+preceded the formation of the New England Confederation
+in 1643. In the same year he attended the meeting of Puritan
+ministers at Boston, whose object was to defend Congregationalism,
+and he wrote a <i>Survey of the Summe of Church
+Discipline</i> (1648) in justification of the New England church
+system. His other works deal chiefly with the experimental
+phases of religion, especially the experience precedent to conversion.
+In <i>The Soule&rsquo;s Humiliation</i> (1637), he assigns as a test
+of conversion a willingness of the convert to be damned if
+that be God&rsquo;s will, thus anticipating the doctrine of Samuel
+Hopkins in the following century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See George L. Walker&rsquo;s <i>Thomas Hooker</i> (New York, 1891); the
+appendix of which contains a bibliography of Hooker&rsquo;s published
+works.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1785-1865), English
+botanist, was born at Norwich on the 6th of July 1785. His
+father, Joseph Hooker of Exeter, a member of the same family
+as the celebrated Richard Hooker, devoted much of his time
+to the study of German literature and the cultivation of curious
+plants. The son was educated at the high school of Norwich,
+on leaving which his independent means enabled him to travel
+and to take up as a recreation the study of natural history,
+especially ornithology and entomology. He subsequently confined
+his attention to botany, on the recommendation of
+Sir James E. Smith, whom he had consulted respecting a rare
+moss. His first botanical expedition was made in Iceland, in
+the summer of 1809, at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks;
+but the natural history specimens which he collected, with
+his notes and drawings, were lost on the homeward voyage
+through the burning of the ship, and the young botanist himself
+had a narrow escape with his life. A good memory, however,
+aided him to publish an account of the island, and of its inhabitants
+and flora (<i>Tour in Iceland</i>, 1809), privately circulated
+in 1811, and reprinted in 1813. In 1810-1811 he made extensive
+preparations, and sacrifices which proved financially serious,
+with a view to accompany Sir R. Brownrigg to Ceylon, but the
+disturbed state of the island led to the abandonment of the
+projected expedition. In 1814 he spent nine months in botanizing
+excursions in France, Switzerland and northern Italy, and in
+the following year he married the eldest daughter of Mr Dawson
+Turner, banker, of Yarmouth. Settling at Halesworth, Suffolk,
+he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which
+became of world-wide renown among botanists. In 1816
+appeared the <i>British Jungermanniae</i>, his first scientific work,
+which was succeeded by a new edition of William Curtis&rsquo;s
+<i>Flora Londinensis</i>, for which he wrote the descriptions (1817-1828);
+by a description of the <i>Plantae cryptogamicae</i> of A. von
+Humboldt and A. Bonpland; by the <i>Muscologia Britannica</i>,
+a very complete account of the mosses of Great Britain and
+Ireland, prepared in conjunction with Dr T. Taylor (1818);
+and by his <i>Musci exotici</i> (2 vols., 1818-1820), devoted to new
+foreign mosses and other cryptogamic plants. In 1820 he
+accepted the regius professorship of botany in Glasgow University
+where he soon became popular as a lecturer, his style being both
+clear and ready. The following year he brought out the <i>Flora
+Scotica</i>, in which the natural method of arrangement of British
+plants was given with the artificial. Subsequently he prepared
+or edited many works, the more important being the
+following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Botanical Illustrations</i> (1822); <i>Exotic Flora</i>, indicating such of the
+specimens as are deserving cultivation (3 vols., 1822-1827); <i>Account
+of Sabine&rsquo;s Arctic Plants</i> (1824); <i>Catalogue of Plants in the Glasgow
+Botanic Garden</i> (1825); the <i>Botany of Parry&rsquo;s Third Voyage</i> (1826);
+<i>The Botanical Magazine</i> (38 vols., 1827-1865); <i>Icones Filicum</i>, in
+concert with Dr R. K. Greville (2 vols., 1829-1831); <i>British Flora</i>,
+of which several editions appeared, undertaken with Dr G. A. W.
+Arnott, &amp;c. (1830); <i>British Flora Cryptogamia</i> (1833); <i>Characters of
+Genera from the British Flora</i> (1830); <i>Flora Boreali-Americana</i> (2
+vols., 1840), being the botany of British North America collected in
+Sir J. Franklin&rsquo;s voyage; <i>The Journal of Botany</i> (4 vols., 1830-1842);
+<i>Companion to the Botanical Magazine</i> (2 vols., 1835-1836); <i>Icones
+plantarum</i> (10 vols., 1837-1854); the <i>Botany of Beechey&rsquo;s Voyage to
+the Pacific and Behring&rsquo;s Straits</i> (with Dr Arnott, 1841); the <i>Genera
+Filicum</i> (1842), from the original coloured drawings of F. Bauer, with
+additions and descriptive letterpress; <i>The London Journal of Botany</i>
+(7 vols., 1842-1848); <i>Notes on the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of
+the Erebus and Terror</i> (1843); <i>Species filicum</i> (5 vols., 1846-1864),
+the standard work on this subject; <i>A Century of Orchideae</i> (1846);
+<i>Journal of Botany and Kew Garden Miscellany</i> (9 vols., 1849-1857);
+<i>Niger Flora</i> (1849); <i>Victoria Regia</i> (1851); <i>Museums of Economic
+Botany at Kew</i> (1855); <i>Filices exoticae</i> (1857-1859); <i>The British
+Ferns</i> (1861-1862); <i>A Century of Ferns</i> (1854); <i>A Second Century
+of Ferns</i> (1860-1861).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was mainly by Hooker&rsquo;s exertions that botanists were
+appointed to the government expeditions. While his works
+were in progress his herbarium received large and valuable
+additions from all parts of the globe, and his position as a botanist
+was thus vastly improved. He was made a knight of Hanover
+in 1836 and in 1841 he was appointed director of the Royal
+Botanical Gardens at Kew, on the resignation of W. T. Aiton.
+Under his direction the gardens expanded from 11 to 75 acres,
+with an arboretum of 270 acres, many new glass-houses were
+erected, and a museum of economic botany was established.
+He was engaged on the <i>Synopsis filicum</i> with J. G. Baker
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span>
+when he was attacked by a throat disease then epidemic at
+Kew, where he died on the 12th of August 1865.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOLE, JOHN<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1727-1803), English translator and dramatist,
+son of a watchmaker and machinist, Samuel Hoole, was born at
+Moorfields, London, in December 1727. He was educated at
+a private school at Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, kept by James
+Bennet, who edited Ascham&rsquo;s English works. At the age of
+seventeen he became a clerk in the accountants&rsquo; department
+of the East India House, and before 1767 became one of the
+auditors of Indian accounts. His leisure hours he devoted to
+the study of Latin and especially Italian, and began writing
+translations of the chief works of the Italian poets. He published
+translations of the <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i> of Tasso in 1763,
+the <i>Orlando Furioso</i> of Ariosto in 1773-1783, the <i>Dramas</i> of
+Metastasio in 1767, and <i>Rinaldo</i>, an early work of Tasso, in
+1792. Among his plays are: <i>Cyrus</i> (1768), <i>Timanthes</i> (1770)
+and <i>Cleonice, Princess of Bithynia</i> (1775), none of which achieved
+success. The verses of Hoole were praised by Johnson, with
+whom he was on terms of intimacy, but, though correct, smooth
+and flowing, they cannot be commended for any other merit.
+His translation of the <i>Orlando Furioso</i> was superseded by the
+version (1823-1831) of W. S. Rose. Hoole was also the friend
+of the Quaker poet John Scott of Amwell (1730-1783), whose
+life he wrote; it was prefixed to Scott&rsquo;s <i>Critical Essays</i> (1785).
+In 1773 he was promoted to be chief auditor of Indian accounts,
+an office which he resigned in 1785. In 1786 he retired to the
+parsonage of Abinger, Surrey; and afterwards lived at Tenterden,
+Kent, dying at Dorking on the 2nd of April 1803.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Anecdotes of the Life of the late Mr John Hoole</i>, by his surviving
+brother, Samuel Hoole (London, 1803). Some of his plays are reprinted
+in J. Bell&rsquo;s <i>British Theatre</i> (1797).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOLIGAN,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> the generally accepted modern term for a young
+street ruffian or rowdy. It seems to have been first applied to
+the young street ruffians of the South-East of London about
+1890, but though popular in the district, did not attract general
+attention till later, when authentic information of its origin
+was lost, but it appears that the most probable source was a
+comic song which was popular in the lower-class music-hall
+in the late &rsquo;eighties or early &rsquo;nineties, which described the doings
+of a rowdy family named Hooligan (<i>i.e.</i> Irish Houlihan). A
+comic character with the same name also appears to have been
+the central figure in a series of adventures running through
+an obscure English comic paper of about the same date, and
+also in a similar New York paper, where his confrère in the
+adventures is a German named Schneider (see <i>Notes and Queries</i>,
+9th series, vol. ii. pp. 227 and 316, 1898, and 10th series, vol. vii. p.
+115, 1901). In other countries the &ldquo;hooligan&rdquo; finds his counterpart.
+The Parisian <i>Apache</i>, so self-styled after the North
+American Indian tribe, is a much more dangerous character;
+mere rowdyism, the characteristic of the English &ldquo;hooligan,&rdquo;
+is replaced by murder, robbery and outrage. An equally
+dangerous class of young street ruffian is the &ldquo;hoodlum&rdquo; of
+the United States of America; this term arose in San Francisco
+in 1870, and thence spread. Many fanciful origins of the name
+have been given, for some of which see <i>Manchester</i> (<i>N.H.</i>)
+<i>Notes and Queries</i>, September 1883 (cited in the <i>New English
+Dictionary</i>). The &ldquo;plug-ugly&rdquo; of Baltimore is another name
+for the same class. More familiar is the Australian &ldquo;larrikin,&rdquo;
+which apparently came into use about 1870 in Melbourne.
+The story that the word represents an Irish policeman&rsquo;s pronunciation
+of &ldquo;larking&rdquo; is a mere invention. It is probably
+only an adaptation of the Irish &ldquo;Larry,&rdquo; short for Lawrence.
+Others suggest that it is a corruption of the slang <i>Leary Kinchen</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i> knowing, wide-awake child.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOPER, JOHN<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (d. 1555), bishop of Gloucester and Worcester
+and martyr, was born in Somerset about the end of the 15th
+century and graduated B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He is said to
+have then entered the Cistercian monastery at Gloucester;
+but in 1538 a John Hooper appears among the names of the
+Black friars at Gloucester and also among the White friars at
+Bristol who surrendered their houses to the king. A John Hooper
+was likewise canon of Wormesley priory in Herefordshire;
+but identification of any of these with the future bishop is doubtful.
+The <i>Greyfriars&rsquo; Chronicle</i> says that Hooper was &ldquo;sometime
+a white monk&rdquo;; and in the sentence pronounced against him
+by Gardiner he is described as &ldquo;<i>olim monachus de Cliva Ordinis
+Cisterciensis</i>,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> of the Cistercian house at Cleeve in Somerset.
+On the other hand, at his deprivation he was not accused, like
+the other married bishops who had been monks or friars, of
+infidelity to the vow of chastity; and his own letters to Bullinger
+are curiously reticent on this part of his history. He there
+speaks of himself as being the only son and heir of his father
+and as fearing to be deprived of his inheritance if he adopted
+the reformed religion. Before 1546 he had secured employment
+in the household of Sir Thomas Arundell, a man of influential
+connexions. Hooper speaks of himself at this period as being
+&ldquo;a courtier and living too much of a court life in the palace
+of our king.&rdquo; But he chanced upon some of Zwingli&rsquo;s works
+and Bullinger&rsquo;s commentaries on St Paul&rsquo;s epistles; and after
+some molestation in England and some correspondence with
+Bullinger on the lawfulness of complying against his conscience
+with the established religion, he determined to secure what
+property he could and take refuge on the continent. He had
+an adventurous journey, being twice imprisoned, driven about
+for three months on the sea, and reaching Strassburg in the
+midst of the Schmalkaldic war. There he married Anne de
+Tserclaes, and later on he proceeded by way of Basle to Zürich,
+where his Zwinglian convictions were confirmed by constant
+intercourse with Zwingli&rsquo;s successor, Bullinger.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until May 1549, after he had published various
+works at Zürich, that Hooper again arrived in England. He
+at once became the principal champion of Swiss Protestantism
+against the Lutherans as well as the Catholics, and was appointed
+chaplain to Protector Somerset. Somerset&rsquo;s fall in the following
+October endangered Hooper&rsquo;s position, and for a time he was
+in hourly dread of imprisonment and martyrdom, more especially
+as he had taken a prominent part against Gardiner and Bonner,
+whose restoration to their sees was now anticipated. Warwick,
+afterwards duke of Northumberland, however, overcame the
+reactionaries in the Council, and early in 1550 the Reformation
+resumed its course. Hooper became Warwick&rsquo;s chaplain, and
+after a course of Lent lectures before the king he was offered
+the bishopric of Gloucester. This led to a prolonged controversy;
+Hooper had already denounced the &ldquo;Aaronic vestments&rdquo;
+and the oath by the saints prescribed in the new Ordinal; and
+he refused to be consecrated according to its rites. Cranmer,
+Ridley, Bucer and others urged him to submit in vain; confinement
+to his house by order of the Council proved equally ineffectual;
+and it was not until he had spent some weeks in the
+Fleet prison that the &ldquo;father of nonconformity&rdquo; consented
+to conform, and Hooper submitted to consecration with the
+legal ceremonies (March 8, 1551).</p>
+
+<p>Once seated in his bishopric Hooper set about his episcopal
+duties with exemplary vigour. His visitation of his diocese
+(printed in <i>English Hist. Rev.</i> Jan. 1904, pp. 98-121) revealed
+a condition of almost incredible ignorance among his clergy.
+Fewer than half could say the Ten Commandments; some could
+not even repeat the Lord&rsquo;s Prayer in English. Hooper did his
+best in the time at his disposal; but in less than a year the
+bishopric of Gloucester was reduced to an archdeaconry and
+added to Worcester, of which Hooper was made bishop in succession
+to Nicholas Heath (<i>q.v.</i>). He was opposed to Northumberland&rsquo;s
+plot for the exclusion of Mary from the throne; but this
+did not save him from speedy imprisonment. He was sent to the
+Fleet on the 1st of September 1553 on a doubtful charge of
+debt to the queen; but the real cause was his stanchness to a religion
+which was still by law established. Edward VI.&rsquo;s legislation
+was, however, repealed in the following month, and in March
+1554 Hooper was deprived of his bishopric as a married man.
+There was still no statute by which he could be condemned to
+the stake, but Hooper was kept in prison; and the revival of
+the heresy acts in December 1554 was swiftly followed by
+execution. On the 29th of January 1555, Hooper, Rogers,
+Rowland Taylor and others were condemned by Gardiner and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span>
+degraded by Bonner. Hooper was sent down to suffer at
+Gloucester, where he was burnt on the 9th of February, meeting
+his fate with steadfast courage and unshaken conviction.</p>
+
+<p>Hooper was the first of the bishops to suffer because his
+Zwinglian views placed him further beyond the pale than
+Cranmer, Ridley and Latimer. He represented the extreme
+reforming party in England. While he expressed dissatisfaction
+with some of Calvin&rsquo;s earlier writings, he approved of the <i>Consensus
+Tigurinus</i> negotiated in 1549 between the Zwinglians
+and Calvinists of Switzerland; and it was this form of religion
+that he laboured to spread in England against the wishes of
+Cranmer, Ridley, Bucer, Peter Martyr and other more conservative
+theologians. He would have reduced episcopacy to
+narrow limits; and his views had considerable influence on
+the Puritans of Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign, when many editions of Hooper&rsquo;s
+various works were published.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Two volumes of Hooper&rsquo;s writings are included in the Parker
+Society&rsquo;s publications and another edition appeared at Oxford in
+1855. See also Gough&rsquo;s General Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Strype&rsquo;s
+<i>Works</i> (General Index); Foxe&rsquo;s <i>Acts and Monuments</i>, ed. Townsend;
+<i>Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. State Papers</i>, &ldquo;Domestic&rdquo; Series;
+Nichols&rsquo;s <i>Lit. Remains of Edward VI.</i>; Burner, Collier, Dixon,
+Froude and Gairdner&rsquo;s histories; Pollard&rsquo;s <i>Cranmer; Dict. Nat.
+Biogr.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOPOE<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Huppe</i>, Lat. <i>Upupa</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="epops">&#7956;&#960;&#959;&#968;</span>&mdash;all names
+bestowed apparently from its cry), a bird long celebrated in
+literature, and conspicuous by its variegated plumage and its
+large erectile crest,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the <i>Upupa epops</i> of naturalists, which is
+the type of the very peculiar family <i>Upupidae</i>, placed by Huxley
+in his group <i>Coccygomorphae</i>, but considered by Dr Murie (<i>Ibis</i>,
+1873, p. 208) to deserve separate rank as <i>Epopomorphae</i>. This
+species has an exceedingly wide range in the Old World, being
+a regular summer-visitant to the whole of Europe, in some parts
+of which it is abundant, as well as to Siberia, mostly retiring
+southwards in autumn to winter in equatorial Africa and India,
+though it would seem to be resident throughout the year in
+north-eastern Africa and in China. Its power of wing ordinarily
+seems to be feeble; but it is capable of very extended flight, as
+is testified by its wandering habits (for it occasionally makes
+its appearance in places very far removed from its usual haunts),
+and also by the fact that when pursued by a falcon it will rapidly
+mount to an extreme height and frequently effect its escape from
+the enemy. About the size of a thrush, with a long, pointed
+and slightly arched bill, its head and neck are of a golden-buff&mdash;the
+former adorned by the crest already mentioned, which begins
+to rise from the forehead and consists of broad feathers, gradually
+increasing in length, tipped with black and having a subterminal
+bar of yellowish-white. The upper part of the back is of a vinous-grey,
+and the scapulars and flight-feathers are black, broadly
+barred with white tinged in the former with buff. The tail is
+black with a white chevron, marking off about the distal third
+part of its length. The legs and feet are as well adapted for
+running or walking as for perching, and the scutellations are
+continued round the whole of the tarsi. Chiefly on account
+of this character, which is also possessed by the larks, Sundevall
+(<i>Tentamen</i>, pp. 53-55) united the <i>Upupidae</i> and <i>Alaudidae</i> in
+the same &ldquo;cohors&rdquo; <i>Holaspideae</i>. Comparative anatomy, however,
+forbids its being taken to signify any real affinity between
+these groups, and the resemblance on this point, which is by no
+means so striking as that displayed by the form of the bill and the
+coloration in certain larks (of the genus <i>Certhilauda</i>, for instance),
+must be ascribed to analogy merely.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:467px; height:428px" src="images/img676.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Hoopoe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Pleasing as is the appearance of the hoopoe as it fearlessly
+parades its showy plumage, some of its habits are much the
+reverse. All observers agree in stating that it delights to find
+its food among filth of the most abominable description, and this
+especially in its winter-quarters. But where it breeds, its nest,
+usually in the hole of a tree or of a wall, is not only partly composed
+of the foulest material, but its condition becomes worse as
+incubation proceeds, for the hen scarcely ever leaves her eggs,
+being assiduously fed by the cock as she sits; and when the
+young are hatched, their faeces are not removed by their parents,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+as is the case with most birds, but are discharged in the immediate
+neighbourhood of the nest, the unsanitary condition of which
+can readily be imagined. Worms, grubs, and insects generally
+form the hoopoes&rsquo; food, and upon it they get so fat in autumn
+that they are esteemed a delicate morsel in some of the countries
+of southern Europe, and especially by the Christian population
+of Constantinople.<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Not a year passes but the hoopoe makes its appearance in
+some part or other of the British Islands, most often in spring,
+and if unmolested would doubtless stop to breed in them, and
+a few instances are known in which it has done so. But its
+remarkable plumage always attracts attention, and it is generally
+shot down so soon as it is seen, and before it has time to begin a
+nest. Eight or nine so-called species of the genus have been
+described, but of them the existence of five only has been recognized
+by Sharpe and Dresser (<i>Birds of Europe</i>, pt. vii.). Besides
+the <i>Upupa epops</i> above treated, these are <i>U. indica</i>, resident
+in India and Ceylon; <i>U. longirostris</i>, which seems to be the form
+of the Indo-Chinese countries; <i>U. marginata</i>, peculiar to Madagascar;
+and <i>U. africana</i> or <i>U. minor</i> of some writers, which
+inhabits South Africa to the Zambesi on the east and Benguela on
+the west coast. In habits and appearance they all resemble
+the best-known and most widely-spread species.<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hence the secondary meaning of the French word <i>huppe</i>&mdash;a crest
+or tuft (cf. Littré, <i>Dict. français</i>, i. 2067).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This indeed is denied by Naumann, but by him alone, and the
+statement in the text is confirmed by many eye-witnesses.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Under the name of <i>Dukipath</i>, in the authorized version of the
+Bible translated &ldquo;lapwing&rdquo; (Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18), the hoopoe
+was accounted unclean by the Jewish law. Arabs have a great
+reverence for the bird, imparting to it marvellous medicinal and other
+qualities, and making use of its head in all their charms (cf. Tristram,
+<i>Nat. Hist. of the Bible</i>, pp. 208, 209).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The genera <i>Rhinopomastus</i> and <i>Irrisor</i> are generally placed in the
+Family <i>Upupidae</i>, but Dr Murie, after an exhaustive examination
+of their osteology, regards them as forming a group of equal value.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOORN,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a seaport in the province of North Holland, Holland,
+on a bay of the Zuider Zee called the Hoornerhop, and a junction
+station 23½ m. by rail N. by E. of Amsterdam, on the railway
+to Enkhuizen, with which it is also connected by steam tramway.
+Pop. (1900) 10,647. Hoorn is distinguished by its old-world
+air and the beauty and interest of its numerous gabled houses
+of the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these are decorated
+with inscriptions and bas-reliefs, some of which commemorate
+the battle on the Zuider Zee in 1573, in which the Beggars
+defeated the Spaniards under Count Bossu. Walks and gardens
+now surround the town in the place of the old city walls, but a few
+towers and gateways adorned with various old coats of arms
+are still standing. The fine Gothic bastion tower overlooking
+the harbour was built in 1532; the East gate not later than
+1578. Among the public buildings of special interest are the
+picturesque St John&rsquo;s hospital (1563), now used for military
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span>
+purposes; the old mint; the hospital for aged men and women
+(beginning of 17th century); the weigh-house (1609); the town
+hall, in which the states of West Friesland formerly met; and
+the old court-house, which dates from the beginning of the
+17th century, though parts of it are older, containing a modern
+museum and some early portraits. There are also various
+charitable and educational institutions, Protestant and Roman
+Catholic churches and a synagogue. The extensive foreign
+commerce which Hoorn carried on in the 16th and 17th centuries
+has almost entirely vanished, but there is still a considerable
+trade with other parts of the Netherlands, especially in cheese
+and cattle. The chief industries include gold and silver work,
+and there are also tobacco factories, saw-mills and some small
+boat-building yards, a considerable number of vessels being
+engaged in the Zuider Zee fisheries.</p>
+
+<p>Hoorn, latinized as <i>Horna</i> or <i>Hornum</i>, has existed at least
+from the first part of the 14th century, as it is mentioned in a
+document of the year 1311, five years earlier than the date
+usually assigned for its foundation. In 1356 it received municipal
+privileges from Count William V. of Holland, and in 1426 it was
+surrounded with walls. It was at Hoorn in 1416 that the first
+great net was made for the herring fishery, an industry which
+long proved an abundant source of wealth to the town. During
+the 15th century Hoorn shared in the troubles occasioned by
+the different contending factions; in 1569 the Spanish forces
+entered the town; but in 1572 it cast in its lot with the states
+of the Netherlands. In the 16th century it was a commercial
+centre, important for its trade, fisheries and breweries. A
+company of commerce and navigation was formed at Hoorn in
+1720, and the admiralty offices and storehouses remained here
+until their removal to Medemblik in 1795. The English under
+Sir Ralph Abercromby took possession of the town in 1799,
+and in 1811 it suffered severely from the French. Among the
+celebrities of Hoorn are William Schouten, who discovered in
+1616 the passage round Cape Horn, or Hoorn, as he named it in
+honour of his birthplace; Abel Janszoon Tasman, whose fame
+is associated with Tasmania; and Jan Pietersz Coen, governor-general
+of the Dutch East Indies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOOSICK FALLS,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a village of Rensselaer county, New York,
+U.S.A., in the township of Hoosick, 27 m. N.E. of Troy, on the
+Hoosick river. Pop. of the village (1890) 7014; (1900) 5671, of
+whom 1092 were foreign-born; (1905) 5251; (1910) 5532; of the
+township (1900) 8631; (1910) 8315. Hoosick Falls is served by
+the Boston &amp; Maine Railroad, and is connected by electric
+railway with Bennington, Vermont, about 8 m. E. The falls of
+the Hoosick river furnish water-power for the manufacture of
+agricultural machinery by the Walter A. Wood Mowing and
+Reaping Machine Co., which dates from 1866, the business having
+been started in 1852 by Walter Abbott Wood (1815-1892),
+who was a Republican representative in Congress in 1879-1883.
+Other manufactures are knit goods, shirts and collars and paper-making
+machinery. Hoosick Falls was settled about 1688 by
+Dutch settlers&mdash;settlers from Connecticut and Massachusetts
+came after 1763&mdash;and it was first incorporated in 1827. Three
+miles N.E. of the village, at Walloomsac, in the township of
+Hoosick, the battle of Bennington was fought, on the 16th of
+August 1777.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOP<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Hopfen</i>, Fr. <i>houblon</i>), <i>Humulus Lupulus</i>, L., an
+herbaceous twining plant, belonging to the natural order Cannabinaceae,
+which is by some botanists included in the larger
+group called Urticaceae by Endlicher. It is of common occurrence
+in hedges and thickets in the southern counties of England,
+but is believed not to be native in Scotland. On the European
+continent it is distributed from Greece to Scandinavia, and
+extends through the Caucasus and Central Asia to the Altai
+Mountains. It is common, but doubtfully indigenous, in the
+northern and western states of North America, and has been
+introduced into Brazil, Australia and the Himalayas.</p>
+
+<p>It is a perennial plant, producing annually several long
+twining roughish striated stems, which twist from left to right,
+are often 15 to 20 ft. long and climb freely over hedges and
+bushes. The roughness of stem and leaves is due to lines of
+strong hooked hairs, which help the plant to cling to its support.
+The leaves are stalked, opposite, 3-5 lobed, and coarsely serrate,
+and bear a general resemblance to those of the vine, but are, as
+well as the whole plant, rough to the touch; the upper leaves are
+sometimes scarcely divided, or quite entire. The stipules are
+between the leaf-stalks, each consisting of two lateral ones united,
+or rarely with the tips free. The male and female flowers are
+produced on distinct plants. The male inflorescence (fig. 1, A)
+forms a panicle; the flowers consist of a small greenish five-parted
+perianth (<i>a</i>) enclosing five stamens, whose anthers (<i>b</i>) open by
+terminal slits. The female inflorescence (fig. 1, B) is less conspicuous
+in the young state. The catkin or strobile consists of a
+number of small acute bracts, with two sessile ovaries at their
+base, each subtended by a rounded bractlet (<i>c</i>). Both the bracts
+and bractlets enlarge greatly during the development of the
+ovary, and form, when fully grown, the membranous scales of the
+strobile (fig. 2, <i>a</i>); they are known as &ldquo;petals&rdquo; by hop-growers.
+The bracts can then only be distinguished from the bractlets
+by being rather more acute and more strongly veined. The
+perianth (fig. 1, <i>d</i>) is short, cup-shaped, undivided and closely
+applied to the ovary, which it ultimately encloses. In the young
+strobile the two purple hairy styles (<i>e</i>) of each ovary project
+beyond the bracts. The ovary contains a single ovule (fig. 1. <i>f</i>)
+which becomes in the fruit an exalbuminous seed, containing
+a spirally-coiled embryo (fig. 2, <i>b</i>). The light dusty pollen is
+carried by the wind from the male to the female flowers.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:442px; height:580px" src="images/img677.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"> <span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Male (A) and Female (B) Inflorescence of the Hop.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The ovary and the base of the bracts are covered with a
+yellowish powder, consisting of minute sessile grains, called
+lupulin or lupulinic glands. These glands (fig. 2, <i>c</i>) are from
+<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">260</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">140</span> in. in diameter, like flattened subovate little saucers in
+shape, and attached to a short pedicel. The upper or hemispherical
+portion bears a delicate continuous membrane, the cuticle,
+which becomes raised by the secretion beneath it of the yellowish
+lupulin. The stalk is not perceptible in the gland as found in
+commerce. When fresh the gland is seen to be filled with a
+yellowish or dark brown liquid; this on drying contracts in bulk
+and forms a central mass. It is to these lupulinic glands that
+the medicinal properties of the hop are chiefly due. By careful
+sifting about 1 oz. may be obtained from 1 &#8468; of hops, but the
+East Kent variety is said to yield more than the Sussex hops.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span></p>
+
+<p>In hop gardens a few male plants, usually three or four to an
+acre, are sometimes planted, that number being deemed sufficient
+to fertilize the female flowers. The blossoms are produced in
+August, and the strobiles are fit for gathering from the beginning
+of September to the middle of October, according to the weather.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:483px; height:677px" src="images/img678.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Fruit of Hop.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The cultivation of hops for use in the manufacture of beer
+dates from an early period. In the 8th and 9th centuries hop
+gardens, called &ldquo;humularia&rdquo; or &ldquo;humuleta,&rdquo; existed in France
+and Germany. Until the 16th century, however, hops appear
+to have been grown in a very fitful manner, and to a limited
+extent, generally only for private consumption; but after
+the beginning of the 17th century the cultivation increased
+rapidly. The plant was introduced into England from Flanders
+in 1525; and in America its cultivation was encouraged by
+legislative enactments in 1657. Formerly several plants were
+used as well as hops to season ale, hence the name &ldquo;alehoof&rdquo;
+for <i>Nepeta Glechoma</i>, and &ldquo;alecost&rdquo; for <i>Balsamita vulgaris</i>.
+The sweet gale, <i>Myrica Gale</i>, and the sage, <i>Salvia officinalis</i>,
+were also similarly employed. Various hop substitutes, in the
+form of powder, have been offered in commerce of late years,
+most of which appear to have quassia as a chief ingredient.
+The young tender tops of the hop are in Belgium cut off in spring
+and eaten like asparagus, and are forced from December to
+February.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Medical Use.</i>&mdash;The principal constituents of the strobiles are
+<i>lupulin</i>, one of the few liquid alkaloids; <i>lupulinic acid</i>, a bitter
+crystalline body, soluble in ether, which is without any other pharmacological
+action than that common to bitter substances; <i>Valerol</i>,
+a volatile oil which in old hops undergoes a change to the malodorous
+body valerianic acid; resin; trimethylamine; a peculiar modification
+of tannin known as <i>humulotannic acid</i>; and a sesqui-terpene.
+The British pharmacopoeia contains two preparations of the strobiles,&mdash;an
+infusion (dose, 1-2 oz.) and a tincture (dose, ½-1 drachm). The
+glands obtained from the strobiles are known in pharmacy as lupulin,
+a name which tends to confusion with that of the alkaloid. They
+occur in commerce as a bright yellow-brown powder, seen under a
+lens to consist of minute glandular particles. The dose of this so-called
+lupulin is 2-5 grains. From it there is prepared the Tinctura
+Lupulinae of the United States pharmacopoeia, which is given in
+doses of 10-60 minims. Furthermore, there are prepared hop pillows,
+designed to procure sleep; but these act, when at all, mainly by
+suggestion. The pharmacological action of hops is determined first
+by the volatile oil they contain, which has the actions of its class.
+Similarly the lupulinic acid may act as a bitter tonic. The preparations
+of hops, when taken internally, are frequently hypnotic, though
+unfortunately different specimens vary considerably in composition,
+none of the preparations being standardized. It is by no means
+certain whether the hypnotic action of hops is due to the alkaloid
+lupulin or possibly to the volatile oil which they contain. Medical
+practice, however, is acquainted with many more trustworthy and
+equally safe hypnotics. The bitter acid of hops may endow beer
+containing it with a certain value in cases of impaired gastric
+digestion, and to the hypnotic principle of hops may partly be
+ascribed&mdash;as well as to the alcohol&mdash;the soporific action of beer
+in the case of some individuals.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Hop Production in England</span><a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of hops in the British Isles is restricted to
+England, where it is practically confined to half-a-dozen counties&mdash;four
+in the south-eastern and two in the west-midland districts.
+In 1901 the English crop was reported by the Board of Agriculture
+to occupy 51,127 acres. The official returns as to
+acreage do not extend back beyond 1868, in which year the total
+area was reported to be 64,488 acres. The largest area recorded
+since then was 71,789 acres in 1878; the smallest was 44,938
+acres in 1907. The extent to which the areas of hops in the
+chief hop-growing counties vary from year to year is sufficiently
+indicated in Table I., which shows the annual acreages over a
+period of thirteen years, 1895 to 1907. The proportions in
+which the acres of hops are distributed amongst the counties
+concerned vary but little year by year, and as a rule over 60%
+belongs to Kent.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span>&mdash;<i>Hop Areas of England 1895 to 1907. Acres.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc lb tb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Kent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hereford.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sussex.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Worcester.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hants.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Surrey.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">35,018</td> <td class="tcc rb">7553</td> <td class="tcc rb">7489</td> <td class="tcc rb">4024</td> <td class="tcc rb">2875</td> <td class="tcc rb">1783</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">33,300</td> <td class="tcc rb">6895</td> <td class="tcc rb">5908</td> <td class="tcc rb">3800</td> <td class="tcc rb">2494</td> <td class="tcc rb">1623</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,661</td> <td class="tcc rb">6542</td> <td class="tcc rb">5174</td> <td class="tcc rb">3591</td> <td class="tcc rb">2306</td> <td class="tcc rb">1416</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">30,941</td> <td class="tcc rb">6651</td> <td class="tcc rb">4829</td> <td class="tcc rb">3567</td> <td class="tcc rb">2263</td> <td class="tcc rb">1313</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,988</td> <td class="tcc rb">7227</td> <td class="tcc rb">4949</td> <td class="tcc rb">3788</td> <td class="tcc rb">2319</td> <td class="tcc rb">1388</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,514</td> <td class="tcc rb">7287</td> <td class="tcc rb">4823</td> <td class="tcc rb">3964</td> <td class="tcc rb">2231</td> <td class="tcc rb">1300</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,242</td> <td class="tcc rb">7497</td> <td class="tcc rb">4800</td> <td class="tcc rb">4029</td> <td class="tcc rb">2133</td> <td class="tcc rb">1232</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,649</td> <td class="tcc rb">6915</td> <td class="tcc rb">4541</td> <td class="tcc rb">3779</td> <td class="tcc rb">2003</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;969</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,933</td> <td class="tcc rb">6851</td> <td class="tcc rb">4454</td> <td class="tcc rb">3697</td> <td class="tcc rb">1920</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;901</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,841</td> <td class="tcc rb">6767</td> <td class="tcc rb">4474</td> <td class="tcc rb">3752</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;877</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">30,655</td> <td class="tcc rb">6851</td> <td class="tcc rb">4647</td> <td class="tcc rb">3807</td> <td class="tcc rb">1978</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;843</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,296</td> <td class="tcc rb">6481</td> <td class="tcc rb">4379</td> <td class="tcc rb">3672</td> <td class="tcc rb">1939</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;777</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28,169</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6143</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4243</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3622</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1842</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;744</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Less than 200 acres in all are annually grown in the other hop-growing
+counties of England, these being Shropshire, Gloucestershire
+and Suffolk.</p>
+
+<p>The average yield per acre in cwt. in the six counties during
+the decade 1897 to 1906 was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Table II.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Kent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hereford.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sussex.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Worcester.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hants.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Surrey.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">9.31</td> <td class="tcc allb">7.14</td> <td class="tcc allb">9.41</td> <td class="tcc allb">7.79</td> <td class="tcc allb">8.78</td> <td class="tcc allb">7.23</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Table III. shows the average acreage, yield and total home
+produce of England during the decades 1888-1897 and 1898-1907.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Table III.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Periods.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average Annual<br />Acreage.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average Annual<br />Yield per acre<br />(cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average Annual<br />Home Produce<br />(cwt.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888-1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">56,370</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.76</td> <td class="tcc rb">438,215</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1898-1907</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48,841</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8.84</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">434,567</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The wide fluctuations in the home production of hops are worthy
+of note, as they exercise a powerful influence upon market
+prices. The largest crop between 1885, the first year in which
+figures relating to production were collected, and 1907 was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span>
+that of 776,144 cwt. in 1886, and the smallest that of 281,291
+cwt. in 1888, the former being more than 2½ times the size of
+the latter. The crop of 1899, estimated at 661,373 cwt., was so
+large that prices receded to an extent such as to leave no margin
+of profit to the great body of growers, whilst some planters were
+able to market the crop only at a loss. The calculated annual
+average yields per acre over the years 1885 to 1907 ranged between
+12.76 cwt. in 1899 and 4.81 cwt. in 1888. No other staple crop
+of British agriculture undergoes such wide fluctuations in yield
+as are here indicated, the size of the crop produced bearing no
+relation to the acreage under cultivation. For example, the
+71,327 acres in 1885 produced only 509,170 cwt., whereas the
+51,843 acres in 1899 produced 661,373 cwt.&mdash;19,484 acres less
+under crop yielded 152,203 cwt. more produce.</p>
+
+<p>Comparing the quantities of home-grown hops with those of
+imported hops, of the total available for consumption about
+70% on the average is home produce and about 30% is imported
+produce. The imports, however, do not vary so much as the
+home produce. Table IV. shows the average quantity of
+imports to and exports (home-grown) from Great Britain during
+the decades 1877-1886, 1887-1896 and 1897-1906.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Table IV.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Periods.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual Average<br />Imports (cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual Average<br />Exports (cwt.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1877-1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">215,219</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,805</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887-1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">194,966</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;9,437</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1897-1906</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">186,362</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14,808</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The highest and lowest imports were 266,952 cwt. in 1885 and
+145,122 cwt. in 1887, the latter in the year following the biggest
+home-grown crop on record. On a series of years the largest
+proportion of imports is from the United States.</p>
+
+<p>During the twenty-five years 1881-1905 the annual values of
+the hops imported into England fluctuated between the wide
+limits of £2,962,631 in 1882 and £427,753 in 1887. In five other
+years besides 1882 the value exceeded a million sterling. The
+annual average value over the whole period was £921,000,
+whilst the annual average import was 194,000 cwt., consequently
+the average value per cwt. was nearly £4, 15s., which is approximately
+the same as that of the exported product. The quantities
+and values of the imported hops that are again exported are
+almost insignificant.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Hop Production in the United States</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of the area of hop-cultivation in the United
+States showed great changes during the last decades of the 19th
+and the first decade of the 20th century. During the earlier
+portion of that period New York was the chief hop-growing
+state of the Union, but toward the end of it a great extension
+of hop-growing took place on the Pacific coast (in the states of
+Oregon, California and Washington), where the richness of the
+soil and mildness of the climate are favourable to the bines.</p>
+
+<p>The average annual produce of hops in the United States
+from 1900 to 1906 was 423,471 cwt.; of this quantity 80% was
+raised in the three states of the Pacific coast, where the yield
+per acre is much larger than in New York. In the latter state
+the yield does not appear to exceed 5 or 6 cwt. per acre, whereas
+in Oregon it is 9 or 10 cwt., and in Washington and California
+from 12 to 14 cwt. The average annual export (chiefly to Great
+Britain) in the years from 1899 to 1905 was 108,400 cwt.; the
+average import (chiefly from Germany) is about 50,000 cwt.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Hop Cultivation</p>
+
+<p>As the county of Kent has always taken the lead in hop-growing
+in England, and as it includes about two-thirds of the
+hop acreage of the British Isles, the recent developments in
+hop cultivation cannot be better studied than in that county.
+They were well summarized by Mr Charles Whitehead in his
+sketch of the agriculture of Kent,<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> wherein he states that the
+hop grounds&mdash;or hop gardens, as they are called in Kent&mdash;of
+poor character and least suitable for hop production have been
+gradually grubbed since 1894, on account of large crops, the
+importation of hops and low prices. At the beginning of the
+19th century there were 290 parishes in Kent in which hops
+were cultivated. A century later, out of the 413 parishes in
+the county, as many as 331 included hop plantations. The hops
+grown in Kent are classified in the markets as &ldquo;East Kents,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Bastard East Kents,&rdquo; &ldquo;Mid Kents&rdquo; and &ldquo;Wealds,&rdquo; according
+to the district of the county in which they are produced. The
+relative values of these four divisions follow in the same order,
+East Kents making the highest and Wealds the lowest rates.
+These divisions agree in the main with those defined by geological
+formations. Thus, &ldquo;East Kents&rdquo; are grown upon the
+Chalk, and especially on the outcrop of the soils of the London
+Tertiaries upon the Chalk. &ldquo;Bastard East Kents&rdquo; are produced
+on alluvial soil and soils formed by admixtures of loam, clay-loams,
+chalk, marl and clay from the Gault, Greensand and
+Chalk formations. &ldquo;Mid Kents&rdquo; are derived principally from
+the Greensand soils and outcrops of the London Tertiaries in
+the upper part of the district. &ldquo;Wealds&rdquo; come from soils
+on the Weald Clay, Hastings Sand and Tunbridge Wells Sand.
+As each &ldquo;pocket&rdquo; of hops must be marked with the owner&rsquo;s
+name and the parish in which they were grown, buyers of hops
+can, without much trouble, ascertain from which of the four
+divisions hops come, especially if they have the map of the
+hop-growing parishes of England, which gives the name of each
+parish. There has been a considerable rearrangement of the
+hop plantations in Kent within recent years. Common varieties
+as Colegate&rsquo;s, Jones&rsquo;s, Grapes and Prolifics have been grubbed,
+and Goldings, Bramlings and other choice kinds planted in their
+places. The variety known as Fuggle&rsquo;s, a heavy-cropping
+though slightly coarse hop, has been much planted in the Weald
+of Kent, and in parts of Mid Kent where the soil is suitable.
+In very old hop gardens, where there has been no change of
+plant for fifty or even one hundred years in some instances,
+except from the gradual process of filling up the places of plants
+that have died, there has been replanting with better varieties
+and varieties ripening in more convenient succession; and,
+generally speaking, the plantations have been levelled up in
+this respect to suit the demand for bright hops of fine quality.
+A recent classification<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> of the varieties of English hops arranges
+them in three groups: (1) early varieties (<i>e.g.</i> Prolific, Bramling,
+Amos&rsquo;s Early Bird); (2) mid-season or main-crop varieties
+(<i>e.g.</i> Farnham Whitebine, Fuggle&rsquo;s, Old Jones&rsquo;s, Golding);
+(3) late varieties (<i>e.g.</i> Grapes, Colgate&rsquo;s).</p>
+
+<p>The cost of cultivating and preparing the produce of an acre
+of hop land tends to increase, on account of the advancing rates
+of wages, the intense cultivation more and more essential, and
+the necessity of freeing the plants from the persistent attacks of
+insects and fungi. In 1893 Mr Whitehead estimated the average
+annual cost of an acre of hop land to be £35, 10s., the following
+being the items:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Manure (winter and summer)</td> <td class="tcr">£6</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Digging</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dressing (or cutting)</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Poling, tying, earthing, ladder-tying, stringing, lewing</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Shimming, nidgeting, digging round and hoeing hills</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Stacking, stripping, making; bines, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Annual renewal of poles</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Expense of picking, drying, packing, carriage, sampling,</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;selling, &amp;c., on average crop of, say, 7 cwt. per acre</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Rent, rates, taxes, repairs of oast and tacks, interest on capital</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuring</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Washing (often two, three or four times)</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="3">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">£35</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Seven years later the average cost per acre in Kent had risen to
+quite £37.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span></p>
+
+<p>The hops in Kent are usually planted in October
+or November, the plants being 6 ft. apart each
+way, thus giving 1210 hills or plant-centres per
+acre. Some planters still grow potatoes or
+mangels between the rows the first year, as the
+plants do not bear much until the second year;
+but this is considered to be a mistake, as it
+encourages wire-worm and exhausts the ground.
+Many planters pole hop plants the first year with
+a single short pole, and stretch coco-nut-fibre
+string from pole to pole, and grow many hops in
+the first season. Much of the hop land is ploughed
+between the rows, as labour is scarce, and the
+spaces between are dug afterwards. It is far better
+to dig hop land if possible, the tool used being the
+Kent spud. The cost of digging an acre ranges
+from 18s. to 21s. Hop land is ploughed or dug
+between November and March. After this the plants are
+&ldquo;dressed,&rdquo; which means that all the old bine ends are cut off
+with a sharp curved hop-knife, and the plant centres kept level
+with the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Manuring.</i>&mdash;Manure is applied in the winter, and dug or ploughed
+in. London manure from stables is used to an enormous extent.
+It comes by barge or rail, and is brought from the wharves and
+stations by traction engines; it costs from 7s. 6d. to 9s. per load.
+Rags, fur waste, sprats, wool waste and shoddy are also put on
+in the winter. In the summer, rape dust, guano, nitrate of soda
+and various patent hop manures are chopped in with the Canterbury
+hoe. Fish guano or desiccated fish is largely used; it is
+very stimulating and more lasting than some of the other forcing
+manures.</p>
+
+<p>The recent investigations into the subject of hop-manuring made
+by Dr Bernard Dyer and Mr F. W. E. Shrivell, at Golden Green, near
+Tonbridge, Kent, are of interest. In the 1901 report<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> it was stated
+that the object in view was to ascertain how far nitrate of soda, in
+the presence of an abundant supply of phosphates and potash, is
+capable of being advantageously used as a source of nitrogenous food
+for hops. An idea long persisted among hop-growers that nitrate of
+soda was an unsafe manure for hops, being likely to produce rank
+growth of bine at the expense of quality and even quantity of hops.
+During recent years, however, owing very largely to the results of
+these experiments, and of corresponding experiments based upon
+these, which have been carried out abroad, hop farmers have much
+more freely availed themselves of the aid of this useful manure; and
+there is little doubt that the distrust of nitrate of soda as a hop
+manure which has existed in the past has been largely due to the fact
+that nitrate of soda, like many other nitrogenous manures, has often
+been misused (1) by being applied without a sufficient quantity of
+phosphates and potash, or (2) by being applied too abundantly, or
+(3) by being applied too late in the season, with the result of unduly
+delaying the ripening period. On most of the experimental plots
+nitrate of soda (in conjunction with phosphates and potash) has been
+used as the sole source of nitrogen; but it is, of course, not be to
+supposed that any hop-grower would use year after year, as is the
+case on some of the plots, nothing but phosphates, potash and nitrate
+of soda. Miscellaneous feeding is probably good for plants as well as
+for animals, and there is a large variety of nitrogenous manures at the
+disposal of the hop-farmer, to say nothing of what, in its place, is one
+of the most valuable of all manures, namely, home-made dung.
+These experiments were begun in 1894 with a new garden of young
+Fuggle&rsquo;s hops. A series of experimental plots was marked out, each
+plot being one-sixth of an acre in area. The plots run parallel with
+one another, there being four rows of hills in each. The climate of the
+district is very dry.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Weight of Kiln-dried Fuggle&rsquo;s Hops per Acre.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Plot.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual Manuring per Acre.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1896</td> <td class="tccm allb">1897</td> <td class="tccm allb">1898</td> <td class="tccm allb">1899</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />of 5<br />Years.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">A</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates and potash</td> <td class="tcc rb">13½</td> <td class="tcc rb">7½</td> <td class="tcc rb">8¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">20¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">11½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">B</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 2 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">16½</td> <td class="tcc rb">9¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">10¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">22¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">9¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">13½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">C</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 4 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">16½</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">12½</td> <td class="tcc rb">23</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 6 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">15¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">22½</td> <td class="tcc rb">10½</td> <td class="tcc rb">14¾</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">E</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 8 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">13½</td> <td class="tcc rb">15¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">23½</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">15½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">F</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phosphates, potash and 10 cwt. nitrate of soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">24½</td> <td class="tcc rb">10½</td> <td class="tcc rb">15¾</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">X</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">30 loads (about 15 tons) London dung</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9¾</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">24½</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10¾</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">13¾</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The table given above shows the annual yield of hops per acre
+on each plot, and also the average for each plot over the five years
+1896-1900.</p>
+
+<p>The general results seem to show that the purchase of town dung
+for hops is not economical, unless under specially favourable terms
+as to cost of conveyance, and that it should certainly not be relied
+upon as a sufficient manure. Home-made dung is in quite a different
+position, as not only is it richer, but it costs nothing for railway
+carriage. As a source of nitrogenous manure, purchased dung is on
+the whole too expensive. There is a large variety of other nitrogenous
+manures in the market besides nitrate of soda, such, for instance
+as Peruvian and Damaraland guano, sulphate of ammonia, fish guano,
+dried blood, rape dust, furriers&rsquo; refuse, horn shavings, hoof parings,
+wool dust, shoddy, &amp;c. All of these may in turn be used for helping
+to maintain a stock of nitrogen in the soil; and the degree to which
+manures of this kind have been recently applied in any hop garden
+will influence the grower in deciding as to the quantity of nitrate of
+soda he should use in conjunction with them, and also to some extent
+in fixing the date of its application.</p>
+
+<p>Dressings of 8 or 10 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre, such as are
+applied annually to plots E and F, would be larger than would be put
+on where the land has been already dressed with dung or with other
+nitrogenous manures; and even, in the circumstances under notice,
+although these plots have on the average beaten the others in weight,
+the hops in some seasons have been distinctly coarser than those more
+moderately manured&mdash;though in the dry season of 1899 the most
+heavily dressed plot gave actually the best quality as well as the
+greatest quantity of produce.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the application of nitrate of soda in case the season
+should turn out to be wet, present experience indicates that, on a
+soil otherwise liberally manured, 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span>
+applied not too late, would be a thoroughly safe dressing. In the case
+of neither dung nor any other nitrogenous fertilizers having been
+recently applied, there seems no reason for supposing that, even in
+a wet season, 6 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre applied early would be
+otherwise than a safe dressing, considering both quantity and quality
+of produce. In conjunction with dung, or with the early use of other
+nitrogenous manures, such as fish, guano, rape dust, &amp;c. it would
+probably be wise not to exceed 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre.</p>
+
+<p>As to the date of application, April or May is the latest time at
+which nitrate of soda should, in most circumstances, be applied, and
+probably April is preferable to May. The quantity used should be
+applied in separate dressings of not more than 2 cwt. per acre each,
+put on at intervals of a month. Where the quantity of nitrate of soda
+used is large, and constitutes the whole of the nitrogenous manure
+employed, the first dressing may, on fairly deep and retentive soils,
+be given as early as January; or, if the quantity used is smaller, say
+in February; while February will, in most cases, probably be early
+enough for the first dressing in the case of lighter soils. The condition
+of the soil and the degree and distribution of rainfall during both the
+previous autumn and the winter, as well as in the spring itself,
+produce such varying conditions that it is almost impossible to frame
+general rules.</p>
+
+<p>The commonly accepted notion that nitrate of soda is a manure
+which should be reserved for use during the later period of the growth
+of the bine appears to be erroneous. The summer months, when the
+growth of the bine is most active, are the months in which natural
+nitrification is going on in the soil, converting soil nitrogen and the
+nitrogen of dung, guano, fish, rape dust, shoddy or other fertilizers
+into nitrates, and placing this nitrogen at the disposal of the plants;
+and it appears reasonable, therefore, to suppose that nitrate of soda
+will be most useful to the hops at the earlier stages of their growth,
+before the products of that nitrification become abundant. This
+would especially be so in a season immediately following a wet
+autumn and winter, which have the effect of washing away into the
+drains the residual nitrates not utilized by the previous crop.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity, whether dung is used or not, and whatever form of
+nitrogenous manure is employed, of also supplying the hops with an
+abundance of phosphates, cannot be too strongly urged. The use of
+phosphates for hops was long neglected by hop-planters, and even
+now there are many growers who do not realize the full importance of
+heavy phosphatic manuring. On soils containing an abundance of
+lime no better or cheaper phosphatic manure can be used than
+ordinary superphosphate, of which as much as 10 cwt. per acre may be
+applied without the slightest fear of harm. But if the soil is not decidedly
+calcareous&mdash;that is to say, if it does not effervesce when it is
+stirred up with some diluted hydrochloric (muriatic) acid&mdash;bone dust,
+phosphatic guano or basic slag should be used as a source of phosphates,
+at the rate of not less than 10 cwt. per acre. On medium
+soils, which, without being distinctly calcareous, nevertheless
+contain a just appreciable quantity of carbonate of lime, it is probably
+a good plan to use the latter class of manures, alternately with superphosphate,
+year and year about; but it is wise policy to use phosphates
+<i>in some form or other</i> every year in every hop garden. They
+are inexpensive, and without them neither dung, nitrate of soda,
+ammonia salts nor organic manures can be expected to produce both
+a full vigorous growth of bine and at the same time a well-matured
+crop of full-weighted, well-conditioned hops.</p>
+
+<p>The use of potash salts, on most soils, is probably not needed when
+good dung is freely used; but where this is not the case it is safer in
+most seasons and on most soils to give a dressing of potash salts.
+On some soils their aid should on no account be dispensed with.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments in hop-manuring have also been conducted in connexion
+with the South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.
+The main results have been to demonstrate the necessity of a liberal
+supply of phosphates, if the full benefit is to be reaped from applications
+of nitrogenous manure.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Tying, Poling and Picking.</i>&mdash;Tying the bines to the poles or
+strings is essentially women&rsquo;s work. It was formerly always
+piecework, each woman taking so many acres to tie, but it is
+found better to pay the women 1s. 8d. to 2s. per day, that they
+may all work together, and tie the plants in those grounds where
+they want tying at once. The new modes of poling and training
+hop plants have also altered the conditions of tying.</p>
+
+<p>Many improvements have been made in the methods of poling
+and training hops. Formerly two or three poles were placed to
+each hop-hill or plant-centre in the spring, and removed in the
+winter, and this was the only mode of training. Recently systems
+of training on wires and strings fastened to permanent upright
+poles have been introduced. One arrangement of wires and
+strings much adopted consists of stout posts set at the end of
+every row of hop-hills and fastened with stays to keep them in
+place. At intervals in each row a thick pole is fixed. From post
+to post in the rows a wire is stretched at a height of ½ ft.
+from the ground, another about 6 ft. from the ground, and another
+along the tops of the posts, so that there are three wires. Hooks
+are clipped on these wires at regular intervals, and coco-nut-fibre
+strings are threaded on them and fastened from wire to
+wire, and from post to post, to receive the hop bines. The string
+is threaded on the hooks continuously, and is put on those of the
+top wire with a machine called a stringer. There are several
+methods of training hops with posts or stout poles, wire and
+string, whose first cost varies from £20 to £40 per acre. The
+system is cheaper in the long run than that of taking down the
+poles every year, and the wind does not blow down the poles
+or injure the hops by banging the poles together. In another
+method, extensively made use of in Kent and Sussex, stout posts
+are placed at the ends of each row of plants, and, at intervals
+where requisite, wires are fastened from top to top only of these
+posts, whilst coco-nut-fibre strings are fixed by pegs to the
+ground, close to each hop-stock, whence they radiate upwards for
+attachment to the wires stretching between the tops of the posts.
+This method is more simple and less expensive than the system
+first described, its cost being from £24 to £28 per acre. In this
+case the plants require to be well &ldquo;lewed,&rdquo; or sheltered, as the
+strings being so light are blown about by the wind. These
+methods are being largely adopted, and, together with the practice
+of putting coco-nut-fibre strings from pole to pole in grounds
+poled in the old-fashioned manner, are important improvements
+in hop culture, which have tended to increase the production
+of hops. Where the old system of poling with two or three
+poles is still adhered to they are always creosoted, most growers
+having tanks for the purpose; and, in the new methods of poling,
+the posts and poles are creosoted, dipped or kyanized.</p>
+
+<p>At Wye College, Kent, different systems of planting and
+training have been tried, the alleys varying in width from 10 ft.
+down to 5 ft., and the distance between the hills varying quite
+as widely, so that the number of hills to the acre has ranged from
+1210 down to 660. The biggest crop was secured on the plot
+where hills were 8 ft. apart each way. As a rule, indeed, a
+wide alley and abundant space between the plants, thus allowing
+the hops plenty of air and light, produced the best results, besides
+effecting some saving in the cost of cultivation, as there were only
+660 or 680 hills per acre. Of the various methods of training,
+the umbrella system gave the biggest crop in each of the three
+years, 1899, 1900, 1901; and it seemed to be the best method,
+except in seasons when washing was required early, in which
+case the plants were not so readily cleared of vermin.</p>
+
+<p>Much attention is required to keep the bines in their places
+on the poles, strings or wire, during the summer. This gives
+employment to many women, for whose service in this and fruit-picking
+there is considerable demand, and a woman has no
+trouble in earning from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 10d. per day from April
+till September at pleasant and not very arduous labour. The
+hop-picking follows, and at this women sometimes get 4s.
+and even 5s. per day. This is the real Kent harvest, which
+formerly lasted a month or five weeks. Now it rarely extends
+beyond eighteen days, as it is important to secure the hops
+before the weather and the aphides, which almost invariably
+swarm within the bracts of the cones, discolour them and spoil
+their sale, as brewers insist upon having bright, &ldquo;coloury&rdquo;
+hops. Picking is better done than was formerly the case.
+The hops are picked more singly, and with comparatively few
+leaves, and the pickers are of a somewhat better type than the
+rough hordes who formerly went into Kent for &ldquo;hopping.&rdquo;
+Kent planters engage their pickers beforehand, and write to
+them, arranging the numbers required and the date of picking.
+Many families go into Kent for pea- and fruit-picking and remain
+for hop-picking. Without this great immigration of persons,
+variously estimated at between 45,000 and 65,000, the crops
+of hops could not be picked; and fruit-farmers also would be
+unable to get their soft fruit gathered in time without the help
+of immigrant hands. The fruit-growers and hop-planters of
+Kent have greatly improved the accommodation for these
+immigrants.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the general question as to the advisability or
+otherwise of cutting the hop bine at the time of picking, <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span>
+Hall has ascertained experimentally that if the bine is cut close
+to the ground at a time when the whole plant is unripe there
+are removed in the bine and leaves considerable quantities
+of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which would have
+returned to the roots if the bine had not been cut until ripe.
+The plant, therefore, would retain a substantial store of these
+constituents for the following year&rsquo;s growth if the bine were
+left. Chemical analyses have shown that about 30 &#8468; of nitrogen
+per acre may be saved by allowing the bines to remain uncut,
+this representing practically one-third of the total amount of
+nitrogen in the hops, leaf and bine together. There are also
+from 25 &#8468; to 30 &#8468; of potash in the growth, of which nine-tenths
+would return to the roots, with about half the phosphoric acid
+and a very small proportion of the lime. It has been demonstrated
+that by the practice of cutting the bines when the hops
+are picked the succeeding crop is lessened to the extent of about
+one-tenth. As to stripping off the leaves and lower branches
+of the plant, it was found that this operation once reduced
+the crop 10% and once 20%, but that in the year 1899 it did
+not affect the crop at all. The inference appears to be that
+when there is a good crop it is not reduced by stripping, but
+that when there is less vigour in the plant it suffers the more.
+Hence, it would seem advisable to study the plant itself in
+connexion with this matter, and to strip a little later, or
+somewhat less, than usual when the bine is not healthy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drying.</i>&mdash;After being picked, the hops are taken in pokes&mdash;long
+sacks holding ten bushels&mdash;to the oasts to be dried. The
+oasts are circular or square kilns, or groups of kilns, wherein
+the green hops are laid upon floors covered with horsehair,
+under which are enclosed or open stoves or furnaces. The
+heat from these is evenly distributed among the hops above
+by draughts below and round them. This is the usual simple
+arrangement, but patent processes are adopted here and there,
+though they are by no means general. The hops are from nine
+to ten hours drying, after which they are taken off the kiln
+and allowed to cool somewhat, and are then packed tightly
+into &ldquo;pockets&rdquo; 6 ft. long and 2 ft. wide, weighing 1½ cwt.,
+by means of a hop-pressing machine, which has cogs and
+wheels worked by hand. Of late years more care has been
+bestowed by some of the leading growers upon the drying of
+hops, so as to preserve their qualities and volatile essences, and
+to meet the altered requirements of brewers, who must have
+bright, well-managed hops for the production of light clear
+beers for quick draught. The use, for example, of exhaust
+fans, recently introduced, greatly facilitates drying by drawing
+a large volume of air through the hops; and as the temperature
+may at the same time be kept low, the risk of getting overfired
+samples is considerably reduced, though not entirely obviated.
+The adoption of the roller floor is another great advance
+in the process of hop-drying, for this, used in conjunction with
+a raised platform for the men to stand on when turning, prevents
+any damage from the feet of the workmen, and reduces
+the loss of resin to a minimum. The best results are obtained
+when exhaust fans and the roller floor are associated together.
+In such cases the roller floor, which empties its load automatically,
+pours the hop cones into the receiving sheets in usually as
+whole and unbroken a condition as that in which they went
+on to the kiln.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Pests of the Hop Crop.</i>&mdash;In recent years the difficulties attendant
+upon hop cultivation have been aggravated, and the expenses increased,
+by regularly recurring attacks of aphis blight&mdash;due to the
+insect <i>Aphis</i> (<i>Phorodon</i>) <i>humuli</i>&mdash;which render it necessary to spray
+or syringe every hop plant, every branch and leaf, with insecticidal
+solutions three or four times, and sometimes more often, in each
+season. Quassia and soft-soap solutions are usually employed;
+they contain from 4 &#8468; to 8 &#8468; of soft soap, and the extract of from
+8 &#8468; to 10 &#8468; of quassia chips to 100 gallons of water. The soft soap
+serves as a vehicle to retain the bitterness of the quassia upon the
+bines and leaves, making them repulsive to the aphides, which are
+thus starved out. Another pest, the red spider, <i>Tetranychus telarius</i>&mdash;really
+one of the &ldquo;spinning mites&rdquo;&mdash;is most destructive in very
+hot summers. Congregating on the under surfaces of the leaves, the
+red spiders exhaust the sap and cause the leaves to fall, producing
+the effect known in Germany as &ldquo;fire-blast.&rdquo; The hop-wash of soft
+soap and quassia, so effective against aphis attack, is of little avail
+in the case of red spider. Some success, however, has attended the
+use of a solution containing 8 &#8468; to 10 &#8468; of soft soap to 100 gallons of
+water, with three pints of paraffin added. It is necessary to apply the
+washes with great force, in order to break through the webs with
+which the spiders protect themselves. Hop-washing is done by
+means of large garden engines worked by hand, but more frequently
+with horse engines. Resort is sometimes had to steam engines,
+which force the spraying solution along pipes laid between the rows
+of hops.</p>
+
+<p>Mould or mildew is frequently the source of much loss to hop-planters.
+It is due to the action of the fungus <i>Podosphaera castagnei</i>,
+and the mischief is more especially that done to the cones. The only
+trustworthy remedy is sulphur, employed usually in the form of
+flowers of sulphur, from 40 &#8468; to 60 &#8468; per acre being applied at each
+sulphuring. The powder is distributed by means of a machine
+drawn by a horse between the rows. The sulphur is fed from a
+hopper into a blast-pipe, whence it is driven by a fan actuated by
+the travelling wheels, and falls as a dense, wide-spreading cloud upon
+the hop-bines. The first sulphuring takes place when the plants are
+fairly up the poles, and is repeated three or four weeks later; and
+even again if indications of mildew are present. It may be added
+that sulphur is also successfully employed in the form of an alkaline
+sulphide, such as solution of &ldquo;liver of sulphur,&rdquo; a variety of
+potassium sulphide.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Fr.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Report from the Select Committee on the Hop Industry</i>
+(London, 1908).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc</i>., 1899.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> J. Percival, &ldquo;The Hop and its English Varieties,&rdquo; <i>Jour. Roy.
+Agric. Soc.</i>, 1901.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Six Years&rsquo; Experiments on Hop Manuring</i> (London, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPE, ANTHONY,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> the pen-name of <span class="sc">Anthony Hope
+Hawkins</span> (1863-&emsp;&emsp;), British novelist, who was born on the
+9th of February 1863, the second son of the Rev. E. C. Hawkins,
+Vicar of St Bride&rsquo;s, Fleet Street, London. He was educated at
+Marlborough and Balliol College, Oxford, where he was president
+of the Union Society, and graduated with first classes in Moderations
+and Final Schools. He was called to the bar at the Middle
+Temple in 1877. He soon began contributing stories and sketches
+to the <i>St James&rsquo;s Gazette</i>, and in 1890 published his first novel,
+<i>A Man of Mark</i>. This was followed by <i>Father Stafford</i> (1891),
+<i>Mr Witt&rsquo;s Widow</i> (1892), <i>Change of Air</i> and <i>Sport Royal and
+Other Stories</i> (1893). By this time he had attracted by his
+vivacious talent the attention of editors and readers; but it
+was not till the following year that he attained a great popular
+success with the publication (May 1894) of <i>The Prisoner of
+Zenda</i>. This was followed a few weeks later by <i>The Dolly Dialogues</i>
+(previously published in separate instalments in the
+<i>Westminster Gazette</i>). Both books became parents of a numerous
+progeny. <i>The Prisoner of Zenda</i>, owing something to the <i>Prince
+Otto</i> of R. L. Stevenson, established a fashion for what was
+christened, after its fictitious locality, &ldquo;Ruritanian romance&rdquo;;
+while the <i>Dolly Dialogues</i>, inspired possibly by &ldquo;Gyp&rdquo; and other
+French dialogue writers, was the forerunner of a whole school
+of epigrammatic drawing-room comedy. <i>The Prisoner of  Zenda</i>,
+with Mr Alexander as &ldquo;Rupert Rassendyll,&rdquo; enjoyed a further
+success in a dramatized form at the St James&rsquo;s Theatre, which
+did still more to popularize the author&rsquo;s fame. In 1894 also
+appeared <i>The God in the Car</i>, a novel suggested by the
+ambiguous influence on English society of Cecil Rhodes&rsquo;s career;
+and <i>Half a Hero</i>, a complementary study of Australian politics.
+The same year saw further the publication of <i>The Indiscretion
+of the Duchess</i>, in the style of the <i>Dolly Dialogues</i>, and of another
+collection of stories named (after the first) <i>The Secret of Wardale
+Court</i>. In 1895 Mr Hawkins published <i>Count Antonio</i>, and
+contributed to <i>Dialogues of the Day</i>, edited by Mr Oswald Crawfurd.
+<i>Comedies of Courtship</i> and <i>The Heart of the Princess
+Osra</i> followed in 1896; <i>Phroso</i> in 1897; <i>Simon Dale</i> and
+<i>Rupert of Hentzau</i> (sequel of the <i>Prisoner of Zenda</i>) 1898; and
+<i>The King&rsquo;s Mirror</i>, a Ruritanian romance with an infusion of
+serious psychological interest, 1899. The author was advancing
+from his light comedy and gallant romantic inventions to the
+graver kind of fiction of which <i>The God in the Car</i> had been an
+earlier essay. <i>Quisante</i>, published in 1900, was a study of
+English society face to face with a political genius of an alien
+type. <i>Tristram of Blent</i> (1901) embodied an ethical study of
+family pride. <i>The Intrusions of Peggy</i> reflected the effects on
+society of recent financial fashions. In 1904 he published
+<i>Double Harness</i>, and in 1905 <i>A Servant of the Public</i>, two novels
+of modern society, containing somewhat cynical pictures of the
+condition of marriage. With increasing gravity the novelist
+sacrificed some of the charm of his earlier irresponsible gaiety
+and buoyancy; but his art retained its wit and urbanity while
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span>
+it gained in grip of the social conditions of contemporary life.
+He wrote two plays, <i>The Adventure of Lady Ursula</i> (1898) and
+<i>Pilkerton&rsquo;s Peerage</i> (1902), and his later novels include <i>The Great
+Miss Driver</i> (1908) and <i>Second String</i> (1909). Mr Hawkins&rsquo;s
+attractive and cultured style and command of plot give him a
+high place among the modern writers of English fiction. In 1903
+he married Miss Elizabeth Somerville Sheldon of New York.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPE, THOMAS<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1770-1831), English art-collector, and
+author of <i>Anastasius</i>, born in London about 1770, was the eldest
+son of John Hope of Amsterdam, and was descended from a
+branch of an old Scottish family who for several generations
+were extensive merchants in London and Amsterdam. About
+the age of eighteen he started on a tour through various parts
+of Europe, Asia and Africa, where he interested himself especially
+in architecture and sculpture, making a large collection of
+the principal objects which attracted his attention. On his
+return to London about 1796 he purchased a house in Duchess
+Street, Cavendish Square, which he fitted up in a very elaborate
+style, from drawings made by himself. In 1807 he published
+sketches of his furniture, accompanied by letterpress, in a folio
+volume, entitled <i>Household Furniture and Interior Decoration</i>,
+which had considerable influence in effecting a change in the
+upholstery and interior decoration of houses, notwithstanding
+that Byron had referred scornfully to him as &ldquo;House-furnisher
+withal, one Thomas hight.&rdquo; Hope&rsquo;s furniture designs were in
+that pseudo-classical manner which is generally called &ldquo;English
+Empire.&rdquo; It was sometimes extravagant, and often heavy,
+but was much more restrained than the wilder and later flights
+of Sheraton in this style. At the best, however, it was a not
+very inspiring mixture of Egyptian and Roman motives. In
+1809 he published the <i>Costumes of the Ancients</i>, and in 1812
+<i>Designs of Modern Costumes</i>, works which display a large amount
+of antiquarian research. He was also, as his father had been&mdash;the
+elder Hope&rsquo;s country house near Haarlem was crowded with
+fine pictures&mdash;a munificent patron of the highest forms of art,
+and both at his London house and his country seat at Deepdene
+near Dorking he formed large collections of paintings, sculpture
+and antiques. Deepdene in his day became a famous resort
+of men of letters as well as of people of fashion, and among the
+luxuries suggested by his fine taste was a miniature library
+in several languages in each bedroom. Thorvaldsen, the Danish
+sculptor, was indebted to him for the early recognition of his
+talents, and he also gave frequent employment to Chantrey and
+Flaxman&mdash;it was to his order that the latter illustrated Dante.
+In 1819 he published anonymously his novel <i>Anastasius, or
+Memoirs of a Modern Greek, written at the close of the 18th century</i>,
+a work which, chiefly on account of the novel character of its
+subject, caused a great sensation. It was at first generally
+attributed to Lord Byron, who told Lady Blessington that he
+wept bitterly on reading it because he had not written it and
+Hope had. But, though remarkable for the acquaintance it
+displays with Eastern life, and distinguished by considerable
+imaginative vigour and much graphic and picturesque description,
+its paradoxes are not so striking as those of Lord Byron;
+and, notwithstanding some eloquent and forcible passages,
+the only reason which warranted its ascription to him was the
+general type of character to which its hero belonged. Hope
+died on the 3rd of February 1831. He was the author of two
+works published posthumously&mdash;the <i>Origin and Prospects
+of Man</i> (1831), in which his speculations diverged widely from
+the usual orthodox opinions, and an <i>Historical Essay on Architecture</i>
+(1835), an elaborate description of the architecture of
+the middle ages, illustrated by drawings made by himself in
+Italy and Germany. He is commonly known in literature as
+&ldquo;Anastasius&rdquo; Hope. He married (1806) Louisa de la Poer
+Beresford, daughter of Lord Decies, archbishop of Tuam.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPEDALE,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A.; pop. (1905; state census) 2048; (1910) 2188. It is
+served by the Milford &amp; Uxbridge (electric) street railway, and
+(for freight) by the Grafton &amp; Upton railway. The town lies
+in the &ldquo;dale&rdquo; between Milford and Mendon, and is cut from
+N.W. to S.E. by the Mill river, which furnishes good water
+power at its falls. The principal manufactures are textiles,
+boots and shoes, and, of most importance, cotton machinery.
+The great cotton machinery factories here are owned by the
+Draper Company. Hopedale has a public park on the site of
+the Ballou homestead, with a bronze statue of Adin Ballou;
+a memorial church erected by George A. and Eben S. Draper;
+the Bancroft Memorial Library, given by Joseph B. Bancroft in
+memory of his wife; and a marble drinking fountain with
+statuary by Waldo Story, the gift of Susan Preston Draper,
+General W. F. Draper&rsquo;s wife. The village is remarkable for the
+comfortable cottages of the workers.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Hopedale centres round the Rev. Adin Ballou
+(1803-1890), a distant relative of Hosea Ballou;<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> he left, in
+succession, the ministry of the Christian Connexion (1823)
+and that of the Universalist Church (1831), because of his
+restorationist views. In 1831 he became pastor of an independent
+church in Mendon. An ardent exponent of temperance, the
+anti-slavery movement, woman&rsquo;s rights, the peace cause and
+Christian non-resistance (even through the Civil War), and of
+&ldquo;Practical Christian Socialism,&rdquo; it was in the interests of the
+last cause that he founded Hopedale, or &ldquo;Fraternal Community
+No. 1,&rdquo; in Milford, in April 1842, the first compact of the community
+having been drawn up in January 1841. Thirty persons
+joined with him, and lived in a single house on a poor farm of
+258 acres, purchased in June 1841. Ballou was for several years
+the president of the community, which was run on the plan that
+all should have an equal voice as to the use of property, in spite of
+the fact that there was individual holding of property. The
+community, however, owned the instruments of production, with
+the single exception of the important patent rights held by
+Ebenezer D. Draper. The result was bickerings between those
+who were joint stockholders and those whose only profit came
+from their manual labour. In a short time the control of the
+community came into the hands of its richest members, E. D.
+Draper and his brother, George Draper (1817-1887), who owned
+three-fourths of the joint stock. In 1856 there was a total deficit
+of about $12,000. The Draper brothers bought up the joint
+stock of the community at par and paid its debts, and the community
+soon ceased to exist save as a religious society. After
+George Draper&rsquo;s death the control of the mills passed to his sons.
+These included General William Franklin Draper (1842-1910),
+a Republican representative in Congress in 1892-1897 and U.S.
+ambassador to Italy in 1897-1900, and Eben Sumner Draper
+(b. 1858), lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1906-1908 and
+governor in 1909-1911. In 1867 the community was merged
+with Hopedale parish, a Unitarian organization. Hopedale was
+separated from Milford and incorporated as a township in 1886.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Adin Ballou&rsquo;s <i>History of Milford</i> (Boston, 1882), his <i>History of
+the Hopedale Community</i>, edited by William S. Heywood (Lowell,
+1897), his <i>Biography</i> by the same editor (Lowell, 1896) and his
+<i>Practical and Christian Socialism</i> (Hopedale, 1854); George L. Carey,
+&ldquo;Adin Ballou and the Hopedale Community&rdquo; (in the <i>New World</i>,
+vol. vii., 1898); Lewis G. Wilson, &ldquo;Hopedale and Its Founder&rdquo; (in
+<i>The New England Magazine</i>, vol. x., 1891); and William F. Draper,
+<i>Recollections of a Varied Career</i> (Boston, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Adin Ballou wrote <i>An Elaborate History and Genealogy of the
+Ballous in America</i> (Providence, R.I., 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1812-1873), English barrister
+and Tractarian, was born on the 15th of July 1812, at Great
+Marlow, Berkshire, the third Son of Sir Alexander Hope, and
+grandson of the second earl of Hopetoun. He was educated
+at Eton and Oxford, where he was a contemporary and friend
+of Gladstone and J. H. Newman, and in 1838 was called to the
+bar. Between 1840 and 1843 he helped to found Trinity College,
+Glenalmond. He was one of the leaders of the Tractarian
+movement and entirely in Newman&rsquo;s confidence. In 1851 he was
+received with Manning into the Roman Catholic church. At
+this time he was making a very large income at the Parliamentary
+bar. He only commenced serious practice in this branch of
+his profession in 1843, but by the end of 1845 he stood at the head
+of it and in 1849 was made a Queen&rsquo;s Counsel. In 1847 he
+married Miss Lockhart, granddaughter of Sir Walter Scott, and
+on her coming into possession of Abbotsford six years later,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span>
+assumed the surname of Hope-Scott. He retired from the bar
+in 1870 and died on the 29th of April 1873.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPFEN, HANS VON<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1835-1904), German poet and novelist,
+was born on the 3rd of January 1835, at Munich. He studied
+law, and in 1858, having shown marked poetical promise, he
+was received into the circle of young poets whom King Maximilian
+II. had gathered round him, and thereafter devoted
+himself to literature. In 1862 he made his debut as an author,
+with <i>Lieder und Balladen</i>, which were published in the <i>Münchener
+Dichterbuch</i>, edited by E. Geibel. After travelling in Italy (1862),
+France (1863) and Austria (1864), he was appointed, in 1865,
+general secretary of the &ldquo;Schillerstiftung,&rdquo; and in this capacity
+settled at Vienna. The following year, however, he removed to
+Berlin, in a suburb of which, Lichterfelde, he died on the 19th of
+November 1904. Of Hopfen&rsquo;s lyric poems, <i>Gedichte</i> (4th ed.,
+Berlin, 1883), many are of considerable talent and originality;
+but it is as a novelist that he is best known. The novels <i>Peregretta</i>
+(1864); <i>Verdorben zu Paris</i> (1868, new ed. 1892); <i>Arge
+Sitten</i> (1869); <i>Der graue Freund</i> (1874, 2nd ed., 1876); and
+<i>Verfehlte Liebe</i> (1876, 2nd ed., 1879) are attractive, while
+of his shorter stories <i>Tiroler Geschichten</i> (1884-1885) command
+most favour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An autobiographical sketch of Hopfen is contained in K. E.
+Franzos, <i>Geschichte des Erstlingswerkes</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPI,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Moki</span> (<i>Moquis</i>), a tribe of North American Indians
+of Shoshonean stock. They are Pueblo or town-building Indians
+and occupy seven villages on three lofty plateaus of northern
+Arizona. The first accounts of them date from the expedition
+of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in 1540. With the town-building
+Indians of New Mexico they were then subdued.
+They shared in the successful revolt of 1542, but again suffered
+defeat in 1586. In 1680, however, they made a successful
+revolt against the Spaniards. They weave very fine blankets,
+make baskets and are expert potters and wood-carvers. Their
+houses are built of stone set in mortar. Their ceremonies are
+of an elaborate nature, and in the famous &ldquo;snake-dance&rdquo; the
+performers carry live rattlesnakes in their mouths. They
+number some 1600. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pueblo Indians</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For Hopi festivals, see <i>21st Ann. Report Bureau of Amer. Ethnology</i>
+(1899-1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÖPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1712-1789),
+Swedish statesman, was the son of Daniel Niklas Höpken, one of
+Arvid Horn&rsquo;s most determined opponents and a founder of the
+Hat party. When in 1738 the Hats came into power the younger
+Höpken obtained a seat in the secret committee of the diet, and
+during the Finnish war of 1741-42 was one of the two commissioners
+appointed to negotiate with Russia. During the
+diet of 1746-1747 Höpken&rsquo;s influence was of the greatest importance.
+It was chiefly through his efforts that the estates issued
+a &ldquo;national declaration&rdquo; protesting against the arrogant
+attitude of the Russian ambassador, who attempted to dominate
+the crown prince Adolphus Frederick and the government.
+This spirited policy restored the waning prestige of the Hat
+party and firmly established their anti-Muscovite system. In
+1746 Höpken was created a senator. In 1751 he succeeded
+Gustaf Tessin as prime minister, and controlled the foreign policy
+of Sweden for the next nine years. On the outbreak of the
+Seven Years&rsquo; War, he contracted an armed neutrality treaty with
+Denmark (1756); but in the following year acceded to the
+league against Frederick II. of Prussia. During the crisis of
+1760-1762, when the Hats were at last compelled to give an
+account of their stewardship, Höpken was sacrificed to party
+exigencies and retired from the senate as well as from the premiership.
+On the 22nd of June 1762, however, he was created a
+count. After the revolution of 1772 he re-entered the senate
+at the particular request of Gustavus III., but no longer exercised
+any political influence. His caustic criticism of many of the
+royal measures, moreover, gave great offence, and in 1780 he
+retired into private life. Höpken was a distinguished author.
+The noble style of his biographies and orations has earned
+for him the title of the Swedish Tacitus. He helped to found
+the <i>Vetenskaps Akademi</i>, and when Gustavus III. in 1786
+established the Swedish Academy, he gave Höpken the first
+place in it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. G. de Geer, <i>Minne af Grefve A. J. von Höpken</i> (Stockholm,
+1882); Carl Silfverstolpe, <i>Grefve Höpkens Skrifter</i> (Stockholm,
+1890-1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1857-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+Sanskrit scholar, was born in Northampton, Massachusetts,
+on the 8th of September 1857. He graduated at Columbia
+University in 1878, studied at Leipzig, where he received the
+degree of Ph.D. in 1881, was an instructor at Columbia in 1881-1885,
+and professor at Bryn Mawr in 1885-1895, and became
+professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology in Yale University
+in 1895. He became secretary of the American Oriental
+Society and editor of its <i>Journal</i>, to which he contributed many
+valuable papers, especially on numerical and temporal categories
+in early Sanskrit literature. He wrote <i>Caste in Ancient India</i>
+(1881); <i>Manu&rsquo;s Lawbook</i> (1884); <i>Religions of India</i> (1895);
+<i>The Great Epic of India</i> (1901); and <i>India Old and New</i>
+(1901).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, ESEK<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1718-1802), the first admiral of the
+United States navy, was born at Scituate, Rhode Island, in
+1718. He belonged to one of the most prominent Puritan
+families of New England. At the age of twenty he went to sea,
+and rapidly came to the front as a good sailor and skilful trader.
+Marrying, three years later, into a prosperous family of Newport,
+and thus increasing his influence in Rhode Island, he became
+commodore of a fleet of seventeen merchantmen, the movements
+of which he directed with skill and energy. In war as well as
+peace, Hopkins was establishing his reputation as one of the
+leading colonial seamen, for as captain of a privateer he made
+more than one brilliant and successful venture during the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War. In the interval between voyages, moreover, he
+was engaged in Rhode Island politics, and rendered efficient
+support to his brother Stephen against the Ward faction. At
+the outbreak of the War of Independence, Hopkins was appointed
+brigadier-general by Rhode Island, was commissioned, December
+1775, by the Continental Congress, commander-in-chief of the
+navy, and in January 1776 hoisted his flag as admiral of the eight
+converted merchantmen which then constituted the navy of the
+United States. His first cruise resulted in a great acquisition of
+material of war and an indecisive fight with H.M.S. &ldquo;Glasgow.&rdquo;
+At first this created great enthusiasm, but criticism soon made
+itself heard. Hopkins and two of his captains were tried for
+breach of orders, and, though ably defended by John Adams, were
+censured by Congress. The commands, nevertheless, were not
+interfered with, and a prize was soon afterwards named after the
+admiral by their orders. But the difficulties and mutual distrust
+continually increased, and in 1777 Congress summarily dismissed
+Hopkins from his command, on the complaint of some of his
+officers. Before the order arrived, the admiral had detected
+the conspiracy against him, and had had the ringleaders tried
+and degraded by court-martial. But the Congress followed
+up its order by dismissing him from the navy. For the rest of
+his life he lived in Rhode Island, playing a prominent part in
+state politics, and he died at Providence in 1802.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Edward Field, <i>Life of Esek Hopkins</i> (Providence, 1898); also an
+article by R. Grieve in the <i>New England Magazine</i> of November
+1897.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, MARK<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1802-1887), American educationist,
+great-nephew of the theologian Samuel Hopkins, was born in
+Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on the 4th of February 1802.
+He graduated in 1824 at Williams College, where he was a tutor
+in 1825-1827, and where in 1830, after having graduated in the
+previous year at the Berkshire Medical College at Pittsfield,
+he became professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric. In
+1833 he was licensed to preach in Congregational churches.
+He was president of Williams College from 1836 until 1872.
+He was one of the ablest and most successful of the old type
+of college president. His volume of lectures on <i>Evidences of
+Christianity</i> (1846) was long a favourite text-book. Of his other
+writings, the chief were <i>Lectures on Moral Science</i> (1862), <i>The
+Law of Love and Love as a Law</i> (1869), <i>An Outline Study of Man</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span>
+(1873), <i>The Scriptural Idea of Man</i> (1883), and <i>Teachings and
+Counsels</i> (1884). Dr Hopkins took a lifelong interest in Christian
+missions, and from 1857 until his death was president of the
+American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (the
+American Congregational Mission Board). He died at Williamstown,
+on the 17th of June 1887. His son, <span class="sc">Henry Hopkins</span>
+(1837-1908), was also from 1903 till his death president of
+Williams College.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Franklin Carter&rsquo;s <i>Mark Hopkins</i> (Boston, 1892), in the
+&ldquo;American Religious Leaders&rdquo; series, and Leverett W. Spring&rsquo;s
+<i>Mark Hopkins, Teacher</i> (New York, 1888), being No. 4, vol. i., of
+the &ldquo;Monographs of the Industrial Educational Association.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mark Hopkins&rsquo;s brother, <span class="sc">Albert Hopkins</span> (1807-1872), was long
+associated with him at Williams College, where he graduated in
+1826 and was successively a tutor (1827-1829), professor of
+mathematics and natural philosophy (1829-1838), professor of
+natural philosophy and astronomy (1838-1868) and professor
+of astronomy (1868-1872). In 1835 he organized and conducted
+a Natural History Expedition to Nova Scotia, said to have been
+the first expedition of the kind sent out from any American
+college, and in 1837, at his suggestion and under his direction,
+was built at Williams College an astronomical observatory, said
+to have been the first in the United States built at a college
+exclusively for purposes of instruction. He died at Williamstown
+on the 24th of May 1872.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Albert C. Sewall&rsquo;s <i>Life of Professor Albert Hopkins</i> (1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, SAMUEL<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1721-1803), American theologian,
+from whom the Hopkinsian theology takes its name, was born
+at Waterbury, Connecticut, on the 17th of September 1721.
+He graduated at Yale College in 1741; studied divinity at
+Northampton, Massachusetts, with Jonathan Edwards; was
+licensed to preach in 1742, and in December 1743 was ordained
+pastor of the church in the North Parish of Sheffield, or Housatonick
+(now Great Barrington), Massachusetts, at that time a
+small settlement of only thirty families. There he laboured&mdash;preaching,
+studying and writing&mdash;until 1769, for part of the
+time (1751-1758) in intimate association with his old teacher,
+Edwards, whose call to Stockbridge he had been instrumental
+in procuring. His theological views having met with much
+opposition, however, he was finally dismissed from the pastorate
+on the pretext of want of funds for his support. From April
+1770 until his death on the 20th of December 1803, he was
+the pastor of the First Church in Newport, Rhode Island, though
+during 1776-1780, while Newport was occupied by the British,
+he preached at Newburyport, Mass., and at Canterbury and
+Stamford, Conn. In 1799 he had an attack of paralysis, from
+which he never wholly recovered. Hopkins&rsquo;s theological views
+have had a powerful influence in America. Personally he was
+remarkable for force and energy of character, and for the utter
+fearlessness with which he followed premises to their conclusions.
+In vigour of intellect and in strength and purity of moral tone
+he was hardly inferior to Edwards himself. Though he was
+originally a slave-holder, to him belongs the honour of having
+been the first among the Congregational ministers of New
+England to denounce slavery both by voice and pen; and to his
+persistent though bitterly opposed efforts are probably chiefly
+to be attributed the law of 1774, which forbade the importation
+of negro slaves into Rhode Island, as also that of 1784, which
+declared that all children of slaves born in Rhode Island after
+the following March should be free. His training school for negro
+missionaries to Africa was broken up by the confusion of the
+American War of Independence. Among his publications are a
+valuable <i>Life and Character of Jonathan Edwards</i> (1799), and
+numerous pamphlets, addresses and sermons, including <i>A
+Dialogue concerning the Slavery of the Africans, showing it to be
+the Duty and Interest of the American States to emancipate all their
+African Slaves</i> (1776), and <i>A Discourse upon the Slave Trade and
+the History of the Africans</i> (1793). His distinctive theological
+tenets are to be found in his important work, <i>A System
+of Doctrines Contained in Divine Revelation, Explained and
+Defended</i> (1793), which has had an influence hardly inferior
+to that exercised by the writings of Edwards himself. They may
+be summed up as follows: God so rules the universe as to produce
+its highest happiness, considered as a whole. Since God&rsquo;s
+sovereignty is absolute, sin must be, by divine permission, a
+means by which this happiness of the whole is secured, though
+that this is its consequence, renders it no less heinous in the
+sinner. Virtue consists in preference for the good of the whole
+to any private advantage; hence the really virtuous man must
+willingly accept any disposition of himself that God may deem
+wise&mdash;a doctrine often called &ldquo;willingness to be damned.&rdquo; All
+have natural power to choose the right, and are therefore responsible
+for their acts; but all men lack inclination to choose
+the right unless the existing &ldquo;bias&rdquo; of their wills is transformed
+by the power of God from self-seeking into an effective inclination
+towards virtue. Hence preaching should demand instant submission
+to God and disinterested goodwill, and should teach the
+worthlessness of all religious acts or dispositions which are less
+than these, while recognizing that God can grant or withhold
+the regenerative change at his pleasure.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of Hopkins&rsquo;s <i>Works</i> is that published in three
+volumes at Boston in 1852, containing an excellent biographical
+sketch by Professor Edwards A. Park. In 1854 was published
+separately Hopkins&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on the Millennium</i>, which originally
+appeared in his <i>System of Doctrines</i> and in which he deduced from
+prophecies in <i>Daniel</i> and <i>Revelation</i> that the millennium would come
+&ldquo;not far from the end of the twentieth century.&rdquo; See also Stephen
+West&rsquo;s <i>Sketches of the Life of the Late Reverend Samuel Hopkins</i>
+(Hartford, Conn., 1805), Franklin B. Dexter&rsquo;s <i>Biographical Sketches
+of the Graduates of Yale College</i> and Williston Walker&rsquo;s <i>Ten New
+England Leaders</i> (New York, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Wr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPKINS, WILLIAM<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1793-1866), English mathematician
+and geologist, was born at Kingston-on-Soar, in Nottinghamshire,
+on the 2nd of February 1793. In his youth he learned
+practical agriculture in Norfolk and afterwards took an extensive
+farm in Suffolk. In this he was unsuccessful. At the age of
+thirty he entered St Peter&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, taking his
+degree of B.A. in 1827 as seventh wrangler and M.A. in 1830.
+In 1833 he published <i>Elements of Trigonometry</i>. He was distinguished
+for his mathematical knowledge, and became eminently
+successful as a private tutor, many of his pupils attaining
+high distinction. About 1833, through meeting Sedgwick at
+Barmouth and joining him in several excursions, he became
+intensely interested in geology. Thereafter, in papers published
+by the Cambridge Philosophical Society and the Geological
+Society of London, he entered largely into mathematical inquiries
+connected with geology, dealing with the effects which
+an elevatory force acting from below would produce on a portion
+of the earth&rsquo;s crust, in fissures, faults, &amp;c. In this way he discussed
+the elevation and denudation of the Lake district, the
+Wealden area, and the Bas Boulonnais. He wrote also on the
+motion of glaciers and the transport of erratic blocks. So ably
+had he grappled with many difficult problems that in 1850 the
+Wollaston medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society
+of London; and in the following year he was elected president.
+In his second address (1853) he criticized Élie de Beaumont&rsquo;s
+theory of the elevation of mountain-chains and showed the
+imperfect evidence on which it rested. He brought before the
+Geological Society in 1851 an important paper <i>On the Causes
+which may have produced changes in the Earth&rsquo;s superficial Temperature</i>.
+He was president of the British Association for 1853.
+His later researches included observations on the conductivity
+of various substances for heat, and on the effect of pressure
+on the temperature of fusion of different bodies. He died at
+Cambridge on the 13th of October 1866.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Obituary by W. W. Smyth, in <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> (1867),
+p. xxix.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPKINSON, FRANCIS<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1737-1791), American author and
+statesman, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence,
+was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of October
+1737. He was a son of Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751), a
+prominent lawyer of Philadelphia, one of the first trustees of
+the College of Philadelphia, now the University of Pennsylvania,
+and first president of the American Philosophical Society.
+Francis was the first student to enter the College of Philadelphia.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span>
+from which he received his bachelor&rsquo;s degree in 1757 and his
+master&rsquo;s degree in 1760. He then studied law in the office in
+Philadelphia of Benjamin Chew, and was admitted to the bar
+in 1761. Removing after 1768 to Bordentown, New Jersey,
+he became a member of the council of that colony in 1774.
+On the approach of the War of Independence he identified
+himself with the patriot or whig element in the colony, and in
+1776 and 1777 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress.
+He served on the committee appointed to frame the Articles of
+Confederation, executed, with John Nixon (1733-1808) and John
+Wharton, the &ldquo;business of the navy&rdquo; under the direction of
+the marine committee, and acted for a time as treasurer of the
+Continental loan office. From 1779 to 1789 he was judge of
+the court of admiralty in Pennsylvania, and from 1790 until
+his death was United States district judge for that state. He
+was famous for his versatility, and besides being a distinguished
+lawyer, jurist and political leader, was &ldquo;a mathematician, a
+chemist, a physicist, a mechanician, an inventor, a musician
+and a composer of music, a man of literary knowledge and
+practice, a writer of airy and dainty songs, a clever artist with
+pencil and brush and a humorist of unmistakeable power&rdquo;
+(Tyler, <i>Literary History of the American Revolution</i>). It is as
+a writer, however, that he will be remembered. He ranks as
+one of the three leading satirists on the patriot side during the
+War of Independence. His ballad, <i>The Battle of the Kegs</i> (1778),
+was long exceedingly popular. To alarm the British force at
+Philadelphia the Americans floated kegs charged with gunpowder
+down the Delaware river towards that city, and the
+British, alarmed for the safety of their shipping, fired with cannon
+and small arms at everything they saw floating in the river.
+Hopkinson&rsquo;s ballad is an imaginative expansion of the actual
+facts. To the cause of the revolution this ballad, says Professor
+Tyler, &ldquo;was perhaps worth as much just then as the winning
+of a considerable battle.&rdquo; Hopkinson&rsquo;s principal writings are
+<i>The Pretty Story</i> (1774), <i>A Prophecy</i> (1776) and <i>The Political
+Catechism</i> (1777). Among his songs may be mentioned
+<i>The Treaty</i> and <i>The New Roof, a Song for Federal Mechanics</i>;
+and the best known of his satirical pieces are <i>Typographical
+Method of conducting a Quarrel</i>, <i>Essay on White Washing</i> and
+<i>Modern Learning</i>. His <i>Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional
+Writings</i> were published at Philadelphia in 3 vols., 1792.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Joseph Hopkinson</span> (1770-1842), graduated at the
+University of Pennsylvania in 1786, studied law, and was a
+Federalist member of the national House of Representatives in
+1815-1819, Federal judge of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania
+from 1828 until his death, and a member of the state constitutional
+convention of 1837. He is better known, however,
+as the author of the patriotic anthem &ldquo;Hail Columbia&rdquo; (1798).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPKINSON, JOHN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1849-1898), English engineer and
+physicist, was born in Manchester on the 27th of July 1849.
+Before he was sixteen he attended lectures at Owens College,
+and at eighteen he gained a mathematical scholarship at Trinity
+College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1871 as senior wrangler
+and first Smith&rsquo;s prizeman, having previously taken the degree
+of D.Sc. at London University and won a Whitworth scholarship.
+Although elected a fellow and tutor of his college, he stayed
+up at Cambridge only for a very short time, preferring to learn
+practical engineering as a pupil in the works in which his father
+was a partner. But there his stay was equally short, for in 1872
+he undertook the duties of engineering manager in the glass
+manufactories of Messrs Chance Brothers and Company at
+Birmingham. Six years later he removed to London, and
+while continuing to act as scientific adviser to Messrs Chance,
+established a most successful practice as a consulting engineer.
+His work was mainly, though not exclusively, electrical, and
+his services were in great demand as an expert witness in patent
+cases. In 1890 he was appointed director of the Siemens laboratory
+at King&rsquo;s College, London, with the title of professor of
+electrical engineering. His death occurred prematurely on the
+27th of August 1898, when he was killed, together with one son
+and two daughters, by an accident the nature of which was
+never precisely ascertained, while climbing the Petite Dent
+de Veisivi, above Evolena. Dr Hopkinson presented a rare
+combination of practical with theoretical ability, and his achievements
+in pure scientific research are not less intrinsically notable
+than the skill with which he applied their results to the solution
+of concrete engineering problems. His original work is contained
+in more than sixty papers, all written with a complete mastery
+both of style and of subject-matter. His name is best known
+in connexion with electricity and magnetism. On the one hand
+he worked out the general theory of the magnetic circuit in
+the dynamo (in conjunction with his brother Edward), and
+the theory of alternating currents, and conducted a long series
+of observations on the phenomena attending magnetization in
+iron, nickel and the curious alloys of the two which can exist
+both in a magnetic and non-magnetic state at the same temperature.
+On the other hand, by the application of the principles
+he thus elucidated he furthered to an immense extent the employment
+of electricity for the purposes of daily life. As regards
+the generation of electric energy, by pointing out defects of
+design in the dynamo as it existed about 1878, and showing
+how important improvements were to be effected in its construction,
+he was largely instrumental in converting it from
+a clumsy and wasteful appliance into one of the most efficient
+known to the engineer. Again, as regards the distribution
+of the current, he took a leading part in the development of the
+three-wire system and the closed-circuit transformer, while
+electric traction had to thank him for the series-parallel method
+of working motors. During his residence in Birmingham,
+Messrs Chance being makers of glass for use in lighthouse lamps,
+his attention was naturally turned to problems of lighthouse
+illumination, and he was able to devise improvements in both
+the catoptric and dioptric methods for concentrating and
+directing the beam. He was a strong advocate of the group-flashing
+system as a means of differentiating lights, and invented
+an arrangement for carrying it into effect optically,
+his plan being first adopted for the catoptric light of the <i>Royal
+Sovereign</i> lightship, in the English Channel off Beachy Head.
+Moreover, his association with glass manufacture led him to
+study the refractive indices of different kinds of glass; he
+further undertook abstruse researches on electrostatic capacity,
+the phenomena of the residual charge, and other problems
+arising out of Clerk Maxwell&rsquo;s electro-magnetic theory.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His original papers were collected and published, with a memoir
+by his son, in 1901.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPKINSVILLE,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Christian
+county, Kentucky, U.S.A., about 150 m. S.W. of Louisville.
+Pop. (1890) 5833; (1900) 7280 (3243 negroes); (1910) 9419.
+The city is served by the Illinois Central and the Louisville
+&amp; Nashville railways. It is the seat of Bethel Female College
+(Baptist, founded 1854), of South Kentucky College (Christian;
+co-educational; chartered 1849) and of the Western Kentucky
+Asylum for the Insane. The city&rsquo;s chief interest is in the tobacco
+industry; it has also considerable trade in other agricultural
+products and in coal; and its manufactures include carriages
+and wagons, bricks, lime, flour and dressed lumber. When
+Christian county was formed from Logan county in 1797,
+Hopkinsville, formerly called Elizabethtown, became the county-seat,
+and was renamed in honour of Samuel Hopkins (<i>c.</i> 1750-1819),
+an officer of the Continental Army in the War of Independence,
+a pioneer settler in Kentucky, and a representative in
+Congress from Kentucky in 1813-1815. In 1798 Hopkinsville
+was incorporated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPPNER, JOHN<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1758-1810), English portrait-painter, was
+born, it is said, on the 4th of April 1758 at Whitechapel.
+His father was of German extraction, and his mother was one
+of the German attendants at the royal palace. Hoppner was
+consequently brought early under the notice and received
+the patronage of George III., whose regard for him gave rise
+to unfounded scandal. As a boy he was a chorister at the royal
+chapel, but showing strong inclination for art, he in 1775 entered
+as a student at the Royal Academy. In 1778 he took a silver
+medal for drawing from the life, and in 1782 the Academy&rsquo;s
+highest award, the gold medal for historical painting, his subject
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span>
+being King Lear. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy
+in 1780. His earliest love was for landscape, but necessity
+obliged him to turn to the more lucrative business of portrait-painting.
+At once successful, he had, throughout life, the most
+fashionable and wealthy sitters, and was the greatest rival of the
+growing attraction of Lawrence. Ideal subjects were very rarely
+attempted by Hoppner, though a &ldquo;Sleeping Venus,&rdquo; &ldquo;Belisarius,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Jupiter and Io,&rdquo; a &ldquo;Bacchante&rdquo; and &ldquo;Cupid and Psyche&rdquo; are
+mentioned among his works. The prince of Wales especially
+patronized him, and many of his finest portraits are in the state
+apartments at St James&rsquo;s Palace, the best perhaps being those of
+the prince, the duke and duchess of York, of Lord Rodney and
+of Lord Nelson. Among his other sitters were Sir Walter Scott,
+Wellington, Frere and Sir George Beaumont. Competent judges
+have deemed his most successful works to be his portraits of
+women and children. A <i>Series of Portraits of Ladies</i> was published
+by him in 1803, and a volume of translations of Eastern tales into
+English verse in 1805. The verse is of but mediocre quality.
+In his later years Hoppner suffered from a chronic disease of
+the liver; he died on the 23rd of January 1810. He was confessedly
+an imitator of Reynolds. When first painted, his
+works were much admired for the brilliancy and harmony of
+their colouring, but the injury due to destructive mediums
+and lapse of time which many of them suffered caused a great
+depreciation in his reputation. The appearance, however,
+of some of his pictures in good condition has shown that his
+fame as a brilliant colourist was well founded. His drawing
+is faulty, but his touch has qualities of breadth and freedom
+that give to his paintings a faint reflection of the charm of
+Reynolds. Hoppner was a man of great social power, and had
+the knowledge and accomplishments of a man of the world.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best account of Hoppner&rsquo;s life and paintings is the exhaustive
+work by William McKay and W. Roberts (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOP-SCOTCH<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (&ldquo;scotch,&rdquo; to score), an old English children&rsquo;s
+game in which a small object, like a flat stone, is kicked by the
+player, while hopping, from one division to another of an oblong
+space marked upon the ground and divided into a number of
+divisions, usually 10 or 12. These divisions are numbered, and
+the stone must rest successively in each. Should it rest upon
+a line or go out of the division aimed for, the player loses. In
+order to win a player must drive the stone into each division
+and back to the starting-point.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1598-1652), Royalist
+commander in the English Civil War, was the son of Robert
+Hopton of Witham, Somerset. He appears to have been educated
+at Lincoln College, Oxford, and to have served in the army
+of the Elector Palatine in the early campaigns of the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War, and in 1624 he was lieutenant-colonel of a regiment
+raised in England to serve in Mansfeld&rsquo;s army. Charles I.,
+at his coronation, made Hopton a Knight of the Bath. In the
+political troubles which preceded the outbreak of the Civil
+War, Hopton, as member of parliament successively for Bath,
+Somerset and Wells, at first opposed the royal policy, but after
+Stratford&rsquo;s attainder (for which he voted) he gradually became
+an ardent supporter of Charles, and at the beginning of the
+Great Rebellion (<i>q.v.</i>) he was made lieutenant-general under
+the marquess of Hertford in the west. His first achievement
+was the rallying of Cornwall to the royal cause, his next to
+carry the war from that county into Devonshire. In May 1643
+he won the brilliant victory of Stratton, in June he overran
+Devonshire, and on the 5th of July he inflicted a severe defeat
+on Sir William Waller at Lansdown. In the last action he was
+severely wounded by the explosion of a powder-wagon and he
+was soon after shut up in Devizes by Waller, where he defended
+himself until relieved by the victory of Roundway Down on the
+13th of July. He was soon afterwards created Baron Hopton
+of Stratton. But his successes in the west were cut short by
+the defeat of Cheriton or Alresford in March 1644. After this
+he served in the western campaign under Charles&rsquo;s own command,
+and towards the end of the war, after Lord Goring had
+left England, he succeeded to the command of the royal army,
+which his predecessor had allowed to waste away in indiscipline.
+It was no longer possible to stem the tide of the parliament&rsquo;s
+victory, and Hopton, defeated in his last stand at Torrington
+on the 16th of February 1646, surrendered to Fairfax. Subsequently
+he accompanied the prince of Wales in his attempts
+to prolong the war in the Scilly and Channel Islands. But his
+downright loyalty was incompatible with the spirit of concession
+and compromise which prevailed in the prince&rsquo;s council
+in 1640-1650, and he withdrew from active participation in the
+cause of royalism. He died, still in exile, at Bruges in September
+1652. The peerage became extinct at his death. The king,
+Prince Charles and the governing circle appreciated the merits
+of their faithful lieutenant less than did his enemies Waller
+and Fairfax, the former of whom wrote, &ldquo;hostility itself cannot
+violate my friendship to your person,&rdquo; while the latter spoke
+of him as &ldquo;one whom we honour and esteem above any other of
+your party.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOR, MOUNT<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (<span title="hor">&#1492;&#1493;&#1512;</span>), the scene in the Bible of Aaron&rsquo;s death,
+situated &ldquo;in the edge of the land of Edom&rdquo; (Num. xxxiii. 37).
+Since the time of Josephus it has been identified with the <i>Jebel
+Nebi &#7716;ar&#363;n</i> (&ldquo;Mountain of the Prophet Aaron&rdquo;), a twin-peaked
+mountain 4780 ft. above the sea-level (6072 ft. above the Dead
+Sea) in the Edomite Mountains on the east side of the Jordan-Arabah
+valley. On the summit is a shrine said to cover the
+grave of Aaron. Some modern investigators dissent from this
+identification: H. Clay Trumbull prefers the Jebel Mad&#257;ra,
+a peak north-west of &rsquo;Ain Kadis. Another Mount Hor is mentioned
+in Num. xxxiv. 7, 8, as on the northern boundary of
+the prospective conquests of the Israelites. It is perhaps to be
+identified with Hermon. It has been doubtfully suggested that
+for <i>Hor</i> we should here read <i>Hadrach</i>, the name of a northern
+country near Damascus, mentioned only once in the Bible
+(Zech. ix. 1).</p>
+<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORACE<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Quintus Horatius Flaccus</span>] (65-8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the
+famous Roman poet, was born on the 8th of December 65 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> at
+Venusia, on the borders of Lucania and Apulia (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 1. 34).
+The town, originally a colony of veterans, appears to have long
+maintained its military traditions, and Horace was early imbued
+with a profound respect for the indomitable valour and industry
+of the Italian soldier. It would seem, however, that the poet
+was not brought up in the town itself, at least he did not attend
+the town school (<i>Sat.</i> i. 6. 72) and was much in the neighbouring
+country, of which, though he was but a child when he left it,
+he retained always a vivid and affectionate memory. The
+mountains near and far, the little villages on the hillsides, the
+woods, the roaring Aufidus, the mossy spring of Bandusia,
+after which he named another spring on his Sabine farm&mdash;these
+scenes were always dear to him and are frequently mentioned
+in his poetry (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Carm.</i> iii. 4 and 30, iv. 9). We may thus
+trace some of the germs of his poetical inspiration, as well as
+of his moral sympathies, to the early years which he spent near
+Venusia. But the most important moral influence of his youth
+was the training and example of his father, of whose worth,
+affectionate solicitude and homely wisdom Horace has given
+a most pleasing and life-like picture (<i>Sat.</i> i. 6. 70, &amp;c.). He was
+a freedman by position; and it is supposed that he had been
+originally a slave of the town of Venusia, and on his emancipation
+had received the gentile name of Horatius from the Horatian
+tribe in which the inhabitants of Venusia were enrolled. After
+his emancipation he acquired by the occupation of &ldquo;coactor&rdquo;
+(a collector of the payments made at public auctions, or, according
+to another interpretation, a collector of taxes) sufficient means
+to enable him to buy a small farm, to make sufficient provision
+for the future of his son (<i>Sat.</i> i. 4. 108), and to take him to Rome
+to give him the advantage of the best education there. To his
+care Horace attributes, not only the intellectual training which
+enabled him in later life to take his place among the best men of
+Rome, but also his immunity from the baser forms of moral
+evil (<i>Sat.</i> i. 6. 68. &amp;c.). To his practical teaching he attributes
+also his tendency to moralize and to observe character (<i>Sat.</i> i.
+4. 105, &amp;c.)&mdash;the tendency which enabled him to become the
+most truthful painter of social life and manners which the ancient
+world produced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span></p>
+
+<p>In one of his latest writings (<i>Epist.</i> ii. 2. 42, &amp;c.) Horace gives
+a further account of his education; but we hear no more of his
+father, nor is there any allusion in his writings to the existence
+of any other member of his family or any other relative. After
+the ordinary grammatical and literary training at Rome, he
+went (45 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) to Athens, the most famous school of philosophy,
+as Rhodes was of oratory; and he describes himself while there
+as &ldquo;searching after truth among the groves of Academus&rdquo; as
+well as advancing in literary accomplishment. His pleasant
+residence there was interrupted by the breaking out of the civil
+war. Following the example of his young associates, he attached
+himself to the cause of Brutus, whom he seems to have accompanied
+to Asia, probably as a member of his staff; and he
+served at the battle of Philippi in the post of military tribune.
+He shared in the rout which followed the battle, and henceforth,
+though he was not less firm in his conviction that some causes
+were worth fighting for and dying for, he had but a poor opinion
+of his own soldierly qualities.</p>
+
+<p>He returned to Rome shortly after the battle, stripped of his
+property, which formed part of the land confiscated for the
+benefit of the soldiers of Octavianus and Antony. It may have
+been at this time that he encountered the danger of shipwreck,
+which he mentions among the perils from which his life had been
+protected by supernatural aid (<i>Carm.</i> iii. 4. 28). He procured
+in some way the post of a clerkship in the quaestor&rsquo;s office, and
+about three years after the battle of Philippi, he was introduced
+by Virgil and Varius to Maecenas. This was the turning-point
+of his fortunes. He owed his friendship with the greatest of
+literary patrons to his personal merits rather than to his poetic
+fame; for he was on intimate terms with Maecenas before the
+first book of the <i>Satires</i> (his first published work) appeared.
+He tells us in one of his <i>Satires</i> (i. 10. 31) that his earliest ambition
+was to write Greek verses. In giving this direction to his
+ambition, he was probably influenced by his admiration of the
+old iambic and lyrical poets whom he has made the models
+of his own <i>Epodes</i> and <i>Odes</i>. His common sense as well as his
+national feeling fortunately saved him from becoming a second-rate
+Greek versifier in an age when poetic inspiration had passed
+from Greece to Italy, and the living language of Rome was a
+more fitting vehicle for the new feelings and interests of men
+than the echoes of the old Ionian or Aeolian melodies. His
+earliest Latin compositions were, as he tells us, written under
+the instigation of poverty; and they alone betray any trace of
+the bitterness of spirit which the defeat of his hopes and the
+hardships which he had to encounter on his first return to Rome
+may have temporarily produced on him. Some of the <i>Epodes</i>,
+of the nature of personal and licentious lampoons, and the second
+<i>Satire</i> of book i., in which there is some trace of an angry republican
+feeling, belong to these early compositions. But by the time
+the first book of <i>Satires</i> was completed and published (35 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+his temper had recovered its natural serenity, and, though he
+had not yet attained to the height of his fortunes, his personal
+position was one of comfort and security, and his intimate
+relation with the leading men in literature and social rank was
+firmly established.</p>
+
+<p>About a year after the publication of this first book of <i>Satires</i>
+Maecenas presented him with a farm among the Sabine hills,
+near the modern Tivoli. This secured him pecuniary independence;
+it satisfied the love of nature which had been implanted
+in him during the early years spent on the Venusian farm; and
+it afforded him a welcome escape from the distractions of city
+life and the dangers of a Roman autumn. Many passages in the
+<i>Satires</i>, <i>Odes</i> and <i>Epistles</i> express the happiness and pride
+with which the thought of his own valley filled him, and the
+interest which he took in the simple and homely ways of his
+country neighbours. The inspiration of the <i>Satires</i> came from
+the heart of Rome; the feeling of many of the <i>Odes</i> comes direct
+from the Sabine hills; and even the meditative spirit of the
+later <i>Epistles</i> tells of the leisure and peace of quiet days spent
+among books, or in the open air, at a distance from &ldquo;the smoke,
+wealth and tumult&rdquo; of the great metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>The second book of <i>Satires</i> was published in 29 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; the
+<i>Epodes</i> (spoken of by himself as <i>iambi</i>) apparently about a year
+earlier, though many of them are, as regards the date of their
+composition, to be ranked among the earliest extant writings
+of Horace. In one of his <i>Epistles</i> (i. 19. 25) he rests his first
+claim to originality on his having introduced into Latium the
+metres and spirit of Archilochus of Paros. He may have naturalized
+some special form of metre employed by that poet, and it
+may be (as Th. Plüsz has suggested) that we should see in the
+<i>Epodes</i> a tone of mockery and parody. But his personal lampoons
+are the least successful of his works; while those <i>Epodes</i> which
+treat of other subjects in a poetical spirit are inferior in metrical
+effect, and in truth and freshness of feeling, both to the lighter
+lyrics of Catullus and to his own later and more carefully
+meditated <i>Odes</i>. The <i>Epodes</i>, if they are serious at all, are
+chiefly interesting as a record of the personal feelings of Horace
+during the years which immediately followed his return to Rome,
+and as a prelude to the higher art and inspiration of the first
+three books of the <i>Odes</i>, which were published together about the
+end of 24 or the beginning of 23 <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The composition of these
+<i>Odes</i> extended over several years, but all the most important
+among them belong to the years between the battle of Actium
+and 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His lyrical poetry is thus, not, like that of Catullus,
+the ardent utterance of his youth, but the mature and finished
+workmanship of his manhood. The state of public affairs was
+more favourable than it had been since the outbreak of the civil
+war between Caesar and Pompey for the appearance of lyrical
+poetry. Peace, order and national unity had been secured by
+the triumph of Augustus, and the enthusiasm in favour of the
+new government had not yet been chilled by experience of its
+repressing influence. The poet&rsquo;s circumstances were, at the
+same time, most favourable for the exercise of his lyrical gift
+during these years. He lived partly at Rome, partly at his
+Sabine farm, varying his residence occasionally by visits to
+Tibur, Praeneste or Baiae. His intimacy with Maecenas was
+strengthened and he had become the familiar friend of the great
+minister. He was treated with distinction by Augustus, and by
+the foremost men in Roman society. He complains occasionally
+that the pleasures of his youth are passing from him, but he
+does so in the spirit of a temperate Epicurean, who found new
+enjoyments in life as the zest for the old enjoyments decayed,
+and who considered the wisdom and meditative spirit&mdash;&ldquo;the
+philosophic mind that years had brought&rdquo;&mdash;an ample compensation
+for the extinct fires of his youth.</p>
+
+<p>About four years after the publication of the three books
+of <i>Odes</i>, the first book of the <i>Epistles</i> appeared, introduced,
+as his <i>Epodes</i>, <i>Satires</i> and <i>Odes</i> had been, by a special address
+to Maecenas. From these <i>Epistles</i>, as compared with the <i>Satires</i>,
+we gather that he had gradually adopted a more retired and
+meditative life, and had become fonder of the country and of
+study, and that, while owing allegiance to no school or sect of
+philosophy, he was framing for himself a scheme of life, was
+endeavouring to conform to it, and was bent on inculcating it on
+others. He maintained his old friendships, and continued to
+form new intimacies, especially with younger men engaged
+in public affairs or animated by literary ambition. After the
+death of Virgil he was recognized as pre-eminently the greatest
+living poet, and was accordingly called upon by Augustus to
+compose the sacred hymn for the celebration of the secular
+games in 17 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> About four years later he published the fourth
+book of <i>Odes</i> (about 13 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) having been called upon to do so
+by the emperor, in order that the victories of his stepsons
+Drusus and Tiberius over the Rhaeti and Vindelici might be
+worthily celebrated. He lived about five years longer, and
+during these years published the second book of <i>Epistles</i>, and the
+<i>Epistle to the Pisos</i>, more generally known as the &ldquo;<i>Ars poetica</i>.&rdquo;
+These later <i>Epistles</i> are mainly devoted to literary criticism,
+with the especial object of vindicating the poetic claims of his
+own age over those of the age of Ennius and the other early
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span>
+poets of Rome. He might have been expected, as a great critic
+and lawgiver on literature, to have exercised a beneficial influence
+on the future poetry of his country, and to have applied as much
+wisdom to the theory of his own art as to that of a right life.
+But his critical <i>Epistles</i> are chiefly devoted to a controversial
+attack on the older writers and to the exposition of the laws of
+dramatic poetry, on which his own powers had never been
+exercised, and for which either the genius or circumstances
+of the Romans were unsuited. The same subordination of
+imagination and enthusiasm to good sense and sober judgment
+characterizes his opinions on poetry as on morals.</p>
+
+<p>He died somewhat suddenly on the 17th of November of the
+year 8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He left Augustus to see after his affairs, and was
+buried on the Esquiline Hill, near Maecenas.</p>
+
+<p>Horace is one of the few writers, ancient or modern, who
+have written a great deal about themselves without laying
+themselves open to the charge of weakness or egotism. His
+chief claim to literary originality is not that on which he himself
+rested his hopes of immortality&mdash;that of being the first to adapt
+certain lyrical metres to the Latin tongue&mdash;but rather that of
+being the first of those whose works have reached us who
+establishes a personal relation with his reader, speaks to him
+as a familiar friend, gives him good advice, tells him the story
+of his life, and shares with him his private tastes and pleasures&mdash;and
+all this without any loss of self-respect, any want of modesty
+or breach of good manners, and in a style so lively and natural
+that each new generation of readers might fancy that he was
+addressing them personally and speaking to them on subjects
+of every day modern interest. In his self-portraiture, far from
+wishing to make himself out better or greater than he was, he
+seems to write under the influence of an ironical restraint which
+checks him in the utterance of his highest moral teaching and of
+his poetical enthusiasm. He affords us some indications of his
+personal appearance, as where he speaks of the &ldquo;nigros angusta
+fronte capillos&rdquo; of his youth, and describes himself after
+he had completed his forty-fourth December as of small
+stature, prematurely grey and fond of basking in the sun
+(<i>Epist.</i> i. 20. 24).</p>
+
+<p>In his later years his health became weaker or more uncertain,
+and this caused a considerable change in his habits, tastes and
+places of residence. It inclined him more to a life of retirement
+and simplicity, and also it stimulated his tendency to self-introspection
+and self-culture. In his more vigorous years, when
+he lived much in Roman society, he claims to have acted in all
+his relations to others in accordance with the standard recognized
+among men of honour in every age, to have been charitably
+indulgent to the weakness of his friends, and to have been
+exempt from petty jealousies and the spirit of detraction.
+If ever he deviates from his ordinary vein of irony and quiet
+sense into earnest indignation, it is in denouncing conduct
+involving treachery or malice in the relations of friends (<i>Sat.</i>
+i. 4. 81, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>He claims to be and evidently aims at being independent
+of fortune, superior to luxury, exempt both from the sordid
+cares of avarice and the coarser forms of profligacy. At the
+same time he makes a frank confession of indolence and of
+occasional failure in the pursuit of his ideal self-mastery. He
+admits his irascibility, his love of pleasure, his sensitiveness
+to opinion, and some touch of vanity or at least of gratified
+ambition arising out of the favour which through all his life
+he had enjoyed from those much above him in social station
+(<i>Epist.</i> i. 20. 23). Yet there appears no trace of any unworthy
+deference in Horace&rsquo;s feelings towards the great. Even towards
+Augustus he maintained his attitude of independence, by
+declining the office of private secretary which the emperor
+wished to force upon him; and he did so with such tact as
+neither to give offence nor to forfeit the regard of his superior.
+His feeling towards Maecenas is more like that of Pope towards
+Bolingbroke than that which a client in ancient or modern
+times entertains towards his patron. He felt pride in his protection
+and in the intellectual sympathy which united him with one
+whose personal qualities had enabled him to play so prominent
+and beneficent a part in public affairs. Their friendship was
+slowly formed, but when once established continued unshaken
+through their lives.</p>
+
+<p>There is indeed nothing more remarkable in Horace than
+the independence, or rather the self-dependence, of his character.
+The enjoyment which he drew from his Sabine farm consisted
+partly in the refreshment to his spirit from the familiar beauty
+of the place, partly in the &ldquo;otia liberrima&rdquo; from the claims
+of business and society which it afforded him. His love poems,
+when compared with those of Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius,
+show that he never, in his mature years at least, allowed his
+peace of mind to be at the mercy of any one. They are the
+expressions of a fine and subtle and often a humorous observation
+rather than of ardent feeling. There is perhaps a touch of
+pathos in his reference in the <i>Odes</i> to the early death of Cinara,
+but the epithet he applies to her in the <i>Epistles</i>,</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Quem scis immunem Cinarae placuisse rapaci,&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">shows that the pain of thinking of her could not have been very
+heartfelt. Even when the <i>Odes</i> addressed to real or imaginary
+beauties are most genuine in feeling, they are more the artistic
+rekindling of extinct fires than the utterance of recent passion.
+In his friendships he had not the self-forgetful devotion which
+is the most attractive side of the character of Catullus; but he
+studied how to gain and keep the regard of those whose society
+he valued, and he repaid this regard by a fine courtesy and by a
+delicate appreciation of their higher gifts and qualities, whether
+proved in literature, or war, or affairs of state or the ordinary
+dealings of men. He enjoyed the great world, and it treated
+him well; but he resolutely maintained his personal independence
+and the equipoise of his feelings and judgment. If it is thought
+that in attributing a divine function to Augustus he has gone
+beyond the bounds of a sincere and temperate admiration,
+a comparison of the <i>Odes</i> in which this occurs with the first
+<i>Epistle</i> of the second book shows that he certainly recognized in
+the emperor a great and successful administrator and that his
+language is to be regarded rather as the artistic expression of
+the prevailing national sentiment than as the tribute of an
+insincere adulation.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of Horace&rsquo;s philosophy was to &ldquo;be master of oneself,&rdquo;
+to retain the &ldquo;mens aequa&rdquo; in all circumstances, to use the
+gifts of fortune while they remained, and to be prepared to part
+with them with equanimity; to make the most of life, and to
+contemplate its inevitable end without anxiety. Self-reliance
+and resignation are the lessons which he constantly inculcates.
+His philosophy is thus a mode of practical Epicureanism combined
+with other elements which have more affinity with Stoicism.
+In his early life he professed his adherence to the former system,
+and several expressions in his first published work show the
+influences of the study of Lucretius. At the time when the first
+book of the <i>Epistles</i> was published he professes to assume the
+position of an eclectic rather than that of an adherent of either
+school (<i>Epist.</i> i. 1. 13-19). We note in the passage here referred
+to, as in other passages, that he mentions Aristippus of Cyrene,
+rather than Epicurus himself, as the master under whose influence
+he from time to time insensibly lapsed. Yet the dominant tone
+of his teaching is that of a refined Epicureanism, not so elevated
+or purely contemplative as that preached by Lucretius, but yet
+more within the reach of a society which, though luxurious
+and pleasure-loving, had not yet become thoroughly frivolous
+and enervated. His advice is to subdue all violent emotion of
+fear or desire; to estimate all things calmly&mdash;&ldquo;nil admirari&rdquo;;
+to choose the mean between a high and low estate; and to find
+one&rsquo;s happiness in plain living rather than in luxurious indulgence.
+Still there was in Horace a robuster fibre, inherited from the
+old Italian race, which moved him to value the dignity and
+nobleness of life more highly than its ease and enjoyment.
+In some of the stronger utterances of his <i>Odes</i>, where he expresses
+sympathy with the manlier qualities of character, we recognize
+the resistent attitude of Stoicism rather than the passive acquiescence
+of Epicureanism. The concluding stanzas of the address
+to Lollius (<i>Ode</i> iv. 9) exhibit the Epicurean and Stoical view
+of life so combined as to be more worthy of human dignity than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span>
+the genial worldly wisdom of the former school, more in harmony
+with human experience than the formal precepts of the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to trace the growth of Horace in elevation
+of sentiment and serious conviction from his first ridicule of
+the paradoxes of Stoicism in the two books of the <i>Satires</i> to the
+appeal which he makes in some of the <i>Odes</i> of the third book
+to the strongest Roman instincts of fortitude and self-sacrifice.
+A similar modification of his religious and political attitude
+may be noticed between his early declaration of Epicurean
+unbelief and the sympathy which he shows with the religious
+reaction fostered by Augustus; and again between the Epicurean
+indifference to national affairs and the strong support which
+he gives to the national policy of the emperor in the first six <i>Odes</i>
+of the third book, and in the fifth and fifteenth of the fourth
+book. In his whole religious attitude he seems to stand midway
+between the consistent denial of Lucretius and Virgil&rsquo;s pious
+endeavour to reconcile ancient faith with the conclusions of
+philosophy. His introduction into some of his <i>Odes</i> of the gods
+of mythology must be regarded as merely artistic or symbolical.
+Yet in some cases we recognize the expression of a natural piety,
+thankful for the blessing bestowed on purity and simplicity
+of life, and acknowledging a higher and more majestic law
+governing nations through their voluntary obedience. On the
+other hand, his allusions to a future life, as in the &ldquo;domus exilis
+Plutonia,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;furvae regna Proserpinae,&rdquo; are shadowy
+and artificial. The image of death is constantly obtruded in his
+poems to enhance the sense of present enjoyment. In the true
+spirit of paganism he associates all thoughts of love and wine,
+of the meeting of friends, or of the changes of the seasons with
+the recollection of the transitoriness of our pleasures&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+           <p class="center">&ldquo;Nos, ubi decidimus<br />
+    Quo pius Aeneas, quo dives Tullus et Ancus,<br />
+                   Pulvis et umbra sumus.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<p>Horace is so much of a moralist in all his writings that, in order to
+enter into the spirit both of his familiar and of his lyrical poetry, it is
+essential to realize what were his views of life and the influences under
+which they were formed. He is, though in a different sense from
+Lucretius, eminently a philosophical and reflective poet. He is also,
+like all the other poets of the Augustan age, a poet in whose composition
+culture and criticism were as conspicuous elements as
+spontaneous inspiration. In the judgment he passes on the older
+poetry of Rome and on that of his contemporaries, he seems to
+attach more importance to the critical and artistic than to the
+creative and inventive functions of genius. It is on the labour and
+judgment with which he has cultivated his gift that he rests his hopes
+of fame. The whole poetry of the Augustan age was based on the
+works of older poets, Roman as well as Greek. Its aim was to
+perfect the more immature workmanship of the former, and to adapt
+the forms, manners and metres of the latter to subjects of immediate
+and national interest. As Virgil performed for his generation the
+same kind of office which Ennius performed for an older generation,
+so Horace in his <i>Satires</i>, and to a more limited extent in his <i>Epistles</i>,
+brought to perfection for the amusement and instruction of his
+contemporaries the rude but vigorous designs of Lucilius.</p>
+
+<p>It was the example of Lucilius which induced Horace to commit
+all his private thoughts, feelings and experience &ldquo;to his books as to
+trusty companions,&rdquo; and also to comment freely on the characters
+and lives of other men. Many of the subjects of particular satires of
+Horace were immediately suggested by those treated by Lucilius.
+Thus the &ldquo;Journey to Brundusium&rdquo; (<i>Sat.</i> i. 5) reproduced the
+outlines of Lucilius&rsquo;s &ldquo;Journey to the Sicilian Straits.&rdquo; The discourse
+of Ofella on luxury (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 2) was founded on a similar discourse
+of Laelius on gluttony, and the &ldquo;Banquet of Nasidienus&rdquo;
+(<i>Sat.</i> ii. 8) may have been suggested by the description by the older
+poet of a rustic entertainment. There was more of moral censure and
+personal aggressiveness in the satire of the older poet. The ironical
+temper of Horace induced him to treat the follies of society in the
+spirit of a humorist and man of the world, rather than to assail vice
+with the severity of a censor; and the greater urbanity of his age or
+of his disposition restrained in him the direct personality of satire.
+The names introduced by him to mark types of character such as
+Nomentanus, Maenius, Pantolabus, &amp;c., are reproduced from the
+writings of the older poet. Horace also followed Lucilius in the
+variety of forms which his satire assumes, and especially in the
+frequent adoption of the form of dialogue, derived from the
+&ldquo;dramatic medley&rdquo; which was the original character of the Roman
+<i>Satura</i>. This form suited the spirit in which Horace regarded the
+world, and also the dramatic quality of his genius, just as the direct
+denunciation and elaborate painting of character suited the &ldquo;saeva
+indignatio&rdquo; and the oratorical genius of Juvenal.</p>
+
+<p>Horace&rsquo;s satire is accordingly to a great extent a reproduction in
+form, manner, substance and tone of the satire of Lucilius; or rather
+it is a casting in the mould of Lucilius of his own observation and
+experience. But a comparison of the fragments of Lucilius with the
+finished compositions of Horace brings out in the strongest light the
+artistic originality and skill of the latter poet in his management of
+metre and style. Nothing can be rougher and harsher than the
+hexameters of Lucilius, or cruder than his expression. In his
+management of the more natural trochaic metre, he has shown much
+greater ease and simplicity. It is one great triumph of Horace&rsquo;s
+genius that he was the first and indeed the only Latin writer who
+could bend the stately hexameter to the uses of natural and easy,
+and at the same time terse and happy, conversational style.
+Catullus, in his hendecasyllabics, had shown the vivacity with which
+that light and graceful metre could be employed in telling some short
+story or describing some trivial situation dramatically. But no one
+before Horace had succeeded in applying the metre of heroic verse
+to the uses of common life. But he had one great native model in the
+mastery of a terse, refined, ironical and natural conversational style,
+Terence; and the <i>Satires</i> show, not only in allusions to incidents and
+personages, but in many happy turns of expression very frequent
+traces of Horace&rsquo;s familiarity with the works of the Roman Menander.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Epistles</i> are more original in form, more philosophic in spirit,
+more finished and charming in style than the <i>Satires</i>. The form of
+composition may have been suggested by that of some of the satires
+of Lucilius, which were composed as letters to his personal friends.
+But letter-writing in prose, and occasionally also in verse, had been
+common among the Romans from the time of the siege of Corinth;
+and a practice originating in the wants and <span class="correction" title="amended from covenience">convenience</span> of friends
+temporarily separated from one another by the public service was
+ultimately cultivated as a literary accomplishment. It was a happy
+idea of Horace to adopt this form for his didactic writings on life and
+literature. It suited him as an eclectic and not a systematic thinker,
+and as a friendly counsellor rather than a formal teacher of his age.
+It suited his circumstances in the latter years of his life, when his
+tastes inclined him more to retirement and study, while he yet
+wished to retain his hold on society and to extend his relations with
+younger men who were rising into eminence. It suited the class who
+cared for literature&mdash;a limited circle of educated men, intimate with
+one another, and sharing the same tastes and pursuits. While giving
+expression to lessons applicable to all men, he in this way seems to
+address each reader individually, with the urbanity of a friend rather
+than the solemnity of a preacher. In spirit the <i>Epistles</i> are more
+ethical and meditative than the <i>Satires</i>. Like the <i>Odes</i> they exhibit
+the twofold aspects of his philosophy, that of temperate Epicureanism
+and that of more serious and elevated conviction. In the actual
+maxims which he lays down, in his apparent belief in the efficacy of
+addressing philosophical texts to the mind, he exemplifies the triteness
+and limitation of all Roman thought. But the spirit and sentiment
+of his practical philosophy is quite genuine and original. The
+individuality of the great Roman moralists, such as Lucretius and
+Horace, appears not in any difference in the results at which they
+have arrived, but in the difference of spirit with which they regard
+the spectacle of human life. In reading Lucretius we are impressed
+by his earnestness, his pathos, his elevation of feeling; in Horace we
+are charmed by the serenity of his temper and the flavour of a delicate
+and subtle wisdom. We note also in the <i>Epistles</i> the presence of a
+more philosophic spirit, not only in the expression of his personal
+convictions and aims, but also in his comments on society. In the
+<i>Satires</i> he paints the outward effects of the passions of the age. He
+shows us prominent types of character&mdash;the miser, the parasite, the
+legacy-hunter, the parvenu, &amp;c., but he does not try to trace these
+different manifestations of life to their source. In the <i>Epistles</i> he
+finds the secret spring of the social vices of the age in the desire, as
+marked in other times as in those of Horace, to become rich too fast,
+and in the tendency to value men according to their wealth, and to
+sacrifice the ends of life to a superfluous care for the means of living.
+The cause of all this aimless restlessness and unreasonable desire is
+summed up in the words &ldquo;Strenua nos exercet inertia.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In his <i>Satires</i> and <i>Epistles</i> Horace shows himself a genuine moralist,
+a subtle observer and true painter of life, and an admirable writer.
+But for both of these works he himself disclaims the title of poetry.
+He rests his claims as a poet on his <i>Odes</i>. They reveal an entirely
+different aspect of his genius, his spirit and his culture. He is one
+among the few great writers of the world who have attained high
+excellence in two widely separated provinces of literature. Through
+all his life he was probably conscious of the &ldquo;ingeni benigna vena,&rdquo;
+which in his youth made him the sympathetic student and imitator of
+the older lyrical poetry of Greece, and directed his latest efforts to
+poetic criticism. But it was in the years that intervened between
+the publication of his <i>Satires</i> and <i>Epistles</i> that his lyrical genius
+asserted itself as his predominant faculty. At that time he had
+outlived the coarser pleasures and risen <span class="correction" title="amended from bove">above</span> the harassing cares of
+his earlier career; a fresh source of happiness and inspiration had
+been opened up to him in his beautiful Sabine retreat; he had
+become not only reconciled to the rule of Augustus, but a thoroughly
+convinced and, so far as his temperament admitted to enthusiasm,
+an enthusiastic believer in its beneficence. But it was only after
+much labour that his original vein of genius obtained a free and
+abundant outlet. He lays no claim to the &ldquo;profuse strains of unpremeditated
+art,&rdquo; with which other great lyrical poets of ancient
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span>
+and modern times have charmed the world. His first efforts were
+apparently imitative, and were directed to the attainment of perfect
+mastery over form, metre and rhythm. The first nine <i>Odes</i> of the
+first book are experiments in different kinds of metre. They and all
+the other metres employed by him are based on those employed by
+the older poets of Greece&mdash;Alcaeus, Sappho, Archilochus, Alcman,
+&amp;c. He has built the structure of his lighter <i>Odes</i> also on their model,
+while in some of those in which the matter is more weighty, as in
+that in which he calls on Calliope &ldquo;to dictate a long continuous
+strain,&rdquo; he has endeavoured to reproduce something of the intricate
+movement, the abrupt transitions, the interpenetration of narrative
+and reflection, which characterize the art of Pindar. He frequently
+reproduces the language and some of the thoughts of his masters, but
+he gives them new application, or stamps them with the impress of
+his own experience. He brought the metres which he has employed
+to such perfection that the art perished with him. A great proof of
+his mastery over rhythm is the skill with which he has varied his
+metres according to the sentiment which he wishes to express.
+Thus his great metre, the Alcaic, has a character of stateliness and
+majesty in addition to the energy and impetus originally imparted
+to it by Alcaeus. The Sapphic metre he employs with a peculiar
+lightness and vivacity which harmonize admirably with his gayer
+moods.</p>
+
+<p>Again in regard to his diction, if Horace has learned his subtlety
+and moderation from his Greek masters, he has tempered those
+qualities with the masculine characteristics of his race. No writer is
+more Roman in the stateliness and dignity, the terseness, occasionally
+even in the sobriety and bare literalness, of his diction.</p>
+
+<p>While it is mainly owing to the extreme care which Horace gave
+to form, rhythm and diction that his own prophecy</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+    <p class="i3">&ldquo;Usque ego postera</p>
+<p>Crescam laude recens&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">has been so amply fulfilled, yet no greater injustice could be done to
+him than to rank him either as poet or critic with those who consider
+form everything in literature. With Horace the mastery over the
+vehicle of expression was merely an essential preliminary to making
+a worthy and serious use of that vehicle. The poet, from Horace&rsquo;s
+point of view, was intended not merely to give refined pleasure to a
+few, but above all things, to be &ldquo;utilis urbi.&rdquo; Yet he is saved, in his
+practice, from the abuse of this theory by his admirable sense, his
+ironical humour, his intolerance of pretension and pedantry.
+Opinions will differ as to whether he or Catullus is to be regarded as
+the greater lyrical poet. Those who assign the palm to Horace will
+do so, certainly not because they recognize in him richer or equally
+rich gifts of feeling, conception and expression, but because the
+subjects to which his art has been devoted have a fuller, more varied,
+more mature and permanent interest for the world.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;For the life of Horace the chief authorities are his
+own works and a short ancient biography which is attributed to
+Suetonius. The <i>apparatus criticus</i> is most fully described in O.
+Keller&rsquo;s preface to vol. i. of the 2nd ed. (1899) of Keller and Holder&rsquo;s
+recension of Horace&rsquo;s works. This edition also gives by far the largest
+collection of variants and emendations to the text and of the <i>testimonia</i>
+of ancient writers.</p>
+
+<p>What might have proved the most important manuscript of
+Horace, the so-called <i>vetustissimus Blandinius</i>, is now lost, and we
+know it only from the account of J. Cruquius who saw it in 1565.
+The relations of the extant MSS. to each other and the presumed
+archetype present an intricate problem; and Keller&rsquo;s solution has
+not proved generally acceptable. See a <i>résumé</i> of the controversy
+<i>Horazkritik seit 1880</i> by J. Bick (Leipzig, 1906) and F. Vollmer in
+<i>Philologus</i>. Supp. x. 2, pp. 261-322. Many MSS. of Horace contain
+ancient scholia which are copied or taken with abridgment from the
+commentaries of Porphyrio, who lived about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200, and Helenius
+Aero, a still earlier grammarian. These scholia also have been
+collected and edited&mdash;the Porphyrio scholia by A. Holder (1902)
+and the &ldquo;Acronian&rdquo; (or pseudo-Acronian) by O. Keller (1902-1904).
+R. Bentley&rsquo;s epoch-making edition (1711) has been reprinted with an
+index by Zangemeister (1869). Of the modern commentaries the
+most useful are those of J. C. Orelli (4th ed., revised by O. Hirschfelder
+and J. Mewes, 1886-1890, with <i>index verborum</i>), and of A.
+Kiessling (revised by R. Heinze, <i>Odes</i>, 1901, 1908, <i>Satires</i>, 1906,
+<i>Epistles</i>, 1898). The best complete English commentary is that of
+E. C. Wickham (2 vols., 1874-1896). Other editions with English
+notes are those of T. E. Page (<i>Odes</i>, 1883), A. Palmer (<i>Satires</i>, 1883),
+A. S. Wilkins (<i>Epistles</i>, 1885), J. Gow (<i>Odes</i> and <i>Epodes</i>, 1896,
+<i>Satires</i>, i., 1901), P. Shorey (<i>Odes</i> and <i>Epodes</i>, 1898, Boston, U.S.A.).
+L. Müller&rsquo;s elaborate edition of the <i>Odes</i> and <i>Epodes</i> was published
+posthumously (1900). Of the critical editions Keller and Holder&rsquo;s
+still holds the field: to this Keller&rsquo;s <i>Epilegomena zu Horaz</i> (1879)
+is a necessary adjunct. F. Vollmer&rsquo;s text (1907) uses Keller&rsquo;s
+materials on a new principle. Of illustrated editions H. H. Milman&rsquo;s
+(1867) and C. W. King&rsquo;s (1869, with text revised by H. A. J. Munro)
+deserve mention. The best verse translation is that of J. Conington
+lately reprinted with the Latin text from the recension in Postgate&rsquo;s
+new <i>Corpus poetarum</i>. For further information see Teuffel&rsquo;s
+<i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i> (Eng. trans. by G. C. Warr),
+§§ 234-240, and M. Schanz&rsquo;s excellent account in his <i>Geschichte der
+römischen Litteratur</i>, vol. ii. §§ 251-266.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Y. S.; J. G*.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The date is determined by the poem on the death of Quintilius
+Varus (who died 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and by the reference in <i>Ode</i> i. 12 to the
+young Marcellus (died in autumn 23 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) as still alive. Cf. Wickham&rsquo;s
+Introduction to the <i>Odes</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORAE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hora</i>, hour), the Hours, in Greek mythology
+<span class="grk" title="Hôrai">&#8041;&#961;&#945;&#953;</span>, originally the personification of a series of natural phenomena.
+In the <i>Iliad</i> (v. 749) they are the custodians of the gates
+of Olympus, which they open or shut by scattering or condensing
+the clouds; that is, they are weather goddesses, who send down
+or withhold the fertilizing dews and rain. In the <i>Odyssey</i>,
+where they are represented as bringing round the seasons in
+regular order, they are an abstraction rather than a concrete
+personification. The brief notice in Hesiod (<i>Theog.</i> 901),
+where they are called the children of Zeus and Themis, who
+superintend the operations of agriculture, indicates by the
+names assigned to them (Eunomia, Dik&#275;, Eiren&#275;, <i>i.e.</i> Good
+Order, Justice, Peace) the extension of their functions as goddesses
+of order from nature to the events of human life, and at the same
+time invests them with moral attributes. Like the Moerae
+(Fates), they regulate the destinies of man, watch over the newly
+born, secure good laws and the administration of justice. The
+selection of three as their number has been supposed to refer
+to the most ancient division of the year into spring, summer and
+winter, but it is probably only another instance of the Greek
+liking for that particular number or its multiples in such
+connexions (three Moerae, Charites, Gorgons, nine Muses).
+Order and regularity being indispensable conditions of beauty,
+it was easy to conceive of the Horae as the goddesses of youthful
+bloom and grace, inseparably associated with the idea of springtime.
+As such they are companions of the Nymphs and Graces,
+with whom they are often confounded, and of other superior
+deities connected with the spring growth of vegetation (Demeter,
+Dionysus). At Athens they were two (or three) in number:
+Thallo and Carpo, the goddesses of the flowers of spring and of
+the fruits of summer, to whom Auxo, the goddess of the growth
+of plants, may be added, although some authorities make her
+only one of the Graces. In honour of the Horae a yearly festival
+(Horaea) was celebrated, at which protection was sought against
+the scorching heat and drought, and offerings were made of
+boiled meat as less insipid and more nutritious than roast.
+In later mythology, under Alexandrian influence, the Horae
+become the four seasons, daughters of Helios and Selene, each
+represented with the conventional attributes. Subsequently,
+when the day was divided into twelve equal parts, each of them
+took the name of Hora. Ovid (<i>Metam.</i> ii. 26) describes them as
+placed at equal intervals on the throne of Phoebus, with whom
+are also associated the four seasons. Nonnus (5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>)
+in the <i>Dionysiaca</i> also unites the twelve Horae as representing
+the day and the four Horae as the seasons in the palace of Helios.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Lehrs, <i>Populäre Aufsätze</i> (1856); J. H. Krause, <i>Die Musen,
+Grazien, Horen, und Nymphen</i> (1871); and the articles in Daremberg
+and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, J. A. Hild; and in Roscher&rsquo;s
+<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, W. Rapp.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORAPOLLON,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> of Phaenebythis in the nome of Panopolis
+in Egypt, Greek grammarian, flourished in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+during the reign of Theodosius I. According to Suidas, he
+wrote commentaries on Sophocles, Alcaeus and Homer, and a
+work (<span class="grk" title="Temenika">&#932;&#949;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span>) on places consecrated to the gods. Photius
+(cod. 279), who calls him a dramatist as well as a grammarian,
+ascribes to him a history of the foundation and antiquities of
+Alexandria (unless this is by an Egyptian of the same name,
+who lived In the reign of Zeno, 474-491). Under the name of
+Horapollon two books on <i>Hieroglyphics</i> are extant, which profess
+to be a translation from an Egyptian original into Greek by
+a certain Philippus, of whom nothing is known. The inferior
+Greek of the translation, and the character of the additions in
+the second book point to its being of late date; some have
+even assigned it to the 15th century. Though a very large
+proportion of the statements seem absurd and cannot be
+accounted for by anything known in the latest and most fanciful
+usage, yet there is ample evidence in both the books, in individual
+cases, that the tradition of the values of the hieroglyphic signs
+was not yet extinct in the days of their author.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Editions by C. Leemans (1835) and A. T. Cory
+(1840) with English translation and notes; see also G. Rathgeber in
+Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>; H. Schäfer, <i>Zeitschrift
+für ägyptische Sprache</i> (1905), p. 72.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORATII<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> and <b>CURIATII</b>, in Roman legend, two sets of three
+brothers born at one birth on the same day&mdash;the former Roman,
+the latter Alban&mdash;the mothers being twin sisters. During the
+war between Rome and Alba Longa it was agreed that the issue
+should depend on a combat between the two families. Two of
+the Horatii were soon slain; the third brother feigned flight,
+and when the Curiatii, who were all wounded, pursued him
+without concert he slew them one by one. When he entered
+Rome in triumph, his sister recognized a cloak which he was
+wearing as a trophy as one she had herself made for her lover,
+one of the Curiatii. She thereupon invoked a curse upon her
+brother, who slew her on the spot. Horatius was condemned
+to be scourged to death, but on his appealing to the people
+his life was spared (Livy i. 25, 26; Dion. Halic. iii. 13-22).
+Monuments of the tragic story were shown by the Romans
+in the time of Livy (the altar of Janus Curiatius near the <i>sororium
+tigillum</i>, the &ldquo;sister&rsquo;s beam,&rdquo; or yoke under which Horatius had
+to pass; and the altar of Juno Sororia). The legend was
+probably invented to account for the origin of the <i>provocatio</i>
+(right of appeal to the people), while at the same time it points
+to the close connexion and final struggle for supremacy between
+the older city on the mountain and the younger city on the
+plain. Their relationship and origin from three tribes are
+symbolically represented by the twin sisters and the two sets of
+three brothers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a critical examination of the story, see Schwegler, <i>Römische
+Geschichte</i>, bk. xii. 11. 14; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, <i>Credibility of
+Early Roman History</i>, ch. xi. 15; W. Ihne, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, i.; E. Pais,
+<i>Storia di Roma</i>, i. ch. 3 (1898), and <i>Ancient Legends of Roman
+History</i> (Eng. trans., 1906), where the story is connected with the
+ceremonies performed in honour of Jupiter Tigillus and Juno
+Sororia; C. Pascal, <i>Fatti e legende di Roma antica</i> (Florence, 1903);
+O. Gilbert, <i>Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum</i>
+(1883-1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORATIUS COCLES,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a legendary hero of ancient Rome.
+With two companions he defended the Sublician bridge against
+Lars Porsena and the whole army of the Etruscans, while the
+Romans cut down the bridge behind. Then Horatius threw
+himself into the Tiber and swam in safety to the shore. A
+statue was erected in his honour in the temple of Vulcan, and
+he received as much land as he could plough round in a single
+day. According to another version, Horatius alone defended
+the bridge, and was drowned in the Tiber.</p>
+
+<p>There is an obvious resemblance between the legend of Horatius
+Codes and that of the Horatii and Curiatii. In both cases
+three Romans come forward as the champions of Rome at a
+critical moment of her fortunes, and only one successfully holds
+his ground. In the one case, the locality is the land frontier,
+in the other, the boundary stream of Roman territory. E. Pais
+finds the origin of the story in the worship of Vulcan, and
+identifies Cocles (the &ldquo;one-eyed&rdquo;) with one of the Cyclopes,
+who in mythology were connected with Hephaestus, and later
+with Vulcan. He concludes that the supposed statue of Cocles
+was really that of Vulcan, who, as one of the most ancient
+Roman divinities and, in fact, the protecting deity of the state,
+would naturally be confounded with the hero who saved it by
+holding the bridge against the invaders. He suggests that the
+legend arose from some religious ceremony, possibly the practice
+of throwing the stuffed figures called Argei into the Tiber from
+the Pons Sublicius on the ides of May. The conspicuous part
+played in Roman history by members of the Horatian family,
+who were connected with the worship of Jupiter Vulcanus, will
+explain the attribution of the name Horatius to Vulcan-Cocles.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Livy ii. 10; Dion. Halic. v. 23-25; Polybius vi. 55; Plutarch,
+<i>Poplicola</i>, 16. For a critical examination of the legend, see Schwegler,
+<i>Römische Geschichte</i>, bk. xxi. 18; W. Ihne, <i>History of Rome</i>, i.;
+E. Pais, <i>Storia di Roma</i>, i. ch. 4 (1898), and <i>Ancient Legends of
+Roman History</i> (Eng. trans., 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORDE,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a manufacturing town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Westphalia, is 2 m. S.E. from Dortmund on the
+railway to Soest. Pop. (1905) 28,461. It has a Roman Catholic
+and an Evangelical church, a synagogue and an old castle dating
+from about 1300. There are large smelting-works, foundries,
+puddling-works, rolling-mills and manufactures of iron and
+plated wares. In the neighbourhood there are large iron and
+coal mines. A tramway connects the town with Dortmund.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOREB,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> the ancient seat of Yahweh, the tribal god of the
+Kenites, adopted by His covenant by Israel. This is the name
+preferred by the Elohistic writer (E) whose work is interwoven
+into the Old Testament narrative, and he is followed by the
+Deuteronomist school (D). The Yahwistic writer (J), on the
+other hand, prefers to call the mountain Sinai (<i>q.v.</i>), and so
+do the priestly writers (P). This latter form became the more
+usual. There is no ground for distinguishing between Horeb
+as the range and Sinai as the single mountain, or between Horeb
+and Sinai as respectively the N. and S. parts of the range.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:237px; height:365px" src="images/img692.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Horehound.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HOREHOUND<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>harhune</i>, Ger. <i>Andorn</i>, Fr. <i>marrube</i>).
+Common or white horehound, <i>Marrubium vulgare</i>, of the natural
+order <i>Labiatae</i>, is a perennial herb with a short stout rootstock,
+and thick stems, about 1 ft. in height, which, as well as their
+numerous branches, are coated with a white or hoary felt&mdash;whence
+the popular name of the plant. The leaves have long petioles,
+and are roundish or rhombic-ovate, with a bluntly toothed
+margin, much wrinkled, white and woolly below and pale green
+and downy above; the flowers
+are sessile, in dense whorls or
+clusters, small and dull-white,
+with a 10-toothed calyx and the
+upper lobe of the corolla long
+and bifid. The plant occurs in
+Europe, North Africa and West
+Asia to North-West India, and
+has been naturalized in parts
+of America. In Britain, where
+it is found generally on sandy
+or dry chalky ground, it is far
+from common. White horehound
+contains a volatile oil, resin, a
+crystallizable  bitter principle
+termed  <i>marrubiin</i> and other
+substances, and has a not unpleasant
+aromatic odour, and
+a persistent bitter taste. Formerly
+it was official in British
+pharmacopoeias; and the infusion, syrup or confection of
+horehound has long been in popular repute for the treatment
+of a host of dissimilar affections. Black horehound, <i>Ballota
+nigra</i>, is a hairy perennial herb, belonging to the same order, of
+foetid odour, is 2 to 3 ft. in height, and has stalked, roundish-ovate,
+toothed leaves and numerous flowers, in dense axillary
+clusters, with a green or purplish calyx, and a pale red-purple
+corolla. It occurs in Europe, North Africa and West Asia, and
+in Britain south of the Forth and Clyde, and has been introduced
+into North America.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORGEN,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> a small town in the Swiss canton of Zürich, situated
+on the left or west shore of the Lake of Zürich, and by rail
+10½ m. S.E. of the town of Zürich. Pop. (1900) 6883, mostly
+German-speaking and Protestants. It possesses many industrial
+establishments of various kinds, and is a centre of the Zürich
+silk manufacture. It came in 1406 into the possession of
+Zürich, with which it communicates by means of steamers on
+the lake, as well as by rail.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORIZON<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="horizôn">&#8001;&#961;&#943;&#950;&#969;&#957;</span>, dividing), the apparent circle around
+which the sky and earth seem to meet. At sea this circle is
+well defined, the line being called the sea horizon, which divides
+the visible surface of the ocean from the sky. In astronomy
+the horizon is that great circle of the sphere the plane of which
+is at right angles to the direction of the plumb line. Sometimes
+a distinction is made between the rational and the apparent
+horizon, the former being the horizon as determined by a plane
+through the centre of the earth, parallel to that through the
+station of an observer. But on the celestial sphere the great
+circles of these two planes are coincident, so that this distinction
+is not necessary (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>: <i>Spherical</i>). The <i>Dip</i> of the
+horizon at sea is the angular depression of the apparent sea
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span>
+horizon, or circle bounding the visible ocean, below the apparent
+celestial horizon as above defined. It is due to the rotundity
+of the earth, and the height of the observer&rsquo;s eye above the water.
+The dip of the horizon and its distance in sea-miles when the
+height of the observer&rsquo;s eye above the sea-level is <i>h</i> feet, are
+approximately given by the formulae: Dip = 0&prime;.97 &radic;<i>h</i>; Distance
+= 1<span class="sp">m</span>·17 &radic;<i>h</i>. The difference between the coefficients 0.97 and
+1.17 arises from the refraction of the ray, but for which they
+would be equal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORMAYR, JOSEPH,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span> (1782-1848), German
+statesman and historian, was born at Innsbruck on the 20th
+of January 1782. After studying law in his native town, and
+attaining the rank of captain in the Tirolese Landwehr, the
+young man, who had the advantage of being the grandson of
+Joseph von Hormayr (1705-1778), chancellor of Tirol, obtained
+a post in the foreign office at Vienna (1801), from which he rose
+in 1803 to be court secretary and, being a near friend of the
+Archduke John, director of the secret archives of the state and
+court for thirteen months. In 1803 he married Therese Anderler
+von Hohenwald. During the insurrection of 1809, by which
+the Tirolese sought to throw off the Bavarian supremacy confirmed
+by the treaty of Pressburg, Hormayr was the mainstay
+of the Austrian party, and assumed the administration of
+everything (especially the composition of proclamations and
+pamphlets); but, returning home without the prestige of success,
+he fell, in spite of the help of the Archduke John, into disfavour
+both with the emperor Francis I. and with Prince Metternich,
+and at length, when in 1813 he tried to stir up a new insurrection
+in Tirol, he was arrested and imprisoned at Munkatt. In 1816
+some amends were made to him by his appointment as imperial
+historiographer; but so little was he satisfied with the general
+policy and conduct of the Austrian court that in 1828 he accepted
+an invitation of King Louis I. to the Bavarian capital, where he
+became ministerial councillor in the department of foreign
+affairs. In 1832 he was appointed Bavarian minister-resident at
+Hanover, and from 1837 to 1846 he held the same position at
+Bremen. Together with Count Johann Friedrich von der
+Decken (1769-1840) he founded the Historical Society of Lower
+Saxony (Historischer Verein für Niedersachsen). The last two
+years of his life were spent at Munich as superintendent of the
+national archives. He died on the 5th of October 1848.</p>
+
+<p>Hormayr&rsquo;s literary activity was closely conditioned by the
+circumstances of his political career and by the fact that Johannes
+von Müller (d. 1611) was his teacher: while his access to original
+documents gave value to his treatment of the past, his record
+or criticism of contemporary events received authority and
+interest from his personal experience. But his history of the
+Tirolese rebellion is far from being impartial; for he always
+liked to put himself into the first place, and the merits of Andreas
+Hofer and of other leaders are not sufficiently acknowledged.
+In his later writings he appears as a keen opponent of the policy
+of the court of Vienna.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are among Hormayr&rsquo;s more important works:
+<i>Geschichte des Grafen von Andechs</i> (1796); <i>Lexikon für Reisenden in
+Tirol</i> (1796); <i>Kritisch-diplomatische Beiträge zur Geschichte Tirols im
+Mittelalter</i> (2 vols., Innsbruck, 1802-1803, new ed., 1805); <i>Gesch. der
+gefürst. Grafschaft Tirol</i> (2 vols., Tübingen, 1806-1808); <i>Österreichischer
+Plutarch</i>, 20 vols., collection of portraits and biographies
+of the most celebrated administrators, commanders and statesmen of
+Austria (Vienna, 1807); an edition of Beauchamp&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la
+guerre en Vendée</i> (1809); <i>Geschichte Hofers</i> (1817, 2nd ed., 2 vols.,
+1845) and other pamphlets; <i>Archiv für Gesch., Stat., Lit. und
+Kunst</i> (20 vols., 1809-1828); <i>Allgemeine Geschichte der neuesten Zeit
+vom Tod Friedricks des Grossen bis zum zweiten Pariser Frieden</i> (3
+vols., Vienna, 1814-1819, 2nd ed., 1891); <i>Wien, seine Gesch. und
+Denkwürdigkeiten</i> (5 vols., Vienna, 1823-1824); together with
+<i>Fragmente über Deutschland, in Sonderheit Bayerns Welthandel;
+Lebensbilder aus dem Befreiungskriege</i> (3 vols., Jena, 1841-1844, 2nd
+ed., 1845); <i>Die goldene Chronik von Hohenschwangau</i> (Munich, 1842);
+<i>Anemonen aus dem Tagebuch eines alten Pilgersmanns</i> (4 vols., Jena,
+1845-1847). Together with Mednyanski (1784-1844) he founded the
+<i>Taschenbuch für die Vaterland. Gesch.</i> (Vienna, 1811-1848).</p>
+
+<p>See T. H. Merdau, <i>Biographische Züge aus dem Leben deutscher
+Männer</i> (Leipzig, 1815); Gräffer, <i>Österreichische National-Encyclopädie</i>,
+ii. (1835); <i>Taschenbuch für vaterländische Geschichte</i> (1836 and
+1847); <i>Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen</i> (1848); <i>Blätter für literarische
+Unterhaltung</i> (1849); Wurzbach, <i>Österreichisches biographisches
+Lexikon</i>, ix. (1863); K. Th. von Heigel in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche
+Biographie</i> (1881) and F. X. Wegele, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Historiographie</i>
+(Munich and Leipzig, 1885); F. v. Krones, <i>Aus Österreichs
+stillen und bewegten Jahren 1810-1815</i>; <i>Biographie und Briefe an Erzhz.
+Johann</i> (Innsbruck, 1892); Hirn, <i>Tiroler Aufstand</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Hn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORMISDAS,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> pope from 514 to 523 in succession to
+Symmachus, was a native of Campania. He is known as having
+succeeded in obtaining the reunion of the Eastern and Western
+Churches, which had been separated since the excommunication
+of Acacius in 484. After two unsuccessful attempts under the
+emperor Anastasius I., Hormisdas had no difficulty in coming
+to an understanding in 518 with his successor Justin. Legates
+were despatched to Constantinople; the memorial of the
+schismatic patriarchs was condemned; and union was resumed
+with the Holy See.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Details of this transaction have come down to us in the <i>Collectio
+Avellana</i> (<i>Corpus script. eccl. Vindobon.</i>, vol. xxv., Nos. 105-203;
+cf. Andreas Thiel, <i>Epp. Rom. Pont.</i> i. 741 seq.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORMIZD,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hormizdas</span>, the name of five kings of the
+Sassanid dynasty (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>). The name
+is another form of Ahuramazda or Ormuzd (Ormazd), which
+under the Sassanids became a common personal name and was
+borne not only by many generals and officials of their time (it
+therefore occurs very often on Persian seals), but even by the
+pope of Rome noticed above. It is strictly an abbreviation of
+Hormuzd-dad, &ldquo;given by Ormuzd,&rdquo; which form is preserved
+by Agathias iv. 24-25 as name of King Hormizd I. and II.
+(<span class="grk" title="Hormisdatês">&#8009;&#961;&#956;&#953;&#963;&#948;&#940;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>).</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Hormizd I.</span> (272-273) was the son of Shapur I., under
+whom he was governor of Khorasan, and appears in his wars
+against Rome (Trebellius Pollio, <i>Trig. Tyr.</i> 2, where Nöldeke has
+corrected the name Odomastes into Oromastes, <i>i.e.</i> Hormizd).
+In the Persian tradition of the history of Ardashir I., preserved
+in a Pahlavi text (Nöldeke, <i>Geschichte des Artachsir I. P&#257;pak&#257;n</i>),
+he is made the son of a daughter of Mithrak, a Persian dynast,
+whose family Ardashir had extirpated because the magians had
+predicted that from his blood would come the restorer of the
+empire of Iran. Only this daughter is preserved by a peasant;
+Shapur sees her and makes her his wife, and her son Hormizd
+is afterwards recognized and acknowledged by Ardashir. In this
+legend, which has been partially preserved also in Tabari, the
+great conquests of Shapur are transferred to Hormizd. In
+reality he reigned only one year and ten days.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Hormizd II.</span>, son of Narseh, reigned for seven years five
+months, 302-309. Of his reign nothing is known. After his
+death his son Adarnases was killed by the grandees after a very
+short reign, as he showed a cruel disposition; another son,
+Hormizd, was kept a prisoner, and the throne reserved for the
+child with which a concubine of Hormizd II. was pregnant and
+which received the name Shapur II. Hormizd escaped from
+prison by the help of his wife in 323, and found refuge at the
+court of Constantine the Great (Zosim. ii. 27; John of Antioch,
+fr. 178; Zonar. 13.5), In 363 Hormizd served in the army of
+Julian against Persia; his son, with the same name, became
+consul in 366 (Ammian. Marc. 26. 8. 12).</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Hormizd III.</span>, son of Yazdegerd I., succeeded his father in
+457. He had continually to fight with his brothers and with the
+Ephthalites in Bactria, and was killed by Peroz in 459.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Hormizd IV.</span>, son of Chosroes I., reigned 578-590. He
+seems to have been imperious and violent, but not without some
+kindness of heart. Some very characteristic stories are told
+of him by &#7788;abari (Nöldeke, <i>Geschichte d. Perser und Araber unter
+den Sasaniden</i>, 264 ff.). His father&rsquo;s sympathies had been with
+the nobles and the priests. Hormizd protected the common
+people and introduced a severe discipline in his army and court.
+When the priests demanded a persecution of the Christians, he
+declined on the ground that the throne and the government
+could only be safe if it gained the goodwill of both concurring
+religions. The consequence was that he raised a strong opposition
+in the ruling classes, which led to many executions and
+confiscations. When he came to the throne he killed his brothers,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span>
+according to the oriental fashion. From his father he had
+inherited a war against the Byzantine empire and against the
+Turks in the east, and negotiations of peace had just begun
+with the emperor Tiberius, but Hormizd haughtily declined
+to cede anything of the conquests of his father. Therefore the
+accounts given of him by the Byzantine authors, Theophylact,
+Simocatta (iii. 16 ff.), Menander Protector and John of Ephesus
+(vi. 22), who give a full account of these negotiations, are far
+from favourable. In 588 his general, Bahram Chobin, defeated
+the Turks, but in the next year was beaten by the Romans;
+and when the king superseded him he rebelled with his army.
+This was the signal for a general insurrection. The magnates
+deposed and blinded Hormizd and proclaimed his son Chosroes II.
+king. In the war which now followed between Bahram Chobin
+and Chosroes II. Hormizd was killed by some partisans of his
+son (590).</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Hormizd V.</span> was one of the many pretenders who rose
+after the murder of Chosroes II. (628). He maintained himself
+about two years (631, 632) in the district of Nisibis.</p>
+<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORMUZ<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (<i>Hurmuz</i>, <i>Ormuz</i>, <i>Ormus</i>), a famous city on the
+shores of the Persian Gulf, which occupied more than one position
+in the course of history, and has now long practically ceased to
+exist. The earliest mention of the name occurs in the voyage
+of Nearchus (325 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). When that admiral beached his fleet
+at the mouth of the river Anamis on the shore of Harmozia, a
+coast district of Carmania, he found the country to be kindly,
+rich in every product except the olive. The Anamis appears
+to be the river now known as the Minab, discharging into the
+Persian Gulf near the entrance of the latter. The name Hormuz
+is derived by some from that of the Persian god Hormuzd
+(Ormazd), but it is more likely that the original etymology was
+connected with <i>khurma</i>, &ldquo;a date&rdquo;; for the meaning of Moghistan
+the modern name of the territory Harmozia is &ldquo;the region of
+date-palms.&rdquo; The foundation of the city of Hormuz in this
+territory is ascribed by one Persian writer to the Sassanian
+Ardashir Babegan (<i>c.</i> 230 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>). But it must have existed
+at an earlier date, for Ptolemy takes note of <span class="grk" title="Harmonza polis">&#7949;&#961;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#950;&#945; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span>
+(vi. 8).</p>
+
+<p>Hormuz is mentioned by Idrisi, who wrote <i>c.</i> 1150, under
+the title of Hormuz-al-s&#257;hil&#299;ah, &ldquo;Hormuz of the shore&rdquo; (to
+distinguish it from inland cities of the same name then existing),
+as a large and well-built city, the chief mart of Kirman. Siraf
+and Kish (&#7730;ais), farther up the gulf, had preceded it as ports of
+trade with India, but in the 13th century Hormuz had become
+the chief seat of this traffic. It was at this time the seat also of
+a petty dynasty of kings, of which there is a history by one of
+their number (Turan Shah); an abstract of it is given by the
+Jesuit Teixeira. According to this history the founder of the
+dynasty was Shah Mohammed Dirhem-Kub (&ldquo;the Drachma-coiner&rdquo;),
+an Arab chief who crossed the gulf and established
+himself here. The date is not given, but it must have been
+before 1100 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, as Ru&#7731;nudd&#299;n Mahm&#363;d, who succeeded in 1246,
+was the twelfth of the line. These princes appear to have been
+at times in dependence necessarily on the atabegs of Fars and
+on the princes of Kirman. About the year 1300 Hormuz was so
+severely and repeatedly harassed by raids of Tatar horsemen
+that the king and his people abandoned their city on the mainland
+and transferred themselves to the island of Jerun (Organa of
+Nearchus), about 12 m. westward and 4 m. from the nearest
+shore.</p>
+
+<p>The site of the continental or ancient Hormuz was first traced
+in modern times by Colonel (Sir Lewis) Pelly when resident at
+Bushire. It stands in the present district of Minab, several miles
+from the sea, and on a creek which communicates with the
+Minab river, but is partially silted up and not now accessible
+for vessels. There remain traces of a long wharf and extensive
+ruins. The new city occupied a triangular plain forming the
+northern part of the island, the southern wall, as its remains
+still show, being about 2 m. in extent from east to west. A
+suburb with a wharf or pier, called Turan Bagh (garden of Turan)
+after one of the kings, a name now corrupted to Trumpak, stood
+about 3 m. from the town to the south-east.</p>
+
+<p>Odoric gives the earliest notice we have of the new city
+(<i>c.</i> 1320). He calls it Ormes, a city strongly fortified and abounding
+in costly wares, situated on an island 5 m. distant from the
+main, having no trees and no fresh water, unhealthy and (as
+all evidence confirms) incredibly hot. Some years later it was
+visited more than once by Ibn Batuta, who seems to speak of
+the old city as likewise still standing. The new Hormuz, called
+also Jerun (<i>i.e.</i> still retaining the original name of the island),
+was a great and fine city rising out of the sea, and serving as a
+mart for all the products of India, which were distributed hence
+over all Persia. The hills on the island were of rock-salt, from
+which vases and pedestals for lamps were carved. Near the gate
+of the chief mosque stood an enormous skull, apparently that of a
+sperm-whale. The king at this time was Kutbudd&#299;n Tahamtan,
+and the traveller gives a curious description of him, seated on
+the throne, in patched and dirty raiment, holding a rosary of
+enormous pearls, procured from the Bahrein fisheries, which
+at one time or another belonged, with other islands in the gulf
+and on the Oman shores from R&#257;s-el-had (C. Rosalgat of the
+Portuguese) on the ocean round to Julfar on the gulf, to the
+princes of Hormuz. Abdurazz&#257;k, the envoy of Shah Rukh on
+his way to the Hindu court of Vijayanagar, was in Hormuz in
+1442, and speaks of it as a mart which had no equal, frequented
+by the merchants of all the countries of Asia, among which
+he enumerates China, Java, Bengal, Tenasserim, Shahr-&#299;-nao
+(<i>i.e.</i> Siam) and the Maldives. Nikitin, the Russian (<i>c.</i> 1470),
+gives a similar account; he calls it &ldquo;a vast emporium of all the
+world.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In September 1507 the king of Hormuz, after for some time
+hearing of the terrible foe who was carrying fire and sword along
+the shores of Arabia, saw the squadron of Alphonso d&rsquo;Albuquerque
+appear before his city, an appearance speedily followed by
+extravagant demands, by refusal of these from the ministers
+of the young king, and by deeds of matchless daring and cruelty
+on the part of the Portuguese, which speedily broke down
+resistance. The king acknowledged himself tributary to Portugal,
+and gave leave to the Portuguese to build a castle, which was at
+once commenced on the northern part of the island, commanding
+the city and the anchorage on both sides. But the mutinous
+conduct and desertion of several of Albuquerque&rsquo;s captains
+compelled him suddenly to abandon the enterprise; and it was
+not till 1514, after the great leader had captured Goa and
+Malacca, and had for five years been viceroy, that he returned
+to Hormuz (or Ormuz, as the Portuguese called it), and without
+encountering resistance to a name now so terrible, laid his grasp
+again on the island and completed his castle. For more than a
+century Hormuz remained practically in the dominions of
+Portugal, though the hereditary prince, paying from his revenues
+a tribute to Portugal (in lieu of which eventually the latter took
+the whole of the customs collections), continued to be the
+instrument of government. The position of things during the
+Portuguese rule may be understood from the description of
+Cesare de&rsquo; Federici, a Venetian merchant who was at Hormuz
+about 1565. After speaking of the great trade in spices, drugs,
+silk and silk stuffs, and pearls of Bahrein, and in horses for export
+to India, he says the king was a Moor (<i>i.e.</i> Mahommedan), chosen
+by and subordinate to the Portuguese. &ldquo;At the election of the
+king I was there and saw the ceremonies that they use.... The
+old king being dead, the captain of the Portugals chooseth
+another of the blood-royal, and makes this election in the castle
+with great ceremony. And when he is elected the captain
+sweareth him to be true ... to the K. of Portugal as his lord and
+governor, and then he giveth him the sceptre regal. After this ... with
+great pomp ... he is brought into the royal palace in the
+city. The king keeps a good train and hath sufficient revenues, ... because
+the captain of the castle doth maintain and defend
+his right ... he is honoured as a king, yet he cannot ride abroad
+with his train, without the consent of the captain first had&rdquo;
+(in Hakluyt).<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span></p>
+
+<p>The rise of the English trade and factories in the Indian
+seas in the beginning of the 17th century led to constant jealousies
+and broils with the Portuguese, and the successful efforts of the
+English company to open traffic with Persia especially embittered
+their rivals, to whom the possession of Hormuz had long given
+a monopoly of that trade. The officers of Sh&#257;h Abb&#257;s, who
+looked with a covetous and resentful eye on the Portuguese
+occupation of such a position, were strongly desirous of the aid
+of English ships in attacking Hormuz. During 1620 and 1621
+the ships of Portugal and of the English company had more than
+once come to action in the Indian seas, and in November of the
+latter year the council at Surat had resolved on what was
+practically maritime war with the Portuguese flag. There was
+hardly a step between this and the decision come to in the
+following month to join with &ldquo;the duke of Shir&#257;z&rdquo; (Im&#257;m K&#363;l&#299;
+Kh&#257;n, the governor of Fars) in the desired expedition against
+Hormuz. There was some pretext of being forced into the
+alliance by a Persian threat to lay embargo on the English goods
+at Jashk; but this seems to have been only brought forward
+by the English agents when, at a later date, their proceedings
+were called in question. The English crews were at first unwilling
+to take part in what they justly said was &ldquo;no merchandizing
+business, nor were they engaged for the like,&rdquo; but they were
+persuaded, and five English vessels aided, first, in the attack
+of Kishm, where (at the east end of the large island so called)
+the Portuguese had lately built a fort,<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and afterwards in that
+of Hormuz itself. The latter siege was opened on the 18th of
+February 1622, and continued to the 1st of May, when the
+Portuguese, after a gallant defence of ten weeks, surrendered.
+It is to be recollected that Portugal was at this time subject to
+the crown of Spain, with which England was at peace; indeed, it
+was but a year later that the prince of Wales went on his wooing
+adventure to the Spanish court. The irritation there was
+naturally great, though it is surprising how little came of it.
+The company were supposed (apparently without foundation)
+to have profited largely by the Hormuz booty; and both the
+duke of Buckingham and the king claimed to be &ldquo;sweetened,&rdquo;
+as the record phrases it, from this supposed treasure. The
+former certainly received a large bribe (£10,000). The conclusion
+of the transaction with the king was formerly considered doubtful;
+but entries in the calendar of East India papers seem to show
+that James received an equal sum.<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Hormuz never recovered from this blow. The Persians
+transferred their establishments to Gombroon on the mainland,
+about 12 m. to the north-west, which the king had lately set up
+as a royal port under the name of Bander Abb&#257;si. The English
+stipulations for aid had embraced an equal division of the
+customs duties. This division was apparently recognized by the
+Persians as applying to the new Bander, and, though the trade
+with Persia was constantly decaying and precarious, the company
+held to their factory at Gombroon for the sake of this claim to
+revenue, which of course was most irregularly paid. In 1683-1684
+the amount of debt due to the company in Persia, including
+their proportion of customs duties, was reckoned at a million
+sterling. As late as 1690-1691 their right seems to have been
+admitted, and a payment of 3495 sequins was received by them
+on this account. The factory at Gombroon lingered on till 1759,
+when it was seized by two French ships of war under Comte
+d&rsquo;Estaing. It was re-established, but at the time of Niebuhr&rsquo;s
+visit to the gulf a few years later no European remained. Niebuhr
+mentions that in his time (<i>c.</i> 1765) Mulla &rsquo;Ali Sh&#257;h, formerly
+admiral of N&#257;dir Sh&#257;h, was established on the island of Hormuz
+and part of Kishm as an independent chief.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Barros, <i>Asia</i>; <i>Commentaries of Albuquerque</i>, trans. by
+Birch (Hak. Society); <i>Relaciones de Pedro Teixeira</i> (Antwerp, 1610);
+Narratives in Hakluyt&rsquo;s <i>Collection</i> (reprint in 1809, vol. ii.) and in
+Purchas&rsquo;s <i>Pilgrims</i>, vol. ii.; Pietro della Valle, <i>Persia</i>, lett. xii.-xvii.;
+<i>Calendar of E. I. Papers</i>, by Sainsbury, vol. iii.; Ritter,
+<i>Erdkunde</i>, xii.; <i>Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i>, Kempthorne in vol. v., White-locke
+in vol. viii., Pelly in vol. xxxiv.; Fraser, <i>Narrative of a Journey
+into Khorasan</i> (1825); Constable and Stifle, <i>Persian Gulf Pilot</i>
+(1864); Bruce, <i>Annals of the E. I. Company</i>, &amp;c. (1810).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Y.)</div>
+
+<p>The island has a circumference of 16 m. and its longest axis
+measures 4½ m. The village is in 27° 6&prime; N., 56° 29&prime; E. The
+Portuguese fort still stands, but is sadly out of repair and much
+of its western wall has been undermined and washed away by
+the action of the sea. It is a bastioned fort with orillons and
+loopholed casemates under the ramparts and was separated
+from the town by a deep moat, now silted up, cut E.-W. across
+the isthmus and crossed by a bridge. It has three cisterns for
+collecting rainwater; two are 17-18 ft. deep, have a capacity
+of about 60,000 gallons and are covered by arched roofs supported
+on six stone pillars. The third cistern is smaller and has no
+roof. Five rusty old iron guns are lying prone on the roof;
+six others on the strand before the village are used for fastening
+boats, another serves as a socket for a flagstaff before the representative
+of the government. The island is under the jurisdiction
+of the governor of the Persian Gulf ports who resides at Bushire.
+Of the old city hardly anything stands except a minaret, 70 ft.
+high, with a winding staircase inside and much worn away at the
+base, part of a former mosque used by the Portuguese as a
+lighthouse, but the traces of buildings, massive foundations
+constructed of stone quarried in the hills on the island, of many
+cisterns (some say 300), &amp;c., are numerous and extensive. The
+modern settlement, situated south of the fort on the eastern shore,
+has a population of about 1000 during the cool season, but less
+in the hot season, when many people go over to Minab on the
+mainland to the east. Most of the people live in huts constructed
+of the branches and leaves of the date palm. They own about
+sixty small sailing vessels trading to Muscat and other ports and
+also do some pearl-fishing. At Turan Bagh on the east coast
+4½ m. S.E. of the fort are some considerable ruins, irrigation
+canals, an extensive burial ground and some huts occupied by
+a few families who cultivate a small garden on a terrace supported
+by old retaining walls. On a hill near the shore 1½ m. S.E. of
+the fort is the ruin of a small chapel called &ldquo;Santa Lucia&rdquo;
+on an old map in Astley&rsquo;s <i>Collection of Voyages</i>, and on the
+summit of a salt hill 1½ m. south of the fort are the remains of
+another chapel called &ldquo;N.S. de la Pena&rdquo; on the same map,
+and a &ldquo;Monastery&rdquo; in a sketch of Hormuz made by David
+Davies, a mate on board the East India Company&rsquo;s ship
+&ldquo;Discovery&rdquo; in 1627. With the exception of the northern
+part, where the old city stood, and the little patch at Turan
+Bagh, the island is covered with reddish brown hills with sharp
+serrated ridges composed of gypsum, rock-salt and clay. These
+hills, which do not exceed 300 ft. in height, are broken through
+in four places by conical, whitish peaks of volcanic rocks (greenstone,
+trachyte); the highest of these peaks with an altitude of
+690 ft. is situated almost in the centre of the island.</p>
+
+<p>The island has extensive beds of red ochre in which nodules
+of very pure hematite are often found. The ochre, here called
+<i>g&#299;lek</i>, has been an important article of export for centuries<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+and great quantities of it are exported at the present time to
+England (in 1906-1907, 10,000 tons; local price 27s. the ton).
+The climate of Hormuz, although hot, is, according to medical
+experts, the best in the Persian Gulf. Rain falls in January,
+February and March, and the annual rainfall is said to be about
+the same as that of Bushire, 12 to 13 in.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Capt. A. W. Stiffe in <i>Geogr. Mag.</i> (April 1874); William Foster in
+<i>Geogr. Journal</i> (Aug. 1894); writer&rsquo;s notes taken on island.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. H.-S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Barros, <i>Dec. II.</i> book x. c. 7, there is a curious detail of
+the revenue and expenditure of the kingdom of Ormuz, which would
+seem to exhibit the former as not more than £100,000.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The attack on Kishm was notable in that one of the two Englishmen
+killed there was the great navigator Baffin.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Colonial Series, E. Indies</i>, by Sainsbury, vol. iii. <i>passim</i>, especially
+see pp. 296 and 329.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> &ldquo;Reddle or Red Ochre from the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire
+is very little inferior to the Sort brought from the Island of
+Ormuz in the Persian Gulph and so much valued and used by our
+Painters under the name of Indian Red&rdquo; (Sir John Hill, <i>Theophrastus&rsquo;s
+History of Stones</i>, London, 1774).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORN, ARVID BERNHARD,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1664-1742), Swedish
+statesman, was born at Vuorentaka in Finland on the 6th of
+April 1664, of a noble but indigent family. After completing
+his studies at Åbo, he entered the army and served for several
+years in the Netherlands, in Hungary under Prince Eugene,
+and in Flanders under Waldeck (1690-1695). He stood high
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span>
+in the favour of the young Charles XII. and was one of his foremost
+generals in the earlier part of the great Northern War.
+In 1704 he was entrusted with his first diplomatic mission,
+the deposition of Augustus II. of Poland and the election of
+Stanislaus I., a mission which he accomplished with distinguished
+ability but absolute unscrupulousness. Shortly afterwards he
+was besieged by Augustus in Warsaw and compelled to surrender.
+In 1705 he was made a senator, in 1706 a count and in 1707
+governor of Charles XII.&rsquo;s nephew, the young duke Charles
+Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp. In 1710 he succeeded Nils
+Gyldenstolpe as prime minister. Transferred to the central
+point of the administration, he had ample opportunity of
+regarding with other eyes the situation of the kingdom, and in
+consequence of his remonstrances he fell rapidly in the favour
+of Charles XII. Both in 1710 and 1713 Horn was in favour
+of summoning the estates, but when in 1714 the diet adopted
+an anti-monarchical attitude, he gravely warned and ultimately
+dissolved it. In Charles XII.&rsquo;s later years Horn had little to do
+with the administration. After the death of Charles XII. (1718)
+it was Horn who persuaded the princess Ulrica Leonora to
+relinquish her hereditary claims and submit to be <i>elected</i> queen
+of Sweden. He protested against the queen&rsquo;s autocratic
+behaviour, and resigned both the premiership and his senatorship.
+He was elected <i>landtmarskalk</i> at the diet of 1720, and contributed,
+on the resignation of Ulrica Leonora, to the election of Frederick
+of Hesse as king of Sweden, whose first act was to restore to him
+the office of prime minister. For the next eighteen years he so
+absolutely controlled both the foreign and the domestic affairs
+of Sweden that the period between 1720 and 1738 has well been
+called the Horn period. His services to his country were indeed
+inestimable. His strong hand kept the inevitable strife of the
+parliamentary factions within due limits, and it was entirely
+owing to his provident care that Sweden so rapidly recovered
+from the wretched condition in which the wars of Charles XII.
+had plunged her. In his foreign policy Horn was extremely wary
+and cautious, yet without compromising either the independence
+or the self-respect of his country. He was, however, the promoter
+of a new principle of administration which in later days proved
+very dangerous to Sweden under ministers less capable than he
+was. This was to increase the influence of the diet and its
+secret committees in the solution of purely diplomatic questions,
+which should have been left entirely to the executive, thus
+weakening the central government and at the same time facilitating
+the interference of foreign Powers in Sweden&rsquo;s domestic
+affairs. Not till 1731 was there any appearance of opposition
+in the diet to Horn&rsquo;s &ldquo;system&rdquo;; but Horn, piqued by the
+growing coolness of the king, the same year offered his resignation,
+which was not accepted. In 1734, however, the opposition was
+bold enough to denounce his neutrality on the occasion of the
+war of the Polish Succession, when Stanislaus I. again appeared
+upon the scene as a candidate for the Polish throne; but Horn
+was still strong enough to prevent a rupture with Russia. Henceforth
+he was bitterly but unjustly accused of want of patriotism,
+and in 1738 was compelled at last to retire before the impetuous
+onslaught of the triumphant young Hat party. For the rest
+of his life he lived in retirement at his estate at Ekebyholm, where
+he died on the 17th of April 1742. Horn in many respects
+greatly resembled his contemporary Walpole. The peculiar
+situation of Sweden, and the circumstances of his time, made
+his policy necessarily opportunist, but it was an opportunism
+based on excellent common sense.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See V. E. Svedelius, <i>Arvid Bernard Horn</i> (Stockholm, 1879); R. N.
+Bain, <i>Gustavus III.</i>, vol. i. (London, 1894), and <i>Charles XII.</i> (1895);
+C. F. Horn, <i>A. B. Horn: hans lefnad</i> (Stockholm, 1852).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of</span> (1518-1568),
+a man of illustrious descent and great possessions in the Netherlands,
+became in succession under Charles V. and Philip II.
+stadtholder of Gelderland, admiral of Flanders and knight of
+the Golden Fleece. In 1559 he commanded the stately fleet
+which conveyed Philip II. from the Netherlands to Spain, and
+he remained at the Spanish court till 1563. On his return he
+placed himself with the prince of Orange and Count Egmont
+at the head of the party which opposed the policy of Cardinal
+Granvella. When Granvella retired the three great nobles
+continued to resist the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition
+and of Spanish despotic rule into the Netherlands. But though
+Philip appeared for a time to give way, he had made up his mind
+to visit the opponents of his policy with ruthless punishment.
+The regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma, was replaced by the
+duke of Alva, who entered the Netherlands at the head of a
+veteran army and at once began to crush all opposition with a
+merciless hand. Orange fled from the country, but Egmont
+and Horn, despite his warning, decided to remain and face the
+storm. They were both seized, tried and condemned as traitors,
+and were executed on the 5th of June 1568 in the great square
+before the town hall at Brussels.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See biographical notices in A. J. van der Aa, <i>Biographisch Woordenboek
+der Nederlanden</i> (Haarlem, 1851-1879); J. Kok, <i>Vaderlandsch
+Woordenboek</i> (Amsterdam, 1785-1799); also bibliography to chaps.
+vi. vii. and xix. in <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. iii. pp. 798-809
+(1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORN,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> English hero of romance. <i>King Horn</i> is a heroic
+poem or gest of 1546 lines dating from the 13th century. Murry
+(or Allof), king of Sudenne<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Surrey and Sussex?) is slain by
+Saracen pirates who turn his son Horn adrift with twelve other
+children. The boat drifts to Westernesse<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (Cornwall?), where
+the children are received by King Aylmer (Aethelmaer).
+Presently Horn is denounced by one of his companions as the
+lover of the king&rsquo;s daughter Rymenhild (Rimel) and is banished,
+taking with him a ring, the gift of his bride and a talisman against
+danger. In Ireland, under the name of Godmod, he serves
+for seven years, and slays in battle the Saracens who had killed
+his father. Learning that Rymenhild is to be married against
+her will to King Mody, he returns to Westernesse disguised
+as a palmer, and makes himself known to the bride by dropping
+the ring into the cup she offers him, with the words &ldquo;Drink to
+Horn of Horn.&rdquo; He then reconquers his father&rsquo;s kingdom and
+marries Rymenhild.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The other versions of the story, which are founded on a common
+tradition, but are not immediately dependent on one another, are:
+(1) the longer French romance of <i>Horn et Rimenhild</i> by &ldquo;mestre
+Thomas,&rdquo; describing more complex social conditions than those of
+the English poem; (2) a slightly shorter Middle English poem,
+<i>Horn Childe and Maiden Rimnild</i>; (3) the Scottish ballad of &ldquo;Hind
+Horn;&rdquo; (4) a prose romance founded on the French <i>Horn</i>, entitled
+<i>Pontus et Sidoine</i> (Lyons, 1480, Eng. trans. pr. by Wynkyn de Worde,
+1511; German trans. Augsburg, 1483).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is a marked resemblance between the story of Horn
+and the legend of Havelok the Dane, and it is interesting to
+note how closely Richard of Ely followed the Horn tradition
+in the 12th century <i>De gestis Herewardi Saxonis</i>. Hereward
+also loves an Irish princess, flees to Ireland, and returns in time
+for the bridal feast, where he is presented with a cup by the
+princess. The orphaned prince who recovers his father&rsquo;s kingdom
+and avenges his murder, and the maid or wife who waits years for
+an absent lover or husband, and is rescued on the eve of a
+forced marriage, are common characters in romance. The
+second of these motives, with almost identical incidents, occurs
+in the legend of Henry the Lion, duke of Brunswick; it is
+the subject of ballads in Swedish, Danish, German, Bohemian,
+&amp;c., and of a <i>Historia</i> by Hans Sachs, though some magic
+elements are added; it also occurs in the ballad of <i>Der edle
+Moringer</i> (14th century), well known in Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s
+translation; in the story of Torello in the <i>Decameron</i> of Boccaccio
+(10th day, 9th tale); and with some variation in the Russian
+tale of Dobrynya and Nastasya.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>King Horn</i> was re-edited for the Early English Text Soc. by
+G. H. McKnight in 1901; <i>Horn et Rimenhild</i> was edited with the
+English versions for the Bannatyne Club by F. Michel (Paris, 1845);
+<i>Horn Childe and Maiden Rimnild</i> in J. Ritson&rsquo;s <i>Metrical Romances</i>,
+vol. iii.; and &ldquo;Hind Horn&rdquo; in F. J. Child&rsquo;s <i>English and Scottish</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span>
+<i>Popular Ballads</i> (vol. i., 1882), with an introductory note on similar
+legends. See also H. L. Ward, <i>Catalogue of Romances</i>, vol. i., where
+the relation between Havelok and Horn is discussed; <i>Hist. litt. de la
+France</i> (vol. xxii., 1852); W. Söderhjelm, <i>Sur l&rsquo;identité du Thomas
+auteur de Tristan et du Thomas auteur de Horn</i> (<i>Romania</i>, xv., 1886);
+T. Wissmann, &ldquo;King Horn&rdquo; (1876) and &ldquo;Das Lied von King Horn&rdquo;
+(1881) in Nos. 16 and 45 of <i>Quellen und Forschungen zur Spr. und
+Culturgesch. d. german. Völker</i> (Strassburg and London); <i>Reinfrid
+von Braunschweig</i>, a version of the legend of Henry the Lion, edited
+by K. Bartsch (Stuttgart, 1871); and a further bibliography in
+O. Hartenstein, <i>Studien zur Hornsage</i> (Heidelberg, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There was a barrow in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, called
+Hornesbeorh; and there are other indications which point to a
+possible connexion between <i>Horn</i> and Dorset (see H. L. Ward, <i>Cat.
+of Romances</i>, i. 451).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sudenne and Westernesse are tentatively identified also with
+Isle of Man and Wirral (<i>Cambridge Hist. of Eng Lit.</i>, i. 304).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORN<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. <i>cornu</i>;
+cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="keras">&#954;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#962;</span>). The weapons which project from the heads of
+various species of animals, constituting what are known as horns,
+embrace substances which are, in their anatomical structure
+and chemical composition, quite distinct from each other; and
+although in commerce also they are known indiscriminately as
+horn, their uses are altogether dissimilar. These differences in
+structure and properties were thus indicated by Sir R. Owen:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+weapons to which the term horn is properly or technically
+applied consist of very different substances, and belong to two
+organic systems, as distinct from each other as both are from the
+teeth. Thus the horns of deer consist of bone, and are processes
+of the frontal bone; those of the giraffe are independent bones
+or &lsquo;epiphyses&rsquo; covered by hairy skin; those of oxen, sheep
+and antelopes are &lsquo;apophyses&rsquo; of the frontal bone, covered
+by the corium and by a sheath of true horny material; those
+of the prong-horned antelope consist at their basis of bony
+processes covered by hairy skin, and are covered by horny
+sheaths in the rest of their extent. They thus combine the
+character of those of the giraffe and ordinary antelope, together
+with the expanded and branched form of the antlers of deer.
+Only the horns of the rhinoceros are composed wholly of horny
+matter, and this is disposed in longitudinal fibres, so that the
+horns seem rather to consist of coarse bristles compactly matted
+together in the form of a more or less elongated sub-compressed
+cone.&rdquo; True horny matter is really a modified form of epidermic
+tissue, and consists of the albuminoid &ldquo;keratin.&rdquo; It forms, not
+only the horns of the ox tribe, but also the hoofs, claws or nails
+of animals generally, the carapace of the tortoises and the
+armadilloes, the scales of the pangolin, porcupine quills, and
+birds&rsquo; feathers, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Horn is employed in the manufacture of combs, buttons, the
+handles of walking-sticks, umbrellas, and knives, drinking-cups,
+spoons of various kinds, snuff-boxes, &amp;c. In former times it was
+applied to several uses for which it is no longer required, although
+such applications have left their traces in the language. Thus
+the musical instruments and fog signals known as horns indicate
+their descent from earlier and simpler forms of apparatus made
+from horn. In the same way powder-horns were spoken of long
+after they ceased to be made of that substance; to a small
+extent lanterns still continue to be &ldquo;glazed&rdquo; with thin transparent
+plates of horn.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORN<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cornu</i>; corresponding terms being Fr. <i>cor</i>,
+<i>trompe</i>; Ger. <i>Horn</i>; Ital. <i>corno</i>), a class of wind instruments
+primarily derived from natural animal horns (see above), and
+having the common characteristics of a conical bore and the
+absence of lateral holes. The word &ldquo;horn&rdquo; when used by
+modern English musicians always refers to the French horn.</p>
+
+<p>Modern horns may be divided into three classes: (1) the
+short horns with wide bore, such as the bugles (<i>q.v.</i>) and the
+post-horn. (2) The saxhorns (<i>q.v.</i>), a family of hybrid instruments
+designed by Adolphe Sax, and resulting from the adaptation
+of valves and of a cup-shaped mouthpiece to instruments
+of the calibre of the bugle. The Flügelhorn family is the German
+equivalent of the saxhorns. The natural scale of instruments
+of this class comprises the harmonics from the second to the
+eighth only. (3) The French horn (Fr. <i>cor de chasse</i> or <i>trompe
+de chasse</i>, <i>cor à pistons</i>; Ger. <i>Waldhorn</i>, <i>Ventilhorn</i>; Ital.
+<i>corno</i> or <i>corno di caccia</i>), one of the most valuable and difficult
+wind instruments of the orchestra, having a very slender
+conical tube wound round in coils upon itself. It consists of
+four principal parts&mdash;the body, the crooks, the slide and the
+mouthpiece.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The <i>body</i> is the main tube, having a bore of the form known as
+trunco-conical, measuring approximately 7 ft. 4 in. in length, in which
+the increase in the diameter of the bore is very gradual in proportion
+to the length, the cone becoming accentuated only near the bell.
+In the valve horn the bore is only theoretically conical, the extra
+lengths of tubing attached to the valves being practically cylindrical.
+The body is coiled spirally, and has at one end a wide-mouthed bell
+from 11 to 12 in. in diameter having a parabolic curve, and at the
+other a conical ferrule into which fit the crooks.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The <i>crooks</i> (Fr. <i>corps</i> or <i>tons de rechange</i>; Ger. <i>Krummbogen</i>,
+<i>Stimmbogen</i>, <i>Einsetzbogen</i>) are interchangeable, spiral tubes, tapering
+to a diameter of a quarter of an inch at the mouthpiece end and varying
+in length from 16 in. for the B&#9837; alto crook to 125 in. for the B&#9837;
+basso. Each crook is named according to the fundamental tone
+which it produces on being added to the body. By lengthening the
+tube at will the crook lowers the pitch of the instrument, and consequently
+changes the key in which it stands. Although the harmonic
+series remains the same for all the crooks, the actual sounds produced
+by overblowing are lower, the tube being longer, and they now
+belong to the key of the crook. The principle of the crook was
+known early in the 17th century; it had been applied to the trumpet,
+trombone and Jägertrummet<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> before being adapted to the horn.
+Crooks are merely transposing agents; they are powerless to fill up
+the gaps in the scale of the horn in order to make it a chromatic or
+even a diatonic instrument, for they require time for adjustment.
+The principle of the crook doubtless suggested to Stölzel the system
+of valves, which is but an instantaneous application of the general
+principle to the individual notes of the harmonic series, each of which
+is thereby lowered a semitone, a tone or a tone and a half, as long
+as the valve remains in operation. The body of the horn without
+crooks is of the length to produce 8 ft. C., and forms the standard,
+being known as the alto horn in C, which is the highest key in which
+the horn is pitched. The notes are sounded as written.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The <i>mouthpiece</i> of the horn differs substantially from that of
+the trumpet.<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> There is, strictly speaking, no cup, the inside of the
+mouthpiece being, like the bore of the instrument itself, in the form
+of a truncated cone or funnel. Like the other parts of this difficult
+and complex instrument, the proportions of the mouthpiece must bear
+a certain undefined relation to the length and diameter of the column
+of air. The choice of a suitable mouthpiece is in fact a test of skill;
+the shape of the lip of the performer and the more special use he may
+wish to make of either the higher or the lower harmonics have to be
+taken into consideration. In orchestral music the part for first horns
+naturally calls for the use of the higher harmonics, which are more
+easily obtained by means of a somewhat smaller and shallower
+mouthpiece<a name="fa3p" id="fa3p" href="#ft3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a> than that used upon the second horn, which is called
+upon to dwell more on the lower harmonics.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) The <i>tuning slides</i> (Fr. <i>coulisses</i>; Ger. <i>Stimmbogen</i>) consist of a
+pair of sliding <b>U</b>-shaped tubes fitting tightly into each other, by
+means of which the instrument can be brought strictly into tune, and
+which also act as compensators with the crooks. On these tuning
+slides, placed across the ring formed by the coils of the valve-horn,
+are fixed the pistons with their extra lengths of tubing; as the connexion
+of the pistons with the body of the horn is made through the
+slides, the value of the latter as compensators will be readily understood.
+Those accustomed to deal with instruments having fixed
+notes, such as the piano and harp, hardly realize the extreme difficulties
+which confront both maker and performer in intricate wind
+instruments such as the horn, on which no sounds can be produced
+without conscious adjustment of lips and breath, and but few without
+the additional use of some such contrivance as slide, crook, piston of
+of the hand in the bell, in the case of the natural or hand horn.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The production of sound in wind instruments has a fourfold
+object: (1) pitch; (2) range or scale of available notes; (3)
+quality of tone or <i>timbre</i>; (4) dynamic variation, or
+crescendo and diminuendo. The pitch of the horn,
+<span class="sidenote">Acoustics.</span>
+as of other wind instruments, depends almost exclusively on
+the length of the air-column set in vibration, and remains
+practically uninfluenced by the diameter of the bore. In the
+case of conical tubes in which the difference in diameter at the
+two extremities, mouthpiece and bell, is very great, as in the
+horn, the pitch of the tube will be slightly higher than its theoretical
+length would warrant.<a name="fa4p" id="fa4p" href="#ft4p"><span class="sp">4</span></a> When, for instance, three tubes
+of the same length are sounded&mdash;No. 1, conical diverging; No. 2,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span>
+conical converging in the direction from mouthpiece to bell;
+No. 3, cylindrical&mdash;No. 1 gives a fundamental tone somewhat
+higher, No. 2 somewhat lower, than No. 3. Victor Mahillon<a name="fa5p" id="fa5p" href="#ft5p"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+adds that the rate of vibration in such conical tubes as the horn
+is slightly less than the rate of vibration in ambient air; therefore,
+as the rate of vibration (<i>i.e.</i> the number of vibrations per second)
+varies in the inverse ratio with the length of the tube, it follows
+that the practical length of the horn is slightly less than the
+theoretical, the difference for the horn in B&#9837; normal pitch
+amounting to 13.9 cm. (approximately 5½ in.).</p>
+
+<p>The tube of the horn behaves as an open pipe. E. F. F.
+Chladni<a name="fa6p" id="fa6p" href="#ft6p"><span class="sp">6</span></a> states that the mouthpiece end is to be considered
+as open in all wind instruments (excepting reed instruments),
+even when, as in horns and trumpets, it would seem to be closed
+by the lips. Victor Mahillon, although apparently holding the
+opposite view, and considering as closed the tubes of all wind
+instruments played by means of reeds, whether single or double,
+or by the lips acting as reeds, gives a new and practical explanation
+of the phenomenon.<a name="fa7p" id="fa7p" href="#ft7p"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The result is the same in both cases,
+for the closed pipe of trunco-conical bore, whose diameter at the
+bell is at least four times greater than the diameter at the
+mouthpiece, behaves in the same manner, when set in vibration
+by a reed, as an open pipe, and gives the consecutive scale of
+harmonics.<a name="fa8p" id="fa8p" href="#ft8p"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In order to produce sound from the horn, the performer, stretching
+his lips across the funnel-shaped mouthpiece from rim to rim, blows
+into the cavity. The lips, vibrating as the breath passes through the
+aperture between them, communicate pulsations or series of intermittent
+shocks to the thin stream of air, known as the exciting
+current, which, issuing from them, strikes the column of air in the
+tube, already in a state of stationary vibration.<a name="fa9p" id="fa9p" href="#ft9p"><span class="sp">9</span></a> The effect of this
+series of shocks, without which there can be no sound, upon the
+column of air confined within the walls of the tube is to produce
+sound-waves, travelling longitudinally through the tube. Each
+sound-wave consists of two half-lengths, one in which the air has been
+compressed or condensed by the impulse or push, the second in
+which, the push being spent, the air again dilates or becomes rarefied.
+In an open pipe, the wave-length is theoretically equal to the
+length of the tube. The pitch of the note depends on the frequency
+per second with which each vibration or complete sound-wave
+reaches the drum of the ear. The longer the wave the lower the
+frequency. The velocity of the wave is independent of its length,
+being solely conditioned by the rate of vibration of the particles
+composing the conveying medium: while one individual particle
+performs one complete vibration, the wave advances one wave-length.<a name="fa10p" id="fa10p" href="#ft10p"><span class="sp">10</span></a>
+The rate of particle vibration or frequency is therefore
+inversely proportional to the corresponding wave-length.<a name="fa11p" id="fa11p" href="#ft11p"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Sound-waves
+generated by the same exciting current travel with the same
+velocity whatever their length, the difference being the frequency
+number and therefore the pitch of the note. As long as the performer
+blows with normal force, the same length of tube produces the
+same wave-length and therefore the same frequency and pitch. By
+&ldquo;blowing with normal force&rdquo; is understood the proper relative
+proportions to be maintained between the wind-pressure and the
+lip-tension&mdash;a ratio which is found instinctively by the performer
+but was only suspected by the older writers.<a name="fa12p" id="fa12p" href="#ft12p"><span class="sp">12</span></a> If the shocks or
+vibrations initiated by the lips through the medium of the exciting
+current be sharper owing to the increased tension of the lips, and at
+the same time succeed each other with greater velocity, the wave-length
+breaks up, and two, three or more proportionally shorter
+complete waves form instead of one, and traverse the pipe within the
+same space of time, producing sounds proportionally higher by an
+octave, a twelfth, &amp;c., according to the character of the initiatory
+disturbance. We may therefore add this proposition: the rate of
+vibration of a tube varies as the number of segments into which the
+vibrating column of air within it is divided. In order to obtain the
+fundamental, the performer&rsquo;s lips must be loose and the wind-pressure
+gentle but steady, so that the exciting current may issue
+forth in a broad, slow stream. To set in vibration a column of air
+some 16 or 17 ft. long is a feat of extreme difficulty; that is why it is
+quite exceptional to find a horn-player who can sound the fundamental
+on the low C or B&#9837; <i>basso</i> horns. In the organ, where even a
+32 ft. tone is obtained, the wind-pressure and the lip-opening controlling
+the exciting current are mechanically regulated for each
+length of pipe&mdash;only one note being required from each. In order,
+therefore, to induce the column of air within the tube to break up
+and vibrate in aliquot parts, the exciting current must be compressed
+into an ever finer, tenser and more incisive stream. There is in fact
+a certain minimum pressure for each degree of tension of the lips
+below which no harmonic can be produced.</p>
+
+<p>It is often stated that the harmonics are obtained by increasing the
+tension of the lips and a crescendo by increasing the pressure of the
+breath.<a name="fa13p" id="fa13p" href="#ft13p"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Victor Mahillon<a name="fa14p" id="fa14p" href="#ft14p"><span class="sp">14</span></a> accounts for the harmonics by increased
+wind-pressure only. It is evident that the greater the tension of the
+lips, the greater the force of wind required to set them vibrating;
+therefore the force and velocity of the air must vary with the tension
+of the lips in order to produce a steady or musical sound. D. J.
+Blaikley considers that the ratio of increase in lips and breath follows
+that of the harmonic series. The tension of the lips has the effect
+of reducing the width of the slit or aperture between them and the
+width of the exciting current. While increasing its density the
+energy of the wind must, therefore, either expend itself in increasing
+the rate of vibration, or frequency of the pulses, which influences the
+pitch of the note; or else in increasing the extent of excursion or
+amplitude of the vibrations, which influences the dynamic force of
+the sound or loudness.<a name="fa15p" id="fa15p" href="#ft15p"><span class="sp">15</span></a> If the aperture be narrowed without providing
+a proportional increase of wind-pressure, the harmonic overtone
+may be heard, but either the intonation will suffer or the intensity
+of the tone will be reduced, because the force required, to set
+the tenser membrane in vibration is insufficient to give the vibrations
+the requisite amplitude as well as the frequency. If the force expended
+be excessive, <i>i.e.</i> more than the maximum required to ensure
+the increased frequency proportional to the increased tension, the
+superfluous energy must expend itself in increasing the amplitude of
+the vibrations so that a note of a greater degree of loudness as well as
+of higher pitch will be produced. The converse is equally true; the
+lower the pitch of the note the slower the pulses or vibrations and
+therefore the looser the lip and the gentler the force of current
+required to set them vibrating. To draw a parallel from organ-pipes:
+as long as even wind-pressure is maintained, the mouthpiece
+being fixed proportional to the length of tube, the pipe gives out
+one note of unvarying dynamic intensity; increase the pressure of
+the wind and harmonics are heard, but it is impossible to obtain a
+crescendo unless the mouthpiece be dispensed with and a free reed
+(<i>q.v.</i>) adapted.</p>
+
+<p>Reference has already been made above to the difficulty of obtaining
+the fundamental on tubes of great length and narrow bore like
+the horn. The useful compass of the horn, therefore, begins with the
+note that an open pipe half its length would give; the Germans term
+instruments of such small calibre <i>half instruments</i>, and those of wide
+calibre, such as bugles and tubas, <i>whole instruments</i>,<a name="fa16p" id="fa16p" href="#ft16p"><span class="sp">16</span></a> since in them
+the whole of the length of the tube is available in practice.</p>
+
+<p>The harmonic series of the horn, or the open notes obtainable
+without using valves or crooks, is written as for the alto horn in C
+of 8 ft. tone, which forms the standard of notation. Notes written
+in the bass clef are generally, for some unexplained reason, placed an
+octave lower than the real sounds.</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:531px; height:131px" src="images/img698.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span></p>
+
+<p>All the crooks, a list of the principal of which is appended, therefore
+necessarily give real sounds <i>lower</i> than the above series according to
+their individual length.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Table of Principal Crooks now in Use.</i><a name="fa17p" id="fa17p" href="#ft17p"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Key of<br />Crook.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Actual Sounds of Range of Useful Harmonics.</td> <td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Length of<br />Crook in<br />Inches.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Transposes to</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">B&#9837; alto</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:297px; height:61px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699a.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 10th</td> <td class="tccm rb">16</td> <td class="tclm rb">major 2nd lower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">A&#9838;</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:295px; height:62px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699b.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 10th</td> <td class="tccm rb">22½</td> <td class="tclm rb">minor 3rd lower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">A&#9837;</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:294px; height:59px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699c.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 10th</td> <td class="tccm rb">29½</td> <td class="tclm rb">major 3rd lower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">G</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:348px; height:57px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699d.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 12th</td> <td class="tccm rb">36¾</td> <td class="tclm rb">perfect 4th lower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">F</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:442px; height:61px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699e.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">52½</td> <td class="tclm rb">perfect 5th lower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">E</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:442px; height:57px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699f.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">61</td> <td class="tclm rb">minor 6th lower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">E&#9837;</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:441px; height:63px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699g.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">70¼</td> <td class="tclm rb">major 6th lower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">D</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:442px; height:62px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699h.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">2nd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">80</td> <td class="tclm rb">minor 7th lower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">C basso</td> <td class="tclm rb"><img style="width:418px; height:64px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699i.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb">3rd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb">101</td> <td class="tclm rb">8<span class="sp">ve</span> lower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb bb">B&#9837; basso</td> <td class="tclm rb bb"><img style="width:418px; height:66px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699j.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tccm rb bb">3rd to 16th</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">125</td> <td class="tclm rb bb">major 9th lower</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The practical aggregate compass of the natural horns from B&#9837;
+basso at the service of composers therefore ranges (actual sounds)
+from <img style="width:155px; height:65px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699k.jpg" alt="" /> or with 3 valves from <img style="width:152px; height:77px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img699l.jpg" alt="" />
+By means of hand-stopping, <i>i.e.</i> the practice of thrusting the hand
+into the bell in order to lower the sound by a tone or a semitone, or
+by the adaptation of valves to the horn, this compass may be
+rendered chromatic almost throughout the range.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the valve as applied to wind instruments differs
+entirely from that of keys. The latter necessitate lateral holes bored
+through the tube, and when the keys are raised the vibrating column
+of air within the tube and the ambient air without are set in communication,
+with the result that the vibrating column is shortened
+and the pitch of the note raised. The valve system consists of valves
+or pistons attached to additional lengths of tubing, the effect of
+which is invariably to lower the pitch, except in the case of valve
+systems specified as &ldquo;ascending&rdquo; tried by John Shaw and Adolphe
+Sax. Insuperable practical difficulties led to the abandonment of
+these systems, which in any case were the exception and not the rule.
+The valves, placed upon the <b>U</b>-shaped slides in the centre of the horn,
+are worked by means of pistons or levers, opening or closing the wind-ways
+at will, so that when they are in operation the vibrating
+column of air no longer takes its normal course along the main tube
+and directly through the slides, but makes a détour through the extra
+length of tubing before completing its course. Thus the valves,
+unlike the keys, do not open any communication with the ambient
+air. Even authoritative writers<a name="fa18p" id="fa18p" href="#ft18p"><span class="sp">18</span></a> have confused the two principles,
+believing them to be one and the same.</p>
+
+<p>French horns are made with either two or three valves. To the
+first valve is attached sufficient length of tubing to lower the pitch
+of the instrument a tone, so that any note played upon the horn in F
+while the first valve is depressed takes effect a tone lower, or as
+though the horn were in E&#9837;. The second valve opens a passage into
+a shorter length of tubing sufficient to lower the pitch of the instrument
+a semitone, as though the instrument were for the time being
+in E. The third valve similarly lowers the pitch a tone and a half.
+It will thus be seen that the principle applied in the crook and the
+valve is in the main the same, but the practical value of the valve is
+immeasurably superior. Thanks to the valve system the performer
+is able to have the extra lengths of tubing necessary to give the horn
+a chromatic compass permanently incorporated with the instrument,
+and at will to connect one or a combination of these lengths with the
+main tube of the instrument during any interval of time, however
+short. The three devices, crooks, valves and slides, are in fact all
+based upon the same principle, that of providing additional length
+of tubing in order to deepen the pitch of the whole instrument at
+will and to transpose it into a different key. Valves and slides, being
+instantaneous in operation, give to the instrument a chromatic
+compass, whereas crooks merely enable the performer to play in
+many keys upon one instrument instead of requiring a different
+instrument for each key. The slide is the oldest of these devices, and
+probably suggested the crook as a substitute on instruments of
+conical bore such as the horn.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of the valve, although a substantial improvement,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span>
+was found to fall short of perfection in its operation on the tubes of
+wind instruments so soon as the possibility of using the three valves
+in combination to produce six different positions or series of
+harmonics was realized, and for the following reason. In order to
+deepen the pitch one tone by means of valve 1, a length of tubing
+exactly proportional to the length of the main tube must be thrown
+into communication with the latter. If, in addition to valve 1,
+valve 3 be depressed, a further drop in pitch of 1½ tone should be
+effected; but as the length of tubing added by depressing valve 3
+is calculated in proportion to the main tube, and the latter has
+already been lengthened by depressing valve 1, therefore the additional
+length supplied by opening valve 3 is now too short to produce
+a drop of a minor third strictly in tune, and all notes played while
+valves 1 and 3 are depressed will be too sharp. Means of compensating
+slight errors in intonation are provided in the <b>U</b>-shaped slides
+mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>timbre</i> of the natural horn is mellow, sonorous and rich in
+harmonics; it is quite distinctive and bears but little resemblance to
+that of the other members of the brass wind. In listening to its
+sustained notes one receives the impression of the tone being breathed
+out as by a voice, whereas the trumpet and trombone produce the
+effect of a rapid series of concussions, and in the tuba and cornet the
+concussions, although still striking, are softened as by padding.
+The timbre of the hand-stopped notes is veiled and suggestive of
+mystery; so characteristic is the timbre that passages in the <i>Rheingold</i>
+heard when the magic power of the Tarnhelm reveals itself
+sound meaningless if the weird chords are played by means of the
+valves instead of by hand-stopping. The timbre of the piston
+notes is more resonant than that of the open notes, partaking
+a little of the character of the trombone, which is probably due to
+the fact that the strictly conical bore of the natural horn has
+been replaced by a mixed cylindrical and conical as in trumpet and
+trombone.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the mouthpiece (<i>q.v.</i>) at the point where it joins the
+main bore of the tube must also exercise a certain influence on the
+form of vibration, which it helps to modify in conjunction with the
+conformation of each individual horn-player&rsquo;s lip. In the horn the
+cup of the mouthpiece is shaped like a funnel, the bore converging
+insensibly into the narrow end of the main conical bore without
+break or sharp edges as in the mouthpieces, more properly known as
+cup-shaped, of trumpet and bombardon.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliant sonorousness and roundness of the timbre of the horn
+are due to the strength and predominance of the partial tones up to
+the 7th or 8th. The prevalence of the higher harmonics from the
+10th to the 16th, in which the partial tones lie very close together,
+determines the harsh quality of the trumpet timbre, which may be
+easily imitated on the horn by forcing the sound production and
+using a trumpet mouthpiece, and by raising the bell, an effect which
+is indicated by composers by the words &ldquo;Raise the Bells.&rdquo;<a name="fa19p" id="fa19p" href="#ft19p"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The origin of the horn must be sought in remote prehistoric
+times, when, by breaking off the tip of a short animal horn, one
+or at best two notes, powerful, rough, unsteady, only
+barely approximating to definite musical sounds,
+<span class="sidenote">History.</span>
+were obtained. This was undoubtedly the archetype of the
+modern families of brass wind instruments, and from it evolved
+the trumpet, the bugle and the tuba no less than the horn.
+The common characteristics which link together these widely
+different modern families of instruments are: (1) the more
+or less pronounced conical bore, and (2) the property possessed
+in a greater or lesser degree of producing the natural sounds by
+what has been termed overblowing the harmonic overtones.
+If we follow the evolution of the animal horn throughout the
+centuries, the ultimate development leads us not to the French
+horn but to the bugle and tuba.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Before civilization had dawned in classic Greece, Egypt, Assyria
+and the Semitic races were using wind instruments of wood and metal
+which had left the primitive ram or bugle horn far behind. Even in
+northern Europe, during the Bronze age (<i>c.</i> 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), prehistoric
+man had evolved for himself the prototype of the Roman <i>cornu</i>, a
+bronze horn of wide conical bore, bent in the shape of a <b>G</b>. One of
+these instruments, known among the modern Scandinavian races as
+<i>luurs</i> or <i>lurs</i>, found in the peat beds of Denmark and now preserved
+in the Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, has a length
+of 1.91 m. (about 6 ft. 4 in.). The <b>U</b>-shaped mouthpiece joint is
+neatly joined to the remainder of the crescent-tube by means of a
+bronze ring; the bell, which must have rested on the shoulder,
+consists merely of a flat rim set round the end of the tube. There
+is therefore no graceful curve in the bell as in the French horn. An
+exact facsimile of this prehistoric horn has been made by Victor
+Mahillon of Brussels, who finds that it was in the key of E&#9837; and easily
+produces the first eight harmonics of that key. It stands, therefore,
+an octave higher than the modern horn in E&#9837; (which measures some
+13 ft.), but on the <i>lur</i> the fundamental E&#9837; can be reached owing to
+the wider calibre of the bore.<a name="fa20p" id="fa20p" href="#ft20p"><span class="sp">20</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Among the Romans the wind instruments derived from the horn
+were well represented, and included well-developed types which do
+not differ materially from the natural instruments of modern times.
+The buccina developed directly into the trumpet and trombone
+during the middle ages, losing no characteristic of importance but the
+bent form, which was perforce abandoned when the art of bending
+hollow tubes was lost after the fall of the Roman Empire. The name
+clung through all the changes in form and locality to the one type,
+and still remains at the present day in the German <i>Posaune</i> (trombone).
+There were four instruments known by the name of <i>cornu</i>
+among the Romans: (1) the short animal horn used by shepherds;
+(2) the longer, semicircular horn, used for signals; and (3) the still
+longer <i>cornu</i>, bent and carried like the buccina, which had the wide
+bore of the modern tuba. But whereas on the buccina the higher
+harmonics were easily obtained, on the cornu the natural scale consisted
+of the first eight harmonics only. The cornu, although shorter
+than the buccina, had a deeper pitch and more sonorous tone, for,
+owing to the wider calibre of the bore, the fundamental was easily
+reached. In the reliefs on Trajan&rsquo;s Column, where the two instruments
+may be compared, the wider curve of the buccina forms a
+ready means of identification. In addition to these was (4) the small
+instrument like the medieval hunting-horn or post-horn, with the
+single spiral turn similar to one which figures as service badge in
+many British infantry regiments,<a name="fa21p" id="fa21p" href="#ft21p"><span class="sp">21</span></a> such as the first battalion of the
+King&rsquo;s Own Light Infantry. A terra-cotta model, slightly broken,
+but with the spiral intact, was excavated at Ventoux in France and
+is at present preserved in the department of Greek and Roman
+antiquities at the British Museum, having been acquired from the
+collection of M. Morel.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lituus</i>, or cavalry trumpet of the Romans, consisted of a
+cylindrical tube, to which was attached a bent horn or conical bell,
+the whole in the shape of a <b>J</b>. The long, straight Roman tuba was
+similar to the large, bent cornu so far as bore and capabilities were
+concerned, but more unwieldy. All these wind instruments seem to
+have been used during the classic Greek and Roman periods merely
+to sound fanfares, and therefore, in spite of the high degree of
+perfection to which they attained as instruments, they scarcely
+possess any claim to be considered within the domain of music.
+They were signalling instruments, mainly used in war, in hunting
+and in state or civic ceremonial. Vegetius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 386) describes these
+instruments, and gives detailed instructions for the special traditional
+uses of tuba, buccina and cornu in the military camp: &ldquo;Semivocalia
+sunt, quae per tubam, aut cornua, aut buccinam dantur. Tuba quae
+directa est appellatur buccina, quae in semet ipsam aereo circulo
+flectitur. Cornu quod ex uris agrestibus, argento nexum, temperatum
+arte, et spiritu, quem canentis flatus emittit auditur.&rdquo;<a name="fa22p" id="fa22p" href="#ft22p"><span class="sp">22</span></a> It will be
+seen that Vegetius demands a skilled horn-player. These service
+instruments may all be identified in the celebrated bas-reliefs of
+Trajan&rsquo;s Column<a name="fa23p" id="fa23p" href="#ft23p"><span class="sp">23</span></a> (fig. 1) and of the Triumphal arch of Augustus at
+Susa.<a name="fa24p" id="fa24p" href="#ft24p"><span class="sp">24</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Interesting evidence of a collegium cornicinum (gild of horn-players)
+is furnished by an altar stone in the Roman catacombs,
+erected to the memory of one &ldquo;M. Julius victor ex Collegio Liticinum
+Cornicinum,&rdquo; on which are carved a lituus, a cornu and a pan&rsquo;s pipe,
+the cornu being similar to those on Trajan&rsquo;s Column.</p>
+
+<p>All three Roman instruments, the tuba, the buccina and the
+cornu, had well-formed mouthpieces, differing but little from the
+modern cup-shaped form in use on the trumpet, the trombone, the
+tubas, &amp;c.<a name="fa25p" id="fa25p" href="#ft25p"><span class="sp">25</span></a> It would seem that even the short horn in the 4th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span>
+century was provided with a mouthpiece,<a name="fa26p" id="fa26p" href="#ft26p"><span class="sp">26</span></a> judging from a carved
+specimen on an ivory <i>capsa</i> or <i>pyxis</i> dating from the period immediately
+preceding the fall of the Roman Empire, preserved among
+the precious relics at Xanten.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:327px" src="images/img701a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Conrad Cichorius, <i>Die Reliefs der Traiansäule</i>, by permission of Georg Reimer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Roman Cornu and Buccina.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>After the fall of the Roman Empire, when instrumental music had
+fallen into disrepute and had been placed under a ban by the church,
+the art of playing upon such highly-developed instruments gradually
+died out in western Europe. With the disappearance of the civilization
+and culture of the Romans, the skilled crafts also gradually
+vanished, and the art of making metal pipes of delicate calibre and
+of bending them was completely forgotten, and had to be reacquired
+step by step during the middle ages from the more enlightened East.
+The names of the instruments and representations of them survived
+in MSS. and monuments of art, and as long as the West was content
+to turn to late Roman and Romano-Christian art for its models, no
+difficulties were created for the future archaeologist. By the time
+the Western races had begun to express themselves and to develop
+their own characteristics, in the 11th century, the arts of Persia,
+Arabia and the Byzantine Empire had laid their mark upon the
+West, and confusion of models, and more especially of names,
+ensued. The greatest confusion of all was created by the numerous
+translations and glosses of the Bible and by the attempts of miniaturists
+to illustrate the principal scenes. In Revelation, for instance
+(ch. viii.), the seven angels with their trumpets are diversely represented
+with long tubas, with curved horns of various lengths, and
+with the buisine, busaun or posaune, the descendant of the buccina.</p>
+
+<p>We know from the colouring used in illuminated MSS., gold and
+pale blue, that horns were made of metal early in the middle ages.
+The metal was not cast in moulds but hammered into shape.
+Viollet-le-Duc<a name="fa27p" id="fa27p" href="#ft27p"><span class="sp">27</span></a> reproduces a miniature from a MS. of the end of
+the 13th century (Paris, Bibliothèque du corps législatif), in which
+two metal-workers are shown hammering two large horns.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:368px; height:256px" src="images/img701b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Medieval Hunting Horn with the
+Tablature in use in the 14th Century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The early medieval horns had no mouthpieces, the narrow end
+being merely finished with a rim on which the lips rested. The tone
+suffered in consequence,
+being uncertain,
+rough and
+tremulous, wherefore
+it was indicated
+by the neume
+known as <i>quilisma</i>:
+&ldquo;Est vox tremula;
+sicut est sonus
+flatus tubae vel
+cornu et designatur
+per neumam, quae
+vocatur <i>quilisma</i>.&rdquo;<a name="fa28p" id="fa28p" href="#ft28p"><span class="sp">28</span></a></p>
+
+<p>During the
+middle ages the
+bugle-horn or bull&rsquo;s
+horn was extensively
+used as a
+signal instrument
+on land and sea (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bugle</a></span>), by the night-watchmen in cities,
+in the watch tower of the feudal castle and by foresters and
+huntsmen. The hunting-horn was generally represented as small
+in the hunting scenes which abound in illuminated MSS. and
+early printed books; it was crescent-shaped and was worn
+slung by a leather strap over one shoulder and resting on the
+opposite hip. When played it was held with the wide end
+curving upwards in front of the huntsman&rsquo;s head. A kind of
+tablature for the horn was in use in France in the 14th century;
+an example of it is here reproduced (fig. 2) from a 14th-century
+French MS. treatise on venery.<a name="fa29p" id="fa29p" href="#ft29p"><span class="sp">29</span></a> Only one note is indicated, the
+various calls and signals being based chiefly on rhythm, and the
+notes being left to the taste and skill of the huntsman. The interpretation<a name="fa30p" id="fa30p" href="#ft30p"><span class="sp">30</span></a>
+of the <i>Cornure de chasse de veue</i> seen in the figure is as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:342px; height:86px" src="images/img701c.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="noind">In the first poem is given a list of these signs with the names by
+which they were known in venery.</p>
+
+<p>In the 16th century in England the hunting-horn sometimes had
+a spiral turn in the centre, half-way between mouthpiece and bell
+end; the extra length was apparently added solely in order to
+lower the pitch, the higher harmonics not being used for the hunting
+calls. In George Turbevile&rsquo;s <i>Noble Arte of Venerie</i> (1576, facsimile
+reprint, Oxford, 1908) the &ldquo;measures of blowing according to the
+order which is observed at these dayes in this Realme of Englande&rdquo;
+are given for the horn in D. One of these, given in fig. 3, is the
+English 16th-century hunting call, corresponding to the 14th-century
+French <i>Cornure de chasse de veue</i> given above.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:195px" src="images/img701d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Turbevile&rsquo;s <i>Noble Art of Venerie</i> (1576), by permission of the Clarendon Press.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Hunting Call.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The hunting-horn, whether in its simplest form or with the
+one spiral, was held with the bell upwards on a level with the huntsman&rsquo;s
+head or just above it.<a name="fa31p" id="fa31p" href="#ft31p"><span class="sp">31</span></a></p>
+
+<p>A horn of the same fine calibre as the French horn, 3 or 4 ft. in
+length, slightly bent to take the curve of the body, was in use in
+Italy, it would seem, in the 15th century.<a name="fa32p" id="fa32p" href="#ft32p"><span class="sp">32</span></a> It was held slanting
+across the body with the bell already slightly parabolic, at arm&rsquo;s
+length to the left side.</p>
+
+<p>The hunting- and post-horns were favourite emblems on medieval
+coats of arms, more especially in Germany<a name="fa33p" id="fa33p" href="#ft33p"><span class="sp">33</span></a> and Bohemia.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary at this point to draw attention to the fact that
+the French horn is a hybrid having affinities with both trumpet
+and primitive animal horn, or with <i>buccina</i> and <i>cornu</i>, and that
+both types, although frequently misnamed and confused by medieval
+writers and miniaturists, subsisted side by side, evolving independently
+until they merged in the so-called French horn. Both buccina and
+cornu after the fall of the Roman Empire, while Western arts and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span>
+crafts were in their infancy, were made straight, being then known
+as the busine or straight trumpet (busaun or posaun in Germany),
+and the long horn, <i>Herhorn</i>, slightly curved.<a name="fa34p" id="fa34p" href="#ft34p"><span class="sp">34</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:320px; height:197px" src="images/img702a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Medieval<br />
+Circular Horn.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Medieval<br />
+Circular Horn, 1589.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>From two medieval representations of instruments like the
+Roman cornu one might be led to conclude that the instrument
+had been revived and was in use from the 14th century. A wooden
+bas-relief on the under part of the seats of the choir of Worcester
+cathedral,<a name="fa35p" id="fa35p" href="#ft35p"><span class="sp">35</span></a> said to date from the 14th century, shows a musician in
+a robe with long sleeves of fur playing the horn (fig. 4). The tube
+winds from the mouth
+in a circle reaching
+to his waist, passes
+under the right arm
+across the shoulders
+with the bell stretching
+out horizontally
+over his left shoulder.
+The tube, of strictly
+conical bore, is made
+in three pieces, the
+joints being strengthened
+by means of
+two rings. The other
+example is German,
+and figures in the
+arms of the city of Frankfort-on-Main.<a name="fa36p" id="fa36p" href="#ft36p"><span class="sp">36</span></a> Here in the two opposite
+corners are two cherubs playing immense cornua. The bore of the
+instruments (fig. 5) is of a calibre suggestive of the contrabass tuba;
+the circle formed is of a diameter sufficiently large to accommodate
+the youthful performer in a sitting posture; the bell is the forerunner
+of that of the modern saxophone, shaped like a gloxinea;
+the mouthpiece is cup-shaped. It is possible, of course, that these
+two examples are attempts to reproduce the classic instrument,
+but the figures of the musicians and the feeling of the whole scheme
+of ornamentation seem to render such an explanation improbable.
+Moreover, Sebastian Virdung,<a name="fa37p" id="fa37p" href="#ft37p"><span class="sp">37</span></a> writing on musical instruments at
+the beginning of the 16th century, gives a drawing of a cornu coiled
+round tightly, the tubing being probably soldered together at certain
+points. Virdung calls this instrument a <i>Jegerhorn</i>, and the short
+hunting-horn <i>Acherhorn</i> (Ackerhorn&mdash;the synonym of the
+modern Waldhorn). The scale of the former could have consisted
+only of the first eight harmonics, including the fundamental,
+which would be easily obtained on an instrument of such a large
+calibre. Mersenne,<a name="fa38p" id="fa38p" href="#ft38p"><span class="sp">38</span></a> a century and a quarter later, gives a drawing
+of the same kind of horn among his <i>cors de chasse</i>, but does not in
+his description display his customary intimate knowledge of his
+subject; it may be that he was dealing at second-hand with an
+instrument of which he had had little practical experience.
+Praetorius<a name="fa39p" id="fa39p" href="#ft39p"><span class="sp">39</span></a> gives as Jägerhorn only the simple forms of crescent-shaped
+horns with a single spiral; the spirally-wound horn of
+Virdung is replaced by a new instrument&mdash;the <i>Jägertrummet</i> (huntsman&rsquo;s
+trumpet)&mdash;of the same form, but less cumbersome, of cylindrical
+bore excepting at the bell end and having a crook inserted
+between the mouthpiece and the main coils. The tube, which could
+not have been less than 8 ft. long, produced the harmonic series of
+the cavalry trumpet from the 3rd to the 12th. The restrictions
+placed upon the use of the cavalry trumpet would have rendered
+it unavailable for use in the hunting-field, but the snake-shaped
+model, as Praetorius describes it, was a decided improvement on
+the horn, although inferior in resonance to the cavalry model.
+Here then are the materials for the fusion of the trumpet and hunting-horn
+into the natural or hand-horn of the 17th and 18th centuries.
+There is evidence, however, that a century earlier, <i>i.e.</i> at the end
+of the 15th century, the art of bending a brass tube of the delicate
+proportions of the French horn, which is still a test of fine workmanship,
+had been successfully practised. In an illustrated edition
+of Virgil&rsquo;s works published in Strassburg in 1502 and emanating
+from Grüninger&rsquo;s office, Brant being responsible for the illustrations,
+the lines (<i>Aen.</i> viii. 1-2) &ldquo;Ut belli signum Laurenti Turnus ab arce
+Extulit: et rauco strepuerunt cornua cantu&rdquo; are illustrated by two
+soldiers, one with the sackbut (posaune, the descendant of the
+buccina), the other with a horn wound spirally round his body in
+three coils, which appear to have a conical bore from the funnel-shaped
+mouthpiece to the bell which extends at the back of the head
+horizontally over the left shoulder (fig. 6). There is ample room for
+the performer&rsquo;s head and shoulders to pass through the circle:
+the length of the tube could not therefore have been much less
+than 16 ft. long, equivalent to the horn in C or
+B&#9837; basso. In the same book (pl. ccci.) is
+another horn, smaller, differing slightly in the
+disposition of the coils and held like the modern
+horn in front.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:311px" src="images/img702b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Spirally
+Coiled Horn from
+Virgil&rsquo;s Works
+(1502), folio cccviii.
+versa.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>These horns were not used for hunting but
+for war in conjunction with the draw-trumpet.
+Brant could not have imagined these instruments,
+and must have seen the originals or at
+least drawings of them; the instruments probably
+emanated from the famed workshops of
+Nuremberg, being intended mainly for use in
+Italy, and had not been generally adopted in
+Germany. The significance of these drawings
+of natural horns in a German work of the dawn
+of the 16th century will not be lost. It disposes
+once and for all of the oft-repeated fable
+that the hunting-horn first assumed its present
+form in France about 1680, a statement accepted
+without question by authorities of all
+countries, but without reference to any <i>pièce
+justificative</i> other than the story of the Bohemian
+Count Spörken first quoted by Gerber,<a name="fa40p" id="fa40p" href="#ft40p"><span class="sp">40</span></a> and
+repeated in most musical works without the
+context. The account which gave rise to
+this statement had been published in 1782
+in a book by Faustinus Prochaska:<a name="fa41p" id="fa41p" href="#ft41p"><span class="sp">41</span></a> &ldquo;Vix
+Parisiis inflandi cornua venatoria inventa ars quum delectatus
+suavitate cantus duos ex hominibus sibi obnoxiis ea instituendos
+curavit. Id principium apud nos artis, qua hodie Bohemi excellere
+putantur.&rdquo; In a preceding passage after the count&rsquo;s name, Franz
+Anton, Graf von Spörken, are the words &ldquo;anno saeculi superioris
+octogesimo quum iter in externas provincias suscepisset,&rdquo; &amp;c.
+There is no reference here to the invention of the horn in Paris or
+to the folding of the tube spirally, but only to the manner of eliciting
+sound from the instrument. Count Spörken, accustomed to the
+medieval hunting fanfares in which the tone of the horn approximated
+to the blare of the trumpet, was merely struck by the musical
+quality of the true horn tone elicited in Paris, and gave France
+the credit of the so-called invention, which probably more properly
+belonged to Italy. The account published by Prochaska a hundred
+years after, without reference to the source from which it was
+obtained, finds no corroboration from French sources. Had the
+French really made any substantial improvement in the hunting-horn
+at the end of the 17th century, transforming it from the primitive
+instrument into an orchestral instrument, it would only be
+reasonable to expect to find some evidence of this, considering the
+importance attached to the art of music at the court of Louis XIV.,
+whose musical establishments, la Chapelle Musique,<a name="fa42p" id="fa42p" href="#ft42p"><span class="sp">42</span></a> la Musique de
+la Chambre du Roi and la Musique de la Grande Écurie, included
+the most brilliant French artists. One would expect to find horns of
+that period by French makers among the relics of musical instruments
+in the museums of Europe. This does not seem to be the case.
+Moreover, in Diderot and d&rsquo;Alembert&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopédie</i> (1767) the
+information given under the heading <i>trompe ou cor de chasse grand
+et petit</i> is very vague, and contains no hint of any special merit due
+to France for any improvement in construction. Among the plates
+(vol. v., pl. vii.) is given an illustration of a horn very similar to the
+instruments made in England and Germany nearly a century
+earlier, but with a funnel-shaped mouthpiece. Dr Julius Rühlmann
+states that there are two horns by Raoux, bearing the date 1703,<a name="fa43p" id="fa43p" href="#ft43p"><span class="sp">43</span></a>
+in the Bavarian National Museum in Munich,<a name="fa44p" id="fa44p" href="#ft44p"><span class="sp">44</span></a> but although fine
+examples, one in silver, the other in brass (fig. 6) by Raoux, they
+turn out on inquiry<a name="fa45p" id="fa45p" href="#ft45p"><span class="sp">45</span></a> to bear no date whatever. Rühlmann&rsquo;s
+statement in the same article, that in the arms of the family of
+Wartenberg-Kolb (now extinct), which goes back to 1169, there is
+a hunting-horn coiled round in a complete circle is also misleading.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span>
+The horn (a post-horn) did not appear in the arms of the family
+in question until 1699, when the first peer Casimir Johann Friedrich
+was created hereditary Post-Master. The influence of such erroneous
+statements in the work of noted writers is far-reaching. Inquiries
+at the department of
+National Archives in
+Paris concerning Raoux,
+the founder of the afterwards
+famous firm of
+horn-makers whose model
+with pistons is used in
+the British military bands
+and at Kneller Hall,
+proved fruitless. Fétis
+states that he worked
+during the second half of
+the 18th century. Albert
+Chouquet<a name="fa46p" id="fa46p" href="#ft46p"><span class="sp">46</span></a> states that
+he has seen a trumpet by
+Raoux, &ldquo;seul ordinaire
+du Roy, Place du Louvre&rdquo;
+dated 1695. The inscriptions
+on the horns in question
+are: For No. 105, a
+silver horn of the simplest
+form of construction in D,
+&ldquo;Fait à Paris par Raoux&rdquo;;
+for No. 106, a brass horn
+engraved with a crown on
+an ermine mantle with
+the initials C. A. (Carl
+Albert), &ldquo;Fait à Paris
+par Raoux, seul ordinaire
+du Roy, Place du Louvre.&rdquo;
+Both horns measure across the coils 56 cm. and across the bell
+27½. They are practically the same as the <i>cors de chasse</i> now in
+use in French and Belgian military bands, the large diameter of
+the coil enabling the performer to carry it over his shoulder. The
+orchestral horn was given a narrower diameter in order to facilitate
+its being held in front of the performer in a convenient position for
+stopping the bell with the right hand. No. 107 in the same collection,
+a horn of German construction, bears the inscription &ldquo;Macht Jacob
+Schmid in Nürnberg&rdquo; and the trademark &ldquo;J. S.&rdquo; with a bird.
+A horn in E&#9837;] of French make, having fleur-de-lys stamped on the
+rim of the bell, and measuring only 15 in. across the coils to the
+exterior edge of the bell&mdash;therefore a very small horn&mdash;is preserved
+in the Grand Ducal Museum at Darmstadt.<a name="fa47p" id="fa47p" href="#ft47p"><span class="sp">47</span></a> A horn in F&#9839; (probably
+F in modern high pitch), having the rim ornamented as above and
+the inscription &ldquo;Fait à Paris, Carlin, ordinaire du Roy,&rdquo; readily
+gives the harmonics from the 3rd to the 12th.<a name="fa48p" id="fa48p" href="#ft48p"><span class="sp">48</span></a> The extreme width
+is 20 in.<a name="fa49p" id="fa49p" href="#ft49p"><span class="sp">49</span></a> Carlin, who lived at rue Croix des Petits Champs, died
+about 1780. The earliest dated horn extant is believed to be the
+one preserved in the Hohenzollern Museum in Sigmaringen, &ldquo;Machts
+Wilhelm Haas, Nürnberg, 1688.&rdquo;<a name="fa50p" id="fa50p" href="#ft50p"><span class="sp">50</span></a> Another early German horn
+engraved &ldquo;Machts Heinr. Rich. Pfeiffer in Leipzig, 1697,&rdquo;<a name="fa51p" id="fa51p" href="#ft51p"><span class="sp">51</span></a> formerly
+in Paul de Wit&rsquo;s museum in Leipzig and now transferred with the
+rest of the collection to Cologne, is of similar construction.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:279px; height:391px" src="images/img703a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From a Photo by K. Teufel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Early Raoux Horn (Munich).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The horn must have been well known at this time in England,
+for there are 17th-century horns of English manufacture still extant,
+one, for instance, in the collection of the Rev. F. W. Galpin by
+William Bull, dated 1699.<a name="fa52p" id="fa52p" href="#ft52p"><span class="sp">52</span></a> In 1701 Clagget<a name="fa53p" id="fa53p" href="#ft53p"><span class="sp">53</span></a> invented a contrivance
+by means of which two horns in different keys could be coupled and
+played by means of one mouthpiece, a valve or key opening the
+passage into the airways of one or the other of these horns at the
+will of the performer. Another horn of English manufacture about
+1700 was exhibited at the South Kensington Museum in 1872,
+bearing No. 337 in the catalogue, in which unfortunately no details
+are given. Enough examples have been quoted to show that,
+judging from the specimens extant, Germany was not behind
+France, if not actually ahead, in the manufacture of early natural
+horns. Data are wanting concerning the instruments of Italy;
+they would probably prove to be the earliest of all, and as brass
+wind instruments are perishable are perhaps for that very reason
+unrepresented at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>The horn at the present stage in its evolution was also well
+represented among the illustrations of the musical literature in
+Germany<a name="fa54p" id="fa54p" href="#ft54p"><span class="sp">54</span></a> during the first half of the 18th century, and references
+to it are frequent.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest orchestral music for the horn occurs in the operas
+of Cavalli and Cesti, leaders of the Venetian Opera in the 17th
+century. Already in 1639 Cavalli in his opera <i>Le Nozze
+de Tito e Pelei</i> (act i. sc. 1) introduced a short scena,
+<span class="sidenote">Music.</span>
+&ldquo;Chiamata alla Caccia&rdquo;<a name="fa55p" id="fa55p" href="#ft55p"><span class="sp">55</span></a> in C major for four horns on a basso
+continuo. An examination of the scoring in C clefs on the first,
+second, third and fourth lines shows, by the use of the note
+<img style="width:169px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703b.jpg" alt="" /> in the bass part and in the second tenor of
+<img style="width:126px; height:39px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703c.jpg" alt="" /> the 5th harmonic of the series, that the fundamental
+could have been no other than the 16-ft. C; the highest
+note in the treble part is <img style="width:77px; height:43px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703d.jpg" alt="" />, the 12th harmonic of the 8-ft.
+alto horn in C, now obsolete. It is clear therefore that horns with
+tubing respectively 8 ft. and 16 ft. long, which must have been
+disposed in coils as in the present day, were in use in Italy before
+the middle of the 17th century, fifty years before the date of their
+reputed invention in Paris.</p>
+
+<p>In the same opera, act i. sc. 4, &ldquo;Coro di Cavalieri&rdquo; is a stirring
+call to arms of elemental grandeur, in which occur the words:
+&ldquo;all&rsquo; armi, ò la guerrieri corni e tamburi e trombe, ogni campo
+ogni canto, armi rimbombe.&rdquo; There are above the voice parts four
+staves with treble and C clef signatures above the bass, and, although
+no instruments are indicated, the music written thereon,
+which alternates with the voices but does not accompany them,
+can have been intended for no instruments but trumpets and horns,
+thus carrying out the indications in the text. The horn is here once
+again put to the same use as the Roman cornu, and associated in
+like manner with the descendant of the buccina in a call to arms.
+It may be purely a coincidence that the early illustration of a horn
+with the tubing wound in coils round the body in the Strassburg
+Virgil mentioned above was put to the same use and associated
+with the same instrument.</p>
+
+<p>Cesti&rsquo;s operas likewise contain many passages evidently intended
+for the horn, although the instruments are not specified in the
+score, which was nothing unusual at the time. Lulli composed the
+incidental music for a ballet, <i>La Princesse d&rsquo;Elide</i>, which formed
+part of Molière&rsquo;s divertissement, &ldquo;Les plaisirs de l&rsquo;île enchantée,&rdquo;
+written for a great festival at Versailles on the 7th of May 1664.
+A copy of the music for this ballet, made about 1680, is preserved in
+the library of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The music
+contains a piece entitled &ldquo;Les violons et les cors de chasse,&rdquo; written
+in the same style as Cavalli&rsquo;s scena; there are but two staves,
+and on both the music is characteristic of the horn, with which the
+violins would play in unison. The piece finishes on B&#9837; <img style="width:78px; height:50px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703e.jpg" alt="" />
+and to play this note as the second of the harmonic series, the
+fundamental not being obtainable, the tube of the horn must have
+been over 17 ft. long. Among Philidor&rsquo;s copies of Lulli&rsquo;s ballets
+preserved in the library of the Paris Conservatoire of Music (vol.
+xlvii., p. 61) is a more complete copy of the above. The second
+number is an &ldquo;Air des valets de chiens et des chasseurs avec les
+cors de chasse,&rdquo; which is substantially the same as the one in the
+Fitzwilliam Museum, but set for five horns in B&#9837;. Here again the
+use of D, the fifth note of the harmonic series, indicates that the
+fundamental was <img style="width:77px; height:67px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703f.jpg" alt="" /> a tone lower than the C horn
+scored for by Cavalli, and known as B&#9837; basso. Victor Mahillon<a name="fa56p" id="fa56p" href="#ft56p"><span class="sp">56</span></a>
+considers that the music reveals the fact that it was written for
+horns in B&#9837;, 35 degrees (chromatic semitones) above 32-ft. C, or
+<img style="width:74px; height:33px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img703g.jpg" alt="" /> having a wave-length of 1.475 m. To this statement
+it is not possible to subscribe. The quintette required four horns in
+B&#9837; over 8 ft. long and one B&#9837; basso about 17 ft. long. It is obvious
+that the present custom of placing the bass notes of the horn on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span>
+F clef an octave too low, as is now customary, had not yet been
+adopted, for in that case the bass horn would in several bars be
+playing above the tenor.</p>
+
+<p>In 1647 Cardinal Mazarin, wishing to create in France a taste
+for Italian opera, had procured from Italy an orchestra, singers and
+mise-en-scène. That he was not entirely successful in making
+Paris appreciate Italian music is beside the mark; he developed
+instead a demand for French opera, to which Lulli proved equal.
+The great similarity in the style of the horn <i>scène</i> by Cavalli and
+Lulli may perhaps provide a clue to the mysterious and sudden
+apparition of the natural horn in France, where nothing was known
+of the hybrid instrument thirty years before, when Mersenne<a name="fa57p" id="fa57p" href="#ft57p"><span class="sp">57</span></a>
+wrote his careful treatise on musical instruments.</p>
+
+<p>The orchestral horn had been introduced from Italy. It is not
+difficult to understand how the horn came to be called the <i>French</i>
+horn in England; the term only appears after Gerber and other
+writers had repeated the story of Count Spörken introducing the
+musical horn into Bohemia.<a name="fa58p" id="fa58p" href="#ft58p"><span class="sp">58</span></a> By this time the firm of Raoux,
+established in Paris a hundred years, had won for itself full recognition
+of its high standard of workmanship in the making of horns.</p>
+
+<p>This use of the horn by Lulli in the one ballet seems to be an
+isolated instance; no other has yet been quoted. The introduction
+of the natural horn into the orchestra of the French opera did
+not occur until much later in 1735 in André Campra&rsquo;s <i>Achille et
+Deidamie</i>, and then only in a fanfare. In the meantime the horn
+had already won a place in most of the rising opera houses and ducal
+orchestras<a name="fa59p" id="fa59p" href="#ft59p"><span class="sp">59</span></a> of Germany, and had been introduced by Handel into
+the orchestra in London in his <i>Water-music</i> composed in honour
+of George I.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Italians were undoubtedly the first to introduce
+the horn into the orchestra, it figured at first only as the characteristic
+instrument of the chase, suggesting and accompanying hunting
+scenes or calls to arms. For a more independent use of the horn in
+the orchestra we must turn to Germany. Reinhard Keiser, the
+founder of German opera, at the end of the 17th century in Hamburg,
+introduced two horns in C into the opening chorus of his opera
+<i>Octavia</i> in 1705, where the horns are added to the string quartette
+and the oboes; they play again in act i. sc. 3, and in act ii. sc. 6
+and 9. The compass used by the composer for the horns in C
+alto is the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:362px; height:67px" src="images/img704.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="noind">Wilhelm Kleefeld draws attention to the characterization, which
+differed in the three acts. In <i>Henrico</i> (1711), in <i>Diana</i> (1712) and
+in <i>L&rsquo;Inganno Fedele</i> (1714) F horns were used. This called forth
+from Mattheson<a name="fa60p" id="fa60p" href="#ft60p"><span class="sp">60</span></a> his much-quoted eulogium, the earliest description
+of the orchestral horn: &ldquo;Die lieblich pompeusen Waldhörner sind
+bei itziger Zeit sehr <i>en vogue</i> kommen, weil sie theils nicht so rude
+von Natur sind als die Trompeten, teils auch weil sie mit mehr
+<i>Facilité</i> können tractiret werden. Die brauchbarsten haben F
+und mit den Trompeten aus dem C gleichen <i>Ambitum</i>. Sie klingen
+auch dicker und füllen besser aus als die übertäubende und schreyende
+Clarinen, weil sie um eine ganze quinte tiefer stehen.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Lotti in his <i>Giove in Argo</i>, given in Dresden, 1717, scored for
+two horns in C, writing for them soli in the aria for tenor<a name="fa61p" id="fa61p" href="#ft61p"><span class="sp">61</span></a> (act iii.
+sc. 1). Examples of C. H. Graun&rsquo;s<a name="fa62p" id="fa62p" href="#ft62p"><span class="sp">62</span></a> scoring for horns in F and G
+respectively in <i>Polydorus</i> (1708-1729) and in <i>Iphigenia</i> (1731) show
+the complete emancipation of the instrument from its original
+limitations; it serves not only as melody instrument but also to
+enrich the harmony and emphasize the rhythm. A comparison of
+the early scores of Cavalli and Lulli with those of Handel&rsquo;s <i>Wasserfahrtmusik</i><a name="fa63p" id="fa63p" href="#ft63p"><span class="sp">63</span></a>
+(1717) and of <i>Radamisto</i>, performed in London in 1720,
+shows the rapid progress made by the horn, even at a time when its
+technique was still necessarily imperfect.</p>
+
+<p>While Bach was conductor of the prince of Anhalt-Cöthen&rsquo;s
+orchestra (1717-1723), it is probable that horns in several keys
+were used. In Dresden two Bohemian horn-players, Johann
+Adalbert Fischer and Franz Adam Samm, were added to the court
+orchestra in 1711.<a name="fa64p" id="fa64p" href="#ft64p"><span class="sp">64</span></a> In Vienna the addition is stated to have taken
+place in 1712 at the opera.<a name="fa65p" id="fa65p" href="#ft65p"><span class="sp">65</span></a> It is probable that as in Paris so in
+Vienna there were solitary instances in which the horn was heard
+in opera without attracting the attention of musicians long before
+1712, for instance in Cesti&rsquo;s <i>Il Pomo d&rsquo;Oro</i>, printed in Vienna in
+1667 and 1668 and performed for the wedding ceremonies of Kaiser
+Leopold and Margareta, infanta of Spain. A horn in E (former F
+pitch) in the museum of the Brussels conservatoire bears the inscription
+&ldquo;Machts Michael Leicham Schneider in Wien, 1713.&rdquo;<a name="fa66p" id="fa66p" href="#ft66p"><span class="sp">66</span></a>
+Fürstenau<a name="fa67p" id="fa67p" href="#ft67p"><span class="sp">67</span></a> gives a further list of operas in Vienna during the first
+two decades of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>It will be well before the next stage in the evolution is approached
+to consider the compass of the natural horn. The pedal octave
+from the fundamental to the 2nd harmonic was altogether wanting;
+the next octave contained only the 2nd and 3rd harmonics or the
+octave and its fifth; in the third octave, the 8ve, its major 3rd,
+5th and minor 7th; in the fourth octave, a diatonic scale with a few
+accidentals was possible. It will be seen that the compass was very
+limited on any individual horn, but by grouping horns in different
+keys, or by changing the crooks, command was gained by the
+composer over a larger number of open notes.</p>
+
+<p>An important period in the development of the horn has now
+been reached. Anton Joseph Hampel is generally credited<a name="fa68p" id="fa68p" href="#ft68p"><span class="sp">68</span></a> with
+the innovation of adapting the crooks to the middle of the body of
+the horn instead of near the mouthpiece, which greatly improved
+the quality of the notes obtained by means of the crooks. The
+crooks fitted into the two branches of <b>U</b>-shaped tubes, thus forming
+slides which acted as compensators. Hampel&rsquo;s <i>Inventionshorn</i>, as
+it is called in Germany (Fr. <i>cor harmonique</i>), is said to date from
+1753,<a name="fa69p" id="fa69p" href="#ft69p"><span class="sp">69</span></a> the first instrument having been made for him by Johann
+Werner, a brass instrument-maker of Dresden. The same invention
+is also attributed to Haltenhof of Hanau.<a name="fa70p" id="fa70p" href="#ft70p"><span class="sp">70</span></a> Others again mention
+Michael Wögel<a name="fa71p" id="fa71p" href="#ft71p"><span class="sp">71</span></a> of Carlsruhe and Rastadt, probably confusing his
+adaptation of the <i>Invention</i> or <i>Maschine</i>, as the slide contrivance
+was called in Germany, to the trumpet in 1780. The Inventionshorn,
+although embodying an important principle which has also
+found its application in all brass wind instruments with valves as
+a means of correcting defective intonation, did not add to the
+compass of the horn. At some date before 1762 it would seem that
+Hampel<a name="fa72p" id="fa72p" href="#ft72p"><span class="sp">72</span></a> also discovered the principle on which hand-stopping is
+founded.</p>
+
+<p>By hand-stopping (Fr. <i>sons bouchés</i>, Ger. <i>gestöpfte Töne</i>) is understood
+the practice of inserting the hand with palm outstretched and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span>
+fingers drawn together, forming a long, shallow cup, into the bell of
+the horn; the effect is similar to that produced in wood wind
+instruments, termed <i>d&rsquo;amore</i>, by the pear-shaped bell with a narrow
+opening, <i>i.e.</i> a veiled mysterious quality, and, according to the
+arrangement of the hand and fingers (which cannot be taught
+theoretically, being inter-dependent on other acoustic conditions),
+a drop in pitch which enables the performer merely to correct the
+faulty intonation of difficult harmonics or to lower the pitch exactly
+a semitone or even a full tone by inserting the hand well up the
+bore of the bell. J. Fröhlich<a name="fa73p" id="fa73p" href="#ft73p"><span class="sp">73</span></a> gives drawings of the two principal
+positions of the hand in the horn. The same phenomenon may be
+observed in the flute by closing all the holes, so that the fundamental
+note of the pipe speaks, and then gradually bringing the palm of
+the hand nearer the open end of the flute. As a probable explanation
+may be offered the following suggestion. The partial closing of the
+opening of the bell removes the boundary of ambient air, which
+determines the ventral segment of the half wave-length some
+distance beyond the normal length; this boundary always lies
+<i>beyond</i> the end of the tube, thus accounting for the discrepancy
+between the theoretical length of the air-column and the practical
+length actually given to the tube.<a name="fa74p" id="fa74p" href="#ft74p"><span class="sp">74</span></a> Hampel is also said to have
+been the first to apply the <i>sordini</i><a name="fa75p" id="fa75p" href="#ft75p"><span class="sp">75</span></a> (Fr. <i>sourdine</i>) or mute, already
+in use in the 17th century for the trumpet,<a name="fa76p" id="fa76p" href="#ft76p"><span class="sp">76</span></a> to the horn. The
+original mute did not affect the pitch of the instrument, but only
+the tone, and when properly constructed may be used with the valve
+horn to produce the mysterious veiled quality of the hand-stopped
+notes. No satisfactory scientific explanation of the modifications
+in the pitch effected by the partial obstruction of the bell, whether
+by the hand or by means of certain mechanical devices, has as yet
+been offered. D. J. Blaikley suggests that in cases when the effect
+of hand-stopping appears to be to raise the pitch of the notes of
+the harmonic series, the real result of any contraction of the bell
+mouth (as by the insertion of the hand) is always a flattening of
+pitch accompanied by the introduction of a distorted or inharmonic
+scale, of such a character that for instance, the <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, or 8th, 9th
+and 10th notes of the original harmonic scale become not the c&#9839;
+d&#9839; e&#9839; of a fundamental raised a semitone, but D&#9837;, E&#9837;, and f due
+to the 9th, 10th and 11th notes of a disturbed or distorted scale
+having a fundamental lower than that of the normal horn.</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:522px; height:158px" src="images/img705a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>With regard to the discovery of this method of obtaining a
+chromatic compass for the horn, which rendered the instrument
+very popular with composers, instrumentalists and the public, and
+procured for it a generally accredited position in the orchestra, the
+following is the sum of evidence at present available. In the Kgl.
+öffentliche Bibliothek, Dresden, is preserved, amongst the musical
+MSS., an autograph volume of 152 pages, entitled <i>Lection pro
+Cornui</i>, bearing the signature A. J. H[ampel], the name being filled
+in in pencil by a different hand. There is no introduction, no letterpress
+of any description belonging to the MS. method for the horn,
+nor is any book or pamphlet explaining the Inventionshorn or the
+method of hand-stopping by Hampel extant or known to have
+existed. He has apparently left no record of his accomplishment.
+A few typical extracts copied and selected from the original MS.,
+courteously communicated by the director of the Royal Library,
+Hofrath, P. E. Richter (a practical musician and performer on horn
+and trumpet), do not prove conclusively that they were intended
+to be played on hand-stopped horns, with the exception, perhaps,
+of the A, 13th harmonic from C, which could not easily be obtained
+except by hand-stopping on the hand-horn. On the blank sheet
+preceding the exercises is an inscription in the hand of Moritz
+Fürstenau, former custodian of the Royal Private Musical Collection
+(incorporated with the public library in 1896): &ldquo;Anton Joseph
+Hampel, by whom these exercises for the horn were written, was a
+celebrated horn-player, a member of the Orchestra of the Electoral
+Prince of Saxony. He invented the so-called Inventionshorn.
+Cf. <i>Neues biog.-hist. Lexicon der Tonkünstler</i> by Gerber, pt. i. col.
+493; also <i>Zur Gesch. der Musik u. des Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden</i>,
+by M. Fürstenau, Bd. ii.&rdquo; It will be seen that Fürstenau gives
+Gerber as his authority for the attribution of the invention to Hampel,
+although he searched the archives, to which he had free access, for
+material for his book.</p>
+
+<p>The first possessor of the MS., Franz Schubert (1768-1824),
+musical director of the Italian opera in Dresden, wrote the following
+note in pencil on the last page of the cover: &ldquo;Franz Schubert.
+The complete school of horn-playing by the Kgl. Polnischen u.
+Kursächs. Cammermusicus Anton Joseph Hampel, a celebrated
+virtuoso, invented by himself in 1762.&rdquo; Judging from the standard
+of modern technique, there are many passages in the &ldquo;Lection&rdquo;
+which could not be played without artificially humouring the production
+of harmonics with the lips, and it is an open question to
+what extent this method of correcting intonation and of altering the
+pitch was practised in the 18th century. When, therefore, Franz
+Schubert states that the method was <i>invented</i> by Hampel, we may
+take this as indirectly confirming Gerber&rsquo;s statements. Further
+confirmation is obtained from the text of a work on the horn written
+by Heinrich Domnich<a name="fa77p" id="fa77p" href="#ft77p"><span class="sp">77</span></a> (b. 1760), the son of a celebrated horn-player
+of Würtzburg contemporary with Hampel. Domnich junior settled
+eventually in Paris, where he was appointed first professor of the
+horn at the Conservatoire. According to him the mute (sourdine)
+of metal, wood or cardboard in the form of a hollow cone, having
+a hole in the base, was used to soften the tone of the horn without
+altering the pitch. But Hampel, substituting for this the pad of
+cotton wool used for a similar purpose with the oboe, found with
+surprise that its effect in the bell of the horn was to <i>raise</i> the pitch
+a semitone (see D. J. Blaikley&rsquo;s explanation above). By this means,
+says Domnich, a diatonic and chromatic scale was obtained. Later
+Hampel substituted the hand for the pad. Domnich duly ascribes
+to Hampel the credit of the Inventionshorn, but erroneously states
+that it was Haltenhoff of Hanau who made the first instrument.
+Domnich further explains that Hampel, who had not practised the
+<i>bouché</i> notes in his youth, only made use of them in slow music, and
+that the credit of making practical use of the discovery was due to
+his pupil Giovanni Punto (Joh. Stich) the celebrated horn virtuoso,
+who was a friend of Domnich&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to draw attention to the fact that hand-stopping
+was not possible so long as the tube of horn was folded in a circle
+wide enough to be worn round the body. The reduction of the
+diameter of the orchestral horn in order to allow the performer to
+hold the instrument in front of him, thus bringing the bell in front
+of the right arm in a convenient position for hand-stopping, must
+have preceded the discovery of hand-stopping. In the absence of
+contrary evidence we may suppose that the change was effected for
+the more convenient arrangement and manipulation of the slides or
+<i>Inventions</i>. So radical a change in the compass of the horn could not
+occur and be adopted generally without leaving its mark on the
+horn music of the period; this change does not occur, as far as we
+know, before the last decades of the 18th century. The rapid
+acceptance in other countries of Hampel&rsquo;s discovery of hand-stopping
+is evidenced by a passage from a little English work on music,
+published in London in 1772 but bearing at the end of the preface
+the date June 1766:<a name="fa78p" id="fa78p" href="#ft78p"><span class="sp">78</span></a> &ldquo;Some eminent Proficients have been so
+dexterous as very nearly to perform all the defective notes of the
+scale on the Horn by management of Breath and by a little stopping
+the bell with their hands.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hampel&rsquo;s success gave a general impetus to the inventive faculty
+of musical instrument makers in Europe. At first the result was
+negative. Kölbel&rsquo;s attempt must, however, be mentioned, if only
+to correct a misconception. Kölbel, a Bohemian horn virtuoso at
+the imperial Russian court from 1754, spent many years in vain
+endeavours to improve his instrument. At last, in 1760, he applied
+keys to the horn or the bugle, calling it Klappenhorn (the bugle is
+known in Germany as <i>Signal</i> or <i>Buglehorn</i>). Kölbel&rsquo;s experiment
+did not become widely known or adopted during his lifetime, but
+Anton Weidinger, court trumpeter at Vienna, made a keyed trumpet<a name="fa79p" id="fa79p" href="#ft79p"><span class="sp">79</span></a>
+in 1801, which attracted attention in musical circles and gave a
+fresh impetus in experimenting with keys upon brass instruments.
+In 1813 Joseph Weidinger, the twelve-year-old son of the above,
+gave a concert in Vienna on the <i>Klappenwaldhorn</i><a name="fa80p" id="fa80p" href="#ft80p"><span class="sp">80</span></a> (or keyed French
+horn), about which little seems to be known. Victor Mahillon<a name="fa81p" id="fa81p" href="#ft81p"><span class="sp">81</span></a>
+describes such an instrument, but ascribes the invention to Kölbel;
+there was but one key placed on the bell, which on being opened
+had the effect of raising the pitch of the instrument a whole tone.
+By alternately using the harmonic open notes on the normal length
+of the tube, and then by the action of the key shortening the air
+column, the following diatonic scale was obtained in the third
+octave:</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:473px; height:60px" src="images/img705b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:265px; height:377px" src="images/img706.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Modern Horn (Boosey &amp; Co.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">In 1812 Dikhuth,<a name="fa82p" id="fa82p" href="#ft82p"><span class="sp">82</span></a> horn-player in the orchestra of the grand-duke
+of Baden at Mannheim, constructed a horn in which a slide on the
+principle of that of the trombone
+was intended to replace
+hand-stopping and to lower
+the pitch at will a semitone.</p>
+
+<p>The most felicitous, far-reaching
+and important of all
+improvements was the invention
+of valves (<i>q.v.</i>), pistons
+or cylinders (the principle of
+which has already been explained),
+by Heinrich Stölzel,<a name="fa83p" id="fa83p" href="#ft83p"><span class="sp">83</span></a>
+who applied them first of all
+to the horn, the trumpet
+and the trombone,<a name="fa84p" id="fa84p" href="#ft84p"><span class="sp">84</span></a> thus
+endowing the brass wind with
+a chromatic compass obtained
+with perfect ease throughout
+the compass. The inherent
+defect of valve instruments
+already explained, which
+causes faulty intonation needing
+correction when the pistons
+are used in combination,
+has now been practically
+overcome. The numerous
+attempts to solve the difficulty,
+made with varying success
+by makers of brass instruments, are described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valve</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bombarden</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cornet</a></span>.<a name="fa85p" id="fa85p" href="#ft85p"><span class="sp">85</span></a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" style="clear: both;" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Michael Praetorius, <i>De organographia</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618),
+tab. viii., where crooks for lowering the key by one tone on trumpet
+and trombone are pictured.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, <i>Les Éléments d&rsquo;acoustique musicale et instrumentale</i>
+(Brussels, 1874), pp. 96, 97, &amp;c.; Friedrich Zamminer, <i>Die
+Musik und die musikalischen Instrumente</i> (Giessen, 1855), p. 310,
+where diagrams of the mouthpieces are given.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3p" id="ft3p" href="#fa3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Joseph Fröhlich, <i>Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Musikschule</i>
+(Bonn, 1811), iii. 7, where diagrams of the two mouthpieces
+for first and second horn are given.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4p" id="ft4p" href="#fa4p"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Gottfried Weber, &ldquo;Zur Akustik der Blasinstrumente,&rdquo; in
+<i>Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung</i> (Leipzig, 1816), p. 38.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5p" id="ft5p" href="#fa5p"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Les Instruments de musique au musée du Conservatoire royal de
+musique de Bruxelles</i>, &ldquo;Instruments à vent,&rdquo; ii., &ldquo;Le Cor, son histoire,
+sa théorie, sa construction&rdquo; (Brussels and London, 1907), p. 28.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6p" id="ft6p" href="#fa6p"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Die Akustik</i> (Leipzig, 1802), p. 86, § 72.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7p" id="ft7p" href="#fa7p"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> p. 13, § 20, and p. 15, §§ 24 and 25. This apparent discrepancy
+between an early and a modern authority on the acoustics
+of wind instruments is easily explained. Chladni, when speaking of
+open and closed pipes, refers to the standard cylindrical and rectangular
+organ-pipes. Mahillon, on the other hand, draws a distinction
+in favour of the conical pipe, demonstrating in a practical manner
+how, given a certain calibre, the conical pipe must overblow the
+harmonics of the open pipe, whatever the method of producing the
+sound.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8p" id="ft8p" href="#fa8p"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See Gottfried Weber, <i>loc. cit.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9p" id="ft9p" href="#fa9p"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, <i>Wellenlehre</i> (Leipzig,
+1825), p. 519, § 281, and <i>A Text-Book of Physics</i>, part. ii., &ldquo;Sound,&rdquo;
+by J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson (London, 1906), pp. 104
+and 105.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10p" id="ft10p" href="#fa10p"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See Sedley Taylor, <i>Sound and Music</i> (1896), p. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11p" id="ft11p" href="#fa11p"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Id.</i> pp. 23-25.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12p" id="ft12p" href="#fa12p"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See Gottfried Weber, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 39-41, and Ernst H. and
+Wilhelm Weber, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 522, end of § 285.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13p" id="ft13p" href="#fa13p"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See A. Ganot, <i>Elementary Treatise on Physics</i>, translated by
+E. Atkinson (16th ed., London, 1902), p. 266, § 282, &ldquo;In the horn
+different notes are produced by altering the distance of the lips.&rdquo;
+Such a vague and misleading statement is worse than useless.
+See also Poynting and Thomson, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 113.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14p" id="ft14p" href="#fa14p"><span class="fn">14</span></a> &ldquo;Le Cor,&rdquo; p. 22; p. 11, § 18; pp. 6 and 7, § 8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15p" id="ft15p" href="#fa15p"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The phraseology alone is here borrowed from Sedley Taylor,
+(<i>op. cit.</i> p. 55), who does not enter into the practical application of
+the theory he expounds so clearly.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16p" id="ft16p" href="#fa16p"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See Dr Emil Schafhäutl&rsquo;s article on musical instruments,
+§ iv. of <i>Bericht der Beurtheilungs Commission bei der Allg. Deutschen
+Industrie Ausstellung, 1854</i> (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-170; also F.
+Zamminer, <i>op. cit.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17p" id="ft17p" href="#fa17p"><span class="fn">17</span></a> The measurements are for the high philharmonic pitch a&rsquo;=452.4.
+V. Mahillon, &ldquo;Le cor&rdquo; (p. 32), gives a table of the lengths of crooks
+in metres.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18p" id="ft18p" href="#fa18p"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Robert Eitner, editor of the Monatshefte für Musikwissenschaft,
+published therein an article in 1881, p. 41 seq., &ldquo;Wer hat die Ventiltrompete
+erfunden,&rdquo; in which, after referring to the <i>Klappenwaldhorn</i>
+and <i>Trompete</i> (keyed horn and trumpet) made by Weidinger
+and played in public in 1802 and 1813 respectively, he goes on to
+state that Schilling in his Lexicon makes the comical mistake of
+looking upon the Klappentrompete (keyed trumpet) and <i>Ventiltrompete</i>
+(valve trumpet) as different instruments. He accordingly
+sets matters right, as he thinks, by according to Weidinger the
+honour of the invention of valves, hitherto wrongfully attributed to
+Stölzel; and in the <i>Quellenlexikon</i> (1904) he leaves out Stölzel&rsquo;s
+name, and names Weidinger as the inventor of the <i>Klappen</i> or
+<i>Ventil</i>, referring readers for further particulars to his article, just
+quoted, in the <i>Monatshefte</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19p" id="ft19p" href="#fa19p"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See Hector Berlioz, <i>A Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and
+Orchestration</i>, translated by Mary Cowden Clarke, new edition revised
+by Joseph Bennett (1882), p. 141.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20p" id="ft20p" href="#fa20p"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, <i>Catal. descriptif des instruments de musique</i>,
+&amp;c., vol. ii. p. 388, No. 1156, where an illustration is given. See also
+Dr August Hammerich (French translation by E. Beauvais), &ldquo;Über
+altnordische Luren&rdquo; in <i>Vierteljährschrift für Musik-Wissenschaft</i>
+x. (1894).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21p" id="ft21p" href="#fa21p"><span class="fn">21</span></a> See Major J. H. L. Archer, <i>The British Army Records</i> (London,
+1888), pp. 402, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22p" id="ft22p" href="#fa22p"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>De re militari</i>, iii. 5 (Basel, 1532). The successive editions and
+translations of this classic, both manuscript and printed, throughout
+the middle ages afford useful evidence of the evolution of these three
+wind instruments.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23p" id="ft23p" href="#fa23p"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See Wilhelm Froehner, <i>La Colonne Trajane d&rsquo;après le surmoulage
+exécuté à Rome en 1861-1862</i> (Paris, 1872-1874). On pl.
+51 is a cornu framing the head of a cornicen or horn-player. See also
+the fine plates in Conrad Cichorius, <i>Die Reliefs der Traiansäule</i>
+(Berlin, 1896, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24p" id="ft24p" href="#fa24p"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Ermanno Ferrero, <i>L&rsquo;Arc d&rsquo;Auguste à Suse</i> (Segusio, 9-8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+(Turin, 1901).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25p" id="ft25p" href="#fa25p"><span class="fn">25</span></a> See the mouthpiece on the Pompeian buccinas preserved in the
+museum at Naples, reproduced in the article Buccina. The museums
+of the conservatoires of Paris and Brussels and the Collection Kraus
+in Florence possess facsimiles of these instruments; see Victor
+Mahillon, <i>Catalogue</i>, vol. ii. p. 30. Cf. also the pair of bronze
+Etruscan cornua, No. 2734 in the department of Creek and Roman
+antiquities at the British Museum, which possess well-preserved
+cup-shaped mouthpieces.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26p" id="ft26p" href="#fa26p"><span class="fn">26</span></a> See Bock, &ldquo;Gebrauch der Hörner im Mittelalter,&rdquo; in Gustav
+Heider&rsquo;s <i>Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmäler Österreichs</i> (Stuttgart,
+1858-1860).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27p" id="ft27p" href="#fa27p"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français</i> (Paris, 1889), ii. p. 246.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28p" id="ft28p" href="#fa28p"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Engelbertus Admontensis in <i>De Musica Scriptores</i>, by Martin
+Gerbert, Bd. ii. lib. ii. cap. 29; and Edward Buhle, <i>Die Musikalischen
+Instrumente in den Miniaturen des frühen Mittelalters</i>, pt. i.,
+&ldquo;Die Blasinstrumente&rdquo; (Leipzig, 1903), p. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29p" id="ft29p" href="#fa29p"><span class="fn">29</span></a> <i>Le Trésor de vénerie par Hardouin, seigneur de Fontaines-Guérin</i>
+(edited by H. Michelant, Metz, 1856); the first part was edited by
+Jérome Pichon (Paris, 1855), with an historical introduction by
+Bottée de Toulmon.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30p" id="ft30p" href="#fa30p"><span class="fn">30</span></a> As worked out by Edward Buhle, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 23.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31p" id="ft31p" href="#fa31p"><span class="fn">31</span></a> See Turbevile, <i>op. cit.</i>, also J. du Fouilloux, <i>La Vénerie</i> (Paris,
+1628), p. 70; cf. also editions of 1650 and of 1562, where the horn
+is called <i>trompe</i>, used with the verb <i>corner</i>; Juliana Bernes, <i>Boke
+of St Albans</i> (1496), the frontispiece of which is a hunting scene
+showing a horn of very wide bore, without bell. Only half the
+instrument is visible.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32p" id="ft32p" href="#fa32p"><span class="fn">32</span></a> See &ldquo;Reliure italienne du xv<span class="sp">e</span> siècle en argent niellé. Collection
+du Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild, Vienne,&rdquo; in <i>Gazette archéologique</i>
+(Paris, 1880), xiii. p. 295, pl. 38, where other instruments are also
+represented.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33p" id="ft33p" href="#fa33p"><span class="fn">33</span></a> See Jost Amman, <i>Wappen und Stammbuch</i> (1589). A reprint in
+facsimile has been published by Georg Hirth as vol. iii. of <i>Liebhaber
+Bibliothek</i> (Munich, 1881). See arms of Sultzberger aus Tirol
+(p. 52), &ldquo;Ein Jägerhörnlin,&rdquo; and of the Herzog von Wirtenberg;
+cf. the latter with the arms of Wurthemberch in pl. xxii. vol. ii.
+of Gelre&rsquo;s <i>Wappenboek ou armorial de 1334 à 1372</i> (miniatures of
+coats of arms in facsimile), edited by Victor Bouton (Paris, 1883).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34p" id="ft34p" href="#fa34p"><span class="fn">34</span></a> For illustrations see autotype facsimile of Utrecht Psalter,
+9th century; British Museum, Add. MS. 10,546, Ps. 150, 9th century;
+Add. MS. 24,199, 10th century; Eadwine Psalter, Trin. Coll. Camb.,
+11th century, and Cotton MS., Nero, D. IV., 8th century; also Edward
+Buhle, <i>op. cit.</i>, pl. ii. and pp. 12-24.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft35p" id="ft35p" href="#fa35p"><span class="fn">35</span></a> See John Carter, <i>Specimens of Ancient Sculpture and Paintings</i>
+(London, 1780-1794), i. p. 53 (plates unnumbered); also reproduced
+in H. Lavoix, <i>Histoire de la musique</i> (Paris, 1884).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft36p" id="ft36p" href="#fa36p"><span class="fn">36</span></a> See Jost Amman, <i>op. cit.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft37p" id="ft37p" href="#fa37p"><span class="fn">37</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und ausgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511), p. 30. The
+names are not given under the drawings, but the above is the order
+in which they occur, which is probably reversed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft38p" id="ft38p" href="#fa38p"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), p. 245.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft39p" id="ft39p" href="#fa39p"><span class="fn">39</span></a> <i>Syntagma Musicum</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pl. vii. No. 11, p. 39.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft40p" id="ft40p" href="#fa40p"><span class="fn">40</span></a> <i>Historisch-biographisches Lexicon der <span class="correction" title="amended from Tonkünslter">Tonkünstler</span></i> (Leipzig, 1790-1792
+and 1812-1814).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft41p" id="ft41p" href="#fa41p"><span class="fn">41</span></a> <i>De saecularibus Liberalium Artium in Bohemia et Moravia fatis
+commentarius</i> (Prague, 1784), p. 401.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft42p" id="ft42p" href="#fa42p"><span class="fn">42</span></a> See Ernest Thoinan, <i>Les Origines de la chapelle musique des
+souverains de France</i> (Paris, 1864); F. J. Fétis, &ldquo;Recherches sur la
+musique des rois de France, et de quelques princes depuis Philippe
+le Bel jusqu&rsquo;à la fin du règne de Louis XIV.,&rdquo; <i>Revue musicale</i> (Paris,
+1832), xii. pp. 193, 217, 233, 241, 257; Castil-Blaze, <i>La Chapelle
+musique des rois de France</i> (Paris, 1882); Michel Brenet, &ldquo;Deux
+comptes de la chapelle musique des rois de France,&rdquo; <i>Intern. Mus.
+Ges.</i>, Smbd. vi., i. pp. 1-32; J. Ecorcheville, &ldquo;Quelques documents
+sur la musique de la grande écurie du roi,&rdquo; <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i>,
+Smbd. ii. 4 (Leipzig, 1901), pp. 608-642.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft43p" id="ft43p" href="#fa43p"><span class="fn">43</span></a> <i>Neue Zeitschrift f. Musik</i> (Leipzig, 1870), p. 309.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft44p" id="ft44p" href="#fa44p"><span class="fn">44</span></a> See <i>Die Sammlung der Musikinstrumente des baierischen Nat.
+Museum</i> by K. A. Bierdimpfl (Munich, 1883), Nos. 105 and 106.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft45p" id="ft45p" href="#fa45p"><span class="fn">45</span></a> Communication from Dr Georg Hagen, assistant director.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft46p" id="ft46p" href="#fa46p"><span class="fn">46</span></a> See Musée du Conservatoire National de Musique. <i>Catalogue
+des instruments de musique</i> (Paris, 1884), p. 147.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft47p" id="ft47p" href="#fa47p"><span class="fn">47</span></a> See Captain C. R. Day, <i>Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical
+Instruments exhibited at the Military Exhibition</i> (London, 1890),
+p. 147, No. 307.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft48p" id="ft48p" href="#fa48p"><span class="fn">48</span></a> See V. Mahillon, <i>Catal.</i> vol. i. No. 468.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft49p" id="ft49p" href="#fa49p"><span class="fn">49</span></a>  See Captain C. R. Day, <i>Catal.</i> No. 309, p. 148.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft50p" id="ft50p" href="#fa50p"><span class="fn">50</span></a> For an illustration see <i>Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of
+Ancient Musical Instruments at South Kensington Museum 1872</i>
+(London, 1873), p. 25, No. 332.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft51p" id="ft51p" href="#fa51p"><span class="fn">51</span></a> See <i>Katalog des musikhistorischen Museums von Paul de Wit</i>
+(Leipzig, 1904), p. 142, No. 564, where it is classified as a Jägertrompete
+after Praetorius; it has a trumpet mouthpiece.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft52p" id="ft52p" href="#fa52p"><span class="fn">52</span></a> For an illustration see F. J. Crowest, <i>English Music</i>, p. 449,
+No. 12.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft53p" id="ft53p" href="#fa53p"><span class="fn">53</span></a> See Ignatz and Anton Böck in <i>Baierisches Musik-Lexikon</i> by
+Felix J. Lipowski (Munich, 1811), p. 26, note.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft54p" id="ft54p" href="#fa54p"><span class="fn">54</span></a> See, for instance, frontispiece of Walther&rsquo;s <i>Musikalisches Lexikon</i>
+(Leipzig, 1732); J. F. B. C. Majer&rsquo;s <i>Musik-Saal</i> (Nuremberg, 1741,
+2nd ed.), p. 54; Joh. Christ. Kolb, <i>Pinacotheca Davidica</i> (Augsburg,
+1711); Ps. xci.; &ldquo;Componimenti Musicali per il cembalo Dr Theofilo
+Muffat, organista di sua Sacra Maesta Carlo VI. Imp.&rdquo; (1690),
+title-page in <i>Denkmäler d. Tonkunst in Oesterreich</i>, Bd. iii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft55p" id="ft55p" href="#fa55p"><span class="fn">55</span></a> See Hugo Goldschmidt, &ldquo;Das Orchester der italienischen Oper
+im 17 Jahrhundert,&rdquo; <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i>, Smbd. ii. 1, p. 73.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft56p" id="ft56p" href="#fa56p"><span class="fn">56</span></a> See &ldquo;Le Cor,&rdquo; pp. 23 and 24, and <i>Dictionnaire de l&rsquo;acad. des
+beaux arts</i>, vol. iv., art. &ldquo;Cor.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft57p" id="ft57p" href="#fa57p"><span class="fn">57</span></a> Mersenne&rsquo;s drawings of <i>cors de chasse</i> are very crude; they
+have no bell and are all of the large calibre suggestive of the primitive
+animal horn. He mentions nevertheless that they were not only
+used for signals and fanfares but also for little concerted pieces in
+four parts for horns alone, or with oboes, at the conclusion of the
+hunt.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft58p" id="ft58p" href="#fa58p"><span class="fn">58</span></a> See William Tans&rsquo;ur Senior, <i>The Elements of Musick</i> (London,
+1772); Br. V. Dictionary under &ldquo;Horn.&rdquo; Also Scale of Horn
+in the hand of Samuel Wesley; in Add. MS. 35011, fol. 166, Brit.
+Mus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft59p" id="ft59p" href="#fa59p"><span class="fn">59</span></a> A horn-player, Johann Theodor Zeddelmayer, was engaged in
+1706 at the Saxon court at Weissenfels; see <i>Neue-Mitteilungen
+aus dem Gebiete histor. antiqu. Forschungen</i>, Bd. xv. (2) (Halle,
+1882), p. 503; also Wilhelm Kleefeld, &ldquo;Das Orchester der Hamburger
+Oper, 1678-1738,&rdquo; <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i>, Smbd. i. 2, p. 280,
+where the appearance of the horn in the orchestras of Germany is
+traced.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft60p" id="ft60p" href="#fa60p"><span class="fn">60</span></a> <i>Das neu-eröffnete Orchester</i>, i. 267.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft61p" id="ft61p" href="#fa61p"><span class="fn">61</span></a> See Moritz Fürstenau, <i>Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters
+zu Dresden</i> (Dresden, 1861-1862), vol. ii. p. 60.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft62p" id="ft62p" href="#fa62p"><span class="fn">62</span></a> See &ldquo;Carl Heinrich Graun als Opernkomponist,&rdquo; by Albert
+Mayer-Reinach, <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i>, Smbd. i. 3 (Leipzig, 1900),
+pp. 516-517 and 523-524, where musical examples are given.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft63p" id="ft63p" href="#fa63p"><span class="fn">63</span></a> Cf. Chrysander, <i>Haendel</i>, ii. 146.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft64p" id="ft64p" href="#fa64p"><span class="fn">64</span></a> See Moritz Fürstenau, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 58.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft65p" id="ft65p" href="#fa65p"><span class="fn">65</span></a> See Ludwig von Köchel, <i>Die kaiserliche Hofkappelle in Wien</i>
+(Vienna, 1869), p. 80.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft66p" id="ft66p" href="#fa66p"><span class="fn">66</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, <i>Catalogue descriptif</i>, vol. ii. No. 1160,
+p. 389.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft67p" id="ft67p" href="#fa67p"><span class="fn">67</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> ii. 60.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft68p" id="ft68p" href="#fa68p"><span class="fn">68</span></a> The Department of State Archives for Saxony in Dresden
+possesses no documents which can throw any light upon this point,
+but, through the courtesy of the director, the following facts have
+been communicated. Two documents concerning Anton Joseph
+Hampel are extant: (1) An application by his son, Johann Michael
+Hampel, to the elector Friedrich August III. of Saxony, dated
+Dresden, April 3, 1771, in which he prays that the post of his father
+as horn-player in the court orchestra&mdash;in which he had already
+served as deputy for his invalid father&mdash;may be awarded to him.
+(2) A petition from the widow, Aloisia Ludevica Hampelin, to the
+elector, bearing the same date (April 3, 1771), wherein she announces
+the death of her husband on the 30th of March 1771, who had been
+in the service of the house of Saxony thirty-four years as horn-player,
+and prays for the grant of a monthly pension for herself and
+her three delicate daughters, as she finds herself in the most unfortunate
+circumstances. There is no allusion in either letter to any
+musical merit of the deceased.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft69p" id="ft69p" href="#fa69p"><span class="fn">69</span></a> There is an instrument of this early type, supposed to date
+from the middle of the 18th century, in Paul de Wit&rsquo;s fine collection
+of musical instruments formerly in Leipzig and now transferred to
+Cologne; see <i>Katalog</i>, No. 645, p. 148.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft70p" id="ft70p" href="#fa70p"><span class="fn">70</span></a> See <i>Dictionnaire de l&rsquo;acad. des beaux arts</i>, vol. iv. (Paris), article
+&ldquo;Cor.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft71p" id="ft71p" href="#fa71p"><span class="fn">71</span></a> See Dr Gustav Schilling, <i>Universal Lexikon der Tonkunst</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1840), Bd. vi., &ldquo;Trompete&rdquo;; also Capt. C. R. Day,
+pp. 139 and 151, where the term <i>Invention</i> is quite misunderstood
+and misapplied. See Gottfried Weber in <i>Caecilia</i> (Mainz, 1835),
+Bd. xvii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft72p" id="ft72p" href="#fa72p"><span class="fn">72</span></a> Gerber in the first edition of his <i>Lexikon</i> does not mention
+Hampel or award him a separate biographical article; we may
+therefore conclude that he was not personally acquainted with him,
+although Hampel was still a member of the electoral orchestra in
+Dresden during Gerber&rsquo;s short career in Leipzig. In the edition of
+1812 Gerber renders him full justice.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft73p" id="ft73p" href="#fa73p"><span class="fn">73</span></a> <i>Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Musikschule</i> (Bonn, 1811),
+pt. iii. p. 7.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft74p" id="ft74p" href="#fa74p"><span class="fn">74</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, &ldquo;Le Cor,&rdquo; p. 28; Chladni, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 87.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft75p" id="ft75p" href="#fa75p"><span class="fn">75</span></a> See Fröhlich, <i>op. cit.</i> 7; and Gerber, <i>Lexikon</i> (ed. 1812), p. 493;
+&ldquo;Le Cor,&rdquo; pp. 34 and 53.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft76p" id="ft76p" href="#fa76p"><span class="fn">76</span></a> See Praetorius and Mersenne, <i>op. cit.</i>; the latter gives an
+illustration of the trumpet mute.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft77p" id="ft77p" href="#fa77p"><span class="fn">77</span></a> <i>Methode de premier et de second cor</i> (Paris, c. 1807). The passage
+in question was discovered and courteously communicated by Hofrat
+P. E. Richter of the Royal Library, Dresden. There is no copy of
+Domnich&rsquo;s work in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft78p" id="ft78p" href="#fa78p"><span class="fn">78</span></a> See William Tans&rsquo;ur Senior, <i>op. et loc. cit.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft79p" id="ft79p" href="#fa79p"><span class="fn">79</span></a> See <i>Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung</i> (Leipzig), Nov. 1802, p.
+158, and Jan. 1803, p. 245; and E. Hanslick, <i>Geschichte des Concertwesens
+in Wien</i> (Vienna, 1869), p. 119.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft80p" id="ft80p" href="#fa80p"><span class="fn">80</span></a> See <i>Allgem. mus. Ztg.</i>, 1815, p. 844.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft81p" id="ft81p" href="#fa81p"><span class="fn">81</span></a> &ldquo;Le Cor,&rdquo; pp. 34-35.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft82p" id="ft82p" href="#fa82p"><span class="fn">82</span></a> See the description of the instrument and of other attempts
+to obtain the same result by Gottfried Weber, &ldquo;Wichtige Verbesserung
+des Horns&rdquo; in <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> (Leipzig, 1812), pp. 758,
+&amp;c.; also 1815, pp. 637 and 638 (the regent or keyed bugle).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft83p" id="ft83p" href="#fa83p"><span class="fn">83</span></a> See <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i>, 1815, May, p. 309, the first announcement
+of the invention in a paragraph by Captain G. B. Bierey.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft84p" id="ft84p" href="#fa84p"><span class="fn">84</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 1817, p. 814, by F. Schneider, and Dec. p. 558; 1818,
+p. 531. An announcement of the invention and of a patent granted
+for the same for ten years, in which Blümel is for the first time
+associated with Stölzel as co-inventor. See also <i>Caecilia</i> (Mainz,
+1835), Bd. xvii. pp. 73 seq., with illustrations, an excellent article
+by Gottfried Weber on the valve horn and valve trumpet.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft85p" id="ft85p" href="#fa85p"><span class="fn">85</span></a> For a very complete exposition of the operation of valves in
+the horn, and of the mathematical proportions to be observed in
+construction, see Victor Mahillon&rsquo;s &ldquo;Le Cor,&rdquo; also the article by
+Gottfried Weber in <i>Caecilia</i> (1835), to which reference was made
+above. A list of horn-players of note during the 18th century is
+given by C. Gottlieb Murr in <i>Journal f. Kunstgeschichte</i> (Nuremberg,
+1776), vol. ii. p. 27. See also a good description of the style of
+playing of the virtuoso J. Nisle in 1767 in Schubart, <i>Aesthetik d.
+Tonkunst</i>, p. 161, and <i>Leben u. Gesinnungen</i> (1791), Bd. ii. p. 92;
+or in L. Schiedermair, &ldquo;Die Blütezeit d. Ottingen-Wallensteinschen
+Hofkapelle,&rdquo; <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i> Smbd. ix. (1), 1907, pp. 83-130.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNBEAM<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (<i>Carpinus betulus</i>), a member of a small genus of
+trees of the natural order Corylaceae. The Latin name <i>Carpinus</i>
+has been thought to be derived from the Celtic <i>car</i>, wood, and
+<i>pin</i> or <i>pen</i>, head, the wood of hornbeams having been used for
+yokes of cattle (see Loudon, <i>Ency. of Pl.</i> p. 792, new ed. 1855,
+and Littré, Dict. ii. 556). The common hornbeam, or yoke-elm,
+<i>Carpinus betulus</i> (Ger. <i>Hornbaum</i> and <i>Hornbuche</i>, Fr. <i>charme</i>),
+is indigenous in the temperate parts of western Asia and of
+Asia Minor, and in Europe, where it ranges as high as 55° and
+56° N. lat. It is common in woods and hedges in parts of Wales
+and of the south of England. The trunk is usually flattened,
+and twisted as though composed of several stems united; the
+bark is smooth and light grey; and the leaves are in two rows,
+2 to 3 in. long, elliptic-ovate, doubly toothed, pointed, numerously
+ribbed, hairy below and opaque, and not glossy as in the beech,
+have short stalks and when young are plaited. The stipules
+of the leaves act as protecting scale-leaves in the winter-bud
+and fall when the bud opens in spring. The flowers appear with
+the leaves in April and May. The male catkins are about 1½ in.
+long, and have pale-yellow anthers, bearing tufts of hairs at
+the apex; the female attain a length in the fruiting stage of 2 to
+4 in., with bracts 1 to 1½ in. long. The green and angular fruit
+or &ldquo;nut&rdquo; ripens in October; it is about ¼ in. in length, is in
+shape like a small chestnut, and is enclosed in leafy, 3-lobed
+bracts. The hornbeam thrives well on stiff, clayey, moist soils,
+into which its roots penetrate deeply; on chalk or gravel it
+does not flourish. Raised from seed it may become a tree 40 to
+as much as 70 ft. in height, greatly resembling the beech, except
+in its rounder and closer head. It is, however, rarely grown
+as a timber-tree, its chief employment being for hedges. &ldquo;In
+the single row,&rdquo; says Evelyn (<i>Sylva</i>, p. 29, 1664), &ldquo;it makes the
+noblest and the stateliest <i>hedges</i> for long Walks in Gardens or
+<i>Parks</i>, of any Tree whatsoever whose leaves are <i>deciduous</i>.&rdquo;
+As it bears clipping well, it was formerly much used in geometric
+gardening. The branches should not be lopped in spring, on
+account of their tendency to bleed at that season. The wood
+of the hornbeam is white and close-grained, and polishes ill,
+is of considerable tenacity and little flexibility, and is extremely
+tough and hard to work&mdash;whence, according to Gerard, the name
+of the tree. It has been found to lose about 8% of its weight
+by drying. As a fuel it is excellent; and its charcoal is much
+esteemed for making gunpowder. The inner part of the bark
+of the hornbeam is stated by Linnaeus to afford a yellow dye.
+In France the leaves serve as fodder. The tree is a favourite
+with hares and rabbits, and the seedlings are apt to be destroyed
+by mice. Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxvi. 26), who describes its wood as
+red and easily split, classes the hornbeam with maples.</p>
+
+<p>The American hornbeam, blue or water beech, is <i>Carpinus
+americana</i> (also known as <i>C. caroliniana</i>); the common hop-hornbeam,
+a native of the south of Europe, is a member of a
+closely allied genus, <i>Ostrya vulgaris</i>, the allied American species,
+<i>O. virginiana</i>, is also known as ironwood from its very hard,
+tight, close-grained wood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNBILL,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> the English name long generally given to all the
+birds of the family <i>Bucerotidae</i> of modern ornithologists, from
+the extraordinary horn-like excrescence (<i>epithema</i>) developed
+on the bill of most of the species, though to which of them it
+was first applied seems doubtful. Among classical authors
+Pliny had heard of such animals, and mentions them (<i>Hist.
+Nat.</i> lib. x. cap. lxx.) under the name of <i>Tragopan</i>; but he
+deemed their existence fabulous, comparing them with <i>Pegasi</i>
+and <i>Gryphones</i>&mdash;in the words of Holland, his translator (vol. i.
+p. 296)&mdash;&ldquo;I thinke the same of the Tragopanades, which many
+men affirme to bee greater than the Ægle; having crooked
+hornes like a Ram on either side of the head, of the colour of
+yron, and the head onely red.&rdquo; Yet this is but an exaggerated
+description of some of the species with which doubtless his
+informants had an imperfect acquaintance. Medieval writers
+found Pliny&rsquo;s bird to be no fable, for specimens of the beak
+of one species or another seem occasionally to have been brought
+to Europe, where they were preserved in the cabinets of the
+curious, and thus Aldrovandus was able to describe pretty
+fairly and to figure (<i>Ornithologia</i>, lib. xii. cap. xx. tab. x. fig. 7)
+one of them under the name of &ldquo;<i>Rhinoceros Avis</i>,&rdquo; though the
+rest of the bird was wholly unknown to him. When the exploration
+of the East Indies had extended farther, more examples
+reached Europe, and the &ldquo;<i>Corvus Indicus cornutus</i>&rdquo; of Bontius
+became fully recognized by Willughby and Ray, under the
+title of the &ldquo;Horned Indian Raven or <i>Topau</i> called the Rhinocerot
+Bird.&rdquo; Since the time of those excellent ornithologists
+our knowledge of the hornbills has been steadily increasing, but
+up to the third quarter of the 19th century there was a great
+lack of precise information, and the publication of D. G. Elliot&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;<i>Monograph of the Bucerotidae</i>,&rdquo; then supplied a great want.
+He divides the family into two sections, the <i>Bucerotinae</i> and the
+<i>Bucorvinae</i>. The former group contains most of the species,
+which are divided into many genera. Of these, the most remarkable
+is <i>Rhinoplax</i>, which seems properly to contain but one
+species, the <i>Buceros vigil</i>, <i>B. scutatus</i> or <i>B. geleatus</i> of authors,
+commonly known as the helmet-hornbill, a native of Sumatra
+and Borneo. This is easily distinguished by having the front
+of its nearly vertical and slightly convex <i>epithema</i> composed
+of a solid mass of horn<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> instead of a thin coating of the light
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span>
+and cellular structure found in the others. So dense and hard
+is this portion of the &ldquo;helmet&rdquo; that Chinese and Malay artists
+carve figures on its surface, or cut it transversely into plates,
+which from their agreeable colouring, bright yellow with a scarlet
+rim, are worn as brooches or other ornaments. This bird, which
+is larger than a raven, is also remarkable for its long graduated
+tail, having the middle two feathers nearly twice the length
+of the rest. Nothing is known of its habits. Its head was
+figured by George Edwards in the 18th century, but little else
+had been seen of it until 1801, when John Latham described
+the plumage from a specimen in the British Museum, and the
+first figure of the whole bird, from an example in the Museum
+at Calcutta, was published by General Hardwicke in 1823
+(<i>Trans. Linn. Society</i>, xiv. pl. 23). Yet more than twenty
+years elapsed before French naturalists became acquainted
+with it.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:576px" src="images/img707a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Great Indian Hornbill (<i>B. bicornis</i>). (After Tickell&rsquo;s drawing in
+the Zoological Society&rsquo;s Library.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the <i>Bucorvinae</i> we have only the genus <i>Bucorvus</i>, or
+<i>Bucorax</i> as some call it, confined to Africa, and containing at
+least two and perhaps more species, distinguishable by their
+longer legs and shorter toes, the ground-hornbills of English
+writers, in contrast to the <i>Bucerotinae</i> which are chiefly arboreal
+in their habits, and when not flying move by short leaps or hops,
+while the members of this group walk and run with facility.
+From the days of James Bruce at least there are few African
+travellers who have not met with and in their narratives
+more or less fully described one or other of these birds,
+whose large size and fearless habits render them conspicuous
+objects.</p>
+
+<p>As a whole the hornbills, of which more than 50 species have
+been described, form a very natural and in some respects an
+isolated group, placed by Huxley among his <i>Coccygomorphae</i>.
+It has been suggested that they have some affinity with the
+hoopoes (<i>Upupidae</i>), and this view is now generally accepted.
+Their supposed alliance to the toucans (<i>Rhamphastidae</i>) rests
+only on the apparent similarity presented by the enormous
+beak, and is contradicted by important structural characters.
+In many of their habits, so far as these are known, all hornbills
+seem to be much alike, and though the modification in the form
+of the beak, and the presence or absence of the extraordinary
+excrescence,<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> whence their name is derived, causes great diversity
+of aspect among them, the possession of prominent eyelashes
+(not a common feature in birds) produces a uniformity of expression
+which makes it impossible to mistake any member of the
+family. Hornbills are social birds, keeping in companies, not to
+say flocks, and living chiefly on fruits and seeds; but the bigger
+species also capture and devour a large number of snakes, while
+the smaller are great destroyers of insects. The older writers
+say that they eat carrion, but further evidence to that effect
+is required before the statement can be believed. Almost every
+morsel of food that is picked up is tossed into the air, and then
+caught in the bill before it is swallowed. They breed in holes
+of trees, laying large white eggs, and when the hen begins to
+sit the cock plasters up the entrance with mud or clay, leaving
+only a small window through which she receives the food he
+brings her during her incarceration.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable habit, almost simultaneously noticed by
+Dr Mason in Burma, S. R. Tickell in India, and Livingstone in
+Africa, and since confirmed by other observers, especially
+A. R. Wallace<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a> in the Malay Archipelago, has been connected
+by A. D. Bartlett (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1869, p. 142) with a
+peculiarity as remarkable, which he was the first to notice.
+This is the fact that hornbills at intervals of time, whether
+periodical or irregular is not yet known, cast the epithelial
+layer of their gizzard, that layer being formed by a secretion
+derived from the glands of the proventriculus or some other
+upper part of the alimentary canal. The epithelium is ejected
+in the form of a sack or bag, the mouth of which is closely folded,
+and is filled with the fruit that the bird has been eating. The
+announcement of a circumstance so extraordinary naturally
+caused some hesitation in its acceptance, but the essential
+truth of Bartlett&rsquo;s observations was abundantly confirmed by
+Sir W. H. Flower and especially by Dr J. Murie. These castings
+form the hen bird&rsquo;s food during her confinement.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Apparently correlated with this structure is the curious thickening
+of the &ldquo;prosencephalic median septum&rdquo; of the cranium as also of
+that which divides the &ldquo;prosencephalic&rdquo; from the &ldquo;mesencephalic
+chamber,&rdquo; noticed by Sir R. Owen (<i>Cat. Osteol. Ser. Mus. Roy. Coll.
+Surg. England</i>, i. 287); while the solid horny mass is further strengthened
+by a backing of bony props, directed forwards and meeting its
+base at right angles. This last singular arrangement is not perceptible
+in the skull of any other species examined by the present writer.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Buffon, as was his manner, enlarges on the cruel injustice done to
+these birds by Nature in encumbering them with this deformity,
+which he declares must hinder them from getting their food with
+ease. The only corroboration his perverted view receives is afforded
+by the observed fact that hornbills, in captivity at any rate, never
+have any fat about them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In <i>The Malay Archipelago</i> (i. 213), Wallace describes a nestling
+hornbill (<i>B. bicornis</i>) which he obtained as &ldquo;a most curious object,
+as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage on any part of
+it. It was exceedingly plump and soft, and with a semi-transparent
+skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet
+stuck on, than like a real bird.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:129px; height:241px" src="images/img707b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HORNBLENDE,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> an important member of the amphibole
+group of rock-forming minerals. The name is an old one of
+German origin, and was used for any dark-coloured prismatic
+crystals from which metals could not be extracted. It is now
+applied to the dark-coloured aluminous members of the monoclinic
+amphiboles, occupying in this group the same position
+that augite occupies in the pyroxene group. The monoclinic
+crystals are prismatic in habit with a six-sided
+cross-section; the angle between the prism-faces
+(<i>M</i>), parallel to which there are perfect
+cleavages, is 55° 49&prime;. The colour (green, brown
+or black) and the specific gravity (3.0-3.3) vary
+with the amount of iron present. The pleochroism
+is always strong, and the angle of
+optical extinction on the plane of symmetry
+(x in the figure) varies from 0° to 37°. The
+chemical composition is expressed by mixtures
+in varying proportions of the molecules
+Ca(Mg, Fe)<span class="su">3</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">4</span>, (Mg, Fe)(Al, Fe)<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">6</span> and
+NaAl(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>. Numerous varieties have been
+distinguished by special names: edenite, from Edenville in New
+York, is a pale-coloured aluminous amphibole containing little
+iron; pargasite, from Pargas near Abo in Finland, a green
+or bluish-green variety; common hornblende includes the
+greenish-black and black kinds containing more iron. The
+dark-coloured porphyritic crystals of basalts are known as
+basaltic hornblende.</p>
+
+<p>Hornblende occurs as an essential constituent of many kinds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span>
+of igneous rocks, such as hornblende-granite, syenite, diorite,
+hornblende-andesite, basalt, &amp;c.; and in many crystalline
+schists, for example, amphibolite and hornblende-schist which
+are composed almost entirely of this mineral. Well-crystallized
+specimens are met with at many localities, for example: brilliant
+black crystals (syntagmatite) with augite and mica in the sanidine
+bombs of Monte Somma, Vesuvius; large crystals at Arendal
+in Norway, and at several places in the state of New York;
+isolated crystals from the basalts of Bohemia.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORN-BOOK,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a name originally applied to a sheet containing
+the letters of the alphabet, which formed a primer for the use
+of children. It was mounted on wood and protected with
+transparent horn. Sometimes the leaf was simply pasted against
+the slice of horn. The wooden frame had a handle, and it was
+usually hung at the child&rsquo;s girdle. The sheet, which in ancient
+times was of vellum and latterly of paper, contained first a large
+cross&mdash;the criss-crosse&mdash;from which the horn-book was called
+the Christ Cross Row, or criss-cross-row. The alphabet in
+large and small letters followed. The vowels then formed a line,
+and their combinations with the consonants were given in a
+tabular form. The usual exorcism&mdash;&ldquo;in the name of the Father
+and of the Sonne and of the Holy Ghost, Amen&rdquo;&mdash;followed, then
+the Lord&rsquo;s Prayer, the whole concluding with the Roman
+numerals. The horn-book is mentioned in Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+<i>Love&rsquo;s Labour&rsquo;s Lost</i>, v. 1, where the <i>ba</i>, the <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>, and the
+horn, are alluded to by Moth. It is also described by Ben
+Jonson&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;The letters may be read, through the horn,</p>
+<p class="i05">That make the story perfect.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1825-1895),
+British admiral of the fleet, son of Admiral Sir Phipps Hornby,
+the first cousin and brother-in-law of the 13th earl of Derby,
+by a daughter of Lieut.-General Burgoyne, commonly
+distinguished as &ldquo;Saratoga&rdquo; Burgoyne, was born on the 20th
+of February 1825. At the age of twelve he was sent to sea in the
+flagship of Sir Robert Stopford, with whom he saw the capture
+of Acre in November 1840. He afterwards served in the flagship
+of Rear-Admiral Josceline Percy at the Cape of Good Hope,
+was flag-lieutenant to his father in the Pacific, and came home
+as a commander. When the Derby ministry fell in December
+1852 young Hornby was promoted to be captain. Early in
+1853 he married, and as the Derby connexion put him out of
+favour with the Aberdeen ministry, and especially with Sir
+James Graham, the first lord of the Admiralty, he settled down
+in Sussex as manager of his father&rsquo;s property. He had no
+appointment in the navy till 1858, when he was sent out to
+China to take command of the &ldquo;Tribune&rdquo; frigate and convey
+a body of marines to Vancouver Island, where the dispute with
+the United States about the island of San Juan was threatening
+to become very bitter. As senior naval officer there Hornby&rsquo;s
+moderation, temper and tact did much to smooth over matters,
+and a temporary arrangement for joint occupation of the island
+was concluded. He afterwards commanded the &ldquo;Neptune&rdquo;
+in the Mediterranean under Sir William Fanshawe Martin, was
+flag-captain to Rear-Admiral Dacres in the Channel, was commodore
+of the squadron on the west coast of Africa, and, being
+promoted to rear-admiral in January 1869, commanded the
+training squadron for a couple of years. He then commanded
+the Channel Fleet, and was for two years a junior lord of the
+Admiralty. It was early in 1877 that he went out as commander-in-chief
+in the <span class="correction" title="amended from Mediterraean">Mediterranean</span>, where his skill in man&oelig;uvring
+the fleet, his power as a disciplinarian, and the tact and determination
+with which he conducted the foreign relations at the
+time of the Russian advance on Constantinople, won for him
+the K. C. B. He returned home in 1880 with the character of
+being perhaps the most able commander on the active list of the
+navy. His later appointments were to the Royal Naval College
+as president, and afterwards to Portsmouth as commander-in-chief.
+On hauling down his flag he was appointed G. C. B.,
+and in May 1888 was promoted to be admiral of the fleet. From
+1886 he was principal naval aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria,
+and in that capacity, and as an admiral of the fleet, was appointed
+on the staff of the German emperor during his visits to England
+in 1889 and 1890. He died, after a short illness, on the 3rd of
+March 1895. By his wife, who predeceased him, he left several
+children, daughters and sons, one of whom, a major in the
+artillery, won the Victoria Cross in South Africa in 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life was written by his daughter, Mrs Fred. Egerton, (1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNCASTLE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a market-town in the S. Lindsey or Horncastle
+parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, at the foot of a
+line of low hills called the Wolds, at the confluence of the Bain
+and Waring streams; the terminus of a branch line of the Great
+Northern railway, 130 m. N. from London. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 4038. The church of St Mary is principally
+Decorated and Perpendicular, with some Early English remains
+and an embattled western tower. Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s grammar
+school was founded in 1562. Other buildings are an exchange,
+a court-house and a dispensary founded in 1789. The prosperity
+of the town is chiefly dependent on agriculture and its well-known
+horse fairs. Brewing and malting are carried on, and there is
+some trade in coal and iron.</p>
+
+<p>Remains have been found here which may indicate the existence
+of a Roman village. The manor of Horncastle (Hornecastre)
+belonged to Queen Edith in Saxon times and was royal demesne
+in 1086 and the head of a large soke. In the reign of Stephen
+it apparently belonged to Alice de Cundi, a partisan of the
+empress Maud, and passing to the crown on her death it was
+granted by Henry III. to Gerbald de Escald, from whom it
+descended to Ralph de Rhodes, who sold it to Walter Mauclerc,
+bishop of Carlisle in 1230. The see of Carlisle retained it till the
+reign of Edward VI. when it was granted to Edward, Lord Clinton,
+but was recovered in the following reign. In 1230 Henry III.
+directed the men of Horncastle to render a reasonable aid to
+the bishop, who obtained the right to try felons, hold a court
+leet and have free warren. An inquisition of 1275 shows that
+the bishop had then, besides the return of writs, the assize of
+bread and ale and waifs and strays in the soke. Horncastle was
+a centre of the Lincolnshire rebellion of 1536. Royalist troops
+occupied the town in 1643, and were pursued through its streets
+after the battle fought at Winceby. It was never a municipal
+or parliamentary borough, but during the middle ages it was
+frequently the residence of the bishops of Carlisle. Its prosperity
+has always depended largely on its fairs, the great horse fair
+described by George Borrow in <i>Romany Rye</i> being granted
+to the bishop in 1230 for the octave of St Lawrence, together
+with the fair on the feast of St Barnabas. The three other fairs
+are apparently of later date.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See George Weir, <i>Historical and Descriptive Sketches of the Town
+and Soke of Horncastle in the County of Lincoln and of Several Places
+adjacent</i> (London, 1820).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORN DANCE,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a medieval dance, still celebrated during the
+September &ldquo;wakes&rdquo; at Abbots Bromley, a village on the borders
+of Needwood Forest, Staffordshire. Six or seven men, each
+wearing a deer&rsquo;s skull with antlers, dance through the streets,
+pursued by a comrade who bestrides a mimic horse, and whips
+the dancers to keep them on the move. The horn-dance usually
+takes place on the Monday after Wakes Sunday, which is the
+Sunday next after the 4th of September. Originally the dance
+took place on a Sunday.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Strand Magazine</i> for November 1896; also <i>Folk-lore</i>, vol. vii.
+(1896), p. 381.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNE, GEORGE<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1730-1792), English divine, was born on
+the 1st of November 1730, at Otham near Maidstone, and
+received his education at Maidstone school and University
+College, Oxford. In 1749 he became a fellow of Magdalen,
+of which college he was elected president in 1768. As a preacher
+he early attained great popularity, and was, albeit unjustly,
+accused of Methodism. His reputation was helped by several
+clever if somewhat wrong-headed publications, including a
+satirical pamphlet entitled <i>The Theology and Philosophy of
+Cicero&rsquo;s Somnium Scipionis</i> (1751), a defence of the Hutchinsonians
+in <i>A Fair, Candid and Impartial State of the Case
+between Sir Isaac Newton and Mr Hutchinson</i> (1753), and critiques
+upon William Law (1758) and Benjamin Kennicott (1760).
+In 1771 he published his well-known <i>Commentary on the Psalms</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span>
+a series of expositions based on the Messianic idea. In 1776 he
+was chosen vice-chancellor of his university; in 1781 he was
+made dean of Canterbury, and in 1790 was raised to the see of
+Norwich. He died at Bath on the 17th of January 1792.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His collected <i>Works</i> were published with a Memoir by William
+Jones in 1799.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNE, RICHARD HENRY,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> or <b>HENGIST</b> (1803-1884),
+English poet and critic, was born in London on New Year&rsquo;s
+Day 1803. He was intended for the army, and entered at
+Sandhurst, but receiving no commission, he left his country
+and joined the Mexican navy. He served in the war against
+Spain, and underwent many adventures. Returning to England,
+he became a journalist, and in 1836-1837 edited <i>The Monthly
+Repository</i>. In 1837 he published two tragedies, <i>Cosmo de
+Medici</i> and <i>The Death of Marlowe</i>, and in 1841 a <i>History of
+Napoleon</i>. The book, however, by which he lives is his epic of
+<i>Orion</i>, which appeared in 1843. It was published originally at
+a farthing, was widely read, and passed through many editions.
+In the next year he set forth a volume of critical essays called
+<i>A New Spirit of the Age</i>, in which he was assisted by Elizabeth
+Barrett (Mrs Browning), with whom, from 1839 to her marriage
+in 1846, he conducted a voluminous correspondence. In 1852
+he went to Australia in company with William Howitt, and
+did not return to England until 1869. He received a Civil List
+pension in 1874, and died at Margate on the 13th of March 1884.
+Horne possessed extraordinary versatility, but, except in the
+case of <i>Orion</i>, he never attained to a very high degree of distinction.
+That poem, indeed, has much of the quality of fine poetry;
+it is earnest, vivid and alive with spirit. But Horne early
+drove his talent too hard, and continued to write when he had
+little left to say. In criticism he had insight and quickness.
+He was one of the first to appreciate Keats and Tennyson, and
+he gave valuable encouragement to Mrs Browning when she was
+still Miss Elizabeth Barrett.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1780-1862), English theologian
+and bibliographer, was born in London on the 20th of
+October 1780, and was educated at Christ&rsquo;s Hospital, with
+S. T. Coleridge as an elder contemporary. On leaving school he
+became clerk to a barrister, but showed a keen taste for authorship.
+As early as 1800 he published <i>A Brief View of the Necessity
+and Truth of the Christian Revelation</i>, which was followed by
+several minor works on very varied subjects. In 1814, having
+been appointed librarian of the Surrey Institution, he issued
+his <i>Introduction to the Study of Bibliography</i>. This was followed
+in 1818 by his long matured work, the <i>Introduction to the Critical
+Study of the Holy Scriptures</i>, which rapidly attained popularity,
+and secured for its author widespread fame and an honorary M.A.
+degree from Aberdeen. In 1819 he received ordination from
+William Howley, bishop of London, and after holding two
+smaller livings was appointed rector of the united parishes
+of St Edmund the King and Martyr, and St Nicolas Acons in
+London. On the breaking up of the Surrey Institution in 1823,
+he was appointed (1824) senior assistant librarian in the department
+of printed books in the British Museum. After the project
+of making a classified catalogue had been abandoned, he took
+part in the preparation of the alphabetical one, and his connexion
+with the museum continued until within a few months of his
+death on the 27th of January 1862.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Horne&rsquo;s works exceed forty in number. The <i>Introduction</i>, edited
+by John Ayre and S. P. Tregelles, reached a 12th edition in 1869;
+but, owing to subsequent advances in biblical scholarship, it fell into
+disuse.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNELL,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city of Steuben county, New York, U.S.A.,
+on the Canisteo river, 90 m. S.E. of Buffalo. Pop. (1890) 10,996;
+(1900) 11,918, of whom 1230 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
+13,617. Hornell is served by the Erie and the Pittsburg, Shawmut
+&amp; Northern railways; the latter connects at Wayland (20 m.
+distant by rail) with the Delaware, Lackawanna &amp; Western
+railroad. In the city are St Ann&rsquo;s Academy, the St James
+Mercy Hospital, the Steuben Sanitarium, a public library, and
+a county court-house&mdash;terms of the county court being held here
+as well as in Bath (pop. in 1905, 3695), the county-seat, and in
+Corning. Hornell has extensive car shops of the Erie railroad,
+and among its manufactures are silk goods (silk gloves being a
+specially important product), sash, doors and blinds, leather,
+furniture, shoes, white-goods, wire-fences, foundry and machine
+shop products, electric motors, and brick and tile. The value
+of the factory product in 1905 was $3,162,677, an increase of
+30.1% since 1900. The first settlement here was made in 1790,
+within the district of Erwin (then in Ontario county); after
+1796 it was a part of Canisteo township, and the settlement itself
+was known as Upper Canisteo until 1820, when a new township
+was formed and named Hornellsville in honour of Judge George
+Hornell (d. 1813). The village of Hornellsville was incorporated
+in 1852, and in 1888 was chartered as a city; and by act of the
+state legislature the name was changed to Hornell in 1906.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. H. McMaster, <i>History of the Settlement of Steuben County</i>
+(Bath, New York, 1849).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNEMANN, FREDERICK<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (fl. 1796-1800), German traveller
+in Africa, was born at Hildesheim. He was a young man when,
+early in 1796, he offered his services to the African Association
+of London as an explorer in Africa. By the association he was
+sent to Göttingen University to study Arabic and otherwise
+prepare for an expedition into the unknown regions of North
+Africa from the east. In September 1797 he arrived in Egypt,
+where he continued his studies. On the invasion of the country
+by the French he was confined in the citadel of Cairo, to preserve
+him from the fanaticism of the populace. Liberated by the
+French, he received the patronage of Bonaparte. On the 5th
+of September 1798 he joined a caravan returning to the Maghrib
+from Mecca, attaching himself to a party of Fezzan merchants
+who accompanied the pilgrims. As an avowed Christian would
+not have been permitted to join the caravan Hornemann assumed
+the character of a young mameluke trading to Fezzan. He then
+spoke, but indifferently, both Arabic and Turkish, and he was
+accompanied as servant and interpreter by Joseph Freudenburg,
+a German convert to Islam, who had thrice made the pilgrimage
+to Mecca. Travelling by way of the oases of Siwa and Aujila,
+a &ldquo;black rocky desert&rdquo; was traversed to Temissa in Fezzan.
+Murzuk was reached on the 17th of November 1798. Here
+Hornemann lived till June 1799, going thence to the city of
+Tripoli, whence in August of the same year he despatched his
+journals to London. He then returned to Murzuk. Nothing
+further is known with certainty concerning him or his companion.
+In Murzuk Hornemann had collected a great deal of trustworthy
+information concerning the peoples and countries of the western
+Sahara and central Sudan, and when he left Tripoli it was his
+intention to go direct to the Hausa country, which region he
+was the first European definitely to locate. &ldquo;If I do not perish
+in my undertaking,&rdquo; he wrote in his journal, &ldquo;I hope in five
+years I shall be able to make the Society better acquainted with
+the people of whom I have given this short description.&rdquo; The
+British consul at Tripoli heard from a source believed to be
+trustworthy that about June 1803 Jusef (Hornemann&rsquo;s Mahommedan
+name) was at Ca&#347;na, <i>i.e.</i> Katsena, in Northern Nigeria,
+&ldquo;in good health and highly respected as a marabout.&rdquo; A report
+reached Murzuk in 1819 that the traveller had gone to &ldquo;Noofy&rdquo;
+(Nupe), and had died there. Hornemann was the first European
+in modern times to traverse the north-eastern Sahara, and up to
+1910 no other explorer had followed his route across the Jebel-es-Suda
+from Aujila to Temissa.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The original text of Hornemann&rsquo;s journal, which was written in
+German, was printed at Weimar in 1801; an English translation,
+<i>Travels from Cairo to Mourzouk</i>, &amp;c., with maps and dissertations
+by Major James Rennell, appeared in London in 1802. A French
+translation of the English work, made by order of the First Consul,
+and augmented with notes and a memoir on the Egyptian oases by
+L. Langlès, was published in Paris in the following year. The French
+version is the most valuable of the three. Consult also the <i>Proceedings
+of the African Association</i> (1810), and the Geog. Jnl. Nov. 1906.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNER, FRANCIS<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1778-1817), British economist, was
+born at Edinburgh on the 12th of August 1778. After passing
+through the usual courses at the high school and university
+of his native city, he devoted five years, the first two in England,
+to comprehensive but desultory study, and in 1800 was called
+to the Scottish bar. Desirous, however, of a wider sphere,
+Horner removed to London in 1802, and occupied the interval
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span>
+that elapsed before his admission to the English bar in 1807
+with researches in law, philosophy and political economy.
+In February 1806 he became one of the commissioners for
+adjusting the claims against the nawab of Arcot, and in November
+entered parliament as member for St Ives. Next year he sat.
+for Wendover, and in 1812 for St Mawes, in the patronage
+of the marquis of Buckingham. In 1811, when Lord Grenville
+was organizing a prospective ministry, Horner had the offer,
+which he refused, of a treasury secretaryship. He had resolved
+not to accept office till he could afford to live out of office; and
+his professional income, on which he depended, was at no time
+proportionate to his abilities. His labours at last began to tell
+upon a constitution never robust, and in October 1816 his
+physicians ordered him to Italy, where, however, he sank under
+his malady. He died at Pisa, on the 8th of February 1817.
+He was buried at Leghorn, and a marble statue by Chantrey
+was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Without the advantages of rank, or wealth, or even of genius,
+Francis Horner rose to a high position of public influence and
+private esteem. His special field was political economy. Master
+of that subject, and exercising a sort of moral as well as intellectual
+influence over the House of Commons he, by his nervous and
+earnest rather than eloquent style of speaking, could fix its
+attention for hours on such dry topics as finance, and coinage,
+and currency. As chairman of the parliamentary committee
+for investigating the depreciation of bank-notes, for which he
+moved in 1810, he extended and confirmed his fame as a political
+economist by his share in the famous <i>Bullion Report</i>. It was
+chiefly through his efforts that the paper-issue of the English
+banks was checked, and gold and silver reinstated in their true
+position as circulating media; and his views on free trade and
+commerce have been generally accepted at their really high
+value. Horner was one of the promoters of the <i>Edinburgh
+Review</i> in 1802. His articles in the early numbers of that
+publication, chiefly on political economy, form his only literary
+legacy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoirs and Correspondence of Francis Horner, M.P.</i>, published
+by his brother (see below) in 1843. Also the <i>Edinburgh</i> and
+<i>Quarterly Reviews</i> for the same year; and <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>,
+vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNER, LEONARD<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1785-1864), Scottish geologist, brother
+of Francis Horner (above), was born in Edinburgh on the 17th
+of January 1785. His father, John Horner, was a linen merchant
+in Edinburgh, and Leonard, the third and youngest son, entered
+the university of Edinburgh in 1799. There in the course of the
+next four years he studied chemistry and mineralogy, and
+gained a love of geology from Playfair&rsquo;s <i>Illustrations of the
+Huttonian Theory</i>. At the age of nineteen he became a partner
+in a branch of his father&rsquo;s business, and went to London. In
+1808 he joined the newly formed Geological Society and two
+years later was elected one of the secretaries. Throughout his
+long life he was ardently devoted to the welfare of the society;
+he was elected president in 1846 and again in 1860. In 1811
+he read his first paper &ldquo;On the Mineralogy of the Malvern Hills&rdquo;
+(<i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> vol. i.) and subsequently communicated other
+papers on the &ldquo;Brine-springs at Droitwich,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Geology
+of the S.W. part of Somersetshire.&rdquo; He was elected F.R.S.
+in 1813. In 1815 he returned to Edinburgh to take personal
+superintendence of his business, and while there (1821) he was
+instrumental in founding the Edinburgh School of Arts for
+the instruction of mechanics, and he was one of the founders
+of the Edinburgh Academy. In 1827 he was invited to London
+to become warden of the London University, an office which he
+held for four years; he then resided at Bonn for two years and
+pursued the study of minerals and rocks, communicating to the
+Geological Society on his return a paper on the &ldquo;Geology of the
+Environs of Bonn,&rdquo; and another &ldquo;On the Quantity of Solid
+Matter suspended in the Water of the Rhine.&rdquo; In 1833 he was
+appointed one of the commissioners to inquire into the employment
+of children in the factories of Great Britain, and he was
+subsequently selected as one of the inspectors. In later years
+he devoted much attention to the geological history of the
+alluvial lands of Egypt; and in 1843 he published his <i>Life</i> of
+his brother Francis. He died in London on the 5th of March
+1864.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoir of Leonard Horner</i>, by Katherine M. Lyell (1890)
+(privately printed).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÖRNES, MORITZ<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1815-1868), Austrian palaeontologist,
+was born in Vienna on the 14th of July 1815. He was educated
+in the university and graduated Ph.D. He then became assistant
+in the Vienna mineralogical museum. He was distinguished
+for his researches on the Tertiary mollusca of the Vienna Basin,
+and on the Triassic mollusca of Alpine regions. Most of his
+memoirs were published in the <i>Jahrbuch der K. K. geol. Reichsanstalt</i>.
+In 1864 he introduced the term Neogene to include
+Miocene and Pliocene, as these formations are not always to
+be clearly separated: the fauna of the lower division being
+subtropical and gradually giving place in the upper division to
+Mediterranean forms. He died in Vienna on the 4th of November
+1868. His son Dr Rudolf Hörnes (b. 1850), professor of geology
+and palaeontology in the university of Graz, has also carried on
+researches among the Tertiary mollusca, and is author of <i>Elemente
+der Palaeontologie</i> (1884).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNFELS<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (a German word meaning hornstone), the group
+designation for a series of rocks which have been baked and
+indurated by the heat of intrusive granitic masses and have
+been rendered massive, hard, splintery, and in some cases
+exceedingly tough and durable. Most hornfelses are fine-grained,
+and while the original rocks (such as sandstone, shale and slate,
+limestone and diabase) may have been more or less fissile owing
+to the presence of bedding or cleavage planes, this structure is
+effaced or rendered inoperative in the hornfels. Though they
+may show banding, due to bedding, &amp;c., they break across this
+as readily as along it; in fact they tend to separate into cubical
+fragments rather than into thin plates. The commonest hornfelses
+(the &ldquo;biotite hornfelses&rdquo;) are dark-brown to black with a
+somewhat velvety lustre owing to the abundance of small crystals
+of shining black mica. The &ldquo;lime hornfelses&rdquo; are often white,
+yellow, pale-green, brown and other colours. Green and dark-green
+are the prevalent tints of the hornfelses produced by the
+alteration of igneous rocks. Although for the most part the
+constituent grains are too small to be determined by the unaided
+eye, there are often larger crystals of garnet or andalusite
+scattered through the fine matrix, and these may become very
+prominent on the weathered faces of the rock.</p>
+
+<p>The structure of the hornfelses is very characteristic. Very
+rarely do any of the minerals show crystalline form, but the
+small grains fit closely together like the fragments of a mosaic;
+they are usually of nearly equal dimensions and from the resemblance
+to rough pavement work this has been called <i>pflaster</i>
+structure or pavement structure. Each mineral may also
+enclose particles of the others; in the quartz, for example,
+small crystals of graphite, biotite, iron oxides, sillimanite or
+felspar may appear in great numbers. Often the whole of the
+grains are rendered semi-opaque in this way. The minutest
+crystals may show traces of crystalline outlines; undoubtedly
+they are of new formation and have originated <i>in situ</i>. This
+leads us to believe that the whole rock has been recrystallized
+at a high temperature and in the solid state, so that there was
+little freedom for the mineral molecules to build up well-individualized
+crystals. The regeneration of the rock has been
+sufficient to efface most of the original structures and to replace
+the former minerals more or less completely by new ones. But
+crystallization has been hampered by the solid condition of the
+mass and the new minerals are formless and have been unable
+to reject impurities, but have grown around them.</p>
+
+<p>Slates, shales and clays yield biotite hornfelses in which
+the most conspicuous mineral is black mica, in small scales which
+under the microscope are transparent and have a dark reddish-brown
+colour and strong dichroism. There is also quartz, and
+often a considerable amount of felspar, while graphite, tourmaline
+and iron oxides frequently occur in lesser quantity. In these
+biotite hornfelses the minerals, which consist of aluminium
+silicates, are commonly found; they are usually andalusite and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span>
+sillimanite, but kyanite appears also in hornfelses, especially in
+those which have a schistose character. The andalusite may be
+pink and is then often pleochroic in thin sections, or it may
+be white with the cross-shaped dark enclosures of the matrix
+which are characteristic of chiastolite. Sillimanite usually forms
+exceedingly minute needles embedded in quartz. In the rocks
+of this group cordierite also occurs, not rarely, and may have
+the outlines of imperfect hexagonal prisms which are divided
+up into six sectors when seen in polarized light. In biotite
+hornfelses a faint striping may indicate the original bedding
+of the unaltered rock and corresponds to small changes in the
+nature of the sediment deposited. More commonly there is a
+distinct spotting, visible on the surfaces of the hand specimens.
+The spots are round or elliptical, and may be paler or darker
+than the rest of the rock. In some cases they are rich in graphite
+or carbonaceous matters; in others they are full of brown mica;
+some spots consist of rather coarser grains of quartz than occur
+in the matrix. The frequency with which this feature reappears
+in the less altered slates and hornfelses is rather remarkable,
+especially as it seems certain that the spots are not always of
+the same nature or origin. &ldquo;Tourmaline hornfelses&rdquo; are found
+sometimes near the margins of tourmaline granites; they are
+black with small needles of schorl which under the microscope
+are dark brown and richly pleochroic. As the tourmaline contains
+boron there must have been some permeation of vapours
+from the granite into the sediments. Rocks of this group are
+often seen in the Cornish tin-mining districts, especially near
+the lodes.</p>
+
+<p>A second great group of hornfelses are the calc-silicate-hornfelses
+which arise from the thermal alteration of impure limestones.
+The purer beds recrystallize as marbles, but where there
+has been originally an admixture of sand or clay lime-bearing
+silicates are formed, such as diopside, epidote, garnet, sphene,
+vesuvianite, scapolite; with these phlogopite, various felspars,
+pyrites, quartz and actinolite often occur. These rocks are fine-grained,
+and though often banded are tough and much harder
+than the original limestones. They are excessively variable
+in their mineralogical composition, and very often alternate
+in thin seams with biotite hornfels and indurated quartzites.
+When perfused with boric and fluoric vapours from the granite
+they may contain much axinite, fluorite and datolite, but the
+aluminous silicates (andalusite, &amp;c.) are absent from these rocks.</p>
+
+<p>From diabases, basalts, andesites and other igneous rocks
+a third type of hornfels is produced. They consist essentially
+of felspar with hornblende (generally of brown colour) and
+pale pyroxene. Sphene, biotite and iron oxides are the other
+common constituents, but these rocks show much variety of
+composition and structure. Where the original mass was decomposed
+and contained calcite, zeolites, chlorite and other secondary
+minerals either in veins or in cavities, there are usually rounded
+areas or irregular streaks containing a suite of new minerals,
+which may resemble those of the calc silicate hornfelses above
+described. The original porphyritic, fluidal, vesicular or fragmental
+structures of the igneous rock are clearly visible in the
+less advanced stages of hornfelsing, but become less evident
+as the alteration progresses.</p>
+
+<p>In some districts hornfelsed rocks occur which have acquired
+a schistose structure through shearing, and these form transitions
+to schists and gneisses which contain the same minerals as the
+hornfelses, but have a schistose instead of a hornfels structure.
+Among these may be mentioned cordierite and sillimanite
+gneisses, andalusite and kyanite mica schists, and those schistose
+calc silicate rocks which are known as cipolins. That these are
+sediments which have undergone thermal alteration is generally
+admitted, but the exact conditions under which they were formed
+is not always clear. The essential features of hornfelsing are
+ascribed to the action of heat, pressure and permeating vapours,
+regenerating a rock mass without the production of fusion (at
+least on a large scale). It has been argued, however, that often
+there is extensive chemical change owing to the introduction
+of matter from the granite into the rocks surrounding it. The
+formation of new felspar in the hornfelses is pointed out as
+evidence of this. While this &ldquo;felspathization&rdquo; may have occurred
+in a few localities, it seems conspicuously absent from others.
+Most authorities at the present time regard the changes as being
+purely of a physical and not of a chemical nature.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNING, LETTERS OF,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a term in Scots law. Originally
+in Scotland imprisonment for debt was enforceable only in
+certain cases, but a custom gradually grew up of taking the
+debtor&rsquo;s oath to pay. If the debtor broke his oath, he became
+liable to the discipline of the Church. The civil power, further,
+stepped in to aid the ecclesiastical, and denounced him as a
+rebel, imprisoning his person and confiscating his goods. The
+method declaring a person a rebel was by giving three blasts
+on a horn and publicly proclaiming the fact; hence the expression,
+&ldquo;put to the horn.&rdquo; The subsequent process, the warrant
+directing a messenger-at-arms to charge the debtor to pay or
+perform in terms of the letters, was called &ldquo;letters of horning.&rdquo;
+This system of execution was simplified by an act of 1837
+(Personal Diligence Act), and execution is now usually by
+diligence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Execution</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNPIPE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> originally the name of an instrument no longer
+in existence, and now the name of an English national dance.
+The sailors&rsquo; hornpipe, although the most common, is by no
+means the only form of the dance, for there is a pretty tune
+known as the &ldquo;College Hornpipe,&rdquo; and other specimens of a
+similar kind might be cited. The composition of hornpipes
+flourished chiefly in the 18th century, and even Handel did not
+disdain to use the characteristic rhythm. The hornpipe may
+be written in <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2</span> or in common time, and is always of a lively
+nature.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORNSEY,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a municipal borough in the Hornsey parliamentary
+division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 6 m. N.
+of St Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral, on the Great Northern railway. Pop.
+(1891) 44,523; (1901) 72,056. It is chiefly occupied by small
+residences of the working classes. The manor, called in the
+13th century <i>Haringee</i> (a name which survives as Harringay),
+belonged from an early date to the see of London, the bishops
+having a seat here. In 1387 the duke of Gloucester, uncle of
+Richard II., assembled in Hornsey Park the forces by the
+display of which he compelled the king to dismiss his minister
+de la Pole, earl of Suffolk; and in 1483 the park was the scene of
+the ceremonious reception of Edward V., under the charge of
+Richard, duke of Gloucester, by Edmund Shaw, lord mayor of
+London. The parish church of St Mary, Hornsey, retains its
+Perpendicular tower (<i>c.</i> 1500) and a number of interesting
+monuments. Finsbury Park, of 120 acres, and other smaller
+public grounds, are within the borough. Hornsey was incorporated
+in 1903 under a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors.
+Area, 2875 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOROWITZ, ISAIAH<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1555-<i>c.</i> 1630), Jewish rabbi and
+mystic, was born at Prague, and died at Safed, then the home
+of Jewish Kabbala. His largest work is called <i>Shelah</i> (abbreviated
+from the initials of the full title <i>Shene luhoth ha-berit</i>,
+&ldquo;Two Tables of the Covenant&rdquo;). This is a compilation of
+ritual, ethics and mysticism, and had a profound influence
+on Jewish life. It has been often reprinted, especially in an
+abbreviated form.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For an account of the Jewish mystics at Safed see S. Schecter,
+<i>Studies in Judaism</i>, series ii. (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORREUM,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> the Latin word for a magazine or storehouse for
+the storage of grain and other produce of the earth, and occasionally
+for that of agricultural implements. The storehouses of
+Rome were of the most extensive character, there being no
+fewer than 290 public horrea at the time of Constantine. They
+were used for the storage of food and merchandize of all kinds,
+being part of the great Roman system of providing food for the
+population, and they were supplied constantly with corn and
+other provisions from Africa, Spain and elsewhere.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORROCKS, JEREMIAH<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1619-1641), English astronomer,
+was born in 1619 at Toxteth Park, near Liverpool. His family
+was poor, and the register of Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
+testifies to his entry as sizar on the 18th of May 1632. Isolated
+in his scientific tastes, and painfully straitened in means, he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span>
+pursued amid innumerable difficulties his purpose of self-education.
+His university career lasted three years, and on its
+termination he became a tutor at Toxteth, devoting to astronomical
+observations his brief intervals of leisure. In 1636 he met
+with a congenial spirit in William Crabtree, a draper of Broughton,
+near Manchester; and encouraged by his advice he exchanged
+the guidance of Philipp von Lansberg, a pretentious but inaccurate
+Belgian astronomer, for that of Kepler. He now set
+himself to the revision of the Rudolphine Tables (published by
+Kepler in 1627), and in the progress of his task became convinced
+that a transit of Venus overlooked by Kepler would nevertheless
+occur on the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639. He was at this time
+curate of Hoole, near Preston, having recently taken orders
+in the Church of England, although, according to the received
+accounts, he had not attained the canonical age. The 24th
+of November falling on a Sunday, his clerical duties threatened
+fatally to clash with his astronomical observations; he was,
+however, released just in time to witness the punctual verification
+of his forecast, and carefully noted the progress of the phenomenon
+during half an hour before sunset (3.15 to 3.45). This transit of
+Venus is remarkable as the first ever observed, that of 1631
+predicted by Kepler having been invisible in western Europe.
+Notwithstanding the rude character of the apparatus at his
+disposal, Horrocks was enabled by his observation of it to
+introduce some important corrections into the elements of the
+planet&rsquo;s orbit, and to reduce to its exact value the received
+estimate of its apparent diameter.</p>
+
+<p>After a year spent at Hoole, he returned to Toxteth, and
+there, on the eve of a long-promised visit to his friend Crabtree,
+he died, on the 3rd of January 1641, when only in his twenty-second
+year. To the inventive activity of the discoverer he had
+already united the patient skill of the observer and the practical
+sagacity of the experimentalist. Before he was twenty he had
+afforded a specimen of his powers by an important contribution
+to the lunar theory. He first brought the revolutions of our
+satellite within the domain of Kepler&rsquo;s laws, pointing out that
+her apparent irregularities could be completely accounted for
+by supposing her to move in an ellipse with a variable eccentricity
+and directly rotatory major axis, of which the earth
+occupied one focus. These precise conditions were afterwards
+demonstrated by Newton to follow necessarily from the law
+of gravitation.</p>
+
+<p>In his speculations as to the physical cause of the celestial
+motions, his mind, though not wholly emancipated from the
+tyranny of gratuitous assumptions, was working steadily towards
+the light. He clearly perceived the significant analogy between
+terrestrial gravity and the force exerted in the solar system, and
+by the ingenious device of a circular pendulum illustrated the
+composite character of the planetary movements. He also
+reduced the solar parallax to 14&Prime; (less than a quarter of Kepler&rsquo;s
+estimate), corrected the sun&rsquo;s semi-diameter to 15&prime; 45&Prime;, recommended
+decimal notation, and was the first to make tidal
+observations.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Only a remnant of the papers left by Horrocks was preserved by
+the care of William Crabtree. After his death (which occurred soon
+after that of his friend) these were purchased by Dr Worthington,
+of Cambridge; and from his hands the treatise <i>Venus in sole visa</i>
+passed into those of Hevelius, and was published by him in 1662
+with his own observations on a transit of Mercury. The remaining
+fragments were, under the directions of the Royal Society, reduced
+by Dr Wallis to a compact form, with the heading <i>Astronomia
+Kepleriana defensa et promota</i>, and published with numerous extracts
+from the letters of Horrocks to Crabtree, and a sketch of the author&rsquo;s
+life, in a volume entitled <i>Jeremiae Horroccii opera posthuma</i> (London,
+1672). A memoir of his life by the Rev. Arundell Blount Whatton,
+prefixed to a translation of the <i>Venus in sole visa</i>, appeared at London
+in 1859.</p>
+
+<p>For additional particulars, see J. E. Bailey&rsquo;s <i>Palatine Note-Book</i>,
+ii. 253, iii. 17; Bailey&rsquo;s &ldquo;Writings of Horrocks and Crabtree&rdquo;
+(from <i>Notes and Queries</i>, Dec. 2, 1882); <i>Notes and Queries</i>,
+3rd series, vol. v., 5th series, vols. ii., iv.; Martin&rsquo;s <i>Biographia
+philosophica</i>, p. 271 (1764); R. Brickel, <i>Transits of Venus, 1639-1874</i>
+(Preston, 1874); <i>Astronomical Register</i>, xii. 293; Hevelii,
+<i>Mercurius in sole visus</i>, pp. 116-140; S. Rigaud&rsquo;s <i>Correspondence
+of Scientific Men</i>; Th. Birch, <i>History of the Royal Society</i>, i. 386,
+395, 470; Sir E. Sherburne&rsquo;s <i>Sphere of M. Manilius</i>, p. 92 (1675);
+Sir J. A. Picton&rsquo;s <i>Memorials of Liverpool</i>, ii. 561; M. Gregson&rsquo;s
+<i>Fragments relative to the Duchy of Lancaster</i>, p. 166 (1817); <i>Liverpool
+Repository</i>, i. 570 (1826); <i>Phil. Trans. Abridged</i>, ii. 12 (1809);
+C. Hutton&rsquo;s <i>Phil. and Math. Dictionary</i> (1815); <i>Penny Cyclopaedia</i>
+(De Morgan); <i>Nature</i>, viii. 117, 137; J. B. J. Delambre, <i>Hist. de
+l&rsquo;astronomie moderne</i>, ii. 495; <i>Hist. de l&rsquo;astronomie au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>,
+pp. 28, 61, 74; W. Whewell, <i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>, i. 331;
+R. Grant, <i>Hist. of Physical Astronomy</i>, pp. 420, 545; J. Mädler,
+<i>Geschichte der Himmelskunde</i>, i. 275; M. Marie, <i>Hist. des Sciences</i>,
+iv. 168, vi. 90; J. C. Houzeau, <i>Bibl. Astr.</i> ii. 167.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORROCKS, JOHN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1768-1804), British cotton manufacturer,
+was born at Edgeworth, near Bolton, in 1768. His father was
+the owner of a small quarry, and John Horrocks spent his
+early days in dressing and polishing millstones. The Lancashire
+cotton industry was then in its infancy, but Horrocks was
+greatly impressed with its future possibilities, and he managed
+to obtain a few spinning-frames which he erected in a corner
+of his father&rsquo;s offices. For a time he combined cotton-spinning
+on a very small scale with stone-working, but finally devoted
+himself entirely to cotton-spinning, working the frames with his
+own hands, and travelling through the Lancashire manufacturing
+districts to sell the yarn. His goods obtained a reputation
+for quality, and his customers increased so rapidly that in 1791
+he removed to Preston, where he began to manufacture cotton
+shirtings and long-cloths in addition to spinning the cotton yarn.
+By taking full advantage of the machinery invented for manufacturing
+textiles, and by rigidly maintaining the quality of his
+goods, Horrocks rapidly developed his business, and with the
+aid of the capital of a local banker, whom he took into partnership,
+erected within a year of his arrival in Preston his first large mill,
+securing shortly afterwards from the East India Company a
+monopoly of the manufacture of cottons and muslins for the
+Indian market. The demand for Horrocks&rsquo;s goods continued to
+increase, and to cope with the additional work he took first
+an elder brother and in 1801 a Mr Whitehead and a Mr Miller
+into partnership, the title of the firm being altered to Horrockses,
+Miller &amp; Co. In 1802 he entered parliament as tory member
+for Preston. He died in London in 1804 of brain-fever resulting
+from over-work.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSE<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms
+as <i>hors</i>, <i>hros</i>, <i>ros</i>; cf. the Ger. <i>ross</i>), a name properly restricted
+to the domesticated horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>) and its wild or half-wild
+representatives, but in a zoological sense used as a general
+term for all the members of the family Equidae.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Species</p>
+
+<p>The distinctive characteristics of the family, and its position
+in the zoological system, are given in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equidae</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Perissodactyla</a></span>. Here attention is concentrated on the leading
+features of the horse as contrasted with the other members
+of the same family, and subsequently on the anatomical structure
+of the former animal. The evolution of the existing representatives
+of the family from primitive extinct animals is summarized
+in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equidae</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Horse</i>, <i>Wild Horse</i>, <i>Pony</i>.&mdash;The horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>) is
+distinguished from the others by the long hairs of the tail being
+more abundant and growing quite or nearly from the base as
+well as the end and sides, and also by possessing a small bare
+callosity on the inner side of the hind leg, just below the &ldquo;hock&rdquo;
+or heel joint, in addition to the one on the inner side of the
+fore-arm above the carpus or &ldquo;knee,&rdquo; common to all the genus.
+The mane is also longer and more flowing, and the ears are shorter,
+the limbs longer, and the head smaller.</p>
+
+<p>Though existing horses are usually not marked in any definite
+manner, or only irregularly dappled, or spotted with light
+surrounded by a darker ring, many examples are met with
+showing a dark median dorsal streak like that found in all the
+other members of the genus, and even with dark stripes on the
+shoulders and legs.</p>
+
+<p>Two distinct types of horse, in many instances largely modified
+by interbreeding, appear to exist. (1) The northern, or dun type,
+represented by the dun ponies of Norway (<i>Equus caballus
+typicus</i>), the closely allied Celtic pony (<i>E. c. celticus</i>) of Iceland, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span>
+Hebrides, &amp;c., and the wild pony of Mongolia (<i>E. c. przewalskii</i>),
+with which the now extinct tarpan of the Russian steppes
+appears to have been identical. The prevalent colour is yellow-dun,
+with dark brown or black mane, tail and legs; in the wild
+forms the muzzle is often white and the root of the tail short-haired;
+while the head is relatively large and heavy. No
+depression exists in the skull in front of the eye. Most of the
+ordinary horses of N.W. Europe are descended from the dun
+type, with more or less admixture of Barb blood. (2) The
+southern, or Barb type, represented by Barbs, Arabs, thoroughbreds,
+&amp;c. (<i>E. c. asiaticus</i> or <i>libycus</i>), in which the typical colour
+is bay with black &ldquo;points&rdquo; and often a white star on the forehead,
+and the mane and tail are long and full. The skull generally
+shows a slight depression in front of the socket of the eye, which,
+although now serving as the attachment for the muscle running
+to the nostril, may represent the face-gland of the extinct
+<i>Hipparion</i>. Many of the dark-coloured horses of Europe have
+Barb or Arab blood in their veins, this being markedly the case
+with the Old English black or Shire horse, the skull of which
+shows a distinct depression in front of the eye-socket. This
+depression is still more marked in the extinct Indian <i>E. sivalensis</i>,
+which may have been the ancestral form.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe wild horses were abundant in the prehistoric
+Neolithic or polished-stone period. Judging from the quantity
+of their remains found associated with those of the men of that
+time, the chase of these animals must have been among man&rsquo;s
+chief occupations, and horses must have furnished him with
+one of his most important food-supplies. The characters of the
+bones preserved, and certain rude but graphic representations
+carved on bones or reindeers&rsquo; antlers, enable us to know that
+they were rather small in size and heavy in build, with large
+heads and rough shaggy manes and tails, much like, in fact, the
+recently extinct tarpans or wild horses of the steppes of the
+south of Russia, and the still-surviving Mongolian wild pony
+or &ldquo;Przewalski&rsquo;s horse.&rdquo; These horses were domesticated
+by the inhabitants of Europe before the dawn of history. Horses
+are now diffused by the agency of man throughout almost the
+whole of the inhabited parts of the globe, and the great modifications
+they have undergone in consequence of domestication,
+crossing, and selective breeding are well exemplified by comparing
+such extreme forms as the Shetland pony, dwarfed by uncongenial
+climate, the thoroughbred racer, and the London dray-horse.
+In Australia, as in America, horses imported by European
+settlers have escaped into unreclaimed lands and multiplied
+to a prodigious extent, roaming in vast herds over the wide
+and uncultivated plains.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ass</i>, <i>Zebra</i>, <i>Quagga</i>.&mdash;The next group is formed by the Asiatic
+wild asses, or kiangs and onagers, as they might well be called,
+in order to distinguish them from the wild asses of Africa. These
+asses have moderate ears, the tail rather long, and the back-stripe
+dark brown and running from head to tail. On the neck and
+withers this stripe is formed by the mane. There are two
+species of Asiatic wild ass, with several varieties. The first and
+largest has two races, the chigetai (<i>Equus hemionus</i>) of Mongolia,
+and the kiang (<i>E. h. kiang</i>) of Tibet, which is a redder animal.
+The onager (<i>E. onager</i>), of which there are several races, is
+smaller, with a broader dorsal stripe, bordered with white;
+the colour varying from sandy to greyish. This species ranges
+from Baluchistan and N.W. India to Persia, Syria and Arabia.
+These asses inhabit desert plains or open table-land; the kiang
+dwelling at elevations of about 14,000 ft. They are generally
+found in herds of from twenty to forty, although occasionally
+in larger numbers. All are fleet, and traverse rough ground
+with speed. On the lowlands they feed on dry grasses, and in
+Tibet on small woody plants. In India and Persia they are
+difficult to approach, although this is not the case in Tibet.
+Their sandy or chestnut colouring assimilates them to the horse,
+and separates them widely from the African wild asses, which
+are grey. The kiang has also larger and more horse-like hoofs,
+and the tail is haired higher up, thus approximating to <i>Equus
+caballus przewalskii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Among the striped species, or zebras and quaggas of Africa,
+the large Grévy&rsquo;s zebra (<i>Equus grevyi</i>) of Somaliland and
+Abyssinia stands apart from the rest by the number and narrowness
+of its stripes, which have an altogether peculiar arrangement
+on the hind-quarters, the small size of the callosities on the
+fore-legs, the mane extending on to the withers and enormous
+rounded ears, thickly haired internally. The large size of the
+ears and the narrow stripes are in some degree at any rate
+adaptations to a life on scrub-clad plains.</p>
+
+<p>Next comes the closely allied species with small pointed ears,
+of which the true quagga (<i>E. quagga</i>) of South Africa is now
+extinct. This animal has the dark stripes limited to the head,
+neck and shoulders, upon a brown ground. In the typical
+form, now also extinct, of the bonte-quagga, dauw, or Burchell&rsquo;s
+zebra (<i>E. burchelli</i>), the ground-colour is white, and the stripes
+cover the body and upper part of the limbs. This was the
+commonest species in the great plains of South Africa, where
+it roamed in large herds, often in company with the quagga and
+numerous antelopes. The species ranges from the Orange river
+to the confines of Abyssinia, but its more northern representatives
+show a gradual increase in the striping of the legs, culminating
+in the north-east African <i>E. burchelli granti</i>, in which the stripes
+extend to the hoofs. The markings, too, are alternately black
+and white, in place of brown and creamy, with intermediate
+&ldquo;shadow stripes,&rdquo; as in the southern races.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, there is the true or mountain zebra (<i>E. zebra</i>), typically
+from the mountain ranges of Cape Colony, where it is now
+specially protected, but represented by <i>E. zebra penricei</i> in
+south-west Africa. In its relatively long ears and general build
+it approaches the African wild asses, from which it chiefly differs
+by the striping (which is markedly different from that of the
+quagga-group) and the reversal of the direction of the hairs along
+the spine.</p>
+
+<p>The African wild ass (<i>E. asinus</i>) is the parent of the domesticated
+breed, and is a long-eared grey animal, with no forelock,
+and either a shoulder-stripe or dark barrings on the legs. There
+are two races, of which the Nubian <i>E. a. africanus</i> is the smaller,
+and has a continuous dorsal stripe and a shoulder-stripe but no
+bars on the legs. The Somali race (<i>E. a somaliensis</i>), on the other
+hand, is a larger and greyer animal, with an interrupted dorsal
+and no shoulder-stripe, but distinct leg-barrings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hybrids.</i>&mdash;There are thus eight modifications of the horse-type
+at present existing, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species
+by most zoologists, and easily recognizable by their external
+characters. They are, however, all so closely allied that each
+will, at least in a state of domestication or captivity, breed with
+any of the others. Cases of fertile union are recorded between
+the horse and the quagga, the horse and the bonte-quagga or
+Burchell&rsquo;s zebra, the horse and the onager and kiang or Asiatic
+wild asses, the common ass and the zebra, the ass and bonte-quagga,
+the ass and the onager, the onager and the zebra, and
+the onager and the bonte-quagga. The two species which are
+farthest removed in structure, the horse and the ass, produce, as
+is well known, hybrids or mules, which in certain qualities useful
+to man excel both their progenitors, and in some countries and
+for certain kinds of work are in greater requisition than either.
+Although occasional more or less doubtful instances have been
+recorded of female mules breeding with the males of one or other
+of the pure species, it is more than doubtful if any case has
+occurred of their breeding <i>inter se</i>, although the opportunities
+of doing so must have been great, as mules have been reared in
+immense numbers for at least several thousands of years. We
+may therefore consider it settled that the different species of the
+group are now in that degree of physiological differentiation
+which enables them to produce offspring with each other, but
+does not permit of the progeny continuing the race, at all events
+unless reinforced by the aid of one of the pure forms.</p>
+
+<p>The several members of the group show mental differences
+quite as striking as those exhibited by their external form, and
+more than perhaps might be expected from the similarity of their
+brains. The patience of the ass, the high spirit of the horse,
+the obstinacy of the mule, have long been proverbial. It is very
+remarkable that, out of so many species, two only should have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span>
+shown any aptitude for domestication, and that these should
+have been from time immemorial the universal and most useful
+companions and servants of man, while all the others remain in
+their native freedom to this day. It is, however, still a question
+whether this really arises from a different mental constitution
+causing a natural capacity for entering into relations with man,
+or whether it may not be owing to their having been brought
+gradually into this condition by long-continued and persevering
+efforts when the need of their services was felt. It is possible
+that one reason why most of the attempts to add new species
+to the list of our domestic animals in modern times have ended in
+failure is that it does not answer to do so in cases in which existing
+species supply all the principal purposes to which the new ones
+might be put. It can hardly be expected that zebras and bonte-quaggas
+fresh from their native mountains and plains can be
+brought into competition as beasts of burden and draught with
+horses and asses, whose useful qualities have been augmented
+by the training of thousands of generations of progenitors.</p>
+
+<p>Not infrequently instances occur of domestic horses being
+produced with a small additional toe with complete hoof, usually
+on the inside of the principal toe, and, though far more rarely,
+three or more toes may be present. These malformations are
+often cited as instances of reversion to the condition of some of
+the earlier forms of equine animals previously mentioned. In
+some instances, however, the feet of such polydactyle horses
+bear little resemblance to those of the extinct <i>Hipparion</i> or
+<i>Anchitherium</i>, but look rather as if due to that tendency to
+reduplication of parts which occurs so frequently as a monstrous
+condition, especially among domesticated animals, and which,
+whatever its origin, certainly cannot in many instances, as the
+cases of entire limbs superadded, or of six digits in man, be
+attributed to reversion.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Anatomy</p>
+
+<p>The anatomical structure of the horse has been described
+in detail in several works mentioned in the bibliography at the
+end of this section, though these have generally been written
+from the point of view of the veterinarian rather than of the
+comparative anatomist. The limits of the present article
+will only admit of the most salient points being indicated,
+particularly those in which the horse differs from other Ungulata.
+Unless otherwise specified, it must be understood that all that
+is stated here, although mostly derived from observation upon
+the horse, applies equally well to the other existing members
+of the group.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Skeleton.</i>&mdash;The skull as a whole is greatly elongated, chiefly in
+consequence of the immense size of the face as compared with the
+hinder or true cranial portion. The basal line of the cranium from
+the lower border of the foramen magnum to the incisor border of the
+palate is nearly straight. The orbit, of nearly circular form, though
+small in proportion to the size of the whole skull, is distinctly marked,
+being completely surrounded by a strong ring of bone with prominent
+edges. Behind it, and freely communicating with it beneath the
+osseous bridge (the post-orbital process of the frontal) forming the
+boundary between them, is the small temporal fossa occupying the
+whole of the side of the cranium proper, and in front is the great
+flattened expanse of the &ldquo;cheek,&rdquo; formed chiefly by the maxilla, giving
+support to the long row of cheek-teeth, and having a prominent ridge
+running forward from below the orbit for the attachment of the
+masseter muscle. The lachrymal occupies a considerable space on the
+flat surface of the cheek in front of the orbit, and below it the jugal
+does the same. The latter sends a horizontal or slightly ascending
+process backwards below the orbit to join the under surface of the
+zygomatic process of the squamosal, which is remarkably large, and
+instead of ending as usual behind the orbit, runs forwards to join
+the greatly developed post-orbital process of the frontal, and even
+forms part of the posterior and inferior boundary of the orbit, an
+arrangement not met with in other mammals. The closure of the
+orbit behind distinguishes the skull of the horse from that of its allies
+the rhinoceros and tapir, and also from all of the perissodactyles of
+the Eocene period. In front of the brain cavity, the great tubular
+nasal cavities are provided with well-developed turbinal bones, and
+are roofed over by large nasals, broad behind, and ending in front
+in a narrow decurved point. The opening of the anterior nostrils
+is prolonged backwards on each side of the face between the nasals
+and the elongated slender premaxillae. The latter expand in front,
+and are curved downwards to form the semicircular alveolar border
+which supports the large incisor teeth. The palate is narrow in the
+interval between the incisor and molar teeth, in which are situated
+the large anterior palatine foramina. Between the molar teeth it is
+broader, and it ends posteriorly in a rounded excavated border
+opposite the hinder border of the penultimate molar tooth. It is
+mainly formed by the maxillae, as the palatines are very narrow.
+The pterygoids are delicate slender slips of bone attached to the
+hinder border of the palatines, and supported externally by, and
+generally welded with, the rough pterygoid plates of the alisphenoid,
+with no pterygoid fossa between. They slope obliquely forwards, and
+end in curved, compressed, hamular processes. There is a distinct
+alisphenoid canal for the passage of the internal maxillary artery.
+The base of the cranium is long and narrow; the alisphenoid is very
+obliquely perforated by the foramen rotundum, but the foramen
+ovale is confluent with the large foramen lacerum medium behind.
+The glenoid surface for the articulation of the mandible is greatly
+extended transversely, concave from side to side, convex from
+before backwards in front, and hollow behind, and is bounded
+posteriorly at its inner part by a prominent post-glenoid process.
+The squamosal enters considerably into the formation of the temporal
+fossa, and, besides sending the zygomatic process forwards, it sends
+down behind the meatus auditorius a post-tympanic process which
+aids to hold in place the otherwise loose tympano-periotic bone.
+Behind this the exoccipital gives off a long paroccipital process.
+The periotic and tympanic are welded together, but not with the
+squamosal. The former has a wide but shallow floccular fossa on
+its inner side, and sends backwards a considerable &ldquo;pars mastoidea,&rdquo;
+which appears on the outer surface of the skull between the post-tympanic
+process of the squamosal and the exoccipital. The
+tympanic forms a tubular meatus auditorius externus directed outwards
+and slightly backwards. It is not dilated into a distinct bulla,
+but ends in front in a pointed rod-like process. It completely
+embraces the truncated cylindrical tympanohyal, which is of great
+size, corresponding with the large development of the whole anterior
+arch of the hyoid. This consists mainly of a long and compressed
+stylohyal, expanded at the upper end, where it sends off a triangular
+posterior process. The basi-hyal is remarkable for the long, median,
+pointed, compressed &ldquo;glossohyal&rdquo; process, which it sends forward
+from its anterior border into the base of the tongue. A similar but
+less developed process is found in the rhinoceros and tapir. The
+lower jaw is large, especially the region of the angle, which is expanded
+and flattened, giving great surface for the attachment of
+the masseter muscle. The condyle is greatly elevated above the
+alveolar border; its articular surface is very wide transversely, and
+narrow and convex from before backwards. The coronoid process
+is slender, straight, and inclined backwards. The horizontal ramus,
+long, straight, and compressed, gradually narrows towards the symphysis,
+where it expands laterally to form with the ankylosed
+opposite ramus the wide, semicircular, shallow alveolar border for
+the incisor teeth.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:443px; height:428px" src="images/img714.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Side view of Skull of Horse, with the bone removed
+so as to expose the whole of the teeth.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla.</p>
+<p><i>Mx</i>,  Maxilla.</p>
+<p><i>Na</i>,  Nasal bone.</p>
+<p><i>Ma</i>,  Jugal or malar bone.</p>
+<p><i>L</i>,   Lacrymal bone.</p>
+<p><i>Fr</i>,  Frontal bone.</p>
+<p><i>Sq</i>,  Squamosal bone.</p>
+<p><i>Pa</i>,  Parietal bone.</p>
+<p><i>oc</i>,  Occipital condyle.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>pp</i>,  Paroccipital process.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>¹, <i>i</i>², and <i>i</i>³, The three incisor teeth.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>,   The canine tooth.</p>
+<p><i>pm</i>¹, The situation of the rudimentary first premolar,
+  which has been lost in the lower, but is present in the upper jaw.</p>
+<p><i>pm</i>², <i>pm</i>³, and pm<span class="sp">4</span>, The three fully developed premolar teeth.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>¹, <i>m</i>², and <i>m</i>³, The three true molar teeth.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal,
+six lumbar, five sacral, and fifteen to eighteen caudal vertebrae
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span>
+There may be nineteen rib-bearing vertebrae, in which case five
+only will be reckoned as belonging to the lumbar series. The
+odontoid process of the axis is wide, flat, and hollowed above, as in the
+ruminants. The bodies of the cervical vertebrae are elongated,
+strongly keeled, and markedly opisthocoelous, or concave behind
+and convex in front. The neural laminae are broad, the spines
+almost obsolete, except in the seventh, and the transverse processes
+not largely developed. In the trunk vertebrae the opisthocoelous
+character of the centrum gradually diminishes. The spinous processes
+of the anterior thoracic region are high and compressed. To
+these is attached the powerful elastic ligament (<i>ligamentum nuchae</i>,
+or &ldquo;paxwax&rdquo;) which, passing forwards in the middle line of the
+neck above the neural arches of the cervical vertebrae&mdash;to which it
+is also connected&mdash;is attached to the occiput and supports the weight
+of the head. The transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae are
+long, flattened, and project horizontally outwards or slightly forward
+from the arch. The metapophyses are moderately developed, and
+there are no anapophyses. The caudal vertebrae, except those
+quite at the base, are slender and cylindrical, without processes and
+without chevron bones beneath. The ribs are eighteen or nineteen
+in number on each side, flattened, and united to the sternum by
+short, stout, tolerably well ossified sternal ribs. The sternum consists
+of six pieces; the anterior or presternum is compressed and
+projects forwards like the prow of a boat. The segments which
+follow gradually widen, and the hinder part of the sternum is broad
+and flat.</p>
+
+<p>As in all other ungulates, there are no clavicles. The scapula is
+long and slender, the supra-scapular border being rounded, and
+slowly and imperfectly ossified. The spine is very slightly developed;
+rather above the middle its edge is thickened and somewhat turned
+backwards, but it gradually subsides at the lower extremity without
+forming any acromial process. The coracoid is a prominent rounded
+nodule. The humerus is stout and rather short. The ulna is rudimentary,
+being represented by little more than the olecranon.
+The shaft gradually tapers below and is firmly welded to the radius.
+The latter bone is of nearly equal width throughout. The three
+bones of the first row of the carpus (scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform)
+are subequal in size. The second row consists of a broad and flat
+magnum, supporting the great third metacarpal, having to its
+radial side the trapezoid, and to its ulnar side the unciform, which
+are both small, and articulate inferiorally with the rudimentary
+second and fourth metacarpals. The pisiform is large and prominent,
+flattened and curved; it articulates partly with the cuneiform and
+partly with the lower end of the radius. The large metacarpal is
+called in veterinary anatomy &ldquo;cannon bone&rdquo;; the small lateral
+metacarpals, which gradually taper towards their lower extremities,
+and lie in close contact with the large one, are called &ldquo;splint bones.&rdquo;
+The single digit consists of a moderate-sized proximal (<i>os suffraginis</i>,
+or large pastern), a short middle (<i>os coronae</i>, or small pastern), and
+a wide, semi-lunar, ungual phalanx (<i>os pedis</i>, or coffin bone). There
+is a pair of large nodular sesamoids behind the metacarpo-phalangeal
+articulation, and a single large transversely-extended sesamoid
+behind the joint between the second and third phalanx, called the
+&ldquo;navicular bone.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The carpal joint, corresponding to the wrist of man, is commonly
+called the &ldquo;knee&rdquo; of the horse, the joint between the metacarpal
+and the first phalanx the &ldquo;fetlock,&rdquo; that between the first and
+second phalanges the &ldquo;pastern,&rdquo; and that between the second and
+third phalanges the &ldquo;coffin joint.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the hinder limb the femur is marked, as in other perissodactyles,
+by the presence of a &ldquo;third trochanter,&rdquo; a flattened process, curving
+forwards and arising from the outer side of the bone, about one-third
+of the distance from the upper end. The fibula is reduced to a
+mere rod-like rudiment of the upper end. The lower part is absent
+or completely fused with the tibia. The calcaneum has a long and
+compressed calcaneal process. The astragalus has a large flat
+articular surface in front for the navicular, and a small one for the
+cuboid. The navicular and the external cuneiform bones are broad
+and flat. The cuboid is small, and the internal and middle cuneiform
+bones are small and united together. The metapodals and phalanges
+resemble very closely those of the fore limb, but the principal
+metatarsal is more laterally compressed at its upper end than is the
+corresponding metacarpal. The joint between the femur and tibia,
+corresponding to the knee of man, is called the &ldquo;stifle-joint&rdquo;; that
+between the tibia and tarsus, corresponding to the ankle of man,
+the &ldquo;hock.&rdquo; The bones and joints of the foot have the same names
+as in the fore limb. The horse is eminently &ldquo;digitigrade,&rdquo; standing
+on the extremity of the single digit of each foot, which is kept habitually
+in a position approaching to vertical.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles of the limbs are modified from those of the ordinary
+mammalian type in accordance with the reduced condition of the
+bones and the simple requirements of flexion and extension of the
+joints, no such actions as pronation and supination, or opposition of
+digits, being possible or needed. The muscles therefore which perform
+these functions in other quadrupeds are absent or rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p>Below the carpal and tarsal joints, the fore and hind limbs correspond
+almost exactly in structure as well as function. On the
+anterior or extensor surface of the limb a powerful tendon (7 in fig. 2),
+that of the anterior extensor of the phalanges (corresponding to the
+<i>extensor communis digitorum</i> of the arm and <i>extensor longus digitorum</i>
+of the foot of man) passes down over the metacarpal bone and
+phalanges, to be inserted mainly into the upper edge of the anterior
+surface of the last phalanx or pedal bone. There is also a much
+smaller second extensor on the outer side of this in each limb, the
+lateral extensor of the phalanges. In the fore-leg the tendon of this
+muscle (which corresponds with the <i>extensor minimi digiti</i> of man)
+receives a slip from that of the principal extensor, and is inserted
+into the first phalanx. In the hind-leg (where it is the homologue
+apparently of the <i>peroneus brevis</i> of man) the tendon becomes
+blended with that of the large extensor.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:415px; height:363px" src="images/img715.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Section of Foot of Horse.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1, Metacarpal bone.</p>
+<p>2, First phalanx (<i>os suffraginis</i>).</p>
+<p>3, Second phalanx (<i>os coronae</i>).</p>
+<p>4, Third or ungual phalanx (<i>os pedis</i>, or coffin bone).</p>
+<p>5, One of the upper sesamoid bones.</p>
+<p>6, Lower sesamoid or navicular bone.</p>
+<p>7, Tendon of anterior extensor of the phalanges.</p>
+<p>8, Tendon of superficial flexor (<i>fl. perforatus</i>).</p>
+<p>9, Tendon of deep flexor (<i>fl. perforans</i>).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>10, Suspensory ligament of fetlock.</p>
+<p>11, Inferior or short sesamoid ligament.</p>
+<p>12, Derma or skin of the foot, covered with hair, and continued into</p>
+<p>13, The coronary cushion,</p>
+<p>14, The podophyllous or laminar membrane, and</p>
+<p>15, The keratogenous membrane of the sole.</p>
+<p>16, Plantar cushion.</p>
+<p>17, Hoof.</p>
+<p>18, Fatty cushion of fetlock.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">A strong ligamentous band behind the metapodium, arising from
+near the upper extremity of its posterior surface, divides into two
+at its lower end, and each division, being first connected with one
+of the paired upper sesamoid bones, passes by the side of the first
+phalanx to join the extensor tendon of the phalanges. This is
+called in veterinary anatomy the &ldquo;suspensory ligament of the
+sesamoids,&rdquo; or of the &ldquo;fetlock&rdquo; (10 in fig. 2); but its attachments
+and relations, as well as the occasional presence of muscular fibres
+in its substance, show that it is the homologue of the interosseous
+muscles of other mammals, modified in structure and function, to
+suit the requirements of the horse&rsquo;s foot. Behind or superficial to
+this are placed the two strong tendons of the flexor muscles, the
+most superficial, or <i>flexor perforatus</i> (8) dividing to allow the other
+to pass through, and then inserted into the middle phalanx. The
+<i>flexor perforans</i> (9) is as usual inserted into the terminal phalange.
+In the fore-leg these muscles correspond with those similarly named
+in man. In the hind-leg, the perforated tendon is a continuation of
+that of the plantaris, passing pulley-wise over the tuberosity of the
+calcaneum. The perforating tendon is derived from the muscle
+corresponding with the long flexor of man, and the smaller tendon
+of the oblique flexor (<i>tibialis porticus</i> of man) is united with it.</p>
+
+<p>The hoof of the horse corresponds to the nail or claw of other
+mammals, but is so constructed as to form a complete and solid
+case to the expanded termination of the toe, giving a firm basis of
+support formed of a non-sensitive substance, which is continually
+renewed by the addition of material from within, as its surface
+wears away by friction. The terminal phalange of the toe is greatly
+enlarged and modified in form to support this hoof, and the size of
+the internal framework of the foot is increased by a pair of lateral
+fibro-cartilaginous masses attached on each side to the hinder edges
+of the bone, and by a fibro-cellular and fatty plantar cushion in the
+median part. These structures are all enclosed in the middle subcorneous
+integument, a continuation of the ordinary skin of the
+limb, but extremely vascular, and having its superficial extent
+greatly increased by being developed into papillae or laminae.
+From this the horny material which constitutes the hoof is exuded.
+A thickened ring encircling the upper part, called coronary cushion
+(13) and the sole (15), are covered with numerous thickly-set
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span>
+papillae or villi, and take the greatest share in the formation of the
+hoof; the intermediate part constituting the front and side of the
+foot (14), corresponding with the wall of the hoof, is covered with
+parallel, fine longitudinal laminae, which fit into corresponding
+depressions in the inner side of the horny hoof.</p>
+
+<p>The horny hoof is divided into a wall or crust consisting of the
+front and sides, the flattened or concave sole, and the frog, a
+triangular median prominence, notched posteriorly, with the apex
+turned forwards, situated in the hinder part of the sole. It is formed
+of pavement epithelial cells, mainly grouped in a concentric manner
+around the vascular papillae of the subcorneous integument, so that
+a section near the base of the hoof, cut transversely to the long axis
+of these papillae, shows a number of small circular or oval orifices,
+with cells arranged concentrically round them. The nearer the
+surface of the hoof, or farther removed from the seat of growth, the
+more indistinct the structure becomes.</p>
+
+<p>Small round or oval plates of horny epithelium called &ldquo;chestnuts,&rdquo;
+callosities growing like the hoof from enlarged papillae of the skin,
+are found on the inner face of the fore-arm, above the carpal joint
+in all species of Equidae, and in the horse (<i>E. caballus</i>) similar
+structures occur near the upper extremity of the inner face of the
+metatarsus. They are evidently rudimentary structures which it
+is suggested may represent glands (Lydekker, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.
+London</i>, 1903, vol. i.).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:399px" src="images/img716.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal and Transverse Section
+of Upper Incisor of Horse.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>p</i>, Pulp cavity.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Dentine or ivory.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Enamel.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Outer layer of cementum or crusta petrosa.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>&prime;, Inner layer of cementum, lining <i>a</i>, the pit or cavity of the crown of the tooth.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Dentition.</i>&mdash;The dentition of the horse, when all the teeth are in
+place, is expressed by the formula <i>i.</i> <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>, <i>c.</i> <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1</span>, <i>p.</i> <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span> <i>m.</i> <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> = 44. The
+incisors of each jaw are placed in close contact, forming a semicircle.
+The crowns are broad, somewhat awl-shaped, and of nearly
+equal size. They have all the great peculiarity, not found in the
+teeth of any other mammal, and only in the Equidae of comparatively
+recent geological periods (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeontology</a></span>), of an involution
+of the external surface of the tooth (see fig. 3), by which what should
+properly be the apex
+is carried deeply into
+the interior of the
+crown, forming a pit,
+the bottom of which
+becomes partially
+filled with cement.
+As the tooth wears,
+the surface, besides
+the external enamel
+layer as in an ordinary
+simple tooth, shows
+in addition a second
+inner ring of the same
+hard substance surrounding
+the pit,
+which adds greatly to
+the efficiency of the
+tooth as an organ for
+biting tough, fibrous
+substances. This pit,
+generally filled in the
+living animal with
+particles of food, is
+conspicuous from its
+dark colour, and constitutes
+the &ldquo;mark&rdquo;
+by which the age of
+the horse is judged,
+as in consequence of
+its only extending to
+a certain depth in
+the crown it becomes
+obliterated as the latter wears away, and then the tooth assumes
+the character of that of an ordinary incisor, consisting only of
+a core of dentine, surrounded by the external enamel layer.
+It is not quite so deep in the lower as in the upper teeth.
+The canines are either rudimentary or absent in the female.
+In the male they are compressed, pointed, and smaller than the
+incisors, from which they are separated by a slight interval. The
+teeth of the cheek series are all in contact with each other, but
+separated from the canines by a considerable toothless space. The
+anterior premolars are quite rudimentary, sometimes not developed
+at all, and generally fall by the time the animal attains maturity,
+so that there are but six functional cheek teeth,&mdash;three that have
+predecessors in the milk-dentition, and hence are considered as
+premolars, and three molars, but otherwise, except the first and last
+of the series, not distinguishable in form or structure. These teeth
+in both upper and lower jaws are extremely long-crowned or hypsodont,
+successive portions being pushed out as the surface wears
+away, a process which continues until the animal becomes advanced
+in age. The enamelled surface is infolded in a complex manner (a
+modification of that found in other perissodactyles), the folds extending
+quite to the base of the crown, and the interstices being
+filled and the surface covered with a considerable mass of cement,
+which binds together and strengthens the whole tooth. As the teeth
+wear, the folded enamel, being harder than the other constituents,
+the dentine and cement, forms projecting ridges on the surface
+arranged in a definite pattern, which give it great efficiency as a
+grinding instrument (see fig. 2, in article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equidae</a></span>). The free
+surfaces of the upper teeth are quadrate, except the first and last,
+which are nearly triangular. The lower teeth are much narrower
+than the upper.</p>
+
+<p>The milk-dentition consists of i. <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>, c. <span class="spp">0</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">0</span>, m. <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> = 24,&mdash;the canines
+and first or rudimentary premolars having apparently no predecessors.
+In form and structure the milk-teeth much resemble the
+permanent ones, having the same characteristic enamel-foldings.
+Their eruption commences a few days after birth, and is complete
+before the end of the first year, the upper teeth usually appearing
+somewhat earlier than the lower. The first teeth which appear are
+the first and second milk-molars (about five days), then the central
+incisor (from seven to ten days); this is followed by the second
+incisor (at one month), then the third molar, and finally the third
+incisor. Of the permanent teeth the first molar appears a little
+after the end of the first year, followed by the second molar before
+the end of the second year. At about two and a half years the first
+premolar replaces its predecessor. Between two and a half and
+three years the first incisor appears. At three years the second and
+third premolars, and the third molar have appeared, at from three
+and a half to four years the second incisor, at four to four and a
+half years the canine, and, finally, at five years, the third incisor,
+completing the permanent dentition. Up to this period the age of
+the horse is clearly shown by the condition of dentition, and for
+some time longer indications can be obtained from the wear of the
+incisors, though this depends to a certain extent upon the hardness
+of the food or other circumstances. As a general rule, the depression
+caused by the infolding of the surface of the incisor (the &ldquo;mark&rdquo;)
+is obliterated in the first or central incisor at six years, in the second
+at seven years, and in the third at eight years. In the upper teeth,
+as the depressions are deeper, this obliteration does not take place
+until about two years later. After this period no certain indications
+can be obtained of the age of the horse from the teeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Digestive Organs.</i>&mdash;The lips are flexible and prehensile; and the
+membrane that lines them and the cheeks smooth. The palate is
+long and narrow; its mucous surface has seventeen pairs of not very
+sharply defined oblique ridges, extending as far back as the last
+molar tooth, beyond which the <i>velum palati</i> extends for about 3 in.,
+having a soft corrugated surface, and ending posteriorly in an arched
+border without a uvula. This embraces the base of the epiglottis,
+and, except while swallowing food, shuts off all communication
+between the cavity of the mouth and the pharynx, respiration being,
+under ordinary circumstances, exclusively through the nostrils.
+Between the mucous membrane and the bone of the hard palate is
+a dense vascular and nervous plexus. The membrane lining the
+jaws is soft and corrugated. An elongated raised glandular mass,
+3 in. long and 1 in. from above downwards, extending backwards
+from the root of the tongue along the side of the jaws, with openings
+on the surface leading into crypts with glandular walls, represents
+the tonsil. The tongue, corresponding to the form of the mouth,
+is long and narrow. It consists of a compressed intermolar portion
+with a flat upper surface, broad behind and becoming narrower in
+front, and of a depressed anterior part rather shorter than the
+former, which is narrow behind and widens towards the evenly
+rounded apex. The dorsal surface generally is soft and smooth.
+There are two large circumvallate papillae near the base, rather
+irregular in form, about a quarter of an inch in diameter and half an
+inch apart. The conical papillae are small and close set, though
+longer and more filamentous on the intermolar portion. There are
+no fungiform papillae on the dorsum, but a few inconspicuous ones
+scattered along the sides of the organ.</p>
+
+<p>Of the salivary glands the parotid is by far the largest, elongated
+in the vertical direction, and narrower in the middle than at either
+end. Its upper extremity embraces the lower surface of the cartilaginous
+ear-conch; its lower end reaches the level of the inferior
+margin of the mandible, along the posterior margin of which it is
+placed. Its duct leaves the inferior anterior angle, at first descends
+a little, and runs forward under cover of the rounded inferior border
+of the lower jaw, then curves up along the anterior margin of the
+masseter muscle, becoming superficial, pierces the buccinator, and
+enters the mouth by a simple aperture opposite the middle of the
+crown of the third premolar tooth. It is not quite so thick as a goose-quill
+when distended, and nearly a foot in length.</p>
+
+<p>The submaxillary gland is of very similar texture to the last,
+but much smaller; it is placed deeper, and lies with its main axis
+horizontal. It is elongated and slender, and flattened from within
+outwards. Its posterior end rests against the anterior surface of
+the transverse process of the atlas, from which it extends forwards
+and downwards, slightly curved, to beneath the ramus of the jaw.
+The duct which runs along its upper and internal border passes
+forwards in the usual course, lying in the inner side of the sublingual
+gland, to open on the outer surface of a distinct papilla, situated on
+the floor of the mouth, half an inch from the middle line, and midway
+between the lower incisor teeth and the attachment of the fraenum
+linguae. The sublingual is represented by a mass of glands lying
+just beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth on
+the side of the tongue, causing a distinct ridge, extending from the
+fraenum backwards, the numerous ducts opening separately along
+the summit of the ridge. The buccal glands are arranged in two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span>
+rows parallel with the molar teeth. The upper ones are the largest,
+and are continuous anteriorly with the labial glands, the ducts of
+which open on the mucous membrane of the upper lip.</p>
+
+<p>The stomach of the horse is simple in its external form, with a
+largely developed right <i>cul de sac</i>, and is a good deal curved on
+itself, so that the cardiac and pyloric orifices are brought near
+together. The <i>antrum pyloricum</i> is small and not very distinctly
+marked. The interior is divided by the character of the lining
+membrane into two distinct portions, right and left. Over the
+latter the dense white smooth epithelial lining of the &oelig;sophagus is
+continued, terminating abruptly by a raised crenulated border.
+Over the right part the mucous membrane has a greyish-red colour
+and a velvety appearance, and contains numerous peptic glands,
+which are wanting in the cardiac portion. The &oelig;sophageal orifice
+is small, and guarded by a strong crescentic or horseshoe-like band
+of muscular fibres, supposed to be the cause of the difficulty of
+vomiting in the horse. The small intestine is of great length (80 to
+90 ft.), its mucous membrane being covered with numerous fine
+villi. The caecum is of conical form, about 2 ft. long and nearly
+a foot in diameter; its walls are sacculated, especially near the base,
+having four longitudinal muscular bands; and its capacity is about
+twice that of the stomach. It lies with its base near the lower part
+of the abdomen, and its apex directed towards the thorax. The
+colon is about one-third the length of the small intestine, and very
+capacious in the greater part of its course. As usual it may be
+divided into an ascending, transverse, and descending portion; but
+the middle or transverse portion is folded into a great loop, which
+descends as low as the pubis; so that the colon forms altogether
+four folds, generally parallel to the long axis of the body. The
+descending colon is much narrower than the rest, and not sacculated,
+and, being considerably longer than the distance it has to traverse,
+is thrown into numerous folds.</p>
+
+<p>The liver is tolerably symmetrical in general arrangement, being
+divided nearly equally into segments by a well-marked umbilical
+fissure. Each segment is again divided by lateral fissures, which
+do not extend quite to the posterior border of the organ; of the
+central lobes thus cut off, the right is rather the larger, and has two
+fissures in its free border dividing it into lobules. The extent of these
+varies, however, in different individuals. The two lateral lobes are
+subtriangular in form. The Spigelian lobe is represented by a flat
+surface between the postal fissure and the posterior border, not
+distinctly marked off from the left lateral by a fissure of the ductus
+venosus, as this vessel is buried deep in the hepatic substance, but
+the caudate lobe is distinct and tongue-shaped, its free apex reaching
+nearly to the border of the right lateral lobe. There is no gall-bladder,
+and the biliary duct enters the duodenum about 6 in.
+from the pylorus. The pancreas has two lobes or branches, a
+long one passing to the left and reaching the spleen, and a shorter
+right lobe. The principal duct enters the duedenum with the bile-duct,
+and there is often a second small duct opening separately.</p>
+
+<p><i>Circulatory and Respiratory Organs.</i>&mdash;The heart has the form of a
+rather elongated and pointed cone. There is one anterior vena cava,
+formed by the union of the two jugular and two axillary veins. The
+aorta gives off a large branch (the anterior aorta) very near its
+origin, from which arise&mdash;first, the left axillary, and afterwards the
+right axillary and the two carotid arteries.</p>
+
+<p>Under ordinary circumstances the horse breathes entirely by the
+nasal passages, the communication between the larynx and the
+mouth being closed by the velum palati. The nostrils are placed
+laterally, near the termination of the muzzle, and are large and
+dilatable, being bordered by cartilages upon which several muscles
+act. Immediately within the opening of the nostril, the respiratory
+canal sends off on its upper and outer side a blind pouch (&ldquo;false
+nostril&rdquo;) of conical form, and curved, 2 to 3 in. in depth, lying in
+the notch formed between the nasal and premaxillary bones. It is
+lined by mucous membrane continuous with that of the nasal
+passage; its use is not apparent. It is longer in the ass than in the
+horse. Here may be mentioned the guttural pouches, large air-sacs
+from the Eustachian tubes, and lying behind the upper part
+of the pharynx, the function of which is also not understood. The
+larynx has the lateral sacculi well developed, though entirely concealed
+within the alae of the thyroid cartilage. The trachea divides
+into two bronchi.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>&mdash;The brain differs little, except in details of
+arrangement of convolutions, from that of other ungulates. The
+hemispheres are rather elongated and subcylindrical, the olfactory
+lobes are large and project freely in front of the hemispheres, and
+the greater part of the cerebellum is uncovered. The eye is provided
+with a nictitating membrane or third eyelid, at the base of which
+open the ducts of the Harderian gland.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reproductive System.</i>&mdash;The testes are situated in a distinct sessile
+or slightly pedunculated scrotum, into which they descend from the
+sixth to the tenth month after birth. The accessory generative
+glands are the two vesiculae seminales, with the median third
+vesicle, or <i>uterus masculinus</i>, lying between them, the single bilobed
+prostate, and a pair of globular Cowper&rsquo;s glands. The penis is very
+large, cylindrical, with a truncated, expanded, flattened termination.
+When in a state of repose it is retracted, by a muscle arising from
+the sacrum, within the prepuce, a cutaneous fold attached below
+the symphysis pubis.</p>
+
+<p>The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina is often partially divided
+by a membraneous septum or hymen. The teats are two, inguinally
+placed. The surface of the chorion is covered evenly with minute
+villi, constituting a diffuse non-deciduate placenta. The period of
+gestation is eleven months.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;R. I. Pocock, &ldquo;The Species and Subspecies of
+Zebras,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 6, vol. xx., 1897, and &ldquo;A New
+Arrangement of the Existing Species of Equidae,&rdquo; <i>Op. cit.</i> ser. 7,
+vol. x., 1902; R. Lydekker, &ldquo;Notes on the specimens of Wild
+Asses in English Collections,&rdquo; <i>Novitates Zoologicae</i>, vol. xi., 1904;
+B. Salensky, &ldquo;On Equus przewalskii,&rdquo; <i>Mém. Acad. St Pétersburg</i>,
+1902; M. S. Arloing, &ldquo;Organisation du pied chez le cheval,&rdquo;
+<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i>, 1867, viii. 55-81; H. Burmeister, <i>Los caballos
+fosiles de la Pampa Argentina</i> (Buenos Aires, 1875); Chauveau and
+Arloing, <i>Traité d&rsquo;anatomie comparée des animaux domestiques</i> (Paris,
+1871), and English edition by G. Fleming (1873); A. Ecker, &ldquo;Das
+Europäische Wildpferd und dessen Beziehungen zum domesticirten
+Pferd,&rdquo; <i>Globus</i>, Bd. xxxiv. (Brunswick, 1878); Major Forsyth,
+&ldquo;Beiträge zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde besonders Italiens,&rdquo;
+<i>Abh. Schw. Pal. Ges.</i> iv. 1-16, pt. iv.; George, &ldquo;Études zool. sur
+les Hémiones et quelques autres espèces chevalines,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i>,
+1869, xii. 5; E. F. Gurlt, <i>Anatomische Abbildungen der Haussäugethiere</i>
+(1824), and <i>Hand. der vergleich. Anat. der Haussäugethiere</i>
+(2 vols., 1822); Huet, &ldquo;Croisement des diverses espèces du genre
+cheval,&rdquo; <i>Nouv. Archives du Muséum</i>, 2nd ser., tom. ii. p. 46, 1879;
+Leisering, <i>Atlas der Anatomie des Pferdes</i> (Leipzig, 1861); O. C.
+Marsh, &ldquo;Notice of New Equine Mammals from the Tertiary Formation,&rdquo;
+<i>Am. Journ. of Science and Arts</i>, vol. vii., March 1874; <i>Id.</i>,
+&ldquo;Fossil Horses in America,&rdquo; <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, vol. viii., May 1874;
+<i>Id.</i>, &ldquo;Polydactyle Horses,&rdquo; <i>Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts</i>, vol. xvii.,
+June 1879; Franz Müller, <i>Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Pferdes</i>
+(Vienna, 1853); R. Owen, &ldquo;Equine Remains in Cavern of Bruniquel,&rdquo;
+<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. clix., 1870, p. 535; W. Percivall, <i>The
+Anatomy of the Horse</i> (1832); G. Stubbs, <i>Anatomy of the Horse</i>
+(1766); W. H. Flower, <i>The Horse</i> (London, 1891); Ridgeway,
+<i>Origin of the Thoroughbred Horse</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. H. F; R. L.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p>
+
+<p>From the evidence of philology it appears that the horse was
+already known to the Aryans before the period of their dispersion.<a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The first mention of the British horse occurs in the well-known
+passages in Caesar (<i>B.G.</i> iv. 24. 33, v. 15. 16; cf. Pomp. Mela
+iii. 6), in which he mentions the native &ldquo;essedarii&rdquo; and the skill
+with which they handled their war chariots. We are left quite
+in the dark as to the character of the animal thus employed;
+but there would appear to be much probability in the surmise of
+W. Youatt, who conjectures the horse to have been, &ldquo;then as
+ever, the creature of the country in which he lived. With short
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span>
+fare, and exposed to the rigour of the seasons, he was probably
+the little hardy thing we yet see him; but in the marshes of
+the Nen and the Witham, and on the borders of the Tees and the
+Clyde, there would be as much proportionate development of
+frame and strength as we find at the present day.&rdquo; After the
+occupation of the country by the Romans, it appears that the
+horses of their cavalry were crossed with the native mares, and
+thus there was infused into the breed new blood, consisting
+probably of strains from every quarter from which Roman
+remounts were procured. As to the effect of this cross we are
+not, however, in a position to judge. We are also quite uncertain
+as to the extent to which the Jutes and Saxons may in their
+turn have again introduced a new breed of horses into England;
+and even to the close of the Anglo-Saxon period of English
+history allusions to the horse are still very infrequent. The
+<i>horsthegn</i> we know, however, was from an early period a high
+court official; and from such a law as that of Athelstan prohibiting
+the exportation of horses except as presents, it may be
+inferred that the English breed was not only much valued at
+home but also in great request abroad.<a name="fa2r" id="fa2r" href="#ft2r"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The period of the Norman Conquest marks an important
+stage in the history of the British horse. William the Conqueror&rsquo;s
+own horse was of the Spanish breed, and others of the same kind
+were introduced by the barons on their estates. But the Norman
+horses included many varieties, and there is no doubt that to the
+Conquest the inhabitants of Britain were indebted for a decided
+improvement in the native horse, as well as for the introduction
+of several varieties previously unknown. According to Giraldus
+Cambrensis, Roger de Bellesme, a follower of William I., afterwards
+created earl of Shrewsbury, imported some stallions from
+Spain into England; their produce was celebrated by Drayton
+the poet. It is curious to notice that agriculture seems to be the
+last use to which the horse has been put. The earliest suggestion
+that horses were used in agriculture is derived from a piece of
+the Bayeux tapestry, where a horse is represented as drawing
+a harrow. This, however, must have been an exceptional case,
+for we know that oxen were used until a comparatively late time,
+and that in Wales a law existed forbidding horses to be used for
+ploughing.</p>
+
+<p>In 1121 two Eastern horses are said to have been imported,&mdash;one
+of them remaining in England, and the other being sent as a
+present by King Alexander I. to the church of St Andrews, in
+Scotland. It has been alleged that these horses were Barbs
+from Morocco, but a still more likely theory is that they existed
+only in name, and never reached either England or Scotland.
+The crusades were probably the means of introducing fresh
+strains of blood into England, and of giving opportunity for
+fresh crossings. The Spanish jennet was brought over about
+1182. King John gave great encouragement to horse-breeding:
+one of his earliest efforts was to import a hundred Flemish
+stallions, and, having thus paved the way for improving the
+breed of agricultural horses, he set about acquiring a valuable
+stud for his own use.</p>
+
+<p>Edward III. was likewise an admirer of the horse; he procured
+fifty Spanish horses, probably jennets. At this time there was
+evidently a tendency to breed a somewhat lighter and speedier
+horse; but, while the introduction of a more active animal
+would soon have led to the displacement of the ponderous but
+powerful cavalry horse then in use, the substituted variety
+would have been unable to carry the weight of armour with
+which horse and rider were alike protected; and so in the end
+the old breed was kept up for a time. With the object of preserving
+to England whatever advantages might accrue from
+her care and skill in breeding an improved stamp of horses,
+Edward III. forbade their exportation; they consequently
+improved so rapidly in value that Richard II. compelled dealers
+to limit their prices to a fixed maximum. In the ninth year of
+his reign, Edward received from the king of Navarre a present
+of two running horses, supposed to have been valuable. The
+wars of 1346 checked the improvement of horses, and undid
+much of what had been previously accomplished, for we read that
+the cavalry taken into France by Edward III. were but indifferently
+mounted, and that in consequence he had to purchase
+large numbers of foreign horses from Hainault and elsewhere
+for remounts. The reign of Richard III. does not seem to have
+been remarkable for the furtherance of horse-breeding; but it
+was then that post-horses and stages were introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Our information on the whole subject is but scanty down to
+the reign of Henry VII., who continued the enactment against
+the exportation of stallions, but relaxed it in the case of mares
+above two years old. His object was to retain the best horses
+in the country, and to keep the price of them down by limiting
+the demand and encouraging the supply. In his reign gelding is
+believed to have had its origin, on account of numerous herds
+of horses belonging to different proprietors grazing together,
+especially in time of harvest. Henry VIII. was particularly
+careful that horse-breeding should be conducted on right principles,
+and his enactments, if somewhat arbitrary, were singularly
+to the point. In the thirty-second year of this reign, the &ldquo;bill
+for the breed of horses&rdquo; was passed, the preamble of which runs
+thus:&mdash;&ldquo;Forasmuch as the generation and breed of good and
+strong horses within this realm extendeth not only to a great
+help and defence of the same, but also is a great commodity
+and profit to the inhabitants thereof, which is now much decayed
+and diminished, by reason that, in forests, chases, moors and
+waste grounds within this realm, little stoned horses and nags
+of small stature and of little value be not only suffered to pasture
+thereupon, but also to cover mares feeding there, whereof
+cometh in manner no profit or commodity.&rdquo; Section 2 of the
+act provides that no entire horse being above the age of two
+years, and not being of the height of 15 &ldquo;handfulls,&rdquo; shall be
+put to graze on any common or waste land in certain counties;
+any one was to be at liberty to seize a horse of unlawful
+height, and those whose duty it was to measure horses, but who
+refused to do so, were to be fined 40s. By section 6 all forests,
+chases, commons, &amp;c., were to be &ldquo;driven&rdquo; within fifteen days of
+Michaelmas day, and all horses, mares and colts not giving
+promise of growing into serviceable animals, or of producing
+them, were to be killed. The aim of the act was to prevent
+breeding from animals not calculated to produce the class of
+horse suited to the needs of the country. By another act
+(27 Henry VIII. chapter 6), after stating that the &ldquo;breed of good
+strong horses&rdquo; was likely to diminish, it was ordered that the
+owners of all parks and enclosed grounds of the extent of one
+mile should keep two mares 13 hands high for breeding purposes,
+or, if the extent of the ground was 4 m., four mares. The
+statute was not to extend to the counties of Westmorland,
+Cumberland, Northumberland or the bishopric of Durham.
+Henry took great pains to improve the royal stud: according
+to Sir Thomas Chaloner&mdash;a writer in the reign of Elizabeth&mdash;he
+imported horses from Turkey, Naples and Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Elizabeth is reputed to have been an accomplished
+horsewoman, and to have indulged in riding late in life. In the
+first year of her reign she revived an act passed by Henry VIII.
+making it felony &ldquo;to sell, exchange or deliver within Scotland,
+or to the use of any Scottishman, any horse&rdquo;; this, however,
+was very naturally repealed by James I. Carriages were soon
+after introduced, and the use of them speedily became so fashionable
+that a bill was brought in &ldquo;to restrain the excessive and
+superfluous use of coaches.&rdquo; Prior to the introduction of carriages
+horseback was the means of locomotion, and Queen Elizabeth
+rode in state to St Paul&rsquo;s on a pillion; but even after carriages
+were used, horseback was held to be more dignified, for James I.
+and his judges rode on horseback to Westminster Hall. One
+advantage of the introduction of carriages was that it created
+a demand for a lighter and quicker sort of horse, instead of the
+ponderous animal which, despite all attempts to banish him,
+was still the horse of England&mdash;the age of chivalry having been
+the first epoch of the British horse.</p>
+
+<p>Gunpowder, too, was invented; and now that the weight
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span>
+of the cavalry soldier was diminished by the substitution of
+lighter armour, a quicker and better bred horse was thought
+desirable for military service. The introduction of carriages
+and the invention of gunpowder thus opened out a new industry
+in breeding; and a decided change was gradually creeping
+on by the time that James I. came to the throne (1603), which
+commences the second epoch. James was a thorough sportsman,
+and his taste for racing, in which he freely indulged, caused
+him to think but little of the speed of even the best English
+horses. With the laudable motive, therefore, of effecting improvement
+in horses, he gave the then large sum of 500 guineas for
+an Arab stallion which had been procured from Constantinople
+by a Mr Markham, since known as the &ldquo;Markham Arabian.&rdquo;
+This is the first authentic account we have of the importation
+of Arab blood, and the <i>Stud-Book</i> says he was the first of that
+breed ever seen in England. The people having to do with
+horses at that time were as conservative in their notions as most
+of the grooms are now, and the &ldquo;Markham Arabian&rdquo; was not
+at all approved of. The duke of Newcastle, in his treatise on
+horsemanship, said that he had seen the above Arabian, and
+described him as a small bay horse and not of very excellent
+shape. In this instance, however, prejudice (and it is difficult
+to believe that it was anything else) was right, for King James&rsquo;s
+first venture does not appear to have been a success either as a
+race-horse or as a sire, and thus Arabian blood was brought
+into disrepute. The king, however, resolved to give Eastern
+blood another trial, and bought a horse known as Place&rsquo;s White
+Turk from a Mr Place, who subsequently held some office in
+connexion with the stable under Cromwell. Charles I. followed
+in the footsteps of James, and lent such patronage to the breeding
+of a better kind of horse that a memorial was presented to him,
+asking that some measures might be taken to prevent the old
+stamp of horse &ldquo;fit for the defence of the country&rdquo; from dying
+out.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to a very important period in the history
+of the British horse, for Charles II. warmly espoused the introduction
+of Eastern blood into England. He sent his master of the
+horse abroad to purchase a number of foreign horses and mares
+for breeding, and the mares brought over by him (as also many
+of their produce) were called &ldquo;royal mares&rdquo;; they form a
+conspicuous feature in the annals of breeding. The <i>Stud-Book</i>
+shows of what breed the royal mares really were: one of them,
+the dam of Dodsworth (who, though foaled in England, was a
+natural Barb), was a Barb mare; she was sold by the stud-master,
+after Charles II.&rsquo;s death, for forty guineas, at twenty years old,
+when in foal by the Helmsley Turk.</p>
+
+<p>James II. was a good horseman, and had circumstances
+been more propitious he might have left his mark in the sporting
+annals of the country. In his reign, according to the <i>Stud-Book</i>,
+the Stradling or Lister Turk was brought into England by the
+duke of Berwick from the siege of Buda.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of William III. is noteworthy as the era in which,
+among other importations, there appeared the first of three
+Eastern horses to which the modern thoroughbred race-horse
+traces back as the founders of his lineage. This was the Byerly
+Turk, of whom nothing more is known than that&mdash;to use the
+words of the first volume of the <i>Stud-Book</i>&mdash;he was Captain
+Byerly&rsquo;s charger in Ireland in King William&rsquo;s wars. The second
+of the three horses above alluded to was the Darley Arabian,
+who was a genuine Arab, and was imported from Aleppo by a
+brother of Mr Darley of Aldby Park, Yorkshire, about the end
+of the reign of William III. or the beginning of that of Anne.
+The third horse of the famous trio, the Godolphin Arabian
+or Barb, brought to England about five-and-twenty years after
+the Darley Arabian, will be more particularly referred to further
+on. All the horses now on the turf or at the stud trace their
+ancestry in the direct male line to one or other of these three&mdash;the
+Byerly Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the Godolphin Arabian
+or Barb. In the female line their pedigrees can be traced to
+other sources, but for all practical purposes it suffices to regard
+one or other of these three animals as the <i>ultima Thule</i> of racing
+pedigree. Of course there is a large interfusion of the blood of
+each of the trio through the dams of horses of the present day;
+indeed, it is impossible to find an English race-horse which does
+not combine the blood of all three.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Race-horse.</i>&mdash;The third and last epoch of the British
+horse, viz. that of the thoroughbred racer, may be taken to date
+from the beginning of the 18th century. By thoroughbred is
+meant a horse or mare whose pedigree is registered in the <i>Stud-Book</i>
+kept by Messrs Weatherby, the official agents of the
+Jockey Club&mdash;originally termed the keepers of the match-book&mdash;as
+well as publishers of the <i>Racing Calendar</i>. The first attempt
+to evolve order out of the chaos which had long reigned supreme
+was made in 1791, for we find in the preface of the first volume of
+the Stud-Book, published in 1808, that &ldquo;with a view to correct
+the then increasing evil of false and inaccurate pedigrees, the
+author was in the year 1791 prevailed upon to publish an <i>Introduction
+to a General Stud-Book</i>, consisting of a small collection
+of pedigrees which he had extracted from racing calendars and
+sale papers and arranged on a new plan.&rdquo; It will be seen that
+the compiler of the volume on which so much depends had to
+go back fully a century, with little else to guide him but odds
+and ends in the way of publications and tradition. Mistakes
+under such circumstances are pardonable. The <i>Stud-Book</i> then
+(vol. i.), which is the oldest authority we have, contains the names
+and in most cases the pedigrees, obscure though they may be,
+of a very large number of horses and mares of note from the
+earliest accounts, but with two exceptions no dates prior to the
+18th century are specified in it. These exceptions are the
+Byerly Turk, who was &ldquo;Captain Byerly&rsquo;s charger in Ireland
+in King William&rsquo;s wars (1689, &amp;c.),&rdquo; and a horse called Counsellor,
+bred by Mr Egerton in 1694, by Lord D&rsquo;Arcy&rsquo;s Counsellor by
+Lord Lonsdale&rsquo;s Counsellor by the Shaftesbury Turk out of
+sister to Spanker&mdash;all the dams in Counsellor&rsquo;s pedigree tracing
+back to Eastern mares. There is not the least doubt that many
+of the animals named in the <i>Stud-Book</i> were foaled much earlier
+than the above dates, but we have no particulars as to time;
+and after all it is not of much consequence.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Stud-Book</i> goes on to say of the Byerly Turk that he did
+not cover many bred mares, but was the sire of the duke of
+Devonshire&rsquo;s Basto, Halloway&rsquo;s Jigg, and others. Jigg, or Jig,
+is a very important factor, as will be seen hereafter. The <i>Stud-Book</i>,
+although silent as to the date of his birth, says he was a
+common country stallion in Lincolnshire until Partner was six
+years old&mdash;and we know from the same authority that Partner
+was foaled in 1718; we may therefore conclude that Jigg was
+a later foal than Basto, who, according to Whyte&rsquo;s <i>History of
+the Turf</i>, was a brown horse foaled in 1703.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Queen Anne, however (1702-1714), is that
+which will ever be inseparably connected with the thoroughbred
+race-horse on account of the fame during that period of the
+Darley Arabian, a bay stallion, from whom our very best horses
+are descended. According to the <i>Stud-Book</i>, &ldquo;Darley&rsquo;s Arabian
+was brought over by a brother of Mr Darley of Yorkshire, who,
+being an agent in merchandise abroad, became member of a
+hunting club, by which means he acquired interest to procure
+this horse.&rdquo; The <i>Stud-Book</i> is silent, and other authorities
+differ, as to the date of the importation of this celebrated Arab,
+some saying he came over in the year 1700, others that he
+arrived somewhat later; but we know from the <i>Stud-Book</i>
+that Manica (foaled in 1707), Aleppo (1711), Almanzor (1713),
+and Flying Childers (1715) were got by him, as also was Bartlett&rsquo;s
+Childers, a younger brother of Flying Childers. It is generally
+believed that he was imported in Anne&rsquo;s reign, but the exact
+date is immaterial, for, assuming that he was brought over as
+early as 1700 from Aleppo, he could scarcely have had a foal
+living before 1701, the first year of the 18th century. The
+Darley Arabian did much to remove the prejudice against
+Eastern blood which had been instilled into the public mind
+by the duke of Newcastle&rsquo;s denunciation of the Markham
+Arabian. Prince George of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne,
+was himself a large horse-owner; and it was in a great measure
+owing to his intervention that so many valuable stallions were
+imported during her reign.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span></p>
+
+<p>At this period we find, among a mass of horses and mares
+in the <i>Stud-Book</i> without any dates against their names, many
+animals of note with the earliest chronology extant, from Grey
+Ramsden (1704) and Bay Bolton (1705) down to a mare who
+exercised a most important influence on the English blood-horse.
+This was Roxana (1718) by the Bald Galloway, her dam sister
+to Chanter by the Akaster Turk, from a daughter of Leedes&rsquo;s
+Arabian and a mare by Spanker. Roxana threw in 1732 the
+bay colt Lath by the Godolphin Arabian, the sorrel colt Roundhead
+by Childers in 1733, and the bay colt Cade by the Godolphin
+Arabian in 1734, in which year she died within a fortnight after
+foaling, the produce&mdash;Cade&mdash;being reared on cow&rsquo;s milk. The
+Godolphin Barb or Arabian, as he was commonly called, was a
+brown bay about 15 hands in stature, with an unnaturally high
+crest, and with some white on his off hind heel. He is said to
+have been imported into England from France by Mr Coke,
+where, as the editor of the <i>Stud-Book</i> was informed by a French
+gentlemen, he was so little thought of that he had actually
+drawn a cart in the streets of Paris. Mr Coke gave him to a
+Mr. Williams, who in his turn presented him to the earl of
+Godolphin. Although called an Arabian, there is little doubt
+he was a Barb pure and simple. In 1731, being then the property
+of Mr. Coke, he was teazer to Hobgoblin, and on the latter
+refusing his services to Roxana, the mare was put to the
+Godolphin, and the produce was Lath (1732), the first of his get,
+and the most celebrated race-horse of his day after Flying
+Childers. He was also the sire of Cade, own brother to Lath,
+and of Regulus the maternal grandsire of Eclipse. He died
+at Gogmagog in Cambridgeshire, in the possession of Lord
+Godolphin, in 1753, being then, as is supposed, in his twenty-ninth
+year. He is believed to have been foaled in Barbary
+about 1724, and to have been imported during the reign of
+George II.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the mares generally, we have a record of the royal
+mares already alluded to, and likewise of three Turk mares
+brought over from the siege of Vienna in 1684, as well as of other
+importations; but it is unquestionable that there was a very
+large number of native mares in England, improved probably
+from time to time by racing, however much they may have been
+crossed at various periods with foreign horses, and that from
+this original stock were to some extent derived the size and
+stride which characterized the English race-horse, while his
+powers of endurance and elegant shape were no doubt inherited
+from the Eastern horses, most of which were of a low stature,
+14 hands or thereabouts. It is only necessary to trace carefully
+back the pedigree of most of the famous horses of early times
+to discover faults on the side of the dam&mdash;that is to say, the
+expression &ldquo;dam&rsquo;s pedigree unknown,&rdquo; which evidently means
+of original or native blood. Whatever therefore may be owing
+to Eastern blood, of which from the middle of the 17th to the
+beginning of the 18th century a complete wave swept over the
+British Isles, some credit is unquestionably due to the native
+mares (which Blaine says were mostly Cleveland bays) upon
+which the Arabian, Barb, or Turk blood was grafted, and which
+laid the foundation of the modern thoroughbred. Other nations
+may have furnished the blood, but England has made the
+race-horse.</p>
+
+<p>Without prosecuting this subject further, it may be enough
+here to follow out the lines of the Darley Arabian, the Byerly
+Turk, and the Godolphin Arabian or Barb, the main ancestors
+of the British thoroughbred of the 18th and 19th centuries,
+through several famous race-horses, each and all brilliant
+winners,&mdash;Flying Childers, Eclipse, Herod and Matchem,&mdash;to
+whom it is considered sufficient to look as the great progenitors
+of the race-horse of to-day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The Darley Arabian&rsquo;s line is represented in a twofold degree&mdash;first,
+through his son Flying Childers, his grandsons Blaze and
+Snip, and his great-grandson Snap, and, secondly, through his
+other son Bartlett&rsquo;s Childers and his great-great-grandson Eclipse.
+Flying or Devonshire Childers, so called to distinguish him from
+other horses of the same name, was a bay horse of entirely Eastern
+blood, with a blaze in his face and four white feet, foaled in 1715.
+He was bred by Mr Leonard Childers of Carr House near Doncaster,
+and was purchased when young by the duke of Devonshire. He
+was got by the Darley Arabian from Betty Leedes, by Careless from
+sister to Leedes, by Leedes&rsquo;s Arabian from a mare by Spanker out
+of a Barb mare, who was Spanker&rsquo;s own mother. Spanker himself
+was by D&rsquo;Arcy&rsquo;s Yellow Turk from a daughter of the Morocco Barb
+and Old Bald Peg, by an Arab horse from a Barb mare. Careless
+was by Spanker from a Barb mare, so that Childers&rsquo;s dam was closely
+in-bred to Spanker. Flying Childers&mdash;the wonder of his time&mdash;was
+never beaten, and died in the duke of Devonshire&rsquo;s stud in
+1741, aged twenty-six years. He was the sire of, among other
+horses, Blaze (1733) and Snip (1736). Snip too had a celebrated son
+called Snap (1750), and it is chiefly in the female line through the
+mares by these horses, of which there are fully thirty in the <i>Stud-Book</i>,
+that the blood of Flying Childers is handed down to us.</p>
+
+<p>The other representative line of the Darley Arabian is through
+Bartlett&rsquo;s Childers, also bred by Mr Leonard Childers, and sold to
+Mr Bartlett of Masham, in Yorkshire. He was for several years
+called Young Childers,&mdash;it being generally supposed that he was a
+younger brother of his Flying namesake, but his date of birth is not
+on record,&mdash;and subsequently Bartlett&rsquo;s Childers. This horse, who
+was never trained, was the sire of Squirt (1732), whose son Marske
+(1750) begat Eclipse and Young Marske (1762), sire of Shuttle (1793).
+This at least is the generally accepted theory, although Eclipse&rsquo;s
+dam is said to have been covered by Shakespeare as well as by
+Marske. Shakespeare was the son of Hobgoblin by Aleppo, and
+consequently the male line of the Darley Arabian would come
+through these horses instead of through Bartlett&rsquo;s Childers, Squirt,
+and Marske; the <i>Stud-Book</i>, however, says that Marske was the sire
+of Eclipse. This last-named celebrated horse&mdash;perhaps the most
+celebrated in the annals of the turf&mdash;was foaled on the 1st of April
+1764, the day on which a remarkable eclipse of the sun occurred,
+and he was named after it. He was bred by the duke of Cumberland,
+after whose decease he was purchased by a Mr Wildman, and subsequently
+sold to Mr D. O&rsquo;Kelly, with whom he will ever be identified.
+His dam Spiletta was by Regulus, son of the Godolphin Barb, from
+Mother Western, by a son of Snake from a mare by Old Montague
+out of a mare by Hautboy, from a daughter of Brimmer and a mare
+whose pedigree was unknown. In Eclipse&rsquo;s pedigree there are upwards
+of a dozen mares whose pedigrees are not known, but who are
+supposed to be of native blood. Eclipse was a chestnut horse with
+a white blaze down his face; his off hind leg was white from the
+hock downwards, and he had black spots upon his rump&mdash;this
+peculiarity coming down to the present day in direct male descent.
+His racing career commenced at five years of age, viz. on the 3rd
+May 1769, at Epsom, and terminated on the 4th October 1770, at
+Newmarket. He ran or walked over for eighteen races, and was
+never beaten. It was in his first race that Mr O&rsquo;Kelly took the
+odds to a large amount before the start for the second heat, that he
+would place the horses. When called upon to declare, he uttered
+the exclamation, which the event justified, &ldquo;Eclipse first, and the
+rest nowhere.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Eclipse commenced his stud career in 1771, and had an enormous
+number of foals, of which four only in the direct male line have
+come down to us, viz. Potoooooooo, or, as he is commonly called,
+Pot-8-os (1773), his most celebrated son, King Fergus (1775), Joe
+Andrews (1778), and Mercury (1778), though several others are
+represented in the female line. Pot-8-os was the sire of Waxy
+(1790) out of Maria (1777) by Herod out of Lisette (1772) by Snap.
+Waxy, who has been not inaptly termed the ace of trumps in the
+<i>Stud-Book</i>, begat Whalebone (1807), Web (1808), Woful (1809),
+Wire (1811), Whisker (1812), and Waxy Pope (1806), all but the
+last being out of Penelope (1798) by Trumpator (1782) from Prunella
+(1788) by Highflyer out of Promise by Snap, while Waxy Pope was
+out of Prunella, dam of Parasol (1800) by Pot-8-os. Trumpator
+was a son of Conductor, who was by Matchem out of a mare by
+Snap.</p>
+
+<p>Whalebone&rsquo;s best sons were Camel (1822) and Sir Hercules (1826).
+Camel was the sire of Defence (1824) and Touchstone (1831), while
+Sir Hercules was the sire of Birdcatcher (1833) and Faugh-a-Ballagh
+(1841), own brothers, and of Gemma di Vergy (1854). Touchstone
+was the sire of Newminster (1848), who begat Lord Clifden, Adventurer,
+and the Hermit, as well as of Orlando (1841), sire of Teddington
+(1848). Whalebone&rsquo;s blood also descends through Waverley
+(1817) and his son the Saddler (1828), while Whisker is represented
+by the Colonel (1825) and by Economist (1825) and his son Harkaway
+(1834), sire of King Tom (1851). Birdcatcher begat, besides Saunterer
+(1854), the Baron (1842), sire of Stockwell (1849) and of Rataplan
+(1850). Stockwell, who was a chestnut with black spots, was the
+sire of Blair Athol (1861), a chestnut, and also of Doncaster (1870),
+another chestnut, but with the characteristic black spots of his
+grandsire; and Doncaster was the sire of the chestnut Bend Or
+(1877).</p>
+
+<p>To turn to Eclipse&rsquo;s other sons. King Fergus (1775) was the
+sire of Beningbrough (1791), whose son was Orville (1799), whence
+comes some of the stoutest blood on the turf, including Emilius
+(1820) and his son Priam (1827), Plenipotentiary (1831), Muley
+(1810), Chesterfield (1834), and the Hero (1843). Joe Andrews
+(1778) was the sire of Dick Andrews (1797), and from him descend
+Tramp (1810), Lottery (1820), Liverpool (1828), Sheet Anchor
+(1832), Lanercost (1835), Weatherbit (1842), Beadsman (1855), and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span>
+Blue Gown (1865). Mercury was sire of Gohanna (1790), who was
+foaled in the same year as Waxy, and the two, who were both
+grandsons of Eclipse and both out of Herod mares, had several
+contests, Waxy generally getting the better of his cousin. Gohanna&rsquo;s
+descendants come down through Golumpus (1802), Catton (1809),
+Mulatto (1823), Royal Oak (1823), and Slane (1833).</p>
+
+<p>2. The Byerly Turk&rsquo;s line is represented by Herod, the Turk being
+the sire of Jigg, who was the sire of Partner (1718), whose son Tartar
+(1743) begat King Herod, or Herod as he was commonly called,
+foaled in 1758. Herod&rsquo;s dam was Cypron (1750) by Blaze (1733),
+son of Flying Childers. Cypron&rsquo;s dam was Selima by Bethel&rsquo;s
+Arabian from a mare by Graham&rsquo;s Champion from a daughter of
+the Darley Arabian and a mare who claims Merlin for her sire, but
+whose mother&rsquo;s pedigree is unknown. In Herod&rsquo;s pedigree there
+are fully a dozen dams whose pedigree is unknown. Herod was
+a bay horse about 15 hands 3 inches high, possessed both of substance
+and length,&mdash;those grand requisites in a race-horse,&mdash;combined
+with uncommon power and stamina or lasting qualities. He was
+bred by William, duke of Cumberland, uncle of King George III.
+He commenced his racing career in October 1763, when he was
+five years old, and ended it on the 16th of May 1767. He ran ten
+times, winning six and losing four races. He died in 1780, and
+among other progeny left two famous sons, Woodpecker (1773),
+whose dam was Miss Ramsden (1760) by Cade, son of the Godolphin
+Barb, but descended also on the dam&rsquo;s side from the Darley Arabian
+and the Byerly Turk, and Highflyer (1774), whose dam was Rachel
+(1763) by Blank, son of the Godolphin Barb from a daughter of
+Regulus, also son of the Godolphin. These two horses have transmitted
+Herod&rsquo;s qualities down to the present day in the direct
+male line, although in the female line he is represented through some
+of his other sons and his daughters as well. Woodpecker was the
+sire of Buzzard (1787), who in his turn became the father of three
+celebrated sons, Castrel (1801), Selim (1802), and Rubens (1803),
+all three chestnuts, and all out of an Alexander mare (1790), who
+thereby became famous. This mare was by Eclipse&rsquo;s son Alexander
+(1782) out of a mare by Highflyer (son of Herod) out of a daughter
+of Alfred, by Matchem out of a daughter of Snap. Bustard (1813),
+whose dam was a daughter of Shuttle, and his son Heron (1833),
+Sultan (1816) and his sons Glencoe (1831) and Bay Middleton (1833)
+and Middleton&rsquo;s sons Cowl (1842) and the Flying Dutchman (1846),
+Pantaloon (1824) and his son Windhound (1847), Langar (1817)
+and his son Epirus (1834) and grandson Pyrrhus the First (1843),
+are representatives of Castrel and Selim.</p>
+
+<p>Highflyer is represented through his greatly esteemed son Sir
+Peter Teazle, commonly called Sir Peter (1784), whose dam was
+Papillon by Snap. Sir Peter had five sons at the stud, Walton
+(1790), Stamford (1794), and Sir Paul (1802) being the chief.
+Paulowitz (1813), Cain (1822), Ion (1835), Wild Dayrell (1852),
+and his son Buccaneer (1857) bring down Sir Paul&rsquo;s blood; whilst
+Walton is represented through Phantom (1806), Partisan (1811)
+and his sons Glaucus (1829) and Venison (1833) and Gladiator (1833),
+Venison&rsquo;s sons Alarm (1842) and Kingston (1849), Gladiator&rsquo;s son
+Sweetmeat (1842), Sweetmeat&rsquo;s sons Macaroni (1860) and Parmesan
+(1857), and Parmesan&rsquo;s sons Favonius (1868) and Cremorne (1869).
+It may be added that in the first volume of the <i>Stud-Book</i> there are
+nearly a hundred Herod and Highflyer mares registered.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Godolphin Barb is represented by Matchem, as the former
+was the sire of Cade (1734), and Cade begat Matchem, who was
+foaled in 1748. He was thus ten years the senior of Herod, representing
+the Byerly Turk, and sixteen years before Eclipse, though
+long subsequent to Flying Childers, who represent the Darley
+Arabian. Matchem was a brown bay horse with some white on his
+off hind heel, about 15 hands high, bred by Sir John Holme of
+Carlisle, and sold to Mr W. Fenwick of Bywell, Northumberland.
+His dam was sister to Miss Partner (1735) by Partner out of Brown
+Farewell by Makeless (son of the Oglethorpe Arabian) from a
+daughter of Brimmer out of Trumpet&rsquo;s dam, by Place&rsquo;s White Turk
+from a daughter of the Barb Dodsworth and a Layton Barb mare;
+while Brimmer was by D&rsquo;Arcy&rsquo;s Yellow Turk from a royal mare.
+Matchem commenced his racing career on the 2nd of August 1753,
+and terminated it on 1st September 1758. Out of thirteen engagements
+he won eleven and lost two. He died in 1781, aged thirty-three
+years. His best son was Conductor (1767) out of a mare by
+Snap; Conductor was the sire of Trumpator (1782), whose two sons,
+Sorcerer (1790) and Paynator (1791), transmit the blood of the
+Godolphin down to modern times. Sorcerer was the sire of Soothsayer
+(1808), Comus (1809), and Smolensko (1810). Comus was
+the sire of Humphrey Clinker (1822), whose son was Melbourne
+(1834), sire of West Australian (1850) and of many valuable mares,
+including Canezou (1845) and Blink Bonny (1854), dam of Blair
+Athol. Paynator was the sire of Dr Syntax (1811), who had a
+celebrated daughter called Beeswing (1833), dam of Newminster by
+Touchstone.</p>
+
+<p>The gems of the three lines may be briefly enumerated thus:
+(1) of the Darley Arab&rsquo;s line&mdash;Snap, Shuttle, Waxy, and Orville&mdash;the
+stoutest blood on the turf; (2) of the Byerly Turk&rsquo;s line&mdash;Buzzard
+and Sir Peter&mdash;speedy blood, the latter the stouter of the
+two; (3) of the Godolphin Barb&rsquo;s line&mdash;Sorcerer&mdash;often producing
+large-sized animals, but showing a tendency to die out, and becoming
+rare.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the principle that as a rule like begets like, it has been the
+practice to select as sires the best public performers on the turf,
+and of two horses of like blood it is sound sense to choose the
+better as against the inferior public performer. But there can
+be little doubt that the mating of mares with horses has been
+often pursued on a haphazard plan, or on no system at all;
+to this the <i>Stud-Book</i> testifies too plainly. In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse-Racing</a></span>
+mention is made of some of the great horses of recent
+years; but the following list of the principal sires of earlier
+days indicates also how their progeny found a place among the
+winners of the three great races, the Derby (D), Oaks (O), and
+St Leger (L):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed list">
+<p><i>Eclipse</i>: Young Eclipse (D), Saltram (D), Sergeant (D), Annette
+(O).</p>
+
+<p><i>Herod</i>: Bridget (O), Faith (O), Maid of the Oaks (O), Phenomenon
+(L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Matchem</i>: Teetotum (O), Hollandaise (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Florizel</i> (son of Herod): Diomed (D), Eager (D), Tartar (L),
+Ninety-three
+(L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Highflyer</i>: Noble (D), Sir Peter Teazle (D), Skyscraper (D), Violante
+(O), Omphale (L), Cowslip (L), Spadille (L), Young Flora (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Pot-8-os</i>: Waxy (D), Champion (D, L), Tyrant (D), Nightshade (O).</p>
+
+<p><i>Sir Peter</i> (D): Sir Harry (D), Archduke (D), Ditto (D), Paris (D),
+Hermione (O), Parasite (O), Ambrosio (L), Fyldener (L),
+Paulina (L), Petronius (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Waxy</i> (D): Pope (D), Whalebone (D), Blucher (D), Whisker (D),
+Music (O), Minuet (O), Corinne (O).</p>
+
+<p><i>Whalebone</i> (D): Moses (D), Lapdog (D), Spaniel (D), Caroline (O).</p>
+
+<p><i>Woful</i>: Augusta (O), Zinc (O), Theodore (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Whisker</i> (D): Memnon (L), The Colonel (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Phantom</i>: Cedric (D), Middleton (D), Cobweb (O).</p>
+
+<p><i>Orville</i> (L): Octavius (D), Emilius (D), Ebor (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Tramp</i>: St Giles (D), Dangerous (D), Barefoot (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Emilius</i> (D): Priam (D), Plenipotentiary (D), Oxygen (O), Mango
+(L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Priam</i> (D): Miss Seltz (O), Industry (O), Crucifix (O).</p>
+
+<p><i>Sir Hercules</i>: Coronation (D), Faugh-a-Ballagh (L), Birdcatcher (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Touchstone</i> (L): Cotherstone (D), Orlando (D), Surplice (D, L),
+Mendicant (O), Blue Bonnet (L), Newminster (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Birdcatcher</i> (L): Daniel O&rsquo;Rourke (D), Songstress (O), Knight of
+St George (L), Warlock (L), The Baron (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Baron</i> (L): Stockwell (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Melbourne</i>: West Australian (D, L), Blink Bonny (D, O), Sir Tatton
+Sykes (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Newminster</i> (L): Musjid (D), Hermit (D), Lord Clifden (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Sweetmeat</i>: Macaroni (D), Mincemeat (O), Mincepie (O).</p>
+
+<p><i>Stockwell</i> (L): Blair Athol (D, L), Lord Lyon (D, L), Doncaster (D),
+Regalia (O), St Albans (L), Caller Ou (L), The Marquis (L),
+Achievement (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>King Tom</i>: Kingcraft (D), Tormentor (O), Hippia (O), Hannah
+(O, L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rataplan</i> (son of the Baron): Kettledrum (D).</p>
+
+<p><i>Monarque</i>: Gladiateur (D, L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Parmesan</i> (son of Sweetmeat): Favonius (D), Cremorne (D).</p>
+
+<p><i>Buccaneer</i>: Kisber (D), Formosa (O, L), Brigantine (O).</p>
+
+<p><i>Lord Clifden</i> (L): Jannette (O, L), Hawthornden (L), Wenlock (L),
+Petrarch (L).</p>
+
+<p><i>Adventurer</i>: Pretender (D), Apology (O, L), Wheel of Fortune (O).</p>
+
+<p><i>Blair Athol</i> (D, L): Silvio (D, L), Craig Millar (L).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In regard to mares it has very frequently turned out that
+animals which were brilliant public performers have been far
+less successful as dams than others which were comparatively
+valueless as runners. Beeswing, a brilliant public performer,
+gave birth to a good horse in Newminster; the same may be said
+of Alice Hawthorn, dam of Thormanby, of Canezou, dam of
+Fazzoletto, of Crucifix, dam of Surplice, and of Blink Bonny,
+dam of Blair Athol; but many of the greatest winners have
+dropped nothing worth training. On the other hand, there are
+mares of little or no value as racers who have become the mothers
+of some of the most celebrated horses on the turf; among them
+we may cite Queen Mary, Pocahontas and Paradigm. Queen
+Mary, who was by Gladiator out of a daughter of Plenipotentiary
+and Myrrha by Whalebone, when mated with Melbourne produced
+Blink Bonny (winner of the Derby and Oaks); when
+mated with Mango and Lanercost she produced Haricot, dam
+of Caller Ou (winner of the St Leger). Pocahontas, perhaps the
+most remarkable mare in the <i>Stud-Book</i>, never won a race on
+the turf, but threw Stockwell and Rataplan to the Baron, son of
+Birdcatcher, King Tom to Harkaway, Knight of St Patrick to
+Knight of St George, and Knight of Kars to Nutwith&mdash;all these
+horses being 16 hands high and upwards, while Pocahontas was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span>
+a long low mare of about 15 hands or a trifle more. She also
+gave birth to Ayacanora by Birdcatcher, and to Araucaria by
+Ambrose, both very valuable brood mares, Araucaria being the
+dam of Chamant by Mortemer, and of Rayon d&rsquo;Or by Flageolet,
+son of Plutus by Touchstone. Paradigm again produced, among
+several winners of more or less celebrity, Lord Lyon (winner of
+the Two Thousand Guineas, Derby and St Leger) and Achievement
+(winner of the St Leger), both being by Stockwell. Another
+famous mare was Manganese (1853) by Birdcatcher from Moonbeam
+by Tomboy from Lunatic by the Prime Minister from
+Maniac by Shuttle. Manganese when mated with Rataplan
+threw Mandragora, dam of Apology, winner of the Oaks and St
+Leger, whose sire was Adventurer, son of Newminster. She
+also threw Mineral, who, when mated with Lord Clifden, produced
+Wenlock, winner of the St Leger, and after being sold to
+go to Hungary, was there mated with Buccaneer, the produce
+being Kisber, winner of the Derby.</p>
+
+<p>We append the pedigree of Blair Athol, winner of the Derby
+and St Leger in 1864, who, when subsequently sold by auction,
+fetched the then unprecedented sum of 12,000 guineas, as it
+contains, not only Stockwell (the emperor of stallions, as he has
+been termed), but Blink Bonny and Eleanor&mdash;in which latter
+animal are combined the blood of Eclipse, Herod, Matchem and
+Snap,&mdash;the mares that won the Derby in 1801 and 1857 respectively,
+as well as those queens of the stud, Eleanor&rsquo;s great-granddaughter
+Pocahontas and Blink Bonny&rsquo;s dam Queen Mary.
+Both Eleanor and Blink Bonny won the Oaks as well as the
+Derby.</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:900px; height:821px" src="images/img722.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>The shape of a race-horse is of considerable importance,
+although it is said with some degree of truth that they win in
+all shapes. There are the neat and elegant animals, like the
+descendants of Saunterer and Sweetmeat; the large-framed,
+plain-looking, and heavy-headed Melbournes, often with lop
+ears; the descendants of Birdcatcher, full of quality, and of
+more than average stature, though sometimes disfigured with
+curby hocks; and the medium-sized but withal speedy descendants
+of Touchstone, though in some cases characterized by
+somewhat loaded shoulders. In height it will be found that the
+most successful racers average from 15 to 16½ hands, the former
+being considered somewhat small, while the latter is unquestionably
+very large; the mean may be taken as between 15½ and 16
+hands (the hand = 4 in.). The head should be light and lean,
+and well set on; the ears small and pricked, but not too short;
+the eyes full; the forehead broad and flat; the nostrils large and
+dilating; the muzzle fine; the neck moderate in length, wide,
+muscular, and yet light; the throat clean; the windpipe
+spacious and loosely attached to the neck; the crest thin, not
+coarse and arched. The withers may be moderately high and
+thin; the chest well developed, but not too wide or deep; the
+shoulder should lie well on the chest, and be oblique and well
+covered with muscle, so as to reduce concussion in galloping;
+the upper and lower arms should be long and muscular; the
+knees broad and strong; legs short, flat and broad; fetlock
+joints large; pasterns strong and of moderate length; the feet
+should be moderately large, with the heels open and frogs sound&mdash;with no signs of contraction. The body or barrel should be
+moderately deep, long and straight, the length being really in
+the shoulders and in the quarters; the back should be strong
+and muscular, with
+the shoulders and
+loins running well
+in at each end;
+the loins themselves
+should have
+great breadth and
+substance, this
+being a vital necessity
+for weight-carrying
+and propelling power
+uphill. The hips
+should be long and
+wide, with the stifle
+and thigh strong,
+long and proportionately
+developed,
+and the
+hind quarters well
+let down. The
+hock should have
+plenty of bone, and
+be strongly affixed
+to the leg, and
+show no signs of
+curb; the bones
+below the hock
+should be flat, and
+free from adhesions;
+the ligaments
+and tendons
+well developed, and
+standing out from
+the bone; the joints
+well formed and
+wide, yet without
+undue enlargement;
+the pasterns
+and feet similar to
+those of the forehand.
+The tail
+should be high set on, the croup being continued in a
+straight line to the tail, and not falling away and drooping
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span>
+to a low-set tail. Fine action is the best criterion of everything
+fitting properly, and all a horse&rsquo;s points ought to
+harmonize or be in proportion to one another, no one point
+being more prominent than another, such as good shoulders,
+fine loins or excellent quarters. If the observer is struck
+with the remarkable prominence of any one feature, it is
+probable that the remaining parts are deficient. A well-made
+horse wants dissecting in detail, and then if a good judge can
+discover no fault with any part, but finds each of good proportions,
+and the whole to harmonize without defect, deformity
+or deficiency, he has before him a well-shaped horse; and of two
+equally well-made and equitably proportioned horses the best
+bred one will be the best. As regards hue, the favourite colour
+of the ancients, according to Xenophon, was bay, and for a long
+time it was the fashionable colour in England; but for some
+time chestnut thoroughbreds have been the most conspicuous
+figure on English race-courses, so far as the more important
+events are concerned. Eclipse was a chestnut; Castrel, Selim
+and Rubens were chestnuts; so also were Glencoe and Pantaloon,
+of whom the latter had black spots on his hind quarters like
+Eclipse; and also Stockwell and Doncaster. Birdcatcher was
+a chestnut, so also were Stockwell and his brother Rataplan,
+Manganese, Mandragora, Thormanby, Kettledrum, St Albans,
+Blair Athol, Regalia, Formosa, Hermit, Marie Stuart, Doncaster,
+George Frederick, Apology, Craig Millar, Prince Charlie, Rayon
+d&rsquo;Or and Bend Or. The dark browns or black browns, such as
+the Sweetmeat tribe, are not so common as the bays, and black
+or grey horses are almost as unusual as roans. The skin and
+hair of the throughbred are finer, and the veins which underlie
+the skin are larger and more prominent than in other horses.
+The mane and tail should be silky and devoid of curl, which is a
+sign of impurity.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the race-horse of to-day is as good as the stock to
+which he traces back has often been disputed, chiefly no doubt
+because he is brought to more early maturity, commencing to
+win races at two years instead of at five years of age, as in the
+days of Childers and Eclipse; but the highest authorities, and
+none more emphatically than the late Admiral Rous, have
+insisted that he can not only stay quite as long as his ancestors,
+but also go a good deal faster. In size and shape the modern
+race-horse is unquestionably superior, being on an average fully
+a hand higher than the Eastern horses from which he is descended;
+and in elegance of shape and beauty of outline he has certainly
+never been surpassed. That experiments, founded on the study
+of his nature and properties, which have from time to time been
+made to improve the breed, and bring the different varieties
+to the perfection in which we now find them, have succeeded,
+is best confirmed by the high estimation in which the horses of
+Great Britain are held in all parts of the civilized world; and it is
+not too much to assert that, although the cold, humid and
+variable nature of their climate is by no means favourable to
+the production of these animals in their very best form, Englishmen
+have by great care, and by sedulous attention to breeding,
+high feeding and good grooming, with consequent development
+of muscle, brought them to the highest state of perfection of
+which their nature is capable.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. D. B.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:539px; height:394px" src="images/img722a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">SHIRE STALLION.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:554px; height:387px" src="images/img722b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">SUFFOLK STALLION.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:534px; height:391px" src="images/img722c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">CLYDESDALE STALLION.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:552px; height:387px" src="images/img722d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">HACKNEY STALLION.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">BREEDS OF HORSES. (<i>From Photographs by F. Babbage.</i>)<br />
+The comparative sizes of the horses are shown.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:558px; height:391px" src="images/img722e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">THOROUGHBRED STALLION.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:557px; height:390px" src="images/img722f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">SHETLAND PONY STALLION.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:557px; height:391px" src="images/img722g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">COACHING STALLION.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:551px; height:391px" src="images/img722h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">POLO PONY STALLION.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">BREEDS OF HORSES. (<i>From Photographs by F. Babbage.</i>)<br />
+The comparative sizes of the horses are shown.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Breeds of Horses</p>
+
+<p>The British breeds of <i>light</i> horses include the Thoroughbred,
+the Yorkshire Coach-horse, the Cleveland Bay, the Hackney and
+the Pony; of <i>heavy</i> horses, the Shire, the Clydesdale and the
+Suffolk.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Thoroughbred</i> is probably the oldest of the breeds, and
+it is known as the &ldquo;blood-horse&rdquo; on account of the length of
+time through which its purity of descent can be traced. The
+frame is light, slender and graceful. The points of chief importance
+are a fine, clean, lean head, set on free from collar heaviness;
+a long and strongly muscular neck, shoulders oblique and covered
+with muscle; high, long withers, chest of good depth and narrow
+but not extremely so; body round in type; back rib well down;
+depth at withers a little under half the height; length equal
+to the height at withers and croup; loins level and muscular;
+croup long, rather level; tail set on high and carried gracefully;
+the hind quarters long, strongly developed, and full of muscle
+and driving power; the limbs clean-cut and sinewy, possessing
+abundance of good bone, especially desired in the cannons, which
+are short, broad and flat; comparatively little space between
+the fore legs; pastern joints smooth and true; pasterns strong,
+clean and springy, sloping when at rest at an angle of 45°;
+feet medium size, wide and high at the heels, concave below and
+set on straight. The action in trotting is generally low, but the
+bending of the knee and the flexing of the hock is smooth, free
+and true. The thoroughbred is apt to be nervous and excitable,
+and impatient of common work, but its speed, resolution and
+endurance, as tested on the race-course, are beyond praise.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the best hunters in the United Kingdom are thoroughbreds,
+but of the substantial weight-carrying type. The Hunters
+Improvement Society, established in 1885, did not restrict
+entries to the <i>Hunters&rsquo; Stud-Book</i> to entirely clean-bred animals,
+but admitted those with breeding enough to pass strict inspection.
+This society acts in consort with two other powerful
+organizations (the Royal Commission on Horse-breeding,
+which began its work in 1888, and the Brood Mare Society,
+established in 1903), with the desirable object of improving the
+standard of light horse breeding. The initial efforts began by
+securing the services of thoroughbred stallions for specified
+districts, by offering a limited number of &ldquo;Queen&rsquo;s Premiums,&rdquo;
+of £200 each, to selected animals of four years old and upwards.
+Since the formation of the Brood Mare Society mares have
+come within the sphere of influence of the three bodies, and
+well-conceived inducements are offered to breeders to retain
+their young mares at home. The efforts have met with gratifying
+success, and they were much needed, for while in 1904 the Dutch
+government took away 350 of the best young Irish mares, Great
+Britain was paying the foreigner over £2,000,000 a year for
+horses which the old system of management did not supply at
+home. The Royal Dublin Society also keeps a <i>Register of
+Thoroughbred Stallions</i> under the horse-breeding scheme of 1892,
+which, like the British efforts, is now bearing fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Yorkshire Coach-horse</i> is extensively bred in the North
+and East Ridings of Yorkshire, and the thoroughbred has taken
+a share in its development. The colour is usually bay, with
+black or brown points. A fine head, sloping shoulders, strong
+loins, lengthy quarters, high-stepping action, flat bone and
+sound feet are characteristic. The height varies from 16 hands
+to 16 hands 2 in.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Cleveland Bay</i> is an ancestor of the Yorkshire Coach-horse
+and is bred in parts of Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland.
+He is adapted alike for the plough, for heavy draught, and for
+slow saddle work. Some specimens make imposing-looking
+carriage horses, but they have low action and are lacking in
+quality. The colour is light or dark bay, with black legs. Though
+rather coarse-headed, the Cleveland Bay has a well-set shoulder
+and neck, a deep chest and round barrel. The height is from
+16 to 17 hands.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Hackney</i> has come prominently to the front in recent
+years. The term <i>Nag</i>, applied to the active riding or trotting
+horse, is derived from the A.S. <i>hnegan</i>, to neigh. The
+Normans brought with them their own word <i>haquenée</i>, or
+<i>hacquenée</i>, a French derivative from the Latin <i>equus</i>, a horse,
+whence the name hackney. Both nag and hackney continue
+to be used as synonymous terms. Frequent mention is made of
+hackneys and trotters in old farm accounts of the 14th century.
+The first noteworthy trotting hackney stallion, of the modern
+type, was a horse foaled about 1755, and known as the Schales,
+Shields or Shales horse, and most of the recognized hackneys
+of to-day trace back to him. The breeding of hackneys is
+extensively pursued in the counties of Norfolk, Cambridge,
+Huntingdon, Lincoln and York, and in the showyard competitions
+a keen but friendly rivalry is usually to be noticed between
+the hackney-breeding farmers of Norfolk and Yorkshire. The
+high hackney action is uncomfortable in a riding horse. Excellent
+results have sometimes followed the use of hackney sires
+upon half-bred mares, <i>i.e.</i> by thoroughbred stallions and trotting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span>
+mares, but it is not always so. As regards the movement, or
+&ldquo;action,&rdquo; of the hackney, he should go light in hand, and the
+knee should be well elevated and advanced during the trot, and,
+before the foot is put down, the leg should be well extended.
+The hackney should also possess good hock action, as distinguished
+from mere fetlock action, the propelling power
+depending upon the efficiency of the former. The hackney
+type of the day is &ldquo;a powerfully built, short-legged, big horse,
+with an intelligent head, neat neck, strong, level back, powerful
+loins, and as perfect shoulders as can be obtained, good feet,
+flat-boned legs, and a height of from 15 hands 2 in. to 15 hands
+3½ in.&rdquo; Carriage-horses hackney-bred have been produced over
+17 hands high.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Pony</i> differs essentially from the hackney in height, the
+former not exceeding 14 hands. There is one exception, which
+is made clear in the following extract from Sir Walter Gilbey&rsquo;s
+<i>Ponies Past and Present</i> (1900):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Before the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1883
+the dividing line between the horse and the pony in England was
+vague and undefined. It was then found necessary to distinguish
+clearly between horses and ponies, and, accordingly, all animals
+measuring 14 hands or under were designated &ldquo;ponies,&rdquo; and registered
+in a separate part of the (Hackney) Stud-Book. This record
+of height, with other particulars as to breeding, &amp;c., serves to direct
+breeders in their choice of sires and dams. The standard of height
+established by the Hackney Horse Society was accepted and officially
+recognized by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1889, when the
+prize-list for the Windsor show contained pony classes for animals
+not exceeding 14 hands. The altered polo-rule, which fixes the
+limit of height at 14 hands 2 in., may be productive of some little
+confusion; but for all other purposes 14 hands is the recognized
+<i>maximum</i> height of a pony. Prior to 1883 small horses were called
+indifferently Galloways, hobbies, cobs or ponies, irrespective of
+their height.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Native ponies include those variously known as Welsh, New
+Forest, Exmoor, Dartmoor, Cumberland and Westmorland,
+Fell, Highland, Highland Garron, Celtic, Shetland and Connemara.
+Ponies range in height from 14 hands down to 8 hands,
+Shetland ponies eligible for the Stud-Book not exceeding the
+latter. As in the case of the hackney, so with the pony,
+thoroughbred blood has been used, and with good results,
+except in the case of those animals which have to remain to breed
+in their native haunts on the hills and moorlands. There the
+only possible way of improvement is by selecting the best native
+specimens, especially the sires, to breed from. The thin-skinned
+progeny of thoroughbred or Arab stock is too delicate to live
+unless when hand-fed&mdash;and hand-feeding is not according to
+custom. Excellent polo ponies are bred as first or second crosses
+by thoroughbred stallions on the mares of nearly all the varieties
+of ponies named. The defective formation of the pony, the
+perpendicular shoulder and the drooping hind quarters, are
+modified; but neither the latter, nor bent hocks, which place
+the hind legs under the body as in the zebra, are objected to,
+as the conformation is favourable to rapid turning. One object
+of the pony breeder, while maintaining hardiness of constitution,
+is to control size&mdash;to compress the most valuable qualities
+into small compass. He endeavours to breed an animal
+possessing a small head, good shoulders, true action and perfect
+manners. A combination of the best points of the hunter with
+the style and finish of the hackney produces a class of weight-carrying
+pony which is always saleable.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Shire</i> horse owes its happily-chosen name to Arthur
+Young&rsquo;s remarks, in the description of his agricultural tours
+during the closing years of the 18th century, concerning the
+large Old English Black Horse, &ldquo;the produce principally of the
+<i>Shire</i> counties in the heart of England.&rdquo; Long previous to this,
+however, the word Shire, in connexion with horses, was used in
+the statutes of Henry VIII. Under the various names of the War
+Horse, the Great Horse, the Old English Black Horse and the
+Shire Horse, the breed has for centuries been cultivated in the
+rich fen-lands of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and in many
+counties to the west. The Shire is the largest of draught horses,
+the stallion commonly attaining a height of 17 to 17.3 hands.
+Though the black colour is still frequently met with, bay and
+brown are more usually seen. With their immense size and
+weight&mdash;1800 &#8468; to 2200 &#8468;&mdash;the Shires combine great strength,
+and they are withal docile and intelligent. They stand on short
+stout legs, with a plentiful covering&mdash;sometimes too abundant&mdash;of
+long hair extending chiefly down the back but also round the
+front of the limbs from knees and hocks, and when in full feather
+obscuring nearly the whole of the hoofs. The head is a good
+size, and broad between the eyes; the neck fairly long, with the
+crest well arched on to the shoulders, which are deep and strong,
+and moderately oblique. The chest is wide, full and deep, the
+back short and straight, the ribs are round and deep, the hind
+quarters long, level and well let down into the muscular thighs.
+The cannon-bones should be flat, heavy and clean, and the feet
+wide, tough, and prominent at the heels. A good type of Shire
+horse combines symmetrical outlines and bold, free action.
+There is a good and remunerative demand for Shire geldings
+for use as draught horses in towns.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Clydesdale</i>, the Scottish breed named from the valley of
+the Clyde, is not quite so large as the Shire, the average height
+of stallions being about 16 hands 2 in. The popular colour is
+bay, particularly if of a dark shade, or dappled. Black is not
+uncommon, but grey is not encouraged. White markings on
+one or more of the legs, with a white star or stripe on the face,
+are characteristic. The long hair on the legs is not so abundant
+as in the Shires, and it is finer in texture. It is regarded as an
+indication of good bone. The bones of the legs should be short,
+flat, clean and hard; the feet large, with hoofs deep and concave
+below. With its symmetry, activity, strength and endurance
+the Clydesdale is easily broken to harness, and makes an excellent
+draught horse. This breed is growing rapidly in favour in
+Canada, but in the United States the <i>Percheron</i>, with its round
+bone and short pasterns, holds the field. A blend of the Shire
+and Clydesdale strains of the British rough-legged draught horse
+(virtually sections of the same breed) is a better animal than
+either of the parents. It is an improvement upon the Shire due
+to the quality contributed by the Clydesdale, and it surpasses
+the Clydesdale in strength and substance, as a result of the Shire
+connexion. To secure success the two Stud-Books will require
+to be opened to animals eligible to be entered in either record.
+The blend is being established in U.S.A. as a National breed.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Suffolk</i> is a horse quite distinct from the Shire and the
+Clydesdale. Its body looks too heavy for its limbs, which are
+free from the &ldquo;feather&rdquo; so much admired in the two other
+heavy breeds; it possesses a characteristic chestnut colour.
+How long the Suffolks have been associated with the county
+after which they are named is unknown, but they are mentioned
+in 1586 in Camden&rsquo;s <i>Britannia</i>. With an average height of about
+16 hands they often have a weight of as much as 2000 &#8468;., and
+this may explain the appearance which has given rise to the name
+of the Suffolk Punch, by which the breed is known. The Suffolk
+is a resolute and unwearying worker, and is richly endowed with
+many of the best qualities of a horse. The <i>Suffolk Stud-Book
+and History of the Breed</i>, published in 1880, is the most exhaustive
+record of its kind in England.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. Fr.; R. W.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Management</p>
+
+<p><i>Breeding.</i>&mdash;Animals to breed from should be of good blood,
+sound and compactly built, with good pluck and free from
+nervous excitability and vicious tendency. A mare used to be
+put to the horse at three years old, but latterly two has become
+the common age. Young sires begin to serve in moderation at
+two. May is considered the best month for a mare to foal, as
+there is abundance of natural food and the weather is mild enough
+for the mare to lie out. Show specimens generally profit by
+being born earlier. The period of gestation in the mare is about
+eleven months. No nursing mare should go to work, if this can
+possibly be avoided. A brood mare requires plenty of exercise
+at a slow pace and may work, except between shafts or on a road,
+till the day of foaling.</p>
+
+<p>To avoid colic an animal has to be gradually prepared by
+giving small quantities of green food for a few days before going
+to grass. Shelter against severe storms is needed. Succulent
+food encourages the flow of milk, and the success of the foal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span>
+greatly depends on its milk supply. Mares most readily conceive
+when served at the &ldquo;foal heat&rdquo; eleven days after foaling. A
+mature stallion can serve from eighty to one hundred mares per
+annum.</p>
+
+<p>Foals are weaned when five or six months old, often in October,
+and require to be housed to save the foal-flesh, and liberally but
+not overfed; but from the time they are a month old they
+require to be &ldquo;gentled&rdquo; by handling and kindly treatment,
+and the elementary training of leading from time to time by
+a halter adjusted permanently to the head. When they are hand-reared
+on cow&rsquo;s milk foals require firm treatment and must have
+no fooling to teach them tricks. Young horses that are too highly
+fed are apt to become weak-limbed and top-heavy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breaking.</i>&mdash;Systematic breaking begins at about the age of two
+years, and the method of subduing a colt by &ldquo;galvayning&rdquo; is as
+good as any. It is a more humane system than &ldquo;rareying,&rdquo;
+which overcame by exhaustion under circumstances which were
+not fruitful of permanent results. Galvayning is accomplished
+by bending the horse&rsquo;s neck round at an angle of thirty-five to
+forty degrees and tieing the halter to the tail, so that when he
+attempts to walk forward he holds himself and turns &ldquo;round and
+round, almost upon his own ground.&rdquo; The more strenuous his
+resistance the sooner he yields to the inevitable force applied
+by himself. A wooden pole, the &ldquo;third hand,&rdquo; is then gently
+applied to all parts of the body until kicking or any form of
+resistance ceases. &ldquo;Bitting&rdquo; or &ldquo;mouthing,&rdquo; or the familiarizing
+of an animal to the bit in his mouth, and to answer to the
+rein without bending his neck, is still a necessity with the
+galvayning method of breaking. Experience can only be gained
+by a horse continuing during a considerable time to practise
+what he has been taught.</p>
+
+<p>Three main characteristics of a successful horse-breaker are
+firmness, good temper and incessant vigilance. Carelessness in
+trusting too much to a young colt that begins its training by
+being docile is a fruitful source of untrustworthy habits which
+need never have developed. Driving with long reins in the field
+should precede the fastening of ropes to the collar, as it accustoms
+the animal to the pressure on the shoulders of the draught, later
+to be experienced in the yoke. If a young horse be well handled
+and accustomed to the dummy jockey, mounting it is not
+attended with much risk of resistance, although this should
+invariably be anticipated. An animal ought to be in good condition
+when being broken in, else it is liable to break out in
+unpleasant ways when it becomes high-spirited as a result of
+improved condition. It should be well but not overfed, and
+while young not overworked, as an overtired animal is liable to
+refuse to pull, and thus contract a bad habit. Most bad habits
+and stable tricks are the result of defective management and
+avoidable accidents.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feeding.</i>&mdash;Horses have small stomachs relatively to ruminating
+animals, and require small quantities of food frequently. While
+grazing they feed almost continually, preferring short pasture.
+No stable food for quick work surpasses a superior sample of
+fine-hulled whole oats like &ldquo;Garton&rsquo;s Abundance&rdquo; (120 &#8468; per
+week), and Timothy hay harvested in dry weather. The unbruised
+oats develop a spirit and courage in either a saddle or
+harness horse that no other food can. A double handful of
+clean chaff, or of bran mixed with the oats in the manger, prevents
+a greedy horse from swallowing a considerable proportion whole.
+Unchewed oats pass out in the faeces uninjured, so that they
+are capable of germination, and are of less than no value to a
+horse. Horses doing slow or other than &ldquo;upper ten&rdquo; work
+may have oats crushed, not ground, and a variety of additions
+made to the oats which are usually the basis of the feed&mdash;for
+example, a few old crushed beans, a little linseed meal, ground
+linseed cake or about a wine-glassful of unboiled linseed oil.
+Indian pulses are to be avoided on account of the danger of
+Lathyrus poisoning. A seasoning of ground fenugreek or spice is
+sometimes given to shy feeders to encourage them to eat. A
+little sugar or molascuit added to the food will sometimes serve
+the same purpose. Newly crushed barley or cracked maize,
+even in considerable proportion to the rest of the food, gives good
+results with draught, coach, &rsquo;bus and light harness horses generally.
+Boiled food of any kind is unnatural to a horse, and is
+risky to give, being liable to produce colic, especially if the
+animal bolts its food when hungry, although it generally produces
+a glossy coat. Too much linseed, often used in preparing
+horses for market, gives a similar appearance, but is liable to
+induce fatty degeneration of the liver; given in moderation it
+regulates the bowels and stimulates the more perfect digestion
+of other foods. In England red-clover hay, or, better still,
+crimson-clover or lucerne hay, is liberally fed to farm horses
+with about 10 &#8468; per day of oats, while they usually run in open
+yards with shelter sheds. Bean straw is sometimes given as part
+of the roughage in Scotland, but not in England. In England
+hunters and carriage horses are generally fed on natural hay, in
+Scotland on Timothy, largely imported from Canada, or ryegrass
+hay that has not been grown with nitrate of soda. Heavily
+nitrated hay is reputed to produce excessive urination and
+irritation of the bladder. Pease straw, if not sandy, and good
+bright oat straw are good fodder for horses; but with barley
+and wheat straw, in the case of a horse, more energy is consumed
+during its passage through the alimentary canal than the digested
+straw yields. Three or four Swedish turnips or an equivalent
+of carrots is an excellent cooling food for a horse at hard work.
+The greater number of horses in the country should have green
+forage given them during summer, when the work they do will
+permit of it, as it is their natural food, and they thrive better
+on it than on any dry food.</p>
+
+<p>When a horse has been overstrained by work the best remedy
+is a long rest at pasture, and, if it be lame or weak in the limbs,
+the winter season is most conducive to recovery. The horse
+becomes low in condition and moves about quietly, and the frost
+tends to brace up the limbs. In autumn all horses that have
+been grazing should be dosed with some vermifuge to destroy
+the worms that are invariably present, and thus prevent colic
+or an unthrifty or anaemic state. On a long journey a horse
+should have occasional short drinks, and near the end a long
+drink with a slower rate of progression with the object of cooling
+off. In the stable a horse should always be provided with rock
+salt, and water to drink at will by means of some such stall
+fixture as the Mundt hygienic water-supply fittings. Overhead
+hay-racks are unnatural and are liable to drop seeds into a
+horse&rsquo;s eye.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;For riding, &amp;c. see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riding</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Driving</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horsemanship</a></span>,
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse-racing</a></span>. For diseases of the horse see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Veterinary
+Science</a></span>. The literature about the horse and its history and uses
+is voluminous, and is collected up to 1887 in Huth&rsquo;s <i>Works on
+Horses, &amp;c.</i>, a bibliographical record of hippology. See also, besides
+the works already mentioned, various books by Capt. M. Horace
+Hayes, <i>Points of the Horse</i> (1893, 2nd ed., 1897); <i>Stable Management
+and Exercise</i> (1900); <i>Illustrated Horse-breaking</i> (1889, 2nd ed.,
+1896); and <i>The Horsewoman</i> (1893) (with Mrs Hayes); E. L.
+Anderson, <i>Modern Horsemanship</i> (1884); W. Day, <i>The Horse:
+How to Breed and Rear Him</i> (1888); W. Ridgeway, <i>Origin and
+Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse</i> (1905); Major-General Tweedie,
+<i>The Arab Horse</i> (1894); J. Wortley Axe, <i>The Horse; its Treatment
+in Health and Disease</i> (1906); R. Wallace, <i>Farm Live Stock of Great
+Britain</i> (1885, 4th ed., 1907); Sydney Galvayne, <i>The Twentieth
+Century Book of the Horse</i> (1905); C. Bruce Low, <i>Breeding Racehorses
+by the Figure System</i> (1895); J. H. Wallace, <i>The Horse of
+America in his Derivation, &amp;c.</i> (1897); Weatherly&rsquo;s <i>Celebrated Racehorses</i>
+(1887); Ruff&rsquo;s <i>Guide to the Turf</i>; T. A. Cook, <i>History of the
+English Turf</i> (1903); <i>The General Stud-Book</i> (issued quinquennially);
+and the <i>Stud-Books</i> of the various breed societies.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. W.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare Sans, <i>açva</i>, Zendish and Old Persian <i>açpa</i>, Lithuanian
+<i>aszva</i> (mare), Prussian <i>asvinan</i> (mare&rsquo;s milk), O.H. Ger. <i>ehu</i>,
+A.S. <i>eoh</i>, Icel. <i>iör</i>, Gothic <i>aihos</i>, <i>aihous</i> (?), Old Irish <i>ech</i>, Old
+Cambrian and Gaelic <i>ep</i> (as in <i>Epona</i>, the horse goddess), Lat.
+<i>equus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="hippos">&#7988;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="ikkos">&#7988;&#954;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>. The word seems, however, to have
+disappeared from the Slavonic languages. The root is probably
+<i>ak</i>, with the idea of sharpness or swiftness (<span class="grk" title="akros, ôkus">&#7940;&#954;&#961;&#959;&#962;, &#8032;&#954;&#973;&#962;</span>, <i>acus</i>,
+<i>ocior</i>). See Pott, <i>Etym. Forsch</i>, ii. 256, and Hehn, <i>Kulturpflanzen
+u. Hausthiere in ihrem Ueber gang aus Asien nach
+Griechenland u. Italien sowie in das übrige Europa</i> (3rd ed., 1877),
+p. 38. The last-named author, who points out the absence of
+the horse from the Egyptian monuments prior to the beginning
+of the 18th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the fact that the earliest references
+to this animal in Hebrew literature (Judges v. 22, 28; cf. Josh,
+xi. 4) do not carry us any farther back, is of opinion that the
+Semitic peoples as a whole were indebted for the horse to the
+lands of Iran. He also shows that literature affords no trace of the
+horse as indigenous to Arabia prior to about the beginning of the
+5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, although references abound in the pre-Islamitic
+poetry. Horses were not numerous even in Mahomet&rsquo;s time
+(Sprenger, <i>Leb. Moh.</i> iii. 139, 140). Compare Ignazio Guidi&rsquo;s paper
+&ldquo;Della sede primitiva dei popoli Semitici&rdquo; in the <i>Transactions</i> of the
+Accademia dei Lincei (1878-1879), Professor W. Ridgeway, in his
+<i>Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse</i> (1905), reinvestigated
+the historical mystery as to the Arab breed, and its connexion with
+the English thoroughbred stock, but his conclusions have been hotly
+controverted; archaeology and biology are in fact still in the dark
+on the subject, but see the section on &ldquo;Species&rdquo; above. According
+to Ridgeway, the original source of the finest equine blood is Africa,
+still the home of the largest variety of wild Equidae; he concludes
+that thence it passed into Europe at an early time, to be blended with
+that of the indigenous Celtic species, and thence into western Asia
+into the veins of an indigenous Mongolian species, still represented
+by &ldquo;Przewalski&rsquo;s horse&rdquo;; not till a comparatively late period did
+it reach Arabia, though the &ldquo;Arab&rdquo; now represents the purest form
+of the Libyan blood. The controversy depends upon the consideration
+of a wealth of detail, which should be studied in Ridgeway&rsquo;s
+book; but zoological authorities are sceptical as to the suggested
+species, <i>Equus caballus libycus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2r" id="ft2r" href="#fa2r"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Some fragments of legislation relating to the horse about this
+period may be gleaned from <i>Ancient Laws and Institutes of England</i>
+(fol., London, 1840), and <i>Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales</i>
+(fol., London, 1841).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSE LATITUDES,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> the belts of calms and variable breezes
+at the polar edge of the N.E. and S.E. trades. According to the
+<i>New English Dictionary</i> two explanations have been given of
+the origin of the name: one that the calm kills horses on a
+sailing ship, the other that the name signifies the unruly and
+boisterous nature of these winds compared with the pleasant
+trades. The name is commonly applied to the permanent belt
+of high atmospheric pressure which encircles the globe in 30° to
+35° from the equator.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSE-MACKEREL,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the name applied to a genus of fishes
+(<i>Caranx</i>) found in abundance in almost all temperate and
+especially in tropical seas. The designation &ldquo;cavalli,&rdquo; given to
+them by the early Portuguese navigators, and often met with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span>
+in the accounts of the adventures of the buccaneers, is still in
+frequent use among the sailors of all nations. Some ninety
+different kinds are known&mdash;the majority being wholesome food,
+and some of the species attaining a length of 3 ft. and more.
+The fish to which the name horse-mackerel is applied in Great
+Britain is <i>Caranx trachurus</i>, distinguished by having the lateral
+line in its whole length armed with large but narrow bony plates.
+Horse-mackerel are found singly on the coast all the year round,
+but sometimes they congregate in shoals of many thousands.
+Although well-flavoured, they are much more frequently used
+for bait than for food. This species has a most extraordinary
+range, being found almost everywhere within the temperate and
+tropical zones of the northern and southern hemispheres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSEMANSHIP,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> the art of managing the horse from his
+back and controlling his paces and the direction and speed of
+his movement. The ordinary procedure is dealt with in the
+articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riding</a></span> and cognate subjects (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse</a></span>: section
+<i>Management</i>). A special kind of skill is, however, needed in
+breaking, training, bitting and schooling horses for a game like
+polo, or for the evolutions of what is known as the <i>haute école</i>.
+It is with the latter, or &ldquo;school&rdquo; riding, that we deal here. The
+middle ages had seen chivalry developed into a social distinction,
+and horsemanship into a form of knightly prowess. The Renaissance
+introduced the cultivation of horsemanship as an art,
+with regular conditions and rules, instead of merely its skilful
+practice for utility and exercise. In Italy in the 16th century
+schools of horsemanship were established at Naples, Rome and
+other chief cities; thither flocked the nobility of France, Spain
+and Germany; and Henry VIII. of England and other monarchs
+of his time had Italians for their masters of the horse. The
+academy of Pignatelli at Naples was the most famous of the
+schools in the middle of the 16th century, but a score of other
+less renowned masters devoted themselves to teaching the
+riders and training the horses. Trappings of all sorts multiplied;
+the prescribed tricks, feats and postures involved considerable
+dexterity; they were fatiguing to both man and beast, and
+were really useless except for show. This elaborate art, enthusiastically
+followed among the Romance nations, was the
+parent of later developments of the <i>haute école</i>, and of the circus-performances
+of modern days. In England, however, the
+continental style did not find favour for long. The duke of
+Newcastle&rsquo;s <i>Méthode nouvelle de dresser les chevaux</i> (1648) was
+the leading text-book of the day, and in 1761 the earl of Pembroke
+published his <i>Manual of Cavalry Horsemanship</i>. In France
+a simplification was introduced in the early part of the 18th
+century by La Guérinière (<i>École de cavalerie</i>) and others. The
+French military school thus became the model for Europe,
+though the English style remained in opposition, forming a
+sort of compromise with the ordinary method of riding across
+country. In more modern times France again came to the front
+in regard to the <i>haute école</i>, through the innovations of the
+vicomte d&rsquo;Aure (1798-1863) and François Baucher (1796-1873).
+Baucher was a circus-rider who became the greatest master of
+his art, and who had an elaborate theory of the principles involved
+in training a horse. His system was carried on, with
+modifications, by masters and theorists like Captain Raabe,
+M. Barroil and M. Fillis. In more recent times the style of the
+<i>haute école</i> has also been cultivated by various masters in the
+United States, such as H. L. de Bussigny at Boston.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See d&rsquo;Aure, <i>Traité d&rsquo;équitation</i> (1847); Hundersdorf, <i>Équitation
+allemande</i> (Bruxelles, 1843); Baucher, <i>Passe-temps équestres</i> (1840),
+<i>Méthode d&rsquo;équitation</i> (1867); Raabe, <i>Méthode de haute école d&rsquo;équitation</i>
+(1863); Barroil, <i>Art équestre</i>; Fillis, <i>Principes de dressage</i>; Hayes,
+<i>Riding on the flat, &amp;c.</i> (1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSENS,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a market town of Denmark, at the head of Horsens
+Fjord, on the east side of Jutland, 32 m. by rail S.W. of Aarhus,
+in the <i>amt</i> (county) of that name. Pop. (1901) 22,243. It is the
+junction of branch railways to Bryrup and to Törring inland,
+and to Juelsminde on the coast. The exports are chiefly bacon
+and butter; the imports, iron, yarn, coal and timber. The
+town is ancient; there is a disused convent church with tombs
+of the 17th century, and the Vor-Frelsers-Kirke has a carved
+pulpit of the same period. Horsens is the birthplace of the
+navigator Vitus Bering or Behring (1680), the Arctic explorer.
+To the north lies the picturesque lake district between Skanderborg
+and Silkeborg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aarhus</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSE-POWER.<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> The device, frequently seen in farmyards,
+by which the power of a horse is utilized to drive threshing or
+other machinery, is sometimes described as a &ldquo;horse-power,&rdquo;
+but this term usually denotes the unit in which the performance
+of steam and other engines is expressed, and which is defined as
+the rate at which work is done when 33,000 &#8468; are raised one
+foot in one minute. This value was adopted by James Watt
+as the result of experiments with strong dray-horses, but, as he
+was aware, it is in excess of what can be done by an average
+horse over a full day&rsquo;s work. It is equal to 746 watts. On the
+metric system it is reckoned as 4500 kilogram-metres a minute,
+and the French <i>cheval-vapeur</i> is thus equal to 32,549 foot-pounds
+a minute, or 0.9863 of an English horse-power, or 736 watts.
+The &ldquo;nominal horse-power&rdquo; by which engines are sometimes
+rated is an arbitrary and obsolescent term of indefinite significance.
+An ordinary formula for obtaining it is <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">15.6</span>D<span class="sp">2</span>&emsp;<span class="sp">3</span>&radic;S for high-pressure
+engines, and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">47</span>D<span class="sp">2</span>&emsp;<span class="sp">3</span>&radic;S for condensing engines, where
+D is the diameter of the piston in inches and S the length of the
+stroke in feet, though varying numbers are used for the divisor.
+The &ldquo;indicated horse-power&rdquo; of a reciprocating engine is
+given by ASPN/33,000, where A is the area of the piston in
+square inches, S the length of the stroke in feet, P the mean
+pressure on the piston in &#8468; per sq. in., and N the number of
+effective strokes per minute, namely, one for each revolution of
+the crank shaft if the engine is single-acting, but twice as many
+if it is double-acting. The mean pressure P is ascertained from
+the diagram or &ldquo;card&rdquo; given by an indicator (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steam-Engine</a></span>).
+In turbine engines this method is inapplicable.
+A statement of indicated horse-power supplies a measure of the
+force acting in the cylinder of an engine, but the power available
+for doing external work off the crank-shaft is less than this by
+the amount absorbed in driving the engine itself. The useful
+residue, known as the &ldquo;actual,&rdquo; &ldquo;effective&rdquo; or &ldquo;brake&rdquo;
+horse-power, can be directly measured by a dynamometer (<i>q.v.</i>);
+it amounts to about 80% of the indicated horse-power for good
+condensing engines and about 85% for non-condensing engines,
+or perhaps a little more when the engines are of the largest sizes.
+When turbines, as often happens in land practice, are directly
+coupled to electrical generators, their horse-power can be
+deduced from the electrical output. When they are used for the
+propulsion of ships recourse is had to &ldquo;torsion meters&rdquo; which
+measure the amount of twist undergone by the propeller shafts
+while transmitting power. Two points are selected on the surface
+of the shaft at different positions along it, and the relative displacement
+which occurs between them round the shaft when
+power is being transmitted is determined either by electrical
+means, as in the Denny-Johnson torsion-meter, or optically,
+as in the Hopkinson-Thring and Bevis-Gibson instruments.
+The twist or surface-shear being proportional to the torque, the
+horse-power can be calculated if the modulus of rigidity of the
+steel employed is known or if the amount of twist corresponding
+to a given power has previously been ascertained by direct
+experiment on the shaft before it has been put in place.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSE-RACING.<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> Probably the earliest instance of the use
+of horses in racing recorded in literature occurs in <i>Il.</i> xxiii.
+212-650, where the various incidents of the chariot-race at the
+funeral games held in honour of Patroclus are detailed with
+much vividness. According to the ancient authorities the
+four-horse chariot-race was introduced into the Olympic games
+as early as the 23rd Olympiad; to this the race with mounted
+horses was added in the 33rd; while other variations (such
+as two-horse chariot-races, mule races, loose-horse races, special
+races for under-aged horses) were admitted at a still later period.
+Of the training and management of the Olympic race-horse we
+are left in ignorance; but it is known that the equestrian
+candidates were required to enter their names and send their
+horses to Elis at least thirty days before the celebration of the
+games commenced, and that the charioteers and riders, whether
+owners or proxies, went through a prescribed course of exercise
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span>
+during the intervening month. At all the other national games
+of Greece (Pythian, Isthmian, Nemean), as well as at many of
+the local festivals (the Athenian Olympia and Panathenaea),
+similar contests had a prominent place. Some indication of
+the extent to which the passion for horse-racing was indulged
+in at Athens, for example, about the time of Aristophanes may
+be obtained from the scene with which <i>The Clouds</i> opens;
+while it is a significant fact that the Boeotians termed one of the
+months of their year, corresponding to the Athenian Hecatombaeon,
+Hippodromius (&ldquo;Horse-race month&rdquo;; see Plutarch,
+<i>Cam.</i> 15). For the chariot-races and horse-races of the Greeks
+and Romans, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Circus</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Games</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Great Britain</p>
+
+<p>There is no direct historical evidence to show that the ancient
+Britons addicted themselves to any form of this amusement; but
+there are indications that among some at least of the Germanic
+tribes, from a very early period, horse-racing was an accompaniment
+of their religious cultus. There can be no doubt that the
+Romans encouraged the pursuit in Britain, if they did not introduce
+it; traces of race-courses belonging to the period of their
+occupation have been frequently discovered. The influence of the
+Christian Church was everywhere at first strongly against the
+practice. The opinion of Augustine and other fathers of the
+church with regard to attendance at the spectacles, whether of
+theatre or of circus, is well known; those who performed in
+them were rigidly excluded from church fellowship, and sometimes
+even those who merely frequented them. Thus the first
+council of Arles, in its fourth canon, declared that those members
+of the church who drove chariots at the public games should,
+so long as they continued in that employment, be denied communion.
+(Compare the rule in the <i>Ap. Const.</i> viii. 32; ap.
+Bingham. <i>Ant. Chr. Church</i>, xvi. 4, 10.) In many cases, however,
+the weight of ecclesiastical authority proved insufficient to cope
+with the force of old custom, or with the fascination of a sport
+the unchristian character of which was not very easily demonstrable;
+and ultimately in Germany and elsewhere the old local
+races appear to have been admitted to a recognized place among
+the ceremonies peculiar to certain Christian festivals.</p>
+
+<p>The first distinct indication which contemporary history
+affords of horse-racing as a sport occurs in the <i>Description of
+the City of London</i> of William Fitzstephen (<i>c.</i> 1174). He says
+that in a certain &ldquo;plane field without one of the gates (quidam
+planus campus re et nomine&mdash;<i>Smithfield</i>, quasi Smoothfield)
+every Friday, unless it be one of the more solemn festivals, is a
+noted show of well-bred (<i>nobilium</i>) horses exposed for sale.
+The earls, barons and knights who are resident in the city, as
+well as a multitude of citizens, flock thither either to look on
+or buy.&rdquo; After describing the different varieties of horses
+brought into the market, especially the more valuable chargers
+(<i>dextrarios preciosos</i>), he says: &ldquo;When a race is to be run by
+such horses as these, and perhaps by others which, in like manner,
+according to their breed are strong for carriage and vigorous for
+the course, the people raise a shout and order the common horses
+to be withdrawn to another part of the field. The jockeys, who
+are boys expert in the management of horses, which they regulate
+by means of curb bridles, sometimes by threes and sometimes
+by twos, as the match is made, prepare themselves for the contest.
+Their chief aim is to prevent a competitor from getting
+before them. The horses too, after their manner, are eager for
+the race: their limbs tremble, and impatient of delay they
+cannot stand still; upon the signal being given they stretch out
+their limbs, hurry on the course, and are borne along with unremitting
+speed. The riders, inspired with the love of praise and
+the hope of victory, clap spurs to their flying horses, lashing them
+with whips, and inciting them by their shouts&rdquo; (see Stow&rsquo;s
+Translation).</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Richard I. knights rode at Whitsuntide on
+steeds and palfreys over a three-mile course for &ldquo;forty pounds
+of ready gold,&rdquo; according to the old romance of Sir Bevys of
+Hampton. The feats of the tilt-yard, however, seem to have
+surpassed horse-racing in popular estimation at the period of the
+crusades. That the sport was to some extent indulged in by
+King John is quite possible, as running horses are frequently
+mentioned in the register of royal expenditure; and we know
+that Edward III. had a number of running horses, but it is probable
+they were chiefly used for field sports.</p>
+
+<p>An evidence of the growing favour in which horse-racing was
+held as a popular amusement is furnished by the fact that public
+races were established at Chester in 1512. Randle Holme of that
+city tells us that towards the latter part of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s reign,
+on Shrove Tuesday, the company of saddlers of Chester presented
+to &ldquo;the drapers a wooden ball embellished with flowers, and
+placed upon the point of a lance. This ceremony was performed
+in the presence of the mayor at the cross of the Roody or Roodee,
+an open place near the city; but this year (1540) the ball was
+changed into a silver bell, valued at three shillings and sixpence
+or more, to be given to him who shall run best and furthest on
+horseback before them on the same day, Shrove Tuesday; these
+bells were denominated St George&rsquo;s bells.&rdquo; In the reign of
+Elizabeth there is evidence from the poems of Bishop Hall
+(1597) that racing was in vogue, though apparently not patronized
+by the queen, or it would no doubt have formed part of the
+pastimes at Kenilworth; indeed, it seems then to have gone
+much out of fashion.</p>
+
+<p>The accession of the Stuarts opened up an era of prosperity
+for the sport, for James I., who, according to Youatt, had
+encouraged if not established horse-racing in Scotland, greatly
+patronized it in England when he came to the throne. Not only
+did he run races at Croydon and Enfield, but he endeavoured to
+improve the breed of horses by the purchase for a high figure of
+the Arab stallion known as Markham&rsquo;s Arabian, which little
+horse, however, was beaten in every race he ran.</p>
+
+<p>In 1607, according to Camden&rsquo;s <i>Britannia</i>, races were run near
+York, the prize being a little golden bell. Camden also mentions
+as the prize for running horses in Gatherley Forest a little golden
+ball, which was apparently anterior to the bell. In 1609 Mr
+Robert Ambrye, sometime sheriff of the city of Chester, caused
+three silver bells to be made of good value, which bells he
+appointed to be run for with horses on St George&rsquo;s day upon the
+Roodee, the first horse to have the best bell and the money put
+in by the horses that ran&mdash;in other words, a sweepstake&mdash;the
+bells to be returned that day twelvemonth as challenge cups
+are now; towards the expenses he had an allowance from the
+city. In 1613 subscription purses are first mentioned. Nicholls,
+in his <i>Progress of James I.</i>, makes mention of racing in the years
+1617 and 1619. Challenge bells appear to have continued to
+be the prizes at Chester, according to Randle Holme the younger,
+and Ormerod&rsquo;s <i>History of Chester</i>, until 1623 or 1624, when Mr
+John Brereton, mayor of Chester, altered the course and caused
+the horses to run five times round the Roodee, the bell to be of
+good value, £8 or £10, and to be a free bell to be held for ever&mdash;in
+other words, a presentation and not a challenge prize.</p>
+
+<p>During James&rsquo;s reign public race meetings were established at
+Gatherley or Garterley, near Richmond in Yorkshire, at Croydon
+in Surrey, and at Enfield Chase, the last two being patronized
+by the king, who not only had races at Epsom during his residence
+at Nonsuch, but also built a house at Newmarket for the purpose
+of enjoying hunting, and no doubt racing too, as we find a note
+of there having been horse-races at this place as early as 1605.
+Races are also recorded as having taken place at Linton near
+Cambridge, but they were probably merely casual meetings.
+The prizes were for the most part silver or gold bells, whence
+the phrase &ldquo;bearing away the bell.&rdquo; The turf indeed appears
+to have attracted a great deal of notice, and the systematic
+preparation of running horses was studied, attention being
+paid to their feeding and training, to the instruction of jockeys&mdash;although
+private matches between gentlemen who rode their
+own horses were very common,&mdash;and to the adjustment of
+weights, which were usually about 10 stone. The sport also
+seems to have taken firm hold of the people, and to have become
+very popular.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Charles I., which commenced in 1625, saw still
+more marked strides made, for the king not only patronized the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span>
+racing at Newmarket, which we know was current In 1640, but
+thoroughly established it there, and built a stand house in 1667,
+since which year the races have been annual. Mention is likewise
+made in the comedy of the <i>Merry Beggars</i>, played in 1641, of
+races, both horse and foot, in Hyde Park, which were patronized
+by Charles I., who gave a silver cup, value 100 guineas, to be
+run for instead of bells. Butcher, in his survey of the town of
+Stamford (1646), also says that a race was annually run in that
+town for a silver and gilt cup and cover, of the value of £7 or £8,
+provided by the care of the aldermen for the time being out of
+the interest of a stock formerly made by the nobility and gentry
+of the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>In 1648 Clarendon tells us that a meeting of Royalists was
+held at Banstead Downs, as Epsom Downs were then called,
+&ldquo;under the pretence of a horse-race,&rdquo; so that horse-racing at
+Epsom was not unknown early in the 17th century; Pepys,
+too, in his <i>Diary</i> of 1663, mentions his having intended to go to
+Banstead Downs to see a famous horse-race. Cromwell is said
+to have kept running horses in the year 1653, but in 1654 he
+appears to have gone so far as to forbid racing for six and
+eight months respectively. After the Reformation in 1660, a new
+impetus was given to horse-racing, which had languished during
+the civil wars, and the races at Newmarket, which had been
+suspended, were restored and attended by the king; and as an
+additional spur to emulation, according to Youatt, royal plates
+were given at each of the principal courses, and royal mares,
+as they were called, were imported from abroad. Charles II.
+rebuilt the house originally erected at Newmarket by James I.,
+which had fallen into decay. The Round course was made in
+1666, and racing at the headquarters of the turf was regulated
+in the most systematic way, as to the course, weights and other
+conditions. Charles II. was the first monarch who entered and
+ran horses in his own name; and, besides being a frequent
+visitor at the races on Newmarket Heath, and on Burford
+Downs, near Stockbridge, where the Bibury Club meeting was
+held, he established races at Datchet. In the reign of James II.
+nothing specially noteworthy occurred, but William III. continued
+former crown donations and even added to them.</p>
+
+<p>Anne was much devoted to horse-racing, and not only gave
+royal plates to be competed for, but ran horses for them in her
+own name. In 1703 Doncaster races were established, when
+4 guineas a year were voted by the corporation towards a plate,
+and in 1716 the Town Plate was established by the same authority
+to be run on Doncaster Moor. Nearly a century, however,
+elapsed before the St Leger was instituted. Matches at Newmarket
+had become common, for we find that Basto, one of the
+earliest race-horses of whom we have any authentic account,
+won several matches there in 1708 and 1709. In the latter
+year, according to Camden, York races were established, the
+course at first being on Clifton Ings, but it was subsequently
+removed to Knavesmire, on which the races are now run. In
+1710 the first gold cup said to have been given by the queen,
+of 60 guineas value, was run for by six-year-old horses carrying
+12 stone each, the best of three 4-mile heats, and was won by
+Bay Bolton. In 1711 it was increased to 100 guineas. In 1712
+Queen Anne&rsquo;s gelding Pepper ran for the Royal Cup of £100 at
+York, and her Mustard, a nutmeg-grey horse, ran for the same
+prize in 1713. Again in 1714 her Majesty&rsquo;s bay horse Star won
+a sweepstake of 10 guineas added to a plate of £40 at the same
+place, in four heats, carrying 11 stone. In 1716 the Ladies&rsquo;
+Plate at York for five-year-olds was won by Aleppo, son of the
+Darley Arabian. Racing and match-making continued to be a
+regular sport at Newmarket, and at York and Hambleton, and
+we also find a record of a race at Lincoln in August 1717 for
+a silver tea-board, won by Brocklesby Betty, as was the Queen&rsquo;s
+Plate at Black Hambleton in the year before.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1714 and 1720 there were races at Pontefract in
+Yorkshire for plates or money. The best of two out of three
+heats was to be the winner, provided the said horse was not
+distanced in the third heat&mdash;the distance post being 1 furlong
+from the winning post; and this appears to have been a usual
+condition. In or about the year 1721 Flying Childers is said to
+have run a trial against Almanzor and Brown Betty over the
+Round course at Newmarket (3 m. 4 f. 93 y.) in 6 m. 40 s., and
+another trial over the Beacon course (4 m. 1 f. 138 y.) in 7 m. 30 s.&mdash;which
+is fast even for a six-year old; but it is just possible that
+in those days the art of time-taking was anything but perfect.
+In 1721 George I. gave 100 guineas in specie in lieu of the gold
+cup at York presented by Anne, and the king&rsquo;s or queen&rsquo;s
+plates have been given in cash ever since. In 1725 a ladies&rsquo;
+plate was run for on the 14th of September by female riders on
+Ripon Heath in Yorkshire. In 1727 Mr John Cheney established
+the <i>Racing Calendar</i>&mdash;an historical list of all the horse matches
+run, and of all plates and prizes run for in England and Wales
+of the value of £10 or upwards in 1727, &amp;c. No systematic
+records had till then been preserved of the running of the race-horses
+of the day, and it is only through the performances of
+certain celebrated horses and mares that we have any information
+of what actually took place, and even that is more or less
+of a fragmentary kind. At this time racing was thoroughly
+established as a national and popular sport, for there were
+upwards of a hundred meetings in England and Wales; but the
+plates or sweepstakes run for were for the most part of small
+value, as £10, £20, £30, £40, and sometimes £50. In 1727,
+according to Whyte, there were only a dozen royal plates run for
+in England: one at Newmarket in April for six-year-old horses
+at 12 stone each, in heats over the Round course&mdash;first called
+the King&rsquo;s Plate course; one for five-year-old mares at 10 stone
+each, in one heat, and another in October for six-year-old horses
+at 12 stone, in heats over the same course; one at York (which
+commenced in 1711) for six-year-old horses, 12 stone each,
+4-m. heats; one at Black Hambleton, Yorkshire (of which no
+regular account was kept until 1715), for five-year-old mares,
+10 stone, 4 m.; one at each of the following places, Nottingham,
+Lincoln, Guildford, Winchester, Salisbury and Lewes, for six-year-old
+horses, 12 stone each, 4-m. heats; and one at Ipswich
+for five-year-old horses, 10 stone each. A royal plate was also
+run for at Edinburgh in 1728 or 1729, and one at the Curragh
+of Kildare in 1741.</p>
+
+<p>In 1739 an act was passed to prevent racing by ponies and
+weak horses, 13 Geo. II. cap. 10, which also prohibited prizes
+or plates of less value than £50. At this period the best horses
+seldom ran more than five or six times, and some not so often,
+there being scarcely any plates of note except royal ones, and
+very few sweepstakes or matches of value except at Newmarket
+until after 1750; moreover, as the races were run in heats,
+best three out of four, over a course of several miles in length, the
+task set the horses before winning a plate was very severe, and
+by no means commensurate with the value of the prize. In
+1751 the great subscription races commenced at York, the city
+also giving £50 added money to each day&rsquo;s racing. At Newmarket
+there were only two meetings, one in April and the
+other in October, but in 1753 a second spring meeting was
+established, and in that year the Jockey Club, which was founded
+in 1750, established the present racing ground. In 1762 a
+second October meeting was added, in 1765 the July meeting,
+in 1770 the Houghton meeting, and in 1771 the Craven meeting.
+In 1766 Tattersall&rsquo;s was established at Hyde Park Corner by
+Richard Tattersall for the sale of horses; it remained the great
+emporium of horses, and the rendezvous for betting on horse
+races, until 1865, when, the lease of the premises at the Corner
+having run out, it was removed to Knightsbridge.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to a very important period&mdash;that at which the
+great three-year-old races were instituted.</p>
+
+<p>The St Leger was established in 1776 by Colonel St Leger, who
+resided at Parkhill, near Doncaster. On the 24th of September,
+during the Doncaster races, which took place annually
+in the autumn, at his suggestion a sweepstake of
+<span class="sidenote">The St Leger.</span>
+25 guineas each for three-year-old colts and fillies
+was run over a 2-m. course; there were six competitors, the
+property of as many subscribers,&mdash;a very small beginning, it
+must be owned. The race was won by a filly by Sampson,
+belonging to Lord Rockingham, which was afterwards named
+Allabaculia. In the following year the same stake had twelve
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span>
+subscribers and ten starters, and was won by Mr Sotheron&rsquo;s
+Bourbon. It was not, however, until the succeeding year, 1778,
+that it was named the St Leger, in compliment to the founder,
+at the suggestion of the marquis of Rockingham. The stakes
+were increased in 1832 to 50 sovs. each, and the weights have
+been raised from time to time to keep pace with modern requirements.
+The Doncaster Cup, a weight for age race for three-year-olds
+and upwards, was established in 1801. The course is
+nearly flat, of an oval or kite shape, about 1¾ m. round the
+town-moor.</p>
+
+<p>The Epsom Derby and Oaks were established in 1779 and
+1780, the Oaks in the former and the Derby in the latter year.
+It is true that in 1730 Epsom races became annual, but
+the prizes were nothing more than the usual plates
+<span class="sidenote">The Derby and Oaks.</span>
+run for in heats, the money required being raised by
+voluntary subscriptions, as well by the owners of booths on
+the downs as by the parties more immediately interested,
+whence arose the custom of charges being made by the lord of
+the manor for permission to erect booths, &amp;c. during the race-meetings.
+On the 14th of May 1779 the twelfth earl of Derby
+originated the Oaks stakes (named after his seat or hunting-box
+&ldquo;The Oaks&rdquo; at Woodmansterne), a sweepstake for three-year-old
+fillies run on a course 1½ m. long. The race was won by
+Lord Derby&rsquo;s bay filly Bridget, bred by himself&mdash;her sire
+being Herod and her dam Jemima. In the following year the
+earl established a sweepstake of 50 sovs. each, half forfeit, for
+three-year-old colts. This, the first Derby, was won by Sir C.
+Bunbury&rsquo;s chestnut colt Diomed by Florizel, son of Herod, who
+beat eight opponents, including the duke of Bolton&rsquo;s Bay
+Bolton and Lord Grosvenor&rsquo;s Diadem. These two races have
+since been run for regularly every year, the Derby, which before
+1839 was run on the Thursday, now taking place on the Wednesday,
+and the Oaks on the Friday, in the same week at the end
+of May.</p>
+
+<p>Ascot races, which are held on Ascot Heath, were established
+by the duke of Cumberland, uncle of George III., and are
+patronized by royalty in state or semi-state. They are
+mentioned in the first <i>Racing Calendar</i>, published in
+<span class="sidenote">Ascot Races.</span>
+1727, but the races were for the most part plates and
+other prizes of small importance, though a royal plate for hunters
+appears to have been given in 1785. The Gold Cup was first given
+in 1807, and has been regularly competed for ever since, though
+from 1845 to 1853 inclusive it went by the designation of the
+Emperor&rsquo;s Plate, the prize being offered by the emperor of Russia.
+In 1854, during the Crimean War, the cup was again called the
+Ascot Gold Cup, and was given from the race fund. The Queen&rsquo;s
+Vase was first given in 1838, and the Royal Hunt Cup in 1843,
+while in 1865 a new long-distance race for four-year-olds and
+upwards was established, and named the Alexandra Plate, after
+the Princess of Wales.</p>
+
+<p>Goodwood races were established by the duke of Richmond
+on the downs at the northern edge of Goodwood Park in 1802,
+upon the earl of Egremont discontinuing races in his
+<span class="sidenote">Goodwood.</span>
+park at Petworth. The races take place at the end
+of July, on the close of the London season. The Goodwood
+Cup, the chief prize of the meeting, was first given in 1812;
+but from 1815 to 1824 inclusive there was no race for it, with
+the single exception of 1816.</p>
+
+<p>During the latter half of the 18th century horse-racing declined
+very much in England, and numbers of meetings were
+discontinued, the wars which took place necessarily
+causing the change. From the beginning of the 19th
+<span class="sidenote">Two Thousand, &amp;c.</span>
+century, and especially after the conclusion of the
+French war in 1815, racing rapidly revived, and many
+new meetings were either founded or renewed after a period of
+suspension, and new races were from time to time established.
+Among others the Two Thousand Guineas at Newmarket for
+three-year-old colts and fillies, and the One Thousand Guineas
+for fillies, were established in 1809 and 1814 respectively, the
+Goodwood Stakes in 1823, the Chester Cup and Brighton Stakes
+in 1824, the Liverpool Summer Cup in 1828, the Northumberland
+Plate in 1833, the Manchester Cup in 1834, the Ascot Stakes
+and the Cesarewitch and Cambridgeshire Handicaps at Newmarket
+in 1839, the Stewards&rsquo; and Chesterfield Cups at Goodwood
+in 1840, the Great Ebor Handicap at York in 1843, and, to omit
+others, the City and Suburban Handicap at Epsom in 1851,
+and the Lincoln Handicap in 1853.</p>
+
+<p>Two-year-old racing was established very shortly after the
+great three-year-old races, and on a similar footing, that is to
+say, the competitors carried the same weights, with the exception
+of a slight allowance for sex,&mdash;the July Stakes at the Newmarket
+Midsummer Meeting having been founded as early as 1786. The
+Woodcote Stakes at Epsom succeeded in 1807, the Champagne
+Stakes at Doncaster in 1823, the Criterion Stakes at the Houghton
+Meeting in 1829, the Chesterfield Stakes at the Newmarket
+July meeting in 1834, the New Stakes at Ascot in 1843, the
+Middle Park Plate (or two-year-old Derby, as it is sometimes
+called) at the Newmarket Second October Meeting in 1866, the
+Dewhurst Plate at the Houghton Meeting in 1875, and the Richmond
+Stakes at Goodwood in 1877.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. D. B.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Present Conditions.</i>&mdash;Horse-racing, usually described as &ldquo;the
+national sport,&rdquo; has greatly advanced in general popularity
+in the British Isles. There is no doubt that the best
+specimens of the English thoroughbred horse are the
+<span class="sidenote">Classic Races in England.</span>
+finest animals of their kind in existence; the value of an
+infusion of the blood for chargers, hunters, hacks, and
+other varieties is scarcely to be overestimated; and the only way
+of ascertaining what animals may be most judiciously employed
+for breeding purposes is to submit them to the tests of preparation
+for and performance on the turf. Racing is therefore a practical
+necessity. On some accepted authority, the origin of which is
+not to be traced, five races run each season by three-year-olds
+are distinguished as &ldquo;classic.&rdquo; Of these the chief, by universal
+consent, is the Derby, which takes place at Epsom during the
+week which includes the 31st May. The Epsom course, on which
+the Derby has been run since its origin in 1780, is by no means
+a good one, in consequence of the abrupt turn at Tattenham
+Corner; and the severe descent after this turn is made is also
+held to be a disadvantage, though a really good horse should be
+able to act on ascents, descents and level ground with equal
+relative facility. In many respects the St Leger, run at Doncaster
+about the middle of September, is a better test, as here
+colts and fillies meet when both are presumably able to do
+themselves the fullest justice. September, indeed, has been
+called &ldquo;the Mares&rsquo; Month,&rdquo; for though fillies are eligible to run
+in the Derby, they are very frequently out of sorts and always
+more or less uncertain in their performances during the summer&mdash;only
+four have been successful in 129 contests for the stake&mdash;whereas
+in the autumn their numerous victories in the St Leger
+prove them to be at their best. It was the recognition of this
+fact which induced an alteration of the weights in the year 1882,
+previously to which fillies had carried 5 &#8468; less than colts; the
+weights, formerly 8 st. 10 &#8468; and 8 st. 5 &#8468;, are now 9 st. and
+8 st. 11 &#8468;. The Doncaster course is superior for racing purposes
+to that at Epsom, where the Oaks, another of the &ldquo;classic
+races,&rdquo; is run on the Friday following the Derby; the other
+two contests which come into this category being the Two
+Thousand Guineas for colts and fillies, and the One Thousand
+Guineas for fillies only. These races take place at Newmarket
+during the First Spring Meeting, the former always on a
+Wednesday, the latter on Friday. The expression &ldquo;a Derby
+horse&rdquo; is common, but has no precise significance, as the three-year-olds
+vary much in capacity from year to year. It is
+generally understood, for instance, that Ormonde, who won
+the Derby in 1886, must have been at least 21 &#8468; superior to
+Sir Visto or Jeddah, who were successful in 1895 and 1898. By
+their ability to carry weight the value of horses is estimated
+on the turf. Thus one horse who beats another by a length
+over a distance of a mile would be described as a 5-&#8468; better
+animal.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;handicap horse&rdquo; once had an adverse significance
+which it does not now possess. In handicaps horses carry
+weight according to their presumed capacity, as calculated
+by handicappers who are licensed by the Jockey Club and
+<span class="sidenote">Handicap Horses.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span>
+employed by the directors of different meetings. The idea of a
+handicap is to afford chances of success to animals who would
+have no prospect of winning if they met their rivals on
+equal terms; but of late years the value of handicaps
+has been so greatly increased that few owners resist
+the temptation of taking part in them. Horses nowadays who
+do not run in this kind of contest are very rare, though a few,
+such as Ormonde, Isinglass, and Persimmon, never condescended
+to this class of sport. The duke of Westminster did not hesitate
+to put his Derby winner Bend Or into some of the chief handicaps;
+and it is, of course, a great test of merit when horses carrying
+heavy weights show marked superiority in these contests to
+rivals of good reputation more lightly burdened. St Gatien,
+who dead-heated with Harvester in the Derby of 1884; Robert
+the Devil, who won the St Leger in 1880 and on several occasions
+beat the Derby winner Bend Or; and La Flèche, who won the
+Oaks and the St Leger in 1892, added to the esteem in which they
+were held by their successes under heavy weights, the colts in the
+Cesarewitch, the filly in the Cambridgeshire. Of the chief handicaps
+of the year, special mention may be made of the City and
+Suburban, run at the Epsom Spring Meeting over 1¼ m.; the
+Kempton Park Jubilee, over 1 m.; the Ascot Stakes, 2 m., and
+the Royal Hunt Cup, 1 m.; the Stewards&rsquo; Cup at Goodwood,
+six furlongs; the Cesarewitch Stakes and the Cambridgeshire
+Stakes at Newmarket, the former 2¼ m., the latter now a mile and
+a furlong&mdash;till lately it was &ldquo;a mile and a distance&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;a
+distance&rdquo; on the Turf being a fixed limit of 240 yds. The cups at
+Manchester, Newbury, and Liverpool are also handicaps of some
+note, though it may be remarked that the expression &ldquo;a cup
+horse&rdquo; is understood to imply an animal capable of distinguishing
+himself over a long distance at even weights against the
+best opponents. There are many other valuable stakes of
+almost equal importance, diminishing to what are known as
+&ldquo;selling handicaps,&rdquo; the winners of which are always put up for
+sale by auction immediately after the race, in the lowest class
+of them the condition being that the winner is to be offered for
+£50. No stake of less than £100 can be run for under Jockey
+Club rules, which govern all reputable flat racing in England,
+nor is any horse ever entered to be sold for less than £50. As
+horses mature they are naturally able to carry heavier weights.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Scale of Weight for Age.</i></p>
+
+<p>The following scale of weight for age is published under the sanction
+of the Stewards of the Jockey Club as a guide to managers
+of race meetings, but is not intended to be imperative, especially
+as regards the weights of two-and three-year olds relatively to the
+old horses in selling races early in the year. It is founded on the
+scale published by Admiral Rous, and revised by him in 1873, but
+has been modified in accordance with suggestions from the principal
+trainers and practical authorities.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Age.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Mar. and<br />April.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">May.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">June.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">July.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Aug.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Sept.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Oct. and<br />Nov.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Five Furlongs</i>&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&#8468;</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&#8468;</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&#8468;</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&#8468;</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&#8468;</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&#8468;</td> <td class="tcr">st.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&#8468;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Two years</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Three years</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Six Furlongs</i>&mdash;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Two years</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Three years</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>One Mile</i>&mdash;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Two years</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Three years</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>One Mile and a Half</i>&mdash;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Two years</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Three years</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Two Miles</i>&mdash;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Two years</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Three years</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Five, six and aged</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Three Miles</i>&mdash;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Three years</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Four years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp; Five years</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> &emsp; Six and aged</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In the year 1884 the managers of Sandown Park formulated
+the scheme of a race for a prize of £10,000, to be called the
+Eclipse Stakes, and to be run over a distance of 1¼ m.
+In order to secure a large entry, horses were to be
+<span class="sidenote">£10,000 Races.</span>
+nominated soon after their birth; owners who perceived
+the hopelessness of their nominations could withdraw
+at stated intervals by the payment of increasing forfeits; if
+their animals finally went to the post a stake amounting in
+all to £115 would have to be paid for them; and thus it will be
+seen that owners were really running for their own money, though
+if there were an insufficient number of entries the funds of the
+club might be taxed to supply the deficiency. The scheme was
+found to be attractive, and the example was followed at Leicester
+and at Manchester, at both of which places, however, it lapsed.
+At Newmarket, under the immediate auspices of the Jockey Club,
+the £10,000 races succeeded, and there were two of them each
+year. The Princess of Wales&rsquo;s Stakes was run for the first time in
+1894 at the First July Meeting, and the Jockey Club Stakes at
+the First October. The former has, however, now been reduced
+to £2000 added to a sweepstake of £30 each with a minor forfeit.
+In the year 1900 a fourth race of similar character, the Century
+Stakes, was originated at Sandown, but the experiment proved
+a failure, and the contest was discontinued.</p>
+
+<p>The age of the thoroughbred horse is always dated from the
+1st January. Foals are generally born in February, March or
+April, though not a few good horses have been born in
+May; they become yearlings, therefore, on the 1st
+<span class="sidenote">Two-year-old Races.</span>
+January following, two-year-olds twelve months later,
+and many of them begin to race in the following March, for flat
+racing always starts during the week which contains the 25th,
+except when Easter falls unusually early. In France no two-year-olds
+run until the 1st August, and discussion is frequently
+raised as to the respective wisdom of the English and French
+systems. It happens, however, that some young horses &ldquo;come
+to hand&rdquo; soon, and deteriorate with equal rapidity. They are,
+in fact, able to win races at the beginning of the season, and fail
+to hold their own later in the year against bigger and more
+powerful animals of their own age who have taken longer to
+mature; so that there is some argument in favour of the earlier
+date. The first noteworthy two-year-old race is the
+Brocklesby Stakes, run at Lincoln during the first
+week of the season. Sometimes the winner of the
+Brocklesby is really a good animal, as was the case
+with The Bard in 1885 and Donovan in 1888, but as
+a general rule when the autumn comes he is found to
+be far inferior to the winners of subsequent two-year-old
+races of good class. It is seldom that a first-class
+two-year-old appears before the Ascot Meeting about
+the middle of June, though horses of character sometimes
+run for the Woodcote Stakes at Epsom and in
+other contests elsewhere. The names of many of the
+most famous horses on the turf are found in the list
+of winners of the New Stakes at Ascot, which was first
+run in 1843 and maintains its character. In 1890 the
+Coventry Stakes was originated, and is regarded as a
+race of practically equal importance. The July Stakes
+at Newmarket is the oldest of existing two-year-old
+races, having been first run in 1786. The list of
+winners is a brilliant one. The Chesterfield Stakes
+ranks with it. The best two-year-olds are usually
+seen out at Goodwood, and as a general rule those
+that have chiefly distinguished themselves during the
+year, and are to make names for themselves later in
+life, are found contesting the Middle Park Plate at
+the Newmarket Second October Meeting and the
+Dewhurst Plate at the Newmarket Houghton. The
+Middle Park Plate is generally worth over £2000, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span>
+other races named are between £1000 and £2000 in value;
+but these are not the richest two-year-old prizes of the
+year, the value of the National Breeders&rsquo; Produce Stakes at
+Sandown, run on the day following the Eclipse, being between
+£4000 and £5000, and the Imperial Stakes at Kempton Park
+falling not very far short of £3000. As a rule, a colt who
+has been specially successful as a two-year-old maintains
+his capacity later in life, unless it be found that he cannot
+&ldquo;stay&rdquo;&mdash;that is to say, is unable to maintain his best speed
+over more than five or six furlongs; but it is frequently the
+case that fillies who have won good races as two-year-olds
+entirely lose their form and meet with little or no success
+afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>Newmarket is called with reason &ldquo;the headquarters of the
+Turf.&rdquo; There are about forty training establishments in the
+town, each trainer being in charge of an average of
+thirty to forty horses, irrespective of mares, foals and
+<span class="sidenote">Newmarket.</span>
+yearlings. During the year eight race meetings are
+held on the Heath: the Craven; the First and Second Spring;
+the First and Second October&mdash;the First October usually
+occurring at the end of September; and the Houghton. These
+are contested on &ldquo;the Flat,&rdquo; the course which includes the Rowley
+Mile. It is said that the Rowley Mile is so called from the
+fact of its having been a favourite race-ground with Charles II.
+The First and Second July Meetings take place on another
+course, known as &ldquo;Behind the Ditch,&rdquo; the Ditch being the
+huge embankment which runs through several counties and
+has existed from time immemorial. The Craven Stakes for
+three-year-olds is an event of some importance at the first meeting
+of the year. It used to finish on an ascent at what is called
+the &ldquo;Top of the Town,&rdquo; a course over which the handicap for the
+Cambridgeshire was run. This course has now been abandoned
+and the stand pulled down. At the First Spring Meeting the
+Two Thousand Guineas and the One Thousand Guineas occur,
+as already stated, but the names do not represent the values of
+the stakes, which are, in fact, usually worth close on £5000 each.
+The July Stakes and the Princess of Wales&rsquo; Stakes are run at
+the First July Meeting. The Jockey Club Stakes is the leading
+event of the First October; the Cesarewitch and the Middle
+Park Plates follow in the Second October; the Criterion Stakes,
+another of the few races that once finished at the &ldquo;Top of the
+Town,&rdquo; the Cambridgeshire and the Dewhurst Plate take place at
+the Houghton Meeting. The majority of races finish at the Rowley
+Mile post; but there are three other winning-posts along the
+Rowley Mile. &ldquo;Behind the Ditch&rdquo; races finish at two different
+posts, one of which enables horses to avoid the necessity of galloping
+up the severe ascent of the &ldquo;Bunbury Mile.&rdquo; Although, as
+a rule, there is no better racing to be seen than the best events
+<span class="sidenote">Ascot and other meetings.</span>
+at Newmarket, the programmes are often spun out by
+selling plates and paltry handicaps, and a high level is
+nowhere so consistently maintained as at Ascot.
+The Ascot meeting is distinguished by the entire
+absence of selling plates, and much more &ldquo;added money&rdquo; is
+given than on any other course. Added money is the sum supplied
+by the directors of a race meeting, derived by them from the
+amounts paid for entrances to stands and enclosures; for in many
+races&mdash;the Ten Thousand prizes, for instance&mdash;owners run mainly
+or entirely for money which they have themselves provided.
+The Ascot Cup is generally spoken of as a race success in which
+sets the seal to the fame of a good horse. It is a prize of the highest
+distinction, and of late years has been of considerable value, the
+winner in 1909 having gained for his owner £3430. That the
+number of runners for this race should be invariably small&mdash;the
+average for many years past has been about six&mdash;is not a
+matter of surprise to those who are familiar with the Turf.
+There are very few horses possessing sufficient speed and staying
+power to make it worth the while of their owners to submit
+them to the exceedingly severe test of a preparation for this race,
+which is run over 2½ m. of ground at a time of year when the
+turf is almost always extremely hard everywhere, and harder at
+Ascot than almost anywhere else. There is no course on which
+more good horses have hopelessly broken down. All the prizes
+are handsome, and success at Ascot confers much prestige,
+for the reason that the majority of horses that run are good
+ones; but annually there is a list of victims that never recover
+from the effects of galloping on this ground. Goodwood also
+attracts horses of high character, though some unimportant
+races fill out the programme. Formerly there were many
+meetings around London, which fell into disrepute in consequence
+of the manner in which they were conducted. These have been
+replaced by well-managed gatherings in enclosed parks, and here
+the value of the prizes is often so high that the best horses in
+training are attracted. These meetings include Sandown,
+Kempton, Gatwick, Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park. Liverpool,
+Manchester, Birmingham, Brighton, York and various other
+towns have race meetings twice or oftener in the course of each
+year. At the various fixtures over half a million of money is
+annually given in stakes. The largest sum ever won by a horse
+was the £57,185 gained by Isinglass in 1892-1895. Donovan
+follows with £54,935. In all probability these large totals would
+have been considerably exceeded had not Flying Fox&mdash;who had
+won in his first two seasons £40,090&mdash;been disqualified by the
+death of his owner, the duke of Westminster, as this colt was
+engaged in the four £10,000 races of 1900, in which to all appearance
+he could not have been beaten, so much was he superior
+to his contemporaries. The death of an owner of horses disqualifies
+the animals he has entered&mdash;a necessary regulation, as
+otherwise an heir might be burdened with a stable of horses the
+possession of which would entail heavy expense and serious
+responsibility on a person who perhaps had no knowledge of or
+taste for racing.</p>
+
+<p>The value of an unquestionably good horse is enormous.
+It has been seen what handsome prizes are offered for competition,
+and when withdrawn from the Turf the horse may
+secure a large income to his owner at the stud. A
+<span class="sidenote">Value of horses.</span>
+stallion&rsquo;s fee of 600 guineas (as in the case of St
+Simon) should mean well over £20,000 a year; and fees of 100
+guineas and more are common. Proved merit on the Turf is
+considered essential in a sire, though there have been instances
+of horses, unsuccessful during their racing career, who have
+distinguished themselves at the stud: Wisdom, sire of the Derby
+winner Sir Hugo, and several notable examples might be cited.
+Mares are much more uncertain in this respect. On the whole,
+the famous mares that have won the Oaks, the St Leger and
+other leading races, have been apt to fail in the paddocks; but
+there is always a hope of success with them, and the large sum
+of 12,600 guineas was paid for La Flèche when she had ceased
+from active service on the Turf. For None-the-Wiser 7200
+guineas was given; and 4600 guineas for Wedlock when well
+advanced in years, on the strength of her having been the dam
+of a good horse called Best Man. Well-bred mares that have
+shown no capacity for racing are, however, frequently the dams
+of good winners. Breeding is a lottery. An Australian enthusiast
+some years since published a book the object of which was to
+enable breeders to produce good horses by a species of mathematical
+calculation; but the fallacy of the &ldquo;Figure System&rdquo;
+was at once proved by the simple circumstance that in very
+many cases the own brothers and sisters of good winners, whose
+breeding conformed entirely to the system, proved to be utterly
+worthless for racing purposes. It is a fact difficult of explanation
+that the majority of famous winners have been privately bred
+by their owners. Many persons breed for sale, in some cases
+sparing no expense or trouble in the endeavour to secure good
+results, and yearlings sold by auction have fetched prices of
+from 10,000 guineas (paid for Sceptre, a daughter of Persimmon
+and Ornament, in 1900) downwards; sums of over 1000 guineas
+being frequently given. That so large a proportion of high-priced
+yearlings should turn out failures is not at all a matter
+for surprise, considering the uncertainties of the Turf, but it
+by no means follows that a high-priced yearling is necessarily
+an expensive animal; 5500 guineas was, for instance, given for
+La Flèche, who won for her owner £34,585 in stakes, and, as
+already observed, was subsequently sold for 12,600 guineas.
+The principal yearling sales take place during the July meeting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span>
+at Newmarket and the Doncaster meeting in September. There
+are also sales at Ascot and elsewhere. The Royal Stud at Bushey
+Park, where Memoir, La Flèche, Best Man and other good
+animals were bred, has now been abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases trainers have graduated from jockeys. The
+usual charge to an owner is 50s. a week per horse, but, as regards
+the cost of a horse in training, to this there are various
+additions irrespective of entrances to races, forfeits,
+<span class="sidenote">Trainers and jockeys.</span>
+travelling, jockey&rsquo;s fees, &amp;c. The recognized sum
+paid to a jockey is 3 guineas for a losing mount, 5
+guineas for winning. In many cases special terms are made;
+the principal owners usually have a claim on a rider&rsquo;s services,
+and for this call as much as £5000 per annum, exclusive of the
+usual riding fees, has been given.</p>
+
+<p>From time immemorial until within a very recent period
+jockeys rode in much the same style, though, of course, with
+varying degrees of skill. Many hundreds of boys exercise daily
+at Newmarket and other training grounds, all of them necessarily
+having a firm seat in the saddle, for the thoroughbred horse is,
+as a rule, high-couraged and apt to play violent tricks; but
+though most of these lads find chances to distinguish themselves
+in trials and races for apprentices, probably not 5% grow
+into professional jockeys, increasing weight keeping many from the
+business, as a jockey has few chances unless he can ride well
+under 9 stone. Knowledge of pace is a rare gift or acquisition
+which is essential to successful jockeyship. The rider must
+also be quick to perceive how his own horse is going&mdash;what he
+has &ldquo;left in him&rdquo;; he must understand at a glance which of
+his rivals are beaten and which are still likely to be dangerous;
+must know when the moment comes for the supreme effort to
+be made, and how to balance and prepare the horse for that
+critical struggle. At the beginning of the race the jockey used
+to stand in his stirrups, with the idea of removing weight from
+the horse&rsquo;s back and preserving perfect steadiness; towards the
+end of the race, if it were necessary to drive the animal home,
+he sat down &ldquo;to finish.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This method used to be adopted in all countries, but recently
+a new system came into practice in America. Instead of putting
+the saddle in the middle of the horse&rsquo;s back, where it had always
+been placed previously, it was shifted forward on to the animal&rsquo;s
+withers. The jockey rode with very short stirrups, leaning
+forward over the neck and grasping the reins within a few
+inches of the horse&rsquo;s mouth. The appearance of this was ungainly
+in the extreme and an entire departure from ancient ways
+(though Fordham and a few other riders of great reputation had
+always sat much more forward than their contemporaries),
+but it was found to be remarkably effective. From the position
+thus adopted there was less resistance to the wind, and though
+the saving in this respect was largely exaggerated, in racing,
+where success or failure is frequently a matter of a very few inches,
+every little that helps is to be considered. The value of the
+discovery lay almost entirely in the fact that the horse carries
+weight better&mdash;and is therefore able to stride out more freely&mdash;when
+it is placed well forward on his shoulders. With characteristic
+conservatism the English were slow to accept the
+new plan. Several American jockeys, however, came to England.
+In all the main attributes of horsemanship there was no reason
+to believe that they were in the least superior to English jockeys,
+but their constant successes required explanation, and the only
+way to account for them appeared to be that horses derived a
+marked advantage from the new system of saddling. A number
+of English riders followed the American lead, and those who
+did so met with an unusual degree of success. Race-riding, indeed,
+was in a very great measure revolutionized in the closing
+years of the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years American horses&mdash;bred, it must always be
+remembered, from stock imported from England&mdash;have won
+many races in England. Australian horses have also
+been sent to the mother country, with results remunerative
+<span class="sidenote">Foreign horses.</span>
+to their owners, and the intermixture of
+blood which will necessarily result should have beneficial consequences.
+French horses&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> horses bred in France from
+immediate or from more or less remote English parentage&mdash;have
+also on various occasions distinguished themselves on
+English race-courses. That coveted trophy, the Ascot Cup, was
+won by a French horse, Elf II., in 1898, it having fallen also to
+the French-bred Verneuil in 1878, to Boiard in 1874, to Henry in
+1872 and to Mortemer in 1871. In the Cesarewitch Plaisanterie
+(3 yrs., 7 st. 8 &#8468;) and Ténébreuse (4 yrs., 8 st. 12 &#8468;) were successful
+in 1885 and 1888; and Plaisanterie also carried off the
+Cambridgeshire as a three-year-old with the heavy weight of
+8 st. 12 &#8468; in a field of 27 runners. In most respects racing
+in France is conducted with praiseworthy discrimination. There
+are scarcely any of the five- and six-furlong scrambles for horses
+over two years old which are such common features of English
+programmes.</p>
+
+<p>That the horses who have covered various distances in the
+shortest times on record must have been exceptionally speedy
+animals is obvious. The times of races, however,
+frequently form a most deceptive basis in any attempt
+<span class="sidenote">Time.</span>
+to gauge the relative capacity of horses. A good animal will
+often win a race in bad time, for the reason that his opponents
+are unable to make him exert himself to the utmost. Not seldom
+a race is described as having been &ldquo;won in a canter,&rdquo; and
+this necessarily signifies that if the winner had been harder
+pressed he would have completed the course more quickly.
+The following figures show the shortest times that had been
+occupied in winning over various distances up to the spring
+of 1910:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">M.</td> <td class="tcr">S.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm cl">Five furlongs</td> <td class="tcl cl">Mirida (2 years), Epsom, 1905<br />Le Buff (aged), Epsom, 1903<br />Master Willie (aged), Epsom, 1903</td> <td class="tcrm cl">0</td> <td class="tcrm cl">56<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Six furlongs</td> <td class="tcl">Master Willie (5 years), Epsom, 1901</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">7<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Seven furlongs</td> <td class="tcl cl">Vav (4 years), Epsom, 1907</td> <td class="tcr cl">1</td> <td class="tcr cl">20<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mile</td> <td class="tcl">Caiman (4 years), Lingfield, 1900</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">33<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Mile and a quarter</td> <td class="tcl cl">Housewife (3 years), Brighton, 1904</td> <td class="tcr cl">2</td> <td class="tcr cl">1<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mile and a half</td> <td class="tcl">Zinfandel (3 years), Manchester, 1903</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">28<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Mile and three quarters</td> <td class="tcl cl">Golden Measure (4 years), York, 1906</td> <td class="tcr cl">2</td> <td class="tcr cl">57<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Two miles</td> <td class="tcl">Pradella (aged), Ascot, 1906</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">19<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Two miles and a half</td> <td class="tcl cl">Bachelor&rsquo;s Button, Ascot, 1906</td> <td class="tcr cl">4</td> <td class="tcr cl">23<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Three miles</td> <td class="tcl">Corrie Roy, Ascot, 1884</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">9&ensp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It may be noted that, as compared with similar records in 1901,
+only three of these latter held good in 1910, <i>i.e.</i> the mile, the six furlongs
+and the three miles. The fastest times over a mile and a half
+(the Derby and Oaks distance) up to 1901 may be repeated here as
+of some interest: Avidity, 2 min. 30<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> secs., in September 1901 at
+Doncaster; Santoi, 2 min. 31 secs., in May 1901 at Hurst Park;
+King&rsquo;s Courier, 2 min. 31 secs., in 1900 at Hurst Park; Landrail,
+2 min. 34 secs., in September 1899 at Doncaster; Carbiston, 2 min.
+37<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> secs., in August 1899 at York; Bend Or, 2 min. 40 secs., in 1881
+at Epsom (gold cup): Volodyovski won the Derby in 1901, and
+Memoir the Oaks in 1890, in 2 min. 40<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> secs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As regards time in famous races, Ormonde, perhaps the best
+horse of the 19th century&mdash;one, at any rate, that can scarcely
+have had a superior&mdash;occupied 2 minutes 45<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> seconds in winning
+the Derby; and Lonely, one of the worst mares that have won
+the Oaks, galloped the same mile and a half in 2 seconds less.
+Ormonde&rsquo;s St Leger time was 3 m. 21<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> s., and Sir Visto, one of
+the poorest specimens of a winner of the great Doncaster race,
+took 3 m. 18<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> s. The regulation of the weight to be carried
+serves to &ldquo;bring the horses together,&rdquo; as the popular sporting
+phrase runs&mdash;that is to say, it equalizes their chances of
+winning; hence handicaps, the carrying of penalties by winners
+of previous races, and the granting of &ldquo;maiden allowances.&rdquo;
+A horse that has never won a race, and is therefore known as a
+&ldquo;maiden,&rdquo; often has an allowance of as much as 7 &#8468; made in
+its favour.</p>
+
+<p>Sport is carried on under the auspices of the Jockey Club, a self-elected
+body of the highest standing, whose powers are absolute
+and whose sway is judicious and beneficent. Three
+stewards, one of whom retires each year, when a
+<span class="sidenote">The Jockey Club.</span>
+successor is nominated, govern the active&mdash;and extremely
+arduous&mdash;work of the club. They grant licences
+to trainers and jockeys and all officials, and supervise the
+whole business of racing. The stewards of the Jockey Club
+are <i>ex officio</i> stewards of Ascot, Epsom, Goodwood and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span>
+Doncaster. All other meetings are controlled by stewards,
+usually well-known patrons of the Turf invited to act by
+the projectors of the fixture, who settle disputed points, hear
+and adjudicate on objections, &amp;c., and, if special difficulties
+arise, report to the stewards of the Jockey Club, whose decision
+is final.</p>
+
+<p>Steeplechasing has altered entirely since the first introduction
+of this essentially British sport. In early days men were
+accustomed to match their hunters against each other
+and ride across country to a fixed point near to some
+<span class="sidenote">Steeplechasing.</span>
+steeple which guided them on their way; and this is
+no doubt, in several respects, a class of sport superior to that now
+practised under the name of steeplechasing; for it tested the
+capacity of the horse to jump fences of all descriptions, and
+provided the rider with opportunities of showing his readiness and
+skill in picking the best line of country. But racing of this kind
+afforded spectators a very small chance of watching the struggle;
+and made-up steeplechase courses, the whole circuit of which
+could be viewed from the enclosures, came into existence.
+The steeplechase horse has also changed. The speed of the
+thoroughbred is so much greater than that of all other breeds
+that if one were in the field, if he only stood up and could jump
+a little, his success was certain; consequently, except in &ldquo;point-to-point&rdquo;
+races, organized by various hunts, where a qualification
+is that all starters must have been regularly ridden with
+hounds, few other than thoroughbred horses are nowadays
+ever found in races run under the rules of the National Hunt
+Committee, the body which governs the sport of steeplechasing.
+A considerable proportion of existing steeplechase horses have
+done duty on the flat. Members of certain equine families
+display a special aptitude for jumping; thus the descendants
+of Hermit, who won the Derby in 1867, are very frequently
+successful in steeplechases&mdash;Hermit&rsquo;s son Ascetic, the sire
+of Cloister, Hidden Mystery and other good winners, is a notable
+case in point. The sons and daughters of Timothy and of several
+other Hermit horses often jump well. When a flat-race horse
+appears to have comparatively poor prospects of winning under
+Jockey Club rules, he is frequently, if he &ldquo;looks like jumping,&rdquo;
+schooled for steeplechasing, generally in the first place over
+hurdles, and subsequently over what is technically called &ldquo;a
+country,&rdquo; beginning with small fences, over which he canters, led
+by some steady animal who is to be depended on to show the way.
+A great many steeplechase horses also come from Ireland. They
+are usually recognizable as thoroughbred, though it is possible
+that in some cases the name of an ancestor may be missing from
+the Stud Book. Irish horse-masters are for the most part particularly
+skilful in schooling jumpers, and the grass and climate of
+Ireland appear to have beneficial effects on young stock;
+but, as a rule, the imported Irish horse improves considerably
+in an English training-stable, where he is better fed
+and groomed than in most Irish establishments. All steeplechase
+courses must at the present time contain certain regulation
+jumps, the nature of which is specified in the National
+Hunt rules:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>44. In all steeplechase courses there shall be at least twelve
+fences (exclusive of hurdles) in the first 2 m., and at least six fences
+in each succeeding m. There shall be a water jump at least 12 ft.
+wide and 2 ft. deep, to be left open, or guarded only by a perpendicular
+fence not exceeding 2 ft. in height. There shall be in each m.
+at least one ditch 6 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep on the taking-off side of
+the fence, which ditch may be guarded by a single rail, or left open,
+and which fence must be 4 ft. 6 in. in height, and, if of dead brushwood
+or gorse, 2 ft. in width.</p>
+
+<p>45. In all hurdle-race courses there shall be not less than eight
+flights of hurdles in the first 2 m., with an additional flight of hurdles
+for every quarter of a m. or part of one beyond that distance, the
+height of the hurdles being not less than 3 ft. 6 in. from the bottom
+bar to the top bar.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Natural fences would no doubt be desirable if they could be
+utilized; but it is obvious that fences must be made up, because
+when the same hedge is jumped frequently, and for the most
+part in the same place&mdash;as it is the object of riders to go the
+shortest way round&mdash;gaps would necessarily be made. The use of
+these made courses naturally renders the sport somewhat
+artificial, but under existing conditions this is unavoidable;
+and as a matter of fact, by reason of the conformation of the
+ground, the arrangement and make of the fences, courses do vary
+in no small degree. The steeplechase horse differs from the
+hunter in his method of jumping. In riding to hounds a man
+usually steadies his horse at a fence, and in almost every case
+the animal &ldquo;dwells&rdquo; more or less after the leap. In a steeplechase,
+where speed is everything, horses must be taught to dash
+resolutely at their jumps without hesitation, and to get away
+with no pause on the other side; as a rule, therefore, an old
+steeplechase horse who is employed as a hunter is rarely a pleasant
+mount for any but a bold rider. It has been remarked that
+steeplechase horses are usually in the first place schooled over
+hurdles, and many animals remain hurdle racers till the end.
+More speed is required for hurdles than for a steeplechase course,
+and there is more money to be won over hurdles than over &ldquo;a
+country.&rdquo; No hurdle race is worth so much as the Grand
+National or the Lancashire Handicap Steeplechase, the two
+richest prizes now offered; but, with the exception of these,
+hurdle-race stakes are as a rule of greater value. Except as a
+spectacle, there is little to be said in defence of this mongrel
+business, which is neither one thing nor the other; but hurdle
+races are popular and are therefore likely to continue. A few
+years ago an attempt was made to discriminate between what
+were called &ldquo;hunters&rdquo; and handicap steeplechase horses, and
+certain races were only open to the former class. It proved,
+however, to be a distinction without a difference; thoroughbred
+horses crept into the ranks of the so-called hunters, and when
+nominal hunters began to be entered for, and in some cases to
+win, the Grand National and other important steeplechases,
+for which they could be nominated by abandoning their qualification
+of hunter, the meaningless title was relinquished. Still more
+absurd were the hunters&rsquo; flat races of a former day. In order to
+compete in these the rule was that an owner must produce a
+certificate from a master of hounds to the effect that his horse
+had been hunted. Thoroughbreds who lacked speed to win
+under Jockey Club rules used to be ridden to a meet, perhaps
+cantered across a field or two, and were then supposed to have
+become hunters. Animals who were genuinely and regularly
+utilized for the pursuit of foxes had of course no chance against
+these race-horses in shallow disguise. What are called National
+Hunt flat races still exist, the qualification being that a horse
+must have been placed first, second or third in a steeplechase
+in Great Britain or Ireland, after having jumped all the fences
+and completed the whole distance of the race to the satisfaction
+of at least two of the stewards, to whom previous notice
+must have been given in writing. There are no handicaps
+for such animals, and none is allowed to carry less than
+11 stone. No race under National Hunt rules can be of a
+shorter distance than 2 m., except for three-year-olds, who
+sometimes run a mile and a half over hurdles; and the
+lowest weight carried can never be less than 10 stone except in
+a handicap steeplechase of 3½ m. or upwards, when it may be
+9 st. 7 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p>Horses are ridden in these races either by gentlemen, or
+qualified riders or jockeys. The first of these classes comprises
+officers on full pay in the army or navy, persons holding commissions
+under the Crown, bearing titles either in their own
+right or by courtesy, or members of certain social and racing
+clubs. Qualified riders may be farmers holding at least a
+hundred acres of land, their sons if following the same occupation,
+and persons elected by members of the National Hunt Committee,
+a proviso being that they must never have ridden for
+hire; but it is feared that this rule is in not a few cases evaded.
+Professional jockeys are paid £5 for each mount or £10 if they
+win. The sport is governed by the National Hunt Committee,
+a body which receives delegated powers from the Jockey Club,
+and six stewards are elected every year to supervise the business
+of the various meetings. Steeplechases and hurdle races are
+either handicaps or weight-for-age races according to the following
+scale:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="3"><i>For Steeplechases of 3 miles and upwards.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">10 st. 3 &#8468;</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 8 &#8468;</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 &#8468;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">11 st.</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 12 &#8468;</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 &#8468;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="3"><i>For Steeplechases of less than 3 miles.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">10 st. 10 &#8468;</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 10 lb</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 &#8468;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">11 st. 6 &#8468;</td> <td class="tcc">12 st.</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 &#8468;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="3"><i>For Hurdle Races.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of January to the 31st of August, inclusive:&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">6 and aged</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">11 st. 6 &#8468;</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 10 &#8468;</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 0 &#8468;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">From the 1st of September to the 31st of December, inclusive:&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">3 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">4 yrs.</td> <td class="tcc">5, 6, and aged</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">10 st. 7 &#8468;</td> <td class="tcc">11 st. 12 &#8468;</td> <td class="tcc">12 st. 3 &#8468;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The great test of merit in a steeplechase horse is success in the
+Grand National, which is always run at Liverpool during the
+first week of the flat-racing season. The course is
+4½ m., and includes thirty jumps, the fences being for
+<span class="sidenote">The Grand National.</span>
+the most part larger than are found elsewhere. The
+average time occupied is well under ten minutes. The stake has
+varied in value since the race was originated in 1839; it now
+amounts to close on £2500. Only a very small percentage of
+steeplechase horses possess the speed and staying power to give
+them a chance in this race, and the number of entries year by
+year falls considerably short of a hundred, the prospects of
+many of these usually appearing hopeless to all but unduly
+sanguine owners. The average number of starters during the
+period 1860-1901 was rather over twenty. As many as thirty-two
+competed in 1909, when the French-bred Latteur III. won; in
+1883, when Zoedone, ridden by her owner, Count Kinsky, was successful,
+only ten went to the post. Mishaps are almost invariably
+numerous; in most years about one-third complete the course.
+So severe is the task that for a long time many good judges of
+steeplechasing believed that no horse with more than 12 stone
+on his back could possibly win. In 1893, however, Cloister won
+in a canter by forty lengths carrying 12 st. 7 &#8468;, and with the
+same weight Manifesto also won in 1899. The race which most
+nearly approaches the Grand National in importance is the
+Lancashire Handicap Steeplechase, run at Manchester over 3½ m.
+early in April. The stake is worth about £1750. An interesting
+steeplechase called the Grand Sefton takes place at Liverpool
+about the middle of November; the distance is 3 m. During
+the winter, and extending into the spring, steeplechasing and
+hurdle racing are carried on at Sandown, Kempton, Gatwick,
+Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park; at Ludlow, Newmarket,
+Aldershot, Birmingham, Manchester, Windsor and other places.
+A race called the National Hunt Steeplechase, under the immediate
+patronage of the National Hunt Committee, is run annually
+over a 4-mile course, the stake being £1000. Managers of
+various courses bid for the privilege of having the race on their
+ground, and it is therefore found in different localities. A condition
+is that no horse who has ever won a race can compete;
+and, as few owners are willing to keep their animals with a
+view to success in this event, the field consists either of unknown
+horses or of those that have been beaten.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Australia</p>
+
+<p>Racing in Australia has its headquarters at Sydney, under the
+government of the Australian Jockey Club, the principal course being
+at Ranwick; and at Melbourne, where the Victoria Jockey Club is
+supreme, the principal course being at Flemington. In New Zealand
+sport is carried on under the authority of delegates from the chief
+racing clubs, who meet in conference. There is a Sydney Derby
+and a Victoria Derby, and a notable event at Flemington is the
+Champion Race, weight-for-age, for three-year-olds and upwards,
+which usually attracts the best horses in training, as the fee at
+which a sire stands depends in a great measure on his success in this
+contest. This race is over a distance of 3 m., and to ensure a good
+pace there is a regulation that the time in which it is run must not
+exceed 5 minutes 40 seconds, though the stewards have power to
+extend this in case the ground should be made exceptionally heavy
+by rainy weather. The Melbourne Cup is regarded as one of the
+most important races in the state. This is a handicap, and in comparison
+with English races may perhaps be ranked with the Cesarewitch.
+The birth of horses dates from the 1st of August, which
+corresponds as nearly as possible to the 1st of February in England,
+so that the Australian horses are practically seven months younger
+than the English&mdash;a matter of some importance in the case of those
+sent to run in England. There are few races which close long before
+the date of decision, and practically all the good animals run in
+handicaps. The five- and six-furlong races for other than two-year-olds,
+so common in Great Britain, are extremely rare; and it is
+asserted by colonial sportsmen that their horses stay better than
+those bred in England, a circumstance which is largely attributed
+to the fact that mares and foals have much more liberty and exercise
+than is the case in the mother country.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">United States</p>
+
+<p>Horse-racing was indulged in to a limited extent in Maryland
+and Virginia as early as the middle of the 17th century, particularly
+in the latter colony. Most of the inhabitants of both were
+either from the British Isles or were descended from parents who
+had immigrated from them, and they inherited a taste for the
+sport. The animals used for this purpose, however, were not
+highly prized at the time, and the pedigree of not even one of
+them has been preserved. A horse called Bully Rock by the
+Darley Arabian out of a mare by the Byerly Turk, granddam by
+the Lister Turk, great-granddam a royal mare, foaled 1718,
+is the first recorded importation of a thoroughbred horse into
+America. He was imported into Virginia in 1730. In 1723 the
+duke of Bolton bred a mare named Bonny Lass by his celebrated
+horse Bay Bolton out of a daughter of the Darley Arabian.
+She became celebrated in England as a brood mare, and was the
+first thoroughbred mare, according to the records, that was
+carried to America. This is supposed to have been in or after
+1740, as the <i>Stud-Book</i> shows she produced in England after
+1739 a filly by Lord Lonsdale&rsquo;s Arabian, and subsequently became
+familiar to the public as the granddam of Zamora. The importations
+increased very rapidly from this period, and many
+valuable shipments were made before the war which resulted in
+a separation of the colonies from the mother country. This
+acquisition of thoroughbred stock increased the number and
+value of racing prizes, and extended the area of operations into
+the Carolinas in the South, and New Jersey and New York in
+the North. The first race run in South Carolina was in February
+1734 for £20. It took place over &ldquo;the Green,&rdquo; on Charleston
+Neck. This shows that the earlier races in America were actually
+on the turf, as they have always been in England. The next
+year a Jockey Club was organized at Charleston (1735), and a
+course was prepared, such as those which came later into general
+use throughout the states, the turf being removed and the
+ground made as level as possible.</p>
+
+<p>After 1776, when the United States declared their independence
+of Great Britain, the importation of thoroughbred horses from
+England became quite common, and selections were made from
+the best stocks in the United Kingdom. This continued and
+even increased as the country became developed, down to 1840.
+The following Derby winners were among those carried into
+the states: Diomed, who won the first Derby in 1780; Saltram,
+winner in 1783; John Bull, winner in 1792; Spread Eagle,
+winner in 1795; Sir Harry, winner in 1798; Archduke, winner
+in 1799; and Priam, who won in 1830. The most important and
+valuable importations, however, proved to be Jolly Roger,
+Fearnought, Medley, Traveller, Diomed, Glencoe, Leviathan,
+Tranby, Lexington, Margrave, Yorkshire Buzzard, Albion
+and Leamington. The best results were obtained from Diomed
+and Glencoe. Diomed sired one horse, Sir Archy, who founded
+a family to which nearly all the blood horses of America trace
+back. He was foaled in 1805, in Virginia, and became celebrated
+as a sire. The superiority of his progeny was so generally conceded
+that they were greatly sought after. From this period, too,
+the number and value of races increased; still they were comparatively
+few in number, and could not compare in value with
+those of Great Britain. Up to 1860 the value of racing prizes
+was quite inadequate to develop large breeding establishments,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span>
+or to sustain extensive training stables. Then the civil war
+between the North and the South broke out, which raged for
+four years. Breeding establishments were broken up during
+that time; the horses were taken by the armies for cavalry
+purposes, for which service they were highly prized; and racing
+was completely paralysed. It took some time to regain its
+strength; but an era of prosperity set in about 1870, and since
+then the progress in interest has been continuous.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States interest in trotting races more than rivals
+that felt in the contests of thoroughbred horses. This interest
+dates back to the importation to Philadelphia from England,
+in 1788, of the thoroughbred horse Messenger, a grey stallion,
+by Mambrino, 1st dam by Turf, 2nd dam by Regulus, 3rd dam
+by Starling, 4th dam by Fox, 5th dam Gipsey, by Bay Bolton,
+6th dam by duke of Newcastle&rsquo;s Turk, 7th dam by Byerly Turk,
+8th dam by Taffolet Barb, 9th dam by Place&rsquo;s White Turk.
+He was eight years old when imported to the United States.
+He was at the stud for twenty years, in the vicinity of Philadelphia
+and New York, serving a number of thoroughbred mares,
+but a far greater number of cold-blooded mares, and in the
+progeny of the latter the trotting instinct was almost invariably
+developed, while his thoroughbred sons, who became scattered
+over the country, were also noted for transmitting the trotting
+instinct. The first public trotting race of which there is any
+account in the United States was in 1818, when the grey gelding
+Boston Blue was matched to trot a mile in 3 minutes, a feat
+deemed impossible; but he won, though the time of his performance
+has not been preserved. From about that date interest in
+this gait began to increase; breeders of trotters sprang up, and
+horses were trained for trotting contests. The problem of
+breeding trotters has been necessarily found to be a much more
+complex one than that of breeding the thoroughbred, as in the
+latter case pure blood lines of long recognized value could be
+relied upon, while in the former the best results were constantly
+being obtained from most unexpected sources. Among the
+leading families came to be the Hambletonian, of which the
+modern head was Rysdyk&rsquo;s Hambletonian, a bay horse foaled
+in 1849, got by Abdallah (traced to imp. Messenger on the side
+of both sire and dam) out of the Charles Kent mare, by imp.
+(<i>i.e.</i> imported) Bellfounder, with two crosses to imp. Messenger
+on her dam&rsquo;s side; the Mambrinos, whose modern head was
+Mambrino Chief, foaled 1844, by Mambrino Paymaster, a
+grandson of imp. Messenger; the Bashaws, founded by Young
+Bashaw, foaled 1822, by Grand Bashaw, an Arabian horse,
+dam Pearl, by First Consul; the Clays, springing from Henry
+Clay, a grandson of Young Bashaw through Andrew Jackson;
+the Stars, springing from Stockholm&rsquo;s American Star, by Duroc,
+son of imp. Diomed; the Morgans, whose founder was Justin
+Morgan, foaled 1793, by a horse called True Briton, or Beautiful
+Bay, who was probably thoroughbred; the Black Hawks, a
+branch of the Morgan family; the Blue Bulls, descended from
+Doyle&rsquo;s Blue Bull, foaled 1855, a pacer, sired by a pacer of the
+same name, dam by Blacknose, son of Medoc; the Canadians,
+whose best representatives were St Lawrence and pacing Pilot,
+horses of unknown pedigree; the Gold Dusts, another branch
+of the Morgan family; and the Royal Georges, springing from
+Tippoo, a horse who was probably by Ogden&rsquo;s Messenger, son
+of imp. Messenger. But trotters of great speed have been produced
+which do not trace to any of the sources mentioned. Very
+large prices are paid. Steinway, a three-year-old colt, was sold
+in 1879, to go to California, for $13,000; and in 1878 $21,000
+was paid for the four-year-old filly Maud S., after she had trotted
+a mile in public in 2 m. 17½ s. Much larger sums have been paid,
+however, for matured trotters, such as $40,000 for the stallion
+Smuggler, $38,000 for Pocahontas, $35,000 for Dexter, $36,000
+for Rarus, and long prices for many others; St Julien, the
+trotter with the fastest record at the close of 1879, was held at
+$50,000, while Rysdyk&rsquo;s Hambletonian, Messenger Duroc and
+Volunteer were valued, in their prime, at $100,000 each.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with the early days of American trotting, the
+advance has been rapid and the changes marked. After the
+performance of Boston Blue, mentioned above, more attention
+was paid to the gait, but for a long time the races were generally
+under saddle, and at long distances, 3 m. being rather the
+favourite. The best of the old time trotters were Edwin Forrest,
+who trotted a mile in 2 m. 31½ s. in 1834; Dutchman, who did
+3 m. under saddle in 7 m. 32½ s.; Ripton; Lady Suffolk, who
+trotted a mile in 2 m. 26½ s. in 1843, and headed the list of
+performers; Mac, Tacony, &amp;c. After 1850, however, the taste of
+the people settled upon the style of race called &ldquo;mile heats, best
+three out of five, in harness&rdquo; as the favourite. By &ldquo;in harness&rdquo;
+is meant that the horse draws a sulky, a light two-wheeled
+vehicle in which the driver sits close to the horse, with his legs
+on each side of his flanks. These sulkies often weigh less than
+40 &#8468;. The driver is required to weigh, with the blanket on
+which he sits, 150 &#8468;, while for saddle races the regulation weight
+is 145 &#8468;, or 10 st. 5 &#8468;. Each heat of a mile is a separate race;
+20 minutes is allowed between heats; and the horse that first
+places three heats to his credit wins the race. There are various
+penalties imposed upon a horse that breaks into a run in a trotting
+race. The driver is required to pull him to a trot as quickly as
+possible; if the horse gains by running, the judges set him back
+at the finish twice the distance he has gained, in their estimation,
+by running; and for repeated &ldquo;breaks&rdquo; they can declare him
+distanced. The first-class tracks are of oval shape, with long
+stretches and easy curves, measuring 1 m. at 3 ft. distance from
+the &ldquo;pole,&rdquo; as the inner railing of the track is called. The time
+in which the leading horse trots each heat is accurately kept,
+placed on a blackboard in front of the judges&rsquo; stand for the
+information of the public, and also placed in the book of the
+course. The fastest time that any trotter has is thus entered
+as his &ldquo;record.&rdquo; This is one of the distinctive features of
+trotting in America.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to 1866 purses for trotters were small; match races were
+more in vogue, and the trotting turf was in bad odour. In that
+year an association was formed at Buffalo, N.Y., which inaugurated
+its efforts by offering the then unprecedented sum
+of $10,500 for a trotting meeting of four days&rsquo; duration. The
+experiment was successful; other cities followed the example
+of Buffalo; larger and larger purses were given; and at Buffalo
+in 1872 the prizes amounted to $70,000. Since then the amount
+offered in the United States and Canada, during a single year,
+has reached $1,500,000. Individual trotters, in the course of a
+long turf career, earn enormous amounts. A remarkable instance
+of this was the mare Goldsmith Maid, by Alexander&rsquo;s Abdallah
+(a son of Rysdyk&rsquo;s Hambletonian), out of an Abdallah mare.
+She began trotting in 1866, and left the turf in 1878, when twenty-one
+years old, and her winnings amounted to over $200,000.</p>
+
+<p>In 1869 the National Trotting Association was formed, under
+which an elaborate code of rules has been published.</p>
+
+<p>In trotting races, it will be noted, the time test is supreme,
+differing from running races, in which time is of comparatively
+little consequence. The animal which has the fastest record for
+1 mile in harness is, until deposed, the king or queen of the trotting
+turf. Lady Suffolk, with her record of 2 m. 26½ s., in 1843, held
+this honour until 1853, when Tacony trotted in 2 m. 25½ s. under
+saddle; Flora Temple wrested it from him in 1856 by trotting in
+2 m. 24½ s. in harness. This latter mare, in 1859, trotted a mile
+in 2 m. 19¾ s., a feat which the best horsemen thought would
+never be repeated, but since that time forty-two trotters have
+beaten 2 m. 20 s. Dexter&rsquo;s record was 2 m. 17¼ s. in 1867, and
+Goldsmith Maid&rsquo;s in 1871 was 2 m. 17 s., which she reduced, by
+successive efforts, to 2 m. 16¾ s., 2 m. 16 s., 2 m. 15 s., 2 m. 14¾ s.,
+and finally, in 1874, to 2 m. 14 s. In 1878 Rarus trotted a mile
+in 2 m. 13¼ s., and in October 1879 the bay gelding St Julien,
+by Volunteer, son of Rysdyk&rsquo;s Hambletonian, dam by Henry
+Clay, trotted a mile in California in 2 m. 12¾ s. Other notable
+performances reducing the record were Maud S. in 1881, 2 m.
+10¼ s.; Maud S. in 1885, 2 m. 8¾ s.; Sunol in 1891, 2 m. 8¼ s.;
+Nancy Hanks in 1892, 2 m. 4 s.; Alix in 1894, 2 m. 3¾ s.;
+Cresceus in 1901, 2 m. 2¼ s.; Lou Dillon in 1905, 1 m. 58½ s. Improved
+times have doubtless been the result of improved methods,
+as well as of care in the breeding of the trotter. Some very severe
+training rules used to be sedulously observed; about 1870, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span>
+instance, a horse never had water the night before a race, and
+the system generally appears to have overtaxed the animal&rsquo;s
+strength. A prominent consideration in trotting races is the
+adjustment of toe-weights, which are fastened on to the horses&rsquo;
+feet to equalize their action, and it is found that horses improve
+their time to the extent of several seconds when properly
+shod.</p>
+
+<p>Pacing races are also frequent in the United States. In trotting
+the action may be described as diagonal; the pacer moves both
+legs on the same side at the same time, and both feet stride as
+one. A similar &ldquo;gait,&rdquo; to employ the American term, was called
+in England some centuries ago an &ldquo;amble.&rdquo; The pacer moves
+more easily and with apparently less exertion than the trotter,
+and the mile record (made by Prince Alert in 1903) stands at
+1 m. 57 s.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the vast size of the country there are various centres
+of sport, which can be classified with reasonable accuracy as
+follows: the Eastern States, dominated by the Jockey Club,
+founded in New York in 1894, and recognized by a state law in
+1895; the Middle Western States, under the control of the
+Western Jockey Club, whose headquarters are in Chicago;
+the Pacific Coast, with San Francisco for its centre; and the
+Southern and South-Western States, with Louisville as the most
+important centre. The passage of the racing law in New York
+State marked the opening of a new era. Supreme even over the
+Jockey Club is a State Racing Commission of three, appointed
+by the governor of the state. While the Jockey Club is only
+recognized by law in its native state, it has assumed and maintains
+control of all racing on the eastern seaboard, within certain lines
+of latitude and longitude, extending as far north as the Canadian
+border and south to Georgia. There is small question that
+other states, both east and west, will follow suit and enact
+similar laws. The Western Jockey Club, though not recognized
+by law, controls practically all the racing through the middle
+west, south-west and south; but the racing associations of the
+Pacific Coast have maintained a position of independence.</p>
+
+<p>What New York is to the east, Chicago is to the middle west,
+and a very large proportion of American racing is conducted
+close to these centres. In New York State the Coney Island
+Jockey Club, at Sheepshead Bay; the Brooklyn Jockey Club,
+at Gravesend; the Westchester Racing Association, at Morris
+Park; the Brighton Beach Racing Association, at Brighton
+Beach; the Queen&rsquo;s County Jockey Club, at Aqueduct; and
+the Saratoga Racing Association, at Saratoga, are the leading
+organizations; and all these race-courses, with the exception
+of Saratoga, are within a radius of 20 miles of the city. The
+Empire City Jockey Club, near Yonkers, and another club with
+headquarters near Jamaica, Long Island, have also become
+prominent institutions. The Washington Park Club, at Chicago,
+is the leading Turf body of the west, and the only one on an
+equal footing with the prominent associations of New York
+State. With this single exception the most important and valuable
+stakes of the American Turf are given in the east; and
+so great has the prosperity of the Turf been since the Jockey
+Club came into existence that the list of rich prizes is growing
+at a surprising rate. In this respect the principal fault is the
+undue encouragement given to the racing of two-year-olds.
+At the winter meetings held at New Orleans and San Francisco,
+two-year-olds are raced from the very beginning of the year;
+and under the rules of the Jockey Club of New York they run
+as early as March. The Westchester Racing Association, with
+which are closely identified some of the principal members of
+the Jockey Club, gives valuable two-year-old stakes in May.
+The Futurity Stakes, the richest event of the year&mdash;on one
+occasion it reached a value of $67,675&mdash;is for two-year-olds,
+and is run at Sheepshead Bay in the autumn. The institution
+of races, either absolutely or practically at weight-for-age,
+and over long courses, has engaged much attention. The
+Coney Island Jockey Club has the leading three-year-old stake
+in the Lawrence Realization, over 1 mile 5 furlongs, with an
+average value of about $30,000. The Westchester Racing
+Association&rsquo;s two principal three-year-old stakes, the Withers,
+over a mile, run in May, and the Belmont, 1 mile and 3 furlongs,
+run later in the same month, are of less value, but are much
+older-established and have a species of &ldquo;classic&rdquo; prestige,
+dating from the old Jerome Park race-course in the &rsquo;sixties. The
+Coney Island Jockey Club&rsquo;s Century and the Annual Champion
+Stakes, both for three-year-olds and upwards, over a mile and
+a half and two miles and a quarter respectively, are fair specimens
+of the races the associations have founded. At Saratoga a
+stake of $50,000 for three-year-olds and upwards, distance
+a mile and a quarter, was opened, and run for first in 1904.
+The hope is to wean owners from the practice of overtaxing
+their two-year-olds, which has resulted practically in a positive
+dearth, almost a total absence, of good four-year-olds and
+upwards of late years. Handicaps play a more important part
+than in England. The principal events of this character, such
+as the Brooklyn Handicap at Gravesend and the Suburban at
+Sheepshead Bay, have for years drawn the largest attendances
+of the racing season.</p>
+
+<p>Practically all flat racing in the United States is held on
+&ldquo;dirt-tracks,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> courses with soil specially prepared for
+racing, instead of turf courses. At Sheepshead Bay there is
+a turf course, but it is only used for a minority of races. Dirt-tracks,
+which are, like many other things in American racing,
+a legacy from the once hugely popular harness-racing, are
+conducive to great speed, but are costly in the extreme strain
+on horses&rsquo; legs. Steeplechases are run on turf. This branch
+of the sport in the east is now flourishing under the administration
+of the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association, a sister
+body of the Jockey Club. Comparatively few races are, however,
+run under these rules, as the weather conditions render it impossible
+to have a separate season for cross-country sport and
+steeplechases, and hurdle races are incorporated in programmes
+of flat racing held through the spring, summer and autumn,
+though the ground is frequently so hard as to be unsafe.
+Since the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association assumed
+control, regulation courses, practically similar in every respect
+to those used in England, have been insisted upon in the east,
+the &ldquo;open ditch&rdquo; figuring under the name of the &ldquo;Liverpool.&rdquo;
+In the west and south there is not the same uniformity, and so
+far the sport has not flourished.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">France</p>
+
+<p>Racing in France as conducted on modern lines may be said
+to date from the year 1833, when the French <i>Stud-Book</i> was
+originated, and a body formed, somewhat after the model of
+the English Jockey Club, under the title of the Société d&rsquo;Encouragement
+pour l&rsquo;Amélioration des Races de Chevaux en
+France. Races took place in the Champs de Mars, and an
+unsuccessful attempt was made in 1834 to arrange for a course,
+or &ldquo;hippodrome,&rdquo; as it is termed in France, at Maisons Laffitte.
+Chantilly was, however, fixed upon as the principal racing centre;
+on the 22nd April 1836 the first meeting was held there, with
+five races on the card, the principal being the Prix d&rsquo;Orléans,
+a stake of 3500 francs, named after the due d&rsquo;Orléans, one of
+the chief promoters of the fixture. Next day the first race
+for the Prix du Jockey Club was run, and won by Frank, the
+property of Lord Henry Seymour, who was at the time taking a
+very active part in French sport. The Prix du Jockey Club was
+then worth 5000 francs; the value has since increased to 200,000
+francs. This race occupies in France the place of the English
+Derby. The Prix de Diane, which corresponds to the English
+Oaks, was first run in 1843. Chantilly still continues an important
+centre of the French Turf, and a great many horses are trained
+in the district. Attempts had been made to popularize racing
+at Longchamps prior to the year 1856, when the Société d&rsquo;Encouragement
+obtained a lease, erected stands, laid out the
+course, and held their first meeting on the 27th August 1857.
+Next season two meetings were held, one of four days in the
+spring and another of three in the autumn; at the present
+time the sport is vigorously carried on from March to the end
+of October, except during a summer recess. In 1857 meetings
+under the auspices of the Société d&rsquo;Encouragement began to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span>
+take place at Amiens, Caen, Nantes, Versailles, Moulins and
+other towns; and there were stakes for two-year-olds in the
+spring, though of late years the appearance of the young horses
+has been postponed to the 1st of August. Progress was rapid,
+and in 1863 two important events were contested for the first
+time, the Prix du Prince Impérial, which was designed to balance
+the English St Leger, but for obvious reasons faded out of the
+programme, and the Grand Prix de Paris, an international
+race for three-year-olds, run at Longchamps over a distance
+of 1 mile 7 furlongs, and now the most valuable stake in Europe.
+In 1909 the prize was £14,071. The first Grand Prix fell to an
+English horse, Mr Savile&rsquo;s The Ranger; two years later it
+was won by Gladiateur, winner of the English Derby and the
+property of the comte de Lagrange, who raced equally in France
+and in England; the duke of Beaufort&rsquo;s Ceylon was successful
+in 1866, and the marquis of Hastings&rsquo; Earl in 1868. Mr
+Savile&rsquo;s Cremorne followed up his Derby victory by a victory
+at Longchamps in 1872, as did Mr Baltazzi&rsquo;s Kisber four years
+later. English horses were also victorious in 1874 (Mr W. R.
+Marshall&rsquo;s Trent), in 1878 (Prince Soltykoff&rsquo;s Thurio), in 1880
+(Mr C. Brewer&rsquo;s Robert the Devil), in 1881 (Mr Keene&rsquo;s Foxhall,
+who, however, should rather rank as an American horse), in 1882
+(Mr Rymill&rsquo;s Bruce), in 1885 (Mr Cloete&rsquo;s Paradox), in 1886 (Mr
+Vyner&rsquo;s Minting); and in 1906 Major Eustace Loder&rsquo;s Derby
+winner Spearmint. During the first 23 years of the Grand
+Prix (owing to the war the race did not take place in 1871)
+the stake fell to English horses&mdash;if Kisber and Foxhall
+be included&mdash;on twelve occasions, and generally to English
+jockeys. In recent years, however, French owners have held
+their own. In not a few respects racing is managed more
+judiciously than in England. The courses, for one thing, are
+better tended and maintained. The five- and six-furlong races
+for others than two-year-olds, which are so common at English
+meetings, are comparatively rare in France, and the value of
+the prizes in an average day&rsquo;s racing is considerably higher
+across the Channel than in England. A very large percentage
+of trainers and jockeys are English, and the former are, as
+a rule, quite as expert as at Newmarket and elsewhere.
+Transatlantic methods have been introduced by American
+jockeys since 1899. From the middle of February until the
+middle of December a race meeting within easy reach of Paris
+takes place almost every day, except during August, when the
+sport is carried on in the provinces, notably at Deauville. Near
+Paris, the chief centre after Longchamps is Maisons Laffitte.
+At Longchamps, early in October, a race called the Prix du
+Conseil Municipal, worth £4000, for three-year-olds and upwards,
+over a mile and a half, was organized in 1893, and has usually
+attracted English horses, Mr Wallace Johnstone&rsquo;s Best Man
+having been successful in 1894, and Mr Sullivan&rsquo;s Winkfield&rsquo;s
+Pride the following year. Except when the Whip is challenged
+for and the challenge decided over the Beacon Course at Newmarket,
+no race is run in England over a longer distance than
+two miles and 6 furlongs; but in France the Prix Gladiateur, of
+£1200 and a work of art value £100, 3 miles 7 furlongs, creates
+considerable interest at Longchamps in the autumn.</p>
+
+<p>The first recognized steeplechase in France took place
+at Croix de Berny, and was won by the comte de Vaublanc&rsquo;s
+May-fly, all the horses at that time being ridden
+by gentlemen. Sport does not seem to have been
+<span class="sidenote">Steeplechasing.</span>
+carried on with much spirit, for it is said that the
+death of an animal called Barcha, in 1839, nearly led to the
+abandonment of the meeting; and it was not till 1863,
+when the Société des Steeplechases de France was founded,
+that the business was resolutely taken in hand. Gravelle and
+Vincennes were the principal centres until 1873, when the
+Société obtained possession of the ground at Auteuil, where
+the excellent course now in use was laid out. In 1874 twelve
+days&rsquo; racing took place here, the card each day including three
+steeplechases and a hurdle race, the &ldquo;hurdles,&rdquo; however, being
+small fences, as they are at present. The Grand Steeplechase
+d&rsquo;Auteuil was then for a stake of 30,000 francs, at the time
+the most valuable offered in any country; but, as in racing
+on the flat, the stakes have enormously increased in value, and
+in 1901 the Paris Grand Steeplechase, as the chief event is now
+called, credited the winner with £6020, the hurdle race being
+worth rather more than half as much. In England there is
+scarcely any steeplechasing between March and November,
+except at hunt meetings, but in Paris cross-country sport is
+pursued almost all through the year, the chief races at Auteuil
+taking place in June, about the time of the Grand Prix, which is
+usually run for between the English Epsom and Ascot meetings.
+The Auteuil course is laid out in the shape of the figure 8, with
+varied fences, several of which really test a horse&rsquo;s jumping
+capacity; and variety is further obtained by starting the fields
+in different places and traversing the course in different ways.
+St Ouen, a meeting within half an hour&rsquo;s drive of the Louvre,
+is entirely devoted to steeplechasing; and jumping is also
+carried on at Vincennes, Colombes, Enghien, and elsewhere
+near Paris, as also at Nice in the winter, at Dieppe and other
+places in August. As a rule, the stakes run for, especially at
+Auteuil, are very much larger than in England. There are none of
+the clubs and special enclosures such as at Sandown, Kempton,
+Hurst, Lingfield, Gatwick, &amp;c., though portions of the stand
+are set apart for privileged persons. A fee of 20 francs is
+charged for admission to the chief French race-courses, with
+half as much for a lady&rsquo;s voucher, and the tickets give
+access everywhere but to the very few reserved portions. At
+Vincennes, St Cloud, and some other courses trotting races are
+also contested.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Other Countries.</i>&mdash;Racing in Germany is mainly conducted under
+the authority of the Union Club of Berlin, the principal course
+being the Hoppegarten. Two-year-olds do not run until the 1st of
+June, except in Saxony, where they appear a month earlier. During
+the month of August there are several days&rsquo; racing at Baden-Baden,
+steeplechases as well as flat races being run. Some of the more
+valuable stakes are usually contested by a proportion of horses
+from France and other countries, a few being occasionally sent
+from England. For years past blood-stock has been imported from
+England. In Austria the two centres of racing are Vienna and
+Budapest, each of which has its Jockey Club. Racing in Belgium
+derives no little support from the contiguity of the country to
+France. The headquarters of the Belgium Jockey Club are in the
+Bois de la Cambre at Boisfort, and meetings are held at Ostend,
+Antwerp, Spa, Bruges and elsewhere. Steeplechases take place
+at Groenenval and on other Belgian courses, but are not of high
+class. Racing has not reached a great degree of excellence in Italy,
+though attempts have been made to improve competitors by the
+purchase of Melton, who won the Derby of 1885, and of other notable
+animals. Meetings take place at Florence, Padua, Bologna and
+other places, but the stakes are usually small.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. E. T. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSERADISH<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Meerrettig</i>; Fr. <i>raifort</i> = <i>racine forte</i>,
+<i>cran de Bretagne</i>; Swed. <i>Peppar-rot</i>; Russ. <i>chren</i>), known
+botanically as <i>Cochlearia Armoracia</i>, a perennial plant of the
+natural order Cruciferae, having a stout cylindrical rootstock
+from the crown of which spring large radical leaves on long
+stalks, 4 to 6 in. broad, and about a foot in length with a deeply
+crenate margin, and coarsely veined; the stem-leaves are short-stalked
+or sessile, elongated and tapering to their attachment,
+the lower ones often deeply toothed. The flowers, which appear
+in May and June, are <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in width, in flat-topped panicles, with
+purplish sepals and white petals; the fruit is a small silicula,
+which does not ripen in the climate of England. The horseradish
+is indigenous to eastern Europe. Into western Europe
+and Great Britain, where it is to be met with on waste ground,
+it was probably introduced. It was wild in various parts of
+England in Gerard&rsquo;s time.</p>
+
+<p>The root, the <i>armoraciae radix</i> of pharmacy, is ½ to 2 in. or
+more in diameter, and commonly 1 ft., sometimes 3 ft. in
+length; the upper part is enlarged into a crown, which is annulated
+with the scars of fallen leaves; and from the numerous
+irregular lateral branches are produced vertical stolons, and
+also adventitious buds, which latter render the plant very
+difficult of extirpation. From the root of Aconite (<i>q.v.</i>), which
+has occasionally been mistaken for it, horseradish root differs
+in being more or less cylindrical from a little below the crown,
+and in its pale yellowish (or brownish) white hue externally,
+acrid and penetrating odour when scraped or bruised, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span>
+pungent and either sweetish or bitter taste. Under the influence
+of a ferment which it contains, the fresh root yields on distillation
+with water about .05% of a volatile oil, butyl sulphocyanide,
+C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">9</span>CNS. After drying, the root has been found to afford
+11.15% of ash. Horseradish root is an ingredient in the <i>spiritus
+armoraciae compositus</i> (dose 1-2 drachms) of the British Pharmacopoeia.
+It is an agreeable flavouring agent. In common with
+other species of <i>Cochlearia</i>, the horseradish was formerly in high
+repute as an antiscorbutic. The root was, as well as the leaves,
+taken with food by the Germans in the middle ages, whence the
+old French name for it, <i>moutarde des Allemands</i>; and Coles,
+writing in 1657, mentions its use with meat in England, where it
+is still chiefly employed as a condiment with beef.</p>
+
+<p>For the successful cultivation of the horseradish, a light and
+friable damp soil is the most suitable; this having been trenched
+3 ft. deep in autumn, and the surface turned down with a liberal
+supply of farm-yard manure, a second dressing of decomposed
+manure should in the ensuing spring be dug in 2 ft. deep, and
+pieces of the root 6 in. in length may then be planted a foot apart
+in narrow trenches. During summer the ground requires to be
+kept free of weeds; and the application of liquid manure twice or
+thrice in sufficient quantity to reach the lowest roots is an
+advantage. When dug the root may be long preserved in good
+condition by placing it in sand.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gerard, <i>Herball</i>, p. 240, ed. Johnson (1636); Flückiger and
+Hanbury, <i>Pharmacographia</i>, p. 71 (2nd ed., 1879); Bentley and
+Trimen, <i>Med. Pl.</i>, i. 21 (1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSE-SHOES.<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> The horny casing of the foot of the horse
+and other Solidungulates, while quite sufficient to protect the
+extremity of the limb under natural conditions, is found to wear
+away and break, especially in moist climates, when the animal
+is subjected to hard work of any kind. This, however, can be
+obviated by the simple device of attaching to the hoof a rim of
+iron, adjusted to the shape of the hoof. The animal itself has
+been in a very marked manner modified by shoeing, for without
+this we could have had neither the fleet racers nor the heavy
+and powerful cart-horses of the present day. Though the ancients
+were sufficiently impressed by the damage done to horses&rsquo;
+hoofs to devise certain forms of covering for them (in the shape
+of socks or sandals), the practice of nailing iron plates or rim-shoes
+to the hoof does not appear to have been introduced earlier than
+the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was not commonly known till the close
+of the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, or in regular use till the middle ages.
+The evidence for the earlier date depends on the doubtful
+interpretations of designs on coins, &amp;c. As time went on, however,
+the profession of the farrier and the art of the shoesmith
+gradually grew in importance. It was only in the 19th century
+that horse-shoeing was introduced in Japan, where the former
+practice was to attach to the horse&rsquo;s feet slippers of straw,
+which were renewed when necessary, a custom which may
+indicate the usage of early peoples. In modern times much
+attention has been devoted to horse-shoeing by veterinary
+science, with the result of showing that methods formerly
+adopted caused cruel injury to horses and serious loss to their
+owners. The evils resulted from (1) paring the sole and frog;
+(2) applying shoes too heavy and of faulty shape; (3) employing
+too many and too large nails; (4) applying shoes too small and
+removing the wall of the hoof to make the feet fit the shoes, and
+(5) rasping the front of the hoof. In rural districts, where the
+art of the farrier is combined with general blacksmith work,
+too little attention is apt to be given to considerations which have
+an important bearing on the comfort, usefulness and life of the
+horse. According to modern principles (1) shoes should be as light
+as compatible with the wear demanded of them; (2) the ground
+face of the shoe should be concave, and the face applied to the foot
+plain; (3) heavy draught horses alone should have toe and heel
+calks on their shoes to increase foothold; (4) the excess growth
+of the wall or outer portion of horny matter should only be removed
+in re-shoeing, care being taken to keep both sides of the
+hoof of equal height; (5) the shoe should fit accurately to the
+circumference of the hoof, and project slightly beyond the heel;
+(6) the shoes should be fixed with as few nails as possible, six or
+seven in fore-shoes and eight in hind-shoes, and (7) the nails
+should take a short thick hold of the wall, so that old nail-holes
+may be removed with the natural growth and paring of the
+horny matter. Horse-shoes and nails are now made with great
+economy by machinery, and special forms of shoe or plate are
+made for race-horses and trotters, or to suit abnormalities of
+the hoof.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSETAIL<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (<i>Equisetum</i>), the sole genus of the botanical
+natural order Equisetaceae, consisting of a group of vascular
+cryptogamous plants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteridophyta</a></span>) remarkable for the
+vegetative structure which resembles in general appearance
+the genera of flowering plants <i>Casuarina</i> and <i>Ephedra</i>. They
+are herbaceous plants growing from an underground much-branched
+rootstock from which spring slender aerial shoots
+which are green, ribbed, and bear at each node a whorl of leaves
+reduced to a toothed sheath. From the nodes spring whorls of
+similar but more slender branches. Some shoots are sterile
+while others are fertile, bearing at the apex the so-called fructification&mdash;a
+dense oval, oblong conical or cylindrical spike, consisting
+of a number of shortly-stalked peltate scales, each of which has
+attached to its under surface a circle of spore-cases (sporangia)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span>
+which open by a longitudinal slit on their inner side. The spores
+differ from those of ferns in their outer coat (<i>exospore</i>) being
+split up into four club-shaped hygroscopic threads (<i>elaters</i>)
+which are curled when moist, but become straightened when
+dry. In most species the fertile and sterile shoots are alike, both
+being green and leaf-bearing, but in a few species the fertile are
+more or less different, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>E. arvense</i> the fertile shoots appear
+first, in the spring, and are unbranched and not green. Any
+portion of the underground rhizome when broken off is capable
+of producing a new plant; hence the difficulty of eradicating
+them when once established. There are 24 known species of
+the genus which is universally distributed.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:525px; height:843px" src="images/img738.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><i>Equisetum arvense.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Fertile shoot, springing from the rhizome, which also bears tubers; the
+  vegetative shoots have not yet unfolded.</p>
+
+<p>F, Sterile vegetative shoot.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>B, C, Sporophylls bearing sporangia, which in C have opened.</p>
+
+<p>D, Spore showing the two spiral bands of the perinium.</p>
+
+<p>E, Dry spores showing the expanded spiral bands.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(A, F, reduced. &emsp; B, C, D, E, enlarged.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The corn horsetail <i>E. arvense</i>, one of the commonest species,
+is a troublesome weed in clayey cornfields (see fig.). The
+fructification appears in March and April, terminating in short
+unbranched stems. It is said to produce diarrhoea in such cattle
+as eat it. The bog horsetail, <i>E. palustre</i>, is said to possess similar
+properties. It grows in marshes, ditches, pools and drains in
+meadows, and sometimes obstructs the flow of water with its dense
+matted roots. The fructification in this species is cylindrical,
+and in that of <i>E. limosum</i>, which grows in similar situations,
+it is ovate in outline. The largest British species, <i>E. maximum</i>,
+grows in wet sandy declivities by railway embankments or
+streams, &amp;c., and is remarkable for its beauty, due to the abundance
+of its elegant branches and the alternately green and white
+appearance of the stem. In this species the fructification is
+conical or lanceolate, and is found in April on short, stout, unbranched
+stems which have large loose sheaths. Horses appear
+to be fond of this species, and in Sweden it is stored for use
+as winter fodder. <i>E. hyemale</i>, commonly known as the Dutch
+rush, is much more abundant in Holland than in Britain; it is
+used for polishing purposes. <i>E. variegatum</i> grows on wet sandy
+ground, and serves by means of its fibrous roots to bind the
+sand together. The horsetails are remarkable for the large
+quantity of silica they contain in the cuticle (hence their value
+in polishing), which often amounts to half the weight of the
+ash yielded by burning them; the roots contain a quantity of
+starch.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSHAM,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a market town in the Horsham parliamentary
+division of Sussex, England, 38 m. S. by W. from London by
+the London, Brighton and South Coast railway. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 9446. It is pleasantly situated in the
+midst of a fertile country near the source of the Arun. A
+picturesque avenue leads to the church of St Mary, principally
+Early English and Perpendicular, with remains of Norman
+work, having a lofty tower surmounted by a spire, and containing
+several fine monuments, tombs and brasses. Other buildings
+include the grammar school, founded in 1532 and rebuilt in
+1893, a town hall and corn exchange, erected in 1866 in Italian
+style, with an assembly room. In the vicinity are several fine
+mansions. The buildings of Christ&rsquo;s Hospital (<i>q.v.</i>) at West
+Horsham were opened in 1902, the school being removed hither
+from London. The town has industries of tanning, founding,
+carriage-building and flour-milling.</p>
+
+<p>Some neolithic remains have been found at Horsham. The
+town is not mentioned in Domesday Book, but the Rape of
+Bramber, in which it lies, belonged at that time to William de
+Braose. His descendants held the borough and the manor
+of Horsham, and through them they passed to the family of
+Mowbray, afterwards dukes of Norfolk. There are traces of
+burgage tenure at Horsham in 1210, and it was called a borough
+in 1236. It has no charter of incorporation. Horsham
+sent two representatives to parliament from 1295 until 1832,
+when the number was reduced to one. In 1885 it was disfranchised.
+In 1233 Henry III. granted William de Braose
+a yearly three-days&rsquo; fair at his manor of Horsham. In the
+reign of Edward I. William de Braose claimed to have a free
+market on Wednesdays and Saturdays. Fairs are held on
+the 5th of April, 18th of July, 17th of November and 27th
+of November. Market days are Monday and Wednesday.
+&ldquo;Glovers&rdquo; of Horsham are mentioned in a patent roll of 1485,
+and a brewery existed here in the time of Queen Anne.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSLEY, JOHN<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1685-1732), British archaeologist.
+John Hodgson (1779-1845), the historian of Northumberland,
+in a short memoir published in 1831, held that he was born in
+1685, at Pinkie House, in the parish of Inveresk, Midlothian,
+and that his father was a Northumberland Nonconformist, who
+had migrated to Scotland, but returned to England soon after
+the Revolution of 1688. J. H. Hinde, in the <i>Archaeologia Aeliana</i>
+(Feb. 1865), held that he was a native of Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+the son of Charles Horsley, a member of the Tailors&rsquo; Company
+of that town. He was educated at Newcastle, and at Edinburgh
+University, where he graduated M.A. on the 29th of April 1701.
+There is evidence that he &ldquo;was settled in Morpeth as a Presbyterian
+minister as early as 1709.&rdquo; Hodgson, however, thought
+that up to 1721, at which time he was residing at Widdrington,
+&ldquo;he had not received ordination, but preached as a licentiate.&rdquo;
+Even if he was ordained then, his stay at the latter place was
+probably prolonged beyond that date; for he communicated
+to the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> (xxxii. 328) notes on the
+rainfall there in the years 1722 and 1723. Hinde shows that
+during these years &ldquo;he certainly followed a secular employment
+as agent to the York Buildings Company, who had contracted
+to purchase and were then in possession of the Widdrington
+estates.&rdquo; At Morpeth Horsley opened a private school. Respect
+for his character and abilities attracted pupils irrespective
+of religious connexion, among them Newton Ogle, afterwards
+dean of Westminster. He gave lectures on mechanics and
+hydrostatics in Morpeth, Alnwick and Newcastle, and was
+elected F.R.S. on the 23rd of April 1730. It is as an archaeologist
+that Horsley is now known. His great work, <i>Britannia
+Romana, or the Roman Antiquities of Britain</i> (London, 1732),
+one of the scarcest and most valuable of its class, contains the
+result of patient labour. There is in the British Museum a copy
+with notes by John Ward (<i>c.</i> 1679-1758), biographer of the
+Gresham professors. Horsley died of apoplexy on the 12th
+of January 1732, on the eve of the publication of the <i>Britannia
+Romana</i>. He also published two sermons and a handbook to
+his lectures on mechanics, &amp;c., and projected a history of
+Northumberland and Durham, collections for which were
+found among his papers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>J. P. Wood (d. 1838) (<i>Parish of Cramond</i>, 1794, and <i>Anecdotes of
+Bowyer</i>, 1782, p. 371) says that his wife was a daughter of William
+Hamilton, D.D., minister of Cramond, afterwards professor of
+divinity in Edinburgh University, but probably the John Horsley
+in question was another, the father of Samuel Horsley (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1817-1903), English painter,
+son of William Horsley, the musician, and grand-nephew of Sir
+Augustus Callcott, was born in London, on the 29th of January
+1817. He studied painting in the Academy schools, and in 1836
+exhibited &ldquo;The Pride of the Village&rdquo; (Vernon Gallery) at the
+Royal Academy. This was followed by numerous <i>genre</i> pictures
+at subsequent exhibitions up to 1893, the best known of these
+being &ldquo;Malvolio,&rdquo; &ldquo;L&rsquo;Allegro and il Penseroso&rdquo; (painted for
+the Prince Consort), &ldquo;Le Jour des Morts,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Scene from
+Don Quixote,&rdquo; &amp;c. In 1843 his cartoon of &ldquo;St Augustine
+Preaching&rdquo; won a prize in the Westminster Hall competition,
+and in 1844 he was selected as one of the six painters commissioned
+to execute frescoes for the Houses of Parliament, his &ldquo;Religion&rdquo;
+(1845) being put in the House of Lords; he also painted the
+&ldquo;Henry V. assuming the Crown&rdquo; and &ldquo;Satan surprised at
+the Ear of Eve.&rdquo; In 1864 he became R.A., and in 1882 was
+elected treasurer, a post which he held till 1897, when he resigned
+and became a &ldquo;retired Academician.&rdquo; Mr Horsley had much
+to do with organizing the winter exhibitions of &ldquo;Old Masters&rdquo;
+at Burlington House after 1870. When, during the &rsquo;eighties,
+the example of the French Salon began to affect the Academy
+exhibitors, and paintings of the nude became the fashion, he
+protested against the innovation, and his attitude caused <i>Punch</i>
+to give him the punning sobriquet of &ldquo;Mr J. C(lothes) Horsley.&rdquo;
+He died on the 18th of October 1903. His son, Sir Victor
+Horsley (b. 1857), became famous as a surgeon and neuropathologist,
+and a prominent supporter of the cause of experimental
+research.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSLEY, SAMUEL<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1733-1806), English divine, was born
+in London on the 15th of September 1733. Entering Trinity
+College, Cambridge, he became LL.B. in 1758 without graduating
+in arts, and in the following year succeeded his father in the
+living of Newington Butts in Surrey. Horsley was elected a
+Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767; and secretary in 1773,
+but, in consequence of a difference with the president (Sir Joseph
+Banks) he withdrew in 1784. In 1768 he attended the eldest
+son of the 4th earl of Aylesford to Oxford as private tutor;
+and, after receiving through the earl and Bishop Lowth various
+minor preferments, which by dispensations he combined with
+his first living, he was installed in 1781 as archdeacon of St
+Albans. Horsley now entered in earnest upon his famous
+controversy with Joseph Priestley, who denied that the early
+Christians held the doctrine of the Trinity. In this controversy,
+conducted on both sides in the fiercest polemical spirit, Horsley
+showed the superior learning and ability. His aim was to
+lessen the influence which the prestige of Priestley&rsquo;s name
+gave to his views, by indicating inaccuracies in his scholarship
+and undue haste in his conclusions. For the energy displayed
+in the contest Horsley was rewarded by Lord Chancellor Thurlow
+with a prebendal stall at Gloucester; and in 1788 the same
+patron procured his promotion to the see of St David&rsquo;s. As a
+bishop, Horsley was energetic both in his diocese, where he strove
+to better the position of his clergy, and in parliament. The
+efficient support which he afforded the government was acknowledged
+by his successive translations to Rochester in 1793,
+and to St Asaph in 1802. With the bishopric of Rochester he
+held the deanery of Westminster. He died at Brighton on
+the 4th of October 1806.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the controversial <i>Tracts</i>, which appeared in 1783-1784-1786,
+and were republished in 1789 and 1812, Horsley&rsquo;s more important
+works are:&mdash;<i>Apollonii Pergaei inclinationum libri duo</i>
+(1770); <i>Remarks on the Observation ... for determining the acceleration
+of the Pendulum in Lat. 70° 51&prime;</i> (1774); <i>Isaaci Newtoni Opera
+quae extant Omnia</i>, with a commentary (5 vols. 4to, 1779-1785);
+<i>On the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Languages</i> (1796); <i>Disquisitions
+on Isaiah xviii.</i> (1796); <i>Hosea, translated ... with
+Notes</i> (1801); <i>Elementary Treatises on ... Mathematics</i> (1801);
+<i>Euclidis elementorum libri priores XII.</i> (1802); <i>Euclidis datorum
+liber</i> (1803); <i>Virgil&rsquo;s Two Seasons of Honey</i>, &amp;c. (1805); and papers
+in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> from 1767 to 1776. After his
+death there appeared&mdash;<i>Sermons</i> (1810-1812); <i>Speeches in Parliament</i>
+(1813); <i>Book of Psalms, translated with Notes</i> (1815); <i>Biblical
+Criticism</i> (1820); <i>Collected Theological Works</i> (6 vols. 8vo, 1845).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSLEY, WILLIAM<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1774-1858), English musician, was
+born on the 15th of November 1774. He became in 1790 the
+pupil of Theodore Smith, an indifferent musician of the time,
+who, however, taught him sufficient to obtain in 1794 the position
+of organist at Ely Chapel, Holborn. This post he resigned in
+1798, to become organist at the Asylum for Female Orphans,
+as assistant to Dr Callcott, with whom he had long been on terms
+of personal and artistic intimacy, and whose eldest daughter
+he married. In 1802 he became his friend&rsquo;s successor upon the
+latter&rsquo;s resignation.  Besides holding this appointment he
+became in 1812 organist of Belgrave Chapel, Halkin Street,
+and in 1838 of the Charter House. He died on the 12th of June
+1858. Horsley&rsquo;s compositions are numerous, and include
+amongst other instrumental pieces three symphonies for full
+orchestra. Infinitely more important are his glees, of which
+he published five books (1801-1807) besides contributing many
+detached glees and part songs to various collections. His
+glees, &ldquo;By Celia&rsquo;s arbour,&rdquo; &ldquo;O nightingale,&rdquo; &ldquo;Now the storm
+begins to lower,&rdquo; and others, are amongst the finest specimens
+of this peculiarly English class of compositions. Horsley&rsquo;s
+son Charles Edward (1822-1876), also enjoyed a certain reputation
+as a musician. He studied in Germany under Hauptmann
+and Mendelssohn, and on his return to England composed
+several oratorios and other pieces, none of which had permanent
+success. In 1808 he emigrated to Australia, and in 1872 went to
+America; he died in New York.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORSMAN, EDWARD<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1807-1876), English politician, was
+the son of a well-to-do gentleman of Stirling, and connected
+on the mother&rsquo;s side with the earls of Stair. He was educated
+at Rugby and Cambridge, and was called to the Scotch bar
+in 1832, but then took to politics. He was elected to parliament
+as a Liberal for Cockermouth in 1836, and represented that
+constituency till 1852, when he was defeated; in 1853 he was
+returned for Stroud, and sat there till 1868; and from 1869
+till he died he was member for Liskeard. He was a junior lord
+of the treasury in Lord Melbourne&rsquo;s administration for a few
+months during 1841, and became prominent for attacking
+Lord John Russell&rsquo;s ecclesiastical policy in 1847 and subsequent
+years. In 1855, under Lord Palmerston, he was made chief
+secretary for Ireland, but resigned in 1857. He gradually took
+up a position as an independent Liberal, and was well known for
+his attacks on the Church, and his exposures of various &ldquo;jobs.&rdquo;
+But his name is principally connected with his influence over
+Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) in 1866 at the time of Mr
+Gladstone&rsquo;s Reform Bill, to which he and Lowe were hostile;
+and it was in describing the Lowe-Horsman combination that
+John Bright spoke of the &ldquo;Cave of Adullam.&rdquo; Horsman died
+at Biarritz on the 30th of November 1876.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORST,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> the term used In physical geography and geology
+for a block of the earth&rsquo;s crust that has remained stationary
+while the land has sunk on either side of it, or has been crushed
+in a mountain range against it. The Vosges and Black Forest
+are examples of the former, the Table, Jura and the Dôle
+of the latter result. The word is also applied to those larger
+areas, such as the Russian plain, Arabia, India and Central
+South Africa, where the continent remains stable, with horizontal
+table-land stratification, in distinction to folded regions such
+as the Eurasian chains.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1828-1892), English
+theologian, was born in Dublin on the 23rd of April 1828, the
+great-grandson of Josiah Hort, archbishop of Tuam in the 18th
+century. In 1846 he passed from Rugby to Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he was the contemporary of E. W. Benson,
+B. F. Westcott and J. B. Lightfoot. The four men became
+lifelong friends and fellow-workers. In 1850 Hort took his
+degree, being third in the classical tripos, and in 1852 he became
+fellow of his college. In 1854, in conjunction with J. E. B.
+Mayor and Lightfoot, he established the <i>Journal of Classical
+and Sacred Philology</i>, and plunged eagerly into theological
+and patristic study. He had been brought up in the strictest
+principles of the Evangelical school, but at Rugby he fell under
+the influence of Arnold and Tait, and his acquaintance with
+Maurice and Kingsley finally gave his opinions a direction
+towards Liberalism. In 1857 he married, and accepted the
+college living of St Ippolyts, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire,
+where he remained for fifteen years. During his residence
+there he took some part in the discussions on university reform,
+continued his studies, and wrote essays for various periodicals.
+In 1870 he was appointed a member of the committee for
+revising the translation of the New Testament, and in 1871
+he delivered the Hulsean lectures before the university. Their
+title was <i>The Way, the Truth, and the Life</i>, but they were not
+prepared for publication until many years after their delivery.
+In 1872 he accepted a fellowship and lectureship at Emmanuel
+College; in 1878 he was made Hulsean professor of divinity,
+and in 1887 Lady Margaret reader in divinity. In the meantime
+he had published, with his friend Westcott, an edition of the text
+of the New Testament. The Revision Committee had very
+largely accepted this text, even before its publication, as a
+basis for their translation of the New Testament. The work
+on its appearance created an immense sensation among scholars,
+and was vehemently attacked in many quarters, but on the
+whole it was received as being much the nearest approximation
+yet made to the original text of the New Testament (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>:
+<i>New Testament</i>, &ldquo;Textual Criticism&rdquo;). The introduction was
+the work of Hort, and its depth and fulness convinced all who
+read it that they were under the guidance of a master. Hort
+died on the 30th of November 1892, worn out by intense mental
+labour. Next to his Greek Testament his best-known work is
+<i>The Christian Ecclesia</i> (1897). Other publications are: <i>Judaistic
+Christianity</i> (1894); <i>Village Sermons</i> (two series); <i>Cambridge</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span>
+<i>and other Sermons</i>; <i>Prolegomena to ... Romans and Ephesians</i>
+(1895); <i>The Ante-Nicene Fathers</i> (1895); and two <i>Dissertations</i>,
+on the reading <span class="grk" title="monogenês theos">&#956;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#947;&#949;&#957;&#8052;&#962; &#952;&#949;&#972;&#962;</span> in John i. 18, and on <i>The Constantinopolitan
+and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth Century</i>.
+All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of materials.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Life and Letters</i> was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart.
+(1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORTA,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> the capital of an administrative district comprising
+the islands of Pico, Fayal, Flores and Corvo, in the Portuguese
+archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1900) 6574. Horta is a
+seaport on the south-east coast of Fayal. It is defended by
+two castles and a wall, but these fortifications are obsolete.
+The harbour, a bay 2 m. long and nearly 1 m. broad, affords
+good anchorage in 5 to 20 fathoms of water, but is dangerous
+in south-westerly and south-easterly winds. It is the headquarters
+of profitable whale, tunny, bonito and mullet fisheries.
+Its exports include sperm-oil, fruit, wine and grain. Between
+1897 and 1904 the port annually accommodated about 140 vessels
+of 220,000 tons, mostly of British or Portuguese nationality.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORTEN,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg-Laurvik <i>amt</i>
+(county), beautifully situated on the west bank of the Christiania
+Fjord, opposite Moss, 38 m. by water and 66 by rail S.
+of Christiania. Pop. (1900) 8460. It is practically united with
+Karl-Johansvaern, which is defended by strong fortifications,
+is the headquarters of the Norwegian fleet, and possesses an
+arsenal and shipbuilding yards. There are also an observatory
+and a nautical museum.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (114-50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), surnamed Hortalus,
+Roman orator and advocate. At the age of nineteen he made
+his first speech at the bar, and shortly afterwards successfully
+defended Nicomedes III. of Bithynia, one of Rome&rsquo;s dependants
+in the East, who had been deprived of his throne by his brother.
+From that time his reputation as an advocate was established.
+As the son-in-law of Q. Lutatius Catulus he was attached to the
+aristocratic party. During Sulla&rsquo;s ascendancy the courts of
+law were under the control of the senate, the judges being
+themselves senators. To this circumstance perhaps, as well as to
+his own merits, Hortensius may have been indebted for much of
+his success. Many of his clients were the governors of provinces
+which they were accused of having plundered. Such men were
+sure to find themselves brought before a friendly, not to say
+a corrupt, tribunal, and Hortensius, according to Cicero (<i>Div.
+in Caecil.</i> 7), was not ashamed to avail himself of this advantage.
+Having served during two campaigns (90-89) in the Social War,
+he became quaestor in 81, aedile in 75, praetor in 72, and consul
+in 69. In the year before his consulship he came into collision
+with Cicero in the case of Verres, and from that time his supremacy
+at the bar was lost. After 63 Cicero was himself drawn towards
+the party to which Hortensius belonged. Consequently, in
+political cases, the two men were often engaged on the same
+side (<i>e.g.</i> in defence of Rabirius, Murena, Publius Cornelius
+Sulla, and Milo). After Pompey&rsquo;s return from the East in 61,
+Hortensius withdrew from public life and devoted himself to
+his profession. In 50, the year of his death, he successfully
+defended Appius Claudius Pulcher when accused of treason
+and corrupt practices by P. Cornelius Dolabella, afterwards
+Cicero&rsquo;s son-in-law.</p>
+
+<p>Hortensius&rsquo;s speeches are not extant. His oratory, according
+to Cicero, was of the Asiatic style, a florid rhetoric, better to
+hear than to read. He had a wonderfully tenacious memory
+(Cicero, <i>Brutus</i>, 88, 95), and could retain every single point
+in his opponent&rsquo;s argument. His action was highly artificial,
+and his manner of folding his toga was noted by tragic actors
+of the day (Macrobius, <i>Sat.</i> iii. 13. 4). He also possessed a fine
+musical voice, which he could skilfully command. The vast
+wealth he had accumulated he spent on splendid villas, parks,
+fish-ponds and costly entertainments. He was the first to
+introduce peacocks as a table delicacy at Rome. He was a great
+buyer of wine, pictures and works of art. He wrote a treatise
+on general questions of oratory, erotic poems (Ovid, <i>Tristia</i>, ii.
+441), and an <i>Annales</i>, which gained him considerable reputation
+as an historian (Vell. Pat. ii. 16. 3).</p>
+
+<p>His daughter <span class="sc">Hortensia</span> was also a successful orator. In
+42 she spoke against the imposition of a special tax on wealthy
+Roman matrons with such success that part of it was remitted
+(Quint. <i>Instit.</i> i. 1. 6; Val. Max. viii. 3. 3).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to Cicero (<i>passim</i>), see Dio Cassius xxxviii. 16, xxxix.
+37; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> ix. 81, x. 23, xiv. 17, xxxv. 40; Varro,
+<i>R.R.</i> iii. 13. 17.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> dictator of Rome 286 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> When
+the people, pressed by their patrician creditors, &ldquo;seceded&rdquo;
+to the Janiculum, he was commissioned to put an end to the
+strife. He passed a law whereby the resolutions of the multitude
+(<i>plebiscita</i>) were made binding on all the citizens, without
+the approval of the senate being necessary. This was not a
+mere re-enactment of previous laws. Another law, passed about
+the same time, which declared the <i>nundinae</i> (market days)
+to be <i>dies fasti</i> (days on which legal business might be transacted),
+is also attributed to him. He is said to have died while still
+dictator.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Aulus Gellius xv. 27; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xvi. 15; Macrobius,
+<i>Saturnalia</i> i. 16; Livy, <i>Epit.</i> ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6, by Various
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
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+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6
+       "Home, Daniel" to "Hortensius, Quintus"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 13, 2012 [EBook #39127]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 6 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HOMER: "... he cannot attribute to the original poet of the
+      lay (Betrachtungen, p. 15, ed. 1865)." 'cannot' amended from
+      'cannnot'.
+
+    ARTICLE HONDURAS: "This instrument gives the legislative power to a
+      congress of deputies elected for four years by popular vote, in the
+      ratio of one member for every 10,000 inhabitants." 'inhabitants'
+      amended from 'imhabitants'.
+
+    ARTICLE HORACE: "... and a practice originating in the wants and
+      convenience of friends temporarily separated from one another by
+      the public service was ultimately cultivated as a literary
+      accomplishment." 'convenience' amended from 'covenience'.
+
+    ARTICLE HORACE: "At that time he had outlived the coarser pleasures
+      and risen above the harassing cares of his earlier career ..."
+      'above' amended from 'bove'.
+
+    ARTICLE HORN: "Historisch-biographisches Lexicon der Tonkunstler
+      (Leipzig, 1790-1792 and 1812-1814)." 'Tonkunstler' amended from
+      'Tonkunslter'.
+
+    ARTICLE HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS: "It was early in 1877
+      that he went out as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, where
+      his skill in man[oe]uvring the fleet ..." 'Mediterranean' amended
+      from 'Mediterraean'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE VI
+
+    Home, Daniel to Hortensius, Quintus
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS             HOPKINS, ESEK
+  HOME, JOHN                       HOPKINS, MARK
+  HOMEL                            HOPKINS, SAMUEL
+  HOME OFFICE                      HOPKINS, WILLIAM
+  HOMER                            HOPKINSON, FRANCIS
+  HOMER, WINSLOW                   HOPKINSON, JOHN
+  HOMESTEAD                        HOPKINSVILLE
+  HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS     HOPPNER, JOHN
+  HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV             HOP-SCOTCH
+  HOMICIDE                         HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON
+  HOMILETICS                       HOR, MOUNT
+  HOMILY                           HORACE
+  HOMOEOPATHY                      HORAE
+  HOMONYM                          HORAPOLLON
+  HOMS                             HORATII and CURIATII
+  HO-NAN                           HORATIUS COCLES
+  HONAVAR                          HORDE
+  HONDA                            HOREB
+  HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D'         HOREHOUND
+  HONDURAS                         HORGEN
+  HONE, NATHANIEL                  HORIZON
+  HONE, WILLIAM                    HORMAYR, JOSEPH
+  HONE                             HORMISDAS
+  HONEY                            HORMIZD
+  HONEYCOMB                        HORMUZ
+  HONEY-EATER                      HORN, ARVID BERNHARD
+  HONEY-GUIDE                      HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY
+  HONEY LOCUST                     HORN (English hero)
+  HONEYMOON                        HORN (of animals)
+  HONEYSUCKLE                      HORN (wind instrument)
+  HONFLEUR                         HORNBEAM
+  HONG-KONG                        HORNBILL
+  HONITON                          HORNBLENDE
+  HONNEF                           HORN-BOOK
+  HONOLULU                         HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS
+  HONORIUS                         HORNCASTLE
+  HONORIUS, FLAVIUS                HORN DANCE
+  HONOUR                           HORNE, GEORGE
+  HONOURABLE                       HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST
+  HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON    HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL
+  HONTHORST, GERARD VAN            HORNELL
+  HOOCH, PIETER DE                 HORNEMANN, FREDERICK
+  HOOD, JOHN BELL                  HORNER, FRANCIS
+  HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD                HORNER, LEONARD
+  HOOD, SIR SAMUEL                 HORNES, MORITZ
+  HOOD, THOMAS                     HORNFELS
+  HOOD, TOM                        HORNING, LETTERS OF
+  HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR HOOD      HORNPIPE
+  HOOD                             HORNSEY
+  HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN        HOROWITZ, ISAIAH
+  HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN   HORREUM
+  HOOK, JAMES CLARKE               HORROCKS, JEREMIAH
+  HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD            HORROCKS, JOHN
+  HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR            HORSE
+  HOOKAH                           HORSE LATITUDES
+  HOOKE, ROBERT                    HORSE-MACKEREL
+  HOOKER, JOSEPH                   HORSEMANSHIP
+  HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON        HORSENS
+  HOOKER, RICHARD                  HORSE-POWER
+  HOOKER, THOMAS                   HORSE-RACING
+  HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON      HORSERADISH
+  HOOLE, JOHN                      HORSE-SHOES
+  HOOLIGAN                         HORSETAIL
+  HOOPER, JOHN                     HORSHAM
+  HOOPOE                           HORSLEY, JOHN
+  HOORN                            HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT
+  HOOSICK FALLS                    HORSLEY, SAMUEL
+  HOP                              HORSLEY, WILLIAM
+  HOPE, ANTHONY                    HORSMAN, EDWARD
+  HOPE, THOMAS                     HORST
+  HOPEDALE                         HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY
+  HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT         HORTA
+  HOPFEN, HANS VON                 HORTEN
+  HOPI                             HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (Roman orator)
+  HOPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN             HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (dictator of Rome)
+  HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN
+
+
+
+
+HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886), Scottish spiritualist, was born near
+Edinburgh on the 20th of March 1833, his father being said to be a
+natural son of the 10th earl of Home, and his mother a member of a
+family credited with second sight. He went with his mother to America,
+and on her death was adopted by an aunt. In the United States he came
+out as a spiritualistic medium, though, it should be noted, he never
+sought to make money out of his exhibitions. In 1855 he came to England
+and gave numerous seances, which were attended by many well-known
+people. Robert Browning, the poet, went to one of these, but without
+altering his contempt for spiritualism, and he subsequently gave his
+impression of Home in the unflattering poem of "Sludge the Medium"
+(1864); Home, nevertheless, had many disciples, and gave seances at
+several European courts. He became a Roman Catholic, but was expelled
+from Rome as a sorcerer. In 1866 Mrs Lyon, a wealthy widow, adopted him
+as her son, and settled L60,000 upon him. Repenting, however, of her
+action, she brought a suit for the return of her money, on the ground
+that it had been obtained by "spiritual" influence. It was held that the
+burden of establishing the validity of the gift lay on Home, and as he
+failed to do so the case was decided against him. He continued, however,
+to give seances, mostly on the Continent, and in 1871 appeared before
+the tsar of Russia and two Russian scientists, who attested the
+phenomena evoked. Returning to England he submitted to a series of
+experiments designed to test his pretensions before Professor
+(subsequently Sir William) Crookes, which the latter declared to be
+thoroughly genuine; and Professor von Boutlerow, of the Russian Academy
+of Science, after witnessing a similar series of experiments, expressed
+the same opinion. Home published two volumes of _Incidents of my Life
+and Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism_. He married successively two
+well-connected Russian ladies. He died at Auteuil, France, on the 21st
+of June 1886.
+
+
+
+
+HOME, JOHN (1722-1808), Scottish dramatic poet, was born on the 22nd of
+September 1722 at Leith, where his father, Alexander Home, who was
+distantly related to the earls of Home, filled the office of town-clerk.
+He was educated at the grammar school of his native town, and at the
+university of Edinburgh, where he graduated M.A. in 1742. Though he
+showed a fondness for the profession of arms, he studied divinity, and
+was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh in 1745. In the same year he
+joined as a volunteer against the Pretender, and was taken prisoner at
+the battle of Falkirk (1746). With many others he was carried to the
+castle of Doune in Perthshire, but soon effected his escape. In July
+1746 Home was presented to the parish of Athelstaneford,
+Haddingtonshire, vacant by the death of Robert Blair, the author of _The
+Grave_. He had leisure to visit his friends and became especially
+intimate with David Hume who belonged to the same family as himself. His
+first play, _Agis: a tragedy_, founded on Plutarch's narrative, was
+finished in 1747. He took it to London and submitted it to Garrick for
+representation at Drury Lane, but it was rejected as unsuitable for the
+stage. The tragedy of _Douglas_ was suggested to him by hearing a lady
+sing the ballad of _Gil Morrice_ or _Child Maurice_ (F. J. Child,
+_Popular Ballads_, ii. 263). The ballad supplied him with the outline of
+a simple and striking plot. After five years' labour he completed his
+play, which he took to London for Garrick's opinion. It also was
+rejected, but on his return to Edinburgh his friends resolved that it
+should be brought out in that city. It was produced on the 14th of
+December 1756 with overwhelming success, in spite of the opposition of
+the presbytery, who summoned Alexander Carlyle to answer for having
+attended its representation. Home wisely resigned his charge in 1757,
+after a visit to London, where _Douglas_ was brought out at Covent
+Garden on the 14th of March. Peg Woffington played Lady Randolph, a part
+which found a later exponent in Mrs Siddons. David Hume summed up his
+admiration for _Douglas_ by saying that his friend possessed "the true
+theatric genius of Shakespeare and Otway, refined from the unhappy
+barbarism of the one and licentiousness of the other." Gray, writing to
+Horace Walpole (August, 1757), said that the author "seemed to have
+retrieved the true language of the stage, which has been lost for these
+hundred years," but Samuel Johnson held aloof from the general
+enthusiasm, and averred that there were not ten good lines in the whole
+play (Boswell, _Life_, ed. Croker, 1848, p. 390). In 1758 Home became
+private secretary to Lord Bute, then secretary of state, and was
+appointed tutor to the prince of Wales; and in 1760 his patron's
+influence procured him a pension of L300 per annum and in 1763 a
+sinecure worth another L300. Garrick produced _Agis_ at Drury Lane on
+the 21st of February 1758. By dint of good acting and powerful support,
+according to Genest (_Short Account_ &c., iv. 513 seq.), the piece kept
+the stage for eleven days, but it was lamentably inferior to _Douglas_.
+In 1760 his tragedy, _The Siege of Aquileia_, was put on the stage,
+Garrick taking the part of Aemilius. In 1769 his tragedy of _The Fatal
+Discovery_ had a run of nine nights; _Alonzo_ also (1773) had fair
+success in the representation; but his last tragedy, _Alfred_ (1778),
+was so coolly received that he gave up writing for the stage. In 1778 he
+joined a regiment formed by the duke of Buccleuch. He sustained severe
+injuries in a fall from horseback which permanently affected his brain,
+and was persuaded by his friends to retire. From 1767 he resided either
+at Edinburgh or at a villa which he built at Kilduff near his former
+parish. It was at this time that he wrote his _History of the Rebellion
+of 1745_, which appeared in 1802. Home died at Merchiston Bank, near
+Edinburgh, on the 5th of September 1808, in his eighty-sixth year.
+
+  _The Works of John Home_ were collected and published by Henry
+  Mackenzie in 1822 with "An Account of the Life and Writings of Mr John
+  Home," which also appeared separately in the same year, but several of
+  his smaller poems seem to have escaped the editor's observation. These
+  are--"The Fate of Caesar," "Verses upon Inveraray," "Epistle to the
+  Earl of Eglintoun," "Prologue on the Birthday of the Prince of Wales,
+  1759" and several "Epigrams," which are printed in vol. ii. of
+  _Original Poems by Scottish Gentlemen_ (1762). See also Sir W. Scott,
+  "The Life and Works of John Home" in the _Quarterly Review_ (June,
+  1827). _Douglas_ is included in numerous collections of British drama.
+  Voltaire published his _Le Caffe, ou l'Ecossaise_ (1760), _Londres_
+  (really Geneva), as a translation from the work of Mr Hume, described
+  as _pasteur de l'eglise d'Edimbourg_, but Home seems to have taken no
+  notice of the mystification.
+
+
+
+
+HOMEL, or GOMEL, a town of Russia, in the government of Mogilev, and 132
+m. by rail S.S.E. of the town of Mogilev, on the Sozh, a tributary of
+the Dnieper. Pop. (1900) 45,081, nearly half of whom are Jews. It is an
+important junction of the railways from Vilna to Odessa and from Orel to
+Poland, and is in steamer communication with Kiev and Mogilev. In front
+of Prince Paskevich's castle stands an equestrian statue of the Polish
+general Joseph Poniatowski, and in the cathedral is the tomb of the
+chancellor Nikolai Petrovich Rumantsev, by Canova. The town carries on a
+brisk trade in hops, corn and timber; there are also paper-pulp mills
+and oil factories. Homel was founded in the 12th century, and after
+changing hands several times between Poles and Russians was annexed to
+Russia in 1772. In 1648 it suffered at the hands of the Cossack
+chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki.
+
+
+
+
+HOME OFFICE, a principal government department in the United Kingdom,
+the creation of which dates from 1782, when the conduct of foreign
+affairs, which had previously been divided between the northern and
+southern secretaries, was handed over to the northern department (see
+FOREIGN OFFICE). The home department retained control of Irish and
+colonial affairs, and of war business until 1794, when an additional
+secretary of state was re-appointed. In 1801 the colonial business was
+transferred from the home department, which now attends only to domestic
+affairs. The head of the department, the principal secretary of state
+for home affairs, or home secretary, is a member of the government for
+the time being, and of the cabinet, receiving a salary of L5000 a year.
+He is the proper medium of communication between the sovereign and the
+subject, and receives petitions addressed to the crown. He is
+responsible for the maintenance of the king's peace and attends to the
+administration of criminal justice, police and prisons, and through him
+the sovereign exercises his prerogative of mercy. Within his department
+is the supervision of lunatic asylums, reformatories and industrial
+schools, and it is his duty to see after the internal well-being of the
+country, to enforce the rules made for the health or safety of the
+community generally, and especially of those classes employed in special
+trades or dangerous occupations. He is assisted by a permanent
+under-secretary, a parliamentary secretary and several assistant
+under-secretaries.
+
+  See Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_. (1907).
+
+
+
+
+HOMER[1] ([Greek: Homeros]), the great epic poet of Greece. Many of the
+works once attributed to him are lost; those which remain are the two
+great epics, the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, thirty-three _Hymns_, a mock
+epic (the _Battle of the Frogs and Mice_), and some pieces of a few
+lines each (the so-called _Epigrams_).
+
+_Ancient Accounts of Homer._--Of the date of Homer probably no record,
+real or pretended, ever existed. Herodotus (ii. 53) maintains that
+Hesiod and Homer lived not more than 400 years before his own time,
+consequently not much before 850 B.C. From the controversial tone in
+which he expresses himself it is evident that others had made Homer more
+ancient; and accordingly the dates given by later authorities, though
+very various, generally fall within the 10th and 11th centuries B.C. But
+none of these statements has any claim to the character of external
+evidence.
+
+The extant lives of Homer (edited in Westermann's _Vitarum Scriptores
+Graeci minores_) are eight in number, including the piece called the
+_Contest of Hesiod and Homer_. The longest is written in the Ionic
+dialect, and bears the name of Herodotus, but is certainly spurious. In
+all probability it belongs to the time which was fruitful beyond all
+others in literary forgeries, viz. the 2nd century of our era.[2] The
+other lives are certainly not more ancient. Their chief value consists
+in the curious short poems or fragments of verse which they have
+preserved--the so-called _Epigrams_, which used to be printed at the end
+of editions of Homer. These are easily recognized as "Popular Rhymes," a
+form of folk-lore to be met with in most countries, treasured by the
+people as a kind of proverbs.[3] In the Homeric _epigrams_ the interest
+turns sometimes on the characteristics of particular localities--Smyrna
+and Cyme (_Epigr._ iv.), Erythrae (_Epigr._ vi., vii.), Mt Ida (_Epigr._
+x.). Neon Teichos (_Epigr._ i.); others relate to certain trades or
+occupations--potters (Epigr. xiv.), sailors, fishermen, goat herds, &c.
+Some may be fragments of longer poems, but evidently they are not the
+work of any one poet. The fact that they were all ascribed to Homer
+merely means that they belong to a period in the history of the Ionian
+and Aeolian colonies when "Homer" was a name which drew to itself all
+ancient and popular verse.
+
+Again, comparing the "epigrams" with the legends and anecdotes told in
+the Lives of Homer, we can hardly doubt that they were the chief source
+from which these Lives were derived. Thus in Epigr. iv. we find a blind
+poet, a native of Aeolian Smyrna, through which flows the water of the
+sacred Meles. Here is doubtless the source of the chief incident of the
+Herodotean Life--the birth of Homer "Son of the Meles." The epithet
+Aeolian implies high antiquity, inasmuch as according to Herodotus
+Smyrna became Ionian about 688 B.C. Naturally the Ionians had their own
+version of the story--a version which made Homer come out with the first
+Athenian colonists.
+
+The same line of argument may be extended to the _Hymns_, and even to
+some of the lost works of the post-Homeric or so-called "Cyclic" poets.
+Thus:--
+
+1. The hymn to the Delian Apollo ends with an address of the poet to his
+audience. When any stranger comes and asks who is the sweetest singer,
+they are to answer with one voice, the "blind man that dwells in rocky
+Chios; his songs deserve the prize for all time to come." Thucydides,
+who quotes this passage to show the ancient character of the Delian
+festival, seems to have no doubt of the Homeric authorship of the hymn.
+Hence we may most naturally account for the belief that Homer was a
+Chian.
+
+2. The _Margites_--a humorous poem which kept its ground as the reputed
+work of Homer down to the time of Aristotle--began with the words,
+"There came to Colophon an old man, a divine singer, servant of the
+Muses and Apollo." Hence doubtless the claim of Colophon to be the
+native city of Homer--a claim supported in the early times of Homeric
+learning by the Colophonian poet and grammarian Antimachus.
+
+3. The poem called the _Cypria_ was said to have been given by Homer to
+Stasinus of Cyprus as a daughter's dowry. The connexion with Cyprus
+appears further in the predominance given in the poem to Aphrodite.
+
+4. The _Little Iliad_ and the _Phocais_, according to the Herodotean
+life, were composed by Homer when he lived at Phocaea with a certain
+Thestorides, who carried them off to Chios and there gained fame by
+reciting them as his own. The name Thestorides occurs in _Epigr._ v.
+
+5. A similar story was told about the poem called the _Taking of
+Oechalia_ ([Greek: Oichalias Halosis]), the subject of which was one of
+the exploits of Heracles. It passed under the name of Creophylus, a
+friend or (as some said) a son-in-law of Homer; but it was generally
+believed to have been in fact the work of the poet himself.
+
+6. Finally the _Thebaid_ always counted as the work of Homer. As to the
+_Epigoni_, which carried on the Theban story, some doubt seems to have
+been felt.
+
+These indications render it probable that the stories connecting Homer
+with different cities and islands grew up after his poems had become
+known and famous, especially in the new and flourishing colonies of
+Aeolis and Ionia. The contention for Homer, in short, began at a time
+when his real history was lost, and he had become a sort of mythical
+figure, an "eponymous hero," or personification of a great school of
+poetry.
+
+An interesting confirmation of this view from the negative side is
+furnished by the city which ranked as chief among the Asiatic colonies
+of Greece, viz. Miletus. No legend claims for Miletus even a visit from
+Homer, or a share in the authorship of any Homeric poem. Yet Arctinus of
+Miletus was said to have been a "disciple of Homer," and was certainly
+one of the earliest and most considerable of the "Cyclic" poets. His
+_Aethiopis_ was composed as a sequel to the _Iliad_; and the structure
+and general character of his poems show that he took the _Iliad_ as his
+model. Yet in his case we find no trace of the disputed authorship which
+is so common with other "Cyclic" poems. How has this come about? Why
+have the works of Arctinus escaped the attraction which drew to the name
+of Homer such epics as the _Cypria_, the _Little Iliad_, the _Thebaid_,
+the _Epigoni_, the _Taking of Oechalia_ and the _Phocais_. The most
+obvious account of the matter is that Arctinus was never so far
+forgotten that his poems became the subject of dispute. We seem through
+him to obtain a glimpse of an early post-Homeric age in Ionia, when the
+immediate disciples and successors of Homer were distinct figures in a
+trustworthy tradition--when they had not yet merged their individuality
+in the legendary "Homer" of the Epic Cycle.
+
+_Recitation of the Poems._--The recitation of epic poetry was called in
+historical times "rhapsody" ([Greek: rhapsodia]). The word [Greek:
+rhapsodos] is post-Homeric, but was known to Pindar, who gives two
+different explanations of it--"singer of stitched verse" ([Greek:
+rhapton hepeon aoidoi]), and "singer with the wand" ([Greek: rhabdos]).
+Of these the first is etymologically correct (except that it should
+rather be "stitcher of verse"); the second was suggested by the fact,
+for which there is early evidence, that the reciter was accustomed to
+hold a wand in his hand--perhaps, like the sceptre in the Homeric
+assembly, as a symbol of the right to a hearing.[4]
+
+The first notice of rhapsody meets us at Sicyon, in the reign of
+Cleisthenes (600-560 B.C.), who "put down the rhapsodists on account of
+the poems of Homer, because they are all about Argos and the Argives"
+(Hdt. v. 67). This description applies very well to the _Iliad_, in
+which Argos and Argives occur on almost every page. It may have suited
+the _Thebaid_ still better, but there is no need to understand it only
+of that poem, as Grote does. The incident shows that the poems of the
+Ionic Homer had gained in the 6th century B.C., and in the Doric parts
+of the Peloponnesus, the ascendancy, the national importance and the
+almost canonical character which they ever afterwards retained.
+
+At Athens there was a law that the Homeric poems should be recited
+([Greek: rhapsodeisthai]) on every occasion of the Panathenaea. This law
+is appealed to as an especial glory of Athens by the orator Lycurgus
+(_Leocr._ 102). Perhaps therefore the custom of public recitation was
+exceptional,[5] and unfortunately we do not know when or by whom it was
+introduced. The Platonic dialogue _Hipparchus_ attributes it to
+Hipparchus, son of Peisistratus. This, however, is part of the
+historical romance of which the dialogue mainly consists. The author
+makes (perhaps wilfully) all the mistakes about the family of
+Peisistratus which Thucydides notices in a well-known passage (vi.
+54-59). In one point, however, the writer's testimony is valuable. He
+tells us that the law required the rhapsodists to recite "taking each
+other up in order ([Greek: ex hypolepseos ephexes]), as they still do."
+This recurs in a different form in the statement of Diogenes Laertius
+(i. 2. 57) that Solon made a law that the poems should be recited "with
+prompting" ([Greek: ex hypoboles]). The question as between Solon and
+Hipparchus cannot be settled; but it is at least clear that a due order
+of recitation was secured by the presence of a person charged to give
+the rhapsodists their cue ([Greek: hypoballein]). It was necessary, of
+course, to divide the poem to be recited into parts, and to compel each
+contending rhapsodist to take the part assigned to him. Otherwise they
+would have chosen favourite or show passages.
+
+The practice of poets or rhapsodists contending for the prize at the
+great religious festivals is of considerable antiquity, though
+apparently post-Homeric. It is brought vividly before us in the Hymn to
+Apollo (see the passage mentioned above), and in two Hymns to Aphrodite
+(v. and ix.). The latter of these may evidently be taken to belong to
+Salamis in Cyprus and the festival of the Cyprian Aphrodite, in the same
+way that the Hymn to Apollo belongs to Delos and the Delian gathering.
+The earliest trace of such contests is to be found in the story of
+Thamyris, the Thracian singer, who boasted that he could conquer even
+the Muses in song (_Il._ ii. 594 ff.).
+
+Much has been made in this part of the subject of a family or clan
+([Greek: genos]) of Homeridae in the island of Chios. On the one hand,
+it seemed to follow from the existence of such a family that Homer was a
+mere "eponymus," or mythical ancestor; on the other hand, it became easy
+to imagine the Homeric poems handed down orally in a family whose
+hereditary occupation it was to recite them, possibly to add new
+episodes from time to time, or to combine their materials in new ways,
+as their poetical gifts permitted. But, although there is no reason to
+doubt the existence of a family of "Homeridae," it is far from certain
+that they had anything to do with Homeric poetry. The word occurs first
+in Pindar (_Nem._ 2. 2), who applies it to the rhapsodists ([Greek:
+Homeridai rhapton epeon aoidoi]). On this a scholiast says that the name
+"Homeridae" denoted originally descendants of Homer, who sang his poems
+in succession, but afterwards was applied to rhapsodists who did not
+claim descent from him. He adds that there was a famous rhapsodist,
+Cynaethus of Chios, who was said to be the author of the Hymn to Apollo,
+and to have first recited Homer at Syracuse about the 69th Olympiad.
+Nothing here connects the Homeridae with Chios. The statement of the
+scholiast is evidently a mere inference from the patronymic form of the
+word. If it proves anything, it proves that Cynaethus, who was a Chian
+and a rhapsodist, made no claim to Homeric descent. On the other hand
+our knowledge of Chian Homeridae comes chiefly from the lexicon of
+Harpocration, where we are told that Acusilaus and Hellanicus said that
+they were so called from the poet; whereas Seleucus pronounced this to
+be an error. Strabo also says that the Chians put forward the Homeridae
+as an argument in support of their claim to Homer. These Homeridae,
+then, belonged to Chios, but there is no indication of their being
+rhapsodists. On the contrary, Plato and other Attic writers use the word
+to include interpreters and admirers--in short, the whole "spiritual
+kindred"--of Homer. And although we hear of "descendants of Creophylus"
+as in possession of the Homeric poems, there is no similar story about
+descendants of Homer himself. Such is the evidence on which so many
+inferences are based.
+
+The result of the notices now collected is to show that the early
+history of epic recitation consists of (1) passages in the Homeric hymns
+showing that poets contended for the prize at the great festivals, (2)
+the passing mention in Herodotus of rhapsodists at Sicyon, and (3) a law
+at Athens, of unknown date, regulating the recitation at the
+Panathenaea. Let us now compare these data with the account given in the
+Homeric poems. The word "rhapsode" does not yet exist; we hear only of
+the "singer" ([Greek: aoidos]), who does not carry a wand or
+laurel-branch, but the lyre ([Greek: phormigx]), with which he
+accompanies his "song." In the _Iliad_ even the epic "singer" is not met
+with. It is Achilles himself who sings the stories of heroes ([Greek:
+klea andron]) in his tent, and Patroclus is waiting (_respondere
+paratus_), to take up the song in his turn (_Il._ ix. 191). Again we do
+not hear of poetical contests (except in the story of Thamyris already
+mentioned) or of recitation of epic poetry at festivals. The _Odyssey_
+gives us pictures of two great houses, and each has its singer. The song
+is on a subject taken from the Trojan war, at some point chosen by the
+singer himself, or by his hearers. Phemius pleases the suitors by
+singing of the calamitous return of the Greeks; Demodocus sings of a
+quarrel between Ulysses and Achilles, and afterwards of the wooden horse
+and the capture of Troy.
+
+It may be granted that the author of the _Odyssey_ can hardly have been
+just such a singer as he himself describes. The songs of Phemius and
+Demodocus are too short, and have too much the character of
+improvisations. Nor is it necessary to suppose that epic poetry, at the
+time to which the picture in the _Odyssey_ belongs, was confined to the
+one type represented. Yet in several respects the conditions under which
+the singer finds himself in the house of a chieftain like Odysseus or
+Alcinous are more in harmony with the character of Homeric poetry than
+those of the later rhapsodic contests. The subdivision of a poem like
+the _Iliad_ or _Odyssey_ among different and necessarily unequal
+performers must have been injurious to the effect. The highly theatrical
+manner of recitation which was fostered by the spirit of competition,
+and by the example of the stage, cannot have done justice to the even
+movement of the epic style. It is not certain indeed that the practice
+of reciting a long poem by the agency of several competitors was
+ancient, or that it prevailed elsewhere than at Athens; but as
+rhapsodists were numerous, and popular favour throughout Greece became
+more and more confined to one or two great works, it must have become
+almost a necessity. That it was the mode of recitation contemplated by
+the author of the _Iliad_ or _Odyssey_ it is impossible to believe.
+
+The difference made by substituting the wand or branch of laurel for the
+lyre of the Homeric singer is a slighter one, though not without
+significance. The recitation of the Hesiodic poems was from the first
+unaccompanied by the lyre, i.e. they were confessedly _said_, not
+_sung_; and it was natural that the example should be extended to Homer.
+For it is difficult to believe that the Homeric poems were ever "sung"
+in the strict sense of the word. We can only suppose that the lyre in
+the hands of the epic poet or reciter was in reality a piece of
+convention, a "survival" from the stage in which narrative poetry had a
+lyrical character. Probably the poets of the Homeric school--that which
+dealt with war and adventure--were the genuine descendants of minstrels
+whose "lays" or "ballads" were the amusement of the feasts in an earlier
+heroic age; whereas the Hesiodic compositions were non-lyrical from the
+first, and were only in verse because that was the universal form of
+literature.
+
+It seems, then, that if we imagine Homer as a singer in a royal house of
+the Homeric age, but with more freedom regarding the limits of his
+subject, and a more tranquil audience than is allowed him in the rapid
+movement of the _Odyssey_, we shall probably not be far from the truth.
+
+_Time and Place of Homer._--The oldest direct references to the _Iliad_
+and _Odyssey_ are in Herodotus, who quotes from both poems (ii. 53). The
+quotation from the _Iliad_ is of interest because it is made in order to
+show that Homer supported the story of the travels of Paris to Egypt and
+Sidon (whereas the Cyclic poem called the _Cypria_ ignored them), and
+also because the part of the _Iliad_ from which it comes is cited as the
+"Aristeia of Diomede." This was therefore a recognized part of the poem.
+
+The earliest mention of the name of Homer is found in a fragment of the
+philosopher Xenophanes (of the 6th century B.C., or possibly earlier),
+who complains of the false notions implanted through the teaching of
+Homer. The passage shows, not merely that Homer was well known at
+Colophon in the time of Xenophanes, but also that the great advance in
+moral and religious ideas which forced Plato to banish Homer from his
+republic had made itself felt in the days of the early Ionic
+philosophers.
+
+Failing external testimony, the time and place of the Homeric poems can
+only be determined (if at all) by internal evidence. This is of two main
+kinds: (a) evidence of history, consisting in a comparison of the
+political and social condition, the geography, the institutions, the
+manners, arts and ideas of Homer with those of other times; (b) evidence
+of language, consisting in a comparison with later dialects, in respect
+of grammar and vocabulary. To these may be added, as occasionally of
+value, (c) much evidence of the direct influence of Homer upon the
+subsequent course of literature and art.
+
+(a) The political condition of Greece in the earliest times known to
+history is separated from the Greece of Homer by an interval which can
+hardly be overestimated. The great national names are different: instead
+of Achaeans, Argives, Danai, we find Hellenes, subdivided into Dorians,
+Ionians, Aeolians--names either unknown to Homer, or mentioned in terms
+more significant than silence. At the dawn of Greek history Mycenae is
+no longer the seat of empire; new empires, polities and civilizations
+have grown up--Sparta with its military discipline, Delphi with its
+religious supremacy, Miletus with its commerce and numberless colonies,
+Aeolis and Ionia, Sicily and Magna Graecia.
+
+While the political centre of Homeric Greece is at Mycenae, the real
+centre is rather to be found In Boeotia. The Catalogue of the Ships
+begins with Boeotia; the list of Boeotian towns is much the longest; and
+they sail, not from the bay of Argos, but from the Boeotian harbour of
+Aulis. This position is not due to its chiefs, who are all of inferior
+rank. The importance of Boeotia for Greek civilization is further shown
+by the ancient worship of the Muses on Mount Helicon, and the fact that
+the oldest poet whose birthplace was known was the Boeotian Hesiod. Next
+to Boeotia and the neighbouring countries, it appears that the
+Peloponnesus, Crete and Thessaly were the most important seats of Greek
+population.
+
+In the Peloponnesus the face of things was completely altered by the
+Dorian conquest, no trace of which is found in Homer. The only Dorians
+known in Homer are those that the _Odyssey_ (xix. 177) places in Crete.
+It is difficult to connect them with the Dorians of history.
+
+The eastern shores of the Aegean, which the earliest historical records
+represent to us as the seat of a brilliant civilization, giving way
+before the advance of the great military empires (Lydia and afterwards
+Persia), are almost a blank in Homer's map. The line of settlements can
+be traced in the Catalogue from Crete to Rhodes, and embraces the
+neighbouring islands of Cos and Calymnos. The colonization of Rhodes by
+Tlepolemus is related (_Il._ ii. 661 ff.), and seems to mark the
+farthest point reached in the Homeric age. Between Rhodes and the Troad
+Homer knows of but one city, Miletus--which is a Carian ally of
+Troy--and the mouth of one river, the Cayster. Even the Cyclades--Naxos,
+Paros, Melos--are unknown to the Homeric world. The disposition of the
+Greeks to look to the west for the centres of religious feeling appears
+in the mention of Dodona and the Dodonaean Zeus, put in the mouth of the
+Thessalian Achilles.
+
+To the north we find the Thracians, known from the stories of Thamyris
+the singer (_Il._ ii. 595), and Lycurgus, the enemy of the young god
+Dionysus (_Il._ vi. 130). Here the Trojan empire begins. It does not
+appear, however, that the Trojans are thought of as people of a
+different language. As this is expressly said of the Carians, and of the
+Trojan allies who were "summoned from afar," the contrary rather is
+implied regarding Troy itself.
+
+The mixed type of government described by Homer--consisting of a king
+guided by a council of elders, and bringing all important resolutions
+before the assembly of the fighting men--does not seem to have been
+universal in Indo-European communities, but to have grown up in many
+different parts of the world under the stress of similar conditions. The
+king is the commander in war, and the office probably owed its existence
+to military necessities. It is not surrounded with any special
+sacredness. There were ruling families, laying claim to divine descent,
+from whom the king was naturally chosen, but his own fitness is the
+essence of his title. The aged Laertes is set aside; the young
+Telemachus does not succeed as a matter of course. Nor are any very
+definite rights attached to the office. Each tribe in the army before
+Troy was commanded by its own king (or kings); but Agamemnon was
+supreme, and was "more a king" ([Greek: basileiteros]) than any other.
+The assembly is summoned on all critical occasions, and its approval is
+the ultimate sanction. A king therefore stands in almost as much need of
+oratory as of warlike skill and prowess. Even the division of the spoil
+is not made in the _Iliad_ by Agamemnon, but by "the Achaeans" (_Il._ i.
+162, 368). The taking of Briseis from Achilles was an arbitrary act, and
+against all rule and custom. The council is more difficult to
+understand. The "elders" ([Greek: gerontes]) of the _Iliad_ are the same
+as the subordinate "kings"; they are summoned by Agamemnon to his tent,
+and form a small council of nine or ten persons. In Troy we hear of
+elders of the people ([Greek: demogerontes]) who are with Priam, and are
+men past the military age. So in Ithaca there are elders who have not
+gone to Troy with the army. It would seem therefore that the meeting in
+Agamemnon's tent was only a copy or adaptation of the true
+constitutional "council of elders," which indeed was essentially
+unfitted for the purposes of military service. The king's palace, if we
+may judge from Tiryns and Mycenae, was usually in a strong situation on
+an "acropolis." In the later times of democracy the acropolis was
+reserved for the temples of the principal gods.
+
+Priesthood in Homer is found in the case of particular temples, where an
+officer is naturally wanted to take charge of the sacred inclosure and
+the sacrifices offered within it. It is perhaps an accident that we do
+not hear of priests in Ithaca. Agamemnon performs sacrifice himself, not
+because a priestly character was attached to the kingly office, but
+simply because he was "master in his own house."
+
+The conception of "law" is foreign to Homer. The later words for it
+([Greek: nomos], [Greek: rhetra]) are unknown, and the terms which he
+uses ([Greek: dike] and [Greek: themis]) mean merely "custom." Judicial
+functions are in the hands of the elders, who "have to do with suits"
+([Greek: dikaspoloi]), and "uphold judgments" ([Greek: themistas
+eiryatai]). On such matters as the compensation in cases of homicide, it
+is evident that there were no rules, but merely a feeling, created by
+use and wont, that the relatives of the slain man should be willing to
+accept payment. The sense of anger which follows a violation of custom
+has the name of "Nemesis"--righteous displeasure.
+
+As there is no law in Homer, so there is no morality. That is to say,
+there are no general principles of action, and no words which indicate
+that acts have been classified as good or bad, right or wrong. Moral
+_feeling_, indeed, existed and was denoted by "Aidos"; but the numerous
+meanings of this word--shame, veneration, pity--show how rudimentary the
+idea was. And when we look to practice we find that cruel and even
+treacherous deeds are spoken of without the least sense that they
+deserve censure. The heroes of Homer are hardly more moral agents than
+the giants and enchanters of a fairy tale.
+
+The religious ideas of Homer differ in some important points from those
+of later Greece. The Apollo of the _Iliad_ has the character of a local
+Asiatic deity--"ruler of Chryse and goodly Cilla and Tenedos." He may be
+compared with the Clarian and the Lycian god, but he is unlike the
+Apollo of Dorian times, the "deliverer" and giver of oracles. Again, the
+worship of Dionysus, and of Demeter and Persephone, is mainly or wholly
+post-Homeric. The greatest difference, however, lies in the absence of
+hero-worship from the Homeric order of things. Castor and Polydeuces,
+for instance, are simply brothers of Helen who died before the
+expedition to Troy (_Il._ iii. 243.)
+
+The military tactics of Homer belong to the age when the chariot was the
+principal engine of warfare. Cavalry is unknown, and the battles are
+mainly decided by the prowess of the chiefs. The use of the trumpet is
+also later. It has been supposed indeed that the art of riding was known
+in Homer's own time, because it occurs in comparisons. But the riding
+which he describes (_Il._ xv. 679) is a mere exhibition of skill, such
+as we may see in a modern circus. And though he mentions the trumpet
+(_Il._ xviii. 219), there is nothing to show that it was used, as in
+historical times, to give the signal for the charge.
+
+The chief industries of Homeric times are those of the carpenter
+([Greek: tekton]), the worker in leather ([Greek: skutotomos]), the
+smith or worker in metal ([Greek: chalkeus])--whose implements are the
+hammer and pincers--and the potter ([Greek: kerameus]); also spinning
+and weaving, which were carried on by the women. The fine arts are
+represented by sculpture in relief, carving in wood and ivory,
+embroidery. Statuary is later; it appears to have come into existence in
+the 7th century, about the time when casting in metal was invented by
+Rhoecus of Samos. In general, as was well shown by A. S. Murray,[6]
+Homeric art does not rise above the stage of _decoration_, applied to
+objects in common use; while in point of style it is characterized by a
+richness and variety of ornament which is in the strongest contrast to
+the simplicity of the best periods. It is the work, in short, not of
+artists but of skilled workmen; the ideal artist is "Daedalus," a name
+which implies mechanical skill and intricate workmanship, not beauty of
+design.
+
+One art of the highest importance remains. The question whether writing
+was known in the time of Homer was raised in antiquity, and has been
+debated with especial eagerness ever since the appearance of Wolf's
+_Prolegomena_. In this case we have to consider not merely the
+indications of the poems, but also the external evidence which we
+possess regarding the use of writing in Greece. This latter kind of
+evidence is much more considerable now than it was in Wolf's time. (See
+WRITING elsewhere in these volumes.)
+
+The oldest known stage of the Greek alphabet appears to be represented
+by inscriptions of the islands of Thera, Melos and Crete, which are
+referred to the 40th Olympiad (620 B.C.). The oldest specimen of a
+distinctively Ionian alphabet is the famous inscription of the
+mercenaries of Psammetichus, in Upper Egypt, as to which the only doubt
+is whether the Psammetichus in question is the first or the second, and
+consequently whether the inscription is to be dated Ol. 40 or Ol. 47.
+Considering that the divergence of two alphabets (like the difference of
+two dialects) requires both time and familiar use, we may gather from
+these facts that writing was well known in Greece early in the 7th
+century B.C.[7]
+
+The rise of prose composition in the 6th century B.C. has been thought
+to mark the time when memory was practically superseded by writing as a
+means of preserving literature--the earlier use of letters being
+confined to short documents, such as lists of names, treaties, laws, &c.
+This conclusion, however, is by no means necessary. It may be that down
+to comparatively late rimes poetry was not commonly read, but was
+recited from memory. But the question is--From what time are we to
+suppose that the preservation of long poems was generally secured by the
+existence of written copies? Now, without counting the Homeric
+poems--which doubtless had exceptional advantages in their fame and
+popularity--we find a body of literature dating from the 8th century
+B.C. to which the theory of oral transmission is surely inapplicable. In
+the Trojan cycle alone we know of the two epics of Arctinus, the _Little
+Iliad_ of Lesches, the _Cypria_, the _Nostoi_. The Theban cycle is
+represented by the _Thebaid_ (which Callinus, who was of the 7th
+century, ascribed to Homer) and the _Epigoni_. Other ancient
+epics--ancient enough to have passed under the name of Homer--are the
+_Taking of Oechalia_, and the _Phocais_. Again, there are the numerous
+works attributed to Hesiod and other poets of the didactic,
+mythological and quasi-historical schools--Eumelus of Corinth, Cinaethon
+of Sparta, Agias of Troezen, and many more. The preservation of this
+vast mass can only be attributed to writing, which must therefore have
+been in use for two centuries or more before there was any considerable
+prose literature. Nor is this in itself improbable.
+
+The further question, whether the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ were originally
+written, is much more difficult. External evidence does not reach back
+so far, and the internal evidence is curiously indecisive. The only
+passage which can be interpreted as a reference to writing occurs in the
+story of Bellerophon, told by Glaucus in the sixth book of the _Iliad_.
+Proetus, king of Corinth, sent Bellerophon to his father-in-law the king
+of Lycia, and gave him "baneful tokens" ([Greek: semata lugra], i.e.
+tokens which were messages of death), "scratching on a folded tablet
+many spirit-destroying things, and bade him show this to his
+father-in-law, that he might perish." The king of Lycia asked duly (on
+the tenth day from the guest's coming) for a token ([Greek: hetee sema
+idesthai]), and then knew what Proetus wished to be done. In this
+account there is nothing to show exactly how the message of Proetus was
+expressed. The use of writing for the purpose of the token between
+"guest-friends" (_tessera hospitalis_) is certainly very ancient.
+Mommsen (_Rom. Forsch_. i. 338 ff.) aptly compares the use in treaties,
+which are the oldest species of public documents. But we may suppose
+that tokens of some kind--like the marks which the Greek chiefs make on
+the lots (_Il._ vii. 175 ff.)--were in use before writing was known. In
+any system of signs there were doubtless means of recommending a friend,
+or giving warning of the presence of an enemy. There is no difficulty,
+therefore, in understanding the message of Proetus without alphabetical
+writing. But, on the other hand, there is no reason for so understanding
+it.
+
+If the language of Homer is so ambiguous where the use of writing would
+naturally be mentioned, we cannot expect to find more decisive
+references elsewhere. Arguments have been founded upon the descriptions
+of the blind singers in the _Odyssey_, with their songs inspired
+directly by the Muse; upon the appeals of the poet to the Muses,
+especially in such a place as the opening of the Catalogue; upon the
+Catalogue itself, which is a kind of historical document put into verse
+to help the memory; upon the shipowner in the _Odyssey_, who has "a good
+memory for his cargo," &c. It may be answered, however, that much of
+this is traditional, handed down from the time when all poetry was
+unwritten. Moreover it is one thing to recognize that a literature is
+essentially oral in its form, characteristic of an age which was one of
+hearing rather than of reading, and quite another to hold that the same
+literature was preserved entirely by oral transmission.
+
+The result of these various considerations seems to be that the age
+which we may call the Homeric--the age which is brought before us in
+vivid outlines in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_--lies beyond the earliest
+point to which history enables us to penetrate. And so far as we can
+draw any conclusion as to the author (or authors) of the two poems, it
+is that the whole debate between the cities of Aeolis and Ionia was wide
+of the mark. The author of the _Iliad_, at least, was evidently a
+European Greek who lived before the colonization of Asia Minor; and the
+claims of the Asiatic cities mean no more than that in the days of their
+prosperity these were the chief seats of the fame of Homer.
+
+  This is perhaps the place to consider whether the poems are to be
+  regarded as possessing in any degree the character; of historical
+  record. The question is one which in the absence of satisfactory
+  criteria will generally be decided by taste and predilection. A few
+  suggestions, however, may be made.
+
+  1. The events of the _Iliad_ take place in a real locality, the
+  general features of which are kept steadily in view. There is no doubt
+  about Sigeum and Rhoeteum, or the river Scamander, or the islands
+  Imbros, Lemnos and Tenedos. It is at least remarkable that a legend of
+  the national interest of the "tale of Troy" should be so definitely
+  localized, and that in a district, which was never famous as a seat of
+  Greek population. It may be urged, too, that the story of the _Iliad_
+  is singularly free from the exaggerated and marvellous character which
+  belongs as a rule to the legends of primitive peoples. The apple of
+  discord, the arrows of Philoctetes, the invulnerability of Achilles,
+  and similar fancies, are the additions of later poets. This sobriety,
+  however, belongs not to the whole _Iliad_, but to the events and
+  characters of the war. Such figures as Bellerophon, Niobe, the
+  Amazons, which are thought of as traditions from an earlier
+  generation, show the marvellous element at work.
+
+  2. Certain persons and events in the story have a distinctly mythical
+  stamp. Helen is a figure of this kind. There was another story
+  according to which she was carried off by Theseus, and recovered by
+  her brothers the Dioscuri. There are even traces of a third version,
+  in which the Messenian twins, Idas and Lynceus, appear.
+
+  3. The analogy of the French epic, the _Chanson de Roland_, favours
+  the belief that there was some nucleus of fact. The defeat of
+  Roncevaux was really suffered by a part of Charlemagne's army. But the
+  Saracen army is purely mythical, the true enemy having been the
+  Gascons. If similarly we leave, as historical, the plain of Troy, and
+  the name Agamemnon, we shall perhaps not be far wrong.
+
+(b) The dialect of Homer is an early or "primitive" form of the language
+which we know as that of Attica in the classical age of Greek
+literature. The proof of this proposition is to be obtained chiefly by
+comparing the grammatical formation and the syntax of Homer with those
+of Attic. The comparison of the vocabulary is in the nature of things
+less conclusive on the question of date. It would be impossible to give
+the evidence in full without writing a Homeric grammar, but a few
+specimens may be of interest.
+
+  1. The first aorist in Greek being a "weak" tense, i.e. formed by a
+  suffix ([Greek: -sa]), whereas the second aorist is a "strong" tense,
+  distinguished by the form of the root-syllable, we expect to find a
+  constant tendency to diminish the number of second aorists in use. No
+  new second aorists, we may be sure, were formed any more than new
+  "strong" tenses, such as _came_ or _sang_, can be formed in English.
+  Now in Homer there are upwards of 80 second aorists (not reckoning
+  aorists of "Verbs in [Greek: mi]," such as [Greek: hesten], [Greek:
+  eben]), whereas in all Attic prose not more than 30 are found. In this
+  point therefore the Homeric language is manifestly older. In Attic
+  poets, it is true, the number of such aorists is much larger than in
+  prose. But here again we find that they bear witness to Homer. Of the
+  poetical aorists in Attic the larger part are also Homeric. Others are
+  not really Attic at all, but borrowed from earlier Aeolic and Doric
+  poetry. It is plain, in short, that the later poetical vocabulary was
+  separated from that of prose mainly by the forms which the influence
+  of Homer had saved from being forgotten.
+
+  2. While the whole class of "strong" aorists diminished, certain
+  smaller groups in the class disappeared altogether. Thus we find in
+  Homer, but not in the later language:--
+
+  (a) The second aorist middle without the "thematic" [epsilon] or
+  [omicron]: as [Greek: eble-to], _was struck_; [Greek: ephi-to],
+  _perished_; [Greek: al-to], _leaped_.
+
+  (b) The aorist formed by reduplication: as [Greek: dedaev], _taught_;
+  [Greek: lelabesthai], _to seize_. These constitute a distinct
+  formation, generally with a "causative" meaning; the solitary Attic
+  specimen is [Greek: egagon].
+
+  3. It had long been known that the subjunctive in Homer often takes a
+  short vowel (e.g. in the plural, [Greek: -omen], [Greek: -ete] instead
+  of [Greek: -omen], [Greek: -ete], and in the Mid. [Greek: -omai], &c.
+  instead of [Greek: -omai], &c.). This was generally said to be done by
+  "poetic licence," or _metri gratia_. In fact, however, the Homeric
+  subjunctive is almost quite "regular," though the rule which it obeys
+  is a different one from the Attic. It may be summed up by saying that
+  the subjunctive takes [omega] or [eta] when the indicative has
+  [omicron] or [epsilon], and not otherwise. Thus Homer has [Greek:
+  i-men], _we go_, [Greek: i-o-men], _let us go_. The later [Greek:
+  i-o-men] was at first a solecism, an attempt to conjugate a "verb in
+  [Greek: mi]" like the "verbs in [omega]." It will be evident that
+  under this rule the perfect and first aorist subjunctive should always
+  take a short vowel; and this accordingly is the case, with very few
+  exceptions.
+
+  4. The article ([Greek: ho, he, to]) in Homer is chiefly used as an
+  independent pronoun (_he, she, it_), a use which in Attic appears only
+  in a few combinations (such as [Greek: ho men ... ho de], _the one ...
+  the other_). This difference is parallel to the relation between the
+  Latin _ille_ and the article of the Romance languages.
+
+  5. The prepositions offer several points of comparison. What the
+  grammarians called "tmesis," the separation of the preposition from
+  the verb with which it is compounded, is peculiar to Homer. The true
+  account of the matter is that in Homer the place of the preposition is
+  not rigidly fixed, as it was afterwards. Again, "with" is in Homer
+  [Greek: syn] (with the dative), in Attic prose [Greek: meta] with the
+  genitive. Here Attic poetry is intermediate; the use of [Greek: syn]
+  is retained as a piece of poetical tradition.
+
+  6. In addition to the particle [Greek: an], Homer has another, [Greek:
+  ken], hardly distinguishable in meaning. The Homeric uses of [Greek:
+  an] and [Greek: ken] are different in several respects from the Attic,
+  the general result being that the Homeric syntax is more elastic. And
+  yet it is perfectly definite and precise. Homer uses no constructions
+  loosely or without corresponding differences of meaning. His rules are
+  equally strict with those of the later language, but they are not the
+  same rules. And they differ chiefly in this, that the less common
+  combinations of the earlier period were disused altogether in the
+  later.
+
+  7. In the vocabulary the most striking difference is that many words
+  appear from the metre to have contained a sound which they afterwards
+  lost, viz. that which is written in some Greek alphabets by the
+  "digamma" [digamma] Thus the words [Greek: anax, asty, ergon, epos],
+  and many others must have been written at one time [Greek: Fanax,
+  Fasty, Fergon, Fepos]. This letter, however, died out earlier in Ionic
+  than in most dialects, and there is no proof that the Homeric poems
+  were ever written with it.
+
+These are not, speaking generally, the differences that are produced by
+the gradual divergence of dialects in a language. They are rather to be
+classed with those which we find between the earlier and the later
+stages of every language which has had a long history. The Homeric
+dialect has passed into New Ionic and Attic by gradual but ceaseless
+development of the same kind as that which brought about the change from
+Vedic to classical Sanskrit, or from old high German to the present
+dialects of Germany.
+
+The points that have been mentioned, to which many others might be
+added, make it clear that the Homeric and Attic dialects are separated
+by differences which affect the whole structure of the language, and
+require a considerable time for their development. At the same time
+there is hardly one of these differences which cannot be accounted for
+by the natural growth of the language. It has been thought indeed that
+the Homeric dialect was a mixed one, mainly Ionic, but containing Aeolic
+and even Doric forms; this, however, is a mistaken view of the processes
+of language. There are doubtless many Homeric forms which were unknown
+to the later Ionic and Attic, and which are found in Aeolic or other
+dialects. In general, however, these are _older_ forms, which must have
+existed in Ionic at one time, and may very well have belonged to the
+Ionic of Homer's time. So too the digamma is called "Aeolic" by
+grammarians, and is found on Aeolic and Doric inscriptions. But the
+letter was one of the original alphabet, and was retained universally as
+a numeral. It can only have fallen into disuse by degrees, as the sound
+which it denoted ceased to be pronounced. The fact that there are so
+many traces of it in Homer is a strong proof of the antiquity of the
+poems, but no proof of admixture with Aeolic.
+
+There is one sense, however, in which an admixture of dialects may be
+recognized. It is clear that the variety of forms in Homer is too great
+for any actual spoken dialect. To take a single instance: it is
+impossible that the genitives in [Greek: -oio] and in [Greek: -ou]
+should both have been in everyday use together. The form in [Greek:
+-oio] must have been poetical or literary, like the old English forms
+that survive in the language of the Bible. The origin of such double
+forms is not far to seek. The effect of dialect on style was always
+recognized in Greece, and the dialect which had once been adopted by a
+particular kind of poetry was ever afterwards adhered to. The Epic of
+Homer was doubtless formed originally from a spoken variety of Greek,
+but became literary and conventional with time. It is Homer himself who
+tells us, in a striking passage (_Il._ iv. 437) that all the Greeks
+spoke the same language--that is to say, that they understood one
+another, in spite of the inevitable local differences. Experience shows
+how some one dialect in a country gains a literary supremacy to which
+the whole nation yields. So Tuscan became the type of Italian, and
+Anglian of English. But as soon as the dialect is adopted, it begins to
+diverge from the colloquial form. Just as modern poetical Italian uses
+many older grammatical forms peculiar to itself, so the language of
+poetry, even in Homeric times, had formed a deposit (so to speak) of
+archaic grammar. There were doubtless poets before Homer, as well as
+brave men before Agamemnon; and indeed the formation of a poetical
+dialect such as the Homeric must have been the work of several
+generations. The use of that dialect (instead of Aeolic) by the Boeotian
+poet Hesiod, in a kind of poetry which was not of the Homeric type,
+tends to the conclusion that the literary ascendancy of the epic dialect
+was anterior to the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, and independent of the
+influence exercised by these poems.
+
+What then was the original language of Homer? Where and when was it
+spoken? [The answer given to this question by Aug. Fick (in 1883) and
+still held, with modifications, by some European scholars can no longer
+be maintained. Fick's original statement was that in or about the 6th
+century B.C. the poems, which had originally worn an Aeolic dress, were
+transposed into Ionic. To this it is easily answered that such an event
+is not only unique in history, but contrary to all that we know of the
+Greek genius. At the period in question an Aeolic literature, the lyrics
+of Sappho and Alcaeus, were in existence. If it was found necessary to
+transpose the Aeolic Homer, why did the Aeolic lyric verse escape? If,
+however, as is the view of some of Fick's followers, the transposition
+took place several centuries earlier, before species of literature had
+appropriated particular dialects, then the linguistic facts upon which
+Fick relied to distinguish the "Aeolic" and "Ionic" elements in Homer
+disappear. We have no means of knowing what the Aeolic and Ionic of say
+the 9th century were, or if there were such dialects at all. Certain
+prominent historical differences between Aeolic and Ionic (the digamma
+and alpha) are known to be unoriginal. The view that Homer underwent at
+any time a passage from one dialect to another may be dismissed. The
+tendency of modern dialectologists is to divide the Greek dialects into
+Dorian and non-Dorian. The non-Dorian dialects, Ionic, Attic and the
+various forms of Aeolic, are regarded as relatively closely akin, and go
+by the common name "Achaean." They formed the common language of Greece
+before the Doric invasion. As the scene which Homer depicts is
+prae-Dorian Greece, it is reasonable to call his language Achaean. The
+historical divergences of Achaean into Aeolian and Ionic were later than
+the Migration, and were due to the well-known effects of change of soil
+and air.
+
+To what local variety of Achaean Homeric Greek belonged it is idle to
+ask. Thessaly, Boeotia and Mycenae have equal claims. It seems clearer
+that when once this local variety of Achaean had been used by poets of
+eminence as their vehicle for national history, it established its right
+to be considered the one poetical language of Hellas. As the dialect of
+the Arno in Italy, of Castille in Spain, by the virtue of the genius of
+the singers who used them, became literary "Italian" and "Spanish," so
+this variety of Achaean elevated itself to the position of the _volgare
+illustre_ of Greece.[8]]     (T. W. A.)
+
+(c) The influence of Homer upon the subsequent course of Greek
+literature is a large subject, even if we restrict it to the centuries
+which immediately followed the Homeric age. It will be enough to observe
+that in the earliest elegiac poets, such as Archilochus, Tyrtaeus and
+Theognis, reminiscences of Homeric language and thought meet us on every
+page. If the same cannot be said of the ancient epic poems, that is
+because of the extreme scantiness of the existing fragments. Much,
+however, is to be gathered from the arguments of the Trojan part of the
+Epic Cycle (preserved in the _Codex Venetus_ of the _Iliad_, a full
+discussion of which will be found in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
+1884, pp. 1-40). An examination of these arguments throws light on two
+chief aspects of the relation between Homer and his "cyclic" successors.
+
+1. The later poets sought to complete the story of the Trojan war by
+supplying the parts which did not fall within the _Iliad_ and
+_Odyssey_--the so-called _ante-homerica_ and _post-homerica_. They did
+so largely from hints and passing references in Homer. Thus the
+successive episodes of the siege related at length in the _Little
+Iliad_, and ending with the story of the Wooden Horse, are nearly all
+taken from passages in the _Odyssey_. Much the same may be said of the
+_Nosti_.
+
+2. With this process of expansion and development (so to speak) of
+Homeric themes is combined the addition of new characters. Such, in the
+_Little Iliad_ (e.g.), are the story of the Palladium and of the
+treachery of Sinon. Such, too, in the _Cypria_ are the new legendary
+figures--Palamedes, Iphigenia, Telephus, Laocoon. These new elements in
+the narrative are evidently due not only to the natural growth of legend
+in a people highly endowed with imagination, but in a large proportion
+also to the new races and countries with which the Greeks came into
+contact, as well as to their own rapid advance in wealth and
+civilization. It will be observed that the two poems of Arctinus are
+remarkable for the proportion of new matter of the latter kind. The
+_Aethiopis_ shows us the allies of Troy reinforced by two peoples that
+are evidently creations of oriental fancy, the Amazons and Memnon with
+his Aethiopians. The _Iliu Persis_, again, was the oldest authority for
+the story of Laocoon and of the consequent escape of Aeneas--a story
+which connected a surviving branch of the house of Priam with the later
+inhabitants of the Troad. On the other hand the fate of Creusa (_sed me
+magna deum genetrix his detinet oris_) is a link with the worship of
+Cybele. The journey of Calchas to Colophon and his death there, as told
+in the _Nosti_, is another instance of the kind. These facts point to a
+familiarity with the Greek colonies in Asia which contrasts strongly
+with the silence of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_.
+
+  _Study of Homer._--_The Homeric Question._--The critical study of
+  Homer began in Greece almost with the beginning of prose writing. The
+  first name is that of Theagenes of Rhegium, contemporary of Cambyses
+  (525 B.C.), who is said to have founded the "new grammar" (the older
+  "grammar" being the art of reading and writing), and to have been the
+  inventor of the allegorical interpretations by which it was sought to
+  reconcile the Homeric mythology with the morality and speculative
+  ideas of the 6th century B.C. The same attitude in the "ancient
+  quarrel of poetry and philosophy" was soon afterwards taken by
+  Anaxagoras; and after him by his pupil Metrodorus of Lampsacus, who
+  explained away all the gods, and even the heroes, as elementary
+  substances and forces (Agamemnon as the upper air, &c.).
+
+  The next writers on Homer of the "grammatical" type were Stesimbrotus
+  of Thasos (contemporary with Cimon) and Antimachus of Colophon,
+  himself an epic poet of mark. The _Thebaid_ of Antimachus, however,
+  was not popular, and seems to have been a great storehouse of
+  mythological learning rather than a poem of the Homeric school.
+
+  Other names of the pre-Socratic and Socratic times are mentioned by
+  Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle. These were the "ancient Homerics"
+  ([Greek: hoi archaioi Homerikoi]), who busied themselves much with the
+  hidden meanings of Homer; of whom Aristotle says, with his profound
+  insight, that they see the small likenesses and overlook the great
+  ones (_Metaph._ xii.).
+
+  The text of Homer must have attracted some attention when Antimachus
+  came to be known as the "corrector" ([Greek: diorthotes]) of a
+  distinct edition ([Greek: ekdosis]), Aristotle is said himself to have
+  made a recension for the use of Alexander the Great. This is unlikely.
+  His remarks on Homer (in the _Poetics_ and elsewhere) show that he had
+  made a careful study of the structure and leading ideas of the poems,
+  but do not throw much light on the text.
+
+  The real work of criticism became possible only when great collections
+  of manuscripts began to be made by the princes of the generation after
+  Alexander, and when men of learning were employed to sift and arrange
+  these treasures. In this way the great Alexandrian school of Homeric
+  criticism began with Zenodotus, the first chief of the museum, and was
+  continued by Aristophanes and Aristarchus. In Aristarchus ancient
+  philology culminated, as philosophy had done in Socrates. All earlier
+  learning either passed into his writings, or was lost; all subsequent
+  research turned upon his critical and grammatical work.
+
+  The means of forming a judgment of the Alexandrine criticism are
+  scanty. The literary form which preserved the works of the great
+  historians was unfortunately wanting, or was not sufficiently valued,
+  in the case of the grammarians. Abridgments and newer treatises soon
+  drove out the writings of Aristarchus and other founders of the
+  science. Moreover, a recension could not be reproduced without new
+  errors soon creeping in. Thus we find that Didymus, writing in the
+  time of Cicero, does not quote the readings of Aristarchus as we
+  should quote a _textus receptus_. Indeed, the object of his work seems
+  to have been to determine what those readings were. Enough, however,
+  remains to show that Aristarchus had a clear notion of the chief
+  problems of philology (except perhaps those concerning etymology). He
+  saw, for example, that it was not enough to find a meaning for the
+  archaic words (the [Greek: glossai], as they were called), but that
+  common words (such as [Greek: ponos, phobos]) had their Homeric uses,
+  which were to be gathered by due induction. In the same spirit he
+  looked upon the ideas and beliefs of Homer as a consistent whole,
+  which might be determined from the evidence of the poems. He noticed
+  especially the difference between the stories known to Homer and those
+  given by later poets, and made many comparisons between Homeric and
+  later manners, arts and institutions. Again, he was sensible of the
+  paramount value of manuscript authority, and appears to have
+  introduced no readings from mere conjecture. The frequent mention in
+  the Scholia of "better" and "inferior" texts may indicate a
+  classification made by him or by the general opinion of critics. His
+  use of the "obelus" to distinguish spurious verses, which made so
+  large a part of his fame in antiquity, has rather told against him
+  with modern scholars.[9] It is chiefly interesting as a proof of the
+  confusion in which the text must have been before the Alexandrian
+  times; for it is impossible to understand the readiness of Aristarchus
+  to suspect the genuineness of verses unless the state of the copies
+  had pointed to the existence of numerous interpolations. On this
+  matter, however, we are left to conjecture.
+
+  Our knowledge of Alexandrian criticism is derived almost wholly from a
+  single document, the famous _Iliad_ of the library of St Mark in
+  Venice (_Codex Venetus_ 454, or _Ven. A_), first published by the
+  French scholar Villoison in 1788 (_Scholia antiquissima ad Homeri
+  Iliadem_). This manuscript, written in the 10th century, contains (1)
+  the best text of the _Iliad_, (2) the critical marks of Aristarchus
+  and (3) Scholia, consisting mainly of extracts from four grammatical
+  works, viz. Didymus (contemporary of Cicero) on the recension of
+  Aristarchus, Aristonicus (fl. 24 B.C.) on the critical marks of
+  Aristarchus, Herodian (fl. A.D. 160) on the accentuation, and Nicanor
+  (fl. A.D. 127) on the punctuation, of the _Iliad_.
+
+  These extracts present themselves in two distinct forms. One series of
+  scholia is written in the usual way, on a margin reserved for the
+  purpose. The other consists of brief scholia, written in very small
+  characters (but of the same period) on the narrow space left vacant
+  round the text. Occasionally a scholium of this kind gives the
+  substance of one of the longer extracts; but as a rule they are
+  distinct. It would seem, therefore, that after the manuscript was
+  finished the "marginal scholia" were discovered to be extremely
+  defective, and a new series of extracts was added in a form which
+  interfered as little as possible with the appearance of the book.[10]
+
+  The mention of the Venetian Scholia leads us at once to the Homeric
+  controversy; for the immortal _Prolegomena_ of F. A. Wolf[11] appeared
+  a few years after Villoison's publication, and was founded in great
+  measure upon the fresh and abundant materials which it furnished. Not
+  that the "Wolfian theory" of the Homeric poems is directly supported
+  by anything in the Scholia; the immediate object of the _Prolegomena_
+  was not to put forward that theory, but to elucidate the new and
+  remarkable conditions under which the text of Homer had to be settled,
+  viz. the discovery of an _apparatus criticus_ of the 2nd century B.C.
+  The questions regarding the original structure and early history of
+  the poems were raised (forced upon him, it may be said) by the
+  critical problem; but they were really originated by facts and ideas
+  of a wholly different order.
+
+  The 18th century, in which the spirit of classical correctness had the
+  most absolute dominion, did not come to an end before a powerful
+  reaction set in, which affected not only literature but also
+  speculation and politics. In this movement the leading ideas were
+  concentrated in the word Nature. The natural condition of society,
+  natural law, natural religion, the poetry of nature, gained a singular
+  hold, first on the English philosophers from Hume onwards, and then
+  (through Rousseau chiefly) on the general drift of thought and action
+  in Europe. In literature the effect of these ideas was to set up a
+  false opposition between nature and art. As political writers imagined
+  a patriarchal innocence prior to codes of law, so men of letters
+  sought in popular unwritten poetry the freshness and simplicity which
+  were wanting in the prevailing styles. The blind minstrel was the
+  counterpart of the noble savage. The supposed discovery of the poems
+  of Ossian fell in with this train of sentiment, and created an
+  enthusiasm for the study of early popular poetry. Homer was soon drawn
+  into the circle of inquiry. Blackwell (Professor of Greek at Aberdeen)
+  had insisted, in a book published in 1735, on the "naturalness" of
+  Homer; and Wood (_Essay on the Original Genius of Homer_, London,
+  1769) was the first who maintained that Homer composed without the
+  help of writing, and supported his thesis by ancient authority, and
+  also by the parallel of Ossian. Both these books were translated into
+  German, and their ideas passed into the popular philosophy of the day.
+  Everything in short was ripe for the reception of a book that brought
+  together, with masterly ease and vigour, the old and the new Homeric
+  learning, and drew from it the historical proof that Homer was no
+  single poet, writing according to art and rule, but a name which stood
+  for a golden age of the true spontaneous poetry of genius and nature.
+
+  The part of the _Prolegomena_ which deals with the original form of
+  the Homeric poems occupies pp. xl.-clx. (in the first edition). Wolf
+  shows how the question of the date of writing meets us on the
+  threshold of the textual criticism of Homer and accordingly enters
+  into a full discussion, first of the external evidence, then of the
+  indications furnished by the poems. Having satisfied himself that
+  writing was unknown to Homer, he is led to consider the real mode of
+  transmission, and finds this in the Rhapsodists, of whom the Homeridae
+  were an hereditary school. And then comes the conclusion to which all
+  this has been tending: "the die is cast"--the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_
+  cannot have been composed in the form in which we know them without
+  the aid of writing. They must therefore have been, as Bentley had
+  said, "a sequel of songs and rhapsodies," "loose songs not collected
+  together in the form of an epic poem till about 500 years after." This
+  conclusion he then supports by the character attributed to the
+  "Cyclic" poems (whose want of unity showed that the structure of the
+  _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ must be the work of a later time), by one or two
+  indications of imperfect connexion, and by the doubts of ancient
+  critics as to the genuineness of certain parts. These, however, are
+  matters of conjecture. "Historia loquitur." The voice of antiquity is
+  unanimous in declaring that "Peisistratus first committed the poems of
+  Homer to writing, and reduced them to the order in which we now read
+  them."
+
+  The appeal of Wolf to the "voice of all antiquity" is by no means
+  borne out by the different statements on the subject. According to
+  Heraclides Ponticus (pupil of Plato), the poetry of Homer was first
+  brought to the Peloponnesus by Lycurgus, who obtained it from the
+  descendants of Creophylus (_Polit._ fr. 2). Plutarch in his _Life of
+  Lycurgus_ (c. 4) repeats this story, with the addition that there was
+  already a faint report of the poems in Greece, and that certain
+  detached fragments were in the possession of a few persons. Again, the
+  Platonic dialogue _Hipparchus_ (which though not genuine is probably
+  earlier than the Alexandrian times) asserts that Hipparchus, son of
+  Peisistratus, first brought the poems to Athens, and obliged the
+  rhapsodists at the Panathenaea to follow the order of the text, "as
+  they still do," instead of reciting portions chosen at will. The
+  earliest authority for attributing any work of the kind to
+  Peisistratus is the well-known passage of Cicero (_De Orat._ 3. 34:
+  "Quis doctior eisdem temporibus illis, aut cujus eloquentia litteris
+  instructior fuisse traditur quam Pisistrati? qui primus Homeri libros,
+  confusos antea, sic disposuisse dicitur ut nunc habemus"). To the same
+  effect Pausanias (vii. p. 594) says that the change of the name
+  Donoessa to Gonoessa (in _Il._ ii. 573) was thought to have been made
+  by "Peisistratus or one of his companions," when he collected the
+  poems, which were then in a fragmentary condition. Finally, Diogenes
+  Laertius (i. 57) says that Solon made a law that the poems should be
+  recited with the help of a prompter so that each rhapsodist should
+  begin where the last left off; and he argues from this that Solon did
+  more than Peisistratus to make Homer known. The argument is directed
+  against a certain Dieuchidas of Megara, who appears to have maintained
+  that the verses about Athens in the Catalogue (_Il._ ii. 546-556) were
+  interpolated by Peisistratus. The passage is unfortunately corrupt,
+  but it is at least clear that in the time of Solon, according to
+  Diogenes, there were complete copies of the poems, such as could be
+  used to control the recitations. Hence the account of Diogenes is
+  quite irreconcilable with the notices on which Wolf relied.
+
+  It is needless to examine the attempts which have been made to
+  harmonize these accounts. Such attempts usually start with the tacit
+  assumption that each of the persons concerned--Lycurgus, Solon,
+  Peisistratus, Hipparchus--must have done _something_ for the text of
+  Homer, or for the regulation of the rhapsodists. But we have first to
+  consider whether any of the accounts come to us on such evidence that
+  we are bound to consider them as containing a nucleus of truth.
+
+  In the first place, the statement that Lycurgus obtained the poems
+  from descendants of Creophylus must be admitted to be purely mythical.
+  But if we reject it, have we any better reason for believing the
+  parallel assertion in the Platonic _Hipparchus_? It is true that
+  Hipparchus is undoubtedly a real person. On the other hand it is
+  evident that the Peisistratidae soon became the subject of many
+  fables. Thucydides notices as a popular mistake the belief that
+  Hipparchus was the eldest son of Peisistratus, and that consequently
+  he was the reigning "tyrant" when he was killed by Aristogiton. The
+  Platonic _Hipparchus_ follows this erroneous version, and may
+  therefore be regarded as representing (at best) mere local tradition.
+  We may reasonably go further, and see in this part of the dialogue a
+  piece of historical romance, designed to put the "tyrant" family in a
+  favourable light, as patrons of literature and learning.
+
+  Again, the account of the _Hipparchus_ is contradicted by Diogenes
+  Laertius, who says that Solon provided for the due recitation of the
+  Homeric poems. The only good authorities as to this point are the
+  orators Lycurgus and Isocrates, who mention the law prescribing the
+  recitation, but do not say when or by whom it was enacted. The
+  inference seems a fair one, that the author of the law was really
+  unknown.
+
+  With regard to the statements which attribute some work in connexion
+  with Homer to Peisistratus, it was noticed by Wolf that Cicero,
+  Pausanias and the others who mention the matter do so _nearly in the
+  same words_, and, therefore, appear to have drawn from a common
+  source. This source was in all probability an epigram quoted in two of
+  the short lives of Homer, and there said to have been inscribed on the
+  statue of Peisistratus at Athens. In it Peisistratus is made to say of
+  himself that he "collected Homer, who was formerly sung in fragments,
+  for the golden poet was a citizen of ours, since we Athenians founded
+  Smyrna." The other statements repeat these words with various minor
+  additions, chiefly intended to explain how the poems had been reduced
+  to this fragmentary condition, and how Peisistratus set to work to
+  restore them. Thus all the authority for the work of Peisistratus
+  "reduces itself to the testimony of a single anonymous inscription"
+  (Nutzhorn p. 40). Now, what is the value of that testimony? It is
+  impossible of course to believe that a statue of Peisistratus was set
+  up at Athens in the time of the free republic. The epigram is almost
+  certainly a mere literary exercise. And what exactly does it say? Only
+  that Homer was _recited in fragments_ by the rhapsodists, and that
+  these partial recitations were made into a continuous whole by
+  Peisistratus; which does not necessarily mean more than that
+  Peisistratus did what other authorities ascribe to Solon and
+  Hipparchus, viz. regulated the recitation.
+
+  Against the theory which sees in Peisistratus the author of the first
+  complete text of Homer we have to set the absolute silence of
+  Herodotus, Thucydides, the orators and the Alexandrian grammarians.
+  And it can hardly be thought that their silence is accidental.
+  Herodotus and Thucydides seem to tell us all that they know of
+  Peisistratus. The orators Lycurgus and Isocrates make a great deal of
+  the recitation of Homer at the Panathenaea, but know nothing of the
+  poems having been collected and arranged at Athens, a fact which would
+  have redounded still more to the honour of the city. Finally, the
+  Scholia of the _Ven. A_ contain no reference or allusion to the story
+  of Peisistratus. As these Scholia are derived in substance from the
+  writings of Aristarchus, it seems impossible to believe that the story
+  was known to him. The circumstance that it is referred to in the
+  _Scholia Townleiana_ and in Eustathius, gives additional weight to
+  this argument.
+
+  The result of these considerations seems to be that nothing rests on
+  good evidence beyond the fact that Homer was recited by law at the
+  Panathenaic festival. The rest of the story is probably the result of
+  gradual expansion and accretion. It was inevitable that later writers
+  should speculate about the authorship of such a law, and that it
+  should be attributed with more or less confidence to Solon or
+  Peisistratus or Hipparchus. The choice would be determined in great
+  measure by political feeling. It is probably not an accident that
+  Dieuchidas, who attributed so much to Peisistratus, was a Megarian.
+  The author of the _Hipparchus_ is evidently influenced by the
+  anti-democratical tendencies in which he only followed Plato. In the
+  times to which the story of Peisistratus can be traced, the 1st
+  century B.C., the substitution of the "tyrant" for the legislator was
+  extremely natural. It was equally natural that the importance of his
+  work as regards the text of Homer should be exaggerated. The splendid
+  patronage of letters by the successors of Alexander, and especially
+  the great institutions which had been founded at Alexandria and
+  Pergamum, had made an impression on the imagination of learned men
+  which was reflected in the current notions of the ancient despots. It
+  may even be suspected that anecdotes in praise of Peisistratus and
+  Hipparchus were a delicate form of flattery addressed to the reigning
+  Ptolemy. Under these influences the older stories of Lycurgus bringing
+  Homer to the Peloponnesus, and Solon providing for the recitation at
+  Athens, were thrown into the shade.
+
+  In the later Byzantine times it was believed that Peisistratus was
+  aided by seventy grammarians, of whom Zenedotus and Aristarchus were
+  the chief. The great Alexandrian grammarians had become figures in a
+  new mythology. It is true that Tzetzes, one of the writers from whom
+  we have this story, gives a better version, according to which
+  Peisistratus employed four men, viz. Onomacritus, Zopyrus of Heraclea,
+  Orpheus of Croton, and one whose name is corrupt (written [Greek:
+  epikogkylos]). Many scholars (among them Ritschl) accept this account
+  as probable. Yet it rests upon no better evidence than the other.
+
+  The effect of Wolf's _Prolegomena_ was so overwhelming that, although
+  a few protests were made at the time, the true Homeric controversy did
+  not begin till after Wolf's death (1824). His speculations were
+  thoroughly in harmony with the ideas and sentiment of the time, and
+  his historical arguments, especially his long array of testimonies to
+  the work of Peisistratus, were hardly challenged.
+
+  The first considerable antagonist of the Wolfian school was G. W.
+  Nitzsch, whose writings cover the years 1828-1862, and deal with every
+  side of the controversy. In the earlier part of his _Meletemata_
+  (1830) he took up the question of written or unwritten literature, on
+  which Wolf's whole argument turned, and showed that the art of writing
+  must be anterior to Peisistratus. In the later part of the same series
+  of discussions (1837), and in his chief work (_Die Sagenpoesie der
+  Griechen_, 1852), he investigated the structure of the Homeric poems,
+  and their relation to the other epics of the Trojan cycle. These epics
+  had meanwhile been made the subject of a work which for exhaustive
+  learning and delicacy of artistic perception has few rivals in the
+  history of philology, the _Epic Cycle_ of F. G. Welcker. The confusion
+  which previous scholars had made between the ancient post-Homeric
+  poets (Arctinus, Lesches, &c.) and the learned mythological writers
+  (such as the "scriptor cyclicus" of Horace) was first cleared up by
+  Welcker. Wolf had argued that if the cyclic writers had known the
+  _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ which we possess, they would have imitated the
+  unity of structure which distinguishes these two poems. The result of
+  Welcker's labours was to show that the Homeric poems had influenced
+  both the form and the substance of epic poetry.
+
+  In this way there arose a conservative school who admitted more or
+  less freely the absorption of pre-existing lays in the formation of
+  the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, and also the existence of considerable
+  interpolations, but assigned the main work of formation to prehistoric
+  times, and to the genius of a great poet. Whether the two epics were
+  by the same author remained an open question; the tendency of this
+  group of scholars was decidedly towards separation. Regarding the use
+  of writing, too, they were not unanimous. K. O. Muller, for instance,
+  maintained the view of Wolf on this point, while he strenuously
+  combated the inference which Wolf drew from it.
+
+  The _Prolegomena_ bore on the title-page the words "Volumen I."; but
+  no second volume ever appeared, nor was any attempt made by Wolf
+  himself to carry his theory further. The first important steps in that
+  direction were taken by Gottfried Hermann, chiefly in two
+  dissertations, _De interpolationibus Homeri_ (Leipzig, 1832), and _De
+  iteratis Homeri_ (Leipzig, 1840), called forth by the writings of
+  Nitzsch. As the word "interpolation" implies, Hermann did not maintain
+  the hypothesis of a congeries of independent "lays." Feeling the
+  difficulty of supposing that all the ancient minstrels sang of the
+  "wrath of Achilles" or the "return of Ulysses" (leaving out even the
+  capture of Troy itself), he was led to assume that two poems of no
+  great compass dealing with these two themes became so famous at an
+  early period as to throw other parts of the Trojan story into the
+  background, and were then enlarged by successive generations of
+  rhapsodists. Some parts of the _Iliad_, moreover, seemed to him to be
+  older than the poem on the wrath of Achilles; and thus in addition to
+  the "Homeric" and "post-Homeric" matter he distinguished a
+  "pre-Homeric" element.
+
+  The conjectures of Hermann, in which the Wolfian theory found a
+  modified and tentative application, were presently thrown into the
+  shade by the more trenchant method of Lachmann, who (in two papers
+  read to the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841) sought to show that the
+  _Iliad_ was made up of sixteen independent "lays," with various
+  enlargements and interpolations, all finally reduced to order by
+  Peisistratus. The first book, for instance, consists of a lay on the
+  anger of Achilles (1-347), and two continuations, the return of
+  Chryseis (430-492) and the scenes in Olympus (348-429, 493-611). The
+  second book forms a second lay, but several passages, among them the
+  speech of Ulysses (278-332), are interpolated. In the third book the
+  scenes in which Helen and Priam take part (including the making of the
+  truce) are pronounced to be interpolations; and so on. Regarding the
+  evidence on which these sweeping results are founded, opinions will
+  vary. The degree of smoothness or consistency which is to be expected
+  on the hypothesis of a single author will be determined by taste
+  rather than argument. The dissection of the first book, for instance,
+  turns partly on a chronological inaccuracy which might well escape the
+  poet as well as his hearers. In examining such points we are apt to
+  forget that the contradictions by which a story is shown to be untrue
+  are quite different from those by which a confessedly untrue story
+  would be shown to be the work of different authors.
+
+_Structure of the Iliad._--The subject of the Iliad, as the first line
+proclaims, is the "anger of Achilles." The manner in which this subject
+is worked out will appear from the following summary in which we
+distinguish (1) the plot, i.e. the story of the quarrel, (2) the main
+course of the war, which forms a sort of underplot, and (3) subordinate
+episodes.
+
+  I. Quarrel of Achilles with Agamemnon and the Greek army--Agamemnon,
+    having been compelled to give up his prize Chryseis, takes Briseis
+    from Achilles--Thereupon Achilles appeals to his mother Thetis, who
+    obtains from Zeus a promise that he will give victory to the Trojans
+    until the Greeks pay due honour to her son--Meanwhile Achilles takes
+    no part in the war.
+
+  II. Agamemnon is persuaded by a dream sent from Zeus to take the
+    field with all his forces.
+
+    His attempt to test the temper of the army nearly leads to their
+    return.
+
+    Catalogue of the army (probably a later addition).
+
+    Trojan muster--Trojan catalogue.
+
+  III. Meeting of the Armies--Paris challenges Menelaus--Truce made.
+
+    "Teichoscopy," Helen pointing out to Priam the Greek leaders.
+
+    The duel--Paris is saved by Aphrodite.
+
+  IV. Truce broken by Pandarus.
+
+    Advance of the armies--Battle.
+
+  V. Aristeia of Diomede--his combat with Aphrodite.
+
+  VI.--Meeting with Glaucus--Visit of Hector to the (1-311) city, and
+    offering of a peplus to Athena.
+
+    (312-529) Visit of Hector to Paris--to Andromache.
+
+  VII. Return of Hector and Paris to the field.
+
+    Duel of Ajax and Hector.
+
+    Truce for burial of dead.
+
+    The Greeks build a wall round their camp.
+
+  VIII. Battle--The Trojans encamp on the field.
+
+  IX. Agamemnon sends an embassy by night, offering Achilles
+    restitution and full amends--Achilles refuses.
+
+  X. Doloneia--Night expedition of Odysseus and Diomede (in all
+    probability added later).
+
+  XI. Aristeia of Agamemnon--he is wounded--Wounding of Diomede and
+    Odysseus.
+
+    Achilles sends Antilochus to inquire about Machaon.
+
+  XII. Storming of the wall--the Trojans reach the ships.
+
+  XIII. Zeus ceases to watch the field--Poseidon secretly comes to the
+    aid of the Greeks.
+
+  XIV. Sleep of Zeus, by the contrivance of Hera.
+
+  XV. Zeus awakened--Restores the advantage to the Trojans--Ajax alone
+    defends the ships.
+
+  XVI. Achilles is persuaded to allow Patroclus to take the field.
+    Patroclus drives back the Trojans--kills Sarpedon--is himself killed
+    by Hector.
+
+  XVII. Battle for the body of Patroclus--Aristeia of Menelaus.
+
+  XVIII. News of the death of Patroclus is brought to Achilles--Thetis
+    comes with the Nereids--promises to obtain new armour for him from
+    Hephaestus.
+
+    The shield of Achilles described.
+
+  XIX. Reconciliation of Achilles--His grief and desire to avenge
+    Patroclus.
+
+  XX. The gods come down to the plain--Combat of Achilles with Aeneas
+    and Hector, who escape.
+
+  XXI. The Scamander is choked with slain--rises against Achilles, who
+    is saved by Hephaestus.
+
+  XXII. Hector alone stands against Achilles--his flight round the
+    walls--he is slain.
+
+  XXIII. Burial of Patroclus--Funeral games.
+
+  XXIV. Priam ransoms the body of Hector--his burial.
+
+Such is the "action" ([Greek: praxis]) which in Aristotle's opinion
+showed the superiority of Homer to all later epic poets. But the proof
+that his scheme was the work of a great poet does not depend merely upon
+the artistic unity which excited the wonder of Aristotle. A number of
+separate "lays" might conceivably be arranged and connected by a man of
+poetical taste in a manner that would satisfy all requirements. In such
+a case, however, the connecting passages would be slight and weak. Now,
+in the _Iliad_ these passages are the finest and most characteristic.
+The element of connexion and unity is the story of the "wrath of
+Achilles"; and we have only to look at the books which give the story of
+the wrath to see how essential they are. Even if the ninth book is
+rejected (as Grote proposed), there remain the speeches of the first,
+sixteenth and nineteenth books. These speeches form the cardinal points
+in the action of the _Iliad_--the framework into which everything else
+is set; and they have also the best title to the name of Homer.
+
+The further question, however, remains,--What shorter narrative piece
+fulfilling the conditions of an independent poem has Lachmann succeeded
+in disengaging from the existing _Iliad_? It must be admitted that when
+tried by this test his "lays" generally fail. The "quarrel of the
+chiefs," the "muster of the army," the "duel of Paris and Menelaus,"
+&c., are excellent beginnings, but have no satisfying conclusion. And
+the reason is not far to seek. The _Iliad_ is not a history, nor is it a
+series of incidents in the history, of the siege. It turns entirely upon
+a single incident, occupying a few days only. The several episodes of
+the poem are not so many distinct stories, each with an interest of its
+own. They are only parts of a single main event. Consequently the type
+of epic poem which would be produced by an aggregation of shorter lays
+is not the type which we have in the _Iliad_. Rather the _Iliad_ is
+itself a single lay which has grown with the growth of poetical art to
+the dimensions of an epic.
+
+But the original nucleus and parts of the incidents may be the work of a
+single great poet, and yet other episodes may be of different
+authorship, wrought into the structure of the poem in later times.
+Various theories have been based on this supposition. Grote in
+particular held that the original poem, which he called the Achilleis,
+did not include books ii.-vii., ix., x., xxiii., xxiv. Such a view may
+be defended somewhat as follows.
+
+Of the books which relate the events during the absence of Achilles from
+the Greek ranks (ii.-xv.), the last five are directly related to the
+main action. They describe the successive steps by which the Greeks are
+driven back, first from the plain to the rampart, then to their ships.
+Moreover, three of the chief heroes, Agamemnon, Diomede and Ulysses, are
+wounded, and this circumstance, as Lachmann himself admitted, is
+steadily kept in mind throughout. It is otherwise with the earlier books
+(especially ii.-vii.). The chief incidents in that part of the poem--the
+panic rush to the ships, the duels of Paris and Menelaus, and of Hector
+and Ajax, the Aristeia of Diomede--stand in no relation to the
+mainspring of the poem, the promise made by Zeus to Thetis. It is true
+that in the thirteenth and fourteenth books the purpose of Zeus is
+thwarted for a time by other gods; but in books ii.-vii. it is not so
+much thwarted as ignored. Further, the events follow without sufficient
+connexion. The truce of the third book is broken by Pandarus, and
+Agamemnon passes along the Greek ranks with words of encouragement, but
+without a hint of the treachery just committed. The Aristeia of Diomede
+ends in the middle of the sixth book; he is uppermost in all thoughts
+down to ver. 311, but from this point, in the meetings of Hector with
+Helen and Andromache, and again in the seventh book when Hector
+challenges the Greek chiefs, his prowess is forgotten. Once more, some
+of the incidents seem to belong properly to the beginning of the war.
+The joy of Menelaus on seeing Paris, Priam's ignorance of the Greek
+leaders, the speeches of Agamemnon in his review of the ranks (in book
+iv.), the building of the wall--all these are in place after the Greek
+landing, but hardly in the ninth year of the siege.
+
+On the other hand, it may be said, the second book opens with a direct
+reference to the events of the first, and the mention of Achilles in the
+speech of Thersites (ii. 239 sqq.) is sufficient to keep the main course
+of events in view. The Catalogue is connected with its place in the poem
+by the lines about Achilles (686-694). When Diomede is at the height of
+his Aristeia Helenus says (_Il._ vi. 99), "We did not so fear even
+Achilles." And when in the third book Priam asks Helen about the Greek
+captains, or when in the seventh book nine champions come forward to
+contend with Hector, the want of the greatest hero of all is
+sufficiently felt. If these passages do not belong to the period of the
+wrath of Achilles, how are we to account for his conspicuous absence?
+
+Further, the want of smoothness and unity which is visible in this part
+of the _Iliad_ may be due to other causes than difference of date or
+authorship. A national poet such as the author of the _Iliad_ cannot
+always choose or arrange his matter at his own will. He is bound by the
+traditions of his art, and by the feelings and expectations of his
+hearers. The poet who brought the exploits of Diomede into the _Iliad_
+doubtless had his reasons for doing so, which were equally strong
+whether he was the poet of the Achilleis or a later Homerid or
+rhapsodist. And if some of the incidents (those of the third book in
+particular) seem to belong to the beginning of the war, it must be
+considered that poetically, and to the hearers of the _Iliad_, the war
+opens in the third book, and the incidents are of the kind that is
+required in such a place. The truce makes a pause which heightens the
+interest of the impending battle; the duel and the scene on the walls
+are effective in bringing some of the leading characters on the stage,
+and in making us acquainted with the previous history. The story of
+Paris and Helen especially, and the general position of affairs in Troy,
+is put before us in a singularly vivid manner. The book in short forms
+so good a _prologue_ to the action of the war that we can hardly be
+wrong in attributing it to the genius which devised the rest of the
+_Iliad_.
+
+The case against the remaining books is of a different kind. The ninth
+and tenth seem like two independent pictures of the night before the
+great battle of xi.-xvii. Either is enough to fill the space in Homer's
+canvas; and the suspicion arises (as when two Platonic dialogues bear
+the same name) that if either had been genuine, the other would not have
+come into existence. If one of the two is to be rejected it must be the
+tenth, which is certainly the less Homeric. It relates a picturesque
+adventure, conceived in a vein more approaching that of comedy than any
+other part of the _Iliad_. Moreover, the language in several places
+exhibits traces of post-Homeric date. The ninth book, on the other hand,
+was rejected by Grote, chiefly on the grounds that the embassy to
+Achilles ought to have put an end to the quarrel, and that it is ignored
+in later passages, especially in the speeches of Achilles (xi. 609;
+xvi. 72, 85). His argument, however, rests on an assumption which we are
+apt to bring with us to the reading of the _Iliad_, but which is not
+borne out by its language, viz. that there was some definite atonement
+demanded by Achilles, or due to him according to the custom and
+sentiment of the time. But in the _Iliad_ the whole stress is laid on
+the anger of Achilles, which can only be satisfied by the defeat and
+extreme peril of the Greeks.[12] He is influenced by his own feeling,
+and by nothing else. Accordingly, in the ninth book, when they are still
+protected by the rampart (see 348 sqq.), he rejects gifts and fair words
+alike; in the sixteenth he is moved by the tears and entreaties of
+Patroclus, and the sight of the Greek ships on fire; in the nineteenth
+his anger is quenched in grief. But he makes no conditions, either in
+rejecting the offers of the embassy or in returning to the Greek army.
+And this conduct is the result, not only of his fierce and inexorable
+character, but also (as the silence of Homer shows) of the want of any
+general rules or principles, any code of morality or of honour, which
+would have required him to act in a different way.
+
+Finally, Grote objected to the two last books that they prolong the
+action of the _Iliad_ beyond the exigencies of a coherent scheme. Of the
+two, the twenty-third could more easily be spared. In language, and
+perhaps in style and manner, it is akin to the tenth; while the
+twenty-fourth is in the pathetic vein of the ninth, and like it serves
+to bring out new aspects of the character of Achilles.
+
+  Dr E. Kammer has given some strong reasons for doubting the
+  genuineness of the passage in book xx. describing the duel between
+  Achilles and Aeneas (79-352). The incident is certainly very much out
+  of keeping with the vehement action of that part of the poem, and
+  especially with the moment when Achilles returns to the field, eager
+  to meet Hector and avenge the death of his friend. The interpolation
+  (if it is one) is probably due to local interests. It contains the
+  well-known prophecy that the descendants of Aeneas are to rule over
+  the Trojans,--pointing to the existence of an Aenead dynasty in the
+  Troad. So, too, the legend of Anchises in the Hymn to Aphrodite is
+  evidently local; and Aeneas becomes more prominent in the later epics,
+  especially the _Cypria_ and the [Greek: Iliou persis] of Arctinus.
+
+_Structure of the Odyssey._--In the _Odyssey_, as in the _Iliad_, the
+events related fall within a short space of time. The difficulty of
+adapting the long wanderings of Ulysses to a plan of this type is got
+over by the device--first met with in the _Odyssey_--of making the hero
+tell the story of his own adventures. In this way the action is made to
+begin almost immediately before the actual return of Ulysses. Up to the
+time when he reaches Ithaca it moves on three distinct scenes: we follow
+the fortunes of Ulysses, of Telemachus on his voyage in the
+Peloponnesus, and of Penelope with the suitors. The art with which these
+threads are woven together was recognized by Wolf himself, who admitted
+the difficulty of applying his theory to the "admirabilis summa et
+compages" of the poem. Of the comparatively few attempts which have been
+made to dissect the _Odyssey_, the most moderate and attractive is that
+of Professor A. Kirchhoff of Berlin.[13]
+
+  According to Kirchhoff, the _Odyssey_ as we have it is the result of
+  additions made to an original nucleus. There was first of all a
+  "Return of Odysseus," relating chiefly the adventures with the
+  Cyclops, Calypso and the Phaeacians; then a continuation, the scene of
+  which lay in Ithaca, embracing the bulk of books xiii.-xxiii. The poem
+  so formed was enlarged at some time between Ol. 30 and Ol. 50 by the
+  stories of books x.-xii. (Circe, the Sirens, Scylla, &c.), and the
+  adventures of Telemachus. Lastly, a few passages were interpolated in
+  the time of Peisistratus.
+
+  The proof that the scenes in Ithaca are by a later hand than the
+  ancient "Return" is found chiefly in a contradiction discussed by
+  Kirchhoff in his sixth dissertation (pp. 135 sqq., ed. 1869).
+  Sometimes Ulysses is represented as aged and worn by toil, so that
+  Penelope, for instance, cannot recognize him; sometimes he is really
+  in the prime of heroic vigour, and his appearing as a beggarly old man
+  is the work of Athena's wand. The first of these representations is
+  evidently natural, considering the twenty eventful years that have
+  passed; but the second, Kirchhoff holds, is the Ulysses of Calypso's
+  island and the Phaeacian court. He concludes that the aged Ulysses
+  belongs to the "continuation" (the change wrought by Athena's wand
+  being a device to reconcile the two views), and hence that the
+  continuation is the work of a different author.
+
+  Ingenious as this is, there is really very slender ground for
+  Kirchhoff's thesis. The passages in the second half of the _Odyssey_
+  which describe the appearance of Ulysses do not give _two_ well-marked
+  representations of him. Sometimes Athena disguises him as a decrepit
+  beggar, sometimes she bestows on him supernatural beauty and vigour.
+  It must be admitted that we are not told exactly how long in each case
+  the effect of these changes lasted. But neither answers to his natural
+  appearance, or to the appearance which he is imagined to present in
+  the earlier books. In the palace of Alcinous, for instance, it is
+  noticed that he is vigorous but "marred by many ills" (_Od._ viii.
+  137); and this agrees with the scenes of recognition in the latter
+  part of the poem.
+
+  The arguments by which Kirchhoff seeks to prove that the stories of
+  books x.-xii. are much later than those of book ix. are not more
+  convincing. He points out some resemblances between these three books
+  and the Argonautic fables, among them the circumstance that a fountain
+  Artacia occurs in both. In the Argonautic story this fountain is
+  placed in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus, and answers to an actual
+  fountain known in historical times. Kirchhoff argues that the Artacia
+  of the Argonautic story must have been taken from the real Artacia,
+  and the Artacia of the _Odyssey_ again from that of the Argonautic
+  story. And as Cyzicus was settled from Miletus, he infers that both
+  sets of stories must be comparatively late. It is more probable,
+  surely, that the name Artacia occurred independently (as most
+  geographical names are found to occur) in more than one place. Or it
+  may be that the Artacia of the _Odyssey_ suggested the name to the
+  colonists of Cyzicus, whence it was adopted into the later versions of
+  the Argonautic story. The further argument that the _Nostoi_
+  recognized a son of Calypso by Ulysses but no son of Circe,
+  consequently that Circe was unknown to the poet of the _Nostoi_, rests
+  (in the first place) upon a conjectural alteration of a passage in
+  Eustathius, and, moreover, has all the weakness of an argument from
+  silence, in addition to the uncertainty arising from our very slight
+  knowledge of the author whose silence is in question. Finally, when
+  Kirchhoff finds traces in books x.-xii. of their having been
+  originally told by the poet himself instead of being put in the mouth
+  of his hero, we feel that inaccuracies of this kind are apt to creep
+  in wherever a fictitious story is thrown into the form of an
+  autobiography.
+
+  Inquiries conducted with the refinement which characterizes those of
+  Kirchhoff are always instructive, and his book contains very many just
+  observations; but it is impossible to admit his main conclusions. And
+  perhaps we may infer that no similar attempt can be more successful.
+  It does not indeed follow that the _Odyssey_ is free from
+  interpolations. The [Greek: Nekuia] of book xi. may be later (as Lauer
+  maintained), or it may contain additions, which could easily be
+  inserted in a description of the kind. And the last book is probably
+  by a different hand, as the ancient critics believed. But the unity of
+  the _Odyssey_ as a whole is apparently beyond the reach of the
+  existing weapons of criticism.
+
+_Chorizontes._--When we are satisfied that each of the great Homeric
+poems is either wholly or mainly the work of a single poet, a question
+remains which has been matter of controversy in ancient as well as
+modern times--Are they the work of the same poet? Two ancient
+grammarians, Xeno and Hellanicus, were known as the "separators"
+([Greek: oi chorizontes]); and Aristarchus appears to have written a
+treatise against their heresy. In modern times some of the greatest
+names have been on the side of the "Chorizontes."
+
+If, as has been maintained in the preceding pages, the external evidence
+regarding Homer is of no value, the problem now before us may be stated
+in this form: Given two poems of which nothing is known except that they
+are of the same school of poetry, what is the probability that they are
+by the same author? We may find a fair parallel by imagining two plays
+drawn at hazard from the works of the great tragic writers. It is
+evident that the burden of proof would rest with those who held them to
+be by the same hand.
+
+The arguments used in this discussion have been of very various calibre.
+The ancient Chorizontes observed that the messenger of Zeus is Iris in
+the _Iliad_, but Hermes in the _Odyssey_; that the wife of Hephaestus is
+one of the Charites in the _Iliad_, but Aphrodite in the _Odyssey_; that
+the heroes in the _Iliad_ do not eat fish; that Crete has a hundred
+cities according to the _Iliad_, and only ninety according to the
+_Odyssey_; that [Greek: proparoithe] is used in the _Iliad_ of place, in
+the _Odyssey_ of time, &c. Modern scholars have added to the list,
+especially by making careful comparisons of the two poems in respect of
+vocabulary and grammatical forms. Nothing is more difficult than to
+assign the degree of weight to be given to such facts. The difference of
+subject between the two poems is so great that it leads to the most
+striking differences of detail, especially in the vocabulary. For
+instance, the word [Greek: phobos], which in Homer means "flight in
+battle" (not "fear"), occurs thirty-nine times in the _Iliad_, and only
+once in the _Odyssey_; but then there are no battles in the _Odyssey_.
+Again, the verb [Greek: rhegnymi], "to break," occurs forty-eight times
+in the _Iliad_, and once in the _Odyssey_,--the reason being that it is
+constantly used of breaking the armour of an enemy, the gate of a city,
+the hostile ranks, &c. Once more, the word [Greek: skotos], "darkness,"
+occurs fourteen times in the _Iliad_, once in the _Odyssey_. But in
+every one of the fourteen places it is used of "darkness" coming over
+the sight of a fallen warrior. On the other side, if words such as
+[Greek: asaminthos], "a bath," [Greek: chernips], "a basin for the
+hands," [Greek: lesche], "a place to meet and talk," &c., are peculiar
+to the _Odyssey_, we have only to remember that the scene in the _Iliad_
+is hardly ever laid within any walls except those of a tent. These
+examples will show that mere statistics of the occurrence of words prove
+little, and that we must begin by looking to the subject and character
+of each poem. When we do so, we at once find ourselves in the presence
+of differences of the broadest kind. The _Iliad_ is much more historical
+in tone and character. The scene of the poem is a real place, and the
+poet sings (as Ulysses says of Demodocus) as though he had been present
+himself, or had heard from one who had been. The supernatural element is
+confined to an interference of the gods, which to the common eye hardly
+disturbs the natural current of affairs. The _Odyssey_, on the contrary,
+is full of the magical and romantic--"speciosa miracula," as Horace
+called them. Moreover, these marvels--which in their original form are
+doubtless as old as anything in the _Iliad_, since in fact they are part
+of the vast stock of popular tales (_Marchen_) diffused all over the
+world--are mixed up in the _Odyssey_ with the heroes of the Trojan war.
+This has been especially noticed in the case of the story of Polyphemus,
+one that is found in many countries, and in versions which cannot all be
+derived from Homer. W. Grimm has pointed out that the behaviour of
+Ulysses in that story is senseless and foolhardy, utterly beneath the
+wise and much-enduring Ulysses of the Trojan war. The reason is simple;
+he is not the Ulysses of the Trojan war, but a being of the same world
+as Polyphemus himself--the world of giants and ogres. The question then
+is--How long must the name of Ulysses have been familiar in the legend
+(_Sage_) of Troy before it made its way into the tales of giants and
+ogres (_Marchen_), where the poet of the _Odyssey_ found it?
+
+Again, the Trojan legend has itself received some extension between the
+time of the _Iliad_ and that of the _Odyssey_. The story of the Wooden
+Horse is not only unknown to the _Iliad_, but is of a kind which we can
+hardly imagine the poet of the _Iliad_ admitting. The part taken by
+Neoptolemus seems also to be a later addition. The tendency to amplify
+and complete the story shows itself still more in the Cyclic poets.
+Between the _Iliad_ and these poets the _Odyssey_ often occupies an
+intermediate position.
+
+This great and significant change in the treatment of the heroic legends
+is accompanied by numerous minor differences (such as the ancients
+remarked) in belief, in manners and institutions, and in language. These
+differences bear out the inference that the _Odyssey_ is of a later age.
+The progress of reflection is especially shown in the higher ideas
+entertained regarding the gods. The turbulent Olympian court has almost
+disappeared. Zeus has acquired the character of a supreme moral ruler;
+and although Athena and Poseidon are adverse influences in the poem, the
+notion of a direct contest between them is scrupulously avoided. The
+advance of morality is shown in the more frequent use of terms such as
+"just" ([Greek: dikaios]), "piety" ([Greek: hoshie]), "insolence"
+([Greek: hubris]), "god-fearing" ([Greek: theoudes]), "pure" ([Greek:
+hagnos]); and also in the plot of the story, which is distinctly a
+contest between right and wrong. In matters bearing upon the arts of
+life it is unsafe to press the silence of the _Iliad_. We may note,
+however, the difference between the house of Priam, surrounded by
+distinct dwellings for his many sons and daughters, and the houses of
+Ulysses and Alcinous, with many chambers under a single roof. The
+singer, too, who is so prominent a figure in the _Odyssey_ can hardly be
+thought to be absent from the _Iliad_ merely because the scene is laid
+in a camp.
+
+_Style of Homer._--A few words remain to be said on the style and
+general character of the Homeric poems, and on the comparisons which may
+be made between Homer and analogous poetry in other countries.
+
+The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer have been pointed out once
+for all by Matthew Arnold. "The translator of Homer," he says, "should
+above all be penetrated by a sense of four qualities of his author--that
+he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in
+the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both
+in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in
+the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and,
+finally, that he is eminently noble" (_On Translating Homer_, p. 9).
+
+The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his use of the
+hexameter verse. It is characteristic of early literature that the
+evolution of the thought--that is, the grammatical form of the
+sentence--is guided by the structure of the verse; and the
+correspondence which consequently obtains between the rhythm and the
+grammar--the thought being given out in lengths, as it were, and these
+again divided by tolerably uniform pauses--produces a swift flowing
+movement, such as is rarely found when the periods have been constructed
+without direct reference to the metre. That Homer possesses this
+rapidity without falling into the corresponding faults--that is, without
+becoming either "jerky" or monotonous--is perhaps the best proof of his
+unequalled poetical skill. The plainness and directness, both of thought
+and of expression, which characterize Homer were doubtless qualities of
+his age; but the author of the _Iliad_ (like Voltaire, to whom Arnold
+happily compares him) must have possessed the national gift in a
+surpassing degree. The _Odyssey_ is in this respect perceptibly below
+the level of the _Iliad_.
+
+Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression and plainness of
+thought, these are not the distinguishing qualities of the great epic
+poets--Virgil, Dante, Milton. On the contrary, they belong rather to the
+humbler epico-lyrical school for which Homer has been so often claimed.
+The proof that Homer does not belong to that school--that his poetry is
+not in any true sense "ballad-poetry"--is furnished by the higher
+artistic structure of his poems (already discussed), and as regards
+style by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold--the
+quality of _nobleness_. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained
+through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates Homer
+from all forms of "ballad-poetry" and "popular epic."[14]
+
+But while we are on our guard against a once common error, we may
+recognize the historical connexion between the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ and
+the "ballad" literature which undoubtedly preceded them in Greece. It
+may even be admitted that the swift-flowing movement, and the simplicity
+of thought and style, which we admire in the _Iliad_ are an inheritance
+from the earlier "lays"--the [Greek: klea andron] such as Achilles and
+Patroclus sang to the lyre in their tent. Even the metre--the hexameter
+verse--may be assigned to them. But between these lays and Homer we must
+place the cultivation of epic poetry as an art.[15] The pre-Homeric lays
+doubtless furnished the elements of such a poetry--the alphabet, so to
+speak, of the art; but they must have been refined and transmuted before
+they formed poems like the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_.
+
+A single example will illustrate this. In the scene on the walls of
+Troy, in the third book of the _Iliad_, after Helen has pointed out
+Agamemnon, Ulysses and Ajax in answer to Priam's questions, she goes on
+unasked to name Idomeneus. Lachmann, whose mind is full of the ballad
+manner, fastens upon this as an irregularity. "The unskilful transition
+from Ajax to Idomeneus, about whom no question had been asked," he
+cannot attribute to the original poet of the lay (_Betrachtungen_, p.
+15, ed. 1865). But, as was pointed out by A. Romer[16], this is exactly
+the variation which a _poet_ would introduce to relieve the primitive
+_ballad-like_ sameness of question and answer; and moreover it forms the
+transition to the lines about the Dioscuri by which the scene is so
+touchingly brought to a close.
+
+_Analogies._--The development of epic poetry (properly so called) out of
+the oral songs or ballads of a country is a process which in the nature
+of things can seldom be observed. It seems clear, however, that the
+hypothesis of epics such as the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ having been formed
+by putting together or even by working up shorter poems finds no support
+from analogy.
+
+Narrative poetry of great interest is found in several countries (such
+as Spain and Servia), in which it has never attained to the epic stage.
+In Scandinavia, in Lithuania, in Russia, according to Gaston Paris
+(_Histoire poetique de Charlemagne_, p. 9), the national songs have been
+arrested in a form which may be called intermediate between contemporary
+poetry and the epic. The true epics are those of India, Persia, Greece,
+Germany, Britain and France. Most of these, however, fail to afford any
+useful points of comparison, either from their utter unlikeness to
+Homer, or because there is no evidence of the existence of anterior
+popular songs. The most instructive, perhaps the only instructive,
+parallel is to be found in the French "chansons de geste," of which the
+_Chanson de Roland_ is the earliest and best example. These poems are
+traced back with much probability to the 10th century. They are epic in
+character, and were recited by professional _jongleurs_ (who may be
+compared to the [Greek: aoidoi] of Homer). But as early as the 7th
+century we come upon traces of short lays (the so-called cantilenes)
+which were in the mouths of all and were sung in chorus. It has been
+held that the chansons de geste were formed by joining together
+"bunches" of these earlier cantilenes, and this was the view taken by
+Leon Gautier in the first edition of _Les Epopees francaises_ (1865). In
+the second edition, of which the first volume appeared in 1878, he
+abandoned this theory. He believes that the epics were generally
+composed under the influence of earlier songs. "Our first epic poets,"
+he says, "did not actually and materially patch together pre-existent
+cantilenes. They were only inspired by these popular songs; they only
+borrowed from them the traditional and legendary elements. In short,
+they took nothing from them but the ideas, the spirit, the life; they
+'found' (ils ont trouve) all the rest" (p. 80). But he admits that "some
+of the old poems may have been borrowed from tradition, without any
+intermediary" (ibid.); and when it is considered that the traces of the
+"cantilenes" are slight, and that the degree in which they inspired the
+later poetry must be a matter of impression rather than of proof, it
+does not surprise us to find other scholars (notably Paul Meyer)
+attaching less importance to them, or even doubting their existence.[17]
+
+When Leon Gautier shows how history passes into legend, and legend again
+into romance, we are reminded of the difference noticed above between
+the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, and between Homer and the early Cyclic
+poems. And the peculiar degradation of Homeric characters which appears
+in some poets (especially Euripides) finds a parallel in the later
+chansons de geste.[18]
+
+The comparison of Homer with the great literary epics calls for more
+discursive treatment than would be in place here. Some external
+differences have been already indicated. Like the French epics, Homeric
+poetry is indigenous, and is distinguished by this fact, and by the ease
+of movement and the simplicity which result from it, from poets such as
+Virgil, Dante and Milton. It is also distinguished from them by the
+comparative absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil's
+poetry a sense of the greatness of Rome and Italy is the leading motive
+of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the "chosen delicacy" of his
+language. Dante and Milton are still more faithful exponents of the
+religion and politics of their time. Even the French epics are pervaded
+by the sentiment of fear and hatred of the Saracens. But in Homer the
+interest is purely dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or
+religion; the war turns on no political event; the capture of Troy lies
+outside the range of the _Iliad_. Even the heroes are not the chief
+national heroes of Greece. The interest lies wholly (so far as we can
+see) in the picture of human action and feeling.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A complete bibliography of Homer would fill volumes.
+  The following list is intended to include those books only which are
+  of first-rate importance.
+
+  The _editio princeps_ of Homer, published at Florence in 1488, by
+  Demetrius Chalcondylas, and the Aldine editions of 1504 and 1517, have
+  still some value beyond that of curiosity. The chief modern critical
+  editions are those of Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804-1807),
+  Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836), Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858), La
+  Roche (_Odyssey_, 1867-1868; _Iliad_, 1873-1876, both at Leipzig);
+  Ludwich (_Odyssey_, Leipzig, 1889-1891; _Iliad_, 2 vols., 1901 and
+  1907): W. Leaf (_Iliad_, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902); Merry
+  and Riddell (_Odyssey_ i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886); Monro
+  (_Odyssey_ xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901); Monro and Allen
+  (_Iliad_), and Allen (_Odyssey_, 1908, Oxford). The commentaries of
+  Barnes, Clarke and Ernesti are practically superseded; but Heyne's
+  _Iliad_ (Leipzig, 1802) and Nitzsch's commentary on the _Odyssey_
+  (books i.-xii., Hanover, 1826-1840) are still useful. Nagelbach's
+  _Anmerkungen zur Ilias_ (A, B 1-483, [Gamma]) is of great value,
+  especially the third edition (by Autenrieth, Nuremberg, 1864). The
+  unique _Scholia Veneta_ on the _Iliad_ were first made known by
+  Villoison (_Homeri Ilias ad veteris codicis Veneti fidem recensita,
+  Scholia in eam antiquissima ex eodem codice aliisque nunc primum
+  edidit, cum Asteriscis, Obeliscis, aliisque signis criticis, Joh.
+  Baptista Caspar d'Ansse de Villoison_, Venice, 1788); reprinted, with
+  many additions from other MSS., by Bekker (_Scholia in Homeri
+  Iliadem_, Berlin, 1825-1826). A new edition has been published by the
+  Oxford Press (_Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem_, ed. Gul.
+  Dindorfius); six volumes have appeared (1875-1888), the last two
+  edited by Professor E. Maass. The vast commentary of Eustathius was
+  first printed at Rome in 1542; the last edition is that of Stallbaum
+  (Leipzig, 1827). The Scholia on the _Odyssey_ were published by
+  Buttmann (Berlin, 1821), and with greater approach to completeness by
+  W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1855). Although Wolf at once perceived the value
+  of the Venetian Scholia on the _Iliad_, the first scholar who
+  thoroughly explored them was C. Lehrs (_De Aristarchi studiis
+  Homericis_, Konigsberg, 1833; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1865). Of the studies
+  in the same field which have appeared since, the most important are:
+  Aug. Nauck, _Aristophanis Byzantii fragmenta_ (Halle, 1848); L.
+  Friedlander, _Aristonici_ [Greek: peri semeion 'Iliados] _reliquiae_
+  (Gottingen, 1853); M. Schmidt, _Didymi Chalcenteri fragmenta_
+  (Leipzig, 1854); L. Friedlander, _Nicanoris_ [Greek: peri Iliakes
+  stigmes] _reliquiae_ (Berlin, 1857); Aug. Lentz, _Herodiani Technici
+  reliquiae_ (Leipzig, 1867); J. La Roche, _Die homerische Textkritik im
+  Alterthum_ (Leipzig, 1866) and _Homerische Untersuchungen_ (Leipzig,
+  1869); Ad. Romer, _Die Werke der Aristarcheer im Cod. Venet. A._
+  (Munich, 1875); A. Ludwich, _Aristarch's Homerische Textkritik_ (2
+  vols. Leipzig, 1884-1885); and _Die Homervulgata als
+  vor-Alexandrinisch erwiesen_ (Leipzig, 1898).
+
+  The literature of the "Homeric Question" begins practically with
+  Wolf's _Prolegomena_ (Halle, 1795). Of the earlier books Wood's _Essay
+  on the Original Genius and Writings of Homer_ is the most interesting.
+  Wolf's views were skilfully popularized in W. Muller's _Homerische
+  Vorschule_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1836). G. Hermann's dissertations _De
+  interpolationibus Homeri_ (1832) and _De iteratis apua Homerum_ (1840)
+  are reprinted in his _Opuscula_. Lachmann's two papers (_Betrachtungen
+  uber Homer's Ilias_) were edited together by M. Haupt (2nd ed.,
+  Berlin, 1865). Besides the somewhat voluminous writings of Nitzsch,
+  and the discussions contained in the histories of Greek literature by
+  K. O. Muller, Bernhardy, Ulrici and Th. Bergk, and in Grote's _History
+  of Greece_, see Welcker, _Der epische Cyclus oder die homerischen
+  Dichter_ (Bonn, 1835-1849); on Proclus and the Cycle reference may
+  also be made to Wilamowitz-Mollendorf p. 328 seq.; E. Bethe, _Rhein.
+  Mus._ (1891), xxvi. p. 593 seq.; O. Immisch, _Festschrift Th. Gomperz
+  dargebracht_ (1902), p. 237 sq.; Lauer, _Geschichte der homerischen
+  Poesie_ (Berlin, 1851); Sengebusch, two dissertations prefixed to the
+  two volumes of W. Dindorf's _Homer_ in the Teubner series (1855-1856);
+  Friedlander, _Die homerische Kritik von Wolf bis Grote_ (Berlin,
+  1853); Nutzhorn, _Die Entstehungsweise der homerischen Gedichte, mit
+  Vorwort von J. N. Madvig_ (Leipzig, 1869); E. Kammer, _Zur homerischen
+  Frage_ (Konigsberg, 1870); and _Die Einheit der Odyssee_ (Leipzig,
+  1873); A. Kirchhoff, _Die Composition der Odyssee_ (Berlin, 1869);
+  Volkmann, _Geschichte und Kritik der Wolf'schen Prolegomena_ (Leipzig,
+  1874); K. Sittl, _Die Wiederholungen in der Odyssee_ (Munchen, 1882);
+  U. v. Wilamowitz-Mollendorf, _Homerische Untersuchungen_ (Berlin,
+  1884); O. Seeck, _Die Quellen der Odyssee_ (Berlin, 1887); F. Blass,
+  _Die Interpolationen in der Odyssee_ (Leipzig, 1905). The interest
+  taken in the question by English students is sufficiently shown in the
+  writings of W. E. Gladstone, F. A. Paley, Henry Hayman (in the
+  Introduction to his _Odyssey_), P. Geddes, R. C. Jebb and A. Lang (see
+  especially the latter's _Homer and his Age_, 1907).
+
+  The Homeric dialect must be studied in the books (such as those of G.
+  Curtius) that deal with Greek on the comparative method. The best
+  special work is the brief _Griechische Formenlehre_ of H. L. Ahrens
+  (Gottingen, 1852). Other important works are those of Aug. Fick: _Die
+  homerische Odyssee in der ursprunglichen Sprachform wiederhergestelt_
+  (Gottingen, 1883); _Die homerische Ilias_ (_ibid._, 1886); W. Schulze,
+  _Quaestiones epicae_ (Guterslohe, 1892). On Homeric syntax the chief
+  book is B. Delbruck's _Syntactische Forschungen_ (Halle, 1871-1879),
+  especially vols. i. and iv.; on metre, &c., Hartel's _Homerische
+  Studien_ (i.-iii., Vienna); Knos, _De digammo Homerico quaestiones_
+  (Upsala, 1872-1873-1878); Thumb, _Zur Geschichte des griech. Digamma,
+  Indogermanische Forschungen_ (1898), ix. 294 seq. The papers reprinted
+  in Bekker's _Homerische Blatter_ (Bonn, 1863-1872) and Cobet's
+  _Miscellanea Crilica_ (Leiden, 1876) are of the highest value.
+  Hoffmann's _Quaestiones Homericae_ (Clausthal, 1842) is a useful
+  collection of facts. Buttmann's _Lexilogus_, as an example of method,
+  is still worth study.
+
+  The antiquities of Homer--using the word in a wide sense--may be
+  studied in the following books: Volcker, _Uber homerische Geographie
+  und Weltkunde_ (Hanover, 1830); Nagelsbach's _Homerische Theologie_
+  (2nd ed., Nuremberg, 1861); H. Brunn, _Die Kunst bei Homer_ (Munich,
+  1868); W. W. Lloyd, _On the Homeric Design of the Shield of Achilles_
+  (London, 1854); Buchholz, _Die homerischen Realien_ (Leipzig,
+  1871-1873); W. Helbig, _Das homerische Epos aus den Denkmalern
+  erlautert_ (Leipzig, 1884; 2nd ed., ibid., 1887); W. Reichel, _Uber
+  homerische Waffen_ (Vienna, 1894); C. Robert, _Studien zur Ilias_
+  (Berlin, 1901); W. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_ (Cambridge,
+  1901); V. Berard, _Les Pheniciens et l'Odyssee_ (Paris, 1902-1903); C.
+  Robert, "Topographische Probleme der Ilias," in _Hermes_, xlii., 1907,
+  pp. 78-112.
+
+  Among other aids should be mentioned the _Index Homericus_ of Seber
+  (Oxford, 1780); Prendergast's _Concordance to the Iliad_ (London,
+  1875); Dunbar's _id._ to the _Odyssey and Hymns_ (Oxford, 1880);
+  Frohwein, _Verbum Homericum_, (Leipzig, 1881); Gehring, _Index
+  Homericus_ (Leipzig, 1891); the _Lexicon Homericum_, edited by H.
+  Ebeling (Leipzig, 1880-1885) and the facsimile of the cod. Ven. A
+  (Sijthoff; Leiden, 1901), with an introduction by D. Comparetti.
+       (D. B. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This article was thoroughly revised by Dr D. B. Monro before his
+    death in 1905; a few points have since been added by Mr. T. W. Allen.
+
+  [2] See a paper in the _Diss. Philol. Halenses_, ii. 97-219.
+
+  [3] Compare the _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, published by Robert
+    Chambers.
+
+  [4] Compare the branch of myrtle at an Athenian feast (Aristoph.,
+    _Nub._, 1364).
+
+  [5] The _Iliad_ was also recited at the festival of the Brauronia, at
+    Brauron in Attica (Hesych. _s.v._ [Greek: branroniois]).
+
+  [6] _Contemporary Review_, vol. xxiii. p. 218 ff.
+
+  [7] The fact that the Phoenician Vau ([digamma]) was retained in the
+    Greek alphabets, and the vowel [upsilon] added, shows that when the
+    alphabet was introduced the sound denoted by [digamma] was still in
+    full vigour. Otherwise [digamma] would have been used for the vowel
+    [upsilon], just as the Phoenician consonant Yod became the vowel
+    [iota]. But in the Ionic dialect the sound of [digamma] died out soon
+    after Homer's time, if indeed it was still pronounced then. It seems
+    probable therefore that the introduction of the alphabet is not later
+    than the composition of the Homeric poems.
+
+  [8] See D. B. Monro's _Homer's Odyssey_, books xiii.-xxiv. (Oxford,
+    1901, p. 455 sqq.), and the abstract of his paper on the Homeric
+    Dialect read to the Congress of Historical Sciences at Rome, 1903:
+    _Atti del Congresso internazionale di scienze storiche_, ii. 152,
+    153, 1905, "Il Dialetto omerico."
+
+  [9] See the chapter in Cobet's _Miscellanea critica_, pp. 225-239.
+
+  [10] The existence of two groups of the Venetian Scholia was first
+    noticed by Jacob La Roche, and they were first distinguished in the
+    edition of W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1875). There is also a group of
+    Scholia, chiefly exegetical, a collection of which was published by
+    Villoison from a MS. Ven. 453 (s. xi.) in his edition of 1788, and
+    has been again edited by W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1877). The most
+    important collection of this group is contained in the _Codex
+    Townleianus_ (Burney 86 s. xi.) of the British Museum, edited by E.
+    Maass, (Oxford, 1887-1888). The vast commentary of Eustathius (of the
+    12th century) marks a third stage in the progress of ancient Homeric
+    learning.
+
+  [11] _Prolegomena ad Homerum, sive de operum Homericorum prisca et
+    genuina forma variisque mutationibus et probabili ratione emendandi._
+    scripsit Frid. Aug. Wolfius, volumen i. (1795).
+
+  [12] On this point see a paper by Professor Packard in the _Trans. of
+    the American Philological Association_ (1876).
+
+  [13] _Die Composition der Odyssee_ (Berlin, 1869). A full discussion
+    of this book is given by Dr E. Kammer, _Die Einheit der Odyssee_
+    (Leipzig, 1873).
+
+  [14] "As a poet Homer must be acknowledged to excel Shakespeare in
+    the truth, the harmony, the sustained grandeur, the satisfying
+    completeness of his images" (Shelley, _Essays_, &c., i. 51, ed.
+    1852).
+
+  [15] "The old English balladist may stir Sir Philip Sidney's heart
+    like a trumpet, and this is much; but Homer, but the few artists in
+    the grand style, can do more--they can refine the raw natural man,
+    they can transmute him" (_On Translating Homer_, p. 61).
+
+  [16] _Die exegetischen Scholien der Ilias_, p. vii.
+
+  [17] "On comprend que des chants populaires nes d'un evenement
+    eclatant, victoire ou defaite, puissent contribuer a former la
+    tradition, a en arreter les traits; ils peuvent aussi devenir le
+    centre de legendes qui se forment pour les expliquer; et de la sorte
+    leur substance au moins arrive au poete epique qui l'introduit dans
+    sa composition. Voila ce qui a pu se produire pour de chants
+    tres-courts, dont il est d'ailleurs aussi difficile d'affirmer que de
+    nier l'existence. Mais on peut expliquer la formation des chansons de
+    geste par une autre hypothese" (Meyer, _Recherches sur l'epopee
+    francaise_, p. 65). "Ce qui a fait naitre la theorie des chants
+    'lyrico-epiques' ou des cantilenes, c'est le systeme de Wolf sur les
+    poemes homeriques, et de Lachmann sur les _Nibelungen_. Mais, au
+    moins en ce qui concerne ce dernier poeme, le systeme est detruit....
+    On tire encore argument des romances espagnoles, qui, dit-on, sont
+    des 'cantilenes' non encore arrivees a l'epopee.... Et c'est le
+    malheur de cette theorie: faute de preuves directes, elle cherche des
+    analogies au dehors: en Espagne, elle trouve des 'cantilenes,' mais
+    pas d'epopee; en Allemagne, une epopee, mais pas de cantilenes!"
+    (_Ibid._ p. 66).
+
+  [18] A. Lang, _Contemporary Review_, vol. xvii., N.S., p. 588.
+
+
+
+
+HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-1910), American painter, was born in Boston,
+U.S.A., on the 24th of February 1836. At the age of nineteen he was
+apprenticed to a lithographer. Two years later he opened a studio in
+Boston, and devoted much of his time to making drawings for
+wood-engravers. In 1859 he removed to New York, where he studied in the
+night-school of the National Academy of Design. During the American
+Civil War he was with the troops at the front, and contributed sketches
+to _Harper's Weekly_. The war also furnished him with the subjects for
+the first two pictures which he exhibited (1863), one of which was
+"Home, Sweet Home." His "Prisoners from the Front"--perhaps his most
+generally popular picture--was exhibited in New York in 1865, and also
+in Paris in 1867, where he was spending the year in study. Among his
+other paintings in oil are "Snap the Whip" (which was exhibited at the
+Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876, and, in company with "The
+Country Schoolroom," at the Paris Salon the following year), "Eating
+Water-melon," "The Cotton Pickers," "Visit from the Old Mistress, Sunday
+Morning," "The Life-Line" and "The Coming of the Gale." His genius,
+however, has perhaps shown better in his works in water-colour, among
+which are his marine studies painted at Gloucester, Mass., and his
+"Inside the Bar," "The Voice from the Cliffs" (pictures of English
+fisherwomen), "Tynemouth," "Wrecking of a Vessel" and "Lost on the
+Grand Banks." His work, which principally consists of _genre_ pictures,
+is characterized by strength, rugged directness and unmistakable
+freshness and originality, rather than by technical excellence, grace of
+line or beauty of colour. He was little affected by European influences.
+His types and scenes, apart from his few English pictures, are
+distinctly American--soldiers in blue, New England children, negroes in
+the land of cotton, Gloucester fishermen and stormy Atlantic seas.
+Besides being a member of the Society of Painters in Water-color, New
+York, he was elected in 1864 an associate and the following year a
+member of the National Academy of Design.
+
+
+
+
+HOMESTEAD, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the
+Monongahela river, 8 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 7911; (1900)
+12,554, of whom 3604 were foreign-born and 640 were negroes; (U.S.
+census, 1910) 18,713. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg
+& Lake Erie railways, and by the short Union Railroad, which connects
+with the Bessemer & Lake Erie and the Wabash railways. The borough has a
+Carnegie library and the C.M. Schwab Manual Training School. Partly in
+Homestead but chiefly in the adjoining borough of Munhall (and therefore
+not reported as in Homestead by the U.S. Census) is one of the largest
+plants in the United States for the manufacture of steel used in the
+construction of bridges and steel-frame buildings and of steel
+armour-plate, and this is its chief industry; among Homestead's other
+manufactures are glass and fire-bricks. The water-works are owned and
+operated by the municipality. Homestead was first settled in 1871, and
+it was incorporated in 1880. In 1892 a labour strike lasting 143 days
+and one of the most serious in the history of the United States was
+carried on here by the National Amalgamated Association of Iron and
+Steel Workers of the United States against the Carnegie Steel Company.
+The arrival (on the 6th of July) of a force of about 200 Pinkerton
+detectives from New York and Chicago resulted in a fight in which about
+10 men were killed, and to restore order two brigades of the state
+militia were called out. See STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS.
+
+
+
+
+HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS, laws (principally in the United States)
+designed primarily either to aid the head of a family to acquire title
+to a place of residence or to protect the owner against loss of that
+title through seizure for debt. These laws have all been enacted in
+America since about the middle of the 19th century, and owe their origin
+to the demand for a population of the right sort in a new country, to
+the conviction that the freeholder rather than the tenant is the natural
+supporter of popular government, to the effort to prevent insolvent
+debtors from becoming useless members of society, and to the belief that
+such laws encourage the stability of the family.
+
+By the cessions of several of the older states, and by various treaties
+with foreign countries, public lands have been acquired for the United
+States in every state and territory of the Union except the original
+thirteen, and Maine, Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee and Texas. For a time
+they were regarded chiefly as a source of revenue, but about 1820, as
+the need of revenue for the payment of the national debt decreased and
+the inhabitants of an increasing number of new states became eager to
+have the vacant lands within their bounds occupied, the demand that the
+public lands should be disposed of more in the interest of the settler
+became increasingly strong, and the homestead idea originated. Until the
+advent of railways, however, the older states of the North were opposed
+to promoting the development of the West in this manner, and soon
+afterwards the Southern representatives in Congress opposed the general
+homestead bills in the interests of slavery, so that except in isolated
+cases where settlers were desired to protect some frontier, as in
+Florida and Oregon, and to a limited extent in the case of the
+Pre-emption Act of 1841 (see below), the homestead principle was not
+applied by the national government until the Civil War had begun. A
+general homestead bill was passed by Congress in 1860, but this was
+vetoed by President James Buchanan; two years later, however, a similar
+bill became a law. The act of 1862 originally provided that any citizen
+of the United States, or applicant for citizenship, who was the head of
+a family, or twenty-one years of age, or, if younger, had served not
+less than fourteen days in the army or navy of the United States during
+an actual war, might apply for 160 acres or less of unappropriated
+public lands, and might acquire title to this amount of land by residing
+upon and cultivating it for five years immediately following, and paying
+such fees as were necessary to cover the cost of administration; a
+homestead acquired in this manner was exempted from seizure for any debt
+contracted prior to the date of issuing the patent. A commutation clause
+of this act permitted title to be acquired after only six months of
+residence by paying $1.25 per acre, as provided in the Pre-emption Act
+of 1841. Act of 1872, amended in 1901, allows any soldier or seaman, who
+has served at least ninety days in the army or navy of the United States
+during the Civil War, the Spanish-American War or in the suppression of
+the insurrection in the Philippines, and was honourably discharged, to
+apply for a homestead, and permits the deduction of the time of such
+service, or, if discharged on account of wounds or other disability
+incurred in the line of duty, the full term of his enlistment, from the
+five years otherwise required for perfecting title, except that in any
+case he shall have resided upon and cultivated the land at least one
+year before the passing of title. Since 1866 mineral lands have been for
+the most part excluded from entry as homesteads.
+
+In accordance with the provisions of the homestead law, 718,930
+homesteads, containing 96,495,414 acres, were established in forty-two
+years, and besides this principal act, Congress has passed several minor
+ones of a like nature, that is, acts designed to benefit the actual
+settler who improves the land. Thus the Pre-emption Act of 1841 gave to
+any head of a family or any single person over twenty-one years of age,
+who was a citizen of the United States or had declared his intention to
+become one, permission to purchase not to exceed 160 acres of public
+lands after he had resided upon and improved the same for six months;
+the Timber-Culture Act of 1873 allowed title to 160 acres of public
+prairie-land to be given to any one who should plant upon it 40 acres of
+timber, and keep the same in good growing condition for ten years; and
+the Desert-Land Act of 1877 gave to any citizen of the United States, or
+to any person who had declared his intention to become one, the
+privilege of acquiring title to 640 acres of such public land as was not
+included in mineral or timber lands, and would not without irrigation
+produce an agricultural crop, by paying twenty-five cents an acre and
+creating for the tract an artificial water-supply. These several land
+acts, however, invited fraud to such an extent that in time they
+promoted the establishment of large land holdings by ranchmen and others
+quite as much as they encouraged settlement and cultivation, and so
+great was this evil that in 1891 the Timber-Culture and Pre-emption Acts
+were repealed, the total amount of land that could be acquired by any
+one person under the several land laws was limited to 320 acres, the
+Desert-Land Act was so amended as to require an expenditure of at least
+three dollars an acre for irrigation, and the original Homestead Act was
+so amended as to disqualify any person who was already proprietor of
+more than 160 acres in any state or Territory of the Union for acquiring
+any more land under its provisions; and in 1896 a residence of fourteen
+months was required before permitting commutation or the purchase of
+title. But even these measures were inadequate to prevent fraud. In 1894
+Congress, in what is known as the Carey Act, donated to California,
+Oregon, Nevada, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Arizona, New
+Mexico and the Dakotas so much of 1,000,000 acres each of desert-lands
+as each should cause to be irrigated, reclaimed and occupied within ten
+years,[1] not less than 20 acres of each 160 acres to be cultivated by
+actual settlers; and in several of these states and territories
+irrigating companies have been formed and land offered to settlers in
+amounts not exceeding 160 acres to each, on terms requiring the settler
+to purchase ample and perpetual water-rights. In 1902, Congress
+appropriated the proceeds of the sales of public lands in these states
+and territories to form a reclamation fund to be used for the
+construction and maintenance of irrigation works, and lands reclaimed by
+this means are open to homestead entries, the entry-man being required
+to pay for the cost of reclamation in ten equal annual instalments
+without interest. When Texas was admitted to the Union the disposal of
+its public lands was reserved to the state, and under its laws every
+person who is the head of a family and without a homestead may acquire
+title to 160 acres of land by residing upon and improving it for three
+years; every unmarried man eighteen years of age or over may acquire
+title to 80 acres in the same way.
+
+A short time before the National Homestead Act for aiding citizens to
+acquire homesteads went into operation, some of the state legislatures
+had passed homestead and exemption laws designed to protect homesteads
+or a certain amount of property against loss to the owners in case they
+should become insolvent debtors, and by the close of the century the
+legislature of nearly every state in the Union had passed a law of this
+nature. These laws vary greatly. In most states the exemption of a
+homestead or other property from liability for debts can be claimed only
+by the head of a family, but in Georgia it may be claimed by any aged or
+infirm person, by any trustee of a family of minor children, or by any
+person on whom any woman or girls are dependent for support; and in
+California, although the head of a family may claim exemption for a
+homestead valued at $5000, any other person may claim exemption for a
+homestead valued at $1000. In some states exemptions may be claimed
+either for a farm limited to 40, 80, 160 or 200 acres, or for a house
+and one or more lots, usually limited in size, in a town, village or
+city; in other states the homestead for which exemption may be claimed
+is limited in value, and this value varies from $500 to $5000. With the
+homestead are usually included the appurtenances thereto, and the courts
+invariably interpret the law liberally; but many states also exempt a
+specified amount of personal property, including wearing apparel,
+furniture, provisions, tools, libraries and in some cases domestic
+animals and stock in trade. A few states exempt no homestead and only a
+small amount of personal property; Maryland, for example, exempts only
+$100 worth of property besides money payable in the nature of insurance,
+or for relief, in the event of sickness, injury or death. To some debts
+the exemption does not usually apply; the most common of these are
+taxes, purchase money, a debt secured by mortgage on the homestead and
+debts contracted in making improvements upon it; in Maryland the only
+exception is a judgment for breach of promise to marry or in case of
+seduction. If the homestead belongs to a married person, the consent of
+both husband and wife is usually required to mortgage it. Finally, some
+states require that the homestead for which exemption is to be claimed
+shall be previously entered upon record, others require only occupancy,
+and still others permit the homestead to be designated whenever a claim
+is presented.
+
+Following the example of either the United States Congress or the state
+legislatures, the governments of several British colonial states and
+provinces have passed homestead laws. In Quebec every settler on public
+lands is allowed, after receiving a patent, an exemption of not to
+exceed 200 acres from that of his widow, of his, her or their children
+and descendants in the direct line. In Ontario an applicant for a
+homestead may have not to exceed 200 acres of unappropriated public land
+for farming purposes by building a house thereon, occupying it for five
+years, and bringing at least fifteen acres under cultivation; the
+exemption of such a homestead from liability to seizure for debts is,
+however, limited to twenty years from the date of application for the
+land, and does not extend even during that period to rates or taxes.
+Manitoba, British Columbia, Queensland, New South Wales, South
+Australia, West Australia and New Zealand also have liberal homestead
+and exemption laws.
+
+  See J. B. Sanborn, "Some Political Aspects of Homestead Legislation,"
+  in _The American Historical Review_ (1900); Edward Manson, "The
+  Homestead Acts," in the _Journal of the Society of Comparative
+  Legislation_ (London, 1899); S. D. Thompson, _A Treatise on_
+  _Homesteads and Exemptions_ (San Francisco, 1886); P. Bureau, _Le
+  Homestead ou l'Insaisissabilite de la petite propriete fonciere_
+  (Paris, 1894), and L. Vacher, _Le Homestead aux Etats-Unis_ (Paris,
+  1899).     (N. D. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In 1901 it was provided that the ten years should date from the
+    segregation of the lands from the public domain.
+
+
+
+
+HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV (1795-1874), German jurist, was born on the 13th of
+August 1795 at Wolgast in Pomerania. After studying law at the
+universities of Berlin, Gottingen and Heidelberg (1813-1817), he settled
+as a _Privatdocent_, in 1821, at the university of Berlin, where he
+became ordinary professor of law in 1827. His principal works are his
+edition of the _Sachsenspiegel_ (in 3 vols., 1827, 3rd ed., 1861,
+containing also some other important sources of Saxon or Low German
+law), which is still unsurpassed in accuracy and sagacity of research,
+and his book on _Die Haus- und Hofmarken_ (1870), in which he has given
+a history of the use of trade-marks among all the Teutonic nations of
+Europe, and which is full of important elucidations of the history of
+law and also contains valuable contributions to the history of art and
+civilization. In 1850 Homeyer was elected a member of the Berlin Academy
+of Sciences, in the _Transactions_ of which he published various papers
+exhibiting profound learning (_Uber die Heimat_, 1852; _Genealogie der
+Handschriften des Sachsenspiegels_, 1859; _Die Stadtbucher des
+Mittelalters_, 1860; _Der Dreissigste_, 1864, &c.). He died on the 20th
+of October 1874.
+
+
+
+
+HOMICIDE (Lat. _homicidium_), the general and neutral term for the
+killing of one human being by another. The nature of the responsibility
+of the slayer to the state and to the relatives of the slain has been
+one of the chief concerns of all systems of law from the earliest times,
+and it has been variously considered from the points of view of the
+sanctity of human life, the interests of the sovereign, the injury to
+the family of the slain and the moral guilt, i.e. the motives and
+intentions, of the slayer.
+
+The earliest recorded laws (those of Khammurabi) do not contain any
+sweeping general provision as to the punishment of homicide. The death
+penalty is freely imposed but not for homicide. "If a man strike a
+gentleman's daughter that she dies, his own daughter is to be put to
+death, if a poor man's the slayer pays 1/2 mina." In the Mosaic law the
+general command "Thou shalt not kill" of the Decalogue is in terms
+absolute. In primitive law homicide, however innocent, subjected the
+slayer to the lawful vengeance of the kindred of the slain, unless he
+could make some composition with him. This _lex talionis_ (a life for a
+life) resulted: (1) in a course of private justice which still survives
+in the vendetta of Corsica and Albania, and the blood feuds arising out
+of "difficulties" in the southern and western parts of the United
+States; (2) in the recognition of sanctuaries and cities of refuge
+within which the avenger of blood might not penetrate to kill an
+innocent manslayer; and (3) in the system of wite, bote and wer, by
+which the life of every man had its assessed price payable to his chief
+and his next of kin.
+
+It took long to induce the relatives of the slain to appreciate anything
+beyond the fact of the death of their kinsman or to discriminate between
+intentional and accidental homicide. By the laws of Khammurabi (206,
+208) striking a man in a quarrel without deadly intent but with fatal
+effect was treated as a matter for compensation according to the rank of
+the slain. The Pentateuch discriminates between the man "who lieth in
+wait for" or "cometh presumptuously" on "his neighbour to slay him with
+guile" (Exodus xxi. 13, 14), and the man "who killeth his neighbour
+ignorantly whom he hated not in time past" (Deut. xix. 4). But even
+killing by misadventure exposed the slayer to the avenger of blood. "As
+a man goeth into the wood with his neighbour to hew wood, and his hand
+fetcheth a stroke with the axe to cut down a tree and the head slippeth
+from the helve and lighteth upon his neighbour that he die: he shall
+flee into one of these cities (of refuge) and live" (Deut. xix. 5).
+
+Under the early laws of Teutonic and Celtic communities the
+inconveniences of the blood feud were gradually mitigated (see CRIMINAL
+LAW) by the system of wite and wer (or eric), but the blood feud
+continued long in Friesland and Lower Saxony, and in parts of
+Switzerland until the 16th century. In England under the Norman system
+homicide became a plea of the crown, and the rights of the kindred to
+private vengeance and to compensation were gradually superseded in
+favour of the right of the king to forfeitures where the homicide
+amounted to a crime (felony).
+
+Though homicide was thus made a public offence and not a matter for
+private vengeance, it took long to discriminate between those forms of
+homicide which should and those which should not be punished.
+
+The terms of act in English law used to describe _criminal_ homicide are
+murder (_mord_, _meurtre_, _murdrum_), manslaughter and _felo de se_ (or
+suicide by a person of sound mind).
+
+The original meaning of the word "murder" seems to have been secret
+homicide,--"_Murdrum proprie dicitur mors alicujus occulta cujus
+interfector ignoratur_" (_Dialogus de Scaccario_ i, x.); and Glanville
+says: _Duo sunt genera homicidii, unum est quod dicitur murdrum quod
+nullo vidente nullo sciente clam perpetratur, ita quod non assignatur
+clamor popularis_ (hue and cry), _est et aliud homicidium quod diciter
+simplex homicidium_. After the Conquest, and for the protection of the
+ruling race, a fine (also called _murdrum_) was levied for the king on
+the hundred or other district in which a stranger was found dead, if the
+slayer was not brought to justice and the blood kin of the slain did not
+present Englishry, there being a presumption (in favour of the
+Exchequer) that the deceased was a Frenchman. After the assize of
+Clarendon (1166) the distinction between the killing of Normans and
+Englishmen gradually evaporated and the term murder came to acquire its
+present meaning of deliberate as distinct from secret homicide. In 1267
+it was provided that the murder fine should not be levied in cases of
+death by "misadventure" (_per infortunium_).[1] But at that date and for
+long afterwards homicide in self-defence or by misadventure or even
+while of unsound mind involved at the least a forfeiture of goods, and
+required a pardon. These pardons, and restitution of the goods, became a
+matter of course, and the judges appear at a later date to have been in
+the habit of directing an acquittal in such cases. But it was not until
+1828 that the innocence of excusable homicide was expressly declared.
+The rule is now expressed in s. 7 of the Offences against the Person Act
+1861: "No punishment or forfeiture shall be incurred by any person who
+shall kill another by misfortune, or in his own defence, or in any other
+manner without felony."
+
+The further differentiation between different degrees of criminal
+homicide was marked by legislation of Henry VIII. (1531) taking away
+benefit of clergy in the case of "wilful murder with malice prepensed"
+(aforethought), and that phrase is still the essential element in the
+definition of "wilful murder," which is committed "when a person of
+sound memory and discretion unlawfully killeth any reasonable creature
+or being and under the king's peace with malice aforethought either
+express or implied" (3 Co. Inst. 47). The whole development of the
+substantive law as to murder rests on judicial rulings as to the meaning
+of malice prepense coupled with the extrajudicial commentaries of Coke,
+Hale and Foster; for parliament, though often tempted by bills and
+codes, has never ventured on a legislative definition. Much discussion
+has ranged round the phrase "malice aforethought," and it has
+undoubtedly been expanded by judicial decision so as to create what is
+described as "constructive" murder. According to the view of the
+criminal code commissioners of 1879 (_Parl. Pap._, 1879, c. 23, 45, p.
+23) the term "malice aforethought" is now a common name for all the
+following states of mind:--
+
+  1. An intent, preceding the act, to kill or do grievous bodily harm to
+  the person or to any other person:
+
+  2. Knowledge that the act done is _likely_ to produce such
+  consequences, whether coupled with an intention to produce them or
+  not:
+
+  3. An intent to commit any felony: or
+
+  4. An intent to resist an officer of police in the execution of his
+  duty.
+
+The third form of malice aforethought has been much controverted. When
+it was first recognized as creating a liability for wilful murder almost
+all felonies were capital offences: but even at the end of the 17th
+century Lord Holt expressed a view that it should be limited to felonies
+involving violence or danger to life, e.g. assault with intent to rob,
+or setting fire to a dwelling-house. And Sir James Stephen's opinion is
+that, to justify conviction of murder by an act done with intent to
+commit a felony, the act done must be one dangerous to life or known to
+be likely to cause death.
+
+Starting with the definition above given, English law still retains so
+much of its medieval character as to presume all homicide to be
+"malicious, and therefore murder, unless it is either _justified_ by the
+command or permission of the law, _excused_ on the ground of accident or
+self-preservation, or _alleviated_ into manslaughter by being the
+involuntary consequence of some act not strictly lawful or occasioned by
+some sudden and sufficiently violent provocation." The truth of the
+facts alleged in justification, excuse or alleviation, is for the jury
+to determine: the question whether if true they support the plea for
+which they are put forward is for the court.
+
+In the administration of the English criminal law as to homicide the
+consequences of too strict an adherence to the technical definitions of
+the offences are avoided (a) by the exercise of the jury of their powers
+to convict of manslaughter only even in cases where they are directed
+that the offence is murder or nothing; (b) by the report of the judge as
+to the particular circumstances of each case in which a conviction of
+murder has been followed by the statutory sentence of death; (c) by the
+examination of all the evidence in the case by the Home Office in order
+to enable the secretary of state to determine whether the prerogative of
+mercy should be exercised.
+
+Homicide is justifiable and not criminal when the killing is done in the
+execution of the law. The most important case of justifiable homicide is
+the execution of a criminal in due course of public justice. This
+condition is most stringently interpreted. "To kill the greatest of
+malefactors deliberately, uncompelled, and extrajudicially is murder....
+And further, if judgment of death be given by a judge not authorized by
+lawful commission, and execution is done accordingly, the judge is
+guilty of murder" (Stephen's _Commentaries_, book vi. c. iv.). The
+execution must be carried out by the proper officer or his deputy: any
+person executing the sentence without such authority, were it the judge
+himself, would be guilty of murder. And the sentence must be strictly
+pursued: to execute a criminal by a kind of death other than that to
+which he has been judicially condemned is murder.
+
+Homicide committed by an officer of justice in the course of carrying
+out his duty, as such, is also justifiable; e.g. where a felon resists a
+legal arrest and is killed in the effort to arrest him (see 2 Pollock
+and Maitland, 476); where officers in dispersing a riotous assemblage
+kill any of the mob, &c. (see RIOT). In these cases the homicide must be
+shown to have been absolutely necessary. Again, homicide is justifiable
+if committed in the defence of person or property against forcible and
+heinous crime, such as murder, violent robbery, rape or burglary. In
+this connexion there has been much discussion as to whether the person
+attacked is under a duty to retreat: and in substance the justification
+depends on the continuous necessity of attack or defence In order to
+prevent the commission by the deceased of the crime threatened.
+
+Homicide is excusable and not criminal at all when committed either by
+misadventure or in self-defence. In the former case the homicide is
+excused; where a man in the course of doing some lawful work,
+accidentally and without intention kills another, e.g. shooting at a
+mark and undesignedly hitting and killing a man. The act must be
+strictly lawful, and death by misadventure in unlawful sports is not a
+case of excusable homicide. Homicide in self-defence is excusable when
+the slayer is himself in immediate danger of death, and has done all he
+could to avoid the assault. Accordingly, if he strikes and kills his
+assailant after the assault is over, this is not excusable homicide. But
+if the assault has been premeditated, as in the ease of a duel, the
+death of either antagonist has under English law always been held to be
+murder and not excusable homicide. The excuse of self-defence covers the
+case in which a person in defence of others whom it is his duty to
+protect--children, wife, master, &c.--kills an assailant. It has been
+considered doubtful whether the plea of self-defence is available to one
+who has himself provoked a fray, in the course of which he is so pressed
+by his antagonist that his only resource is to kill him.
+
+In English law the term "manslaughter" is applied to those forms of
+homicide which though neither justifiable nor excusable are attended by
+alleviating circumstances which bring them short of wilful murder. The
+offence is not defined by statute, but only by judicial rulings. Its
+punishment is as a maximum penal servitude for life, and as a minimum a
+fine or recognizances to be of good behaviour. The quantum of punishment
+between the limits above stated is in the discretion of the court, and
+not, as under continental codes, with fixed minima; and the offence
+includes acts and omissions of very varying gravity, from acts which
+only by the charitable appreciation of a jury fall short of wilful
+murder, to acts or omissions which can only technically be described as
+criminal, e.g. where one of two persons engaged in poaching, by pure
+accident gets caught in a hedge so that his gun goes off and kills his
+fellow-poacher. This may be described as an extreme instance of
+"constructive crime."
+
+There are two main forms of "manslaughter":--
+
+1. "Voluntary" homicide under grave and sudden provocation or on a
+sudden quarrel in the heat of passion, without the slayer taking undue
+advantage or acting in an unusual manner. The substance of the
+alleviation of guilt lies in the absence of time for cool reflection or
+the formation of a premeditated design to kill. Under English law the
+provocation must be by acts and not by words or gestures, and must be
+serious and not trivial, and the killing must be immediately after
+provocation and while the slayer has lost his self-control in
+consequence of the provocation. The provocation need not be by assault
+or violence, and perhaps the best-recognized example is the slaying by a
+husband of a man found committing adultery with the slayer's wife. In
+the case of a sudden quarrel it does not matter who began or provoked
+the quarrel. This used to be called "chance medley."
+
+2. "Involuntary" homicide as a result of great rashness or gross
+negligence in respect of matters involving danger to human life, e.g. in
+driving trains or vehicles, or in dealing with dangerous weapons, or in
+performing surgical operations, or in taking care of the helpless.
+
+The innumerable modes in which criminal liability for killing others has
+been adjudged under the English definitions of murder and manslaughter
+cannot be here stated, and can only be studied by reference to the
+judicial decisions collected and discussed in _Russell on Crimes_ and
+other English text-books, and in the valuable work by Mr J. D. Mayne on
+the criminal law of India, in which the English common law rulings are
+stated side by side with the terms and interpretations of the Indian
+penal code. Much labour has been expended by many jurists in efforts to
+create a scientific and acceptable classification of the various forms
+of unlawful homicide which shall properly define the cases which should
+be punishable by law and the appropriate punishment. Their efforts have
+resulted in the establishment in almost every state except the United
+Kingdom of statutory definitions of the crime, beginning with the French
+penal code and going down to the criminal code of Japan. In the case of
+England, as a result of the labours of Sir James Stephen, a code bill
+was submitted to parliament in 1878. In 1879 a draft code was prepared
+by Blackburn, Lush and Barry, and was presented to parliament. It was
+founded on and prepared with Sir J. Stephen, and is a revision of his
+digest of the criminal law.
+
+After defining homicide and culpable homicide, the draft code (cl. 174)
+declares culpable homicide to be murder in the following cases: (a) if
+the offender means to cause the death of the person killed; (b) if the
+offender means to cause to the person killed any bodily injury which is
+known to the offender to be likely to cause death, and if the offender,
+whether he does or does not mean to cause death, is reckless whether
+death ensues or not; (c) if the offender means to cause death or such
+bodily injury as aforesaid to one person, so that if that person be
+killed the offender would be guilty of murder, and by accident or
+mistake the offender kills another person though he does not mean to
+hurt the person killed; (d) if the offender for any unlawful object does
+an act which he knows or ought to have known to be likely to cause
+death, and thereby kills any person, though he may have desired that his
+object should be effected without hurting any one.
+
+Further (cl. 175), it is murder (whether the offender means or not death
+to ensue, or knows or not that death is likely to ensue) in the
+following cases:--"(a) if he means to inflict grievous bodily injury for
+the purpose of facilitating the commission of any of the offences
+hereinafter mentioned, or the flight of the offender upon the commission
+or attempted commission thereof, and death ensues from his violence; (b)
+if he administers any stupefying thing for either of the purposes
+aforesaid and death ensues from the effects thereof; (c) if he by any
+means wilfully stops the breath of any person for either of the purposes
+aforesaid and death ensues from such stopping of the breath." The
+following are the offences referred to:--"high treason and other
+offences against the king's authority, piracy and offences deemed to be
+piracy, escape or rescue from prison or lawful custody, resisting lawful
+apprehension, murder, rape, forcible abduction, robbery, burglary,
+arson." Cl. 176 reduces culpable homicide to manslaughter if the person
+who causes death does so "in the heat of passion caused by sudden
+provocation"; and "any _wrongful act or insult_ of such a nature as to
+be sufficient to deprive any ordinary person of the power of
+self-control may be provocation if the offender acts upon it on the
+sudden, and before there has been time for his passion to cool. Whether
+any particular wrongful act or insult amounts to provocation and whether
+the offender was deprived of self-control shall be questions of fact;
+but no one shall be deemed to give provocation by doing that which he
+had a legal right to do, or which the offender incited him to do in
+order to provide an excuse for killing him or doing grievous bodily harm
+to any person." Further, "an arrest shall not necessarily reduce the
+offence from murder to manslaughter because an arrest was illegal, but
+if the illegality was known to the offender it may be evidence of
+provocation"; (cl. 177) "culpable homicide not amounting to murder is
+manslaughter."
+
+The definitions embodied in these clauses though not yet accepted by the
+British legislature, have in substance been embodied in the criminal
+codes of Canada (1892 ss. 227-230), New Zealand (1893, ss. 163-166),
+Queensland (1899, ss. 300-305), and Western Australia (1901, ss.
+275-280).
+
+From the point of view of civil as distinct from criminal responsibility
+homicide does not by the common law give any cause of action against the
+person causing the death of another in favour of the wife or blood
+relations of the deceased. In early law this was otherwise; and the wer
+or eric of the deceased came historically before the right of chief or
+state. But under English law the rights of relations, except by way of
+appeal for felony,[2] were swept aside in favour of the crown, on the
+principle that every homicide is presumed felonious (murder) unless the
+contrary is proved, and that in all cases of homicide not justifiable by
+law a forfeiture was incurred. The rights of the relatives were also
+defeated by application of the maxim "_actio personalis moritur cum
+persona_" ("a personal action dies with the person") to all proceedings
+for injury to the person or to reputation. In Scotland the old theory
+was preserved in the law as to assythement.
+
+In England the law was altered at the instance of Lord Campbell in 1846
+(9 & 10 V. c. 93) so as to give a right of a claim by the husband, wife,
+parent or child of a person killed by a wrongful (or even criminal) act,
+neglect or default by another which would have given the deceased if he
+had survived a cause of action against the wrongdoer. The compensation
+payable is what the surviving relative has lost by the death, and under
+the Workmen's Compensation Act 1906 (in all cases to which it applies)
+the employer is liable even without negligence to compensate the
+dependants of an employee killed by an accident arising out of and in
+the course of the employment; and in such cases even if the death was
+due to serious and wilful misconduct by the employee, compensation is
+payable.
+
+In the Indian penal code the definitions of murder are so drawn as to
+limit the offences to cases where it was actually intended to cause
+death or bodily injury by the acts or omissions of the slayer, and the
+definition of culpable homicide short of murder is so drawn as to
+exclude the forms of unintentional manslaughter due to neglect of duty,
+e.g. in the conduct of trains or ships or vehicles. This last omission
+was supplied in 1870. The Indian code does not treat as murder either
+duelling or helping Hindu widows to commit _suttee_ (s. 301, exception
+5). In most of the British possessions in Asia and in east Africa the
+Indian definitions of homicide have been adopted. In the rest of the
+colonies, except South Africa, the law of homicide depends on the
+English common law as modified by colonial codes or statutes. In South
+Africa it rests mainly on the Roman Dutch law.
+
+_Europe._--In European codes distinctions corresponding to those of the
+English law are drawn between premeditated and other forms of criminal
+homicide; but more elaborate distinctions are drawn between the degrees
+of deliberation or criminality manifested in the slaying, and the
+minimum or maximum penalty is varied accordingly.
+
+In the French penal code voluntary homicide is called murder (_meurtre_,
+art. 295): but if committed with premeditation or lying in wait is
+styled _assassinat_ (_guet-apens_) (296-298). Poisoning (even if the
+poison is not fatal), is specially punished, as is parricide (on the
+lines of the obsolete English offence of petty treason), and
+infanticide, i.e. the killing of newly-born infants. Assassination,
+poisoning and parricide are at present capital offences; but a bill to
+abolish the death sentence has been laid before the French parliament.
+
+The German code distinguishes between voluntary homicide which is done
+with deliberation and such homicide committed without deliberation (ss.
+211, 212), and provides for mitigation of punishment where the slaying
+was provoked without fault in the slayer by any wrongful act or serious
+insult upon the slayer or his relatives by the slain (213). Parricide
+and infanticide are specially punished (214, 215), as is killing another
+person at his express and earnest request (216)--an offence which would
+in England be murder--and it is a separate offence to cause the death of
+another, the penalty being increased if the offender was peculiarly
+bound by office, calling or trade to use a care which he did not use
+(222).
+
+The Italian code punishes as homicide those who with intention to kill
+cause the death of another (364). The death penalty is not imposed, but
+scales of punishment are provided to deal with aggravated forms of the
+offence. Thus _ergastolo_ (penal servitude for life) is the punishment
+in the case of homicide of ascendants and descendants, or with
+premeditation, or under the sole impulse of brutal ferocity or with
+gross cruelty (_gravi sevizie_), or by means of arson, inundation,
+drowning and certain other crimes, or to secure the gains or conceal the
+commission, or to secure immunity from the consequences, of another
+crime (366). Personal violence resulting in death inflicted without
+intention to kill is punishable _minore poena_ (368), and it is criminal
+to cause the death of another by imprudence, negligence or lack of skill
+in an art or profession (_imperitia nella propria arte o professione_),
+or by non-observance of regulations, orders or instructions.
+
+The Spanish code has like those of Italy and France special punishments
+for parricide (417) and for assassination, in which are included killing
+for reward or promise of reward or by inundation (418), and for aiding
+another to commit suicide (421). Both the Italian and the Spanish codes
+afford a special mitigation to infanticide committed to avoid dishonour
+to the mother of the infant or her family.
+
+_America._--The most notable difference between England and the United
+States in regard to the law on this subject is the recognition by state
+legislation of degrees in murder. English law treats all unlawful
+killing not reducible to manslaughter as of the same degree of guilt in
+law. American statutes seek to discriminate for purposes of punishment
+between the graver and the less culpable forms of murder. Thus an act of
+the legislature of Pennsylvania (22nd of April 1794) declares "all
+murder which shall be perpetrated by means of poison or by lying in wait
+or by any other kind of wilful, deliberate and premeditated killing, or
+which shall be committed in the perpetration of or attempt to perpetrate
+any arson, rape, robbery or burglary shall be deemed murder of the first
+degree; and all other kinds of murder shall be deemed murder of the
+second degree." This legislation has been copied or adopted in many if
+not most of the other states. There are also statutory degrees of
+manslaughter in the legislation of some of the states. The differences
+of legislation, coupled with the power of the jury in some states to
+determine the sentence, and the limitations on the right of the judges
+to comment on the testimony adduced, lead to very great differences
+between the administration of the law as to homicide in the two
+countries.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Stephen, _Hist. Cr. Law, Digest Criminal Law_; _Russell
+  on Crimes_ (7th ed., 1909); Archbold, _Criminal Pleading_ (23rd ed.,
+  1905); Bishop, _American Criminal Law_ (8th ed.); Pollock and
+  Maitland, _Hist. English Law_; Pike, _History of Crime_.
+       (W. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Select Pleas of Crown, 1 (Selden Society Publ.); Pollock and
+    Maitland, _Hist. Eng. Law_, ii. 458, 476, 478.
+
+  [2] Appeals remained in the law till 1819, but were long before this
+    disused. In the middle ages they were used as a means of getting
+    compensation.
+
+
+
+
+HOMILETICS (Gr. [Greek: homiletikos], from [Greek: homilein], to
+assemble together), in theology the application of the general
+principles of rhetoric to the specific department of public preaching.
+It may be further defined as the science that treats of the analysis,
+classification, preparation, composition and delivery of sermons. The
+formation during recent years of such lectureships as the "Lyman
+Beecher" course at Yale University has resulted in increased attention
+being given to homiletics, and the published volumes of this series are
+the best contribution to the subject.
+
+  The older literature is cited exhaustively in W. G. Blaikie, _For the
+  Work of the Ministry_ (1873); and D. P. Kidder, _Treatise on
+  Homiletics_ (1864).
+
+
+
+
+HOMILY, a simple religious address, less elaborate than a sermon, and
+confining itself to the practical exposition of some ethical topic or
+some passage of Scripture. The word [Greek: homilia] from [Greek:
+homilein] ([Greek: homou, eilo]), meaning communion, intercourse, and
+especially interchange of thought and feeling by means of words
+(conversation), was early employed in classical Greek to denote the
+instruction which a philosopher gave to his pupils in familiar talk
+(Xenophon, _Memorabilia_, I. ii. 6. 15). This usage of the word was long
+preserved (Aelian, _Varia Historia_, iii. 19); and the [Greek:
+homilesas] of Acts xx. 11 may safely be taken to assign not only a free
+and informal but also a didactic character to the apostle Paul's
+discourse in the upper chamber of Troas, when "he talked a long while,
+even till break of day." That the "talk" on that occasion partook of the
+nature of the "exposition" ([Hebrew: drasha]) of Scripture, which,
+undertaken by a priest, elder or other competent person, had become a
+regular part of the service of the Jewish synagogue,[1] may also with
+much probability be assumed. The custom of delivering expositions or
+comments more or less extemporaneous on the lessons of the day at all
+events passed over soon and readily into the Christian Church, as may be
+gathered from the first _Apology_ (c. 67) of Justin Martyr, where we
+read that, in connexion with the practice of reading portions from the
+collected writings of the prophets and from the memoirs of the apostles,
+it had by that time become usual for the presiding minister to deliver a
+discourse in which "he admonishes the people, stirring them up to an
+imitation of the good works which have been brought before their
+notice." This discourse, from its explanatory character, and from the
+easy conversational manner of its delivery, was for a long time called
+[Greek: homilia] rather than [Greek: logos]: it was regarded as part of
+the regular duty of the bishop, but he could devolve it, if he thought
+fit, on a presbyter or deacon, or even on a layman. An early and
+well-known instance of such delegation is that mentioned by Eusebius
+(_Hist. Eccl._ vi. 19) in the case of Origen (216 A.D.).[2] In course of
+time the exposition of the lesson for the day came more frequently to
+assume a more elaborate character, and to pass into the category of a
+[Greek: logos] or even [Greek: philosophia] or [Greek: philosophema];
+but when it did so the fact was as far as possible denoted by a change
+of name, the word [Greek: homilia] being reserved for the expository or
+exegetical lecture as distinguished from the pulpit oration or
+sermon.[3] While the church of the 3rd and 4th centuries could point to
+a brilliant succession of great preachers, whose discourses were wont to
+be taken down in shorthand and circulated among the Christian public as
+edifying reading, it does not appear that the supply of ordinary
+homiletical talent kept pace with the rapidity of church extension
+throughout the Roman empire. In the smaller and remoter communities it
+not uncommonly happened that the minister was totally unqualified to
+undertake the work of preaching; and though, as is curiously shown by
+the case of Rome (Sozomen, _Hist. Eccl._ vii. 19), the regular
+exposition of the appointed lessons was by no means regarded as part of
+the necessary business of a church, it was generally felt to be
+advisable that some provision should be made for the public instruction
+of congregations. Even in Jerome's time (_De Vir. Ill._ c. 115),
+accordingly, it had become usual to read, in the regular meetings of the
+churches which were not so fortunate as to possess a competent preacher,
+the written discourses of celebrated fathers; and at a considerably
+later period we have on record the canon of at least one provincial
+council (that of Vaux, probably the third, held in 529 A.D.), positively
+enjoining that if the presbyter through any infirmity is unable himself
+to preach, "homilies of the holy fathers" (homiliae sanctorum patrum)
+are to be read by the deacons. Thus the finally fixed meaning of the
+word homily as an ecclesiastical term came to be a written discourse
+(generally possessing the sanction of some great name) read in church by
+or for the officiating clergyman when from any cause he was unable to
+deliver a sermon of his own. As the standard of clerical education sank
+during the dark ages, the habit of using the sermons of others became
+almost universal. Among the authors whose works were found specially
+serviceable in this way may be mentioned the Venerable Bede, who is
+credited with no fewer than 140 homilies in the Basel and Cologne
+editions of his works, and who certainly was the author of many
+_Homiliae de Tempore_ which were much in vogue during the 8th and
+following centuries. Prior to Charlemagne it is probable that several
+other collections of homilies had obtained considerable popularity, but
+in the time of that emperor these had suffered so many mutilations and
+corruptions that an authoritative revision was felt to be imperatively
+necessary. The result was the well-known _Homiliarium_, prepared by Paul
+Warnefrid, otherwise known as Paulus Diaconus (q.v.).[4] It consists of
+176 homilies arranged in order for all the Sundays and festivals of the
+ecclesiastical year; and probably was completed before the year 780.
+Though written in Latin, its discourses were doubtless intended to be
+delivered in the vulgar tongue; the clergy, however, were often too
+indolent or too ignorant for this, although by more than one provincial
+council they were enjoined to exert themselves so that they might be
+able to do so.[5] Hence an important form of literary activity came to
+be the translation of the homilies approved by the church into the
+vernacular. Thus we find Alfred the Great translating the homilies of
+Bede; and in a similar manner arose Aelfric's Anglo-Saxon _Homilies_ and
+the German _Homiliarium_ of Ottfried of Weissenburg. Such _Homiliaria_
+as were in use in England down to the end of the 15th century were at
+the time of the Reformation eagerly sought for and destroyed, so that
+they are now extremely rare, and the few copies which have been
+preserved are generally in a mutilated or imperfect form.[6]
+
+The _Books of Homilies_ referred to in the 35th article of the Church of
+England originated at a convocation in 1542, at which it was agreed "to
+make certain homilies for stay of such errors as were then by ignorant
+preachers sparkled among the people." Certain homilies, accordingly,
+composed by dignitaries of the lower house, were in the following year
+produced by the prolocutor; and after some delay a volume was published
+in 1547 entitled _Certain sermons or homilies appointed by the King's
+Majesty to be declared and read by all parsons, vicars, or curates every
+Sunday in their churches where they have cure_. In 1563 a second _Book
+of Homilies_ was submitted along with the 39 Articles to convocation; it
+was issued the same year under the title _The second Tome of Homilies of
+such matters as were promised and instituted in the former part of
+Homilies, set out by the authority of the Queen's Majesty, and to be
+read in every Parish Church agreeably_. Of the twelve homilies contained
+in the first book, four (the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) are probably to be
+attributed to Cranmer, and one (the 12th) possibly to Latimer; one (the
+6th) is by Bonner; another (the 5th) is by John Harpsfield, archdeacon
+of London, and another (the 11th) by Thomas Becon, one of Cranmer's
+chaplains. The authorship of the others is unknown. The second book
+consists of twenty-one homilies, of which the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 7th, 8th,
+9th, 16th and 17th have been assigned to Jewel, the 4th to Grindal, the
+5th and 6th to Pilkington and the 18th to Parker. See the critical
+edition by Griffiths, Oxford, 1869. The homilies are not now read
+publicly, though they are sometimes appealed to in controversies
+affecting the doctrines of the Anglican Church.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Philo, _Quod omnis probus liber_, sec. 12 (ed. Mangey ii.
+    458; cf. ii. 630).
+
+  [2] Sozomen (_Hist. Eccl._ vii. 19) mentions that in Alexandria in
+    his day the bishop alone was in the custom of preaching; but this, he
+    implies, was a very exceptional state of matters, dating only from
+    the time of Arius.
+
+  [3] To the more strictly exegetical lectures the names [Greek:
+    exegeseis, exegemata, exegetika, ektheseis,] were sometimes applied.
+    But as no popular discourse delivered from the pulpit could ever be
+    exclusively expository and as on the other hand every sermon
+    professing to be based on Scripture required to be more or less
+    "exegetical" and "textual," it would obviously be sometimes very hard
+    to draw the line of distinction between [Greek: homilia] and [Greek:
+    logos]. It would be difficult to define very precisely the difference
+    in French between a "conference" and a "sermon"; and the same
+    difficulty seems to have been experienced in Greek by Photius, who
+    says of the eloquent pulpit orations of Chrysostom, that they were
+    [Greek: homiliai] rather than [Greek: logoi].
+
+  [4] Manuscript copies are preserved at Heidelberg, Darmstadt,
+    Frankfort, Giessen, Cassel and other places. It was first printed at
+    Spires in 1482. In the Cologne edition of 1530 the title
+    runs--_Homiliae seu mavis sermones sive conciones ad populum,
+    praestantissimorum ecclesiae doctorum Hieronymi, Augustini, Ambrosii,
+    Gregorii, Origenis, Chrysostomi, Bedae, &c., in hunc ordinem digestae
+    per Alchuinum levitam, idque injungente ei Carolo M. Rom. Imp. cui a
+    secretis fuit_. Though thus attributed here to Alcuin, who is known
+    to have revised the Lectionary or _Comes Hieronymi_, the compilation
+    of the _Homiliarium_ is in the emperor's own commission entrusted to
+    Paul, to whom it is assigned in the earlier printed editions also. A
+    comparison of different editions shows that the contents increased
+    with the ever-growing number of saints' days and festivals, new
+    discourses by later preachers like Bernard being constantly added.
+
+  [5] Neander, _Church History_, v. 174 (Eng. trans. of 1851).
+
+  [6] An ancient English metrical homiliarium is preserved in the
+    library of the university of Cambridge. Earlier versions of it have
+    existed, and a portion of perhaps the earliest copy, dating from
+    about the middle of the 13th century, was published in 1862 by Mr J.
+    Small, librarian to the university of Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+HOMOEOPATHY (from the Greek [Greek: homoios], like, and [Greek: pathos],
+feeling). The distinctive system of therapeutics which bears the name of
+homoeopathy is based upon the law _similia similibus curentur_,[1] the
+originator of which was S. C. F. Hahnemann, a native of Meissen in
+Germany, who discovered his new principle while he was experimenting
+with cinchona bark in 1790, and announced it in 1796.[2] The essential
+tenets of homoeopathy--with which is contrasted the "allopathy" ([Greek:
+allos], other) of the "orthodox" therapeutics--are that the cure of
+disease is effected by drugs that are capable of producing in a healthy
+individual symptoms similar to those of the disease to be treated, and
+that to ascertain the curative virtues of any drug it must be "proved"
+upon healthy persons--that is, taken by individuals of both sexes in a
+state of health in gradually increasing doses. The manifestations of
+drug action thus produced are carefully recorded, and this record of
+"drug-diseases," after being verified by repetition on many "provers,"
+constitutes the distinguishing feature of the homoeopathic materia
+medica, which, while it embraces the sources, preparation and uses of
+drugs as known to the orthodox pharmacopoeia, contains, in addition, the
+various "provings" obtained in the manner above described.
+
+Besides the promulgation of the doctrine of similars, Hahnemann also
+enunciated a theory to account for the origin of all chronic diseases,
+which he asserted were derived either directly or remotely from psora
+(the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or sycosis (fig-wart disease).
+This doctrine, although at first adopted by some of the enthusiastic
+followers of Hahnemann, was almost immediately discarded by very many
+who had a firm belief in his law of cure. In the light of advancing
+science such theories are entirely untenable, and it was unfortunate for
+the system of medicine which he founded that Hahnemann should have
+promulgated such an hypothesis. It served as a target for the shafts of
+ridicule showered upon the system by those who were its opponents, and
+even at the present time there still exists in the minds of many
+misinformed persons the conviction that homoeopathy is a system of
+medicine that bases the origin of all chronic disease on the itch or on
+syphilis or fig-warts.
+
+Another peculiar feature of homoeopathy is its posology or theory of
+dose. It may be asserted that homoeopathic posology has nothing more to
+do with the original law of cure than the psora (itch) theory has, and
+that it was one of the later creations of Hahnemann's mind. Most
+homoeopathists believe more or less in the action of minute doses of
+medicine, but it must not be considered as an integral part of the
+system. The dose is the corollary, not the principle. Yet in the minds of
+many, infinitesimal doses of medicine stand for homoeopathy itself, the
+real law of cure being completely put into the background. The question
+of dose has also divided the members of the homoeopathic school into
+bitter factions, and is therefore a matter for careful consideration.
+Many employ low potencies,[3] i.e. mother tinctures, first, second,
+sixth dilutions, &c., while others use hundred-thousandths and
+millionths.
+
+Some homoeopathists of the present day still believe with Hahnemann
+that, even after the material medicinal particles of a drug have been
+subdivided to the fullest extent, the continuation of the dynamization
+or trituration or succussion develops a spiritual acurative agency, and
+that the higher the potency, the more subtle and more powerful is the
+curative action. Hahnemann says (_Organon_, 3rd American edition, p.
+101), "It is only by means of the spiritual influence of a morbific
+agent that our spiritual vital power can be diseased, and in like manner
+only by the spiritual operation of medicine can health be restored."
+This is absolutely denied by others. Thus there exist two schools among
+the adherents of homoeopathy. On the one hand there are the
+Hahnemannians, the "Purists" or "High Potency" men, who still profess to
+regard the _Organon_ as their Bible, who believe in all the teachings of
+Hahnemann, who adhere in their prescriptions to the single dose, the
+single medicine, and the highest possible potency, and regard the
+doctrine of the spiritual dynamization acquired by trituration and
+succussion as indubitable. On the other side there are the "Rational" or
+"Low Potency" men, who believe in the universality of the law of cure,
+but think that it cannot always be applied, on account of an imperfect
+materia medica and a lack of knowledge on the part of the physician.
+They believe that in many cases of severe and acute pain palliatives are
+required, and that they are free to use all the adjuvants at present
+known to science for the relief of suffering humanity--massage,
+balneology, electricity, hygiene, &c. The American Institute of
+Homoeopathy, the national body of the United States, has adopted the
+following resolution and ordered it to be published conspicuously in
+each number of the _Transactions_ of the society: "A homoeopathic
+physician is one who adds to his knowledge of medicine a special
+knowledge of homoeopathic therapeutics. All that pertains to the great
+field of medical learning is his by tradition, by inheritance, by
+right."
+
+It is claimed that the effect produced upon both the laity and the
+general profession of medicine by the introduction of homoeopathy was
+salutary in many ways. It diminished the quantity of medicine that was
+formerly considered necessary for the eradication of disease, and thus
+revealed the fact that the _vis medicatrix naturae_ is often sufficient,
+with occasional and gentle assistance, to cure many diseases, especially
+those fevers that run a definite and regular course. Corroboration of
+the law _similia similibus curentur_ is seen, according to
+homoeopathists, in the adoption of the serum therapy, which consists in
+the treatment of the most malignant diseases (diphtheria, lock-jaw,
+typhoid fever, tuberculosis, bubonic plague) by introducing into the
+system a modified form (similar) of those poisons that produce them in
+the healthy individual. Hahnemann undoubtedly deserves the credit of
+being the first to break decidedly with the old school of medical
+practice, in which, forgetful of the teachings of Hippocrates, nature
+was either overlooked or rudely opposed by wrong and ungentle methods.
+We can scarcely now estimate the force of character and of courage which
+was implied in his abandoning the common lines of medicine. More than
+this, he and his followers showed results in the treatment of disease
+which compared very favourably with the results of contemporary orthodox
+practice.
+
+Homoeopathy has given prominence to the therapeutical side of medicine,
+and has done much to stimulate the study of the physiological action of
+drugs. It has done service in directing more special attention to
+various powerful drugs, such as aconite, nux vomica, belladonna, and to
+the advantage of giving them in simpler forms than were common before
+the days of Hahnemann. But in the medical profession homoeopathy
+nevertheless remains under the stigma of being a dissenting sect. It has
+been publicly announced that if the homoeopathists would abolish the
+name "homoeopathy," and remove it from their periodicals, colleges,
+hospitals, dispensaries and asylums, they would be received within the
+fold of the regular profession. These conditions have been accepted by a
+few homoeopathists who have become members of the most prominent medical
+association in the United States.
+
+Homoeopathy as it exists to-day can, in the opinion of its adherents,
+stand by itself, and its progress for a century in face of prolonged and
+determined opposition appears to its upholders to be evidence of its
+truth. There are still, indeed, in both schools of medical thought, men
+who stand fast by their old principles. There are homoeopathists who can
+see nothing but evil in the practice of their brothers of the orthodox
+school, as there are allopathists who still regard homoeopathy as a
+humbug and a sham. There are, however, liberal-minded men in both
+schools, who look upon the adoption of any safe and efficient method of
+curing disease as the birthright of the true physician, and who allow
+every man to prescribe for his patients as his conscience may dictate,
+and, provided he be educated in all the collateral branches of medical
+science, are ready to exchange views for the good of suffering humanity.
+
+  _Great Britain._--Homoeopathy is not rapidly extending in Great
+  Britain, and its recognition has been slow. The first notice taken of
+  the new system of therapeutics was by the Medical Society of London in
+  1826. In 1827 the physician of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, Dr F. H.
+  F. Quin (1799-1878), who had previously studied homoeopathy in Germany
+  and practised it in Italy, came to England, and it was through his
+  efforts that the system was introduced. Three other physicians, Dr
+  Belluomini, Dr Romani and Dr Tagliani, claimed priority, but careful
+  research established Dr Quin's title. Quin was a successful man
+  professionally and socially, and brought upon himself in a short time
+  the anathema of the Royal College of Physicians. In 1844 Dr William
+  Henderson, professor of pathology in the university of Edinburgh,
+  embraced the Hahnemannian system. A storm of opposition arose, and
+  Professor J. Y. Simpson (the discoverer of chloroform anaesthesia)
+  published a volume, with the alliterative title, _Homoeopathy, its
+  Tenets and Tendencies, Theoretical, Theological, and Therapeutical_.
+  This brochure was answered by Professor Henderson, the title of his
+  book being _Homoeopathy Fairly Represented_. From 1827 to 1837 there
+  were but a dozen practitioners of homoeopathy in London, but during
+  1837 to 1847 the number increased to between seventy and eighty. In
+  1857 there were upwards of two hundred practitioners in the kingdom,
+  with thirty-three institutions in which the law of similars was used
+  as a basis of practice. In 1867 the increase was not so rapid, the
+  number being 261. A society was formed about this period for "the
+  protection of homoeopathic practitioners and students," which proved
+  of great value in binding the sect together. In 1870 congresses were
+  established, and annual meetings held, which have continued to the
+  present time. In 1901 there were over three hundred homoeopathic
+  physicians in the British Isles, of whom between seventy and eighty
+  were in London alone. There were seventy-nine chemists, of whom
+  seventeen were located in London, and eighty-two towns and cities in
+  the country contained from one to ten homoeopathic practitioners each,
+  together with many established chemists for dispensing homoeopathic
+  medicines. The British Homoeopathic Society was founded by Quin in
+  1844, and has numerous members and fellows, besides corresponding
+  members in all portions of the world, including Australia, India and
+  Tasmania. The London Homoeopathic Hospital was founded in 1850, also
+  largely through the efforts of Quin, and a few years afterwards moved
+  to Great Ormond Street. During the cholera epidemic of 1854 the
+  statistics of this hospital showed a mortality of 16.4%, against 51.8%
+  of other metropolitan charities. The London Homoeopathic Hospital has
+  a convalescent home under its management at Eastbourne. There are also
+  dispensaries in Ealing and West Middlesex, Kensington, Notting Hill
+  and Bayswater. Similar institutions are located in Bath, Birkenhead,
+  Birmingham, Bootle, Bournemouth, Brighton, Bristol, Bromley,
+  Cheltenham, Cheshire, Croydon, Dublin, Eastbourne, Edinburgh,
+  Folkestone, Hastings and St Leonards, Ipswich, Leeds, Leicester,
+  Liverpool, Newcastle, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Plymouth, Torquay,
+  Tunbridge Wells, Weston-super-Mare. The homoeopathic journals include
+  the _Homoeopathic World_, the _London Homoeopathic Hospital_
+  _Reports_, the _Journal of the British Homoeopathic Society_, and the
+  _British Homoeopathic Review_, the last being issued by the British
+  Homoeopathic Association, which was founded in 1902 for the purpose of
+  developing and extending homoeopathy in Great Britain. The _British
+  Journal of Homoeopathy_ was first published in 1843, and was edited by
+  Drs Drysdale, Russell and Black. For many years it was the foremost
+  homoeopathic journal in the world. Its motto was _In certis unitas, in
+  dubiis libertas, in omnibus charitas_. One reason why homoeopathy has
+  not advanced as rapidly in the British Isles as in America is said to
+  be the discrimination exercised against it by the General Medical
+  Council, and another is want of cohesion amongst the homoeopaths
+  themselves.
+
+  _United States._--Homoeopathy was introduced into the United States by
+  Dr Hans Birch Gram, who was born in Boston. His father being Danish,
+  Gram in his eighteenth year went to Copenhagen, where he graduated in
+  1814. In 1823 he became acquainted with homoeopathy, and brought a
+  knowledge of it to America in 1825 when he settled in New York. The
+  first homoeopathic association was formed in 1833 in Philadelphia, the
+  second in New York, 1834, and homoeopathy became known in the
+  different states somewhat in the following order: New York, 1825;
+  Pennsylvania, 1828; Louisiana, 1836; Connecticut, 1837; Massachusetts,
+  1837-1838; Maryland, 1837; Delaware, 1837; Kentucky, 1837; Vermont,
+  1838; Rhode Island, 1839; Ohio, 1839; New Jersey, 1840; Maine, 1840;
+  New Hampshire, 1840; Michigan, 1841; Georgia, 1842; Wisconsin, 1842;
+  Alabama, 1843; Illinois, 1843; Tennessee, 1844; Missouri, 1844; Texas,
+  1848; Minnesota, 1852; Nebraska, 1862; Colorado, 1863; Iowa, 1871.
+  After 1871 the spread of the system was rapid throughout every state
+  in the Union, and it is in the United States that homoeopathy
+  principally flourishes. There are thousands of homoeopathic
+  physicians, and their clients number several millions. It may be noted
+  that departments of homoeopathy are connected with the universities of
+  Boston, Michigan, Iowa, Minnesota and Kansas City.
+
+  _Canada._--The early history of homoeopathy can be traced back nearly
+  to 1850 in the province of Quebec. In the Dominion of Canada the
+  various provinces control the licensing of physicians, excepting in
+  Quebec, which is the only province having a separate homoeopathic
+  board of examiners. This is under the control of the Montreal
+  homoeopathic Association, and is known as the College of Homoeopathic
+  Physicians and Surgeons of Montreal. Three examiners are annually
+  appointed by the association. Successful candidates receive the
+  diploma of the college, and are entitled to add to their degree the
+  letters M.C.H.P.S. A certificate of successful examination is
+  forwarded to the lieutenant-governor at Quebec, who, "if satisfied of
+  the loyalty, integrity and good morals of the applicant, may grant him
+  a license to practise surgery, physic and midwifery, or either of
+  them, in the province of Quebec." The word "loyalty" has been decided
+  by the provincial secretary to mean a British subject. This is the
+  only government medical license now issued in the British empire, the
+  others being by provincial boards or colleges of physicians and
+  surgeons. In 1894 there was no homoeopathic institution in the
+  province; at present the Montreal Homoeopathic Hospital is in active
+  operation. Two homoeopathic papers are published monthly--the
+  _Homoeopathic Record_ in Montreal, and the _Homoeopathic Messenger_ in
+  Toronto. In 1870, in the province of Ontario, the three schools,
+  allopathic, homoeopathic and eclectic, united for examining purposes
+  into one board called the medical council, seventeen members
+  representing the old school and five the other two systems. Finally
+  the eclectics were merged in the old school, the board appointing five
+  of Hahnemann's followers for examining purposes. Grace Hospital at
+  Toronto (erected 1892) was begun as a dispensary in 1887.
+
+  _Germany._--In 1810 Hahnemann published his _Organon_, which was the
+  starting-point of homoeopathy in Germany. In 1811 an endeavour was
+  made to found an institution in Leipzig in which practitioners might
+  learn the new method of treatment theoretically and practically, but
+  it was not a success, as the entire tide of professional opinion was
+  against the system. In 1829, at the celebration of the fiftieth
+  anniversary of Hahnemann's doctorate, the German Central Society was
+  organized, holding its first meeting in 1830. In the university
+  hospital of Munich some experiments were made to test the efficacy of
+  homoeopathic medicines, but these were not successful. In 1831 the
+  government prohibited homoeopathists from dispensing their own
+  medicines; this was a severe blow to the system. In 1834 there was a
+  division among the homoeopathists themselves, which much retarded the
+  progress of the school. A homoeopathic hospital was established about
+  this time (January 1833) in Leipzig, but there was such constant
+  wrangling among the physicians connected with it that its sphere of
+  usefulness was curtailed, and it was finally converted into a
+  dispensary. The Baden Homoeopathic Society was established in 1834.
+  The homoeopathic hospital in Munich was established in 1836, but
+  suffered a similar fate to that of Leipzig, and was converted into a
+  dispensary. The rather equivocal success of these hospitals in Saxony
+  and Bavaria was in direct contrast to the fate of two newly
+  established hospitals in Austria, one in Vienna and the other in Linz,
+  which were very successful, and aroused great interest both among
+  physicians and laymen. During the political confusion of 1846 and 1849
+  there was complete stagnation of everything medical in Germany. But
+  during all these years, though the public institutions were few, the
+  literature on homoeopathic subjects became very extensive, and
+  exercised a significant influence upon the system in all parts of the
+  world. Hahnemann died in 1843, and on the 10th of August 1851 a bronze
+  monument to him was unveiled at Leipzig. The Leipzig dispensary lived
+  thirty-three years. From 1842 to 1874 there were treated in this
+  institution 65,106 patients. In 1901 there were about 250 homoeopathic
+  physicians in Germany; they appeared to be strongest at Berlin, in the
+  province of Brandenburg, in Pomerania and Westphalia, Saxony, Hessen
+  and in Wurttemberg.
+
+  _Austria-Hungary._--Homoeopathy was introduced into Austria about
+  1817, and in 1819 its practice was forbidden by law. Shortly
+  afterwards the physician attending the archduke John became a
+  homoeopath. In 1825 the doctrine was introduced into Vienna. To test
+  the efficacy of the system Francis I. ordered that experiments be made
+  with homoeopathic medicines, and for this purpose a ward furnished
+  with twelve beds was allotted. The results were satisfactory to the
+  new system, and it made gigantic strides in Vienna. During the cholera
+  epidemic of 1836 an increased impetus was given to the new school by
+  the reported brilliant successes of the treatment. Societies were
+  founded and journals published. In 1846 a second hospital was founded.
+  In 1850 a third hospital was opened, and clinical lectures upon the
+  system were delivered. In 1873 the Society of Homoeopathic Physicians
+  was formed. Between the years 1873 and 1893 homoeopathy declined. In
+  1901, in thirty-seven cities and towns there were to be found about
+  fifty physicians and two hospitals, and it was estimated that about
+  seventy-five more were scattered in Moravia, Bohemia, Tirol, Salzburg
+  and the coast provinces. There is a professorship of homoeopathy at
+  the University of Budapest, and homoeopathic clinics are held at the
+  new Rochus Hospital in Ulloi Street, and also in the homoeopathic
+  department of the Hospital Bethesda of the Reformed Community. The
+  Elizabeth Hospital, exclusively homoeopathic, has existed for many
+  years.
+
+  _Russia._--The homoeopathic system was introduced into Russia in 1823.
+  In 1825 great impetus was given to the new doctrine by the conversion
+  of Dr Bigel, physician to the grand duke Constantine. In 1829 the
+  grand duke ordered a series of experiments to be conducted to prove
+  the truth or fallacy of homoeopathy, and they demonstrated the success
+  of the new school. In 1841 a hospital was established in Moscow, and
+  in 1849 similar institutions were founded in Nizhniy-Novgorod. Since
+  then homoeopathy has been steadily practised, and has penetrated to
+  the remotest parts of Russia. In 1881 the civil engineers proposed to
+  commemorate the virtues of the emperor Alexander II. by the erection
+  of a hospital; a committee for collecting funds was created, and
+  58,064 roubles were handed to the Charity Society of the followers of
+  homoeopathy at St Petersburg for the erection and founding of a
+  homoeopathic hospital. The foundation stone of the edifice was laid on
+  19th June 1893, the emperor Alexander III. giving 5000 roubles. The
+  inauguration of a new dispensary and a pharmacy took place on the 19th
+  of April 1898, and the hospital itself, intended originally for fifty
+  beds, was opened on the 1st of November 1898. There are sixteen free
+  beds, three of them being in the name of the emperor Nicholas, the
+  empress Maria Feodorovna, and the emperor Alexander III. On the 28th
+  of January 1899 an imperial edict was issued granting the rights of
+  public service to the doctors of the hospital and dispensaries of the
+  Charity Society, thus placing them on an equality with the doctors of
+  the prevailing medical school.
+
+  _France._--Homoeopathy was first introduced into France in 1830 by
+  Count de Guidi, doctor of medicine, doctor of science, and inspector
+  of the university, who practised in Lyons. About the same year Dr
+  Antoine Petroz, widely known by his _Grand dictionnaire des sciences
+  medicales_, began practising homoeopathy in Paris, and his
+  establishment became the headquarters of the new system there. In 1835
+  Hahnemann himself came to the capital. In 1832 the homoeopathic method
+  of treating disease was introduced into the Hospice de Choisy, and in
+  1842 into the hospital of Carentan. Tessier practised the new doctrine
+  in his wards in the Hospital St Marguerite, and in the Children's
+  Hospital up to the year 1862, when he retired. The first homoeopathic
+  society was established in 1832 (the Societe Gallicain), Hahnemann
+  becoming president in 1835; in 1845 the Societe de Medecine
+  Homeopathique was organized; and in 1860 the two were united for the
+  better interests of the school. In 1901 there were at Paris three
+  hospitals--the Hospital St Jacques with fifty-five beds, the Hahnemann
+  Hospital with thirty-five beds, and the new Protestant Hospital for
+  Children with twenty-five-beds. At Lyons there is the Hospital St Luc.
+  The medical journals include _L'Art medical, La Revue homeopathique
+  belge, Journal belge d'homeopathie, La Therapeutique Integrale, La
+  Revue homeopathique francaise_. In the year 1900 the medical officers
+  of the republic having supervision over the medical department of the
+  International Exhibition officially recognized the members of the
+  homoeopathic school, and arranged for the proper accommodation and
+  reception of the International Congress of Homoeopathic Physicians
+  held in June. On the 30th of that month, with appropriate ceremonies,
+  the remains of Hahnemann were removed from the cemetery of Montmartre
+  and deposited in Pere-la-Chaise, and a monument bearing a suitable
+  inscription was erected to the memory of the founder of homoeopathy.
+
+  _Italy._--The Austrians when they entered Naples in 1821 brought
+  homoeopathy into Italy, the general in command of the army being a
+  devoted friend of Hahnemann. In 1828 Dr Count Sebastian de Guidi came
+  from Lyons and assisted in spreading the doctrine. During the period
+  from 1830 to 1860 many physicians practised homoeopathy, and the
+  literature on the subject became extensive. A homoeopathic clinic was
+  established and a ward opened in Trinity Hospital at Naples, and a
+  homoeopathic physician was appointed to the count of Syracuse. During
+  the severe cholera epidemics of 1854, 1855, 1865 the success of
+  homoeopathic treatment of that disease was so marked under the care of
+  Dr Rubini that the attention of the authorities was directed to the
+  system. In 1860 the homoeopathic practice was introduced into the
+  Spedale della Cesarea, and since that period homoeopathy has been
+  recognized with more or less favour in most of the cities. The Italian
+  Homoeopathic Institute is recognized by royal warrant as an
+  established institution, and its regulations are approved by the
+  government. In Turin the legal seat of the Homoeopathic Institute,
+  there is a hospital under the management of the State Association. The
+  homoeopathic medical press consists of the _Revista Omiopatica_,
+  established in 1855, and _L'Omiopatico in Italia_, the organ of the
+  Italian Homoeopathic Institute, which first appeared in 1884.
+
+  _Spain._--Homoeopathy was introduced into Spain in 1829 by a physician
+  to the Royal Commission sent by the king of Naples to attend the
+  marriage of Maria Christina with Don Ferdinand VII. Shortly after
+  this, a merchant of Cadiz visited Hahnemann in Coethen, and was cured
+  of a serious disorder; he returned to Spain with a supply of
+  homoeopathic literature, and immediately sent a medical student to
+  Leipzig to study the new system. In 1843 many cases of cholera were
+  treated homoeopathically in Madrid. The civil war, which did not
+  terminate until 1840, arrested all medical investigation in Spain, but
+  in 1843 there still existed in Madrid five pharmacies and a number of
+  homoeopathic physicians. About this time Dr Tosi Nunez returned from
+  an investigation of the new system with Hahnemann, and owing to his
+  success in the treatment of disease was created one of the physicians
+  of the bedchamber to the queen, who soon afterwards conferred upon him
+  the title of marquis, with the grand crosses of the Charles III. and
+  of the Civil Order of Beneficiencia. This recognition by high
+  authority gave an impetus to homoeopathy which has continued ever
+  since.
+
+  _Denmark._--Homoeopathy was unknown in Denmark until the year 1821,
+  when Hans Christian Lund, a medical practitioner, adopted it.
+  Hahnemann, however, had been both before and after that time consulted
+  by Danes, and consequently homoeopathic therapeutics was recognized in
+  different parts of the country. Lund translated many of Hahnemann's
+  works into Danish, as well as those of other eminent members of the
+  new school.     (W. T. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] An interesting controversy has been carried on between the
+    members of the homoeopathic school as to the proper construction of
+    the Latin motto which constitutes its acknowledged basis. For many
+    years the verb at the conclusion of the sentence was used in the
+    indicative mood, _curantur_, thus making the sentence a positive one.
+    After extended research it has been discovered that Hahnemann himself
+    never employed the word _curantur_ as descriptive of his law of cure,
+    but always wrote _curentur_, which greatly modifies the meaning of
+    the phrase. If the subjunctive mood be used, the motto reads, "Let
+    similars be treated by similars," or "similars should be treated by
+    similars." The reading _similia similibus curentur_ was officially
+    adopted as the correct reading of the sentence by the American
+    Institute of Homoeopathy at its session held in Atlantic City, N.J.,
+    on the 20th of June 1899; and the words are so inscribed on the
+    monument erected to the memory of Hahnemann and unveiled in
+    Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of June 1900, and also are those carved
+    upon the tomb of Hahnemann in Pere-la-Chaise, Paris.
+
+  [2] Some points of Hahnemann's system were borrowed from previous
+    writers--as he himself, though imperfectly, admits. Not to mention
+    others, he was anticipated by Hippocrates, and especially by
+    Paracelsus (1495-1541). The identical words _similia similibus
+    curantur_ occur in the Geneva edition (1658) of the works of
+    Paracelsus, as a marginal heading of one of the paragraphs; and in
+    the "Fragmenta Medica," _Op. Omnia_, i. 168, 169, occurs the
+    following passage:
+
+      _Simile similis cura; non contrarium._
+
+    "Quisquis enim cum laude agere Medicum volet, is has nugas longe
+    valere jubeat. Nec enim ullus unquam morbus calidus per frigida
+    sanatus fuit, nec frigidus per calida. Simile autem suum simile
+    frequenter curavit, scilicet Mercurius sulphur, et sulphur Mercurium;
+    et sal ilia, velut et illa sal. Interdum quidem cum proprietate
+    junctum frigidum sanavit calidum; sed id non factum est ratione
+    frigidi, verum ratione naturae alterius, quam a primo illo omnino
+    diversam facimus."
+
+    It is very remarkable that in Hahnemann's enumeration of authors who
+    anticipated him in regard to the doctrine of _Similia_, he makes no
+    mention of the views of Paracelsus, though the very words seem to be
+    taken from the works of that physician. The other point in
+    Hahnemann's doctrine--that medicines should be tried first on healthy
+    persons--he admits to have been enunciated by Haller. Roughly it has
+    been acted on by physicians in all ages, but certainly more
+    systematically since Hahnemann's time. In the most characteristic
+    feature of Hahnemann's practice--"the potentizing," "dynamizing," of
+    medicinal substances--he appears to have been original.
+
+  [3] Two methods of preparing medicines are recognized, one on the
+    decimal, the other on the centesimal scale. The pure tinctures are
+    denominated "mother tinctures," and represented by the Greek [phi].
+    To make a first decimal dilution or first decimal trituration, 10
+    drops of the mother tincture, or 10 grains of a crude substance, are
+    mixed with 90 drops of alcohol, or 90 grains of _saccharum lactis_
+    (sugar of milk) respectively. The liquid is thoroughly shaken, or the
+    powder carefully triturated, and the bottles containing them marked 1
+    X, meaning first decimal dilution or trituration. To make the 2 X
+    potency, 10 drops or 10 grains of this first dilution or trituration
+    are mixed with 90 drops of pure alcohol, or 90 grains of milk sugar,
+    and are succussed or triturated as above described, and marked 2 X
+    dilution or trituration. This subdivision of particles may be
+    continued to an indefinite degree. On the Hahnemannian or centesimal
+    scale the medicines are prepared in the same manner, the difference
+    being that 1 drop or grain is mixed with 99 drops or grains, to make
+    the first centesimal, which is marked 1 c or 1 simply, and so on for
+    the second and higher dilutions.
+
+
+
+
+HOMONYM (Gr. [Greek: homonomos], having the same name, from [Greek:
+homos], same, alike, and [Greek: onoma], name), a term in philology for
+those words which differ in sense but are alike either in sound or
+spelling or both. Words alike only in spelling but not in sound, e.g.
+"bow," are sometimes called _homographs_; and words alike only in sound
+but not in spelling, e.g. "meat," "meet," _homophones_. Skeat (_Etymol.
+Dict._) gives a list of English homonyms.
+
+
+
+
+HOMS, or HUMS (anc. _Emesa_ or _Emessa_, near the Hittite _Kadesh_), a
+town of Syria, on the right bank of the Orontes, and capital of a sanjak
+in the vilayet of Syria (Damascus). Pop. 30,000 (20,000 Moslem, 10,000
+Christian). The importance of the place arises from its command of the
+great north road from Egypt, Palestine and Damascus by the Orontes
+valley. Invading armies from the south have often been opposed near
+Homs, from the time of Rameses II., who had to fight the battle of
+Kadesh, to that of Ibrahim Pasha, who broke the first line of Ottoman
+defence in 1831 by his victory there. Ancient Emesa, in the district of
+Apamea, was a very old Syrian city, devoted to the worship of Baal, the
+sun god, of whose great temple the emperor Heliogabalus was originally a
+priest (A.D. 218). As a centre of native influences it was overawed by
+the Seleucid foundation of Apamea; but it opposed the Roman advance.
+There Aurelian crushed, in A.D. 272, the Syrian national movement led by
+Zenobia. Caracalla made it a Roman colony, and later it became the
+Capital of a small province, _Phoenicia Libanesia_ or _ad Libanum_.
+About 630 it was captured by the Moslem leader, Khalid ibn Walid, who is
+buried there. It now became the capital of a _jund_, or military
+district, which under the Omayyad Caliphs extended from Palmyra to the
+sea. Under the Arabs it was one of the largest cities in Syria, with
+walls and a strong citadel, which stood on a hill, occupying perhaps the
+site of the great sun temple. The ruins of this castle, blown up by
+Ibrahim Pasha, are still the most conspicuous feature of Homs, and
+contain many remains of ancient buildings. Its men were noted for their
+courage in war, and its women for their beauty. The climate was
+extolled for its excellence, and the land for its fertility. A
+succession of gardens bordered the Orontes, and the vineyards were
+remarkable for their abundant yield of grapes. When the place
+capitulated the great church of St John was divided between the
+Christians and Moslems, an arrangement which apparently lasted until the
+arrival of the Turks. At the end of the 11th century it fell into
+crusading hands, but was recovered by the Moslems under Saladin in 1187.
+Its decay probably dates from the invasion of the Mongols (1260), who
+fought two important battles with the Egyptians (1281 and 1299) in its
+vicinity. The construction of a carriage road to Tripoli led to a
+partial revival of prosperity and to an export of cereals and fruit, and
+this growth has, in turn, been accentuated by the railway, which now
+connects it with Aleppo and the Damascus-Beirut line. The district is
+well planted with mulberries and produces much silk, most of which is
+worked up on the spot.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HO-NAN, a central province of China, bounded N. partly by the Hwang-ho
+(which it crosses to the west of Ho-nan Fu, forming an arm northwards
+between the provinces of Shan-si and Chih-li), on the W. by Shen-si, on
+the S. by Hu-peh, and on the E. by Ngan-hui. It occupies an area of
+81,000 sq. m., with a population of about 22,100,000, and contains nine
+prefectural cities. Its capital is K'ai-feng Fu. The prefecture of
+Hwai-k'ing, north of the Hwang-ho, consists of a fertile plain,
+"rendered park-like by numerous plantations of trees and shrubs, among
+which thick bosquets of bamboo contrast with the gloomy groves of
+cypress." All kinds of cereals grow luxuriantly, and the general
+productiveness of the district is indicated by the extreme denseness of
+the population. The most noticeable feature in that portion of the
+province which is properly called Ho-nan is the Fu-niu Shan range, which
+runs east and west across this part of the province. Coal is found on
+the south of the Hwang-ho in the districts of Ho-nan Fu, the ancient
+capital, Lushan and Ju Chow. The chief products of the province are,
+however, agricultural, especially in the valley of the Tang-ho and
+Pai-ho, which is an extensive and densely populated plain running north
+and south from the Fu-niu Shan. Cotton is also grown extensively and
+forms the principal article of export, and a considerable quantity of
+wild silk is produced from the Fu-niu Shan. Three roads from the east
+and south unite at Ho-nan Fu, and one from the west. The southern road
+leads to Ju Chow, where it forks, one branch going to Shi-ki-chen,
+connecting the trade from Fan-cheng, Han-kow, and the Han river
+generally, and the other to Chow-kia-k'ow near the city of Ch'en-chow
+Fu, at the confluence of the three rivers which unite to form the
+Sha-ho; the second road runs parallel with the Hwang-ho to K'ai-feng Fu;
+the third crosses the Hwang-ho at Mengching Hien, and passes thence in a
+north-easterly direction to Hwai-k'ing Fu, Sew-wu Hien and Wei-hui Fu,
+at which place it joins the high road from Peking to Fan-cheng; and the
+western road follows the southern bank of the Hwang-ho for 250 m. to its
+great bend at the fortified pass known as the Tung-kwan, where it joins
+the great wagon road leading through Shan-si from Peking to Si-gan Fu.
+Ho-nan is now traversed north to south by the Peking-Hankow railway
+(completed 1905). The line crosses the Hwang-ho by Yung-tse and runs
+east of the Fu-niu Shan. Branch lines serve Ho-nan Fu and K'ai-feng Fu.
+
+
+
+
+HONAVAR, or ONORE, a seaport of British India, in the North Kanara
+district of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 6929. It is mentioned as a place of
+trade as early as the 16th century, and is associated with two
+interesting incidents in Anglo-Indian history. In 1670, the English
+factors here had a bull-dog which unfortunately killed a sacred bull, in
+revenge for which they were all murdered, to the number of eighteen
+persons, by an enraged mob. In 1784 it was bravely defended for three
+months by Captain Torriano and a detachment of sepoys against the army
+of Tippoo Sultan.
+
+
+
+
+HONDA, or SAN BARTOLOMEO DE HONDA, a town of the department of Tolima,
+Colombia, on the W. bank of the Magdalena river, 580 m. above its mouth.
+In 1906 Mr F. Loraine Petre estimated the population at 7000. It is
+about 650 ft. above sea-level and stands at the entrance to a narrow
+valley formed by spurs of the Central Cordillera, through which a
+picturesque little stream, called the Guali, flows into the Magdalena.
+The town overlooks the rapids of the Magdalena, and is shut in closely
+by spurs of the Eastern and Central Cordilleras. The climate is hot and
+damp and the temperature frequently rises to 102 deg. F. in the shade.
+Honda dates back to the beginning of the 17th century, and has been one
+of the important centres of traffic in South America for three hundred
+years. Within the city there is an iron bridge across the Guali, and
+there is a suspension bridge across the Magdalena at the head of the
+rapids. A railway 18 m. long connects with the landing place of La
+Dorada, or Las Yeguas, where the steamers of the lower Magdalena
+discharge and receive their cargoes (the old landing at Carocali nearer
+the rapids having been abandoned), and with Arrancaplumas, 1(1/2) m.
+above, where navigation of the upper river begins. Up to 1908 the
+greater part of the traffic for Bogota crossed the river at this point,
+and was carried on mule-back over the old _camino real_, which was at
+best only a rough bridlepath over which transportation to Bogota (67 m.
+distant) was laborious and highly expensive; now the transshipment is
+made to smaller steamboats on the upper river for carriage to Girardot,
+93 m. distant, from which place a railway runs to the Bogota plateau.
+Honda was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 1808.
+
+
+
+
+HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D' (c. 1636-1695), Dutch painter, was born at
+Utrecht, it is said, about 1636, and died at Amsterdam on the 3rd of
+April 1695. Old historians say that, being the grandson of Gillis and
+son of Gisbert d'Hondecoeter, as well as nephew of J. B. Weenix, he was
+brought up by the last two to the profession of painting. Of Weenix we
+know that he married one Josina d'Hondecoeter in 1638. Melchior was,
+therefore, related to Weenix, who certainly influenced his style. As to
+Gillis and Gisbert some points still remain obscure, and it is difficult
+to accept the statement that they stood towards each other in the
+relation of father and son, since both were registered as painters at
+Utrecht in 1637. Both it appears had practised art before coming to
+Utrecht, but where they resided or what they painted is uncertain.
+Unhappily pictures scarcely help us to clear up the mystery. In the
+Furstenberg collection at Donaueschingen there is a "Concert of Birds"
+dated 1620, and signed with the monogram G. D. H.; and we may presume
+that G. D. H. is the man whose "Hen and Chickens in a Landscape" in the
+gallery of Rotterdam is inscribed "G. D. Hondecoeter, 1652"; but is the
+first letter of the monogram to stand for Gillis or Gisbert? In the
+museums of Dresden and Cassel landscapes with sportsmen are catalogued
+under the name of Gabriel de Heusch (?), one of them dated 1529, and
+certified with the monogram G. D. H., challenging attention by
+resemblance to a canvas of the same class inscribed G. D. Hond. in the
+Berlin Museum. The question here is also whether G. means Gillis or
+Gisbert. Obviously there are two artists to consider, one of whom paints
+birds, the other landscapes and sportsmen. Perhaps the first is Gisbert,
+whose son Melchior also chose birds as his peculiar subject. Weenix too
+would naturally teach his nephew to study the feathered tribe. Melchior,
+however, began his career with a different speciality from that by which
+he is usually known. Mr de Stuers affirms that he produced sea-pieces.
+One of his earliest works is a "Tub with Fish," dated 1655, in the
+gallery of Brunswick. But Melchior soon abandoned fish or fowl. He
+acquired celebrity as a painter of birds only, which he represented not
+exclusively, like Fyt, as the gamekeeper's perquisite after a day's
+shooting, or stock of a poulterer's shop, but as living beings with
+passions, joys, fears and quarrels, to which naturalists will tell us
+that birds are subject. Without the brilliant tone and high finish of
+Fyt, his Dutch rival's birds are full of action; and, as Burger truly
+says, Hondecoeter displays the maternity of the hen with as much
+tenderness and feeling as Raphael the maternity of Madonnas. But Fyt was
+at home in depicting the coat of deer and dogs us well as plumage.
+Hondecoeter cultivates a narrower field, and seldom goes beyond a
+cock-fight or a display of mere bird life. Very few of his pictures are
+dated, though more are signed. Amongst the former we should note the
+"Jackdaw deprived of his Borrowed Plumes" (1671), at the Hague, of which
+Earl Cadogan has a variety; or "Game and Poultry" and "A Spaniel hunting
+a Partridge" (1672), in the gallery of Brussels; or "A Park with
+Poultry" (1686) at the Hermitage of St Petersburg. Hondecoeter, in great
+favour with the magnates of the Netherlands, became a member of the
+painters' academy at the Hague in 1659. William III. employed him to
+paint his menagerie at Loo, and the picture, now at the Hague museum,
+shows that he could at a pinch overcome the difficulty of representing
+India's cattle, elephants and gazelles. But he is better in homelier
+works, with which he adorned the royal chateaux of Bensberg and
+Oranienstein at different periods of his life (Hague and Amsterdam). In
+1688 Hondecoeter took the freedom of the city of Amsterdam, where he
+resided till his death. His earliest works are more conscientious,
+lighter and more transparent than his later ones. At all times he is
+bold Of touch and sure of eye, giving the motion of birds with great
+spirit and accuracy. His masterpieces are at the Hague and at Amsterdam.
+But there are fine examples in private collections in England, and in
+the public galleries of Berlin, Caen, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Cologne,
+Copenhagen, Dresden, Dublin, Florence, Glasgow, Hanover, London, Lyons,
+Montpellier, Munich, Paris, Rotterdam, Rouen, St Petersburg, Stuttgart
+and Vienna.
+
+
+
+
+HONDURAS, a republic of Central America, bounded on the N. by the
+Caribbean Sea, E. by Nicaragua, S. by Nicaragua, the Pacific Ocean and
+Salvador, and W. by Guatemala. (For map see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop.
+(1905) 500,136; area, about 46,500 sq. m. Honduras is said to owe its
+name, meaning in Spanish "depths," to the difficulty experienced by its
+original Spanish explorers in finding anchorage off its shores; Cape
+Gracias a Dios (Cape "Thanks to God") is the name bestowed, for
+analogous reasons, on its easternmost headland, which shelters a small
+harbour, now included in Nicaragua. Modern navigators are not confronted
+by the same difficulty; for, although the north coast is unbroken by any
+remarkable inlet except the Carataska Lagoon, a land-locked lake on the
+east, with a narrow entrance from the sea, there are many small bays and
+estuaries, such as those of Puerto Cortes, Omoa, Ulua, La Ceiba and
+Trujillo, which serve as harbours. The broad basin of the Caribbean Sea,
+bounded by Honduras, Guatemala and British Honduras, is known as the bay
+or gulf of Honduras. Several islets and the important group of the Bay
+Islands (q.v.) belong to the republic. On the Pacific the Hondurian
+littoral is short but of great commercial value; for it consists of a
+frontage of some 60 m. on the Bay of Fonseca (q.v.), one of the finest
+natural harbours in the world. The islands of Tigre, Sacate Grande and
+Gueguensi, in the bay, belong to Honduras.
+
+The frontier which separates the republic from Nicaragua extends across
+the continent from E.N.E to W.S.W. It is defined by the river Segovia,
+Wanks or Coco, for about one-third of the distance; it then deflects
+across the watershed on the east and south of the river Choluteca,
+crosses the main Nicaraguan Cordillera (mountain chain) and follows the
+river Negro to the Bay of Fonseca. The line of separation from Salvador
+is irregularly drawn, first in a northerly and then in a westerly
+direction; beginning at the mouth of the river Goascoran, in the Bay of
+Fonseca, it ends 12 m. W. of San Francisco city. At this point begins
+the Guatemalan frontier, the largest section of which is delimited along
+the crests of the Sierra de Merendon. On the Caribbean seaboard the
+estuary of the Motagua forms the boundary between Honduras and
+Guatemala.
+
+  _Physical Features._--The general aspect of the country is
+  mountainous; its southern half is traversed by a continuation of the
+  main Nicaraguan Cordillera. The chain does not, in this republic,
+  approach within 50 or 60 m. of the Pacific; nor does it throughout
+  maintain its general character of an unbroken range, but sometimes
+  turns back on itself, forming interior basins or valleys, within which
+  are collected the headwaters of the streams that traverse the country
+  in the direction of the Atlantic Ocean. Nevertheless, viewed from the
+  Pacific, it presents the appearance of a great natural wall, with
+  many volcanic peaks towering above it and with a lower range of
+  mountains intervening between it and the sea. It would almost seem
+  that at one time the Pacific broke at the foot of the great mountain
+  barrier, and that the subordinate coast range was subsequently thrust
+  up by volcanic forces. At one point the main range is interrupted by a
+  great transverse valley or plain known as the plain of Comayagua,
+  which has an extreme length of about 40 m., with a width of from 5 to
+  15 m. From this plain the valley of the river Humuya extends north to
+  the Atlantic, and the valley of the Goascoran extends south to the
+  Pacific. These three depressions collectively constitute a great
+  transverse valley reaching from sea to sea, which was pointed out soon
+  after the conquest as an appropriate course for inter-oceanic
+  communication. The mountains of the northern half of Honduras are not
+  volcanic in character and are inferior in altitude to those of the
+  south, which sometimes exceed 10,000 ft. The relief of all the
+  highlands of the Atlantic watershed is extremely varied; its
+  culminating points are probably in the mountain mass about the sources
+  of the Choluteca, Sulaco and Roman, and in the Sierra de Pija, near
+  the coast. Farther eastward the different ranges are less clearly
+  marked and the surface of the country resembles a plateau intersected
+  by numerous watercourses.
+
+  The rivers of the Atlantic slope of Honduras are numerous and some of
+  them of large size and navigable. The largest is the Ulua, with its
+  tributary the Humuya. It rises in the plain of Comayagua and flows
+  north to the Atlantic; it drains a wide expanse of territory,
+  comprehending nearly one-third of the entire state, and probably
+  discharges a greater amount of water into the sea than any other river
+  of Central America, the Segovia excepted. It may be navigated by
+  steamers of light draught for the greater part of its course. The Rio
+  Roman or Aguan is a large stream falling into the Atlantic near
+  Trujillo, with a total length of about 120 m. Its largest tributary is
+  the Rio Mangualil, celebrated for its gold washings, and it may be
+  ascended by boats of light draft for 80 m. Rio Tinto, Negro or Black
+  River, called also Poyer or Poyas, is a considerable stream, navigable
+  by small vessels for about 60 m. Some English settlements were made on
+  its banks during the 18th century. The Patuca rises near the frontier
+  of Nicaragua, and enters the Atlantic east of the Brus or Brewer
+  lagoon. The Segovia is the longest river in Central America, rising
+  within 50 m. of the Bay of Fonseca, and flowing into the Caribbean Sea
+  at Cape Gracias a Dios (see NICARAGUA). Three considerable rivers flow
+  into the Pacific--the Goascoran, Nacaome and Choluteca, the last named
+  having a length of about 150 m. The Goascoran, which almost interlocks
+  with the Humuya, in the plain of Comayagua, has a length of about 80
+  m. The lake of Yojoa or Taulebe is the only large inland lake in
+  Honduras, and is about 25 m. in length, by 6 to 8 in breadth. Its
+  surface is 2050 ft. above the sea. It has two outlets on the south,
+  the rivers Jaitique and Sacapa, which unite about 15 m. from the lake;
+  and it is drained on the north by the Rio Blanco, a narrow, deep
+  stream falling into the Ulua. It has also a feeder on the north, in
+  the form of a subterranean stream of beautiful clear water, which here
+  comes to the surface. The Carataska or Caratasca lagoon is a shallow
+  salt-water lake connected by a narrow channel with the Atlantic, and
+  near the mouth of the Segovia. It contains several large sandy
+  islands.
+
+  Honduras resembles the neighbouring countries in the general character
+  of its geological formations, fauna and flora. Here, as in other
+  Central American states, there are but two seasons, the wet, from May
+  to November, and the dry, from November to May. On the moist lowlands
+  of the Atlantic coast the climate is oppressive, but on the highlands
+  of the interior it is delightful. At Tegucigalpa, on the uplands, a
+  year's observations showed the maximum temperature to be 90 deg. F. in
+  May, and the minimum to be 50 deg. F. in December, the range of
+  variation during the whole year being within 40 deg. F.
+
+  See also CENTRAL AMERICA: _Geology, Fauna, Flora, Climate_.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of Honduras are in many cases of the
+Indian or aboriginal type, and the European element is very small,
+although it shares in the social, political and economic preponderance
+of the Spanish-speaking half-castes (_Ladinos_ or _Mestizos_), who are
+the most numerous section of the population. Throughout the country
+there are many interesting relics of the native civilization which was
+destroyed by the Spanish invaders in the 16th century. In the eastern
+portion of the state, between the Rio Roman, Cape Gracias a Dios, and
+the Segovia river, the country is almost exclusively occupied by native
+Indian tribes, known under the general names of Xicaques and Poyas. In
+many districts the Indians are known as Lencas, a generic name which
+includes several tribes akin to the Mayans of Guatemala. Portions of all
+of these tribes have accepted the Roman Catholic religion, and live in
+peaceful neighbourhood and good understanding with the white
+inhabitants. There are, however, considerable numbers, probably about
+90,000 in all, who live among the mountains and still conform closely
+to the aboriginal modes of life. They all cultivate the soil, and are
+good and industrious labourers. A small portion of the coast, above Cape
+Gracias, is occupied by the Sambos, a mixed race of Indians and negroes,
+which, however, is fast disappearing. Spreading along the entire north
+coast are the Caribs, a vigorous race, descendants of the Caribs of St
+Vincent, one of the Windward Islands. These, to the number of 5000, were
+deported in 1796 by the English and landed on the island of Roatan. They
+still retain their native language, although it tends to disappear and
+be replaced by Spanish and a bastard dialect of English; they are
+active, industrious and provident, forming the chief reliance of the
+mahogany cutters on the coast. A portion of them, who have a mixture of
+negro blood, are called the Black Caribs. They profess the Roman
+Catholic religion, but retain many of their native rites and
+superstitions. In the departments of Gracias, Comayagua and Choluteca
+are many purely Indian towns.
+
+The aggregate population, according to an official estimate made in
+1905, is 500,136, but a complete and satisfactory census cannot be taken
+throughout the country, since the ignorant masses of the people, and
+especially the Indians, avoid a census as in some way connected with
+military conscription or taxation. The bulk of the Spanish population
+exists on the Pacific slope of the continent, while on the Atlantic
+declivity the country is uninhabited or but sparsely occupied by Indian
+tribes, of which the number is wholly unknown. In 1905 there were fewer
+than 11 inhabitants per sq. m., but all the available data tend to show
+that the population increases rapidly, owing to the continuous excess of
+births over deaths. The first census, taken in 1791, gave the total
+population as only 95,500. There is little emigration or immigration.
+
+_Chief Towns._--The capital is Tegucigalpa (pop. 1905, about 35,000);
+other important towns are Jutigalpa (18,000), Comayagua (8000), and the
+seaports of Amapala (4000), Trujillo (4000), and Puerto Cortes (2500).
+These are described in separate articles. The towns of Nacaome, La
+Esperanza, Choluteca and Santa Rosa have upwards of 10,000 inhabitants.
+
+  _Communications._--Means of communication are very defective. In 1905
+  the only railway in the country was that from Puerto Cortes to La
+  Pimienta, a distance of 57 m. This is a section of the proposed
+  inter-oceanic railway for which the external debt of the republic was
+  incurred. For the completion of the line concessions, one after
+  another, were granted, and expired or were revoked. Other railways are
+  projected, including one along the Atlantic coast, an extension from
+  La Pimienta to La Brea on the Pacific, and a line from Tegucigalpa to
+  the port of San Lorenzo. The capital is connected with other towns by
+  fairly well made roads, which, however, are not kept in good repair.
+  In the interior generally, all travelling and transport are by mules
+  and ox-carts over roads which defy description.
+
+  Honduras joined the Postal Union in 1879, The telegraph service is
+  conducted by the government and is inefficient. Telephones are in use
+  in Tegucigalpa and a few of the more important towns.
+
+  _Commerce and Industry._--Although grants of land for mining and
+  agricultural purposes are readily made by the state to companies and
+  individual capitalists, the economic development of Honduras has been
+  a very slow process, impeded as it has been by political disturbances
+  and in modern times by national bankruptcy, heavy import and export
+  duties, and the scarcity of both labour and capital. The natural
+  wealth of the country is great and consists especially in its
+  vegetable products. The mahogany and cedar of Honduras are
+  unsurpassed, but reckless destruction of these and of other valuable
+  cabinet-woods and dye-woods has much reduced the supply available for
+  export. Rubber-planting, a comparatively modern industry, has proved
+  successful, and tends to supplement the almost exhausted stock of wild
+  rubber. Of still greater importance are the plantations of bananas,
+  especially in the northern maritime province of Atlantida, where
+  coco-nuts are also grown. Coffee, tobacco, sugar, oranges, lemons,
+  maize and beans are produced in all parts, rice, cocoa, indigo and
+  wheat over more limited areas. Cattle and pigs are bred extensively;
+  cattle are exported to Cuba, and dairy-farming is carried on with
+  success. Sheep-farming is almost an unknown industry. Turtle and fish
+  are obtained in large quantities off the Atlantic seaboard. In its
+  mineral resources Honduras ranks first among the states of Central
+  America. Silver is worked by a British company, gold by an American
+  company. Gold-washing was practised in a primitive manner even before
+  the Spanish conquest, and in the 18th century immense quantities of
+  gold and silver were obtained by the Spaniards from mines near
+  Tegucigalpa. Opals, platinum, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, antimony,
+  iron, lignite and coal have been found but the causes already
+  enumerated have prevented the exploitation of any of these minerals
+  on a large scale, and the total value of the ores exported was only
+  L174,800 in 1904 and L239,426 in 1905. The total value of the exports
+  in a normal year ranges from about L500,000 to L600,000, and that of
+  the imports from L450,000 to L550,000. Apart from minerals the most
+  valuable commodity exported is bananas (L209,263 in 1905); coco-nuts,
+  timber, hides, deer-skins, feathers, coffee, sarsaparilla and rubber
+  are items of minor importance. Nearly 90% of the exports are shipped
+  to the United States, which also send to Honduras more than half of
+  its imports. These chiefly consist of cotton goods, hardware and
+  provisions. The manufacturing industries of Honduras include the
+  plaiting of straw hats, cigar-making, brick-making and the
+  distillation of spirits.
+
+  _Finance._--Owing to the greater variety of its products and the
+  possession of a metallic currency, Honduras is less affected by
+  fluctuations of exchange than the neighbouring republics, in which
+  little except paper money circulates. The monetary unit is the silver
+  _peso_ or dollar of 100 cents, which weighs 25 grammes, .900 fine, and
+  is worth about 1s. 8d.; the gold dollar is worth about 4s. The
+  principal coins in circulation arc the 1-cent copper piece, 5, 10, 20,
+  25 and 50 cents, and 1 peso silver pieces, and 1, 5, 10 and 20 dollar
+  gold pieces. The metric system of weights and measures, adopted
+  officially on the 1st of April 1897, has not supplanted the older
+  Spanish standards in general use. There is only one bank in the
+  republic, the _Banco de Honduras_, with its head office at
+  Tegucigalpa. Its bills are legal tender for all debts due to the
+  state.
+
+  In July 1909 the foreign debt of Honduras, with arrears of interest,
+  amounted to L22,470,510, of which more than L17,000,000 were for
+  arrears of interest. The principal was borrowed between 1867 and 1870,
+  chiefly for railway construction; but it was mainly devoted to other
+  purposes and no interest has been paid since 1872. The republic is
+  thus practically bankrupt. The revenue, derived chiefly from customs
+  and from the spirit, gunpowder and tobacco monopolies reached an
+  average of about L265,000 during the five years 1901-1905; the
+  expenditure in normal years is about L250,000. The principal spending
+  departments are those of war, finance, public works and education.
+
+_Constitution and Government._--The constitution of Honduras,
+promulgated in 1839 and frequently amended, was to a great extent recast
+in 1880. It was again remodelled in 1894, when a new charter was
+proclaimed. This instrument gives the legislative power to a congress of
+deputies elected for four years by popular vote, in the ratio of one
+member for every 10,000 inhabitants. Congress meets on the 1st of
+January and sits for sixty consecutive days. The executive is entrusted
+to the president, who is nominated and elected for four years by popular
+vote, and is re-eligible for a second but not for a third consecutive
+term. He is assisted by a council of ministers representing the
+departments of the interior, war, finance, public works, education and
+justice. For purposes of local administration the republic is divided
+into sixteen departments. The highest judicial power is vested in the
+Supreme Court, which consists of five popularly elected judges; there
+are also four Courts of Appeal, besides subordinate departmental and
+district tribunals. The active army consists of about 500 regular
+soldiers and 20,000 militia, recruited by conscription from all
+able-bodied males between the ages of twenty and thirty. Service in the
+reserve is obligatory for a further period of ten years.
+
+  _Religion and Education._--Roman Catholicism is the creed of a very
+  large majority of the population; but the constitution grants complete
+  liberty to all religious communities, and no Church is supported by
+  public funds or receives any other special privilege. Education is
+  free, secular and compulsory for children between the ages of seven
+  and fifteen. There are primary schools in every convenient centre, but
+  the percentage of illiterates is high, especially among the Indians.
+  The state maintains a central institute and a university at
+  Tegucigalpa, a school of jurisprudence at Comayagua, and colleges for
+  secondary education, with special schools for teachers, in each
+  department. The annual cost of primary education is about L11,000.
+
+_History._--It was at Cape Honduras that Columbus first landed on the
+American continent in 1502, and took possession of the country on behalf
+of Spain. The first settlement was made in 1524 by order of Hernando
+Cortes, who had heard rumours of rich and populous empires in this
+region, and sent his lieutenant Christobal de Olid to found a Spanish
+colony. Olid endeavoured to establish an independent principality, and,
+in order to resume control of the settlers, Cortes was compelled to
+undertake the long and arduous march across the mountains of southern
+Mexico and Guatemala. In the spring of 1525 he reached the colony and
+founded the city which is now Puerto Cortes. He entrusted the
+administration to a new governor, whose successors were to be nominated
+by the king, and returned to Mexico in 1526. By 1539, when Honduras was
+incorporated in the captaincy-general of Guatemala, the mines of the
+province had proved to be the richest as yet discovered in the New World
+and several large cities had come into existence. The system under which
+Honduras was administered from 1539 to 1821, when it repudiated the
+authority of the Spanish crown, the effects of that system, the part
+subsequently played by Honduras in the protracted struggle for Central
+American unity, and the invasion by William Walker and his
+fellow-adventurers (1856-1860), are fully described under CENTRAL
+AMERICA.
+
+War and revolution had stunted the economic growth of the country and
+retarded every attempt at social or political reform; its future was
+mortgaged by the assumption of an enormous burden of debt in 1869 and
+1870. A renewal of war with Guatemala in 1871, and a revolution three
+years later in the interests of the ex-president Medina, brought about
+the intervention of the neighbouring states and the provisional
+appointment to the presidency of Marco Aurelio Soto, a nominee of
+Guatemala. This appointment proved successful and was confirmed by
+popular vote in 1877 and 1880, when a new constitution was issued and
+the seat of government fixed at Tegucigalpa. Fresh outbreaks of civil
+war occurred frequently between 1883 and 1903; the republic was bankrupt
+and progress again at a standstill. In 1903 Manuel Bonilla, an able,
+popular and experienced general, gained the presidency and seemed likely
+to repeat the success of Soto in maintaining order. As his term of
+office drew to a close, and his re-election appeared certain, the
+supporters of rival candidates and some of his own dissatisfied
+adherents intrigued to secure the co-operation of Nicaragua for his
+overthrow. Bonilla welcomed the opportunity of consolidating his own
+position which a successful war would offer; Jose Santos Zelaya, the
+president of Nicaragua, was equally ambitious; and several alleged
+violations of territory had embittered popular feeling on both sides.
+The United States and Mexican governments endeavoured to secure a
+peaceful settlement without intervention, but failed. At the outbreak of
+hostilities in February 1907 the Hondurian forces were commanded by
+Bonilla in person and by General Sotero Barahona his minister of war.
+One of their chief subordinates was Lee Christmas, an adventurer from
+Memphis, Tennessee, who had previously been a locomotive-driver.
+Honduras received active support from his ally, Salvador, and was
+favoured by public opinion throughout Central America. But from the
+outset the Nicaraguans proved victorious, largely owing to their
+remarkable mobility. Their superior naval force enabled them to capture
+Puerto Cortes and La Ceiba, and to threaten other cities on the
+Caribbean coast; on land they were aided by a body of Hondurian rebels,
+who also established a provisional government. Zelaya captured
+Tegucigalpa after severe fighting, and besieged Bonilla in Amapala. Lee
+Christmas was killed. The surrender of Amapala on the 11th of April
+practically ended the war. Bonilla took refuge on board the United
+States cruiser "Chicago." A noteworthy feature of the war was the
+attitude of the American naval officers, who landed marines, arranged
+the surrender of Amapala, and prevented Nicaragua prolonging
+hostilities. Honduras was now evacuated by the Nicaraguans and her
+provisional government was recognized by Zelaya. Miguel R. Davila was
+president in 1908 and 1909.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Official documents such as the annual presidential
+  message and the reports of the ministries are published in Spanish at
+  Tegucigalpa. Other periodical publications which throw much light on
+  the movement of trade and politics are the British Foreign Office
+  reports (London, annual), United States consular reports (Washington,
+  monthly), bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics (Washington),
+  and reports of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders
+  (London, annual). For a more comprehensive account of the country and
+  its history, the works of K. Sapper, E. G. Squier, A. H. Keane and T.
+  Child, cited under CENTRAL AMERICA, are important. See also E.
+  Pelletier, _Honduras et ses ports: documents officiels sur le
+  chemin-de-fer interoceanique_ (Paris, 1869); E. G. Squier, _Honduras:
+  Descriptive, Historical and Statistical_ (London, 1870); C. Charles,
+  _Honduras_ (Chicago, 1890); _Handbook of Honduras_, published by the
+  Bureau of American Republics (1892); T. R. Lombard, _The New
+  Honduras_ (New York, 1887); H. Jalhay, _La Republique de Honduras_
+  (Antwerp, 1898); Perry, _Directorio nacional de Honduras_ (New York,
+  1899); H. G. Bourgeois, _Breve noticia sobre Honduras_ (Tegucigalpa,
+  1900).
+
+
+
+
+HONE, NATHANIEL (1718-1784), British painter, was the son of a merchant
+at Dublin, and without any regular training acquired in his youth much
+skill as a portrait-painter. Early in his career he left Dublin for
+England and worked first in various provincial towns, but ultimately
+settled in London, where he soon made a considerable reputation. His
+oil-paintings were decidedly popular, but he gained his chief success by
+his miniatures and enamels, which he executed with masterly capacity. He
+became a member of the Incorporated Society of Artists and afterwards a
+foundation member of the Royal Academy; but he had several disagreements
+with his fellow-members of that institution, and on one occasion they
+rejected two of his pictures, one of which was regarded as a satire on
+Reynolds and the other on Angelica Kauffman. Most of his contributions
+to the Academy exhibitions were portraits. The quality of his work
+varied greatly, but the merit of his miniatures and enamels entitles him
+to a place among the ablest artists of the British school. He executed
+also a few mezzotint plates of reasonable importance, and some etchings.
+His portrait, painted by himself two years before his death, is in the
+possession of the Royal Academy.
+
+
+
+
+HONE, WILLIAM (1780-1842), English writer and bookseller, was born at
+Bath on the 3rd of June 1780. His father brought up his children with
+the sectarian narrowness that so frequently produces reaction. Hone
+received no systematic education, and was taught to read from the Bible
+only. His father having removed to London in 1783, he was in 1790 placed
+in an attorney's office. After two and a half years spent in the office
+of a solicitor at Chatham he returned to London to become clerk to a
+solicitor in Gray's Inn. But he disliked the law, and had already
+acquired a taste for free-thought and political agitation. Hone married
+in 1800, and started a book and print shop with a circulating Library in
+Lambeth Walk. He soon removed to St Martin's Churchyard, where he
+brought out his first publication, Shaw's _Gardener_ (1806). It was at
+this time that he and his friend, John Bone, tried to realize a plan for
+the establishment of popular savings banks, and even had an interview on
+the subject with the president of the Board of Trade. This scheme,
+however, failed. Bone joined him next in a bookseller's business; but
+Hone's habits were not those of a tradesman, and bankruptcy was the
+result. He was in 1811 chosen by the booksellers as auctioneer to the
+trade, and had an office in Ivy Lane. Independent investigations carried
+on by him into the condition of lunatic asylums led again to business
+difficulties and failure, but he took a small lodging in the Old Bailey,
+keeping himself and his now large family by contributions to magazines
+and reviews. He hired a small shop, or rather box, in Fleet Street but
+this was on two separate nights broken into, and valuable books lent for
+show were stolen. In 1815 he started the _Traveller_ newspaper, and
+endeavoured vainly to exculpate Eliza Fenning, a poor girl, apparently
+quite guiltless, who was executed on a charge of poisoning. From
+February 1 to October 25, 1817, he published the _Reformer's Register_,
+writing in it as the serious critic of the state abuses, which he soon
+after attacked in the famous political squibs and parodies, illustrated
+by George Cruikshank. In April 1817 three _ex-officio_ informations were
+filed against him by the attorney-genera, Sir William Garrow. Three
+separate trials took place in the Guildhall before special juries on the
+18th, 19th and 20th of December 1817. The first, for publishing Wilkes's
+_Catechism of a Ministerial Member_ (1817), was before Mr Justice Abbot
+(afterwards Lord Tenterden); the second, for parodying the litany and
+libelling the prince regent, and the third, for publishing the
+_Sinecurist's Creed_ (1817), a parody on the Athanasian creed, were
+before Lord Ellenborough (q.v.). The prosecution took the ground that
+the prints were calculated to injure public morals, and to bring the
+prayer-book and even religion itself into contempt. But there can be no
+doubt that the real motives of the prosecution were political; Hone had
+ridiculed the habits and exposed the corruption of the prince regent and
+of other persons in power. He went to the root of the matter when he
+wished the jury "to understand that, had he been a publisher of
+ministerial parodies, he would not then have been defending himself on
+the floor of that court." In spite of illness and exhaustion Hone
+displayed great courage and ability, speaking on each of the three days
+for about seven hours. Although his judges were biassed against him he
+was acquitted on each count, and the result was received with
+enthusiastic cheers by immense crowds within and without the court. Soon
+after the trials a subscription was begun which enabled Hone to get over
+the difficulties caused by his prosecution. Among Hone's most successful
+political satires were _The Political House that Jack built_ (1819),
+_The Queen's Matrimonial Ladder_ (1820), in favour of Queen Caroline,
+_The Man in the Moon_ (1820), _The Political Showman_ (1821), all
+illustrated by Cruikshank. Many of his squibs are directed against a
+certain "Dr Slop," a nickname given by him to Dr (afterwards Sir John)
+Stoddart, of _The Times_. In researches for his defence he had come upon
+some curious and at that time little trodden literary ground, and the
+results were shown by his publication in 1820 of his _Apocryphal New
+Testament_, and in 1823 of his _Ancient Mysteries Explained_. In 1826 he
+published the _Every-day Book_, in 1827-1828 the _Table-Book_, and in
+1829 the _Year-Book_; all three were collections of curious information
+on manners, antiquities and various other subjects. These are the works
+by which Hone is best remembered. In preparing them he had the approval
+of Southey and the assistance of Charles Lamb, but pecuniarily they were
+not successful, and Hone was lodged in King's Bench prison for debt.
+Friends, however, again came to his assistance, and he was established
+in a coffee-house in Gracechurch Street; but this, like most of his
+enterprises, ended in failure. Hone's attitude of mind had gradually
+changed to that of extreme devoutness, and during the latter years of
+his life he frequently preached in Weigh House Chapel, Eastcheap. In
+1830 he edited Strutt's _Sports and Pastimes_, and he contributed to the
+first number of the _Penny Magazine_. He was also for some years
+sub-editor of the _Patriot_. He died at Tottenham on the 6th of November
+1842.
+
+
+
+
+HONE (in O. Eng. _han_, cognate with Swed. _hen_; the root appears in
+Skt. _cana_, _co_ to sharpen), a variety of finely siliceous stone
+employed for whetting or sharpening edge tools, and for abrading steel
+and other hard surfaces. Synonyms are honestone, whetstone, oilstone and
+sharpening stone. Hones are generally prepared in the form of flat slabs
+or small pencils or rods, but some are made with the outline of the
+special instrument they are designed to sharpen. Their abrading action
+is due to the quartz or silica which is always present in predominating
+proportion, some kinds consisting of almost pure quartz, while in others
+the siliceous element is very intimately mixed with aluminous or
+calcareous matter, forming a uniform compact stone, the extremely fine
+siliceous particles of which impart a remarkably keen edge to the
+instruments for the sharpening of which they are applied. In some cases
+the presence of minute garnets or magnetite assists in the cutting
+action. Hones are used either dry, with water, or with oil, and
+generally the object to be sharpened is drawn with hand pressure
+backward and forward over the surface of the hone; but sometimes the
+stone is moved over the cutting edge.
+
+The coarsest type of stone which can be included among hones is the bat
+or scythe stone, a porous fine-grained sandstone used for sharpening
+scythes and cutters of mowing machines, and for other like purposes.
+Next come the ragstones, which consist of quartzose mica-schist, and
+give a finer edge than any sandstone. Under the head of oilstones or
+hones proper the most famous and best-known qualities are the German
+razor hone, the Turkey oilstone, and the Arkansas stone. The German
+razor hone, used, as its name implies, chiefly for razors, is obtained
+from the slate mountains near Ratisbon, where it forms a yellow vein of
+from 1 to 18 in. in the blue slate. It is sawn into thin slabs, and
+these are cemented to slabs of slate which serve as a support. Turkey
+oilstone is a close-grained bluish stone containing from 70 to 75% of
+silica in a state of very fine division, intimately blended with about
+20 to 25% of calcite. It is obtained only in small pieces, frequently
+flawed and not tough, so that the slabs must have a backing of slate or
+wood. It is one of the most valuable of all whetstones, abrading the
+hardest steel, and possessing sufficient compactness to resist the
+pressure required for sharpening gravers. The stone comes from the
+interior of Asia Minor, whence it is carried to Smyrna. Of Arkansas
+stones there are two varieties, both found in the same district, Garland
+and Saline counties, Arkansas, United States. The finer kind, known as
+Arkansas hone, is obtained in small pieces at the Hot Springs, and the
+second quality, distinguished as Washita stone, comes from Washita or
+Ouachita river. The hones yield on analysis 98% of silica, with small
+proportions of alumina, potash and soda, and mere traces of iron, lime,
+magnesia and fluorine. They are white in colour, extremely hard and keen
+in grit, and not easily worn down or broken. Geologically the materials
+are called novaculites, and are supposed to be metamorphosed sandstone
+silt, chert or limestone resulting from the permeation through the mass
+of heated alkaline siliceous waters. The finer kind is employed for fine
+cutting instruments, and also for polishing steel pivots of watch-wheels
+and similar minute work, the second and coarser quality being used for
+common tools. Both varieties are largely exported from the United States
+in the form of blocks, slips, pencils, rods and wheels. Other honestones
+are obtained in the United States from New York, New Hampshire, Vermont,
+Ohio (Deerlick stone) and Indiana (Hindostan or Orange stone). Among
+hones of less importance in general use may be noted the Charley Forest
+stone--or Whittle Hill honestone--a good substitute for Turkey oilstone;
+Water of Ayr stone, Scotch stone, or snake stone, a pale grey
+carboniferous shale hardened by igneous action, used for tools and for
+polishing marble and copper-plates; Idwal or Welsh oilstone, used for
+small articles; and cutlers' greenstone from Snowdon, very hard and
+close in texture, used for giving the last edge to lancets.
+
+
+
+
+HONEY (Chin. _me_; Sansk. _madhu_, mead, honey; cf. A.S. _medo_, _medu_,
+mead; Gr. [Greek: meli], in which [theta] or [delta] is changed into
+[lambda]; Lat. _mel_; Fr. _miel_; A.S. _hunig_; Ger. _Honig_),[1] a
+sweet viscid liquid, obtained by bees (see BEE, _Bee-keeping_) chiefly
+from the nectaries of flowers, i.e. those parts of flowers specially
+constructed for the elaboration of honey, and, after transportation to
+the hive in the proventriculus or crop of the insects, discharged by
+them into the cells prepared for its reception. Whether the nectar
+undergoes any alteration within the crop of the bee is a point on which
+authors have differed. Some wasps, e.g. _Myrapetra scutellaris_[2] and
+the genus _Nectarina_, collect honey. A honey-like fluid, which consists
+of a nearly pure solution of uncrystallizable sugar having the formula
+C6H14O7 after drying in vacuo, and which is used by the Mexicans in the
+preparation of a beverage, is yielded by certain inactive individuals of
+_Myrmecocystus mexicanus_, Wesmael, the honey-ants or pouched ants
+(_hormigas mieleras_ or _mochileras_) of Mexico.[3] The abdomen in these
+insects, owing to the distensibility of the membrane connecting its
+segments, becomes converted into a globular thin-walled sac by the
+accumulation within it of the nectar supplied to them by their working
+comrades (Wesmael, _Bull. de l'Acad. Roy. de Brux._ v. 766, 1838). By
+the Rev. H. C. M'Cook, who discovered the insect in the Garden of the
+Gods, Colorado, the honey-bearers were found hanging by their feet, in
+groups of about thirty, to the roofs of special chambers in their
+underground nests, their large globular abdomens causing them to
+resemble "bunches of small Delaware grapes" (_Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
+Philad._, 1879, p. 197). A bladder-like formation on the metathorax of
+another ant, _Crematogaster inflatus_ (F. Smith, _Cat. of Hymenoptera_,
+pt. vi. pp. 136 and 200, pl. ix. fig. 1), which has a small circular
+orifice at each posterior lateral angle, appears to possess a function
+similar to that of the abdomen in the honey-ant.
+
+It is a popular saying that where is the best honey there also is the
+best wool; and a pastoral district, since it affords a greater profusion
+of flowers, is superior for the production of honey to one under
+tillage.[4] Dry warm weather is that most favourable to the secretion of
+nectar by flowers. This they protect from rain by various internal
+structures, such as papillae, cushions of hairs and spurs, or by virtue
+of their position (in the raspberry, drooping), or the arrangement of
+their constituent parts. Dr A. W. Bennett (_How Flowers are Fertilized_,
+p. 31, 1873) has remarked that the perfume of flowers is generally
+derived from their nectar; the blossoms of some plants, however, as ivy
+and holly, though almost scentless, are highly nectariferous. The
+exudation of a honey-like or saccharine fluid, as has frequently been
+attested, is not a function exclusively of the flowers in all plants. A
+sweet material, the manna of pharmacy, e.g. is produced by the leaves
+and stems of a species of ash, _Fraxinus Ornus_; and honey-secreting
+glands are to be met with on the leaves, petioles, phyllodes, stipules
+(as in _Vicia sativa_), or bracteae (as in the _Maregraviaceae_) of a
+considerable number of different vegetable forms. The origin of the
+honey-yielding properties manifested specially by flowers among the
+several parts of plants has been carefully considered by Darwin, who
+regards the saccharine matter in nectar as a waste product of chemical
+changes in the sap, which, when it happened to be excreted within the
+envelopes of flowers, was utilized for the important object of
+cross-fertilization, and subsequently was much increased in quantity,
+and stored in various ways (see _Cross and Self Fertilization of
+Plants_, pp. 402 sq., 1876). It has been noted with respect to the
+nectar of the fuchsia that it is most abundant when the anthers are
+about to dehisce, and absent in the unexpanded flower.
+
+  Pettigrew is of opinion that few bees go more than 2 m. from home in
+  search of honey. The number of blossoms visited in order to meet the
+  requirements of a single hive of bees must be very great; for it has
+  been found by A. S. Wilson ("On the Nectar of Flowers," _Brit. Assoc.
+  Rep._, 1878, p. 567) that 125 heads of common red clover, which is a
+  plant comparatively abundant in nectar, yield but one gramme (15.432
+  grains) of sugar; and as each head contains about 60 florets,
+  7,500,000 distinct flower-tubes must on this estimate be exhausted for
+  each kilogramme (2.204 lb.) of sugar collected. Among the richer
+  sources of honey are reckoned the apple, asparagus, asters, barberry,
+  basswood (_Tilia americana_), and the European lime or linden (_T.
+  europaea_), beans, bonesets (_Eupatorium_), borage, broom, buckwheat,
+  catnip, or catmint (_Nepeta Cataria_), cherry, cleome, clover, cotton,
+  crocus, currant, dandelion, eucalyptus, figwort (_Scrophularia_),
+  furze, golden-rod (_Solidago_), gooseberry, hawthorn, heather,
+  hepatica, horehound, hyacinth, lucerne, maple, mignonette, mint,
+  motherwort (_Leonurus_), mustard, onion, peach, pear, poplar, quince,
+  rape, raspberry, sage, silver maple, snapdragon, sour-wood
+  (_Oxydendron arboreum_, D.C.), strawberry, sycamore, teasel, thyme,
+  tulip-tree (more especially rich in pollen), turnip, violet and
+  willows, and the "honey-dew" of the leaves of the whitethorn (Bonner),
+  oak, linden, beech and some other trees.
+
+Honey contains dextroglucose and laevoglucose (the former practically
+insoluble, the latter soluble in 1/8 pt. of cold strong alcohol),
+cane-sugar (according to some), mucilage, water, wax, essential oil,
+colouring bodies, a minute quantity of mineral matter and pollen. By a
+species of fermentation, the cane-sugar is said to be gradually
+transformed into inverted sugar (laevoglucose with dextroglucose). The
+pollen, as a source of nitrogen, is of importance to the bees feeding on
+the honey. It may be obtained for examination as a sediment from a
+mixture of honey and water. Other substances which have been discovered
+in honey are mannite (Guibourt), a free acid which precipitates the
+salts of silver and of lead, and is soluble in water and alcohol
+(Calloux), and an uncrystallizable sugar, nearly related to inverted
+sugar (Soubeiran, _Compt. Rend._ xxviii. 774-775, 1849). Brittany honey
+contains couvain, a ferment which determines its active decomposition
+(Wurtz, _Dict. de Chem._ ii. 430). In the honey of _Polybia
+apicipennis_, a wasp of tropical America, cane-sugar occurs in crystals
+of large size (Karsten, _Pogg. Ann._, C. 550). Dr J. Campbell Brown ("On
+the Composition of Honey," _Analyst_ iii. 267, 1878) is doubtful as to
+the presence of cane-sugar in any one of nine samples, from various
+sources, examined by him. The following average percentage numbers are
+afforded by his analyses: laevulose, 36.45; dextrose, 36.57; mineral
+matter, .15; water expelled at 100 deg. C., 18.5, and at a much higher
+temperature, with loss, 7.81: the wax, pollen and insoluble matter vary
+from a trace to 2.1%. The specific gravity of honey is about 1.41. The
+rotation of a polarized ray by a solution of 16.26 grammes of crude
+honey in 100 c.c. of water is generally from -3.2 deg. to -5 deg. at 60
+deg. F.; in the case of Greek honey it is nearly -5.5 deg. Almost all
+pure honey, when exposed for some time to light and cold, becomes more
+or less granular in consistency. Any liquid portion can be readily
+separated by straining through linen. Honey sold out of the comb is
+commonly clarified by heating and skimmimg; but according to Bonner it
+is always best in its natural state. The _mel depuratum_ of British
+pharmacy is prepared by heating honey in a water-bath, and straining
+through flannel previously moistened with warm water.
+
+The term "virgin-honey" (A.-S., _hunigtear_) is applied to the honey of
+young bees which have never swarmed, or to that which flows
+spontaneously from honeycomb with or without the application of heat.
+The honey obtained from old hives, considered inferior to it in quality,
+is ordinarily darker, thicker and less pleasant in taste and odour. The
+yield of honey is less in proportion to weight in old than in young or
+virgin combs. The far-famed honey of Narbonne is white, very granular
+and highly aromatic; and still finer honey is that procured from the
+Corbieres Mountains, 6 to 9 m. to the south-west. The honey of Gatinais
+is usually white, and is less odorous and granulates less readily than
+that of Narbonne. Honey from white clover has a greenish-white, and that
+from heather a rich golden-yellow hue. What is made from honey-dew is
+dark in colour, and disagreeable to the palate, and does not candy like
+good honey. "We have seen aphide honey from sycamores," says F. Cheshire
+(_Pract. Bee-keeping_, p. 74), "as deep in tone as walnut liquor, and
+where much of it is stored the value of the whole crop is practically
+nil." The honey of the stingless bees (_Meliponia_ and _Trigona_) of
+Brazil varies greatly in quality according to the species of flowers
+from which it is collected, some kinds being black and sour, and others
+excellent (F. Smith, _Trans. Ent. Soc._, 3d ser., i. pt. vi., 1863).
+That of _Apis Peronii_, of India and Timor, is yellow, and of very
+agreeable flavour and is more liquid than the British sorts. _A.
+unicolor_, a bee indigenous to Madagascar, and naturalized in Mauritius
+and the island of Reunion, furnishes a thick and syrupy, peculiarly
+scented green honey, highly esteemed in Western India. A rose-coloured
+honey is stated (_Gard. Chron._, 1870, p. 1698) to have been procured by
+artificial feeding. The fine aroma of Maltese honey is due to its
+collection from orange blossoms. Narbonne honey being harvested chiefly
+from Labiate plants, as rosemary, an imitation of it is sometimes
+prepared by flavouring ordinary honey with infusion of rosemary flowers.
+
+  Adulterations of honey are starch, detectable by the microscope, and
+  by its blue reaction with iodine, also wheaten flour, gelatin, chalk,
+  gypsum, pipe-clay, added water, cane-sugar and common syrup, and the
+  different varieties of manufactured glucose. Honey sophisticated with
+  glucose containing copperas as an impurity is turned of an inky colour
+  by liquids containing tannin, as tea. Elm leaves have been used in
+  America for the flavouring of imitation honey. Stone jars should be
+  employed in preference to common earthenware for the storage of honey,
+  which acts upon the lead glaze of the latter.
+
+Honey is mildly laxative in properties. Some few kinds are poisonous, as
+frequently the reddish honey stored by the Brazilian wasp _Nectarina_
+(_Polistes_, Latr.[5]) _Lecheguana_, Shuck., the effects of which have
+been vividly described by Aug. de Saint-Hilaire,[6] the spring honey of
+the wild bees of East Nepaul, said to be rendered noxious by collection
+from rhododendron flowers (Hooker, _Himalayan Journals_, i. 190, ed.
+1855), and the honey of Trebizond, which from its source, the blossoms,
+it is stated, of _Azalea pontica_ and _Rhododendron ponticum_ (perhaps
+to be identified with Pliny's _Aegolethron_), acquires the qualities of
+an irritant and intoxicant narcotic, as described by Xenophon (_Anab._
+iv. 8). Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxi. 45) describes as noxious a
+livid-coloured honey found in Persia and Gaetulia. Honey obtained from
+_Kalmia latifolia_, L., the calico bush, mountain laurel or spoon-wood
+of the northern United States, and allied species, is reputed
+deleterious; also that of the sour-wood is by some good authorities
+considered to possess undeniable griping properties; and G. Bidie
+(_Madras Quart. Journ. Med. Sci._, Oct, 1861, p. 399) mentions
+urtication, headache, extreme prostration and nausea, and intense thirst
+among the symptoms produced by a small quantity only of a honey from
+Coorg jungle. A South African species of _Euphorbia_, as was experienced
+by the missionary Moffat (_Miss. Lab._ p. 32, 1849), yields a poisonous
+honey. The nectar of certain flowers is asserted to cause even in bees a
+fatal kind of vertigo. As a demulcent and flavouring agent, honey is
+employed in the _oxymel_, _oxymel scillae_, _mel boracis_, _confectio
+piperis_, _conf. scammonii_ and _conf. terebinthinae_ of the _British
+Pharmacopoeia_. To the ancients honey was of very great importance as an
+article of diet, being almost their only available source of sugar. It
+was valued by them also for its medicinal virtues; and in recipes of the
+Saxon and later periods it is a common ingredient.[7] Of the eight kinds
+of honey mentioned by the great Indian surgical writer Susruta, four are
+not described by recent authors, viz. _argha_ or wild honey, collected
+by a sort of yellow bee; _chhatra_, made by tawny or yellow wasps;
+_audalaka_, a bitter and acrid honey-like substance found in the nest of
+white ants; and _dala_ or unprepared honey occurring on flowers.
+According to Hindu medical writers, honey when new is laxative, and when
+more than a year old astringent (U. C. Dutt, _Mat. Med. of the Hindus_,
+p. 277, 1877). Ceromel, formed by mixing at a gentle heat one part by
+weight of yellow wax with four of clarified honey, and straining, is
+used in India and other tropical countries as a mild stimulant for
+ulcers in the place of animal fats, which there rapidly become rancid
+and unfit for medicinal purposes. The _Koran_, in the chapter entitled
+"The Bee," remarks with reference to bees and their honey: "There
+proceedeth from their bellies a liquor of various colour, wherein is a
+medicine for men" (Sale's _Koran_, chap. xvi.). Pills prepared with
+honey as an excipient are said to remain unindurated, however long they
+may be kept (_Med. Times_, 1857, i. 269). Mead, of yore a favourite
+beverage in England (vol. iv. p. 264), is made by fermentation of the
+liquor obtained by boiling in water combs from which the honey has been
+drained. In the preparation of sack-mead, an ounce of hops is added to
+each gallon of the liquor, and after the fermentation a small quantity
+of brandy. Metheglin, or hydromel, is maufactured by fermenting with
+yeast a solution of honey flavoured with boiled hops (see Cooley,
+_Cyclop._). A kind of mead is largely consumed in Abyssinia (vol. i. p.
+64), where it is carried on journeys in large horns (Stern,
+_Wanderings_, p. 317, 1862). In Russia a drink termed _lipez_ is made
+from the delicious honey of the linden. The _mulsum_ of the ancient
+Romans consisted of honey, wine and water boiled together. The _clarre_,
+or _piment_, of Chaucer's time was wine mixed with honey and spices, and
+strained till clear; a similar drink was _bracket_, made with wort of
+ale instead of wine. L. Maurial (_L'Insectologie Agricole_ for 1868, p.
+206) reports unfavourably as to the use of honey for the production of
+alcohol; he recommends it, however, as superior to sugar for the
+thickening of liqueurs, and also as a means of sweetening imperfectly
+ripened vintages. It is occasionally employed for giving strength and
+flavour to ale. In ancient Egypt it was valued as an embalming material;
+and in the East, for the preservation of fruit, and the making of cakes,
+sweetmeats, and other articles of food, it is largely consumed. Grafts,
+seeds and birds' eggs, for transmission to great distances, are
+sometimes packed in honey. In India a mixture of honey and milk, or of
+equal parts of curds, honey and clarified butter (Sansk.,
+_madhu-parka_), is a respectful offering to a guest, or to a bridegroom
+on his arrival at the door of the bride's father; and one of the
+purificatory ceremonies of the Hindus (Sansk., _madhu-prasana_) is the
+placing of a little honey in the mouth of a newborn male infant. Honey
+is frequently alluded to by the writers of antiquity as food for
+children; it is not to this, however, as already mentioned, that Isa.
+vii. 15 refers. Cream or fresh butter together with honey, and with or
+without bread, is a favourite dish with the Arabs.
+
+Among the observances at the Fandroana or New Year's Festival, in
+Madagascar, is the eating of mingled rice and honey by the queen and her
+guests; in the same country honey is placed in the sacred water of
+sprinkling used at the blessing of the children previous to circumcision
+(Sibree, _The Great African Is._ pp. 219, 314, 1880). Honey was
+frequently employed in the ancient religious ceremonies of the heathen,
+but was forbidden as a sacrifice in the Jewish ritual (Lev. ii. 11).
+With milk or water it was presented by the Greeks as a libation to the
+dead (_Odyss._ xi. 27; Eurip. _Orest._ 115). A honey-cake was the
+monthly food of the fabled serpent-guardian of the Acropolis (Herod,
+viii. 41). By the aborigines of Peru honey was offered to the sun.
+
+  The Hebrew word translated "honey" in the authorized version of the
+  English Bible is _debash_, practically synonymous with which are
+  _ja'ar_ or _ja'arith had-debash_ (1 Sam. xix. 25-27; cf. Cant. v. 1)
+  and nopheth (Ps. xix. 10, &c.), rendered "honey-comb." _Debash_
+  denotes bee-honey (as in Deut. xxxii. 13 and Jud. xiv. 8); the manna
+  of trees, by some writers considered to have been the "wild honey"
+  eaten by John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4); the syrup of dates or the
+  fruits themselves; and probably in some passages (as Gen. xliii. 11
+  and Ez. xxvii. 17) the syrupy boiled juice of the grape, resembling
+  thin molasses, in use in Palestine, especially at Hebron, under the
+  name of _dibs_ (see Kitto, _Cyclop._, and E. Robinson, _Bibl. Res._
+  ii. 81). Josephus (B.J., iv. 8, 3) speaks highly of a honey produced
+  at Jericho, consisting of the expressed juice of the fruit of palm
+  trees; and Herodotus (iv. 194) mentions a similar preparation made by
+  the Gyzantians in North Africa, where it is still in use. The honey
+  most esteemed by the ancients was that of Mount Hybla in Sicily, and
+  of Mount Hymettus in Attica (iii. 59). Mahaffy (_Rambles in Greece_,
+  p. 148, 2nd ed., 1878) describes the honey of Hymettus as by no means
+  so good as the produce of other parts of Greece--not to say of the
+  heather hills of Scotland and Ireland. That of Thebes, and more
+  especially that of Corinth, which is made in the thymy hills towards
+  Cleonae, he found much better (cf. xi. 88). Honey and wax, still
+  largely obtained in Corsica (vi. 440), were in olden times the chief
+  productions of the island. In England, in the 13th and 14th centuries,
+  honey sold at from about 7d. to 1s. 2d. a gallon, and occasionally was
+  disposed of by the swarm or hive, or _ruscha_ (Rogers, _Hist. of
+  Agric. and Prices in Eng._, 1. 418). At Wrexham, Denbigh, Wales, two
+  honey fairs are annually held, one on the Thursday next after the 1st
+  of September, and the other--the more recently instituted and by far
+  the larger--on the Thursday following the first Wednesday in October.
+  In Hungary the amounts of honey and of wax are in favourable years
+  respectively about 190,000 and 12,000 cwt., and in unfavourable years,
+  as, e.g. 1874, about 12,000 and 3000 cwt. The hives there in 1870
+  numbered 617,407 (or 40 per 1000 of the population, against 45 in
+  Austria). Of these 365,711 were in Hungary Proper, and 91,348 (87 per
+  1000 persons) in the Military Frontier (Keleti, _Ubersicht der Bevolk.
+  Ungarns_, 1871; Schwicker, _Statistik d. K. Ungarn_, 1877). In Poland
+  the system of bee-keeping introduced by Dolinowski has been found to
+  afford an average of 40 lb. of honey and wax and two new swarms per
+  hive, the common peasant's hive yielding, with two swarms, only 3 lb.
+  of honey and wax. In forests and places remote from villages in
+  Podolia and parts of Volhynia, as many as 1000 hives may be seen in
+  one apiary. In the district of Ostrolenka, in the government of Plock,
+  and in the woody region of Polesia, in Lithuania, a method is
+  practised of rearing bees in excavated trunks of trees (Stanton, "On
+  the Treatment of Bees in Poland," _Technologist_, vi. 45, 1866). When,
+  in August, in the loftier valleys of Bormio, Italy, flowering ceases,
+  the bees in their wooden hives are by means of spring-carts
+  transported at night to lower regions, where they obtain from the
+  buckwheat crops the inferior honey which serves them for winter
+  consumption (Ib. p. 38).
+
+  In Palestine, "the land flowing with milk and honey"[8] (Ex. iii. 17;
+  Numb. xiii. 27), wild bees are very numerous, especially in the
+  wilderness of Judaea, and the selling of their produce, obtained from
+  crevices in rocks, hollows in trees and elsewhere, is with many of the
+  inhabitants a means of subsistence. Commenting on 1 Sam. xiv. 26, J.
+  Roberts (_Oriental Illust._) remarks that in the East "the forests
+  literally flow with honey; large combs may be seen hanging on the
+  trees, as you pass along, full of honey." In Galilee, and at Bethlehem
+  and other places in Palestine, bee-keeping is extensively carried on.
+  The hives are sun-burnt tubes of mud, about 4 ft. in length and 8 in.
+  in diameter, and, with the exception of a small central aperture for
+  the passage of the bees, closed at each end with mud. These are laid
+  together in long rows, or piled pyramidally, and are protected from
+  the sun by a covering of mud and of boughs. The honey is extracted,
+  when the ends have been removed, by means of an iron hook. (See
+  Tristram, _Nat. Hist. of the Bible_, pp. 322 sqq., 2nd ed., 1868).
+  Apiculture in Turkey is in a very rude condition. The Bali-dagh, or
+  "Honey Mount," in the plain of Troy, is so called on account of the
+  numerous wild bees tenanting the caves in its precipitous rocks to the
+  south. In various regions of Africa, as on the west, near the Gambia,
+  bees abound. Cameron was informed by his guides that the large
+  quantities of honey at the cliffs by the river Makanyazi were under
+  the protection of an evil spirit, and not one of his men could be
+  persuaded to gather any (_Across Africa_, i. 266). On the precipitous
+  slopes of the Teesta valley, in India, the procuring of honey from the
+  pendulous bees'-nests, which are sometimes large enough to be
+  conspicuous features at a mile's distance, is the only means by which
+  the idle poor raise their annual rent (Hooker, _Him. Journ._ ii. 41).
+
+  To reach the large combs of _Apis dorsata_ and _A. testacea_, the
+  natives of Timor, by whom both the honey and young bees are esteemed
+  delicacies, ascend the trunks of lofty forest trees by the use of a
+  loop of creeper. Protected from the myriads of angry insects by a
+  small torch only, they detach the combs from the under surface of the
+  branches, and lower them by slender cords to the ground (Wallace,
+  _Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool._, vol. xi.).     (F. H. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The term honey in its various forms is peculiar to the Teutonic
+    group of languages, and in the Gothic New Testament is wanting, the
+    Greek word being there translated _melith_.
+
+  [2] See A. White, in _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ vii. 315, pl. 4.
+
+  [3] Wetherill (_Chem. Gaz._ xi. 72, 1853) calculates that the average
+    weight of the honey is 8.2 times that of the body of the ant, or
+    0.3942 grammes.
+
+  [4] Compare Isa. vii. 15, 22, where curdled milk (A.V. "butter") and
+    honey as exclusive articles of diet are indicative of foreign
+    invasion, which turns rich agricultural districts into pasture lands
+    or uncultivated wastes.
+
+  [5] _Memoires du Museum_, xi. 313 (1824).
+
+  [6] _Ib._ xii. 293, pl. xii. fig. B (1825). The honey, according to
+    Lassaigne (_ib._ ix. 319), is almost entirely soluble in alcohol.
+
+  [7] For a list of fifteen treatises concerning honey, dating from
+    1625 to 1868, see Waring, _Bibl. Therap._ ii. 559, New Syd. Soc.
+    (1879). On sundry ancient uses for honey, see Beckmann, _Hist. of
+    Invent._ i. 287 (1846).
+
+  [8] In Sanskrit, _madhu-kulya_, a stream of honey, is sometimes used
+    to express an overflowing abundance of good things (Monier Williams,
+    _Sansk.-Eng. Dict._, p. 736, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+HONEYCOMB, a cloth, so called because of the particular arrangement of
+the crossing of the warp and weft threads which form cells somewhat
+similar to those of the real honeycomb. They differ from the latter in
+that they are rectangular instead of hexagonal. The bottom of the cell
+is formed by those threads and picks which weave "plain," while the
+ascending sides of the figure are formed by the gradually increasing
+length of float of the warp and weft yarns.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  The figure shows two of the commonest designs which are used for these
+  cloths, design A being what is often termed the "perfect honeycomb";
+  in the figure it will be seen that the highest number of successive
+  white squares is seven, while the corresponding highest number of
+  successive black squares is five. Two of each of these maximum floats
+  form the top or highest edges of the cell, and the number of
+  successive like squares decreases as the bottom of the cell is reached
+  when the floats are one of black and one of white (see middle of
+  design, &c.). The weave produces a reversible cloth, and it is
+  extensively used for the embellishment of quilts and other fancy
+  goods. It is also largely used in the manufacture of cotton and linen
+  towels. B is, for certain purposes, a more suitable weave than A, but
+  both are very largely used for the latter class of goods.
+
+
+
+
+HONEY-EATER, or HONEY-SUCKER, names applied by many writers in a very
+loose way to a large number of birds, some of which, perhaps, have no
+intimate affinity; here they are used in a more restricted sense for
+what, in the opinion of a good many recent authorities,[1] should really
+be deemed the family _Meliphagidae_--excluding therefrom the
+_Nectariniidae_ or SUN-BIRDS (q.v.) as well as the genera _Promerops_
+and _Zosterops_ with whatever allies they may possess. Even with this
+restriction, the extent of the family must be regarded as very
+indefinite, owing to the absence of materials sufficient for arriving at
+a satisfactory conclusion, though the existence of such a family is
+probably indisputable. Making allowance, then, for the imperfect light
+in which they must at present be viewed, what are here called
+_Meliphagidae_ include some of the most characteristic forms of the
+ornithology of the great Australian region--members of the family
+inhabiting almost every part of it, and a single species only, _Ptilotis
+limbata_, being said to occur outside its limits. They all possess, or
+are supposed to possess, a long protrusible tongue with a brush-like
+tip, differing, it is believed, in structure from that found in any
+other bird--_Promerops_ perhaps excepted--and capable of being formed
+into a suctorial tube, by means of which honey is absorbed from the
+nectary of flowers, though it would seem that insects attracted by the
+honey furnish the chief nourishment of many species, while others
+undoubtedly feed to a greater or less extent on fruits. The
+_Meliphagidae_, as now considered, are for the most part small birds,
+never exceeding the size of a missel thrush; and they have been divided
+into more than 20 genera, containing above 200 species, of which only a
+few can here be particularized. Most of these species have a very
+confined range, being found perhaps only on a single island or group of
+islands in the region, but there are a few which are more widely
+distributed--such as _Glycyphila rufifrons_, the white-throated[2]
+honey-eater, found over the greater part of Australia and Tasmania. In
+plumage they vary much. Most of the species of _Ptilotis_ are
+characterized by a tuft of white, or in others of yellow, feathers
+springing from behind the ear. In the greater number of the genus
+_Myzomela_[3] the males are recognizable by a gorgeous display of
+crimson or scarlet, which has caused one species, _M. sanguinolenta_, to
+be known as the soldier-bird to Australian colonists; but in others no
+brilliant colour appears, and those of several genera have no special
+ornamentation, while some have a particularly plain appearance. One of
+the most curious forms is _Prosthemadera_--the tui or parson-bird of New
+Zealand, so called from the two tufts of white feathers which hang
+beneath its chin in great contrast to its dark silky plumage, and
+suggest a likeness to the bands worn by ministers of several religious
+denominations when officiating.[4] The bell-bird of the same island,
+_Anthornis melanura_--whose melody excited the admiration of Cook the
+morning after he had anchored in Queen Charlotte's Sound--is another
+member of this family, and unfortunately seems to be fast becoming
+extinct. But it would be impossible here to enter much further into
+detail, though the wattle-birds, _Anthochaera_, of Australia have at
+least to be named. Mention, however, must be made of the friar-birds,
+_Tropidorhynchus_, of which nearly a score of species, five of them
+belonging to Australia, have been described. With their stout bills,
+mostly surmounted by an excrescence, they seem to be the most abnormal
+forms of the family, and most of them are besides remarkable for the
+baldness of some part at least of their head. They assemble in troops,
+sitting on dead trees, with a loud call, and are very pugnacious,
+frequently driving away hawks and crows. A. R. Wallace (_Malay
+Archipelago_, ii. 150-153) discovered the curious fact that two species
+of this genus--_T. bourensis_ and _T. subcornutus_--respectively
+inhabiting the islands of Bouru and Ceram, were the object of natural
+"mimicry" on the part of two species of oriole of the genus _Mimeta_,
+_M. bourouensis_ and _M. forsteni_, inhabiting the same islands, so as
+to be on a superficial examination identical in appearance--the
+honey-eater and the oriole of each island presenting exactly the same
+tints--the black patch of bare skin round the eyes of the former, for
+instance, being copied in the latter by a patch of black feathers, and
+even the protuberance on the beak of the _Tropidorhynchus_ being
+imitated by a similar enlargement of the beak of the _Mimeta_. The very
+reasonable explanation which Wallace offers is that the pugnacity of the
+former has led the smaller birds of prey to respect it, and it is
+therefore an advantage for the latter, being weaker and less courageous,
+to be mistaken for it.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Among them especially A. R. Wallace, _Geogr. Distr. Animals_, ii
+    275.
+
+  [2] The young of this species has the throat yellow.
+
+  [3] W. A. Forbes published a careful monograph of this genus in the
+    _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ for 1879, pp. 256-279.
+
+  [4] This bird, according to Sir Walter Buller (_Birds of New
+    Zealand_, p. 88), while uttering its wild notes, indulges in much
+    gesticulation, which adds to the suggested resemblance. It has great
+    power of mimicry, and is a favourite cage-bird both with the natives
+    and colonists. On one occasion, says Buller, he had addressed a large
+    meeting of Maories on a matter of considerable political importance,
+    when "immediately on the conclusion of my speech, and before the old
+    chief to whom my arguments were chiefly addressed had time to reply,
+    a tui, whose netted cage hung to a rafter overhead, responded in a
+    clear, emphatic way, 'Tito!' (false). The circumstance naturally
+    caused much merriment among my audience, and quite upset the gravity
+    of the venerable old chief, Nepia Taratoa. 'Friend,' said he,
+    laughing, 'your arguments are very good; but my _mokai_ is a very
+    wise bird, and he is not yet convinced!'"
+
+
+
+
+HONEY-GUIDE, a bird so called from its habit of pointing out to man and
+to the ratel (_Mellivora capensis_) the nests of bees. Stories to this
+effect have been often told, and may be found in the narratives of many
+African travellers, from Bruce to Livingstone. But Layard says (_B.
+South Africa_, p. 242) that the birds will not infrequently lead any one
+to a leopard or a snake, and will follow a dog with vociferations,
+though its noisy cry and antics unquestionably have in many cases the
+effect signified by its English name. If not its first discoverer,
+Sparrman, in 1777, was the first who described and figured this bird,
+which he met with in the Cape Colony (_Phil. Trans._, lxvii. 42-47, pl.
+i.), giving it the name of _Culculus indicator_, its zygodactylous feet
+with the toes placed in pairs--two before and two behind--inducing the
+belief that it must be referred to that genus. Vicillot in 1816 elevated
+it to the rank of a genus, _Indicator_; but it was still considered to
+belong to the family _Cuculidae_ (its asserted parasitical habits
+lending force to that belief) by all systematists except Blyth and
+Jerdon, until it was shown by Blanford (_Obs. Geol. and Zool.
+Abyssinia_, pp. 308, 309) and Sclater (_Ibis_, 1870, pp. 176-180) that
+it was more allied to the barbets, _Capitonidae_, and, in consequence,
+was then made the type of a distinct family, _Indicatoridae_. In the
+meanwhile other species had been discovered, some of them differing
+sufficiently to warrant Sundevall's foundation of a second genus,
+_Prodotiscus_, of the group. The honey-guides are small birds, the
+largest hardly exceeding a lark in size, and of plain plumage, with what
+appears to be a very sparrow-like bill. Bowdler Sharpe, in a revision of
+the family published in 1876 (_Orn. Miscellany_, i. 192-209), recognizes
+ten species of the genus _Indicator_, to which another was added by Dr
+Reichenow (_Journ. fur Ornithologie_, 1877, p. 110), and two of
+_Prodotiscus_. Four species of the former, including _I. sparrmani_,
+which was the first made known, are found in South Africa, and one of
+the latter. The rest inhabit other parts of the same continent, except
+_I. archipelagicus_, which seems to be peculiar to Borneo, and _I.
+xanthonotus_, which occurs on the Himalayas from the borders of
+Afghanistan to Bhutan. The interrupted geographical distribution of this
+genus is a very curious fact, no species having been found in the Indian
+or Malayan peninsula to connect the outlying forms with those of Africa,
+which must be regarded as their metropolis.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+HONEY LOCUST, the popular name of a tree, _Gleditsia triacanthos_, a
+member of the natural order Leguminosae, and a native of the more
+eastern United States of North America. It reaches from 75 to 140 ft. in
+height with a trunk 2 or 3, or sometimes 5 or 6 ft. in diameter, and
+slender spreading branches which form a broad, flattish crown. The
+branchlets bear numerous simple or three-forked (whence the species-name
+_triacanthos_) sharp stiff spines, 3 to 4 in. long, at first red in
+colour, then chestnut brown; they are borne above the leaf-axils and
+represent undeveloped branchlets; sometimes they are borne also on the
+trunk and main branches. The long-stalked leaves are 7 to 8 in. long
+with eight to fourteen pairs of narrowly oblong leaflets. The flowers,
+which are of two kinds, are borne in racemes in the leaf-axils; the
+staminate flowers in larger numbers. The brown pods are often 12 to 18
+in. long, have thin, tough walls, and contain a quantity of pulp between
+the seeds; they contract spirally when drying. The tree was first
+cultivated in Europe towards the end of the 17th century by Bishop
+Compton in his garden at Fulham, near London, and is now extensively
+planted as an ornamental tree. The name of the genus commemorates Johann
+Gottlieb Gleditsch (1714-1786), a friend of Linnaeus, and the author of
+one of the earliest works on scientific forestry.
+
+
+
+
+HONEYMOON, the first month after marriage. Lord Avebury in his _Origin
+of Civilization_ suggests that the seclusion usually associated with
+this period is a survival of marriage by capture, and answers to the
+period during which the husband kept his wife in retirement, to prevent
+her from appealing to her relatives for release. Others suggest that as
+the moon commences to wane as soon as it is at its full, so does the
+mutual affection of the wedded pair, the "honeymoon" (with this
+derivation) not necessarily referring to any definite period of time.
+
+
+
+
+HONEYSUCKLE (Mid. Eng., _honysocle_, i.e. any plant from which honey may
+be sucked,--cf. A.-S. _huni-suge_, privet; Ger. _Geissblatt_; Fr.
+_chevrefeuille_), botanical name _Lonicera_, a genus of climbing, erect
+or prostrate shrubs, of the natural order _Caprifoliaceae_, so named
+after the 16th-century German botanist Adam Lonicer. The British species
+is _L. Periclymenum_, the woodbine; _L. Caprifolium_ and _L. Xylosteum_
+are naturalized in a few counties in the south and east of England. Some
+of the garden varieties of the woodbine are very beautiful, and are held
+in high esteem for their delicious fragrance, even the wild plant, with
+its pale flowers, compensating for its sickly looks "with never-cloying
+odours." The North American sub-evergreen _L. sempervirens_, with its
+fine heads of blossoms, commonly called the trumpet honeysuckle, the
+most handsome of all the cultivated honeysuckles, is a distinct and
+beautiful species producing both scarlet and yellow flowered varieties,
+and the Japanese _L. flexuosa_ var. _aureoreticulata_ is esteemed for
+its charmingly variegated leaves netted with golden yellow. The fly
+honeysuckle, _L. Xylosteum_, a hardy shrub of dwarfish, erect habit, and
+_L. tatarica_, of similar habit, both European, are amongst the oldest
+English garden shrubs, and bear axillary flowers of various colours,
+occurring two on a peduncle. There are numerous other species, many of
+them introduced to our gardens, and well worth cultivating in
+shrubberies or as climbers on walls and bowers, either for their beauty
+or the fragrance of their blossoms.
+
+[Illustration: Honeysuckle.--(a) Flowering branch; (b) Flower, nat.
+size; (c) fruit, slightly reduced.]
+
+In the western counties of England, and generally by agriculturists, the
+name honeysuckle is applied to the meadow clover, _Trifolium pratense_.
+Another plant of the same family (Leguminosae) _Hedysarum coronarium_, a
+very handsome hardy biennial often seen in old-fashioned collections of
+garden plants, is commonly called the French honeysuckle. The name is
+moreover applied with various affixes to several other totally different
+plants. Thus white honeysuckle and false honeysuckle are names for the
+North American _Azalea viscosa_; Australian or heath honeysuckle is the
+Australian _Banksia serrata_, Jamaica honeysuckle, _Passiflora
+laurifolia_, dwarf honeysuckle the widely spread _Cornus suecica_,
+Virgin Mary's honeysuckle the European _Pulmonaria officinalis_, while
+West Indian honeysuckle is _Tecoma capensis_, and is also a name applied
+to _Desmodium_.
+
+The wood of the fly honeysuckle is extremely hard, and the clear
+portions between the joints of the stems, when their pith has been
+removed, were stated by Linnaeus to be utilized in Sweden for making
+tobacco-pipes. The wood is also employed to make teeth for rakes; and,
+like that of _L. tatarica_, it is a favourite material for
+walking-sticks.
+
+Honeysuckles (_Lonicera_) flourish in any ordinary garden soil, but are
+usually sadly neglected in regard to pruning. This should be done about
+March, cutting out some of the old wood, and shortening back some of the
+younger growths of the preceding year.     (J. Ws.)
+
+
+
+
+HONFLEUR, a seaport of north-western France, in the department of
+Calvados, 57 m. N.E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) 8735. The town is
+situated at the foot of a semicircle of hills, on the south shore of the
+Seine estuary, opposite Havre, with which it communicates by steamboat.
+Honfleur, with its dark narrow lanes and old houses, has the typical
+aspect of an old-fashioned seaport. The most noteworthy of its buildings
+is the church of St Catherine, constructed entirely of timber work, with
+the exception of the facade added in the 18th century, and consisting of
+two parallel naves, of which the more ancient is supposed to date from
+the end of the 15th century. Within the church are several antique
+statues and a painting by J. Jordaens--"Jesus in the Garden of
+Gethsemane." The church tower stands on the other side of a street. St
+Leonard's dates from the 17th century, with the exception of its fine
+ogival portal and rose-window belonging to the 16th, and its octagonal
+tower erected in the 18th. The ruins of a 16th-century castle known as
+the Lieutenance and several houses of the same period are also of
+antiquarian interest. The hotel de ville contains a library and a
+museum. On the rising ground above the town is the chapel of
+Notre-Dame-de-Grace, a shrine much resorted to by pilgrim sailors, which
+is said to have been founded in 1034 by Robert the Magnificent of
+Normandy and rebuilt in 1606. The town has a tribunal and a chamber of
+commerce and a communal college. The port, which is protected from the
+west winds by the height known as the Cote de Grace, consists of the
+tidal harbour and four floating basins--The West basin, dating from the
+17th century, and the Centre, East and Carnot basins. A reservoir
+affords the means of sluicing the channel and supplying the basins. The
+surface available for vessels is about 27 acres. Numerous fishing and
+coasting vessels frequent the harbour. In 1907 there entered 375
+vessels, of 133,872 tons, more than half this tonnage being British. The
+exports go mainly to England and include poultry, butter, eggs, cheese,
+chocolate, vegetables, fruit, seeds and purple ore. There is regular
+communication by steamer with Southampton. Timber from Scandinavia,
+English coal and artificial manures form the bulk of the imports. There
+are important saw-mills, as well as shipbuilding yards, manufactories of
+chemical manures and iron foundries.
+
+Honfleur dates from the 11th century and is thus four or five hundred
+years older than its rival Havre, by which it was supplanted during the
+18th century. During the Hundred Years' War it was frequently taken and
+re-taken, the last occupation by the English ending in 1440. In 1562 the
+Protestant forces got possession of it only after a regular siege of the
+suburb of St Leonard; and though Henry IV. effected its capture in 1590
+he had again to invest it in 1594 after all the rest of Normandy had
+submitted to his arms. In the earlier years of the 17th century Honfleur
+colonists founded Quebec, and Honfleur traders established factories in
+Java and Sumatra and a fishing establishment in Newfoundland.
+
+
+
+
+HONG-KONG (properly HIANG-KIANG, the place of "sweet lagoons"), an
+important British island-possession, situated off the south-east coast
+of China, opposite the province of Kwang-tung, on the east side of the
+estuary of the Si-kiang, 38 m. E. of Macao and 75 S.E. of Canton,
+between 22 deg. 9' and 22 deg. 1' N., and 114 deg. 5' and 114 deg. 18'
+E. It is one of a small cluster named by the Portuguese "Ladrones" or
+Thieves, on account of the notorious habits of their old inhabitants.
+Extremely irregular in outline, it has an area of 29 sq. m., measuring
+10(1/2) m. in extreme length from N.E. to S.W., and varying in breadth
+from 2 to 5 m. A good military road about 22 m. long encircles the
+island. From the mainland it is separated by a narrow channel, which at
+Hong-Kong roads, between Victoria, the island capital), and Kowloon
+Point, is about 1 m. broad, and which narrows at Ly-ee-mun Pass to
+little over a 1/4 m. The southern coast in particular is deeply
+indented; and there two bold peninsulas, extending for several miles
+into the sea, form two capacious natural harbours, namely, Deep Water
+Bay, with the village of Stanley to the east, and Tytam Bay, which has a
+safe, well-protected entrance showing a depth of 10 to 16 fathoms. An
+in-shore island on the west coast, called Aberdeen, or Taplishan,
+affords protection to the Shekpywan or Aberdeen harbour, an inlet
+provided with a granite graving dock, the caisson gate of which is 60
+ft. wide, and the Hope dock, opened in 1867, with a length of 425 ft.
+and a depth of 24 ft. Opposite the same part of the coast, but nearly 2
+m. distant, rises the largest of the surrounding islands, Lamma, whose
+conspicuous peak, Mount Stenhouse, attains a height of 1140 ft. and is a
+landmark for local navigation. On the northern shore of Hong-Kong there
+is a patent slip at East or Matheson Point, which is serviceable during
+the north-east monsoon, when sailing vessels frequently approach
+Victoria through the Ly-ee-mun Pass. The ordinary course for such
+vessels is from the westward, on which side they are sheltered by Green
+Island and Kellett Bank. There is good anchorage throughout the entire
+channel separating the island from the mainland, except in the Ly-ee-mun
+Pass, where the water is deep; the best anchorage is in Hong-Kong roads,
+in front of Victoria, where, over good holding ground, the depth is 5 to
+9 fathoms. The inner anchorage of Victoria Bay, about 1/2 m. off shore
+and out of the strength of the tide, is 6 to 7 fathoms. Victoria, the
+seat of government and of trade, is the chief centre of population, but
+a tract on the mainland is covered with public buildings and villa
+residences. Practically an outlying suburb of Victoria, Kowloon or (Nine
+Dragons) is free from the extreme heat of the capital, being exposed to
+the south-west monsoon. Numerous villas have also been erected along the
+beautiful western coast of the island, while Stanley, in the south, is
+favoured as a watering-place.
+
+The island is mountainous throughout, the low granite ridges, parted by
+bleak, tortuous valleys, leaving in some places a narrow strip of level
+coast-land, and in others overhanging the sea in lofty precipices. From
+the sea, and especially from the magnificent harbour which faces the
+capital, the general aspect of Hong-Kong is one of singular beauty.
+Inland the prospect is wild, dreary and monotonous. The hills have a
+painfully bare appearance from the want of trees. The streams, which are
+plentiful, are traced through the uplands and glens by a line of
+straggling brushwood and rank herbage. Nowhere is the eye relieved by
+the evidences of cultivation or fertility. The hills, which are mainly
+composed of granite, serpentine and syenite, rise in irregular masses to
+considerable heights, the loftiest point, Victoria Peak, reaching an
+altitude of 1825 ft. The Peak lies immediately to the south-west of the
+capital, in the extreme north-west corner of the island, and is used as
+a station for signalling the approach of vessels. Patches of land,
+chiefly around the coast, have been laid under rice, sweet potatoes and
+yams, but the island is hardly able to raise a home-supply of
+vegetables. The mango, lichen, pear and orange are indigenous, and
+several fruits and esculents have been introduced. One of the chief
+products is building-stone, which is quarried by the Chinese. The
+animals are few, comprising a land tortoise, the armadillo, a species of
+boa, several poisonous snakes and some woodcock. The public works suffer
+from the ravages of white ants. Water everywhere abounds, and is
+supplied to the shipping by means of tanks.
+
+
+  Mainland territory.
+
+Under the Peking Treaty of 1860 the peninsula of Kowloon (about 5 m. in
+area) was added to Hong-Kong. The population is about 27,000. There are
+several docks and warehouses, and manufactures are being developed.
+Granite is quarried in the peninsula. An agreement was entered into in
+1898 whereby China leased to Great Britain for ninety-nine years the
+territory behind Kowloon peninsula up to a line drawn from Mirs Bay to
+Deep Bay and the adjoining islands, including Lantao. The new district,
+which extends to 376 sq. m. in area, is mountainous, with extensive
+cultivated valleys of great fertility, and the coastline is deeply
+indented by bays. The alluvial soil of the valleys yields two crops of
+rice in the year. Sugar-cane, indigo, hemp, peanuts, potatoes of
+different varieties, yam, taro, beans, sesamum, pumpkins and vegetables
+of all kinds are also grown. The mineral resources are as yet unknown.
+The population is estimated at about 100,000. It consists of Puntis (or
+Cantonese), Hakkas ("strangers") and Tankas. The Puntis are agricultural
+and inhabit the valleys, and they make excellent traders. The Hakkas are
+a hardy and frugal race, belonging mainly to the hill districts. The
+Tankas are the boat people or floating population. In the government of
+the new territory the existing organization is as far as possible
+utilized.
+
+
+  Victoria.
+
+Hong-Kong or Victoria harbour constantly presents an animated
+appearance, as many as 240 guns having been fired as salutes in a single
+day. Its approaches are strongly fortified. The steaming distance from
+Singapore is 1520 m. Victoria, the capital, often spoken of as Hong-Kong
+(population over 166,000, of whom about 6000 are European or American),
+stretches for about 4 m. along the north coast. Its breadth varies from
+1/2 m. in the central portions to 200 or 300 yds. in the eastern and
+western portions. The town is built in three layers. The "Praya" or
+esplanade, 50 ft. wide, is given up to shipping. The Praya reclamation
+scheme provided for the extension of the land frontage of 250 ft. and a
+depth of 20 ft. at all states of the tide. A further extension of the
+naval dockyard was begun in 1902, and a new commercial pier was opened
+in 1900. The main commercial street runs inland parallel with the Praya.
+Beyond the commercial portion, on each side, lie the Chinese quarters,
+wherein there is a closely packed population. In 1888, 1600 people were
+living in the space of a single acre, and over 100,000 were believed to
+be living within an area not exceeding 1/2 m.; and the overcrowding does
+not tend to diminish, for in one district, in 1900, it was estimated
+that there were at the rate of 640,000 persons on the sq. m. The
+average, however, for the whole of the city is 126 per acre, or 80,640
+per sq. m. The second stratum of the town lies ten minutes' climb up the
+side of the island. Government house and other public buildings are in
+this quarter. There abound "beautifully laid out gardens, public and
+private, and solidly constructed roads, some of them bordered with
+bamboos and other delicately-fronded trees, and fringed with the
+luxuriant growth of semi-tropical vegetation." Finally, the third layer,
+known as "the Peak," and reached by a cable tramway, is dotted over with
+private houses and bungalows, the summer health resort of those who can
+afford them; here a new residence for the governor was begun in 1900.
+Excellent water is supplied to the town from the Pokfolum and Tytam
+reservoirs, the former containing 68 million gallons, the latter 390
+millions.
+
+  _Climate._--The temperature has a yearly range of from 45 deg. to 99
+  deg., but it occasionally falls below 40 deg., and ice occurs on the
+  Peak. In January 1893 ice was found at sea-level. The wet season
+  begins in May, after showers in March and April, and continues until
+  the beginning of August. During this period rain falls almost without
+  intermission. The rainfall varies greatly, but the mean is about 90
+  in. In 1898 only 57.025 in. fell, while in 1897 there were 100.03 in.;
+  in 1899, 72.7 in. and in 1900, 73.7 in. The damp is extremely
+  penetrating. During the dry season the climate is healthy, but
+  dysentery and intermittent fever are not uncommon. Bilious remittent
+  fever occurs in the summer months, and smallpox prevails from November
+  to March. The annual death-rate per 1000 for the whole population in
+  1902 was 21.70.
+
+  _Population, &c._--The following table shows the increase of
+  population:--
+
+    +------+----------+--------------+------------------+
+    |      |          |              | Total (including |
+    |      |Europe and|              |Military and Naval|
+    | Year.| American |Chinese Civil.|Establishments and|
+    |      |  Civil.  |              |  Indians, &c.).  |
+    +------+----------+--------------+------------------+
+    | 1881 |   3,040  |   148,850    |     160,402      |
+    | 1891 |   4,195  |   208,383    |     221,441      |
+    | 1901 |   3,860  |   274,543    |     283,978      |
+    | 1906 |  12,174  |   306,130    |     326,961      |
+    +------+----------+--------------+------------------+
+
+  Education is provided by a few government schools and by a large
+  number receiving grants-in-aid. The foundation-stone of Hong-Kong
+  University was laid in March 1910, the buildings being the gift of Sir
+  Hormusjee Mody, a colonial broker. The Queen's College provides
+  secondary education for boys. There are several hospitals, one of
+  which is a government institution. The Hong-Kong savings bank has
+  deposits amounting to about $1,100,000. There is a police force
+  composed of Europeans, Indian Sikhs and Chinese; and a strong military
+  garrison.
+
+  _Industries._--Beyond the cultivation of vegetable gardens there is
+  practically no agricultural industry in the colony. But although only
+  400 acres are cultivated on Hong-Kong island, and the same number of
+  acres in Kowloon, there are 90,000 acres under cultivation in the new
+  territory, of which over 7000 acres were in 1900 planted with
+  sugar-cane. Granite quarries are worked. The chief industries are
+  sugar-refining, the manufacture of cement, paper, bamboo and rattan
+  ware, carving in wood and ivory, working in copper and iron,
+  gold-beating and the production of gold, silver and sandal-wood ware,
+  furniture making, umbrella and jinricksha making, and industries
+  connected with kerosene oil and matches. The manufacture of cotton has
+  been introduced. Ship and boat building, together with subsidiary
+  industries, such as rope and sail making, appear less subject to
+  periods of depression than other industries.
+
+  _Trade._--Hong-Kong being a free port, there are no official figures
+  as to the amount of trade; but the value of the exports and imports is
+  estimated as about L50,000,000 in the year. Among the principal goods
+  dealt with are tea, silk, opium, sugar, flax, salt, earthenware, oil,
+  amber, cotton and cotton goods, sandal-wood, ivory, betel, vegetables,
+  live stock and granite. There is an extensive Chinese passenger trade.
+  The following are the figures of ships cleared and entered:--
+
+    +------+------------+------------+
+    | Year.|  Tonnage.  |  British.  |
+    +------+------------+------------+
+    | 1880 |  8,359,994 |  3,758,160 |
+    | 1890 | 13,676,293 |  6,994,919 |
+    | 1898 | 17,265,780 |  8,705,648 |
+    | 1902 | 19,709,451 |  8,945,976 |
+    +------+------------+------------+
+
+  The Chinese ships rank next to British ships in the amount of trade.
+  German and Japanese ships follow next.
+
+  _Finance._--The revenue and expenditure are given below:--
+
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+    | Year.|  Revenue. |Expenditure.|
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+    | 1880 |$1,069,948 |  $948,014  |
+    | 1890 | 1,995,220 | 1,915,350  |
+    | 1898 | 2,918,159 | 2,841,805  |
+    | 1902 | 4,901,073 | 4,752,444  |
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+
+  The main sources of revenue are licences, rent of government property,
+  the post-office and land sales. The light dues were reduced in 1898
+  from 2(1/2) cents to 1 cent per ton. There is a public debt of about
+  L340,000, borrowed for public works, which is being paid off by a
+  sinking fund. The only legal tender is the Mexican dollar, and the
+  British and Hong-Kong dollar, or other silver dollars of equivalent
+  value duly authorized by the governor. There are small silver and
+  copper coins, which are legal tenders for amounts not exceeding two
+  dollars and one dollar respectively. There is also a large paper
+  currency in the form of notes issued by the Chartered Bank of India,
+  Australia and China, the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
+  and the National Bank of China, Limited. The foundation of new law
+  courts was laid in 1900.
+
+  _Administration._--Formerly an integral part of China, the island of
+  Hong-Kong was first ceded to Great Britain in 1841, and the cession
+  was confirmed by the treaty of Nanking in 1842, the charter bearing
+  the date 5th of April 1843. The colony is administered by a governor,
+  executive council and legislative council. The executive council
+  consists of the holders of certain offices and of such other members
+  as the crown may nominate. In 1890 there were nine members. The
+  legislative council consists of the same officials and of six
+  unofficial members. Of these, three are appointed by the governor (of
+  whom one must be, and two at present are, members of the Chinese
+  community); one is elected from the chamber of commerce, and one from
+  the justices of the peace.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Sir G. W. des Voeux, _Report on Blue-book of 1888_; _A
+  Handbook to Hong-Kong_ (Hong-Kong, 1893); _The China Sea Directory_
+  (vol. iii., 3rd ed., 1894); Henry Norman, _The Peoples and Politics of
+  the Far East_ (London, 1895); Sir E. Hertslet, _Treaties between Great
+  Britain and China and China and Foreign Powers_ (London, 1896); A. R.
+  Colquhoun, _China in Transformation_ (London, 1898); _Colonial
+  Possessions Report_, No. 84; and other _Colonial Annual Reports_.
+
+
+
+
+HONITON, a market town and municipal borough in the Honiton
+parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, pleasantly situated on
+rising ground on the left bank of the Otter, 16(1/2) m. E.N.E. of Exeter
+by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3271. The town
+consists of one wide street, down which a stream of water runs,
+extending for about 1 m., and crossed at right angles by a lesser
+street. The restored church of St Michael, formerly a parish church, but
+standing on a hill about 1/2 m. from the town, was built by Courtenay,
+bishop of Exeter, about 1482. It retains a curiously carved screen, and
+the black marble tomb of Queen Elizabeth's physician, Marwood, who
+attained the age of 105. Allhallows Grammar School, founded in 1614, was
+enlarged in 1893; St Margaret's hospital, founded as a lazar-house in
+the 14th century, is converted into almshouses. Honiton is famous for
+its lace industry, established by refugees from Flanders under Queen
+Elizabeth. The delicate fabric made by hand on the pillow was long in
+demand; its sale was, however, greatly diminished by the competition of
+cheaper machine-made goods, and a school of lace-making was opened to
+promote its recovery. The town possesses breweries, tanneries,
+malthouses, flour-mills, saw-mills, brick and tile works, potteries and
+an iron foundry; its trade in butter is considerable. It is governed by
+a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3134 acres.
+
+Honiton (_Honetona_, _Huneton_) is situated on the British Icknield
+Street, and was probably the site of an early settlement, but it does
+not appear in history before the Domesday Survey, when it was a
+considerable manor, held by Drew (Drogo) under the count of Mortain, who
+had succeeded Elmer the Saxon, with a subject population of 33, a flock
+of 80 sheep, a mill and 2 salt-workers. The borough was founded before
+1217 by William de Vernon, earl of Devon, whose ancestor Richard de
+Redvers had received the manor from Henry I. In the 14th century it
+passed to the Courtenays, and in 1698 Sir William Courtenay was
+confirmed in the right of holding court leet, view of frank-pledge and
+the nomination of a portreeve, these privileges having been surrendered
+to James II. The borough was represented by two members in parliament in
+1300 and 1311, and then not again till 1640, from which date it returned
+two members until disfranchised by the act of 1868, the returning
+officer being the portreeve, who was also the chief magistrate of the
+borough until its incorporation by charter of 1846. In 1221 Falkes de
+Breaute, then custodian of the borough, rendered a palfrey for holding a
+three days' fair at the feast of All Saints, transferred in 1247 to the
+feast of St Margaret, and still held under that grant. A great market
+for corn and other produce is still held on Saturday by prescription.
+The wool manufacture flourished at Honiton in the reign of Henry VII.,
+and it is said to have been the first town at which serges were made,
+but the industry entirely declined during the 19th century. The lace
+manufacture was introduced by Flemish refugees, and was flourishing in
+the reign of Charles I.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Devonshire_; A. Farquharson, _History of
+  Honiton_ (Exeter, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+HONNEF, a town and climatic health resort of Germany, beautifully situated
+on the right bank of the Rhine, at the foot of the Siebengebirge, 8 m.
+above Bonn by the railway Cologne-Konigswinter-Horchheim. Pop. (1905)
+6183. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a sanatorium for
+consumptives, and does a considerable trade in wine. The town is
+surrounded by vineyards and orchards, and has annually a large number of
+visitors. A mineral spring called the Drachenquelle is used both for
+drinking and bathing.
+
+
+
+
+HONOLULU, a city, port of entry, and the capital of Hawaii, situated in
+the "city and county of Honolulu," on the S. coast of the island of
+Oahu, at the mouth of Nuuanu Valley, 2100 m. S.W. of San Francisco. Pop.
+(1890) 22,907; (1900) 39,306, of whom 24,746 were males, 14,560 were
+females; about 10,000 were Hawaiians, 15,000 Asiatics, and 5000
+Portuguese; (1910) 52,183. Honolulu is served by the Oahu railway, by
+electric lines to the principal suburbs, and by steamship lines to San
+Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, Manila, Salina Cruz (Mexico), Victoria,
+Sydney, and Chinese and Japanese ports. The business section and the
+older residence quarters occupy low ground, but many of the newer
+residences are built on the sides of neighbouring hills and mountains,
+of which there are several from 500 to 2000 ft. in height. The Punch
+Bowl (behind the city), a hill rising about 500 ft. above the sea,
+Diamond Head, a crater about 760 ft. in height, 4 m. to the S.E., and
+the Nuuanu Pali, a lofty and picturesque precipice 6 m. up the valley,
+are especially known for their commanding views. In front of the city is
+the small harbour, well protected from all winds except those from the
+S.; in and after 1892 the Hawaiian government deepened its entrance
+from 21 ft. to 30 ft. Six miles to the W. is the much more spacious
+Pearl Harbor (a U.S. Naval Station), the bar at the entrance of which
+was removed (1903) by the U.S. government. Pearl Harbor and the harbour
+of Honolulu are the only safe ports in the archipelago. The streets of
+Honolulu are wide, and are macadamized with crushed or broken lava. The
+business houses are mostly of brick or stone, and range from two to six
+storeys in height. About most of the residences there are many tropical
+trees, flowering shrubs and plants. Wood is the most common material of
+which the residences are built; a large portion of these residences are
+one-storey cottages; broad verandahs are common; and of the more
+pretentious residences the lanai, a semi-outdoor drawing-room with
+conservatories adjoining, is a notable feature. Throughout the city
+there is a marked absence of poverty and squalor. There are good hotels
+in the city and its suburbs. The government buildings are extensive and
+have a pleasing appearance; that of the executive, in a beautiful park,
+was formerly the royal palace and still contains many relics of royalty.
+Facing the judiciary building is an heroic statue in bronze of
+Kamehameha the Great. About 2 m. W. of the business centre of the city
+is the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, a fine stone building on a
+commanding site, and containing a large collection of Hawaiian and
+Polynesian relics and curios, especially Hawaiian feather-work, and
+notable collections of fish and of Hawaiian land shells and birds. Four
+miles S.E. of the business centre, at the foot of Diamond Head, is
+Waikiki sea-beach, noted for its surf-riding, boating and bathing, and
+Kapiolani Park, a pleasure resort, near which is a famous aquarium of
+tropical fishes. Honolulu has other parks, a fine Botanical Garden,
+created by the Bureau of Agriculture, several public squares, several
+hospitals, a maternity home, the Lunalilo Home for aged Hawaiians, an
+asylum for the insane, several schools of high rank both public and
+private--notably Oahu College on the E. edge of the city, first founded
+as a school for the children of missionaries in 1841; the Honolulu High
+School, founded in 1833 as the Oahu Charity School, to teach English to
+the half whites; the Royal School, which was founded in 1840 for the
+sons of chiefs; and the Normal School, housed in what was in 1906 the
+most expensive building on the island of Oahu--a library containing
+about 14,000 volumes and the collections of the Hawaiian Historical
+Society, a number of benevolent, literary, social and political
+societies, and an art league, and is the see of both an Anglican and a
+Roman Catholic bishop. In 1907 the Pacific Scientific Institution for
+the advancement of scientific knowledge of the Pacific, its islands and
+their people, was established here. Among the clubs of the city are the
+Pacific Club, founded in 1853 as the British Club; the Scottish Thistle
+Club (1891), of which Robert Louis Stevenson was a member; the Hawaii
+Yacht Club, and the Polo, Country and University Clubs. There are
+various journals and periodicals, five languages being represented. The
+chief industries are the manufacture of machinery (especially machinery
+for sugar-refineries) and carriages, rice-milling and ship-building.
+Honolulu's total exports for the fiscal year 1908 were valued at
+$42,238,455, and its imports at $19,985,724. There is a privately owned
+electric street car service in the city. The water-works and
+electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the Territorial
+government, and to the plentiful water-supply is partly due the
+luxuriant vegetation of the city. Honolulu's safe harbour, discovered in
+1794, made it a place of resort for vessels (especially whalers) and
+traders from the beginning of the 19th century. Kamehameha I. (the
+Great) lived here from 1803 until 1811. In 1816 was built a fort which
+stood until 1857. In 1820 the city became the principal residence of the
+sovereign and soon afterwards of foreign consuls, and thus practically
+the seat of government. In 1907 an act was passed by which the former
+county of Oahu, including the island of Oahu and the small islands
+adjacent, was made a municipal corporation under the name of the "city
+and county of Honolulu"; this act came into effect on the 1st of January
+1909.
+
+
+
+
+HONORIUS, the name of four popes and one antipope (Honorius II; i.e. 2
+below).
+
+1. HONORIUS I., pope from 625 to 638, was of a noble Roman family, his
+father Petronius having been consul. He was very active in carrying on
+the work of Gregory the Great, especially in England; Bede (_Hist.
+Eccl._ ii. 17) gives a letter of his to King Edwin of Northumbria, in
+which he admonishes him diligently to study Gregory's writings; and it
+was at Edwin's request that Honorius conferred the pallium on the
+bishops of Canterbury and York (ib. ii. 18). He also admonished the
+Irish for not following the custom of the Catholic Church in the
+celebration of Easter (ib. ii. 19), and commissioned Birinus to preach
+Christianity in Wessex (ib. iii. 7). It is, however, in connexion with
+the Monothelite heresy that Honorius is most remembered, his attitude in
+this matter having acquired fresh importance during the controversy
+raised by the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility in 1870.
+In his efforts to consolidate the papal power in Italy, Honorius had
+been hampered by the schism of "the three chapters" in Istria and
+Venetia, a schism that was ended by the deposition in 628 of the
+schismatic patriarch Fortunatus of Aquileia-Grado and the elevation of a
+Roman sub-deacon to the patriarchate. It is suggested that help rendered
+to him in this matter by the emperor Heraclius, or by the Greek exarch,
+may have inclined the pope to take the emperor's side in the Monothelite
+controversy, which broke out shortly afterwards in consequence of the
+formula proposed by the emperor with a view to reconciling the
+Monophysites and the Catholics. However that may be, he joined the
+patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria in supporting the doctrine
+of "one will" in Christ, and expounded this view forcibly, if somewhat
+obscurely, in two letters to the patriarch Sergius (Epist. 4 and 5 in
+Migne, _Patrologia. Ser. Lat._ lxxx. 470, 474). For this he was, more
+than forty years after his death (October 638), anathematized by name
+along with the Monothelite heretics by the council of Constantinople
+(First Trullan) in 681; and this condemnation was subsequently confirmed
+by more than one pope, particularly by Leo II. See Hefele, _Die Irrlehre
+des Honorius u. die vaticanische Lehre der Unfehlbarkeit_ (1871), who,
+however, modified his view in his _Conciliengeschichte_ (1877). Honorius
+I. was succeeded by Severinus.
+
+  See the articles by R. Zopffel and G. Kruger in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 1900), and by T. Grisar in Wetzer and Welte's
+  _Kirchenlexikon_ (Freiburg, 1889). In addition to the bibliographies
+  there given see also U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources hist._,
+  &c., Bio-bibliographie, s. "Honorius I." (Paris, 1905).     (W. A. P.)
+
+2. HONORIUS II. (d. 1072), antipope, was the name taken by Peter
+Cadalus, who was born at Verona and became bishop of Parma in 1046.
+After the death of Pope Nicholas II. in July 1061 he was chosen pope by
+some German and Lombard bishops at Basel in opposition to Alexander II.,
+who had been elected by the party led by Hildebrand, afterwards Pope
+Gregory VII. Taking the name of Honorius II., Cadalus was thus the
+representative of those who were opposed to reforms in the Church. Early
+in 1062 he advanced towards Rome, and though his supporters defeated the
+forces of his rival outside the city, he soon returned to Parma to await
+the decision of the advisers of the young German king, Henry IV., whose
+mother Agnes had supported his election. About this time, however, Agnes
+was deprived of her power, and the chief authority in Germany passed to
+Anno, archbishop of Cologne, who was hostile to Cadalus. Under these
+circumstances the antipope again marched towards Rome in 1063 and
+entered the city, but was soon forced to take refuge in the castle of St
+Angelo. The ensuing war between the rival popes lasted for about a year,
+and then Cadalus left Rome as a fugitive. Refusing to attend a council
+held at Mantua in May 1064, he was deposed, and he died in 1072, without
+having abandoned his claim to the papal chair.
+
+  See the article on Honorius II. in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, Band
+  viii. (Leipzig, 1900).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+3. HONORIUS II. (Lamberto Scannabecchi), pope from the 15th of December
+1124 to the 13th of February 1130, a native of Fagnano near Imola, of
+considerable learning and great religious zeal, successively archdeacon
+at Bologna, cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede under Urban II.,
+cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri under Paschal II., shared the
+exile of Gelasius II. in France, and helped Calixtus II. to conclude
+the Concordat of Worms (1122), which settled the investiture contest. He
+owed his election in large measure to force employed by the Frangipani,
+but was consecrated with general consent on the 21st of December 1124.
+By means of a close alliance with that powerful family, he was enabled
+to maintain peace at Rome, and the death of Emperor Henry V. (1125)
+further strengthened the papal position. He recognized the Saxon Lothair
+III. as king of the Romans and later as emperor, and excommunicated his
+rival, Conrad of Hohenstaufen. He sanctioned the Praemonstratensian
+order and that of the Knights Templars. He excommunicated Count William
+of Normandy for marriage in prohibited degree; brought to an end,
+through the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux, the struggle with Louis
+VI. of France; and arranged with Henry I. for the reception of papal
+legates in England. He laid claim as feudal overlord to the Norman
+possessions in southern Italy (July 1127), and excommunicated the
+claimant, Duke Roger of Sicily, but was unable to prevent the foundation
+of the Neapolitan monarchy, for Duke Roger defeated the papal army and
+forced recognition in August 1128. Honorius appealed to Lothair for
+assistance, but died before it arrived. His successor was Innocent II.
+
+  The chief sources for the life of Honorius II. are his "Epistolae et
+  Privilegia," in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 166, and the _Vitae_
+  of Cardinals Pandulf and Boso in J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman.
+  vitae_, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862); also "Codice diplomatico e bollario di
+  Onorio II." in _Fr. Liverani opere_, vol. 4 (Macerata, 1859), and
+  Jaffe-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman_. (1885-1888).
+
+  See J. Langen, _Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
+  Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle
+  Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); H. H.
+  Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol. 4 (London, 1899); Fr. Liverani,
+  "Lamberto da Fiagnano" in _Opere_, vol. 3 (Macerata, 1859); A. Wagner,
+  _Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum 1086-1150_ (Breslau,
+  1885); E. Bernheim, _Zur Geschichte des Wormser Concordats_
+  (Gottingen, 1878); Volkmar, "Das Verhaltnis Lothars III. zur
+  Investiturfrage," in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, vol. 26.
+       (C. H. Ha)
+
+4. HONORIUS III. (Cencio Savelli), pope from the 18th of July 1216 to
+the 18th of March 1227, a highly-educated and pious Roman, successively
+canon of Sta Maria Maggiore, cardinal-deacon of Sta Lucia in Silice,
+vice-chancellor, chamberlain and cardinal-priest of Sti Giovanni e
+Paolo, was the successor of Innocent III. He made peace with Frederick
+II., in accordance with which the emperor was crowned with his wife
+Constance in St Peter's on the 22nd of November 1220, and swore to
+accord full liberty to the church and to undertake a crusade. Honorius
+was eager to carry out the decrees of the Lateran Council of 1215
+against the Albigenses and to further the crusade proclaimed by his
+predecessor. He crowned Peter of Courtenay emperor of Byzantium in April
+1217; espoused the cause of the young Henry III. of England against the
+barons; accepted the Isle of Man as a perpetual fief; arbitrated
+differences between Philip II. of France and James of Aragon; and made
+special ecclesiastical regulations for the Scandinavian countries. He
+sanctioned the Dominican order (22nd of November 1216), making St
+Dominic papal major-domo in 1218; approved the Franciscan order by bull
+of the 29th of November 1223; and authorized many of the tertiary
+orders. He maintained, on the whole, a tranquil rule at Rome; but
+Frederick II.'s refusal to interrupt his reforms in Sicily in order to
+go on the crusade gave the pope much trouble. Honorius died in 1227,
+before the emperor had fulfilled his oath, and was succeeded by Gregory
+IX.
+
+  Honorius III. left many writings which have been collected and
+  published by Abbe Horoy in the _Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica_,
+  vols. i.-ii. (Paris, 1879-1883). Among them are five books of
+  decretals, compiled about 1226; a continuation of the _Liber
+  Pontificalis_; a life of Gregory VII; a coronation form; and a large
+  number of sermons. His most important work is the _Liber censuum
+  Romanae ecclesiae_, written in 1192 and containing a record of the
+  income of the Roman Church and of its relations with secular
+  authorities. The last named is admirably edited by P. Fabre in
+  _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_ (Paris,
+  1892). The letters of Honorius are in F. Liverani, _Spicilegium
+  Liberianum_ (1863). There are good _Regesta_ in Latin and Italian,
+  edited by P. Pressutti (Rome, 1888, &c.).
+
+  See J. Clausen, _Papst Honorius III._ (1895); P. T. Masetti, _I
+  Pontefici Onorio III. ed Innocenzo IV. a fronte dell' Imperatore
+  Federico II. net secolo XIII._ (1884); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the
+  Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
+  1900-1902); K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 5, 2nd ed.;
+  H. H. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol. 5 (London, 1899); T. Frantz,
+  _Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit des
+  Hohenstaufen Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, _Das Papsttum
+  u. Byzanz_ (Berlin, 1903); M. Tangl, _Die papstlichen Kanzleiordungen
+  von 1200-1500_ (Innsbruck, 1894); Caillemer, _Le Pape Honorius III. et
+  le droit civil_ (Lyons, 1881); F. Vernet, _Etudes sur les sermons
+  d'Honorius III._ (Lyons, 1888). There is an excellent article, with
+  exhaustive bibliography, by H. Schulz in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_,
+  3rd edition.     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+5. HONORIUS IV. (Jacopo Savelli), pope from the 2nd of April 1285 to the
+3rd of April 1287, a member of a prominent Roman family and grand-nephew
+of Honorius III., had studied at the university of Paris, been made
+cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin, and succeeded Martin IV.
+Though aged and so crippled that he could not stand alone he displayed
+remarkable energy as pope. He maintained peace in the states of the
+Church and friendly relations with Rudolph of Habsburg, and his policy
+in the Sicilian question was more liberal than that of his predecessor.
+He showed special favours to the mendicant orders and formally
+sanctioned the Carmelites and Augustinian Eremites. He was the first
+pope to employ the great banking houses in northern Italy for the
+collection of papal dues. He died at Rome and was succeeded by Nicholas
+IV.
+
+  See M. Bouquet, _Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France_,
+  new ed., vols. 20-22 (Paris, 1894), for the chief sources; A.
+  Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman_, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); M. Prou,
+  "Les registres d'Honorius IV." in _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises
+  d Athenes et de Rome_ (Paris, 1888); B. Pawlicki, _Papst Honorius IV._
+  (Munster, 1896); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5,
+  trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902).     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+HONORIUS, FLAVIUS (384-423), son of Theodosius I., ascended the throne
+as "emperor of the West" in 395. The history of the first thirteen years
+of the reign of Honorius is inseparably connected with the name of
+Stilicho (q.v.), his guardian and father-in-law. During this period the
+revolt of the African prince Gildo was suppressed (398); Italy was
+successfully defended against Alaric, who was defeated at Pollentia
+(402) and Verona (403); and the barbarian hordes under the Goth
+Radagaisus were destroyed (406). After the downfall and murder of
+Stilicho (408), the result of palace intrigues, the emperor was under
+the control of incompetent favourites. In the same year Rome was
+besieged, and in 410, for the second time in its history, taken and
+sacked by Alaric, who for a short time set up the city prefect Attalus
+as a rival emperor, but soon deposed him as incapable. Alaric died in
+the same year, and in 412 Honorius concluded peace with his
+brother-in-law and successor, Ataulphus (Adolphus), who married the
+emperor's sister Placidia and removed with his troops to southern Gaul.
+A number of usurpers laid claim to the throne, the most important of
+whom was Constantine. In 409 Britain and Armorica declared their
+independence, which was confirmed by Honorius himself, and were thus
+practically lost to the empire. Honorius was one of the feeblest
+emperors who ever occupied the throne, and the dismemberment of the West
+was only temporarily averted by the efforts of Stilicho, and, later, of
+Constantius, a capable general who overthrew the usurpers and was
+rewarded with a share in the government. It was only as a supporter of
+the orthodox church and persecutor of the heathen that Honorius
+displayed any energy. In 399 the exercise of the pagan cult was
+prohibited, and the revenues of the temples, which were to be
+appropriated for the use of the public or pulled down, were confiscated
+to defray the expenses of the army. Honorius was equally severe on
+heretics, such as the Donatists and Manichaeans. He is also to be
+credited with the abolition of the gladiatorial shows in 404 (although
+there is said to be evidence of their existence later), a reduction of
+the taxes, improvements in criminal law, and the reorganization of the
+_defensores civitatum_, municipal officers whose duty it was to defend
+the rights of the people and set forth their grievances. Honorius at
+first established his court at Milan, but, on the report of the
+invasion of Italy, fled to Ravenna, where he resided till his death on
+the 27th of August 423.
+
+  See Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, chs. 28-33; J. B. Bury, _Later Roman
+  Empire_, i. chs. 1-5, ii. chs. 4, 6; E. A. Freeman, "Tyrants of
+  Britain, Gaul and Spain" in _Eng. Hist. Review_ (January 1886); T.
+  Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (Oxford, 1892), i. chs. 13, 15-18.
+
+
+
+
+HONOUR (Lat. _honos_ or _honor_, _honoris_; in English the word was
+spelled with or without the _u_ indifferently until the 17th century,
+but during the 18th century it became fashionable to spell the word
+"honor"; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereotyped the English
+and American spellings respectively), a term which may be defined as
+respect, esteem or deference paid to, or received by, a person in
+consideration of his character, worth or position; also the state or
+condition of the person exciting the feeling or expression of such
+esteem; particularly a high personal character coupled with conduct in
+accordance with or controlled by a nice sense of what is right and true
+and due to the position so held. Further, the word is commonly used of
+the dignities, distinctions or titles, granted as a mark of such esteem
+or as a reward for services or merit, and quite generally of the credit
+or renown conferred by a person or thing on the country, town or
+particular society to which he or it belongs. The standard of conduct
+may be laid down not only by a scrupulous sense of what is due to lofty
+personal character but also by the conventional usages of society, hence
+it is that debts which cannot be legally enforced, such as gambling
+debts, are called "debts of honour." Similarly in the middle ages and
+later, courts, known as "courts of honour," sat to decide questions such
+as precedence, disputes as to coat armour &c. (see CHIVALRY); such
+courts, chiefly military, are found in countries where duelling has not
+fallen into desuetude (see DUEL). In the British House of Lords, when
+the peers sit to try another peer on a criminal charge or at an
+impeachment, on the question being put whether the accused be guilty or
+not, each peer, rising in his place in turn, lays his right hand on his
+breast and returns his verdict "upon my honour." As a title of address,
+"his honour" or "your honour" is applied in the United States of America
+to all judges, in the United Kingdom only to county court judges; in
+university or other examinations, those who have won particular
+distinction, or have undergone with success an examination of a standard
+higher than that required for a "pass" degree, are said to have passed
+"with honours," or an "honours" examination or to have taken an "honours
+degree." In many games of cards the ace, king, queen and knave of trumps
+are the "honours."
+
+Funeral or military honours are paid to a dead officer or soldier. The
+usual features of such a burial are as follows: the coffin is carried on
+a gun-carriage and attended by troops; it is covered by the national
+flag, on which rests the soldier's head-dress, sword or bayonet; if the
+deceased had been a mounted soldier, his charger follows with the boots
+reversed in the stirrups; three volleys are fired over the grave after
+committal, and "last post" or another call is sounded on the bugles or a
+roll on the drums is given.
+
+A military force is said to be accorded "the honours of war" when, after
+a specially honourable defence, it has surrendered its post, and is
+permitted, by the terms of capitulation to march out with colours
+flying, bands playing, bayonets fixed, &c. and retaining possession of
+the field artillery, horses, arms and baggage. The force remains free to
+act as combatants for the remainder of the war, without waiting for
+exchange or being considered as prisoners. Usually some point is named
+to which the surrendering troops must be conveyed before recommencing
+hostilities; thus, during the Peninsular War, at the Convention of
+Cintra 1808, the French army under Junot was conveyed to France by
+British transports before being free to rejoin the combatant troops in
+the Peninsula. By far the most usual case of the granting of the
+"honours of war" is in connexion with the surrender of a fortress. Of
+historic examples may be mentioned the surrender of Lille by Marshal
+Boufflers to Prince Eugene in 1708, that of Huningen by General Joseph
+Barbanegre (1772-1830) to the Austrians in 1815, and that of Belfort by
+Colonel P. Denfert Rochereau to the Germans in 1871.
+
+In English law the term "honour" is used of a seigniory of several
+manors held under one baron or lord paramount. The formation of such
+lordships dates back to the Anglo-Saxon period, when jurisdiction of sac
+and soc was frequently given in the case of a group of estates lying
+close together. The system was encouraged by the Norman lords, as
+tending to strengthen the principles of feudal law, but the legislation
+of Henry II., which increased the power of the central administration,
+undoubtedly tended to discourage the creation of new honours.
+Frequently, they escheated to the crown, retaining their corporate
+existence and their jurisdictions; they then either remained in the
+possession of the king or were regranted, diminished in extent. Although
+an honour contained several manors, one court day was held for all, but
+the various manors retained their separate organizations, having their
+"quasi several and distinct courts."
+
+
+
+
+HONOURABLE (Fr. _honorable_, from Lat. _honorabilis_, worthy of honour),
+a style or title of honour common to the United Kingdom, the British
+colonies and the United States of America. The terms _honorabilis_ and
+_honorabilitas_ were in use in the middle ages rather as a form of
+politeness than as a stereotyped style; and though Gibbon assimilates
+the late Roman title of _clarissimus_ to "honourable," as applied to the
+lowest of the three grades of rank in the imperial hierarchy, the
+analogy was good even in his day only in so far as both styles were
+applicable to those who belonged to the less exalted ranks of the titled
+classes, for the title "honourable" was not definitely confined to
+certain classes until later. As a formal address it is found frequently
+in the _Paston Letters_ (15th century), but used loosely and
+interchangeable with other styles; thus John, Viscount Beaumont, is
+addressed alternately as "my worshipful and reverent Lord" (ii. 88, ed.
+1904) and as "my right honorabull Lord" (ii. 118), while John Paston, a
+plain esquire, is "my right honurabyll maister." More than two centuries
+later Selden, in his _Titles of Honor_ (1672), does not include
+"honourable" among the courtesy titles given to the children of peers.
+The style was, in fact, used extremely loosely till well on into the
+18th century. Thus we find in the registers of Westminster Abbey records
+of the burial (in 1710) of "The Hon. George Churchill, Esq.," who was
+only a son of Sir Winston Churchill, and of "The Hon. Sir William
+Godolphin," who had only been created a baronet; in 1717 was buried "The
+Hon. Colonel Henry Cornwall," who was only an esquire and the son of
+one; in 1743 a rear-admiral was buried as "The Hon. Sir John Jennings,
+Kt."; in 1746 "The Hon. Major-General Lowther," whose father was only a
+Dublin merchant; and finally, in 1747, "The Hon. Lieutenant-General
+Guest," who is said to have begun life as an hostler. From this time
+onwards the style of "honourable" tended to become more narrowly
+applied; but the whole matter is full of obscurity and contradictions.
+The baronets, for instance, allege that they were usually styled "the
+honourable" until the end of the 18th century, and in 1835 they
+petitioned for the style as a prefix to their names. The Heralds'
+College officially reported on the petition (31st of October 1835) that
+the evidence did not prove the right of baronets to the style, and that
+its use "has been no more warranted by authority than when the same
+style has been applied to Field Officers in the Army and others." They
+added that "the style of the Honourable is given to the _Judges_ and to
+the _Barons of the Exchequer_ with others because by the Decree of 10
+James I., for settling the place and precedence of the Baronets, the
+Judges and Barons of the Exchequer were declared to have place and
+precedence before the younger sons of Viscounts and Barons." This seems
+to make the style a consequence of the precedence; yet from the examples
+above given it is clear that it was applied, e.g. in the case of field
+officers, where no question of precedence arose. It is not, indeed,
+until 1874 that we have any evidence of an authoritative limitation of
+the title. In this year the wives of lords of appeal, life peers, were
+granted style and precedence as baronesses; but it was provided that
+their children were not "to assume or use the prefix of Honourable, or
+to be entitled to the style, rank or precedence of the children of a
+Baron." In 1898, however, this was revoked, and it was ordained "that
+such children shall have and enjoy on all occasions the style and title
+enjoyed by the children of hereditary Barons together with the rank and
+precedence, &c." By these acts of the Crown the prefix of "honourable"
+would seem to have been restricted and stereotyped as a definite title
+of honour; yet in legal documents the sons of peers are still styled
+merely "esquire," with the addition of "commonly called, &c." This
+latter fact points to the time when the prefix "honourable" was a mark
+of deference paid by others rather than a style assumed by right, and
+relics of this doubtless survive in the United Kingdom in the
+conventions by which an "honourable" does not use the title on his
+visiting card and is not announced as such.
+
+As to the actual use and social significance of the style, the practice
+in the United Kingdom differs considerably from that in the colonies or
+in the United States. In the United Kingdom marquesses are "most
+honourable"; earls, viscounts and barons "right honourable," a style
+also borne by all privy councillors, including the lord mayor of London
+and lord provost of Edinburgh during office. The title of "honourable"
+is in the United Kingdom, except by special licence of the Crown (e.g.
+in the case of retired colonial or Indian officials), mainly confined to
+the sons and daughters of peers, and is the common style of the younger
+sons of earls and of the children of viscounts, barons and legal life
+peers. The eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls bear "by courtesy"
+their father's second title, the younger sons of dukes and marquesses
+having the courtesy title Lord prefixed to their Christian name; while
+the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls are styled Lady. The title
+of "honourable" is also given to all present or past maids of honour,
+and to the judges of the high court being lords justices or lords of
+appeal (who are "right honourable"). A county court judge is, however,
+"his honour." The epithet is also applied to the House of Commons as a
+body and to individual members during debate ("the honourable member for
+X."). Certain other corporate bodies have, by tradition or grant, the
+right to bear the style; e.g. the Honourable Irish Society, the Inns of
+Court (Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, &c.) and the Honourable
+Artillery Company; the East India Company also had the prefix
+"honourable." The style may not be assumed by corporate bodies at will,
+as was proved, in the case of the Society of Baronets, whose original
+style of "Honourable" Society was dropped by command.
+
+In the British colonies the title "honourable" is given to members of
+the executive and legislative bodies, to judges, &c., during their term
+of service. It is sometimes retained by royal licence after a certain
+number of years' service.
+
+In the United States of America the title is very widespread, being
+commonly given to any one who holds or has held any office of importance
+in state or nation, more particularly to members of Congress or of the
+state legislatures, judges, justices, and certain other judicial and
+executive officials. Popular amenity even sometimes extends the title to
+holders of quite humble government appointments, and consoles with it
+the defeated candidates for a post. See also the article PRECEDENCE.
+
+
+
+
+HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON (1701-1790), German historian and
+theologian, was born on the 27th of January 1701 at Trier. He belonged
+to a noble family which had been for many generations connected with the
+court and diocese of the archbishop-electors, his father, Kaspar von
+Hontheim, being receiver-general of the archdiocese. At the age of
+twelve young Hontheim was given by his maternal uncle, Hugo Friedrich
+von Anethan, canon of the collegiate church of St Simeon (which at that
+time still occupied the Roman Porta Nigra at Trier), a prebend in his
+church, and on the 13th of May 1713 he received the tonsure. He was
+educated by the Jesuits at Trier and at the universities of Trier,
+Louvain and Leiden, taking his degree of doctor of laws at Trier in
+1724. During the following years he travelled in various European
+countries, spending some time at the German College in Rome; in 1728 he
+was ordained priest and, formally admitted to the chapter of St Simeon
+in 1732, he became a professor at the university of Trier. In 1738 he
+went to Coblenz as official to the archbishop-elector. In this capacity
+he had plentiful opportunity of studying the effect of the interference
+of the Roman Curia in the internal affairs of the Empire, notably in the
+negotiations that preceded the elections of the emperors Charles VII.
+and Francis I. in which Hontheim took part as assistant to the electoral
+ambassador. It appears that it was the extreme claims of the papal
+nuncio on these occasions and his interference in the affairs of the
+electoral college that first suggested to Hontheim that critical
+examination of the basis of the papal pretensions, the results of which
+he afterwards published to the world under the pseudonym of "Febronius."
+In 1747, broken down by overwork, he resigned his position as official
+and retired to St Simeon's, of which he was elected dean in the
+following year. In May 1748 he was appointed by the archbishop-elector
+Francis George (von Schonborn) as his suffragan, being consecrated at
+Mainz, in February 1749, under the title of bishop of Myriophiri _in
+partibus_. The archbishop of Trier was practically a great secular
+prince, and upon Hontheim as suffragan and vicar-general fell the whole
+spiritual administration of the diocese; this work, in addition to that
+of pro-chancellor of the university, he carried on single-handed until
+1778, when Jean Marie Cuohot d'Herbain was appointed his coadjutor. On
+the 21st of April 1779 he resigned the deanery of St Simeon's on the
+ground of old age. He died on the 2nd of September 1790 at his chateau
+at Montquentin near Orval, an estate which he had purchased. He was
+buried at first in St Simeon's; but the church was ruined by the French
+during the revolutionary wars and never restored, and in 1803 the body
+of Hontheim was transferred to that of St Gervasius.
+
+As a historian Hontheim's reputation rests on his contributions to the
+history of Trier. He had, during the period of his activity as official
+at Coblenz, found time to collect a vast mass of printed and MS.
+material which he afterwards embodied in three works on the history of
+Trier. Of these the _Historia Trevirensis diplomatica et pragmatica_ was
+published in 3 vols. folio in 1750, the _Prodromus historiae
+Trevirensis_ in 2 vols. in 1757. They give, besides a history of Trier
+and its constitution, a large number of documents and references to
+published authorities. A third work, the _Historiae scriptorum et
+monumentarum Trevirensis amplissima collectio_, remains in MS. at the
+city library of Trier. These books, the result of an enormous labour in
+collation and selection in very unfavourable circumstances, entitle
+Hontheim to the fame of a pioneer in modern historical methods. It is,
+however, as "Febronius" that Hontheim is best remembered. The character
+and effect of his book on "the state of the Church and the lawful power
+of the Roman pontiff" is described elsewhere (see FEBRONIANISM). The
+author of the book was known at Rome almost as soon as it was published;
+but it was not till some years afterwards (1778) that he was called on
+to retract. The terrors of the spiritual power were reinforced by a
+threat of the archbishop-elector to deprive not only him but all his
+relations of their offices, and Hontheim, after much wavering and
+correspondence, signed a submission which was accepted at Rome as
+satisfactory, though he still refused to admit, as demanded, _ut proinde
+merito monarchicum ecclesiae regimen a catholicis doctoribus
+appelletur_. The removal of the censure followed (1781) when Hontheim
+published at Frankfort what purported to be a proof that his submission
+had been made of his own free will (_Justini Febronii acti commentarius
+in suam retractationem_, &c.). This book, however, which carefully
+avoided all the most burning questions, rather tended to show--as indeed
+his correspondence proves--that Hontheim had not essentially shifted his
+standpoint. But Rome left him thenceforth in peace.
+
+  See Otto Mejer, _Febronius, Weihbischof Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim
+  und sein Widerruf_ (Tubingen, 1880), with many original letters. Of
+  later date is the biography by F. X. Kraus in the _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_ (1881), which gives numerous references.
+
+
+
+
+HONTHORST, GERARD VAN (1590-1656), Dutch painter of Utrecht, was brought
+up at the school of Bloemart, who exchanged the style of the Franckens
+for that of the pseudo-Italians at the beginning of the 16th century.
+Infected thus early with a mania which came to be very general in
+Holland, Honthorst went to Italy, where he copied the naturalism and
+eccentricities of Michelangelo da Caravaggio. Home again about 1614,
+after acquiring a considerable practice in Rome, he set up a school at
+Utrecht which flourished exceedingly; and he soon became so fashionable
+that Sir Dudley Carleton, then English envoy at the Hague, recommended
+his works to the earl of Arundel and Lord Dorchester. At the same time
+the queen of Bohemia, sister of Charles I. and electress palatine, being
+an exile in Holland, gave him her countenance and asked him to teach her
+children drawing; and Honthorst, thus approved and courted, became known
+to Charles I., who invited him to England. There he painted several
+portraits, and a vast allegory, now at Hampton Court, of Charles and his
+queen as Diana and Apollo in the clouds receiving the duke of Buckingham
+as Mercury and guardian of the king of Bohemia's children. Charles I.,
+whose taste was flattered alike by the energy of Rubens and the elegance
+of Van Dyck, was thus first captivated by the fanciful mediocrity of
+Honthorst, who though a poor executant had luckily for himself caught,
+as Lord Arundel said, "much of the manner of Caravaggio's colouring,
+then so much esteemed at Rome." It was his habit to transmute every
+subject into a night scene, from the Nativity, for which there was
+warrant in the example of Correggio, to the penitence of the Magdalen,
+for which there was no warrant at all. But unhappily this caprice,
+though "sublime in Allegri and Rembrandt," was but a phantasm in the
+hands of Honthorst, whose prosaic pencil was not capable of more than
+vulgar utterances, and art gained little from the repetition of these
+quaint vagaries. Sandrart gave the measure of Honthorst's popularity at
+this period when he says that he had as many as twenty apprentices at
+one time, each of whom paid him a fee of 100 florins a year. In 1623 he
+was president of his gild at Utrecht. After that he went to England,
+returning to settle anew at Utrecht, where he married. His position
+amongst artists was acknowledged to be important, and in 1626 he
+received a visit from Rubens, whom he painted as the honest man sought
+for and found by Diogenes Honthorst. In his home at Utrecht Honthorst
+succeeded in preserving the support of the English monarch, for whom he
+finished in 1631 a large picture of the king and queen of Bohemia "and
+all their children." For Lord Dorchester about the same period he
+completed some illustrations of the _Odyssey_; for the king of Denmark
+he composed incidents of Danish history, of which one example remains in
+the gallery of Copenhagen. In the course of a large practice he had
+painted many likenesses--Charles I. and his queen, the duke of
+Buckingham, and the king and queen of Bohemia. He now became court
+painter to the princess of Orange, settled (1637) at the Hague, and
+painted in succession at the Castle of Ryswick and the House in the
+Wood. The time not consumed in producing pictures was devoted to
+portraits. Even now his works are very numerous, and amply represented
+in English and Continental galleries. His most attractive pieces are
+those in which he cultivates the style of Caravaggio, those, namely,
+which represent taverns, with players, singers and eaters. He shows
+great skill in reproducing scenes illuminated by a single candle. But he
+seems to have studied too much in dark rooms, where the subtleties of
+flesh colour are lost in the dusky smoothness and uniform redness of
+tints procurable from farthing dips. Of great interest still, though
+rather sharp in outline and hard in modelling, are his portraits of the
+Duke of Buckingham and Family (Hampton Court), the King and Queen of
+Bohemia (Hanover and Combe Abbey), Mary de Medici (Amsterdam town-hall),
+1628, the Stadtholders and their Wives (Amsterdam and Hague), Charles
+Louis and Rupert, Charles I.'s nephews (Louvre, St Petersburg, Combe
+Abbey and Willin), and Lord Craven (National Portrait Gallery). His
+early form may be judged by a Lute-player (1614) at the Louvre, the
+Martyrdom of St John in S. M. della Scala at Rome, or the Liberation of
+Peter in the Berlin Museum; his latest style is that of the House in the
+Wood (1648), where he appears to disadvantage by the side of Jordaens
+and others.
+
+Honthorst was succeeded by his brother William, born at Utrecht in 1604,
+who died, it is said, in 1666. He lived chiefly in his native place,
+temporarily at Berlin. But he has left little behind except a portrait
+at Amsterdam, and likenesses in the Berlin Museum of William and Mary of
+England.
+
+
+
+
+HOOCH, PIETER DE (1629-?1678), Dutch painter, was born in 1629, and died
+in Amsterdam probably shortly after 1677. He was a native of Rotterdam,
+and wandered early to Haarlem and the Hague. In 1654 we find him again
+at Rotterdam, where in that year he married a girl of Delft, Jannetje
+van der Burch. From 1655 to 1657 he was a member of the painter's gild
+of Delft, but after that date we have no traces of his doings until
+about 1668, when his presence is recorded in Amsterdam. His dated
+pictures prove that he was still alive in 1677, but his death followed
+probably soon after this year. De Hooch is one of the kindliest and most
+charming painters of homely subjects that Holland has produced. He seems
+to have been born at the same time and taught in the same school as van
+der Meer and Maes. All three are disciples of the school of Rembrandt.
+Houbraken mentions Nicolas Berchem as De Hooch's teacher. De Hooch only
+once painted a canvas of large size, and that unfortunately perished in
+a fire at Rotterdam in 1864. But his small pieces display perfect finish
+and dexterity of hand, combined with great power of discrimination.
+Though he sometimes paints open-air scenes, these are not his favourite
+subjects. He is most at home in interiors illuminated by different
+lights, with the radiance of the day, in different intensities, seen
+through doors and windows. He thus brings together the most delicate
+varieties of tone, and produces chords that vibrate with harmony. The
+themes which he illustrates are thoroughly suited to his purpose.
+Sometimes he chooses the drawing-room where dames and cavaliers dance,
+or dine, or sing; sometimes--mostly indeed--he prefers cottages or
+courtyards, where the housewives tend their children or superintend the
+labours of the cook. Satin and gold are as familiar to him as camlet and
+fur; and there is no article of furniture in a Dutch house of the middle
+class that he does not paint with pleasure. What distinguishes him most
+besides subtle suggestiveness is the serenity of his pictures. One of
+his most charming was the canvas formerly in the Ashburton collection,
+now burnt, where an old lady with a dish of apples walks with a child
+along a street bounded by a high wall, above which gables and a church
+steeple are seen, while the sun radiates joyfully over the whole. Fine
+in another way is the "Mug of Beer" in the Amsterdam Museum, an interior
+with a woman coming out of a pantry and giving a measure of beer to a
+little girl. The light flows in here from a small closed window; but
+through the door to the right we look into a drawing-room, and through
+the open sash of that room we see the open air. The three lights are
+managed with supreme cunning. Beautiful for its illumination again is
+the "Music Party," with its contending indoor and outdoor lights, a gem
+in the late A. Thieme collection at Leipzig. More subtly suggestive, in
+the museum of Berlin, is the "Mother seated near a Cradle." "A Card
+Party," dated 1658, at Buckingham Palace, is a good example of De
+Hooch's drawing-room scenes, counterpart as to date and value of a
+"Woman and Child" in the National Gallery, and the "Smoking Party,"
+formerly in Lord Enfield's collection. Another very fine example is the
+"Interior" with two women, bought by Sir Julius Wernher. Other pictures
+later in the master's career are--the "Lady and Child in a Courtyard,"
+of 1665, in the National Gallery, and the "Lady receiving a Letter," of
+1670, in the Amsterdam Museum (Van der Hoop collection).
+
+  It is possible to bring together over 250 examples of De Hooch. There
+  are three at St Petersburg, three in Buckingham Palace, three in the
+  National Gallery, two in the Wallace Collection, six in the Amsterdam
+  Museum, some in the Louvre and at Munich and Darmstadt; many others
+  are in private galleries in England. For England was the first country
+  to recognize the merit of De Hooch who only began to be valued in
+  Holland in the middle of the 18th century. A celebrated picture at
+  Amsterdam, sold for 450 florins in 1765, fetched 4000 in 1817, and in
+  1876 the Berlin Museum gave L5400 for a De Hooch at the Schneider
+  sale--"A Dutch Dwelling-room" (820 B).
+
+  See Hofstede de Groot's _Catalogue raisonne_, vol. i., London, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831-1879), American soldier, lieut.-general of the
+Confederate army, was born at Owingsville, Kentucky, in 1831, and
+graduated from West Point military academy in 1853. As an officer of the
+2nd U.S. cavalry (Colonel Sidney Johnston) he saw service against
+Indians, and later he was cavalry instructor at West Point. He resigned
+from the U.S. service in 1861, and became a colonel in the Confederate
+army. He was soon promoted brigadier-general, and at the battle of
+Gaines's Mill, where he was wounded, won the brevet of major-general for
+his gallant conduct. With the famous, "Texas brigade" of the Army of
+Northern Virginia he served throughout the campaign of 1862. At
+Gettysburg he commanded one of the divisions of Longstreet's corps,
+receiving a wound which disabled his arm. With Longstreet he was
+transferred in the autumn of 1863 to the Army of Tennessee. At the
+battle of Chickamauga (September 19th, 20th) Hood was severely wounded
+again and his leg was amputated, but after six months he returned to
+duty undaunted. He remained with the Army of Tennessee as a corps
+commander, and when the general dissatisfaction with the Fabian policy
+of General J. E. Johnston brought about the removal of that officer,
+Hood was put in his place with the temporary rank of general. He had won
+a great reputation as a fighting general, and it was with the distinct
+understanding that battles were to be fought that he was placed at the
+head of the Army of Tennessee. But in spite of skill and courage he was
+uniformly unsuccessful in the battles around Atlanta. In the end he had
+to abandon the place, but he forthwith sought to attack Sherman in
+another direction, and finally invaded Tennessee. His march was pushed
+with the greatest energy, but he failed to draw the main body of the
+enemy after him, and, while Sherman with a picked force made his "March
+to the Sea," Thomas collected an army to oppose Hood. A severe battle
+was fought at Franklin on the 30th of November, and finally Hood was
+defeated and his army almost annihilated in the battle of Nashville. He
+was then relieved at his own request (January 23rd, 1865). After the war
+he was engaged in business in New Orleans, where he died of yellow fever
+on the 30th of August 1879. His experiences in the Civil War are
+narrated in his _Advance and Retreat_ (New Orleans, 1880). Hood's
+reputation as a bold and energetic leader was well deserved, though his
+reckless vigour proved but a poor substitute for Johnston's careful
+husbanding of his strength at this declining stage of the Confederacy.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724-1816), British admiral, was the son of
+Samuel Hood, vicar of Butleigh in Somerset, and prebendary of Wells. He
+was born on the 12th of December 1724, and entered the navy on the 6th of
+May 1741. He served part of his time as midshipman with Rodney in the
+"Ludlow," and became lieutenant in 1746. He was fortunate in serving
+under active officers, and had opportunities of seeing service in the
+North Sea. In 1753 he was made commander of the "Jamaica" sloop, and
+served in her on the North American station. In 1756, while still on the
+North American station, he attained to post rank. In 1757, while in
+temporary command of the "Antelope" (50), he drove a French ship ashore
+in Audierne Bay, and captured two privateers. His zeal attracted the
+favourable notice of the Admiralty and he was appointed to a ship of his
+own. In 1759, when captain of the "Vestal" (32), he captured the French
+"Bellona" (32) after a sharp action. During the war his services were
+wholly in the Channel, and he was engaged under Rodney in 1759 in
+destroying the vessels collected by the French to serve as transports in
+the proposed invasion of England. In 1778 he accepted a command which in
+the ordinary course would have terminated his active career. He became
+commissioner of the dockyard at Portsmouth and governor of the Naval
+Academy. These posts were generally given to officers who were retiring
+from the sea. In 1780, on the occasion of the king's visit to
+Portsmouth, he was made a baronet. The circumstances of the time were
+not ordinary. Many admirals declined to serve under Lord Sandwich, and
+Rodney, who then commanded in the West Indies, had complained of want of
+proper support from his subordinates, whom he accused of disaffection.
+The Admiralty was naturally anxious to secure the services of trustworthy
+flag officers, and having confidence in Hood promoted him rear-admiral
+out of the usual course on the 26th of September 1780, and sent him to
+the West Indies to act as second in command under Rodney, to whom he was
+personally known. He joined Rodney in January 1781, and remained in the
+West Indies or on the coast of North America till the close of the War of
+American Independence. The calculation that he would work harmoniously
+with Rodney was not altogether justified by the results. The
+correspondence of the two shows that they were far from being on cordial
+personal terms with one another, but Hood always discharged his duty
+punctually, and his capacity was so great, and so signally proved, that
+no question of removing him from the station ever arose. The unfortunate
+turn taken by the campaign of 1781 was largely due to Rodney's neglect of
+his advice. If he had been allowed to choose his own position there can
+be no doubt that he could have prevented the comte de Grasse (1722-1788)
+from reaching Fort Royal with the reinforcements from France in April
+(see RODNEY, LORD). When the fleet went on to the coast of North America
+during the hurricane months of 1781 he was sent to serve with Admiral
+Graves (1725?-1802) in the unsuccessful effort to relieve the army at
+Yorktown. But his subordinate rank gave him no chance to impart a greater
+measure of energy to the naval operations. When, however, he returned to
+the West Indies he was for a time in independent command owing to
+Rodney's absence in England for the sake of his health. The French
+admiral, the comte de Grasse, attacked the British islands of St Kitts
+and Nevis with a much superior force to the squadron under Hood's
+command. The attempt Hood made in January 1782 to save them from capture,
+with 22 ships to 29, was not successful, but the series of bold movements
+by which he first turned the French out of their anchorage at the Basse
+Terre of St Kitts, and then beat off the attacks of the enemy, were the
+most brilliant things done by any British admiral during the war. He was
+made an Irish peer for his share in the defeat of the comte de Grasse on
+the 9th and 12th of April near Dominica. During the peace he entered
+parliament as member for Westminster in the fiercely contested election
+of 1784, was promoted vice-admiral in 1787, and in July of 1788 was
+appointed to the Board of Admiralty under the second earl of Chatham. On
+the outbreak of the revolutionary war he was sent to the Mediterranean as
+commander-in-chief. His period of command, which lasted from May 1793 to
+October 1794, was very busy. In August he occupied Toulon on the
+invitation of the French royalists, and in co-operation with the
+Spaniards. In December of the same year the allies, who did not work
+harmoniously together, were driven out, mainly by the generalship of
+Napoleon. Hood now turned to the occupation of Corsica, which he had been
+invited to take in the name of the king of England by Paoli. The island
+was for a short time added to the dominions of George III., chiefly by
+the exertions of the fleet and the co-operation of Paoli. While the
+occupation of Corsica was being effected, the French at Toulon had so far
+recovered that they were able to send a fleet to sea. In June Hood sailed
+in the hope of bringing it to action. The plan which he laid to attack it
+in the Golfe Jouan in June may possibly have served to some extent as an
+inspiration, if not as a model, to Nelson for the battle of the Nile, but
+the wind was unfavourable, and the attack could not be carried out. In
+October he was recalled to England in consequence of some
+misunderstanding with the admiralty, or the ministry, which has never
+been explained. He had attained the rank of full admiral in April of
+1794. He held no further command at sea, but in 1796 he was named
+governor of Greenwich Hospital, a post which he held till his death on
+the 27th of January 1816. A peerage of Great Britain was conferred on his
+wife as Baroness Hood of Catherington in 1795, and he was himself
+created Viscount Hood of Whitley in 1796. The titles descended to his
+son, Henry (1753-1836), the ancestor of the present Viscount Hood. There
+are several portraits of Lord Hood by Abbot in the Guildhall and in the
+National Portrait Gallery. He was also painted by Reynolds and
+Gainsborough.
+
+  There is no good life of Lord Hood, but a biographical notice of him
+  by M'Arthur, his secretary during the Mediterranean command, is in the
+  _Naval Chronicle_, vol. ii. Charnock's _Biogr. Nav._ vi., Ralfe, _Nav.
+  Biog._ i., may also be consulted. His correspondence during his
+  command in America has been published by the Navy Record Society. The
+  history of his campaigns will be found in the historians of the wars
+  in which he served: for the earlier years, Beatson's _Naval and
+  Military Memoirs_; for the later, James's _Naval History_, vol. i.,
+  for the English side, and for the French, Troudes, _Batailles navales
+  de la France_, ii. and iii., and Chevalier's _Histoire de la marine
+  francaise pendant la guerre de l'independance americaine and Pendant
+  la Republique_.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814), British vice-admiral, cousin of Lord Hood
+and of Lord Bridport, entered the Royal Navy in 1776. His first
+engagement was the battle off Ushant in 1778, and, soon afterwards
+transferred to the West Indies, he was present, under the command of his
+cousin Sir Samuel Hood, at all the actions which culminated in Rodney's
+victory of April 12th, 1782. After the peace, like many other British
+naval officers, he spent some time in France, and on his return to
+England was given the command of a sloop, from which he proceeded in
+succession to various frigates. In the "Juno" his gallant rescue of some
+shipwrecked seamen won him a vote of thanks and a sword of honour from
+the Jamaica assembly. Early in 1793 the "Juno" went to the Mediterranean
+under Lord Hood, and her captain distinguished himself by an audacious
+feat of coolness and seamanship in extricating his vessel from the
+harbour of Toulon, which he had entered in ignorance of Lord Hood's
+withdrawal. Soon afterwards he was put in command of a frigate squadron
+for the protection of Levantine commerce, and in 1797 he was given the
+"Zealous" (74), in which he was present at Nelson's unsuccessful attack
+on Santa Cruz. It was Captain Hood who conducted the negotiations which
+relieved the squadron from the consequences of its failure. The part
+played by the "Zealous" at the battle of the Nile was brilliant. Her
+first opponent she put out of action in twelve minutes, and, passing on,
+Hood immediately engaged other ships, the "Guerrier" being left
+powerless to fire a shot. When Nelson left the coast of Egypt, Hood
+commanded the blockading force off Alexandria and Rosetta. Later he
+rejoined Nelson on the coast of the two Sicilies, receiving for his
+services the order of St Ferdinand.
+
+In the "Venerable" Hood was present at the action of Algesiras and the
+battle in the Straits of Gibraltar (1801). In the Straits his ship
+suffered heavily, losing 130 officers and men. A year later Captain Hood
+was employed in Trinidad as a commissioner, and, upon the death of the
+flag officer commanding the Leeward station, he succeeded him as
+Commodore. Island after island fell to him, and soon, outside
+Martinique, the French had scarcely a foothold in the West Indies.
+Amongst other measures taken by Hood may be mentioned the garrisoning of
+Diamond Rock, which he commissioned as a sloop-of-war to blockade the
+approaches of Martinique (see James, _Naval History_, iii, 245). For
+these successes he received, amongst other rewards, the K.B. In command
+next of the squadron blockading Rochefort, Sir Samuel Hood had a sharp
+fight, on 25th September 1805, with a small French squadron which was
+trying to escape. Amongst the few casualties on this occasion was the
+Commodore, who lost an arm. Promoted rear-admiral a few days after this
+action, Hood was in 1807 entrusted with the operations against Madeira,
+which he brought to a successful conclusion, and a year later went to
+the Baltic, with his flag in the "Centaur," to take part in the war
+between Russia and Sweden. In one of the actions of this war the
+"Centaur" and "Implacable," unsupported by the Swedish ships (which lay
+to leeward), cut out the Russian 80-gun ship "Sevolod" from the enemy's
+line and, after a desperate fight, forced her to strike. The king of
+Sweden rewarded the admiral with the Grand Cross of the Order of the
+Sword. Present in the roads of Corunna at the re-embarkation of the army
+of Sir John Moore, Hood thence returned to the Mediterranean, where for
+two years he commanded a division of the British fleet. In 1811 he
+became vice-admiral. In his last command, that of the East Indies
+station, he carried out many salutary reforms, especially in matters of
+discipline and victualling. He died at Madras, 24th December 1814. A
+lofty column was raised to his memory on a hill near Butleigh,
+Somersetshire, and in Butleigh Church is another memorial, with an
+inscription written by Southey.
+
+  See _Naval Chronicle_, xvii. 1 (the material was furnished by Hood
+  himself; it does not go beyond 1806).
+
+His elder brother, Captain ALEXANDER HOOD (1758-1798), entered the Royal
+Navy in 1767, and accompanied Captain Cook in his second voyage round
+the world. Under Howe and Rodney he distinguished himself in the West
+Indies, and at the victory of April 12th, 1782, he was in command of one
+of Rodney's frigates. Under Sir Samuel Hood he then proceeded to the
+Mona passage, where he captured the French corvette "Ceres." With the
+commander of his prize, the Baron de Peroy, Hood became very intimate,
+and during the peace he paid a long visit to France as his late
+prisoner's guest. In the early part of the Revolutionary war, ill health
+kept him at home, and it was not until 1797 that he went afloat again.
+His first experience was bitter; his ship, the "Mars," was unenviably
+prominent in the mutiny at Spithead. On April 21st, 1798, occurred the
+famous duel of the "Mars" with the "Hercule," fought in the dusk near
+the Bec du Raz. The two ships were of equal force, but the "Hercule" was
+newly commissioned, and after over an hour's fighting at close quarters
+she struck her flag, having lost over three hundred men. The captain of
+the "Mars" was mortally wounded early in the fight, and died as the
+sword of the French captain was being put in his hand. The latter,
+L'Heritier, also died of his wounds.
+
+  See _Naval Chronicle_, vi. 175; Ralfe, _Naval Biographies_, iv. 48;
+  James, _Naval History_, and Chevalier, _Hist. de la marine francaise
+  sous la premiere republique_.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845), British humorist and poet, the son of Thomas
+Hood, bookseller, was born in London on the 23rd of May 1799. "Next to
+being a citizen of the world," writes Thomas Hood in his _Literary
+Reminiscences_, "it must be the best thing to be born a citizen of the
+world's greatest city." On the death of her husband in 1811 Mrs Hood
+removed to Islington, where Thomas Hood had a schoolmaster who
+appreciated his talents, and, as he says, "made him feel it impossible
+not to take an interest in learning while he seemed so interested in
+teaching." Under the care of this "decayed dominie," whom he has so
+affectionately recorded, he earned a few guineas--his first literary
+fee--by revising for the press a new edition of _Paul and Virginia_.
+Admitted soon after into the counting-house of a friend of his family,
+he "turned his stool into a Pegasus on three legs, every foot, of
+course, being a dactyl or a spondee"; but the uncongenial profession
+affected his health, which was never strong, and he was transferred to
+the care of his father's relations at Dundee. There he led a healthy
+outdoor life, and also became a large and indiscriminate reader, and
+before long contributed humorous and poetical articles to the provincial
+newspapers and magazines. As a proof of the seriousness with which he
+regarded the literary vocation, it may be mentioned that he used to
+write out his poems in printed characters, believing that that process
+best enabled him to understand his own peculiarities and faults, and
+probably unconscious that Coleridge had recommended some such method of
+criticism when he said he thought "print settles it." On his return to
+London in 1818 he applied himself assiduously to the art of engraving,
+in which he acquired a skill that in after years became a most valuable
+assistant to his literary labours, and enabled him to illustrate his
+various humours and fancies by a profusion of quaint devices, which not
+only repeated to the eye the impressions of the text, but, by suggesting
+amusing analogies and contrasts, added considerably to the sense and
+effect of the work.
+
+In 1821 Mr John Scott, the editor of the _London Magazine_, was killed
+in a duel, and that periodical passed into the hands of some friends of
+Hood, who proposed to make him sub-editor. His installation into this
+congenial post at once introduced him to the best literary society of
+the time; and in becoming the associate of Charles Lamb, Cary, de
+Quincey, Allan Cunningham, Proctor, Talfourd, Hartley Coleridge, the
+peasant-poet Clare and other contributors to the magazine, he gradually
+developed his own intellectual powers, and enjoyed that happy
+intercourse with superior minds for which his cordial and genial
+character was so well adapted, and which he has described in his best
+manner in several chapters of _Hood's Own_. He had married in 1825, and
+_Odes and Addresses_--his first work--was written in conjunction with
+his brother-in-law Mr J. H. Reynolds, the friend of Keats. S. T.
+Coleridge wrote to Charles Lamb averring that the book must be his work.
+_The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies_ (1827) and a dramatic romance,
+Lamia, published later, belong to this time. _The Plea of the Midsummer
+Fairies_ was a volume of serious verse, in which Hood showed himself a
+by no means despicable follower of Keats. But he was known as a
+humorist, and the public, which had learned to expect jokes from him,
+rejected this little book almost entirely. There was much true poetry in
+the verse, and much sound sense and keen observation in the prose of
+these works; but the poetical feeling and lyrical facility of the one,
+and the more solid qualities of the other, seemed best employed when
+they were subservient to his rapid wit, and to the ingenious
+coruscations of his fancy. This impression was confirmed by the series
+of the _Comic Annual_, dating from 1830, a kind of publication at that
+time popular, which Hood undertook and continued, almost unassisted, for
+several years. Under that somewhat frivolous title he treated all the
+leading events of the day in a fine spirit of caricature, entirely free
+from grossness and vulgarity, without a trait of personal malice, and
+with an under-current of true sympathy and honest purpose that will
+preserve these papers, like the sketches of Hogarth, long after the
+events and manners they illustrate have passed from the minds of men.
+But just as the agreeable jester rose into the earnest satirist, one of
+the most striking peculiarities of his style became a more manifest
+defect. The attention of the reader was distracted, and his good taste
+annoyed, by the incessant use of puns, of which Hood had written in his
+own vindication:--
+
+  "However critics may take offence,
+   A double meaning has double sense."
+
+Now it is true that the critic must be unconscious of some of the
+subtlest charms and nicest delicacies of language who would exclude from
+humorous writing all those impressions and surprises which depend on the
+use of the diverse sense of words. The history, indeed, of many a word
+lies hid in its equivocal uses; and it in no way derogates from the
+dignity of the highest poetry to gain strength and variety from the
+ingenious application of the same sounds to different senses, any more
+than from the contrivances of rhythm or the accompaniment of imitative
+sounds. But when this habit becomes the characteristic of any wit, it is
+impossible to prevent it from degenerating into occasional buffoonery,
+and from supplying a cheap and ready resource, whenever the true vein of
+humour becomes thin or rare. Artists have been known to use the left
+hand in the hope of checking the fatal facility which practice had
+conferred on the right; and if Hood had been able to place under some
+restraint the curious and complex machinery of words and syllables which
+his fancy was incessantly producing, his style would have been a great
+gainer, and much real earnestness of object, which now lies confused by
+the brilliant kaleidoscope of language, would have remained definite and
+clear. He was probably not unconscious of this danger; for, as he gained
+experience as a writer, his diction became more simple, and his
+ludicrous illustrations less frequent. In another annual called the
+_Gem_ appeared the poem on the story of "Eugene Aram," which first
+manifested the full extent of that poetical vigour which seemed to
+advance just in proportion as his physical health declined. He started a
+magazine in his own name, for which he secured the assistance of many
+literary men of reputation and authority, but which was mainly sustained
+by his own intellectual activity. From a sick-bed, from which he never
+rose, he conducted this work with surprising energy, and there composed
+those poems, too few in number, but immortal in the English language,
+such as the "Song of the Shirt" (which appeared anonymously in the
+Christmas number of _Punch_, 1843), the "Bridge of Sighs" and the "Song
+of the Labourer," which seized the deep human interests of the time, and
+transported them from the ground of social philosophy into the loftier
+domain of the imagination. They are no clamorous expressions of anger at
+the discrepancies and contrasts of humanity, but plain, solemn pictures
+of conditions of life, which neither the politician nor the moralist can
+deny to exist, and which they are imperatively called upon to remedy.
+Woman, in her wasted life, in her hurried death, here stands appealing
+to the society that degrades her, with a combination of eloquence and
+poetry, of forms of art at once instantaneous and permanent, and with
+great metrical energy and variety.
+
+Hood was associated with the _Athenaeum_, started in 1828 by J. Silk
+Buckingham, and he was a regular contributor for the rest of his life.
+Prolonged illness brought on straitened circumstances; and application
+was made to Sir Robert Peel to place Hood's name on the pension list
+with which the British state so moderately rewards the national services
+of literary men. This was done without delay, and the pension was
+continued to his wife and family after his death, which occurred on the
+3rd of May 1845. Nine years after a monument, raised by public
+subscription, in the cemetery of Kensal Green, was inaugurated by
+Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) with a concourse of spectators that
+showed how well the memory of the poet stood the test of time. Artisans
+came from a great distance to view and honour the image of the popular
+writer whose best efforts had been dedicated to the cause and the
+sufferings of the workers of the world; and literary men of all opinions
+gathered round the grave of one of their brethren whose writings were at
+once the delight of every boy and the instruction of every man who read
+them. Happy the humorist whose works and life are an illustration of the
+great moral truth that the sense of humour is the just balance of all
+the faculties of man, the best security against the pride of knowledge
+and the conceits of the imagination, the strongest inducement to submit
+with a wise and pious patience to the vicissitudes of human existence.
+This was the lesson that Thomas Hood left behind him. (H.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The list of Hood's separately published works is as
+  follows: _Odes and Addresses to Great People_ (1825); _Whims and
+  Oddities_ (two series, 1826 and 1827); _The Plea of the Midsummer
+  Fairies, Hero and Leander, Lycus the Centaur and other Poems_ (1827),
+  his only collection of serious verse; _The Dream of Eugene Aram, the
+  Murderer_ (1831); _Tylney Hall_, a novel (3 vols., 1834); _The Comic
+  Annual_ (1830-1842); _Hood's Own; or, Laughter from Year to Year_
+  (1838, second series, 1861); _Up the Rhine_ (1840); _Hood's Magazine
+  and Comic Miscellany_ (1844-1848); _National Tales_ (2 vols., 1837), a
+  collection of short novelettes; _Whimsicalities_ (1844), with
+  illustrations from Leech's designs; and many contributions to
+  contemporary periodicals.
+
+  The chief sources of his biography are: _Memorials of Thomas Hood,
+  collected, arranged and edited by his daughter_ (1860); his "Literary
+  Reminiscences" in _Hood's Own_; Alexander Elliot, _Hood in Scotland_
+  (1885). See also the memoir of Hood's friend C. W. Dilke, by his
+  grandson Sir Charles Dilke, prefixed to _Papers of a Critic_; and M.
+  H. Spielmann's _History of Punch_. There is an excellent edition of
+  the _Poems of Thomas Hood_ (2 vols., 1897), with a biographical
+  introduction of great interest by Canon Alfred Ainger.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, TOM (1835-1874), English humorist, son of the poet Thomas Hood,
+was born at Lake House, Wanstead, Essex, on the 19th of January 1835.
+After attending University College School and Louth Grammar School he
+entered Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1853, where he passed all the
+examinations for the degree of B.A., but did not graduate. At Oxford he
+wrote his _Farewell to the Swallows_ (1853) and _Pen and Pencil
+Pictures_ (1857). He began to write for the _Liskeard Gazette_ in 1856,
+and edited that paper in 1858-1859. He then obtained a position in the
+War Office, which he filled for five years, leaving in 1865 to become
+editor of _Fun_, the comic paper, which became very popular under his
+direction. In 1867 he first issued _Tom Hood's Comic Annual_. In 1861
+had appeared _The Daughters of King Daker, and other Poems_, after which
+he published in conjunction with his sister, Frances Freeling Broderip,
+a number of amusing books for children. His serious novels, of which
+_Captain Masters's Children_ (1865) is the best, were not so successful.
+Hood drew with considerable facility, among his illustrations being
+those of several of his father's comic verses. In private life his
+geniality and sincere friendliness secured him the affection and esteem
+of a wide circle of acquaintance. He died on the 20th of November 1874.
+
+  A memoir by his sister, F. F. Broderip, is prefixed to the edition of
+  his poems published in 1877.
+
+
+
+
+HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR WILLIAM ACLAND HOOD, BARON (1824-1901), English
+admiral, born on the 14th of July 1824, was the younger son of Sir
+Alexander Hood of St Andries, Somerset, 2nd baronet, and grandson of
+Captain Alexander Hood, R.N., who, when in command of the "Mars," fell
+in action with the French 74-gun ship "Hercule," 21st of April 1798. At
+the age of twelve Hood entered the navy, and whilst still a boy saw
+active service on the north coast of Spain, and afterwards on the coast
+of Syria. After passing through the established course of gunnery on
+board the "Excellent" in 1844-1845, he went out to the Cape of Good Hope
+as gunnery mate of the "President," the flagship of Rear-Admiral Dacres,
+by whom, on the 9th of January 1846, he was promoted to be lieutenant.
+As gunnery lieutenant he continued in the "President" till 1849; and in
+the following year he was appointed to the "Arethusa" frigate, then
+commissioned for the Mediterranean by Captain Symonds, afterwards the
+well-known admiral of the fleet. The outbreak of the Russian war made
+the commission a very long one; and on the 27th of November 1854 Hood
+was promoted to be commander in recognition of his service with the
+naval brigade before Sebastopol. In 1855 he married Fanny Henrietta,
+daughter of Sir C. F. Maclean. In 1856 he commissioned the "Acorn" brig
+for the China station, and arrived in time to take part in the
+destruction of the junks in Fatshan creek on the 1st of June 1857, and
+in the capture of Canton in the following December, for which, in
+February 1858, he received a post-captain's commission. From 1862 to
+1866 he commanded, the "Pylades" on the North American station, and was
+then appointed to the command of the "Excellent" and the government of
+the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth. This was essentially a gunnery
+appointment, and on the expiration of three years Hood was made Director
+of Naval Ordnance. He was thoroughly acquainted with the routine work of
+the office and the established armament of the navy, but he had not the
+power of adapting himself to the changes which were being called for,
+and still less of initiating them; so that during his period of office
+the armament of the ships remained sadly behind the general advance. In
+June 1874 he was appointed to the command of the "Monarch" in the
+Channel Fleet, from which he was relieved in March 1876 by his promotion
+to flag rank. From 1877 to 1879 he was a junior lord of the Admiralty,
+and from 1880 to 1882 he commanded the Channel Fleet, becoming
+vice-admiral on 23rd July 1880. In June 1885 he was appointed first sea
+lord of the Admiralty. The intense conservatism of his character,
+however, and his antagonistic attitude towards every change, regardless
+of whether it was necessary or not, had much to do with the alarming
+state of the navy towards 1889. In that year, on attaining the age of
+sixty-five, he was placed on the retired list and resigned his post at
+the Admiralty. After two years of continued ill-health, he died on the
+15th of November 1901, and was buried at Butleigh on the 23rd. He had
+been promoted to the rank of admiral on the 18th of January 1886; was
+made K.C.B, in December 1885; G.C.B. in September 1889; and in February
+1892 was raised to the peerage as Lord Hood of Avalon, but on his death
+the title became extinct.     (J. K. L.)
+
+
+
+
+HOOD, a covering for the head. The word is in O. Eng. _hod_, cognate
+with Dutch _hoed_ and Ger. _Hut_, hat, both masculine; "hood" and "hat"
+are distantly related; they may be connected with the feminine _hoed_ or
+_Hut_, meaning charge, care, Eng. "heed." Some form of hood as a loose
+covering easily drawn on or off the head has formed a natural part of
+outdoor costume both for men and women at all times and in all quarters
+of the globe where climatic conditions called for it. In the middle ages
+and later both men and women are found wearing it, but with men it
+tended to be superseded by the hat before it became merely an occasional
+and additional head-covering in time of bad weather or in particularly
+rigorous climates. For illustrations and examples of the hood as worn by
+men and women in medieval and later times see the article COSTUME; for
+the hood or cowl as part of the dress of a religious see COWL, and as
+forming a distinctive mark of degree in academic costume see Robes. The
+word is applied to many objects resembling a hood in function or shape,
+such as a folding cover for a carriage to protect the occupants from
+rain or wind, the belled covering for the head of a hawk trained for
+falconry, the endmost planks in a ship's bottom at bow or stern, and, in
+botany and zoology, certain parts of a flower or of the neck of an
+animal which in arrangement of structure or of colour recall this
+article of dress.
+
+In architecture a "hood-mould" is a projecting moulding carried outside
+the arch of a door or window; it is weathered underneath, and when
+continued horizontally is better known as a dripstone. The ends of the
+hood-mould are generally stopped on a corbel, plain or carved with heads
+in European churches, but in those of central Syria terminating in
+scrolls. Although in its origin the object of the projecting and
+weathered hood-mould was to protect the face of the wall below from
+rain, it gives more importance to, and emphasizes, the arch-moulds, so
+that it is often employed decoratively inside churches.
+
+  The suffix "-hood," like the cognate "-head," was originally a
+  substantive meaning rank, status or quality, and was constantly used
+  in combination with other substantives; cf. in O. Eng. _cild-hod_,
+  child-hood; later it ceased to be used separately and became a mere
+  suffix denoting condition added to adjectives; cf. "falsehood," as
+  well as to substantives.
+
+
+
+
+HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN (1581-1647), Dutch poet and historian, was
+born at Amsterdam on the 16th of March 1581. His father was one of the
+leading citizens of Holland, both in politics and in the patronage of
+letters, and for some time burgomaster of Amsterdam. As early as 1598
+the young man was made a member of the chamber of rhetoric _In Liefde
+bloeiende_, and produced before that body his tragedy of _Achilles and
+Polyxena_, not printed until 1614. In June 1598 he left Holland and
+proceeded to Paris, where on the 10th of April 1599 he saw the body of
+Gabrielle d'Estrees lying in state. He went a few months later to
+Venice, Florence and Rome, and in 1600 to Naples. During his Italian
+sojourn he made a deep and fruitful study of the best literature of
+Italy. In July 1600 he sent home to the _In Liefde bloeiende_ a very
+fine letter in verse, expressing his aspirations for the development of
+Dutch poetry. He returned through Germany, and after an absence of three
+years and a half found himself in Amsterdam again on the 8th of May
+1601. In 1602 he brought out his second tragedy, _Theseus and Ariadne_,
+printed at Amsterdam in 1614. In 1605 he completed his beautiful
+pastoral drama _Granida_, not published until 1615. He studied law and
+history at Leiden from 1606 to 1609, and in June of the latter year
+received from Prince Maurice of Orange the appointment of steward of
+Muiden, bailiff of Gooiland, and lord of Weesp, a joint office of great
+emolument. He occupied himself with repairing and adorning the decayed
+castle of Muiden, which was his residence during the remainder of his
+life. There he entertained the poet Vondel, the scholar Barlaeus,[1]
+Constantin Huygens, Vossius, Laurens Reael and others. Hooft had been a
+suitor for the hand of Anna Roemer Visscher, and after the death of
+Roemer Visscher both the sisters visited Muiden. Anna's sympathies were
+in time diverted to the school of Jacob Cats, but Marie Tesselschade
+maintained close ties with Hooft, who revised her translation of Tasso.
+In August 1610 he married Christina van Erp, an accomplished lady who
+died in 1623, and four years later he married Eleonora Hellemans. In
+1612 Hooft produced his national tragedy of _Geeraerdt van Velzen_ (pr.
+1613), a story of the reign of Count Floris V. In 1614 was performed at
+Coster's academy Hooft's comedy of _Ware-nar_, an adaptation of the
+_Aulularia_ of Plautus, first printed in 1617. In 1616 he wrote another
+tragedy, _Baeto, or the Origin of the Dutch_, not printed until 1626. It
+was in 1618 that he abandoned poetry for history, and in 1626 he
+published the first of his great prose works, the _History of Henry the
+Great_ (Henry IV. of France). His next production was his _Miseries of
+the Princes of the House of Medici_ (Amsterdam, 1638). In 1642 he
+published at Amsterdam a folio comprising the first twenty books of his
+_Dutch History_, embracing the period from 1555 to 1585, a magnificent
+performance, to the perfecting of which he had given fifteen years of
+labour. The seven concluding books were published posthumously in 1654.
+His idea of history was gained from Tacitus, whose works he translated.
+Hooft died on a visit to the Hague, whither he had gone to attend the
+funeral of Prince Frederick Henry, on the 21st of May 1647, and was
+buried in the New Church at Amsterdam.
+
+Hooft is one of the most brilliant figures that adorn Dutch literature
+at its best period. He was the first writer to introduce a modern and
+European tone into belles lettres, and the first to refresh the sources
+of native thought from the springs of antique and Renaissance poetry.
+His lyrics and his pastoral of _Granida_ are strongly marked by the
+influence of Tasso and Sannazaro; his later tragedies belong more
+exactly to the familiar tone of his native country. But high as Hooft
+stands among the Dutch poets, he stands higher--he holds perhaps the
+highest place--among writers of Dutch prose. His historical style has
+won the warmest eulogy from so temperate a critic as Motley, and his
+letters are the most charming ever published in the Dutch language.
+After Vondel, he may on the whole be considered the most considerable
+author that Holland has produced.
+
+  Hooft's poetical and dramatic works were collected in two volumes
+  (1871, 1875) by P. Leendertz. His letters were edited by B. Huydecoper
+  (Leiden, 1738) and by van Vloten (Leiden, 4 vols., 1855). The best
+  original account of Hooft is given by G. Bradt in his _Leven van P. C.
+  Hooft_ (1677), and his funeral address (1647), edited together by J.
+  C. Matthes (Groningen, 1874). There is an account of the Muiden circle
+  in Edmund Gosse's _Literatures of Northern Europe_. Many editions
+  exist of his prose works.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Kaspar van Baerle (1584-1648), professor of rhetoric at
+    Amsterdam, and famous as a Latin poet.
+
+
+
+
+HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN, Dutch painter, was born, it is said, in
+1627 at the Hague, and died at Dort on the 19th of October 1678. This
+artist, who was first a pupil of his father, lived at the Hague and at
+Dort till about 1640, when on the death of Dirk Hoogstraten he changed
+his residence to Amsterdam and entered the school of Rembrandt. A short
+time afterwards he started as a master and painter of portraits, set out
+on a round of travels which took him (1651) to Vienna, Rome and London,
+and finally retired to Dort, where he married in 1656, and held an
+appointment as "provost of the mint." Hoogstraten's works are scarce;
+but a sufficient number of them has been preserved to show that he
+strove to imitate different styles at different times. In a portrait
+dated 1645 in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna he imitates
+Rembrandt; and he continues in this vein as late as 1653, when he
+produced that wonderful figure of a Jew looking out of a casement, which
+is one of the most characteristic examples of his manner in the
+Belvedere at Vienna. A view of the Vienna Hofburg, dated 1652, in the
+same gallery displays his skill as a painter of architecture, whilst in
+a piece at the Hague representing a Lady Reading a Letter as she crosses
+a Courtyard, or a Lady Consulting a Doctor, in the Van der Hoop Museum
+at Amsterdam, he imitates de Hooch. One of his latest works is a
+portrait of Mathys van den Brouck, dated 1670, in the gallery of
+Amsterdam. The scarcity of Hoogstraten's pictures is probably due to his
+versatility. Besides directing a mint, he devoted some time to literary
+labours, wrote a book on the theory of painting (1678) and composed
+sonnets and a tragedy. We are indebted to him for some of the familiar
+sayings of Rembrandt. He was an etcher too, and some of his plates are
+still preserved. His portrait, engraved by himself at the age of fifty,
+still exists.
+
+
+
+
+HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907), English painter, was born in London on
+the 21st of November 1819. His father, James Hook, a Northumbrian by
+descent, Judge Arbitrator of Sierra Leone, married the second daughter of
+Dr Adam Clarke, the commentator on the Bible, who gave to the painter his
+second name. Young Hook's first taste of the sea was on board the Berwick
+smacks which took him on his way to Wooler. He drew with rare facility,
+and determined to become an artist; and accordingly, without any
+supervision, he set to work for more than a year in the sculpture
+galleries of the British Museum. In 1836 he was admitted a student of the
+Royal Academy, where he worked for three years, and elsewhere learned a
+good deal of the scientific technique of painting from a nephew of Opie.
+His first picture, called "The Hard Task," was exhibited in 1837, and
+represented a girl helping her sister with a lesson. Unusual facility in
+portraiture and a desire to earn his own living took the student into
+Ireland to paint likenesses of the Waterford family and others; here he
+produced landscapes of the Vale of Avoca, and much developed his taste
+for pastoral art; later, he was similarly engaged in Kent and
+Somersetshire. In 1842 his second exhibited work was a portrait of
+"Master J. Finch Smith": in this year he gained silver medals at the
+Royal Academy, and in 1843 he was one of the competitors in the
+exhibition of cartoons in Westminster Hall, with a 10 by 7 ft. design of
+"Satan in Paradise." In 1844 the Academy contained a picture of a kind
+with which his name was long associated, an illustration of the
+_Decameron_, called "Pamphilius relating his Story," a meadow scene in
+bright light, with sumptuous ladies, richly clad, reclining on the grass.
+The British Institution, 1844 and 1845, set forth two of Hook's idylls,
+subjects taken from Shakespeare and Burns, which, with the above, showed
+him to be cultivating those veins of romantic sentiment and the
+picturesque which were then in vogue, but in a characteristically fresh
+and vigorous manner. "The Song of Olden Times" (Royal Academy, 1845)
+marked the artist's future path distinctly in most technical respects. It
+was in this year Hook won the Academy gold medal for an oil picture of
+"The Finding the Body of Harold." The travelling studentship in painting
+was awarded to him for "Rizpah watching the Dead Sons of Saul" in 1846;
+and he went for three years to Italy, having married Miss Rosalie Burton
+before he left England. Hook passed through Paris, worked diligently for
+some time in the Louvre, traversed Switzerland, and, though he stayed
+only part of three years in Italy, gained much from studies of Titian,
+Tintoret, Carpaccio, Mansueti and other Venetians. Their influence
+thenceforth dominated the coloration of his pictures, and enabled him to
+apply the principles to which they had attained to the representation (as
+Bonington before him had done) of romantic subjects and to those English
+themes of the land and sea with which the name of the artist is
+inseparably associated. "A Dream of Ancient Venice" (R.A., 1848)--the
+first fruit of these Italian studies--"Bayard of Brescia" (R.A., 1849),
+"Venice" (B.I., 1849) and other works assured for Hook the Associateship
+of the Royal Academy in 1851. Soon afterwards an incomparable series of
+English subjects was begun, in many pastorals and fine brilliant idylls
+of the sea and rocks. "A Rest by the Wayside" and "A Few Minutes to Wait
+before Twelve o'clock" proved his title to appear, in 1854, as a new and
+original painter. After these came "A Signal on the Horizon" (1857), "A
+Widow's Son going to Sea," "The Ship-boy's Letter," "Children's Children
+are the Crown of Old Men," "A Coast-boy gathering Eggs," a scene at
+Lundy; the perfect "Luff, Boy!" (1859), about which Ruskin broke into a
+dithyrambic chant, "The Brook," "Stand Clear!" "O Well for the
+Fisherman's Boy!" (1860), "Leaving Cornwall for the Whitby Fishing," "Sea
+Urchins," and a score more as fine as these. The artist was elected a
+full Academician on the 6th of March 1860, in the place of James Ward. He
+died on the 14th of April 1907.
+
+  See A. H. Palmer, "J. C. Hook, R.A.," _Portfolio_ (1888); F. G.
+  Stephens, "J. C. Hook, Royal Academician: His Life and Work," _Art
+  Annual_ (London, 1888); P. G. Hamerton, _Etching and Etchers_ (London,
+  1877).
+
+
+
+
+HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841), English author, was born in London on
+the 22nd of September 1788. He spent a year at Harrow, and subsequently
+matriculated at Oxford, but he never actually resided at the university.
+His father, James Hook (1746-1827), the composer of numerous popular
+songs, took great delight in exhibiting the boy's extraordinary musical
+and metrical gifts, and the precocious Theodore became "the little pet
+lion of the green room." At the age of sixteen, in conjunction with his
+father, he scored a dramatic success with _The Soldier's Return_, a
+comic opera, and this he rapidly followed up with a series of over a
+dozen sparkling ventures, the instant popularity of which was hardly
+dependent on the inimitable acting of John Liston and Charles Mathews.
+But Hook gave himself up for some ten of the best years of his life to
+the pleasures of the town, winning a foremost place in the world of
+fashion by his matchless powers of improvisation and mimicry, and
+startling the public by the audacity of his practical jokes. His unique
+gift of improvising the words and the music of songs eventually charmed
+the prince Regent into a declaration that "something must be done for
+Hook." The prince was as good as his word, and Hook, in spite of a total
+ignorance of accounts, was appointed accountant-general and treasurer of
+the Mauritius with a salary of L2000 a year. For five delightful years
+he was the life and soul of the island, but in 1817, a serious
+deficiency having been discovered in the treasury accounts, he was
+arrested and brought to England on a criminal charge. A sum of about
+L12,000 had been abstracted by a deputy official, and for this amount
+Hook was held responsible.
+
+During the tardy scrutiny of the audit board he lived obscurely and
+maintained himself by writing for magazines and newspapers. In 1820 he
+launched the newspaper _John Bull_, the champion of high Toryism and the
+virulent detractor of Queen Caroline. Witty, incisive criticism and
+pitiless invective secured it a large circulation, and from this source
+alone Hook derived, for the first year at least, an income of L2000. He
+was, however, arrested for the second time on account of his debt to the
+state, which he made no effort to defray. In a sponging-house, where he
+was confined for two years, he wrote the nine volumes of stories
+afterwards collected under the title of _Sayings and Doings_
+(1826-1829). In the remaining twenty-three years of his life he poured
+forth no fewer than thirty-eight volumes, besides numberless articles,
+squibs and sketches. His novels are not works of enduring interest, but
+they are saved from mediocrity by frequent passages of racy narrative
+and vivid portraiture. The best are _Maxwell_ (1830), _Love and Pride_
+(1833), the autobiographic _Gilbert Gurney_ (1836), _Jack Brag_ (1837),
+_Gurney Married_ (1838), and _Peregrine Bunce_ (1842). Incessant work
+had already begun to tell on his health, when Hook returned to his old
+social habits, and a prolonged attempt to combine industry and
+dissipation resulted in the confession that he was "done up in purse, in
+mind and in body too at last." He died on the 24th of August 1841. His
+writings in great part are of a purely ephemeral character; and the
+greatest triumphs of the improvisatore may be said to have been writ in
+wine. Putting aside, however, his claim to literary greatness, Hook will
+be remembered as one of the most brilliant, genial and original figures
+of Georgian times.
+
+  See the Rev. R. H. D. Barham's _Life and Remains of Hook_ (3rd ed.,
+  1877); and an article by J. G. Lockhart in the _Quarterly Review_ (May
+  1843).
+
+
+
+
+HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875), English divine, nephew of the witty
+Theodore, was born in London on the 13th of March 1798. Educated at
+Tiverton and Winchester, he graduated at Oxford (Christ Church) in 1821,
+and after holding an incumbency in Coventry, 1829-1837, and in Leeds,
+1837-1859, was nominated dean of Chichester by Lord Derby. He received
+the degree of D.D. in 1837. His friendship towards the Tractarians
+exposed him to considerable persecution, but his simple manly character
+and zealous devotion to parochial work gained him the support of widely
+divergent classes. His stay in Leeds was marked by vigorous and
+far-reaching church extension, and his views on education were far in
+advance of his time. Among his many writings are _An Ecclesiastical
+Biography, containing the Lives of Ancient Fathers and Modern Divines_
+(8 vols., 1845-1852), _A Church Dictionary, The Means of Rendering more
+Effectual the Education of the People, The Cross of Christ_ (1873), _The
+Church and its Ordinances_ (sermons, 4 vols., 1876), and _Lives of the
+Archbishops of Canterbury_ (12 vols., 1860-1876). He died on the 20th of
+October 1875.
+
+  See _Life and Letters of Dean Hook_, by his son-in-law, W. R. W.
+  Stephens (2 vols., 1878).
+
+
+
+
+HOOKAH (the English spelling of the Persian and Hindustani _huqqu_, an
+adaptation of the Arabic _huqqah_, a vase or casket, and by transference
+a pipe for smoking, probably derived from the Arabie _huqq_, a hollow
+place), a pipe with a long flexible tube attached to a large bowl
+containing water, often scented, and resting upon a tripod or stand. The
+smoke of the tobacco is made to pass through the water in the bowl, and
+is thus cooled before reaching the smoker. The _narghile_ of India is in
+principle the same as that of the hookah; the word is derived from
+_nargil_, an Indian name for the coco-nut tree, as when the _narghile_
+was first made the water was placed in a coco-nut. This receptacle is
+now often made of porcelain, glass or metal. In the _hubble-bubble_ the
+pipe is so contrived that the water in the bowl makes a bubbling noise
+while the pipe is being smoked. This pipe is common in India, Egypt and
+the East generally.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKE, ROBERT (1635-1703), English experimental philosopher, was born on
+the 18th of July 1635 at Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, where his
+father, John Hooke, was minister of the parish. After working for a
+short time with Sir Peter Lely, he went to Westminster school; and in
+1653 he entered Christ Church, Oxford, as servitor. After 1655 he was
+employed and patronized by the Hon. Robert Boyle, who turned his skill
+to account in the construction of his air-pump. On the 12th of November
+1662 he was appointed curator of experiments to the Royal Society, of
+which he was elected a fellow in 1663, and filled the office during the
+remainder of his life. In 1664 Sir John Cutler instituted for his
+benefit a mechanical lectureship of L50 a year, and in the following
+year he was nominated professor of geometry in Gresham College, where he
+subsequently resided. After the Great Fire of 1666 he constructed a
+model for the rebuilding of this city, which was highly approved,
+although the design of Sir C. Wren was preferred. During the progress of
+the works, however, he acted as surveyor, and accumulated in that
+lucrative employment a sum of several thousand pounds, discovered after
+his death in an old iron chest, which had evidently lain unopened for
+above thirty years. He fulfilled the duties of secretary to the Royal
+Society during five years after the death of Henry Oldenburg in 1677,
+publishing in 1681-1682 the papers read before that body under the title
+of _Philosophical Collections_. A protracted controversy with Johann
+Hevelius, in which Hooke urged the advantages of telescopic over plain
+sights, brought him little but discredit. His reasons were good; but his
+offensive style of argument rendered them unpalatable and himself
+unpopular. Many circumstances concurred to embitter the latter years of
+his life. The death, in 1687, of his niece, Mrs Grace Hooke, who had
+lived with him for many years, caused him deep affliction; a law-suit
+with Sir John Cutler about his salary (decided, however, in his favour
+in 1696) occasioned him prolonged anxiety; and the repeated anticipation
+of his discoveries inspired him with a morbid jealousy. Marks of public
+respect were not indeed wanting to him. A degree of M.D. was conferred
+on him at Doctors' Commons in 1691, and the Royal Society made him, in
+1696, a grant to enable him to complete his philosophical inventions.
+While engaged on this task he died, worn out with disease, on the 3rd of
+March 1703 in London, and was buried in St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate
+Street.
+
+In personal appearance Hooke made but a sorry show. His figure was
+crooked, his limbs shrunken; his hair hung in dishevelled locks over his
+haggard countenance. His temper was irritable, his habits penurious and
+solitary. He was, however, blameless in morals and reverent in religion.
+His scientific achievements would probably have been more striking if
+they had been less varied. He originated much, but perfected little. His
+optical investigations led him to adopt in an imperfect form the
+undulatory theory of light, to anticipate the doctrine of interference,
+and to observe, independently of though subsequently to F. M. Grimaldi
+(1618-1663), the phenomenon of diffraction. He was the first to state
+clearly that the motions of the heavenly bodies must be regarded as a
+mechanical problem, and he approached in a remarkable manner the
+discovery of universal gravitation. He invented the wheel barometer,
+discussed the application of barometrical indications to meteorological
+forecasting, suggested a system of optical telegraphy, anticipated E. F.
+F. Chladni's experiment of strewing a vibrating bell with flour,
+investigated the nature of sound and the function of the air in
+respiration and combustion, and originated the idea of using the
+pendulum as a measure of gravity. He is credited with the invention of
+the anchor escapement for clocks, and also with the application of
+spiral springs to the balances of watches, together with the explanation
+of their action by the principle _Ut tensio sic vis_ (1676).
+
+  His principal writings are _Micrographia_ (1664); _Lectiones
+  Cutlerianae_ (1674-1679); and _Posthumous Works_, containing a sketch
+  of his "Philosophical Algebra," published by R. Waller in 1705.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814-1879), American general, was born in Hadley,
+Massachusetts, on the 13th of November 1814. He was educated at the
+military academy at West Point (1833-1837), and on graduating entered
+the 1st U.S. Artillery. In the war with Mexico (1846-48) he served as a
+staff officer, and rose by successive brevets for meritorious services
+to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1853 he left the service and
+bought a large farm near Sonoma, Cal., which he managed successfully
+till 1858, when he was made superintendent of military roads in Oregon.
+Upon the opening of hostilities in the Civil War of 1861-65, he
+sacrificed his fine estate and offered his sword to the Federal
+Government. He was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers on the
+17th of May 1861 and major-general on the 5th of May 1862. The
+engagement of Williamsburg (May 5th) brought him and his subordinate
+Hancock into prominence, and Hooker received the soubriquet of "Fighting
+Joe." He was engaged at the battle of Fair Oaks, and did splendid
+service to the Union army during the "Seven Days." In the campaign of
+Northern Virginia, under General Pope (August 1862), he led his division
+with fiery energy at Bristoe Station, Manassas and Chantilly. In the
+Maryland campaign (September) he was at the head of the I. corps, Army
+of the Potomac, forced the defile of South Mountain and opened the way
+for the advance of the army. The I. corps opened the great battle of the
+Antietam, and sustained a sanguinary fight with the Confederates under
+Stonewall Jackson. Hooker himself was severely wounded. He was
+commissioned brigadier-general in the United States army on the 20th of
+September 1862, and in the battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.), under
+Burnside, he commanded the centre grand division (III. and V. corps). He
+had protested against the useless slaughter of his men on that
+disastrous field, and when Burnside resigned the command Hooker
+succeeded him. The new leader effected a much-needed re-organization in
+the army, which had fought many battles without success. In this task,
+as in subordinate commands in battle, Hooker was excelled by few. But
+his grave defects as a commander-in-chief were soon to be obvious. By a
+well-planned and well-executed flanking movement, he placed himself on
+the enemy's flank, but at the decisive moment he checked the advance of
+his troops. Lee turned upon him, Jackson surprised and destroyed a whole
+army corps, and the battle of Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS), in
+which Hooker was himself disabled, ended in a retreat to the old
+position. Yet Hooker had not entirely forfeited the confidence of his
+men, to whom he was still "Fighting Joe." The second advance of Lee into
+Union territory, which led to the battle of Gettysburg, was strenuously
+resisted by Hooker, who would have inflicted a heavy blow on Lee's
+scattered forces had he not been condemned to inaction by orders from
+Washington. Even then Hooker followed the Confederates a day only behind
+them, until, finding himself distrusted and forbidden to control the
+movements of troops within the sphere of operations, he resigned the
+command on the eve of the battle (June 28, 1863). Faults of temper and
+an excessive sense of responsibility made his continued occupation of
+the command impossible, but when after a signal defeat Rosecrans was
+besieged in Chattanooga, and Grant with all the forces of the West was
+hurried to the rescue, two corps of the Army of the Potomac were sent
+over by rail, and Hooker, who was at least one of the finest fighting
+generals of the service, went with them in command. He fought and won
+the "Battle above the Clouds" on Lookout Mountain which cleared the way
+for the crowning victory of the army of the Cumberland on Missionary
+Ridge (see CHATTANOOGA). And in command of the same corps (consolidated
+as the XX. corps) he took part in all the battles and combats of the
+Atlanta campaign of 1864. When General McPherson was killed before
+Atlanta, the command of Grant's old Army of the Tennessee fell vacant.
+Hooker, who, though only a corps commander, was senior to the other army
+commanders, Thomas and Schofield, was normally entitled to receive it,
+but General Sherman feared to commit a whole army to the guidance of a
+man of Hooker's peculiar temperament, and the place was given to Howard.
+Hooker thereupon left the army. He was commissioned brevet-major-general
+in the United States army on the 13th of March 1865, and retired from
+active service with the full rank of major-general on the 15th of
+October 1868, in consequence of a paralytic seizure. The last years of
+his life were passed in the neighbourhood of New York. He died at Garden
+City, Long Island, on the 31st of October 1879.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817-   ), English botanist and traveller,
+second son of the famous botanist Sir W. J. Hooker, was born on the 30th
+of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow
+University, and almost immediately after taking his M.D. degree there in
+1839 joined Sir James Ross's Antarctic expedition, receiving a
+commission as assistant-surgeon on the "Erebus." The botanical fruits of
+the three years he thus spent in the Southern Seas were the _Flora
+Antarctica_, _Flora Novae Zelandiae_ and _Flora Tasmanica_, which he
+published on his return. His next expedition was to the northern
+frontiers of India (1847-1851), and the expenses in this case also were
+partially defrayed by the government. The party had its full share of
+adventure. Hooker and his friend Dr Campbell were detained in prison for
+some time by the raja of Sikkim, but nevertheless they were able to
+bring back important results, both geographical and botanical. Their
+survey of hitherto unexplored regions was published by the Calcutta
+Trigonometrical Survey Office, and their botanical observations formed
+the basis of elaborate works on the rhododendrons of the Sikkim Himalaya
+and on the flora of India. Among other journeys undertaken by Hooker may
+be mentioned those to Palestine (1860), Morocco (1871), and the United
+States (1877), all yielding valuable scientific information. In the
+midst of all this travelling in foreign countries he quickly built up
+for himself a high scientific reputation at home. In 1855 he was
+appointed assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and in 1865 he succeeded
+his father as full director, holding the post for twenty years. At the
+early age of thirty he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in
+1873 he was chosen its president; he received three of its medals--a
+Royal in 1854, the Copley in 1887 and the Darwin in 1892. He acted as
+president of the British Association at its Norwich meeting of 1868,
+when his address was remarkable for its championship of Darwinian
+theories. Of Darwin, indeed, he was an early friend and supporter: it
+was he who, with Lyell, first induced Darwin to make his views public,
+and the author of _The Origin of Species_ has recorded his indebtedness
+to Hooker's wide knowledge and balanced judgment. Sir Joseph Hooker is
+the author of numerous scientific papers and monographs, and his larger
+books include, in addition to those already mentioned, a standard
+_Student's Flora of the British Isles_ and a monumental work, the
+_Genera plantarum_, based on the collections at Kew, in which he had the
+assistance of Bentham. On the publication of the last part of his _Flora
+of British India_ in 1897 he was created G.C.S.I., of which order he had
+been made a knight commander twenty years before; and twenty years
+later, on attaining the age of ninety, he was awarded the Order of
+Merit.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600), English writer, author of the _Laws of
+Ecclesiastical Polity_, son of Richard Vowell or Hooker, was born at
+Heavitree, near the city of Exeter, about the end of 1553 or beginning
+of 1554. Vowell was the original name of the family, but was gradually
+dropped, and in the 15th century its members were known as Vowell
+_alias_ Hooker. At school, not only his facility in mastering his tasks,
+but his intellectual inquisitiveness and his fine moral qualities,
+attracted the special notice of his teacher, who strongly recommended
+his parents to educate him for the church. Though well connected, they
+were, however, somewhat straitened in their worldly circumstances, and
+Hooker was indebted for admission to the university to his uncle, John
+Hooker _alias_ Vowell, chamberlain of Exeter, and in his day a man of
+some literary repute, who induced Bishop Jewel to become his patron and
+to bestow on him a clerk's place in Corpus Christi College, Oxford. To
+this Hooker was admitted in 1568. Bishop Jewel died in September 1571,
+but Dr William Cole, president of the college, from the strong interest
+he felt in the young man, on account at once of his character and his
+abilities, spontaneously offered to take the bishop's place as his
+patron; and shortly afterwards Hooker, by his own labours as a tutor,
+became independent of gratuitous aid. Two of his pupils, and these his
+favourite ones, were Edwin Sandys, afterwards author of _Europae
+speculum_, and George Cranmer, grand-nephew of the archbishop. Hooker's
+reputation as a tutor soon became very high, for he had employed his
+five years at the university to such good purpose as not only to have
+acquired great proficiency in the learned languages, but to have joined
+to this a wide and varied culture which had delivered him from the
+bondage of learned pedantry; in addition to which he is said to have
+possessed a remarkable talent for communicating knowledge in a clear and
+interesting manner, and to have exercised a special influence over his
+pupils' intellectual and moral tendencies. In December 1573 he was
+elected scholar of his college; in July 1577 he proceeded to M.A., and
+in September of the same year he was admitted a fellow. In 1579 he was
+appointed by the chancellor of the university to read the public Hebrew
+lecture, a duty which he continued to discharge till he left Oxford. Not
+long after his admission into holy orders, about 1581, he was appointed
+to preach at St Paul's Cross; and, according to Walton, he was so kindly
+entertained by Mrs Churchman, who kept the Shunamite's house where the
+preachers were boarded, that he permitted her to choose him a wife,
+"promising upon a fair summons to return to London and accept of her
+choice." The lady selected by her was "her daughter Joan," who, says the
+same authority, "found him neither beauty nor portion; and for her
+conditions they were too like that wife's which is by Solomon compared
+to a dripping house." It is probable that Walton has exaggerated the
+simplicity and passiveness of Hooker in the matter, but though, as Keble
+observes with justice, his writings betray uncommon shrewdness and
+quickness of observation, as well as a vein of keenest humour, it would
+appear that either gratitude or some other impulse had on this occasion
+led his judgment astray. After his marriage he was, about the end of
+1584, presented to the living of Drayton Beauchamp in Buckinghamshire.
+In the following year he received a visit from his two pupils, Edwin
+Sandys and George Cranmer, who found him with the _Odes_ of Horace in
+his hand, tending the sheep while the servant was at dinner, after
+which, when they on the return of the servant accompanied him to his
+house, "Richard was called to rock the cradle." Finding him so engrossed
+by worldly and domestic cares, "they stayed but till the next morning,"
+and, greatly grieved at his narrow circumstances and unhappy domestic
+condition, "left him to the company of his wife Joan."
+
+The visit had, however, results of the highest moment, not only in
+regard to the career of Hooker, but in regard to English literature and
+English philosophical thought. Sandys prevailed on his father, the
+archbishop of York, to recommend Hooker for presentation to the
+mastership of the Temple, and Hooker, though his "wish was rather to
+gain a better country living," having agreed after some hesitation to
+become a candidate, the patent conferring upon him the mastership was
+granted on the 17th of March 1584/5. The rival candidate was Walter
+Travers, a Presbyterian and evening lecturer in the same church. Being
+continued in the lectureship after the appointment of Hooker, Travers
+was in the habit of attempting a refutation in the evening of what
+Hooker had spoken in the morning, Hooker again replying on the following
+Sunday; so it was said "the forenoon sermon spake Canterbury, the
+afternoon Geneva." On account of the keen feeling displayed by the
+partisans of both, Archbishop Whitgift deemed it prudent to prohibit the
+preaching of Travers, whereupon he presented a petition to the council
+to have the prohibition recalled. Hooker published an _Answer to the
+Petition of Mr Travers_, and also printed several sermons bearing on
+special points of the controversy; but, feeling strongly the
+unsatisfactory nature of such an isolated and fragmentary discussion of
+separate points, he resolved to compose an elaborate and exhaustive
+treatise, exhibiting the fundamental principles by which the question in
+dispute must be decided. It is probable that the work was begun in the
+latter half of 1586, and he had made considerable progress with it
+before, with a view to its completion, he petitioned Whitgift to be
+removed to a country parsonage, in order that, as he said, "I may keep
+myself in peace and privacy, and behold God's blessing spring out of my
+mother earth, and eat my own bread without oppositions." His desire was
+granted in 1591 by a presentation to the rectory of Boscombe near
+Salisbury. There he completed the volume containing the first four of
+the proposed _Eight Books of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_. It was
+entered at Stationers' Hall on the 9th of March 1592, but was not
+published till 1593 or 1594. In July 1595 he was promoted by the crown
+to the rectory of Bishopsbourne near Canterbury, where he lived to see
+the completion of the fifth book in 1597. In the passage from London to
+Gravesend some time in 1600 he caught a severe cold from which he never
+recovered; but, notwithstanding great weakness and constant suffering,
+he "was solicitous in his study," his one desire being "to live to
+finish the three remaining books of _Polity_." His death took place on
+the 2nd of November of the same year. A volume professing to contain the
+sixth and eighth books of the _Polity_ was published at London in 1648,
+but the bulk of the sixth book, as has been shown by Keble, is an entire
+deviation from the subject on which Hooker proposed to treat, and
+doubtless the genuine copy, known to have been completed, has been lost.
+The seventh book, which was published in a new edition of the work by
+Gauden in 1662, and the eighth book, may be regarded as in substance the
+composition of Hooker; but, as, in addition to wanting his final
+revision, they have been very unskilfully edited, if they have not been
+manipulated for theological purposes, their statements in regard to
+doubtful matters must be received with due reserve, and no reliance can
+be placed on their testimony where their meaning contradicts that of
+other portions of the _Polity_.
+
+The conception of Hooker in his later years, which we form from the
+various accessible sources, is that of a person of low stature and not
+immediately impressive appearance, much bent by the influence of
+sedentary and meditative habits, of quiet and retiring manners, and
+discoloured in complexion and worn and marked in feature from the hard
+mental toil which he had expended on his great work. There seems,
+however, exaggeration in Walton's statement as to the meanness of his
+dress; and Walton certainly misreads his character when he portrays him
+as a kind of ascetic mystic. Though he was unworldly and simple in his
+desires, and engrossed in the purpose to which he had devoted his
+life--the "completion of the _Polity_"--his writings indicate that he
+possessed a cheerful and healthy disposition, and that he was capable of
+discovering enjoyment in everyday pleasures, and of appreciating human
+life and character in a wide variety of aspects. He seems to have had a
+special delight in outward nature--as he expressed it, he loved "to see
+God's blessing spring out of his mother earth"; and he spent much of his
+spare time in visiting his parishioners, his deference towards them, if
+excessive, being yet mingled with a grave dignity which rendered
+unwarrantable liberties impossible. As a preacher, though singularly
+devoid of the qualities which win the applause of the multitude, he
+always excited the interest of the more intelligent, the breadth and
+finely balanced wisdom of his thoughts and the fascination of his
+composition greatly modifying the impression produced by his weak voice
+and ineffective manner. Partly, doubtless, on account of his
+dim-sightedness, he never removed his eye from his manuscript, and,
+according to Fuller, "he may be said to have made good music with his
+fiddle and stick alone, having neither pronunciation nor gesture to
+grace his matter."
+
+  To accede without explanation to the claim put forth for the
+  _Ecclesiastical Polity_ of Hooker, that it marks an epoch in English
+  prose literature and English thought, would both be to do some
+  injustice to writers previous to him, and, if not to overestimate his
+  influence, to misinterpret its character. By no means can his
+  excursions in English prose be regarded as chiefly those of a pioneer;
+  and not only is his intellectual position inferior to that of
+  Shakespeare, Spenser and Bacon,[1] who alone can be properly reckoned
+  as the master spirits of the age, but in reality what effect he may
+  have had upon the thought of his contemporaries was soon disregarded
+  and swept out of sight in the hand-to-hand struggle with Puritanism,
+  and his influence, so far from being immediate and confined to one
+  particular era, has since the reaction against Puritanism been slowly
+  and imperceptibly permeating and colouring English thought. His work
+  is, however, the earliest in English prose with enough of the
+  preserving salt of excellence to adapt it to the mental palate of
+  modern readers. Attempts more elaborate than those of the old
+  chroniclers had been made two centuries previously to employ English
+  prose both for narrative and for discussion; and, a few years before
+  him, Roger Ascham, Sir Thomas More, Latimer, Sir Philip Sidney, the
+  compilers of the prayer book, and various translators of the Bible,
+  had in widely different departments of literature brought to light
+  many samples of the rich wealth of expression that was latent in the
+  language; but Hooker's is the first independent work in English prose
+  of notable power and genius, and the vigour and grasp of its thought
+  are not more remarkable than the felicity of its literary style. Its
+  more usual and obvious excellences are clearness of expression,
+  notwithstanding occasionally complicated methods; great aptness and
+  conciseness in the formation of individual clauses, and such a fine
+  sense of proportion and rhythm in their arrangement as almost conceals
+  the difficulties of syntax by which he was hampered; finished
+  simplicity, notwithstanding a stateliness too uniform and unbroken; a
+  nice discrimination in the choice of words and phrases, so as both to
+  portray the exact shade of his meaning, and to express each of his
+  thoughts with that degree of emphasis appropriate to its place in his
+  composition. In regard to qualities more relating to the matter than
+  the manner we may note the subtle and partly hidden humour; the strong
+  enthusiasm underlying that seemingly calm and passionless exposition
+  of principles which continually led him away from the minutiae of
+  temporary disputes, and has earned for him the somewhat misleading
+  epithet of "judicious;" the solidity of learning, not ostentatiously
+  displayed, but indicated in the character and variety of his
+  illustrations and his comprehensive mastery of all that relates to his
+  subject; the breadth of his conceptions, and the sweep and ease of his
+  movements in the highest regions of thought; the fine poetical
+  descriptions occasionally introduced, in which his eloquence attains a
+  grave, rich and massive harmony that compares not unfavourably with
+  the finest prose of Milton. His manner is, of course, defective in the
+  flexibility and variety characteristic of the best models of English
+  prose literature after the language had been enriched and perfected by
+  long use, and his sentences, constructed too much according to Latin
+  usages, are often tautological and too protracted into long
+  concatenations of clauses; but if, when regarded superficially, his
+  style presents in some respects a stiff and antiquated aspect, it yet
+  possesses an original and innate charm that has retained its freshness
+  after the lapse of nearly three centuries.
+
+  The direct interest in the _Ecclesiastical Polity_ is now
+  philosophical and political rather than theological, for what
+  theological importance it possessed was rather in regard to the spirit
+  and method in which theology should be discussed than in regard to the
+  decision of strictly theological points. Hooker bases his reasoning on
+  principles which he discovered in Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, but
+  the intellectual atmosphere of his age was different from that which
+  surrounded them; he was acted upon by new and more various impulses
+  enabling him to imbibe more thoroughly the spirit of Greek thought
+  which was the source of their inspiration, and thus to reach a higher
+  and freer region than scholasticism, and in a sense to inaugurate
+  modern philosophy in England. It may be admitted that his principles
+  are only partially and in some degree capriciously wrought out--that
+  if he is not under the dominion of intellectual tendencies leading to
+  opposite results there are occasional blanks and gaps in his argument
+  where he seems sometimes to be groping after a meaning which he cannot
+  fully grasp; but he is often charged with obscurity simply because
+  readers of various theological schools, beholding in his principles
+  what seem the outline and justification of their own ideas, are
+  disappointed when they find that these outlines instead of acquiring
+  as they narrowly examine them the full and definite form of their
+  anticipations, widen out into a region beyond their notions and
+  sympathies, and therefore from their point of view enveloped in mist
+  and shade. It is the exposition of philosophical principles in the
+  first and second books of the _Polity_, and not the application of
+  these principles in the remaining books that gives the work its
+  standard place in English literature. It was intended to be an answer
+  to the attacks of the Presbyterians on the Episcopalian polity and
+  customs, but no attempt is made directly to oust Presbyterianism from
+  the place it then held in the Church of England. The work must rather
+  be regarded as a remonstrance against the narrow ground chosen by the
+  Presbyterians for their basis of attack, Hooker's exact position being
+  that "a necessity of polity and regiment may be held in all churches
+  without holding any form to be necessary."
+
+  The general purpose of his reasoning is to vindicate Episcopacy from
+  objections that had been urged against it, but he attains a result
+  which has other and wider consequences than this. The fundamental
+  principle on which he bases his reasoning is the unity and
+  all-embracing character of law--law "whose seat," he beautifully says,
+  "is the bosom of God, whose voice the harmony of the world." Law--as
+  operative in nature, as regulating each man's individual character and
+  actions, as seen in the formations of societies and governments--is
+  equally a manifestation and development of the divine order according
+  to which God Himself acts, is the expression in various forms of the
+  divine reason. He makes a distinction between natural and positive
+  laws, the one being eternal and immutable, the other varying according
+  to external necessity and expediency; and he includes all the forms of
+  government under laws that are positive and therefore alterable
+  according to circumstances. Their application is to be determined by
+  reason, reason enlightened and strengthened by every variety of
+  knowledge, discipline and experience. The leading feature in his
+  system is the high place assigned to reason, for, though affirming
+  that certain truths necessary to salvation could be made known only by
+  special divine revelation, he yet elevates reason into the criterion
+  by which these truths are to be judged, and the standard to determine
+  what in revelation is temporal and what eternal. "It is not the word
+  of God itself," he says, "which doth or possibly can assure us that we
+  do well to think it His word." At the same time he saves himself from
+  the dangers of abstract and rash theorizing by a deep and absolute
+  regard for facts, the diligent and accurate study of which he makes of
+  the first importance to the proper use of reason. "The general and
+  perpetual voice of men is," he says, "as the sentence of God Himself.
+  For that which all men have at all times learned, nature herself must
+  needs have taught; and, God being the author of nature, her voice is
+  but His instrument." Applying his principles to man individually, the
+  foundation of morality is, according to Hooker, immutable, and rests
+  "on that law which God from the beginning hath set Himself to do all
+  things by"; this law is to be discovered by reason; and the perfection
+  which reason teaches us to strive after is stated, with characteristic
+  breadth of conception and regard to the facts of human nature, to be
+  "a triple perfection: first a sensual, consisting in those things
+  which very life itself requireth, either as necessary supplements, or
+  as beauties or ornaments thereof; then an intellectual, consisting in
+  those things which none underneath man is either capable of or
+  acquainted with; lastly, a spiritual or divine, consisting in those
+  things whereunto we tend by supernatural means here, but cannot here
+  attain unto them." Applying his principles to man as a member of a
+  community, he assigns practically the same origin and sanctions to
+  ecclesiastical as to civil government. His theory of government forms
+  the basis of the _Treatise on Civil Government_ by Locke, although
+  Locke developed the theory in a way that Hooker would not have
+  sanctioned. The force and justification of government Hooker derives
+  from public approbation, either given directly by the parties
+  immediately concerned, or indirectly through inheritance from their
+  ancestors. "Sith men," he says, "naturally have no full and perfect
+  power to command whole politic multitudes of men, therefore utterly
+  without our consent we could in such sort be at no man's commandment
+  living. And to be commanded we do consent, when that society whereof
+  we are part hath at any time before consented, without revoking the
+  same after, by the like universal agreement." His theory as he stated
+  it is in various of its aspects and applications liable to objection;
+  but taken as a whole it is the first philosophical statement of the
+  principles which, though disregarded in the succeeding age, have since
+  regulated political progress in England and gradually modified its
+  constitution. One of the corollaries of his principles is his theory
+  of the relation of church and state, according to which, with the
+  qualifications implied in his theory of government, he asserts the
+  royal supremacy in matters of religion, and identifies the church and
+  commonwealth as but different aspects of the same government.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A life of Hooker by Dr Gauden was published in his
+  edition of Hooker's works (London, 1662). To correct the errors in
+  this life Walton wrote another, which was published in the 2nd edition
+  of Hooker's works in 1666. The standard modern edition of Hooker's
+  works is that by Keble, which first appeared in 1836, and has since
+  been several times reprinted (1888 edition, revised by Dean Church and
+  Bishop Paget). The first book of the _Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_
+  was edited for the Clarendon Press by Dean R. W. Church (1868-1876).
+       (T. F. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] If Bacon was the author of _The Christian Paradoxes_, his
+    philosophical standpoint in reference to religion was not only less
+    advanced than that of Hooker, but in a sense directly opposed to it.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, THOMAS (1586-1647), New England theologian, was born, probably
+on the 7th of July 1586, at Marfield, in the parish of Tilton, County of
+Leicester, England. He graduated B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611 at
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge, the intellectual centre of Puritanism,
+remained there as a fellow for a few years, and then preached in the
+parish of Esher in Surrey. About 1626 he became lecturer to the church
+of St Mary at Chelmsford, Essex, delivering on market days and Sunday
+afternoons evangelical addresses which were notable for their moral
+fervour. In 1629 Archbishop Laud took measures to suppress church
+lectureships, which were an innovation of Puritanism. Hooker was placed
+under bond and retired to Little Baddow, 4 m. from Chelmsford. In 1630
+he was cited to appear before the Court of High Commission, but he
+forfeited his bond and fled to Holland, whence in 1633 he emigrated to
+the Colony of Massachusetts Bay in America, and became pastor at
+Newtowne (now Cambridge), Mass., of a company of Puritans who had
+arrived from England in the previous year and in expectation of his
+joining them were called "Mr Hooker's Company." Hooker seems to have
+been a leader in the formation of that sentiment of discontent with the
+Massachusetts government which resulted in the founding of Connecticut.
+He publicly criticized the limitation of suffrage to church members,
+and, according to a contemporary historian, William Hubbard (_General
+History of New England_), "after Mr Hooker's coming over it was observed
+that many of the freemen grew to be very jealous of their liberties." He
+was a leader of the emigrants who in 1636 founded Hartford, Connecticut.
+In a sermon before the Connecticut General Court of 1638, he declared
+that "the choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God's
+own allowance" and that "they who have the power to appoint officers and
+magistrates, it is in their power, also, to set the bounds and
+limitations of the power and place unto which they call them." Though
+this theory was in advance of the age, Hooker had no idea of the
+separation of church and state--"the privilege of election, which
+belongs to the people," he said, must be exercised "according to the
+blessed will and law of God." He also defended the right of magistrates
+to convene synods, and in the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639),
+which he probably framed, the union of church and state is presupposed.
+Hooker was pastor of the Hartford church until his death on the 7th of
+July 1647. He was active in the negotiations which preceded the
+formation of the New England Confederation in 1643. In the same year he
+attended the meeting of Puritan ministers at Boston, whose object was to
+defend Congregationalism, and he wrote a _Survey of the Summe of Church
+Discipline_ (1648) in justification of the New England church system.
+His other works deal chiefly with the experimental phases of religion,
+especially the experience precedent to conversion. In _The Soule's
+Humiliation_ (1637), he assigns as a test of conversion a willingness of
+the convert to be damned if that be God's will, thus anticipating the
+doctrine of Samuel Hopkins in the following century.
+
+  See George L. Walker's _Thomas Hooker_ (New York, 1891); the appendix
+  of which contains a bibliography of Hooker's published works.
+
+
+
+
+HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785-1865), English botanist, was born at
+Norwich on the 6th of July 1785. His father, Joseph Hooker of Exeter, a
+member of the same family as the celebrated Richard Hooker, devoted much
+of his time to the study of German literature and the cultivation of
+curious plants. The son was educated at the high school of Norwich, on
+leaving which his independent means enabled him to travel and to take up
+as a recreation the study of natural history, especially ornithology and
+entomology. He subsequently confined his attention to botany, on the
+recommendation of Sir James E. Smith, whom he had consulted respecting a
+rare moss. His first botanical expedition was made in Iceland, in the
+summer of 1809, at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks; but the natural
+history specimens which he collected, with his notes and drawings, were
+lost on the homeward voyage through the burning of the ship, and the
+young botanist himself had a narrow escape with his life. A good memory,
+however, aided him to publish an account of the island, and of its
+inhabitants and flora (_Tour in Iceland_, 1809), privately circulated in
+1811, and reprinted in 1813. In 1810-1811 he made extensive
+preparations, and sacrifices which proved financially serious, with a
+view to accompany Sir R. Brownrigg to Ceylon, but the disturbed state of
+the island led to the abandonment of the projected expedition. In 1814
+he spent nine months in botanizing excursions in France, Switzerland and
+northern Italy, and in the following year he married the eldest daughter
+of Mr Dawson Turner, banker, of Yarmouth. Settling at Halesworth,
+Suffolk, he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which
+became of world-wide renown among botanists. In 1816 appeared the
+_British Jungermanniae_, his first scientific work, which was succeeded
+by a new edition of William Curtis's _Flora Londinensis_, for which he
+wrote the descriptions (1817-1828); by a description of the _Plantae
+cryptogamicae_ of A. von Humboldt and A. Bonpland; by the _Muscologia
+Britannica_, a very complete account of the mosses of Great Britain and
+Ireland, prepared in conjunction with Dr T. Taylor (1818); and by his
+_Musci exotici_ (2 vols., 1818-1820), devoted to new foreign mosses and
+other cryptogamic plants. In 1820 he accepted the regius professorship
+of botany in Glasgow University where he soon became popular as a
+lecturer, his style being both clear and ready. The following year he
+brought out the _Flora Scotica_, in which the natural method of
+arrangement of British plants was given with the artificial.
+Subsequently he prepared or edited many works, the more important being
+the following:--
+
+  _Botanical Illustrations_ (1822); _Exotic Flora_, indicating such of
+  the specimens as are deserving cultivation (3 vols., 1822-1827);
+  _Account of Sabine's Arctic Plants_ (1824); _Catalogue of Plants in
+  the Glasgow Botanic Garden_ (1825); the _Botany of Parry's Third
+  Voyage_ (1826); _The Botanical Magazine_ (38 vols., 1827-1865);
+  _Icones Filicum_, in concert with Dr R. K. Greville (2 vols.,
+  1829-1831); _British Flora_, of which several editions appeared,
+  undertaken with Dr G. A. W. Arnott, &c. (1830); _British Flora
+  Cryptogamia_ (1833); _Characters of Genera from the British Flora_
+  (1830); _Flora Boreali-Americana_ (2 vols., 1840), being the botany of
+  British North America collected in Sir J. Franklin's voyage; _The
+  Journal of Botany_ (4 vols., 1830-1842); _Companion to the Botanical
+  Magazine_ (2 vols., 1835-1836); _Icones plantarum_ (10 vols.,
+  1837-1854); the _Botany of Beechey's Voyage to the Pacific and
+  Behring's Straits_ (with Dr Arnott, 1841); the _Genera Filicum_
+  (1842), from the original coloured drawings of F. Bauer, with
+  additions and descriptive letterpress; _The London Journal of Botany_
+  (7 vols., 1842-1848); _Notes on the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of
+  the Erebus and Terror_ (1843); _Species filicum_ (5 vols., 1846-1864),
+  the standard work on this subject; _A Century of Orchideae_ (1846);
+  _Journal of Botany and Kew Garden Miscellany_ (9 vols., 1849-1857);
+  _Niger Flora_ (1849); _Victoria Regia_ (1851); _Museums of Economic
+  Botany at Kew_ (1855); _Filices exoticae_ (1857-1859); _The British
+  Ferns_ (1861-1862); _A Century of Ferns_ (1854); _A Second Century of
+  Ferns_ (1860-1861).
+
+It was mainly by Hooker's exertions that botanists were appointed to the
+government expeditions. While his works were in progress his herbarium
+received large and valuable additions from all parts of the globe, and
+his position as a botanist was thus vastly improved. He was made a
+knight of Hanover in 1836 and in 1841 he was appointed director of the
+Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, on the resignation of W. T. Aiton. Under
+his direction the gardens expanded from 11 to 75 acres, with an
+arboretum of 270 acres, many new glass-houses were erected, and a museum
+of economic botany was established. He was engaged on the _Synopsis
+filicum_ with J. G. Baker when he was attacked by a throat disease then
+epidemic at Kew, where he died on the 12th of August 1865.
+
+
+
+
+HOOLE, JOHN (1727-1803), English translator and dramatist, son of a
+watchmaker and machinist, Samuel Hoole, was born at Moorfields, London,
+in December 1727. He was educated at a private school at Hoddesdon,
+Hertfordshire, kept by James Bennet, who edited Ascham's English works.
+At the age of seventeen he became a clerk in the accountants' department
+of the East India House, and before 1767 became one of the auditors of
+Indian accounts. His leisure hours he devoted to the study of Latin and
+especially Italian, and began writing translations of the chief works of
+the Italian poets. He published translations of the _Jerusalem
+Delivered_ of Tasso in 1763, the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto in
+1773-1783, the _Dramas_ of Metastasio in 1767, and _Rinaldo_, an early
+work of Tasso, in 1792. Among his plays are: _Cyrus_ (1768), _Timanthes_
+(1770) and _Cleonice, Princess of Bithynia_ (1775), none of which
+achieved success. The verses of Hoole were praised by Johnson, with whom
+he was on terms of intimacy, but, though correct, smooth and flowing,
+they cannot be commended for any other merit. His translation of the
+_Orlando Furioso_ was superseded by the version (1823-1831) of W. S.
+Rose. Hoole was also the friend of the Quaker poet John Scott of Amwell
+(1730-1783), whose life he wrote; it was prefixed to Scott's _Critical
+Essays_ (1785). In 1773 he was promoted to be chief auditor of Indian
+accounts, an office which he resigned in 1785. In 1786 he retired to the
+parsonage of Abinger, Surrey; and afterwards lived at Tenterden, Kent,
+dying at Dorking on the 2nd of April 1803.
+
+  See _Anecdotes of the Life of the late Mr John Hoole_, by his
+  surviving brother, Samuel Hoole (London, 1803). Some of his plays are
+  reprinted in J. Bell's _British Theatre_ (1797).
+
+
+
+
+HOOLIGAN, the generally accepted modern term for a young street ruffian
+or rowdy. It seems to have been first applied to the young street
+ruffians of the South-East of London about 1890, but though popular in
+the district, did not attract general attention till later, when
+authentic information of its origin was lost, but it appears that the
+most probable source was a comic song which was popular in the
+lower-class music-hall in the late 'eighties or early 'nineties, which
+described the doings of a rowdy family named Hooligan (i.e. Irish
+Houlihan). A comic character with the same name also appears to have
+been the central figure in a series of adventures running through an
+obscure English comic paper of about the same date, and also in a
+similar New York paper, where his confrere in the adventures is a German
+named Schneider (see _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vol. ii. pp. 227
+and 316, 1898, and 10th series, vol. vii. p. 115, 1901). In other
+countries the "hooligan" finds his counterpart. The Parisian _Apache_,
+so self-styled after the North American Indian tribe, is a much more
+dangerous character; mere rowdyism, the characteristic of the English
+"hooligan," is replaced by murder, robbery and outrage. An equally
+dangerous class of young street ruffian is the "hoodlum" of the United
+States of America; this term arose in San Francisco in 1870, and thence
+spread. Many fanciful origins of the name have been given, for some of
+which see _Manchester (N.H.) Notes and Queries_, September 1883 (cited
+in the _New English Dictionary_). The "plug-ugly" of Baltimore is
+another name for the same class. More familiar is the Australian
+"larrikin," which apparently came into use about 1870 in Melbourne. The
+story that the word represents an Irish policeman's pronunciation of
+"larking" is a mere invention. It is probably only an adaptation of the
+Irish "Larry," short for Lawrence. Others suggest that it is a
+corruption of the slang _Leary Kinchen_, i.e. knowing, wide-awake child.
+
+
+
+
+HOOPER, JOHN (d. 1555), bishop of Gloucester and Worcester and martyr,
+was born in Somerset about the end of the 15th century and graduated
+B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He is said to have then entered the Cistercian
+monastery at Gloucester; but in 1538 a John Hooper appears among the
+names of the Black friars at Gloucester and also among the White friars
+at Bristol who surrendered their houses to the king. A John Hooper was
+likewise canon of Wormesley priory in Herefordshire; but identification
+of any of these with the future bishop is doubtful. The _Greyfriars'
+Chronicle_ says that Hooper was "sometime a white monk"; and in the
+sentence pronounced against him by Gardiner he is described as "_olim
+monachus de Cliva Ordinis Cisterciensis_," i.e. of the Cistercian house
+at Cleeve in Somerset. On the other hand, at his deprivation he was not
+accused, like the other married bishops who had been monks or friars, of
+infidelity to the vow of chastity; and his own letters to Bullinger are
+curiously reticent on this part of his history. He there speaks of
+himself as being the only son and heir of his father and as fearing to
+be deprived of his inheritance if he adopted the reformed religion.
+Before 1546 he had secured employment in the household of Sir Thomas
+Arundell, a man of influential connexions. Hooper speaks of himself at
+this period as being "a courtier and living too much of a court life in
+the palace of our king." But he chanced upon some of Zwingli's works and
+Bullinger's commentaries on St Paul's epistles; and after some
+molestation in England and some correspondence with Bullinger on the
+lawfulness of complying against his conscience with the established
+religion, he determined to secure what property he could and take refuge
+on the continent. He had an adventurous journey, being twice imprisoned,
+driven about for three months on the sea, and reaching Strassburg in the
+midst of the Schmalkaldic war. There he married Anne de Tserclaes, and
+later on he proceeded by way of Basle to Zurich, where his Zwinglian
+convictions were confirmed by constant intercourse with Zwingli's
+successor, Bullinger.
+
+It was not until May 1549, after he had published various works at
+Zurich, that Hooper again arrived in England. He at once became the
+principal champion of Swiss Protestantism against the Lutherans as well
+as the Catholics, and was appointed chaplain to Protector Somerset.
+Somerset's fall in the following October endangered Hooper's position,
+and for a time he was in hourly dread of imprisonment and martyrdom,
+more especially as he had taken a prominent part against Gardiner and
+Bonner, whose restoration to their sees was now anticipated. Warwick,
+afterwards duke of Northumberland, however, overcame the reactionaries
+in the Council, and early in 1550 the Reformation resumed its course.
+Hooper became Warwick's chaplain, and after a course of Lent lectures
+before the king he was offered the bishopric of Gloucester. This led to
+a prolonged controversy; Hooper had already denounced the "Aaronic
+vestments" and the oath by the saints prescribed in the new Ordinal; and
+he refused to be consecrated according to its rites. Cranmer, Ridley,
+Bucer and others urged him to submit in vain; confinement to his house
+by order of the Council proved equally ineffectual; and it was not until
+he had spent some weeks in the Fleet prison that the "father of
+nonconformity" consented to conform, and Hooper submitted to
+consecration with the legal ceremonies (March 8, 1551).
+
+Once seated in his bishopric Hooper set about his episcopal duties with
+exemplary vigour. His visitation of his diocese (printed in _English
+Hist. Rev._ Jan. 1904, pp. 98-121) revealed a condition of almost
+incredible ignorance among his clergy. Fewer than half could say the Ten
+Commandments; some could not even repeat the Lord's Prayer in English.
+Hooper did his best in the time at his disposal; but in less than a year
+the bishopric of Gloucester was reduced to an archdeaconry and added to
+Worcester, of which Hooper was made bishop in succession to Nicholas
+Heath (q.v.). He was opposed to Northumberland's plot for the exclusion
+of Mary from the throne; but this did not save him from speedy
+imprisonment. He was sent to the Fleet on the 1st of September 1553 on a
+doubtful charge of debt to the queen; but the real cause was his
+stanchness to a religion which was still by law established. Edward
+VI.'s legislation was, however, repealed in the following month, and in
+March 1554 Hooper was deprived of his bishopric as a married man. There
+was still no statute by which he could be condemned to the stake, but
+Hooper was kept in prison; and the revival of the heresy acts in
+December 1554 was swiftly followed by execution. On the 29th of January
+1555, Hooper, Rogers, Rowland Taylor and others were condemned by
+Gardiner and degraded by Bonner. Hooper was sent down to suffer at
+Gloucester, where he was burnt on the 9th of February, meeting his fate
+with steadfast courage and unshaken conviction.
+
+Hooper was the first of the bishops to suffer because his Zwinglian
+views placed him further beyond the pale than Cranmer, Ridley and
+Latimer. He represented the extreme reforming party in England. While he
+expressed dissatisfaction with some of Calvin's earlier writings, he
+approved of the _Consensus Tigurinus_ negotiated in 1549 between the
+Zwinglians and Calvinists of Switzerland; and it was this form of
+religion that he laboured to spread in England against the wishes of
+Cranmer, Ridley, Bucer, Peter Martyr and other more conservative
+theologians. He would have reduced episcopacy to narrow limits; and his
+views had considerable influence on the Puritans of Elizabeth's reign,
+when many editions of Hooper's various works were published.
+
+  Two volumes of Hooper's writings are included in the Parker Society's
+  publications and another edition appeared at Oxford in 1855. See also
+  Gough's General Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Strype's _Works_ (General
+  Index); Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_, ed. Townsend; _Acts of the Privy
+  Council; Cal. State Papers_, "Domestic" Series; Nichols's _Lit.
+  Remains of Edward VI._; Burner, Collier, Dixon, Froude and Gairdner's
+  histories; Pollard's _Cranmer; Dict. Nat. Biogr._     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HOOPOE (Fr. _Huppe_, Lat. _Upupa_, Gr. [Greek: epops]--all names
+bestowed apparently from its cry), a bird long celebrated in literature,
+and conspicuous by its variegated plumage and its large erectile
+crest,[1] the _Upupa epops_ of naturalists, which is the type of the
+very peculiar family _Upupidae_, placed by Huxley in his group
+_Coccygomorphae_, but considered by Dr Murie (_Ibis_, 1873, p. 208) to
+deserve separate rank as _Epopomorphae_. This species has an exceedingly
+wide range in the Old World, being a regular summer-visitant to the
+whole of Europe, in some parts of which it is abundant, as well as to
+Siberia, mostly retiring southwards in autumn to winter in equatorial
+Africa and India, though it would seem to be resident throughout the
+year in north-eastern Africa and in China. Its power of wing ordinarily
+seems to be feeble; but it is capable of very extended flight, as is
+testified by its wandering habits (for it occasionally makes its
+appearance in places very far removed from its usual haunts), and also
+by the fact that when pursued by a falcon it will rapidly mount to an
+extreme height and frequently effect its escape from the enemy. About
+the size of a thrush, with a long, pointed and slightly arched bill, its
+head and neck are of a golden-buff--the former adorned by the crest
+already mentioned, which begins to rise from the forehead and consists
+of broad feathers, gradually increasing in length, tipped with black and
+having a subterminal bar of yellowish-white. The upper part of the back
+is of a vinous-grey, and the scapulars and flight-feathers are black,
+broadly barred with white tinged in the former with buff. The tail is
+black with a white chevron, marking off about the distal third part of
+its length. The legs and feet are as well adapted for running or walking
+as for perching, and the scutellations are continued round the whole of
+the tarsi. Chiefly on account of this character, which is also possessed
+by the larks, Sundevall (_Tentamen_, pp. 53-55) united the _Upupidae_
+and _Alaudidae_ in the same "cohors" _Holaspideae_. Comparative anatomy,
+however, forbids its being taken to signify any real affinity between
+these groups, and the resemblance on this point, which is by no means so
+striking as that displayed by the form of the bill and the coloration in
+certain larks (of the genus _Certhilauda_, for instance), must be
+ascribed to analogy merely.
+
+[Illustration: Hoopoe.]
+
+Pleasing as is the appearance of the hoopoe as it fearlessly parades its
+showy plumage, some of its habits are much the reverse. All observers
+agree in stating that it delights to find its food among filth of the
+most abominable description, and this especially in its winter-quarters.
+But where it breeds, its nest, usually in the hole of a tree or of a
+wall, is not only partly composed of the foulest material, but its
+condition becomes worse as incubation proceeds, for the hen scarcely
+ever leaves her eggs, being assiduously fed by the cock as she sits; and
+when the young are hatched, their faeces are not removed by their
+parents,[2] as is the case with most birds, but are discharged in the
+immediate neighbourhood of the nest, the unsanitary condition of which
+can readily be imagined. Worms, grubs, and insects generally form the
+hoopoes' food, and upon it they get so fat in autumn that they are
+esteemed a delicate morsel in some of the countries of southern Europe,
+and especially by the Christian population of Constantinople.[3]
+
+Not a year passes but the hoopoe makes its appearance in some part or
+other of the British Islands, most often in spring, and if unmolested
+would doubtless stop to breed in them, and a few instances are known in
+which it has done so. But its remarkable plumage always attracts
+attention, and it is generally shot down so soon as it is seen, and
+before it has time to begin a nest. Eight or nine so-called species of
+the genus have been described, but of them the existence of five only
+has been recognized by Sharpe and Dresser (_Birds of Europe_, pt. vii.).
+Besides the _Upupa epops_ above treated, these are _U. indica_, resident
+in India and Ceylon; _U. longirostris_, which seems to be the form of
+the Indo-Chinese countries; _U. marginata_, peculiar to Madagascar; and
+_U. africana_ or _U. minor_ of some writers, which inhabits South Africa
+to the Zambesi on the east and Benguela on the west coast. In habits and
+appearance they all resemble the best-known and most widely-spread
+species.[4]     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Hence the secondary meaning of the French word _huppe_--a crest
+    or tuft (cf. Littre, _Dict. francais_, i. 2067).
+
+  [2] This indeed is denied by Naumann, but by him alone, and the
+    statement in the text is confirmed by many eye-witnesses.
+
+  [3] Under the name of _Dukipath_, in the authorized version of the
+    Bible translated "lapwing" (Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18), the hoopoe
+    was accounted unclean by the Jewish law. Arabs have a great reverence
+    for the bird, imparting to it marvellous medicinal and other
+    qualities, and making use of its head in all their charms (cf.
+    Tristram, _Nat. Hist. of the Bible_, pp. 208, 209).
+
+  [4] The genera _Rhinopomastus_ and _Irrisor_ are generally placed in
+    the Family _Upupidae_, but Dr Murie, after an exhaustive examination
+    of their osteology, regards them as forming a group of equal value.
+
+
+
+
+HOORN, a seaport in the province of North Holland, Holland, on a bay of
+the Zuider Zee called the Hoornerhop, and a junction station 23(1/2) m.
+by rail N. by E. of Amsterdam, on the railway to Enkhuizen, with which
+it is also connected by steam tramway. Pop. (1900) 10,647. Hoorn is
+distinguished by its old-world air and the beauty and interest of its
+numerous gabled houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these are
+decorated with inscriptions and bas-reliefs, some of which commemorate
+the battle on the Zuider Zee in 1573, in which the Beggars defeated the
+Spaniards under Count Bossu. Walks and gardens now surround the town in
+the place of the old city walls, but a few towers and gateways adorned
+with various old coats of arms are still standing. The fine Gothic
+bastion tower overlooking the harbour was built in 1532; the East gate
+not later than 1578. Among the public buildings of special interest are
+the picturesque St John's hospital (1563), now used for military
+purposes; the old mint; the hospital for aged men and women (beginning
+of 17th century); the weigh-house (1609); the town hall, in which the
+states of West Friesland formerly met; and the old court-house, which
+dates from the beginning of the 17th century, though parts of it are
+older, containing a modern museum and some early portraits. There are
+also various charitable and educational institutions, Protestant and
+Roman Catholic churches and a synagogue. The extensive foreign commerce
+which Hoorn carried on in the 16th and 17th centuries has almost
+entirely vanished, but there is still a considerable trade with other
+parts of the Netherlands, especially in cheese and cattle. The chief
+industries include gold and silver work, and there are also tobacco
+factories, saw-mills and some small boat-building yards, a considerable
+number of vessels being engaged in the Zuider Zee fisheries.
+
+Hoorn, latinized as _Horna_ or _Hornum_, has existed at least from the
+first part of the 14th century, as it is mentioned in a document of the
+year 1311, five years earlier than the date usually assigned for its
+foundation. In 1356 it received municipal privileges from Count William
+V. of Holland, and in 1426 it was surrounded with walls. It was at Hoorn
+in 1416 that the first great net was made for the herring fishery, an
+industry which long proved an abundant source of wealth to the town.
+During the 15th century Hoorn shared in the troubles occasioned by the
+different contending factions; in 1569 the Spanish forces entered the
+town; but in 1572 it cast in its lot with the states of the Netherlands.
+In the 16th century it was a commercial centre, important for its trade,
+fisheries and breweries. A company of commerce and navigation was formed
+at Hoorn in 1720, and the admiralty offices and storehouses remained
+here until their removal to Medemblik in 1795. The English under Sir
+Ralph Abercromby took possession of the town in 1799, and in 1811 it
+suffered severely from the French. Among the celebrities of Hoorn are
+William Schouten, who discovered in 1616 the passage round Cape Horn, or
+Hoorn, as he named it in honour of his birthplace; Abel Janszoon Tasman,
+whose fame is associated with Tasmania; and Jan Pietersz Coen,
+governor-general of the Dutch East Indies.
+
+
+
+
+HOOSICK FALLS, a village of Rensselaer county, New York, U.S.A., in the
+township of Hoosick, 27 m. N.E. of Troy, on the Hoosick river. Pop. of
+the village (1890) 7014; (1900) 5671, of whom 1092 were foreign-born;
+(1905) 5251; (1910) 5532; of the township (1900) 8631; (1910) 8315.
+Hoosick Falls is served by the Boston & Maine Railroad, and is connected
+by electric railway with Bennington, Vermont, about 8 m. E. The falls of
+the Hoosick river furnish water-power for the manufacture of
+agricultural machinery by the Walter A. Wood Mowing and Reaping Machine
+Co., which dates from 1866, the business having been started in 1852 by
+Walter Abbott Wood (1815-1892), who was a Republican representative in
+Congress in 1879-1883. Other manufactures are knit goods, shirts and
+collars and paper-making machinery. Hoosick Falls was settled about 1688
+by Dutch settlers--settlers from Connecticut and Massachusetts came
+after 1763--and it was first incorporated in 1827. Three miles N.E. of
+the village, at Walloomsac, in the township of Hoosick, the battle of
+Bennington was fought, on the 16th of August 1777.
+
+
+
+
+HOP (Ger. _Hopfen_, Fr. _houblon_), _Humulus Lupulus_, L., an herbaceous
+twining plant, belonging to the natural order Cannabinaceae, which is by
+some botanists included in the larger group called Urticaceae by
+Endlicher. It is of common occurrence in hedges and thickets in the
+southern counties of England, but is believed not to be native in
+Scotland. On the European continent it is distributed from Greece to
+Scandinavia, and extends through the Caucasus and Central Asia to the
+Altai Mountains. It is common, but doubtfully indigenous, in the
+northern and western states of North America, and has been introduced
+into Brazil, Australia and the Himalayas.
+
+It is a perennial plant, producing annually several long twining
+roughish striated stems, which twist from left to right, are often 15 to
+20 ft. long and climb freely over hedges and bushes. The roughness of
+stem and leaves is due to lines of strong hooked hairs, which help the
+plant to cling to its support. The leaves are stalked, opposite, 3-5
+lobed, and coarsely serrate, and bear a general resemblance to those of
+the vine, but are, as well as the whole plant, rough to the touch; the
+upper leaves are sometimes scarcely divided, or quite entire. The
+stipules are between the leaf-stalks, each consisting of two lateral
+ones united, or rarely with the tips free. The male and female flowers
+are produced on distinct plants. The male inflorescence (fig. 1, A)
+forms a panicle; the flowers consist of a small greenish five-parted
+perianth (a) enclosing five stamens, whose anthers (b) open by terminal
+slits. The female inflorescence (fig. 1, B) is less conspicuous in the
+young state. The catkin or strobile consists of a number of small acute
+bracts, with two sessile ovaries at their base, each subtended by a
+rounded bractlet (c). Both the bracts and bractlets enlarge greatly
+during the development of the ovary, and form, when fully grown, the
+membranous scales of the strobile (fig. 2, _a_); they are known as
+"petals" by hop-growers. The bracts can then only be distinguished from
+the bractlets by being rather more acute and more strongly veined. The
+perianth (fig. 1, _d_) is short, cup-shaped, undivided and closely
+applied to the ovary, which it ultimately encloses. In the young
+strobile the two purple hairy styles (e) of each ovary project beyond
+the bracts. The ovary contains a single ovule (fig. 1. _f_) which
+becomes in the fruit an exalbuminous seed, containing a spirally-coiled
+embryo (fig. 2, _b_). The light dusty pollen is carried by the wind from
+the male to the female flowers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Male (A) and Female (B) Inflorescence of the
+Hop.]
+
+The ovary and the base of the bracts are covered with a yellowish
+powder, consisting of minute sessile grains, called lupulin or lupulinic
+glands. These glands (fig. 2, _c_) are from 1/260 to 1/140 in. in
+diameter, like flattened subovate little saucers in shape, and attached
+to a short pedicel. The upper or hemispherical portion bears a delicate
+continuous membrane, the cuticle, which becomes raised by the secretion
+beneath it of the yellowish lupulin. The stalk is not perceptible in the
+gland as found in commerce. When fresh the gland is seen to be filled
+with a yellowish or dark brown liquid; this on drying contracts in bulk
+and forms a central mass. It is to these lupulinic glands that the
+medicinal properties of the hop are chiefly due. By careful sifting
+about 1 oz. may be obtained from 1 lb. of hops, but the East Kent
+variety is said to yield more than the Sussex hops.
+
+In hop gardens a few male plants, usually three or four to an acre, are
+sometimes planted, that number being deemed sufficient to fertilize the
+female flowers. The blossoms are produced in August, and the strobiles
+are fit for gathering from the beginning of September to the middle of
+October, according to the weather.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Fruit of Hop.]
+
+The cultivation of hops for use in the manufacture of beer dates from an
+early period. In the 8th and 9th centuries hop gardens, called
+"humularia" or "humuleta," existed in France and Germany. Until the 16th
+century, however, hops appear to have been grown in a very fitful
+manner, and to a limited extent, generally only for private consumption;
+but after the beginning of the 17th century the cultivation increased
+rapidly. The plant was introduced into England from Flanders in 1525;
+and in America its cultivation was encouraged by legislative enactments
+in 1657. Formerly several plants were used as well as hops to season
+ale, hence the name "alehoof" for _Nepeta Glechoma_, and "alecost" for
+_Balsamita vulgaris_. The sweet gale, _Myrica Gale_, and the sage,
+_Salvia officinalis_, were also similarly employed. Various hop
+substitutes, in the form of powder, have been offered in commerce of
+late years, most of which appear to have quassia as a chief ingredient.
+The young tender tops of the hop are in Belgium cut off in spring and
+eaten like asparagus, and are forced from December to February.
+
+  _Medical Use._--The principal constituents of the strobiles are
+  _lupulin_, one of the few liquid alkaloids; _lupulinic acid_, a bitter
+  crystalline body, soluble in ether, which is without any other
+  pharmacological action than that common to bitter substances;
+  _Valerol_, a volatile oil which in old hops undergoes a change to the
+  malodorous body valerianic acid; resin; trimethylamine; a peculiar
+  modification of tannin known as _humulotannic acid_; and a
+  sesqui-terpene. The British pharmacopoeia contains two preparations of
+  the strobiles,--an infusion (dose, 1-2 oz.) and a tincture (dose,
+  1/2-1 drachm). The glands obtained from the strobiles are known in
+  pharmacy as lupulin, a name which tends to confusion with that of the
+  alkaloid. They occur in commerce as a bright yellow-brown powder, seen
+  under a lens to consist of minute glandular particles. The dose of
+  this so-called lupulin is 2-5 grains. From it there is prepared the
+  Tinctura Lupulinae of the United States pharmacopoeia, which is given
+  in doses of 10-60 minims. Furthermore, there are prepared hop pillows,
+  designed to procure sleep; but these act, when at all, mainly by
+  suggestion. The pharmacological action of hops is determined first by
+  the volatile oil they contain, which has the actions of its class.
+  Similarly the lupulinic acid may act as a bitter tonic. The
+  preparations of hops, when taken internally, are frequently hypnotic,
+  though unfortunately different specimens vary considerably in
+  composition, none of the preparations being standardized. It is by no
+  means certain whether the hypnotic action of hops is due to the
+  alkaloid lupulin or possibly to the volatile oil which they contain.
+  Medical practice, however, is acquainted with many more trustworthy
+  and equally safe hypnotics. The bitter acid of hops may endow beer
+  containing it with a certain value in cases of impaired gastric
+  digestion, and to the hypnotic principle of hops may partly be
+  ascribed--as well as to the alcohol--the soporific action of beer in
+  the case of some individuals.
+
+
+HOP PRODUCTION IN ENGLAND[1]
+
+The cultivation of hops in the British Isles is restricted to England,
+where it is practically confined to half-a-dozen counties--four in the
+south-eastern and two in the west-midland districts. In 1901 the English
+crop was reported by the Board of Agriculture to occupy 51,127 acres.
+The official returns as to acreage do not extend back beyond 1868, in
+which year the total area was reported to be 64,488 acres. The largest
+area recorded since then was 71,789 acres in 1878; the smallest was
+44,938 acres in 1907. The extent to which the areas of hops in the chief
+hop-growing counties vary from year to year is sufficiently indicated in
+Table I., which shows the annual acreages over a period of thirteen
+years, 1895 to 1907. The proportions in which the acres of hops are
+distributed amongst the counties concerned vary but little year by year,
+and as a rule over 60% belongs to Kent.
+
+  TABLE I.--_Hop Areas of England 1895 to 1907. Acres._
+
+  +------+--------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+  |      |  Kent. |Hereford.|Sussex.|Worcester.|Hants.|Surrey.|
+  +------+--------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+  | 1895 | 35,018 |  7553   |  7489 |   4024   | 2875 | 1783  |
+  | 1896 | 33,300 |  6895   |  5908 |   3800   | 2494 | 1623  |
+  | 1897 | 31,661 |  6542   |  5174 |   3591   | 2306 | 1416  |
+  | 1898 | 30,941 |  6651   |  4829 |   3567   | 2263 | 1313  |
+  | 1899 | 31,988 |  7227   |  4949 |   3788   | 2319 | 1388  |
+  | 1900 | 31,514 |  7287   |  4823 |   3964   | 2231 | 1300  |
+  | 1901 | 31,242 |  7497   |  4800 |   4029   | 2133 | 1232  |
+  | 1902 | 29,649 |  6915   |  4541 |   3779   | 2003 |  969  |
+  | 1903 | 29,933 |  6851   |  4454 |   3697   | 1920 |  901  |
+  | 1904 | 29,841 |  6767   |  4474 |   3752   | 1900 |  877  |
+  | 1905 | 30,655 |  6851   |  4647 |   3807   | 1978 |  843  |
+  | 1906 | 29,296 |  6481   |  4379 |   3672   | 1939 |  777  |
+  | 1907 | 28,169 |  6143   |  4243 |   3622   | 1842 |  744  |
+  +------+--------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+
+Less than 200 acres in all are annually grown in the other hop-growing
+counties of England, these being Shropshire, Gloucestershire and
+Suffolk.
+
+The average yield per acre in cwt. in the six counties during the decade
+1897 to 1906 was as follows:--
+
+  TABLE II.
+
+  +------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+  | Kent.|Hereford.|Sussex.|Worcester.|Hants.|Surrey.|
+  +------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+  | 9.31 |  7.14   |  9.41 |   7.79   | 8.78 |  7.23 |
+  +------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+
+
+Table III. shows the average acreage, yield and total home produce of
+England during the decades 1888-1897 and 1898-1907.
+
+  TABLE III.
+
+  +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |           |Average Annual|Average Annual|Average Annual|
+  |  Periods. |   Acreage.   |Yield per acre| Home Produce |
+  |           |              |    (cwt.).   |   (cwt.).    |
+  +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+  | 1888-1897 |    56,370    |     7.76     |    438,215   |
+  | 1898-1907 |    48,841    |     8.84     |    434,567   |
+  +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+The wide fluctuations in the home production of hops are worthy of note,
+as they exercise a powerful influence upon market prices. The largest
+crop between 1885, the first year in which figures relating to
+production were collected, and 1907 was that of 776,144 cwt. in 1886,
+and the smallest that of 281,291 cwt. in 1888, the former being more
+than 2(1/2) times the size of the latter. The crop of 1899, estimated at
+661,373 cwt., was so large that prices receded to an extent such as to
+leave no margin of profit to the great body of growers, whilst some
+planters were able to market the crop only at a loss. The calculated
+annual average yields per acre over the years 1885 to 1907 ranged
+between 12.76 cwt. in 1899 and 4.81 cwt. in 1888. No other staple crop
+of British agriculture undergoes such wide fluctuations in yield as are
+here indicated, the size of the crop produced bearing no relation to the
+acreage under cultivation. For example, the 71,327 acres in 1885
+produced only 509,170 cwt., whereas the 51,843 acres in 1899 produced
+661,373 cwt.--19,484 acres less under crop yielded 152,203 cwt. more
+produce.
+
+Comparing the quantities of home-grown hops with those of imported hops,
+of the total available for consumption about 70% on the average is home
+produce and about 30% is imported produce. The imports, however, do not
+vary so much as the home produce. Table IV. shows the average quantity
+of imports to and exports (home-grown) from Great Britain during the
+decades 1877-1886, 1887-1896 and 1897-1906.
+
+  TABLE IV.
+
+  +-----------+---------------+---------------+
+  |  Periods. |Annual Average |Annual Average |
+  |           |Imports (cwt.).|Exports (cwt.).|
+  +-----------+---------------+---------------+
+  | 1877-1886 |    215,219    |    10,805     |
+  | 1887-1896 |    194,966    |     9,437     |
+  | 1897-1906 |    186,362    |    14,808     |
+  +-----------+---------------+---------------+
+
+The highest and lowest imports were 266,952 cwt. in 1885 and 145,122
+cwt. in 1887, the latter in the year following the biggest home-grown
+crop on record. On a series of years the largest proportion of imports
+is from the United States.
+
+During the twenty-five years 1881-1905 the annual values of the hops
+imported into England fluctuated between the wide limits of L2,962,631
+in 1882 and L427,753 in 1887. In five other years besides 1882 the value
+exceeded a million sterling. The annual average value over the whole
+period was L921,000, whilst the annual average import was 194,000 cwt.,
+consequently the average value per cwt. was nearly L4, 15s., which is
+approximately the same as that of the exported product. The quantities
+and values of the imported hops that are again exported are almost
+insignificant.
+
+
+HOP PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+The distribution of the area of hop-cultivation in the United States
+showed great changes during the last decades of the 19th and the first
+decade of the 20th century. During the earlier portion of that period
+New York was the chief hop-growing state of the Union, but toward the
+end of it a great extension of hop-growing took place on the Pacific
+coast (in the states of Oregon, California and Washington), where the
+richness of the soil and mildness of the climate are favourable to the
+bines.
+
+The average annual produce of hops in the United States from 1900 to
+1906 was 423,471 cwt.; of this quantity 80% was raised in the three
+states of the Pacific coast, where the yield per acre is much larger
+than in New York. In the latter state the yield does not appear to
+exceed 5 or 6 cwt. per acre, whereas in Oregon it is 9 or 10 cwt., and
+in Washington and California from 12 to 14 cwt. The average annual
+export (chiefly to Great Britain) in the years from 1899 to 1905 was
+108,400 cwt.; the average import (chiefly from Germany) is about 50,000
+cwt.
+
+
+HOP CULTIVATION
+
+As the county of Kent has always taken the lead in hop-growing in
+England, and as it includes about two-thirds of the hop acreage of the
+British Isles, the recent developments in hop cultivation cannot be
+better studied than in that county. They were well summarized by Mr
+Charles Whitehead in his sketch of the agriculture of Kent,[2] wherein
+he states that the hop grounds--or hop gardens, as they are called in
+Kent--of poor character and least suitable for hop production have been
+gradually grubbed since 1894, on account of large crops, the importation
+of hops and low prices. At the beginning of the 19th century there were
+290 parishes in Kent in which hops were cultivated. A century later, out
+of the 413 parishes in the county, as many as 331 included hop
+plantations. The hops grown in Kent are classified in the markets as
+"East Kents," "Bastard East Kents," "Mid Kents" and "Wealds," according
+to the district of the county in which they are produced. The relative
+values of these four divisions follow in the same order, East Kents
+making the highest and Wealds the lowest rates. These divisions agree in
+the main with those defined by geological formations. Thus, "East Kents"
+are grown upon the Chalk, and especially on the outcrop of the soils of
+the London Tertiaries upon the Chalk. "Bastard East Kents" are produced
+on alluvial soil and soils formed by admixtures of loam, clay-loams,
+chalk, marl and clay from the Gault, Greensand and Chalk formations.
+"Mid Kents" are derived principally from the Greensand soils and
+outcrops of the London Tertiaries in the upper part of the district.
+"Wealds" come from soils on the Weald Clay, Hastings Sand and Tunbridge
+Wells Sand. As each "pocket" of hops must be marked with the owner's
+name and the parish in which they were grown, buyers of hops can,
+without much trouble, ascertain from which of the four divisions hops
+come, especially if they have the map of the hop-growing parishes of
+England, which gives the name of each parish. There has been a
+considerable rearrangement of the hop plantations in Kent within recent
+years. Common varieties as Colegate's, Jones's, Grapes and Prolifics
+have been grubbed, and Goldings, Bramlings and other choice kinds
+planted in their places. The variety known as Fuggle's, a heavy-cropping
+though slightly coarse hop, has been much planted in the Weald of Kent,
+and in parts of Mid Kent where the soil is suitable. In very old hop
+gardens, where there has been no change of plant for fifty or even one
+hundred years in some instances, except from the gradual process of
+filling up the places of plants that have died, there has been
+replanting with better varieties and varieties ripening in more
+convenient succession; and, generally speaking, the plantations have
+been levelled up in this respect to suit the demand for bright hops of
+fine quality. A recent classification[3] of the varieties of English
+hops arranges them in three groups: (1) early varieties (e.g. Prolific,
+Bramling, Amos's Early Bird); (2) mid-season or main-crop varieties
+(e.g. Farnham Whitebine, Fuggle's, Old Jones's, Golding); (3) late
+varieties (e.g. Grapes, Colgate's).
+
+The cost of cultivating and preparing the produce of an acre of hop land
+tends to increase, on account of the advancing rates of wages, the
+intense cultivation more and more essential, and the necessity of
+freeing the plants from the persistent attacks of insects and fungi. In
+1893 Mr Whitehead estimated the average annual cost of an acre of hop
+land to be L35, 10s., the following being the items:--
+
+  Manure (winter and summer)                        L6 10 0
+  Digging                                            0 19 0
+  Dressing (or cutting)                              0  6 0
+  Poling, tying, earthing, ladder-tying, stringing,
+    lewing                                           2  3 0
+  Shimming, nidgeting, digging round and hoeing
+    hills                                            3  0 0
+  Stacking, stripping, making; bines, &c.            0 17 0
+  Annual renewal of poles                            2 10 0
+  Expense of picking, drying, packing, carriage,
+    sampling, selling, &c., on average crop of,
+    say, 7 cwt. per acre                            10  5 0
+  Rent, rates, taxes, repairs of oast and tacks,
+    interest on capital                              6  0 0
+  Sulphuring                                         1  0 0
+  Washing (often two, three or four times)           2  0 0
+                                                   --------
+                             Total                 L35 10 0
+
+Seven years later the average cost per acre in Kent had risen to quite
+L37.
+
+The hops in Kent are usually planted in October or November, the plants
+being 6 ft. apart each way, thus giving 1210 hills or plant-centres per
+acre. Some planters still grow potatoes or mangels between the rows the
+first year, as the plants do not bear much until the second year; but
+this is considered to be a mistake, as it encourages wire-worm and
+exhausts the ground. Many planters pole hop plants the first year with a
+single short pole, and stretch coco-nut-fibre string from pole to pole,
+and grow many hops in the first season. Much of the hop land is ploughed
+between the rows, as labour is scarce, and the spaces between are dug
+afterwards. It is far better to dig hop land if possible, the tool used
+being the Kent spud. The cost of digging an acre ranges from 18s. to
+21s. Hop land is ploughed or dug between November and March. After this
+the plants are "dressed," which means that all the old bine ends are cut
+off with a sharp curved hop-knife, and the plant centres kept level with
+the ground.
+
+  _Manuring._--Manure is applied in the winter, and dug or ploughed in.
+  London manure from stables is used to an enormous extent. It comes by
+  barge or rail, and is brought from the wharves and stations by
+  traction engines; it costs from 7s. 6d. to 9s. per load. Rags, fur
+  waste, sprats, wool waste and shoddy are also put on in the winter. In
+  the summer, rape dust, guano, nitrate of soda and various patent hop
+  manures are chopped in with the Canterbury hoe. Fish guano or
+  desiccated fish is largely used; it is very stimulating and more
+  lasting than some of the other forcing manures.
+
+  The recent investigations into the subject of hop-manuring made by Dr
+  Bernard Dyer and Mr F. W. E. Shrivell, at Golden Green, near
+  Tonbridge, Kent, are of interest. In the 1901 report[4] it was stated
+  that the object in view was to ascertain how far nitrate of soda, in
+  the presence of an abundant supply of phosphates and potash, is
+  capable of being advantageously used as a source of nitrogenous food
+  for hops. An idea long persisted among hop-growers that nitrate of
+  soda was an unsafe manure for hops, being likely to produce rank
+  growth of bine at the expense of quality and even quantity of hops.
+  During recent years, however, owing very largely to the results of
+  these experiments, and of corresponding experiments based upon these,
+  which have been carried out abroad, hop farmers have much more freely
+  availed themselves of the aid of this useful manure; and there is
+  little doubt that the distrust of nitrate of soda as a hop manure
+  which has existed in the past has been largely due to the fact that
+  nitrate of soda, like many other nitrogenous manures, has often been
+  misused (1) by being applied without a sufficient quantity of
+  phosphates and potash, or (2) by being applied too abundantly, or (3)
+  by being applied too late in the season, with the result of unduly
+  delaying the ripening period. On most of the experimental plots
+  nitrate of soda (in conjunction with phosphates and potash) has been
+  used as the sole source of nitrogen; but it is, of course, not be to
+  supposed that any hop-grower would use year after year, as is the case
+  on some of the plots, nothing but phosphates, potash and nitrate of
+  soda. Miscellaneous feeding is probably good for plants as well as for
+  animals, and there is a large variety of nitrogenous manures at the
+  disposal of the hop-farmer, to say nothing of what, in its place, is
+  one of the most valuable of all manures, namely, home-made dung. These
+  experiments were begun in 1894 with a new garden of young Fuggle's
+  hops. A series of experimental plots was marked out, each plot being
+  one-sixth of an acre in area. The plots run parallel with one another,
+  there being four rows of hills in each. The climate of the district is
+  very dry.
+
+    _Weight of Kiln-dried Fuggle's Hops per Acre._
+
+    +-----+-------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |     |                         |       |       |       |       |       |Average|
+    |Plot.|Annual Manuring per Acre.|  1896 |  1897 |  1898 |  1899 |  1900 |  of 5 |
+    |     |                         |       |       |       |       |       | Years.|
+    +-----+-------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |     |                         |  Cwt. |  Cwt. |  Cwt. |  Cwt. |  Cwt. |  Cwt. |
+    |  A  |Phosphates and potash    |13(1/2)| 7(1/2)| 8(1/4)|20(1/4)| 8     |11(1/2)|
+    |  B  |Phosphates, potash and   |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |     | 2 cwt. nitrate of soda  |16(1/2)| 9(1/4)|10(1/4)|22(1/4)| 9(3/4)|13(1/2)|
+    |  C  |Phosphates, potash and   |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |     | 4 cwt. nitrate of soda  |16(1/2)|12     |12(1/2)|23     |11     |15     |
+    |  D  |Phosphates, potash and   |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |     | 6 cwt. nitrate of soda  |15(1/4)|13     |13     |22(1/2)|10(1/2)|14(3/4)|
+    |  E  |Phosphates, potash and   |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |     | 8 cwt. nitrate of soda  |15     |13(1/2)|15(1/4)|23(1/2)|11     |15(1/2)|
+    |  F  |Phosphates, potash and   |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |     | 10 cwt. nitrate of soda |15     |13     |15     |24(1/2)|10(1/2)|15(3/4)|
+    |  X  |30 loads (about 15 tons) |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |     | London dung             |13     | 8     | 9(3/4)|24(1/2)|10(3/4)|13(3/4)|
+    +-----+-------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  The table given above shows the annual yield of hops per acre on each
+  plot, and also the average for each plot over the five years
+  1896-1900.
+
+  The general results seem to show that the purchase of town dung for
+  hops is not economical, unless under specially favourable terms as to
+  cost of conveyance, and that it should certainly not be relied upon as
+  a sufficient manure. Home-made dung is in quite a different position,
+  as not only is it richer, but it costs nothing for railway carriage.
+  As a source of nitrogenous manure, purchased dung is on the whole too
+  expensive. There is a large variety of other nitrogenous manures in
+  the market besides nitrate of soda, such, for instance as Peruvian and
+  Damaraland guano, sulphate of ammonia, fish guano, dried blood, rape
+  dust, furriers' refuse, horn shavings, hoof parings, wool dust,
+  shoddy, &c. All of these may in turn be used for helping to maintain a
+  stock of nitrogen in the soil; and the degree to which manures of this
+  kind have been recently applied in any hop garden will influence the
+  grower in deciding as to the quantity of nitrate of soda he should use
+  in conjunction with them, and also to some extent in fixing the date
+  of its application.
+
+  Dressings of 8 or 10 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre, such as are
+  applied annually to plots E and F, would be larger than would be put
+  on where the land has been already dressed with dung or with other
+  nitrogenous manures; and even, in the circumstances under notice,
+  although these plots have on the average beaten the others in weight,
+  the hops in some seasons have been distinctly coarser than those more
+  moderately manured--though in the dry season of 1899 the most heavily
+  dressed plot gave actually the best quality as well as the greatest
+  quantity of produce.
+
+  With regard to the application of nitrate of soda in case the season
+  should turn out to be wet, present experience indicates that, on a
+  soil otherwise liberally manured, 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre
+  applied not too late, would be a thoroughly safe dressing. In the
+  case of neither dung nor any other nitrogenous fertilizers having been
+  recently applied, there seems no reason for supposing that, even in a
+  wet season, 6 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre applied early would be
+  otherwise than a safe dressing, considering both quantity and quality
+  of produce. In conjunction with dung, or with the early use of other
+  nitrogenous manures, such as fish, guano, rape dust, &c. it would
+  probably be wise not to exceed 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre.
+
+  As to the date of application, April or May is the latest time at
+  which nitrate of soda should, in most circumstances, be applied, and
+  probably April is preferable to May. The quantity used should be
+  applied in separate dressings of not more than 2 cwt. per acre each,
+  put on at intervals of a month. Where the quantity of nitrate of soda
+  used is large, and constitutes the whole of the nitrogenous manure
+  employed, the first dressing may, on fairly deep and retentive soils,
+  be given as early as January; or, if the quantity used is smaller, say
+  in February; while February will, in most cases, probably be early
+  enough for the first dressing in the case of lighter soils. The
+  condition of the soil and the degree and distribution of rainfall
+  during both the previous autumn and the winter, as well as in the
+  spring itself, produce such varying conditions that it is almost
+  impossible to frame general rules.
+
+  The commonly accepted notion that nitrate of soda is a manure which
+  should be reserved for use during the later period of the growth of
+  the bine appears to be erroneous. The summer months, when the growth
+  of the bine is most active, are the months in which natural
+  nitrification is going on in the soil, converting soil nitrogen and
+  the nitrogen of dung, guano, fish, rape dust, shoddy or other
+  fertilizers into nitrates, and placing this nitrogen at the disposal
+  of the plants; and it appears reasonable, therefore, to suppose that
+  nitrate of soda will be most useful to the hops at the earlier stages
+  of their growth, before the products of that nitrification become
+  abundant. This would especially be so in a season immediately
+  following a wet autumn and winter, which have the effect of washing
+  away into the drains the residual nitrates not utilized by the
+  previous crop.
+
+  The necessity, whether dung is used or not, and whatever form of
+  nitrogenous manure is employed, of also supplying the hops with an
+  abundance of phosphates, cannot be too strongly urged. The use of
+  phosphates for hops was long neglected by hop-planters, and even now
+  there are many growers who do not realize the full importance of heavy
+  phosphatic manuring. On soils containing an abundance of lime no
+  better or cheaper phosphatic manure can be used than ordinary
+  superphosphate, of which as much as 10 cwt. per acre may be applied
+  without the slightest fear of harm. But if the soil is not decidedly
+  calcareous--that is to say, if it does not effervesce when it is
+  stirred up with some diluted hydrochloric (muriatic) acid--bone dust,
+  phosphatic guano or basic slag should be used as a source of
+  phosphates, at the rate of not less than 10 cwt. per acre. On medium
+  soils, which, without being distinctly calcareous, nevertheless
+  contain a just appreciable quantity of carbonate of lime, it is
+  probably a good plan to use the latter class of manures, alternately
+  with superphosphate, year and year about; but it is wise policy to use
+  phosphates _in some form or other_ every year in every hop garden.
+  They are inexpensive, and without them neither dung, nitrate of soda,
+  ammonia salts nor organic manures can be expected to produce both a
+  full vigorous growth of bine and at the same time a well-matured crop
+  of full-weighted, well-conditioned hops.
+
+  The use of potash salts, on most soils, is probably not needed when
+  good dung is freely used; but where this is not the case it is safer
+  in most seasons and on most soils to give a dressing of potash salts.
+  On some soils their aid should on no account be dispensed with.
+
+  Experiments in hop-manuring have also been conducted in connexion with
+  the South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. The main results
+  have been to demonstrate the necessity of a liberal supply of
+  phosphates, if the full benefit is to be reaped from applications of
+  nitrogenous manure.
+
+_Tying, Poling and Picking._--Tying the bines to the poles or strings is
+essentially women's work. It was formerly always piecework, each woman
+taking so many acres to tie, but it is found better to pay the women 1s.
+8d. to 2s. per day, that they may all work together, and tie the plants
+in those grounds where they want tying at once. The new modes of poling
+and training hop plants have also altered the conditions of tying.
+
+Many improvements have been made in the methods of poling and training
+hops. Formerly two or three poles were placed to each hop-hill or
+plant-centre in the spring, and removed in the winter, and this was the
+only mode of training. Recently systems of training on wires and strings
+fastened to permanent upright poles have been introduced. One
+arrangement of wires and strings much adopted consists of stout posts
+set at the end of every row of hop-hills and fastened with stays to keep
+them in place. At intervals in each row a thick pole is fixed. From post
+to post in the rows a wire is stretched at a height of 1/2 ft. from the
+ground, another about 6 ft. from the ground, and another along the tops
+of the posts, so that there are three wires. Hooks are clipped on these
+wires at regular intervals, and coco-nut-fibre strings are threaded on
+them and fastened from wire to wire, and from post to post, to receive
+the hop bines. The string is threaded on the hooks continuously, and is
+put on those of the top wire with a machine called a stringer. There are
+several methods of training hops with posts or stout poles, wire and
+string, whose first cost varies from L20 to L40 per acre. The system is
+cheaper in the long run than that of taking down the poles every year,
+and the wind does not blow down the poles or injure the hops by banging
+the poles together. In another method, extensively made use of in Kent
+and Sussex, stout posts are placed at the ends of each row of plants,
+and, at intervals where requisite, wires are fastened from top to top
+only of these posts, whilst coco-nut-fibre strings are fixed by pegs to
+the ground, close to each hop-stock, whence they radiate upwards for
+attachment to the wires stretching between the tops of the posts. This
+method is more simple and less expensive than the system first
+described, its cost being from L24 to L28 per acre. In this case the
+plants require to be well "lewed," or sheltered, as the strings being so
+light are blown about by the wind. These methods are being largely
+adopted, and, together with the practice of putting coco-nut-fibre
+strings from pole to pole in grounds poled in the old-fashioned manner,
+are important improvements in hop culture, which have tended to increase
+the production of hops. Where the old system of poling with two or three
+poles is still adhered to they are always creosoted, most growers having
+tanks for the purpose; and, in the new methods of poling, the posts and
+poles are creosoted, dipped or kyanized.
+
+At Wye College, Kent, different systems of planting and training have
+been tried, the alleys varying in width from 10 ft. down to 5 ft., and
+the distance between the hills varying quite as widely, so that the
+number of hills to the acre has ranged from 1210 down to 660. The
+biggest crop was secured on the plot where hills were 8 ft. apart each
+way. As a rule, indeed, a wide alley and abundant space between the
+plants, thus allowing the hops plenty of air and light, produced the
+best results, besides effecting some saving in the cost of cultivation,
+as there were only 660 or 680 hills per acre. Of the various methods of
+training, the umbrella system gave the biggest crop in each of the three
+years, 1899, 1900, 1901; and it seemed to be the best method, except in
+seasons when washing was required early, in which case the plants were
+not so readily cleared of vermin.
+
+Much attention is required to keep the bines in their places on the
+poles, strings or wire, during the summer. This gives employment to many
+women, for whose service in this and fruit-picking there is considerable
+demand, and a woman has no trouble in earning from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 10d.
+per day from April till September at pleasant and not very arduous
+labour. The hop-picking follows, and at this women sometimes get 4s. and
+even 5s. per day. This is the real Kent harvest, which formerly lasted a
+month or five weeks. Now it rarely extends beyond eighteen days, as it
+is important to secure the hops before the weather and the aphides,
+which almost invariably swarm within the bracts of the cones, discolour
+them and spoil their sale, as brewers insist upon having bright,
+"coloury" hops. Picking is better done than was formerly the case. The
+hops are picked more singly, and with comparatively few leaves, and the
+pickers are of a somewhat better type than the rough hordes who formerly
+went into Kent for "hopping." Kent planters engage their pickers
+beforehand, and write to them, arranging the numbers required and the
+date of picking. Many families go into Kent for pea- and fruit-picking
+and remain for hop-picking. Without this great immigration of persons,
+variously estimated at between 45,000 and 65,000, the crops of hops
+could not be picked; and fruit-farmers also would be unable to get their
+soft fruit gathered in time without the help of immigrant hands. The
+fruit-growers and hop-planters of Kent have greatly improved the
+accommodation for these immigrants.
+
+Concerning the general question as to the advisability or otherwise of
+cutting the hop bine at the time of picking, A.D. Hall has ascertained
+experimentally that if the bine is cut close to the ground at a time
+when the whole plant is unripe there are removed in the bine and leaves
+considerable quantities of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which
+would have returned to the roots if the bine had not been cut until
+ripe. The plant, therefore, would retain a substantial store of these
+constituents for the following year's growth if the bine were left.
+Chemical analyses have shown that about 30 lb. of nitrogen per acre may
+be saved by allowing the bines to remain uncut, this representing
+practically one-third of the total amount of nitrogen in the hops, leaf
+and bine together. There are also from 25 lb. to 30 lb. of potash in the
+growth, of which nine-tenths would return to the roots, with about half
+the phosphoric acid and a very small proportion of the lime. It has been
+demonstrated that by the practice of cutting the bines when the hops are
+picked the succeeding crop is lessened to the extent of about one-tenth.
+As to stripping off the leaves and lower branches of the plant, it was
+found that this operation once reduced the crop 10% and once 20%, but
+that in the year 1899 it did not affect the crop at all. The inference
+appears to be that when there is a good crop it is not reduced by
+stripping, but that when there is less vigour in the plant it suffers
+the more. Hence, it would seem advisable to study the plant itself in
+connexion with this matter, and to strip a little later, or somewhat
+less, than usual when the bine is not healthy.
+
+_Drying._--After being picked, the hops are taken in pokes--long sacks
+holding ten bushels--to the oasts to be dried. The oasts are circular or
+square kilns, or groups of kilns, wherein the green hops are laid upon
+floors covered with horsehair, under which are enclosed or open stoves
+or furnaces. The heat from these is evenly distributed among the hops
+above by draughts below and round them. This is the usual simple
+arrangement, but patent processes are adopted here and there, though
+they are by no means general. The hops are from nine to ten hours
+drying, after which they are taken off the kiln and allowed to cool
+somewhat, and are then packed tightly into "pockets" 6 ft. long and 2
+ft. wide, weighing 1(1/2) cwt., by means of a hop-pressing machine,
+which has cogs and wheels worked by hand. Of late years more care has
+been bestowed by some of the leading growers upon the drying of hops, so
+as to preserve their qualities and volatile essences, and to meet the
+altered requirements of brewers, who must have bright, well-managed hops
+for the production of light clear beers for quick draught. The use, for
+example, of exhaust fans, recently introduced, greatly facilitates
+drying by drawing a large volume of air through the hops; and as the
+temperature may at the same time be kept low, the risk of getting
+overfired samples is considerably reduced, though not entirely obviated.
+The adoption of the roller floor is another great advance in the process
+of hop-drying, for this, used in conjunction with a raised platform for
+the men to stand on when turning, prevents any damage from the feet of
+the workmen, and reduces the loss of resin to a minimum. The best
+results are obtained when exhaust fans and the roller floor are
+associated together. In such cases the roller floor, which empties its
+load automatically, pours the hop cones into the receiving sheets in
+usually as whole and unbroken a condition as that in which they went on
+to the kiln.
+
+  _Pests of the Hop Crop._--In recent years the difficulties attendant
+  upon hop cultivation have been aggravated, and the expenses increased,
+  by regularly recurring attacks of aphis blight--due to the insect
+  _Aphis (Phorodon) humuli_--which render it necessary to spray or
+  syringe every hop plant, every branch and leaf, with insecticidal
+  solutions three or four times, and sometimes more often, in each
+  season. Quassia and soft-soap solutions are usually employed; they
+  contain from 4 lb. to 8 lb. of soft soap, and the extract of from 8
+  lb. to 10 lb. of quassia chips to 100 gallons of water. The soft soap
+  serves as a vehicle to retain the bitterness of the quassia upon the
+  bines and leaves, making them repulsive to the aphides, which are thus
+  starved out. Another pest, the red spider, _Tetranychus
+  telarius_--really one of the "spinning mites"--is most destructive in
+  very hot summers. Congregating on the under surfaces of the leaves,
+  the red spiders exhaust the sap and cause the leaves to fall,
+  producing the effect known in Germany as "fire-blast." The hop-wash of
+  soft soap and quassia, so effective against aphis attack, is of little
+  avail in the case of red spider. Some success, however, has attended
+  the use of a solution containing 8 lb. to 10 lb. of soft soap to 100
+  gallons of water, with three pints of paraffin added. It is necessary
+  to apply the washes with great force, in order to break through the
+  webs with which the spiders protect themselves. Hop-washing is done by
+  means of large garden engines worked by hand, but more frequently with
+  horse engines. Resort is sometimes had to steam engines, which force
+  the spraying solution along pipes laid between the rows of hops.
+
+  Mould or mildew is frequently the source of much loss to hop-planters.
+  It is due to the action of the fungus _Podosphaera castagnei_, and the
+  mischief is more especially that done to the cones. The only
+  trustworthy remedy is sulphur, employed usually in the form of flowers
+  of sulphur, from 40 lb. to 60 lb. per acre being applied at each
+  sulphuring. The powder is distributed by means of a machine drawn by a
+  horse between the rows. The sulphur is fed from a hopper into a
+  blast-pipe, whence it is driven by a fan actuated by the travelling
+  wheels, and falls as a dense, wide-spreading cloud upon the hop-bines.
+  The first sulphuring takes place when the plants are fairly up the
+  poles, and is repeated three or four weeks later; and even again if
+  indications of mildew are present. It may be added that sulphur is
+  also successfully employed in the form of an alkaline sulphide, such
+  as solution of "liver of sulphur," a variety of potassium sulphide.
+       (W. Fr.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _Report from the Select Committee on the Hop Industry_
+    (London, 1908).
+
+  [2] _Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc_., 1899.
+
+  [3] J. Percival, "The Hop and its English Varieties," _Jour. Roy.
+    Agric. Soc._, 1901.
+
+  [4] _Six Years' Experiments on Hop Manuring_ (London, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+HOPE, ANTHONY, the pen-name of ANTHONY HOPE HAWKINS (1863-   ), British
+novelist, who was born on the 9th of February 1863, the second son of
+the Rev. E. C. Hawkins, Vicar of St Bride's, Fleet Street, London. He
+was educated at Marlborough and Balliol College, Oxford, where he was
+president of the Union Society, and graduated with first classes in
+Moderations and Final Schools. He was called to the bar at the Middle
+Temple in 1877. He soon began contributing stories and sketches to the
+_St James's Gazette_, and in 1890 published his first novel, _A Man of
+Mark_. This was followed by _Father Stafford_ (1891), _Mr Witt's Widow_
+(1892), _Change of Air_ and _Sport Royal and Other Stories_ (1893). By
+this time he had attracted by his vivacious talent the attention of
+editors and readers; but it was not till the following year that he
+attained a great popular success with the publication (May 1894) of _The
+Prisoner of Zenda_. This was followed a few weeks later by _The Dolly
+Dialogues_ (previously published in separate instalments in the
+_Westminster Gazette_). Both books became parents of a numerous progeny.
+_The Prisoner of Zenda_, owing something to the _Prince Otto_ of R. L.
+Stevenson, established a fashion for what was christened, after its
+fictitious locality, "Ruritanian romance"; while the _Dolly Dialogues_,
+inspired possibly by "Gyp" and other French dialogue writers, was the
+forerunner of a whole school of epigrammatic drawing-room comedy. _The
+Prisoner of Zenda_, with Mr Alexander as "Rupert Rassendyll," enjoyed a
+further success in a dramatized form at the St James's Theatre, which
+did still more to popularize the author's fame. In 1894 also appeared
+_The God in the Car_, a novel suggested by the ambiguous influence on
+English society of Cecil Rhodes's career; and _Half a Hero_, a
+complementary study of Australian politics. The same year saw further
+the publication of _The Indiscretion of the Duchess_, in the style of
+the _Dolly Dialogues_, and of another collection of stories named (after
+the first) _The Secret of Wardale Court_. In 1895 Mr Hawkins published
+_Count Antonio_, and contributed to _Dialogues of the Day_, edited by Mr
+Oswald Crawfurd. _Comedies of Courtship_ and _The Heart of the Princess
+Osra_ followed in 1896; _Phroso_ in 1897; _Simon Dale_ and _Rupert of
+Hentzau_ (sequel of the _Prisoner of Zenda_) 1898; and _The King's
+Mirror_, a Ruritanian romance with an infusion of serious psychological
+interest, 1899. The author was advancing from his light comedy and
+gallant romantic inventions to the graver kind of fiction of which _The
+God in the Car_ had been an earlier essay. _Quisante_, published in
+1900, was a study of English society face to face with a political
+genius of an alien type. _Tristram of Blent_ (1901) embodied an ethical
+study of family pride. _The Intrusions of Peggy_ reflected the effects
+on society of recent financial fashions. In 1904 he published _Double
+Harness_, and in 1905 _A Servant of the Public_, two novels of modern
+society, containing somewhat cynical pictures of the condition of
+marriage. With increasing gravity the novelist sacrificed some of the
+charm of his earlier irresponsible gaiety and buoyancy; but his art
+retained its wit and urbanity while it gained in grip of the social
+conditions of contemporary life. He wrote two plays, _The Adventure of
+Lady Ursula_ (1898) and _Pilkerton's Peerage_ (1902), and his later
+novels include _The Great Miss Driver_ (1908) and _Second String_
+(1909). Mr Hawkins's attractive and cultured style and command of plot
+give him a high place among the modern writers of English fiction. In
+1903 he married Miss Elizabeth Somerville Sheldon of New York.
+
+
+
+
+HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831), English art-collector, and author of
+_Anastasius_, born in London about 1770, was the eldest son of John Hope
+of Amsterdam, and was descended from a branch of an old Scottish family
+who for several generations were extensive merchants in London and
+Amsterdam. About the age of eighteen he started on a tour through
+various parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, where he interested himself
+especially in architecture and sculpture, making a large collection of
+the principal objects which attracted his attention. On his return to
+London about 1796 he purchased a house in Duchess Street, Cavendish
+Square, which he fitted up in a very elaborate style, from drawings made
+by himself. In 1807 he published sketches of his furniture, accompanied
+by letterpress, in a folio volume, entitled _Household Furniture and
+Interior Decoration_, which had considerable influence in effecting a
+change in the upholstery and interior decoration of houses,
+notwithstanding that Byron had referred scornfully to him as
+"House-furnisher withal, one Thomas hight." Hope's furniture designs
+were in that pseudo-classical manner which is generally called "English
+Empire." It was sometimes extravagant, and often heavy, but was much
+more restrained than the wilder and later flights of Sheraton in this
+style. At the best, however, it was a not very inspiring mixture of
+Egyptian and Roman motives. In 1809 he published the _Costumes of the
+Ancients_, and in 1812 _Designs of Modern Costumes_, works which display
+a large amount of antiquarian research. He was also, as his father had
+been--the elder Hope's country house near Haarlem was crowded with fine
+pictures--a munificent patron of the highest forms of art, and both at
+his London house and his country seat at Deepdene near Dorking he formed
+large collections of paintings, sculpture and antiques. Deepdene in his
+day became a famous resort of men of letters as well as of people of
+fashion, and among the luxuries suggested by his fine taste was a
+miniature library in several languages in each bedroom. Thorvaldsen, the
+Danish sculptor, was indebted to him for the early recognition of his
+talents, and he also gave frequent employment to Chantrey and
+Flaxman--it was to his order that the latter illustrated Dante. In 1819
+he published anonymously his novel _Anastasius, or Memoirs of a Modern
+Greek, written at the close of the 18th century_, a work which, chiefly
+on account of the novel character of its subject, caused a great
+sensation. It was at first generally attributed to Lord Byron, who told
+Lady Blessington that he wept bitterly on reading it because he had not
+written it and Hope had. But, though remarkable for the acquaintance it
+displays with Eastern life, and distinguished by considerable
+imaginative vigour and much graphic and picturesque description, its
+paradoxes are not so striking as those of Lord Byron; and,
+notwithstanding some eloquent and forcible passages, the only reason
+which warranted its ascription to him was the general type of character
+to which its hero belonged. Hope died on the 3rd of February 1831. He
+was the author of two works published posthumously--the _Origin and
+Prospects of Man_ (1831), in which his speculations diverged widely from
+the usual orthodox opinions, and an _Historical Essay on Architecture_
+(1835), an elaborate description of the architecture of the middle ages,
+illustrated by drawings made by himself in Italy and Germany. He is
+commonly known in literature as "Anastasius" Hope. He married (1806)
+Louisa de la Poer Beresford, daughter of Lord Decies, archbishop of
+Tuam.
+
+
+
+
+HOPEDALE, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.; pop.
+(1905; state census) 2048; (1910) 2188. It is served by the Milford &
+Uxbridge (electric) street railway, and (for freight) by the Grafton &
+Upton railway. The town lies in the "dale" between Milford and Mendon,
+and is cut from N.W. to S.E. by the Mill river, which furnishes good
+water power at its falls. The principal manufactures are textiles,
+boots and shoes, and, of most importance, cotton machinery. The great
+cotton machinery factories here are owned by the Draper Company.
+Hopedale has a public park on the site of the Ballou homestead, with a
+bronze statue of Adin Ballou; a memorial church erected by George A. and
+Eben S. Draper; the Bancroft Memorial Library, given by Joseph B.
+Bancroft in memory of his wife; and a marble drinking fountain with
+statuary by Waldo Story, the gift of Susan Preston Draper, General W. F.
+Draper's wife. The village is remarkable for the comfortable cottages of
+the workers.
+
+The history of Hopedale centres round the Rev. Adin Ballou (1803-1890),
+a distant relative of Hosea Ballou;[1] he left, in succession, the
+ministry of the Christian Connexion (1823) and that of the Universalist
+Church (1831), because of his restorationist views. In 1831 he became
+pastor of an independent church in Mendon. An ardent exponent of
+temperance, the anti-slavery movement, woman's rights, the peace cause
+and Christian non-resistance (even through the Civil War), and of
+"Practical Christian Socialism," it was in the interests of the last
+cause that he founded Hopedale, or "Fraternal Community No. 1," in
+Milford, in April 1842, the first compact of the community having been
+drawn up in January 1841. Thirty persons joined with him, and lived in a
+single house on a poor farm of 258 acres, purchased in June 1841. Ballou
+was for several years the president of the community, which was run on
+the plan that all should have an equal voice as to the use of property,
+in spite of the fact that there was individual holding of property. The
+community, however, owned the instruments of production, with the single
+exception of the important patent rights held by Ebenezer D. Draper. The
+result was bickerings between those who were joint stockholders and
+those whose only profit came from their manual labour. In a short time
+the control of the community came into the hands of its richest members,
+E. D. Draper and his brother, George Draper (1817-1887), who owned
+three-fourths of the joint stock. In 1856 there was a total deficit of
+about $12,000. The Draper brothers bought up the joint stock of the
+community at par and paid its debts, and the community soon ceased to
+exist save as a religious society. After George Draper's death the
+control of the mills passed to his sons. These included General William
+Franklin Draper (1842-1910), a Republican representative in Congress in
+1892-1897 and U.S. ambassador to Italy in 1897-1900, and Eben Sumner
+Draper (b. 1858), lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1906-1908 and
+governor in 1909-1911. In 1867 the community was merged with Hopedale
+parish, a Unitarian organization. Hopedale was separated from Milford
+and incorporated as a township in 1886.
+
+  See Adin Ballou's _History of Milford_ (Boston, 1882), his _History of
+  the Hopedale Community_, edited by William S. Heywood (Lowell, 1897),
+  his _Biography_ by the same editor (Lowell, 1896) and his _Practical
+  and Christian Socialism_ (Hopedale, 1854); George L. Carey, "Adin
+  Ballou and the Hopedale Community" (in the _New World_, vol. vii.,
+  1898); Lewis G. Wilson, "Hopedale and Its Founder" (in _The New
+  England Magazine_, vol. x., 1891); and William F. Draper,
+  _Recollections of a Varied Career_ (Boston, 1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Adin Ballou wrote _An Elaborate History and Genealogy of the
+    Ballous in America_ (Providence, R.I., 1888).
+
+
+
+
+HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT (1812-1873), English barrister and Tractarian,
+was born on the 15th of July 1812, at Great Marlow, Berkshire, the third
+Son of Sir Alexander Hope, and grandson of the second earl of Hopetoun.
+He was educated at Eton and Oxford, where he was a contemporary and
+friend of Gladstone and J. H. Newman, and in 1838 was called to the bar.
+Between 1840 and 1843 he helped to found Trinity College, Glenalmond. He
+was one of the leaders of the Tractarian movement and entirely in
+Newman's confidence. In 1851 he was received with Manning into the Roman
+Catholic church. At this time he was making a very large income at the
+Parliamentary bar. He only commenced serious practice in this branch of
+his profession in 1843, but by the end of 1845 he stood at the head of
+it and in 1849 was made a Queen's Counsel. In 1847 he married Miss
+Lockhart, granddaughter of Sir Walter Scott, and on her coming into
+possession of Abbotsford six years later, assumed the surname of
+Hope-Scott. He retired from the bar in 1870 and died on the 29th of
+April 1873.
+
+
+
+
+HOPFEN, HANS VON (1835-1904), German poet and novelist, was born on the
+3rd of January 1835, at Munich. He studied law, and in 1858, having
+shown marked poetical promise, he was received into the circle of young
+poets whom King Maximilian II. had gathered round him, and thereafter
+devoted himself to literature. In 1862 he made his debut as an author,
+with _Lieder und Balladen_, which were published in the _Munchener
+Dichterbuch_, edited by E. Geibel. After travelling in Italy (1862),
+France (1863) and Austria (1864), he was appointed, in 1865, general
+secretary of the "Schillerstiftung," and in this capacity settled at
+Vienna. The following year, however, he removed to Berlin, in a suburb
+of which, Lichterfelde, he died on the 19th of November 1904. Of
+Hopfen's lyric poems, _Gedichte_ (4th ed., Berlin, 1883), many are of
+considerable talent and originality; but it is as a novelist that he is
+best known. The novels _Peregretta_ (1864); _Verdorben zu Paris_ (1868,
+new ed. 1892); _Arge Sitten_ (1869); _Der graue Freund_ (1874, 2nd ed.,
+1876); and _Verfehlte Liebe_ (1876, 2nd ed., 1879) are attractive, while
+of his shorter stories _Tiroler Geschichten_ (1884-1885) command most
+favour.
+
+  An autobiographical sketch of Hopfen is contained in K. E. Franzos,
+  _Geschichte des Erstlingswerkes_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HOPI, or MOKI (_Moquis_), a tribe of North American Indians of
+Shoshonean stock. They are Pueblo or town-building Indians and occupy
+seven villages on three lofty plateaus of northern Arizona. The first
+accounts of them date from the expedition of Francisco Vasquez de
+Coronado in 1540. With the town-building Indians of New Mexico they were
+then subdued. They shared in the successful revolt of 1542, but again
+suffered defeat in 1586. In 1680, however, they made a successful revolt
+against the Spaniards. They weave very fine blankets, make baskets and
+are expert potters and wood-carvers. Their houses are built of stone set
+in mortar. Their ceremonies are of an elaborate nature, and in the
+famous "snake-dance" the performers carry live rattlesnakes in their
+mouths. They number some 1600. (See also PUEBLO INDIANS.)
+
+  For Hopi festivals, see _21st Ann. Report Bureau of Amer. Ethnology_
+  (1899-1900).
+
+
+
+
+HOPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN, COUNT VON (1712-1789), Swedish statesman, was the
+son of Daniel Niklas Hopken, one of Arvid Horn's most determined
+opponents and a founder of the Hat party. When in 1738 the Hats came
+into power the younger Hopken obtained a seat in the secret committee of
+the diet, and during the Finnish war of 1741-42 was one of the two
+commissioners appointed to negotiate with Russia. During the diet of
+1746-1747 Hopken's influence was of the greatest importance. It was
+chiefly through his efforts that the estates issued a "national
+declaration" protesting against the arrogant attitude of the Russian
+ambassador, who attempted to dominate the crown prince Adolphus
+Frederick and the government. This spirited policy restored the waning
+prestige of the Hat party and firmly established their anti-Muscovite
+system. In 1746 Hopken was created a senator. In 1751 he succeeded
+Gustaf Tessin as prime minister, and controlled the foreign policy of
+Sweden for the next nine years. On the outbreak of the Seven Years' War,
+he contracted an armed neutrality treaty with Denmark (1756); but in the
+following year acceded to the league against Frederick II. of Prussia.
+During the crisis of 1760-1762, when the Hats were at last compelled to
+give an account of their stewardship, Hopken was sacrificed to party
+exigencies and retired from the senate as well as from the premiership.
+On the 22nd of June 1762, however, he was created a count. After the
+revolution of 1772 he re-entered the senate at the particular request of
+Gustavus III., but no longer exercised any political influence. His
+caustic criticism of many of the royal measures, moreover, gave great
+offence, and in 1780 he retired into private life. Hopken was a
+distinguished author. The noble style of his biographies and orations
+has earned for him the title of the Swedish Tacitus. He helped to found
+the _Vetenskaps Akademi_, and when Gustavus III. in 1786 established
+the Swedish Academy, he gave Hopken the first place in it.
+
+  See L. G. de Geer, _Minne af Grefve A. J. von Hopken_ (Stockholm,
+  1882); Carl Silfverstolpe, _Grefve Hopkens Skrifter_ (Stockholm,
+  1890-1893).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN (1857-   ), American Sanskrit scholar, was born
+in Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 8th of September 1857. He
+graduated at Columbia University in 1878, studied at Leipzig, where he
+received the degree of Ph.D. in 1881, was an instructor at Columbia in
+1881-1885, and professor at Bryn Mawr in 1885-1895, and became professor
+of Sanskrit and comparative philology in Yale University in 1895. He
+became secretary of the American Oriental Society and editor of its
+_Journal_, to which he contributed many valuable papers, especially on
+numerical and temporal categories in early Sanskrit literature. He wrote
+_Caste in Ancient India_ (1881); _Manu's Lawbook_ (1884); _Religions of
+India_ (1895); _The Great Epic of India_ (1901); and _India Old and New_
+(1901).
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, ESEK (1718-1802), the first admiral of the United States navy,
+was born at Scituate, Rhode Island, in 1718. He belonged to one of the
+most prominent Puritan families of New England. At the age of twenty he
+went to sea, and rapidly came to the front as a good sailor and skilful
+trader. Marrying, three years later, into a prosperous family of
+Newport, and thus increasing his influence in Rhode Island, he became
+commodore of a fleet of seventeen merchantmen, the movements of which he
+directed with skill and energy. In war as well as peace, Hopkins was
+establishing his reputation as one of the leading colonial seamen, for
+as captain of a privateer he made more than one brilliant and successful
+venture during the Seven Years' War. In the interval between voyages,
+moreover, he was engaged in Rhode Island politics, and rendered
+efficient support to his brother Stephen against the Ward faction. At
+the outbreak of the War of Independence, Hopkins was appointed
+brigadier-general by Rhode Island, was commissioned, December 1775, by
+the Continental Congress, commander-in-chief of the navy, and in January
+1776 hoisted his flag as admiral of the eight converted merchantmen
+which then constituted the navy of the United States. His first cruise
+resulted in a great acquisition of material of war and an indecisive
+fight with H.M.S. "Glasgow." At first this created great enthusiasm, but
+criticism soon made itself heard. Hopkins and two of his captains were
+tried for breach of orders, and, though ably defended by John Adams,
+were censured by Congress. The commands, nevertheless, were not
+interfered with, and a prize was soon afterwards named after the admiral
+by their orders. But the difficulties and mutual distrust continually
+increased, and in 1777 Congress summarily dismissed Hopkins from his
+command, on the complaint of some of his officers. Before the order
+arrived, the admiral had detected the conspiracy against him, and had
+had the ringleaders tried and degraded by court-martial. But the
+Congress followed up its order by dismissing him from the navy. For the
+rest of his life he lived in Rhode Island, playing a prominent part in
+state politics, and he died at Providence in 1802.
+
+  See Edward Field, _Life of Esek Hopkins_ (Providence, 1898); also an
+  article by R. Grieve in the _New England Magazine_ of November 1897.
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, MARK (1802-1887), American educationist, great-nephew of the
+theologian Samuel Hopkins, was born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on
+the 4th of February 1802. He graduated in 1824 at Williams College,
+where he was a tutor in 1825-1827, and where in 1830, after having
+graduated in the previous year at the Berkshire Medical College at
+Pittsfield, he became professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric. In
+1833 he was licensed to preach in Congregational churches. He was
+president of Williams College from 1836 until 1872. He was one of the
+ablest and most successful of the old type of college president. His
+volume of lectures on _Evidences of Christianity_ (1846) was long a
+favourite text-book. Of his other writings, the chief were _Lectures on
+Moral Science_ (1862), _The Law of Love and Love as a Law_ (1869), _An
+Outline Study of Man_ (1873), _The Scriptural Idea of Man_ (1883), and
+_Teachings and Counsels_ (1884). Dr Hopkins took a lifelong interest in
+Christian missions, and from 1857 until his death was president of the
+American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (the American
+Congregational Mission Board). He died at Williamstown, on the 17th of
+June 1887. His son, HENRY HOPKINS (1837-1908), was also from 1903 till
+his death president of Williams College.
+
+  See Franklin Carter's _Mark Hopkins_ (Boston, 1892), in the "American
+  Religious Leaders" series, and Leverett W. Spring's _Mark Hopkins,
+  Teacher_ (New York, 1888), being No. 4, vol. i., of the "Monographs of
+  the Industrial Educational Association."
+
+Mark Hopkins's brother, ALBERT HOPKINS (1807-1872), was long associated
+with him at Williams College, where he graduated in 1826 and was
+successively a tutor (1827-1829), professor of mathematics and natural
+philosophy (1829-1838), professor of natural philosophy and astronomy
+(1838-1868) and professor of astronomy (1868-1872). In 1835 he organized
+and conducted a Natural History Expedition to Nova Scotia, said to have
+been the first expedition of the kind sent out from any American
+college, and in 1837, at his suggestion and under his direction, was
+built at Williams College an astronomical observatory, said to have been
+the first in the United States built at a college exclusively for
+purposes of instruction. He died at Williamstown on the 24th of May
+1872.
+
+  See Albert C. Sewall's _Life of Professor Albert Hopkins_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, SAMUEL (1721-1803), American theologian, from whom the
+Hopkinsian theology takes its name, was born at Waterbury, Connecticut,
+on the 17th of September 1721. He graduated at Yale College in 1741;
+studied divinity at Northampton, Massachusetts, with Jonathan Edwards;
+was licensed to preach in 1742, and in December 1743 was ordained pastor
+of the church in the North Parish of Sheffield, or Housatonick (now
+Great Barrington), Massachusetts, at that time a small settlement of
+only thirty families. There he laboured--preaching, studying and
+writing--until 1769, for part of the time (1751-1758) in intimate
+association with his old teacher, Edwards, whose call to Stockbridge he
+had been instrumental in procuring. His theological views having met
+with much opposition, however, he was finally dismissed from the
+pastorate on the pretext of want of funds for his support. From April
+1770 until his death on the 20th of December 1803, he was the pastor of
+the First Church in Newport, Rhode Island, though during 1776-1780,
+while Newport was occupied by the British, he preached at Newburyport,
+Mass., and at Canterbury and Stamford, Conn. In 1799 he had an attack of
+paralysis, from which he never wholly recovered. Hopkins's theological
+views have had a powerful influence in America. Personally he was
+remarkable for force and energy of character, and for the utter
+fearlessness with which he followed premises to their conclusions. In
+vigour of intellect and in strength and purity of moral tone he was
+hardly inferior to Edwards himself. Though he was originally a
+slave-holder, to him belongs the honour of having been the first among
+the Congregational ministers of New England to denounce slavery both by
+voice and pen; and to his persistent though bitterly opposed efforts are
+probably chiefly to be attributed the law of 1774, which forbade the
+importation of negro slaves into Rhode Island, as also that of 1784,
+which declared that all children of slaves born in Rhode Island after
+the following March should be free. His training school for negro
+missionaries to Africa was broken up by the confusion of the American
+War of Independence. Among his publications are a valuable _Life and
+Character of Jonathan Edwards_ (1799), and numerous pamphlets, addresses
+and sermons, including _A Dialogue concerning the Slavery of the
+Africans, showing it to be the Duty and Interest of the American States
+to emancipate all their African Slaves_ (1776), and _A Discourse upon
+the Slave Trade and the History of the Africans_ (1793). His distinctive
+theological tenets are to be found in his important work, _A System of
+Doctrines Contained in Divine Revelation, Explained and Defended_
+(1793), which has had an influence hardly inferior to that exercised by
+the writings of Edwards himself. They may be summed up as follows: God
+so rules the universe as to produce its highest happiness, considered as
+a whole. Since God's sovereignty is absolute, sin must be, by divine
+permission, a means by which this happiness of the whole is secured,
+though that this is its consequence, renders it no less heinous in the
+sinner. Virtue consists in preference for the good of the whole to any
+private advantage; hence the really virtuous man must willingly accept
+any disposition of himself that God may deem wise--a doctrine often
+called "willingness to be damned." All have natural power to choose the
+right, and are therefore responsible for their acts; but all men lack
+inclination to choose the right unless the existing "bias" of their
+wills is transformed by the power of God from self-seeking into an
+effective inclination towards virtue. Hence preaching should demand
+instant submission to God and disinterested goodwill, and should teach
+the worthlessness of all religious acts or dispositions which are less
+than these, while recognizing that God can grant or withhold the
+regenerative change at his pleasure.
+
+  The best edition of Hopkins's _Works_ is that published in three
+  volumes at Boston in 1852, containing an excellent biographical sketch
+  by Professor Edwards A. Park. In 1854 was published separately
+  Hopkins's _Treatise on the Millennium_, which originally appeared in
+  his _System of Doctrines_ and in which he deduced from prophecies in
+  _Daniel_ and _Revelation_ that the millennium would come "not far from
+  the end of the twentieth century." See also Stephen West's _Sketches
+  of the Life of the Late Reverend Samuel Hopkins_ (Hartford, Conn.,
+  1805), Franklin B. Dexter's _Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of
+  Yale College_ and Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New
+  York, 1901).     (W. Wr.)
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINS, WILLIAM (1793-1866), English mathematician and geologist, was
+born at Kingston-on-Soar, in Nottinghamshire, on the 2nd of February
+1793. In his youth he learned practical agriculture in Norfolk and
+afterwards took an extensive farm in Suffolk. In this he was
+unsuccessful. At the age of thirty he entered St Peter's College,
+Cambridge, taking his degree of B.A. in 1827 as seventh wrangler and
+M.A. in 1830. In 1833 he published _Elements of Trigonometry_. He was
+distinguished for his mathematical knowledge, and became eminently
+successful as a private tutor, many of his pupils attaining high
+distinction. About 1833, through meeting Sedgwick at Barmouth and
+joining him in several excursions, he became intensely interested in
+geology. Thereafter, in papers published by the Cambridge Philosophical
+Society and the Geological Society of London, he entered largely into
+mathematical inquiries connected with geology, dealing with the effects
+which an elevatory force acting from below would produce on a portion of
+the earth's crust, in fissures, faults, &c. In this way he discussed the
+elevation and denudation of the Lake district, the Wealden area, and the
+Bas Boulonnais. He wrote also on the motion of glaciers and the
+transport of erratic blocks. So ably had he grappled with many difficult
+problems that in 1850 the Wollaston medal was awarded to him by the
+Geological Society of London; and in the following year he was elected
+president. In his second address (1853) he criticized Elie de Beaumont's
+theory of the elevation of mountain-chains and showed the imperfect
+evidence on which it rested. He brought before the Geological Society in
+1851 an important paper _On the Causes which may have produced changes
+in the Earth's superficial Temperature_. He was president of the British
+Association for 1853. His later researches included observations on the
+conductivity of various substances for heat, and on the effect of
+pressure on the temperature of fusion of different bodies. He died at
+Cambridge on the 13th of October 1866.
+
+  Obituary by W. W. Smyth, in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1867), p.
+  xxix.
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINSON, FRANCIS (1737-1791), American author and statesman, one of
+the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of October 1737. He was a son of
+Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751), a prominent lawyer of Philadelphia, one of
+the first trustees of the College of Philadelphia, now the University of
+Pennsylvania, and first president of the American Philosophical Society.
+Francis was the first student to enter the College of Philadelphia.
+from which he received his bachelor's degree in 1757 and his master's
+degree in 1760. He then studied law in the office in Philadelphia of
+Benjamin Chew, and was admitted to the bar in 1761. Removing after 1768
+to Bordentown, New Jersey, he became a member of the council of that
+colony in 1774. On the approach of the War of Independence he identified
+himself with the patriot or whig element in the colony, and in 1776 and
+1777 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress. He served on the
+committee appointed to frame the Articles of Confederation, executed,
+with John Nixon (1733-1808) and John Wharton, the "business of the navy"
+under the direction of the marine committee, and acted for a time as
+treasurer of the Continental loan office. From 1779 to 1789 he was judge
+of the court of admiralty in Pennsylvania, and from 1790 until his death
+was United States district judge for that state. He was famous for his
+versatility, and besides being a distinguished lawyer, jurist and
+political leader, was "a mathematician, a chemist, a physicist, a
+mechanician, an inventor, a musician and a composer of music, a man of
+literary knowledge and practice, a writer of airy and dainty songs, a
+clever artist with pencil and brush and a humorist of unmistakeable
+power" (Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_). It is as
+a writer, however, that he will be remembered. He ranks as one of the
+three leading satirists on the patriot side during the War of
+Independence. His ballad, _The Battle of the Kegs_ (1778), was long
+exceedingly popular. To alarm the British force at Philadelphia the
+Americans floated kegs charged with gunpowder down the Delaware river
+towards that city, and the British, alarmed for the safety of their
+shipping, fired with cannon and small arms at everything they saw
+floating in the river. Hopkinson's ballad is an imaginative expansion of
+the actual facts. To the cause of the revolution this ballad, says
+Professor Tyler, "was perhaps worth as much just then as the winning of
+a considerable battle." Hopkinson's principal writings are _The Pretty
+Story_ (1774), _A Prophecy_ (1776) and _The Political Catechism_ (1777).
+Among his songs may be mentioned _The Treaty_ and _The New Roof, a Song
+for Federal Mechanics_; and the best known of his satirical pieces are
+_Typographical Method of conducting a Quarrel_, _Essay on White Washing_
+and _Modern Learning_. His _Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional
+Writings_ were published at Philadelphia in 3 vols., 1792.
+
+His son, JOSEPH HOPKINSON (1770-1842), graduated at the University of
+Pennsylvania in 1786, studied law, and was a Federalist member of the
+national House of Representatives in 1815-1819, Federal judge of the
+Eastern District of Pennsylvania from 1828 until his death, and a member
+of the state constitutional convention of 1837. He is better known,
+however, as the author of the patriotic anthem "Hail Columbia" (1798).
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINSON, JOHN (1849-1898), English engineer and physicist, was born in
+Manchester on the 27th of July 1849. Before he was sixteen he attended
+lectures at Owens College, and at eighteen he gained a mathematical
+scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1871 as
+senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, having previously taken the
+degree of D.Sc. at London University and won a Whitworth scholarship.
+Although elected a fellow and tutor of his college, he stayed up at
+Cambridge only for a very short time, preferring to learn practical
+engineering as a pupil in the works in which his father was a partner.
+But there his stay was equally short, for in 1872 he undertook the
+duties of engineering manager in the glass manufactories of Messrs
+Chance Brothers and Company at Birmingham. Six years later he removed to
+London, and while continuing to act as scientific adviser to Messrs
+Chance, established a most successful practice as a consulting engineer.
+His work was mainly, though not exclusively, electrical, and his
+services were in great demand as an expert witness in patent cases. In
+1890 he was appointed director of the Siemens laboratory at King's
+College, London, with the title of professor of electrical engineering.
+His death occurred prematurely on the 27th of August 1898, when he was
+killed, together with one son and two daughters, by an accident the
+nature of which was never precisely ascertained, while climbing the
+Petite Dent de Veisivi, above Evolena. Dr Hopkinson presented a rare
+combination of practical with theoretical ability, and his achievements
+in pure scientific research are not less intrinsically notable than the
+skill with which he applied their results to the solution of concrete
+engineering problems. His original work is contained in more than sixty
+papers, all written with a complete mastery both of style and of
+subject-matter. His name is best known in connexion with electricity and
+magnetism. On the one hand he worked out the general theory of the
+magnetic circuit in the dynamo (in conjunction with his brother Edward),
+and the theory of alternating currents, and conducted a long series of
+observations on the phenomena attending magnetization in iron, nickel
+and the curious alloys of the two which can exist both in a magnetic and
+non-magnetic state at the same temperature. On the other hand, by the
+application of the principles he thus elucidated he furthered to an
+immense extent the employment of electricity for the purposes of daily
+life. As regards the generation of electric energy, by pointing out
+defects of design in the dynamo as it existed about 1878, and showing
+how important improvements were to be effected in its construction, he
+was largely instrumental in converting it from a clumsy and wasteful
+appliance into one of the most efficient known to the engineer. Again,
+as regards the distribution of the current, he took a leading part in
+the development of the three-wire system and the closed-circuit
+transformer, while electric traction had to thank him for the
+series-parallel method of working motors. During his residence in
+Birmingham, Messrs Chance being makers of glass for use in lighthouse
+lamps, his attention was naturally turned to problems of lighthouse
+illumination, and he was able to devise improvements in both the
+catoptric and dioptric methods for concentrating and directing the beam.
+He was a strong advocate of the group-flashing system as a means of
+differentiating lights, and invented an arrangement for carrying it into
+effect optically, his plan being first adopted for the catoptric light
+of the _Royal Sovereign_ lightship, in the English Channel off Beachy
+Head. Moreover, his association with glass manufacture led him to study
+the refractive indices of different kinds of glass; he further undertook
+abstruse researches on electrostatic capacity, the phenomena of the
+residual charge, and other problems arising out of Clerk Maxwell's
+electro-magnetic theory.
+
+  His original papers were collected and published, with a memoir by his
+  son, in 1901.
+
+
+
+
+HOPKINSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Christian county, Kentucky,
+U.S.A., about 150 m. S.W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 5833; (1900) 7280
+(3243 negroes); (1910) 9419. The city is served by the Illinois Central
+and the Louisville & Nashville railways. It is the seat of Bethel Female
+College (Baptist, founded 1854), of South Kentucky College (Christian;
+co-educational; chartered 1849) and of the Western Kentucky Asylum for
+the Insane. The city's chief interest is in the tobacco industry; it has
+also considerable trade in other agricultural products and in coal; and
+its manufactures include carriages and wagons, bricks, lime, flour and
+dressed lumber. When Christian county was formed from Logan county in
+1797, Hopkinsville, formerly called Elizabethtown, became the
+county-seat, and was renamed in honour of Samuel Hopkins (c. 1750-1819),
+an officer of the Continental Army in the War of Independence, a pioneer
+settler in Kentucky, and a representative in Congress from Kentucky in
+1813-1815. In 1798 Hopkinsville was incorporated.
+
+
+
+
+HOPPNER, JOHN (1758-1810), English portrait-painter, was born, it is
+said, on the 4th of April 1758 at Whitechapel. His father was of German
+extraction, and his mother was one of the German attendants at the royal
+palace. Hoppner was consequently brought early under the notice and
+received the patronage of George III., whose regard for him gave rise to
+unfounded scandal. As a boy he was a chorister at the royal chapel, but
+showing strong inclination for art, he in 1775 entered as a student at
+the Royal Academy. In 1778 he took a silver medal for drawing from the
+life, and in 1782 the Academy's highest award, the gold medal for
+historical painting, his subject being King Lear. He first exhibited at
+the Royal Academy in 1780. His earliest love was for landscape, but
+necessity obliged him to turn to the more lucrative business of
+portrait-painting. At once successful, he had, throughout life, the most
+fashionable and wealthy sitters, and was the greatest rival of the
+growing attraction of Lawrence. Ideal subjects were very rarely
+attempted by Hoppner, though a "Sleeping Venus," "Belisarius," "Jupiter
+and Io," a "Bacchante" and "Cupid and Psyche" are mentioned among his
+works. The prince of Wales especially patronized him, and many of his
+finest portraits are in the state apartments at St James's Palace, the
+best perhaps being those of the prince, the duke and duchess of York, of
+Lord Rodney and of Lord Nelson. Among his other sitters were Sir Walter
+Scott, Wellington, Frere and Sir George Beaumont. Competent judges have
+deemed his most successful works to be his portraits of women and
+children. A _Series of Portraits of Ladies_ was published by him in
+1803, and a volume of translations of Eastern tales into English verse
+in 1805. The verse is of but mediocre quality. In his later years
+Hoppner suffered from a chronic disease of the liver; he died on the
+23rd of January 1810. He was confessedly an imitator of Reynolds. When
+first painted, his works were much admired for the brilliancy and
+harmony of their colouring, but the injury due to destructive mediums
+and lapse of time which many of them suffered caused a great
+depreciation in his reputation. The appearance, however, of some of his
+pictures in good condition has shown that his fame as a brilliant
+colourist was well founded. His drawing is faulty, but his touch has
+qualities of breadth and freedom that give to his paintings a faint
+reflection of the charm of Reynolds. Hoppner was a man of great social
+power, and had the knowledge and accomplishments of a man of the world.
+
+  The best account of Hoppner's life and paintings is the exhaustive
+  work by William McKay and W. Roberts (1909).
+
+
+
+
+HOP-SCOTCH ("scotch," to score), an old English children's game in which
+a small object, like a flat stone, is kicked by the player, while
+hopping, from one division to another of an oblong space marked upon the
+ground and divided into a number of divisions, usually 10 or 12. These
+divisions are numbered, and the stone must rest successively in each.
+Should it rest upon a line or go out of the division aimed for, the
+player loses. In order to win a player must drive the stone into each
+division and back to the starting-point.
+
+
+
+
+HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON, BARON (1598-1652), Royalist commander in the
+English Civil War, was the son of Robert Hopton of Witham, Somerset. He
+appears to have been educated at Lincoln College, Oxford, and to have
+served in the army of the Elector Palatine in the early campaigns of the
+Thirty Years' War, and in 1624 he was lieutenant-colonel of a regiment
+raised in England to serve in Mansfeld's army. Charles I., at his
+coronation, made Hopton a Knight of the Bath. In the political troubles
+which preceded the outbreak of the Civil War, Hopton, as member of
+parliament successively for Bath, Somerset and Wells, at first opposed
+the royal policy, but after Stratford's attainder (for which he voted)
+he gradually became an ardent supporter of Charles, and at the beginning
+of the Great Rebellion (q.v.) he was made lieutenant-general under the
+marquess of Hertford in the west. His first achievement was the rallying
+of Cornwall to the royal cause, his next to carry the war from that
+county into Devonshire. In May 1643 he won the brilliant victory of
+Stratton, in June he overran Devonshire, and on the 5th of July he
+inflicted a severe defeat on Sir William Waller at Lansdown. In the last
+action he was severely wounded by the explosion of a powder-wagon and he
+was soon after shut up in Devizes by Waller, where he defended himself
+until relieved by the victory of Roundway Down on the 13th of July. He
+was soon afterwards created Baron Hopton of Stratton. But his successes
+in the west were cut short by the defeat of Cheriton or Alresford in
+March 1644. After this he served in the western campaign under Charles's
+own command, and towards the end of the war, after Lord Goring had left
+England, he succeeded to the command of the royal army, which his
+predecessor had allowed to waste away in indiscipline. It was no longer
+possible to stem the tide of the parliament's victory, and Hopton,
+defeated in his last stand at Torrington on the 16th of February 1646,
+surrendered to Fairfax. Subsequently he accompanied the prince of Wales
+in his attempts to prolong the war in the Scilly and Channel Islands.
+But his downright loyalty was incompatible with the spirit of concession
+and compromise which prevailed in the prince's council in 1640-1650, and
+he withdrew from active participation in the cause of royalism. He died,
+still in exile, at Bruges in September 1652. The peerage became extinct
+at his death. The king, Prince Charles and the governing circle
+appreciated the merits of their faithful lieutenant less than did his
+enemies Waller and Fairfax, the former of whom wrote, "hostility itself
+cannot violate my friendship to your person," while the latter spoke of
+him as "one whom we honour and esteem above any other of your party."
+
+
+
+
+HOR, MOUNT ([Hebrew: hor]), the scene in the Bible of Aaron's death,
+situated "in the edge of the land of Edom" (Num. xxxiii. 37). Since the
+time of Josephus it has been identified with the _Jebel Nebi Harun_
+("Mountain of the Prophet Aaron"), a twin-peaked mountain 4780 ft. above
+the sea-level (6072 ft. above the Dead Sea) in the Edomite Mountains on
+the east side of the Jordan-Arabah valley. On the summit is a shrine
+said to cover the grave of Aaron. Some modern investigators dissent from
+this identification: H. Clay Trumbull prefers the Jebel Madara, a peak
+north-west of 'Ain Kadis. Another Mount Hor is mentioned in Num. xxxiv.
+7, 8, as on the northern boundary of the prospective conquests of the
+Israelites. It is perhaps to be identified with Hermon. It has been
+doubtfully suggested that for _Hor_ we should here read _Hadrach_, the
+name of a northern country near Damascus, mentioned only once in the
+Bible (Zech. ix. 1).     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HORACE [QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.), the famous Roman poet,
+was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia, on the borders of
+Lucania and Apulia (_Sat._ ii. 1. 34). The town, originally a colony of
+veterans, appears to have long maintained its military traditions, and
+Horace was early imbued with a profound respect for the indomitable
+valour and industry of the Italian soldier. It would seem, however, that
+the poet was not brought up in the town itself, at least he did not
+attend the town school (_Sat._ i. 6. 72) and was much in the
+neighbouring country, of which, though he was but a child when he left
+it, he retained always a vivid and affectionate memory. The mountains
+near and far, the little villages on the hillsides, the woods, the
+roaring Aufidus, the mossy spring of Bandusia, after which he named
+another spring on his Sabine farm--these scenes were always dear to him
+and are frequently mentioned in his poetry (e.g. _Carm._ iii. 4 and 30,
+iv. 9). We may thus trace some of the germs of his poetical inspiration,
+as well as of his moral sympathies, to the early years which he spent
+near Venusia. But the most important moral influence of his youth was
+the training and example of his father, of whose worth, affectionate
+solicitude and homely wisdom Horace has given a most pleasing and
+life-like picture (_Sat._ i. 6. 70, &c.). He was a freedman by position;
+and it is supposed that he had been originally a slave of the town of
+Venusia, and on his emancipation had received the gentile name of
+Horatius from the Horatian tribe in which the inhabitants of Venusia
+were enrolled. After his emancipation he acquired by the occupation of
+"coactor" (a collector of the payments made at public auctions, or,
+according to another interpretation, a collector of taxes) sufficient
+means to enable him to buy a small farm, to make sufficient provision
+for the future of his son (_Sat._ i. 4. 108), and to take him to Rome to
+give him the advantage of the best education there. To his care Horace
+attributes, not only the intellectual training which enabled him in
+later life to take his place among the best men of Rome, but also his
+immunity from the baser forms of moral evil (_Sat._ i. 6. 68. &c.). To
+his practical teaching he attributes also his tendency to moralize and
+to observe character (_Sat._ i. 4. 105, &c.)--the tendency which enabled
+him to become the most truthful painter of social life and manners which
+the ancient world produced.
+
+In one of his latest writings (_Epist._ ii. 2. 42, &c.) Horace gives a
+further account of his education; but we hear no more of his father, nor
+is there any allusion in his writings to the existence of any other
+member of his family or any other relative. After the ordinary
+grammatical and literary training at Rome, he went (45 B.C.) to Athens,
+the most famous school of philosophy, as Rhodes was of oratory; and he
+describes himself while there as "searching after truth among the groves
+of Academus" as well as advancing in literary accomplishment. His
+pleasant residence there was interrupted by the breaking out of the
+civil war. Following the example of his young associates, he attached
+himself to the cause of Brutus, whom he seems to have accompanied to
+Asia, probably as a member of his staff; and he served at the battle of
+Philippi in the post of military tribune. He shared in the rout which
+followed the battle, and henceforth, though he was not less firm in his
+conviction that some causes were worth fighting for and dying for, he
+had but a poor opinion of his own soldierly qualities.
+
+He returned to Rome shortly after the battle, stripped of his property,
+which formed part of the land confiscated for the benefit of the
+soldiers of Octavianus and Antony. It may have been at this time that he
+encountered the danger of shipwreck, which he mentions among the perils
+from which his life had been protected by supernatural aid (_Carm._ iii.
+4. 28). He procured in some way the post of a clerkship in the
+quaestor's office, and about three years after the battle of Philippi,
+he was introduced by Virgil and Varius to Maecenas. This was the
+turning-point of his fortunes. He owed his friendship with the greatest
+of literary patrons to his personal merits rather than to his poetic
+fame; for he was on intimate terms with Maecenas before the first book
+of the _Satires_ (his first published work) appeared. He tells us in one
+of his _Satires_ (i. 10. 31) that his earliest ambition was to write
+Greek verses. In giving this direction to his ambition, he was probably
+influenced by his admiration of the old iambic and lyrical poets whom he
+has made the models of his own _Epodes_ and _Odes_. His common sense as
+well as his national feeling fortunately saved him from becoming a
+second-rate Greek versifier in an age when poetic inspiration had passed
+from Greece to Italy, and the living language of Rome was a more fitting
+vehicle for the new feelings and interests of men than the echoes of the
+old Ionian or Aeolian melodies. His earliest Latin compositions were, as
+he tells us, written under the instigation of poverty; and they alone
+betray any trace of the bitterness of spirit which the defeat of his
+hopes and the hardships which he had to encounter on his first return to
+Rome may have temporarily produced on him. Some of the _Epodes_, of the
+nature of personal and licentious lampoons, and the second _Satire_ of
+book i., in which there is some trace of an angry republican feeling,
+belong to these early compositions. But by the time the first book of
+_Satires_ was completed and published (35 B.C.) his temper had recovered
+its natural serenity, and, though he had not yet attained to the height
+of his fortunes, his personal position was one of comfort and security,
+and his intimate relation with the leading men in literature and social
+rank was firmly established.
+
+About a year after the publication of this first book of _Satires_
+Maecenas presented him with a farm among the Sabine hills, near the
+modern Tivoli. This secured him pecuniary independence; it satisfied the
+love of nature which had been implanted in him during the early years
+spent on the Venusian farm; and it afforded him a welcome escape from
+the distractions of city life and the dangers of a Roman autumn. Many
+passages in the _Satires_, _Odes_ and _Epistles_ express the happiness
+and pride with which the thought of his own valley filled him, and the
+interest which he took in the simple and homely ways of his country
+neighbours. The inspiration of the _Satires_ came from the heart of
+Rome; the feeling of many of the _Odes_ comes direct from the Sabine
+hills; and even the meditative spirit of the later _Epistles_ tells of
+the leisure and peace of quiet days spent among books, or in the open
+air, at a distance from "the smoke, wealth and tumult" of the great
+metropolis.
+
+The second book of _Satires_ was published in 29 B.C.; the _Epodes_
+(spoken of by himself as _iambi_) apparently about a year earlier,
+though many of them are, as regards the date of their composition, to be
+ranked among the earliest extant writings of Horace. In one of his
+_Epistles_ (i. 19. 25) he rests his first claim to originality on his
+having introduced into Latium the metres and spirit of Archilochus of
+Paros. He may have naturalized some special form of metre employed by
+that poet, and it may be (as Th. Plusz has suggested) that we should see
+in the _Epodes_ a tone of mockery and parody. But his personal lampoons
+are the least successful of his works; while those _Epodes_ which treat
+of other subjects in a poetical spirit are inferior in metrical effect,
+and in truth and freshness of feeling, both to the lighter lyrics of
+Catullus and to his own later and more carefully meditated _Odes_. The
+_Epodes_, if they are serious at all, are chiefly interesting as a
+record of the personal feelings of Horace during the years which
+immediately followed his return to Rome, and as a prelude to the higher
+art and inspiration of the first three books of the _Odes_, which were
+published together about the end of 24 or the beginning of 23 B.C.[1]
+The composition of these _Odes_ extended over several years, but all the
+most important among them belong to the years between the battle of
+Actium and 24 B.C. His lyrical poetry is thus, not, like that of
+Catullus, the ardent utterance of his youth, but the mature and finished
+workmanship of his manhood. The state of public affairs was more
+favourable than it had been since the outbreak of the civil war between
+Caesar and Pompey for the appearance of lyrical poetry. Peace, order and
+national unity had been secured by the triumph of Augustus, and the
+enthusiasm in favour of the new government had not yet been chilled by
+experience of its repressing influence. The poet's circumstances were,
+at the same time, most favourable for the exercise of his lyrical gift
+during these years. He lived partly at Rome, partly at his Sabine farm,
+varying his residence occasionally by visits to Tibur, Praeneste or
+Baiae. His intimacy with Maecenas was strengthened and he had become the
+familiar friend of the great minister. He was treated with distinction
+by Augustus, and by the foremost men in Roman society. He complains
+occasionally that the pleasures of his youth are passing from him, but
+he does so in the spirit of a temperate Epicurean, who found new
+enjoyments in life as the zest for the old enjoyments decayed, and who
+considered the wisdom and meditative spirit--"the philosophic mind that
+years had brought"--an ample compensation for the extinct fires of his
+youth.
+
+About four years after the publication of the three books of _Odes_, the
+first book of the _Epistles_ appeared, introduced, as his _Epodes_,
+_Satires_ and _Odes_ had been, by a special address to Maecenas. From
+these _Epistles_, as compared with the _Satires_, we gather that he had
+gradually adopted a more retired and meditative life, and had become
+fonder of the country and of study, and that, while owing allegiance to
+no school or sect of philosophy, he was framing for himself a scheme of
+life, was endeavouring to conform to it, and was bent on inculcating it
+on others. He maintained his old friendships, and continued to form new
+intimacies, especially with younger men engaged in public affairs or
+animated by literary ambition. After the death of Virgil he was
+recognized as pre-eminently the greatest living poet, and was
+accordingly called upon by Augustus to compose the sacred hymn for the
+celebration of the secular games in 17 B.C. About four years later he
+published the fourth book of _Odes_ (about 13 B.C.) having been called
+upon to do so by the emperor, in order that the victories of his
+stepsons Drusus and Tiberius over the Rhaeti and Vindelici might be
+worthily celebrated. He lived about five years longer, and during these
+years published the second book of _Epistles_, and the _Epistle to the
+Pisos_, more generally known as the "_Ars poetica_." These later
+_Epistles_ are mainly devoted to literary criticism, with the especial
+object of vindicating the poetic claims of his own age over those of the
+age of Ennius and the other early poets of Rome. He might have been
+expected, as a great critic and lawgiver on literature, to have
+exercised a beneficial influence on the future poetry of his country,
+and to have applied as much wisdom to the theory of his own art as to
+that of a right life. But his critical _Epistles_ are chiefly devoted to
+a controversial attack on the older writers and to the exposition of the
+laws of dramatic poetry, on which his own powers had never been
+exercised, and for which either the genius or circumstances of the
+Romans were unsuited. The same subordination of imagination and
+enthusiasm to good sense and sober judgment characterizes his opinions
+on poetry as on morals.
+
+He died somewhat suddenly on the 17th of November of the year 8 B.C. He
+left Augustus to see after his affairs, and was buried on the Esquiline
+Hill, near Maecenas.
+
+Horace is one of the few writers, ancient or modern, who have written a
+great deal about themselves without laying themselves open to the charge
+of weakness or egotism. His chief claim to literary originality is not
+that on which he himself rested his hopes of immortality--that of being
+the first to adapt certain lyrical metres to the Latin tongue--but
+rather that of being the first of those whose works have reached us who
+establishes a personal relation with his reader, speaks to him as a
+familiar friend, gives him good advice, tells him the story of his life,
+and shares with him his private tastes and pleasures--and all this
+without any loss of self-respect, any want of modesty or breach of good
+manners, and in a style so lively and natural that each new generation
+of readers might fancy that he was addressing them personally and
+speaking to them on subjects of every day modern interest. In his
+self-portraiture, far from wishing to make himself out better or greater
+than he was, he seems to write under the influence of an ironical
+restraint which checks him in the utterance of his highest moral
+teaching and of his poetical enthusiasm. He affords us some indications
+of his personal appearance, as where he speaks of the "nigros angusta
+fronte capillos" of his youth, and describes himself after he had
+completed his forty-fourth December as of small stature, prematurely
+grey and fond of basking in the sun (_Epist._ i. 20. 24).
+
+In his later years his health became weaker or more uncertain, and this
+caused a considerable change in his habits, tastes and places of
+residence. It inclined him more to a life of retirement and simplicity,
+and also it stimulated his tendency to self-introspection and
+self-culture. In his more vigorous years, when he lived much in Roman
+society, he claims to have acted in all his relations to others in
+accordance with the standard recognized among men of honour in every
+age, to have been charitably indulgent to the weakness of his friends,
+and to have been exempt from petty jealousies and the spirit of
+detraction. If ever he deviates from his ordinary vein of irony and
+quiet sense into earnest indignation, it is in denouncing conduct
+involving treachery or malice in the relations of friends (_Sat._ i. 4.
+81, &c.).
+
+He claims to be and evidently aims at being independent of fortune,
+superior to luxury, exempt both from the sordid cares of avarice and the
+coarser forms of profligacy. At the same time he makes a frank
+confession of indolence and of occasional failure in the pursuit of his
+ideal self-mastery. He admits his irascibility, his love of pleasure,
+his sensitiveness to opinion, and some touch of vanity or at least of
+gratified ambition arising out of the favour which through all his life
+he had enjoyed from those much above him in social station (_Epist._ i.
+20. 23). Yet there appears no trace of any unworthy deference in
+Horace's feelings towards the great. Even towards Augustus he maintained
+his attitude of independence, by declining the office of private
+secretary which the emperor wished to force upon him; and he did so with
+such tact as neither to give offence nor to forfeit the regard of his
+superior. His feeling towards Maecenas is more like that of Pope towards
+Bolingbroke than that which a client in ancient or modern times
+entertains towards his patron. He felt pride in his protection and in
+the intellectual sympathy which united him with one whose personal
+qualities had enabled him to play so prominent and beneficent a part in
+public affairs. Their friendship was slowly formed, but when once
+established continued unshaken through their lives.
+
+There is indeed nothing more remarkable in Horace than the independence,
+or rather the self-dependence, of his character. The enjoyment which he
+drew from his Sabine farm consisted partly in the refreshment to his
+spirit from the familiar beauty of the place, partly in the "otia
+liberrima" from the claims of business and society which it afforded
+him. His love poems, when compared with those of Catullus, Tibullus and
+Propertius, show that he never, in his mature years at least, allowed
+his peace of mind to be at the mercy of any one. They are the
+expressions of a fine and subtle and often a humorous observation rather
+than of ardent feeling. There is perhaps a touch of pathos in his
+reference in the _Odes_ to the early death of Cinara, but the epithet he
+applies to her in the _Epistles_,
+
+  "Quem scis immunem Cinarae placuisse rapaci,"
+
+shows that the pain of thinking of her could not have been very
+heartfelt. Even when the _Odes_ addressed to real or imaginary beauties
+are most genuine in feeling, they are more the artistic rekindling of
+extinct fires than the utterance of recent passion. In his friendships
+he had not the self-forgetful devotion which is the most attractive side
+of the character of Catullus; but he studied how to gain and keep the
+regard of those whose society he valued, and he repaid this regard by a
+fine courtesy and by a delicate appreciation of their higher gifts and
+qualities, whether proved in literature, or war, or affairs of state or
+the ordinary dealings of men. He enjoyed the great world, and it treated
+him well; but he resolutely maintained his personal independence and the
+equipoise of his feelings and judgment. If it is thought that in
+attributing a divine function to Augustus he has gone beyond the bounds
+of a sincere and temperate admiration, a comparison of the _Odes_ in
+which this occurs with the first _Epistle_ of the second book shows that
+he certainly recognized in the emperor a great and successful
+administrator and that his language is to be regarded rather as the
+artistic expression of the prevailing national sentiment than as the
+tribute of an insincere adulation.
+
+The aim of Horace's philosophy was to "be master of oneself," to retain
+the "mens aequa" in all circumstances, to use the gifts of fortune while
+they remained, and to be prepared to part with them with equanimity; to
+make the most of life, and to contemplate its inevitable end without
+anxiety. Self-reliance and resignation are the lessons which he
+constantly inculcates. His philosophy is thus a mode of practical
+Epicureanism combined with other elements which have more affinity with
+Stoicism. In his early life he professed his adherence to the former
+system, and several expressions in his first published work show the
+influences of the study of Lucretius. At the time when the first book of
+the _Epistles_ was published he professes to assume the position of an
+eclectic rather than that of an adherent of either school (_Epist._ i.
+1. 13-19). We note in the passage here referred to, as in other
+passages, that he mentions Aristippus of Cyrene, rather than Epicurus
+himself, as the master under whose influence he from time to time
+insensibly lapsed. Yet the dominant tone of his teaching is that of a
+refined Epicureanism, not so elevated or purely contemplative as that
+preached by Lucretius, but yet more within the reach of a society which,
+though luxurious and pleasure-loving, had not yet become thoroughly
+frivolous and enervated. His advice is to subdue all violent emotion of
+fear or desire; to estimate all things calmly--"nil admirari"; to choose
+the mean between a high and low estate; and to find one's happiness in
+plain living rather than in luxurious indulgence. Still there was in
+Horace a robuster fibre, inherited from the old Italian race, which
+moved him to value the dignity and nobleness of life more highly than
+its ease and enjoyment. In some of the stronger utterances of his
+_Odes_, where he expresses sympathy with the manlier qualities of
+character, we recognize the resistent attitude of Stoicism rather than
+the passive acquiescence of Epicureanism. The concluding stanzas of the
+address to Lollius (_Ode_ iv. 9) exhibit the Epicurean and Stoical view
+of life so combined as to be more worthy of human dignity than the
+genial worldly wisdom of the former school, more in harmony with human
+experience than the formal precepts of the latter.
+
+It is interesting to trace the growth of Horace in elevation of
+sentiment and serious conviction from his first ridicule of the
+paradoxes of Stoicism in the two books of the _Satires_ to the appeal
+which he makes in some of the _Odes_ of the third book to the strongest
+Roman instincts of fortitude and self-sacrifice. A similar modification
+of his religious and political attitude may be noticed between his early
+declaration of Epicurean unbelief and the sympathy which he shows with
+the religious reaction fostered by Augustus; and again between the
+Epicurean indifference to national affairs and the strong support which
+he gives to the national policy of the emperor in the first six _Odes_
+of the third book, and in the fifth and fifteenth of the fourth book. In
+his whole religious attitude he seems to stand midway between the
+consistent denial of Lucretius and Virgil's pious endeavour to reconcile
+ancient faith with the conclusions of philosophy. His introduction into
+some of his _Odes_ of the gods of mythology must be regarded as merely
+artistic or symbolical. Yet in some cases we recognize the expression of
+a natural piety, thankful for the blessing bestowed on purity and
+simplicity of life, and acknowledging a higher and more majestic law
+governing nations through their voluntary obedience. On the other hand,
+his allusions to a future life, as in the "domus exilis Plutonia," and
+the "furvae regna Proserpinae," are shadowy and artificial. The image of
+death is constantly obtruded in his poems to enhance the sense of
+present enjoyment. In the true spirit of paganism he associates all
+thoughts of love and wine, of the meeting of friends, or of the changes
+of the seasons with the recollection of the transitoriness of our
+pleasures--
+
+                   "Nos, ubi decidimus
+    Quo pius Aeneas, quo dives Tullus et Ancus,
+                   Pulvis et umbra sumus."
+
+  Horace is so much of a moralist in all his writings that, in order to
+  enter into the spirit both of his familiar and of his lyrical poetry,
+  it is essential to realize what were his views of life and the
+  influences under which they were formed. He is, though in a different
+  sense from Lucretius, eminently a philosophical and reflective poet.
+  He is also, like all the other poets of the Augustan age, a poet in
+  whose composition culture and criticism were as conspicuous elements
+  as spontaneous inspiration. In the judgment he passes on the older
+  poetry of Rome and on that of his contemporaries, he seems to attach
+  more importance to the critical and artistic than to the creative and
+  inventive functions of genius. It is on the labour and judgment with
+  which he has cultivated his gift that he rests his hopes of fame. The
+  whole poetry of the Augustan age was based on the works of older
+  poets, Roman as well as Greek. Its aim was to perfect the more
+  immature workmanship of the former, and to adapt the forms, manners
+  and metres of the latter to subjects of immediate and national
+  interest. As Virgil performed for his generation the same kind of
+  office which Ennius performed for an older generation, so Horace in
+  his _Satires_, and to a more limited extent in his _Epistles_, brought
+  to perfection for the amusement and instruction of his contemporaries
+  the rude but vigorous designs of Lucilius.
+
+  It was the example of Lucilius which induced Horace to commit all his
+  private thoughts, feelings and experience "to his books as to trusty
+  companions," and also to comment freely on the characters and lives of
+  other men. Many of the subjects of particular satires of Horace were
+  immediately suggested by those treated by Lucilius. Thus the "Journey
+  to Brundusium" (_Sat._ i. 5) reproduced the outlines of Lucilius's
+  "Journey to the Sicilian Straits." The discourse of Ofella on luxury
+  (_Sat._ ii. 2) was founded on a similar discourse of Laelius on
+  gluttony, and the "Banquet of Nasidienus" (_Sat._ ii. 8) may have been
+  suggested by the description by the older poet of a rustic
+  entertainment. There was more of moral censure and personal
+  aggressiveness in the satire of the older poet. The ironical temper of
+  Horace induced him to treat the follies of society in the spirit of a
+  humorist and man of the world, rather than to assail vice with the
+  severity of a censor; and the greater urbanity of his age or of his
+  disposition restrained in him the direct personality of satire. The
+  names introduced by him to mark types of character such as Nomentanus,
+  Maenius, Pantolabus, &c., are reproduced from the writings of the
+  older poet. Horace also followed Lucilius in the variety of forms
+  which his satire assumes, and especially in the frequent adoption of
+  the form of dialogue, derived from the "dramatic medley" which was the
+  original character of the Roman _Satura_. This form suited the spirit
+  in which Horace regarded the world, and also the dramatic quality of
+  his genius, just as the direct denunciation and elaborate painting of
+  character suited the "saeva indignatio" and the oratorical genius of
+  Juvenal.
+
+  Horace's satire is accordingly to a great extent a reproduction in
+  form, manner, substance and tone of the satire of Lucilius; or rather
+  it is a casting in the mould of Lucilius of his own observation and
+  experience. But a comparison of the fragments of Lucilius with the
+  finished compositions of Horace brings out in the strongest light the
+  artistic originality and skill of the latter poet in his management of
+  metre and style. Nothing can be rougher and harsher than the
+  hexameters of Lucilius, or cruder than his expression. In his
+  management of the more natural trochaic metre, he has shown much
+  greater ease and simplicity. It is one great triumph of Horace's
+  genius that he was the first and indeed the only Latin writer who
+  could bend the stately hexameter to the uses of natural and easy, and
+  at the same time terse and happy, conversational style. Catullus, in
+  his hendecasyllabics, had shown the vivacity with which that light and
+  graceful metre could be employed in telling some short story or
+  describing some trivial situation dramatically. But no one before
+  Horace had succeeded in applying the metre of heroic verse to the uses
+  of common life. But he had one great native model in the mastery of a
+  terse, refined, ironical and natural conversational style, Terence;
+  and the _Satires_ show, not only in allusions to incidents and
+  personages, but in many happy turns of expression very frequent traces
+  of Horace's familiarity with the works of the Roman Menander.
+
+  The _Epistles_ are more original in form, more philosophic in spirit,
+  more finished and charming in style than the _Satires_. The form of
+  composition may have been suggested by that of some of the satires of
+  Lucilius, which were composed as letters to his personal friends. But
+  letter-writing in prose, and occasionally also in verse, had been
+  common among the Romans from the time of the siege of Corinth; and a
+  practice originating in the wants and convenience of friends
+  temporarily separated from one another by the public service was
+  ultimately cultivated as a literary accomplishment. It was a happy
+  idea of Horace to adopt this form for his didactic writings on life
+  and literature. It suited him as an eclectic and not a systematic
+  thinker, and as a friendly counsellor rather than a formal teacher of
+  his age. It suited his circumstances in the latter years of his life,
+  when his tastes inclined him more to retirement and study, while he
+  yet wished to retain his hold on society and to extend his relations
+  with younger men who were rising into eminence. It suited the class
+  who cared for literature--a limited circle of educated men, intimate
+  with one another, and sharing the same tastes and pursuits. While
+  giving expression to lessons applicable to all men, he in this way
+  seems to address each reader individually, with the urbanity of a
+  friend rather than the solemnity of a preacher. In spirit the
+  _Epistles_ are more ethical and meditative than the _Satires_. Like
+  the _Odes_ they exhibit the twofold aspects of his philosophy, that of
+  temperate Epicureanism and that of more serious and elevated
+  conviction. In the actual maxims which he lays down, in his apparent
+  belief in the efficacy of addressing philosophical texts to the mind,
+  he exemplifies the triteness and limitation of all Roman thought. But
+  the spirit and sentiment of his practical philosophy is quite genuine
+  and original. The individuality of the great Roman moralists, such as
+  Lucretius and Horace, appears not in any difference in the results at
+  which they have arrived, but in the difference of spirit with which
+  they regard the spectacle of human life. In reading Lucretius we are
+  impressed by his earnestness, his pathos, his elevation of feeling; in
+  Horace we are charmed by the serenity of his temper and the flavour of
+  a delicate and subtle wisdom. We note also in the _Epistles_ the
+  presence of a more philosophic spirit, not only in the expression of
+  his personal convictions and aims, but also in his comments on
+  society. In the _Satires_ he paints the outward effects of the
+  passions of the age. He shows us prominent types of character--the
+  miser, the parasite, the legacy-hunter, the parvenu, &c., but he does
+  not try to trace these different manifestations of life to their
+  source. In the _Epistles_ he finds the secret spring of the social
+  vices of the age in the desire, as marked in other times as in those
+  of Horace, to become rich too fast, and in the tendency to value men
+  according to their wealth, and to sacrifice the ends of life to a
+  superfluous care for the means of living. The cause of all this
+  aimless restlessness and unreasonable desire is summed up in the words
+  "Strenua nos exercet inertia."
+
+  In his _Satires_ and _Epistles_ Horace shows himself a genuine
+  moralist, a subtle observer and true painter of life, and an admirable
+  writer. But for both of these works he himself disclaims the title of
+  poetry. He rests his claims as a poet on his _Odes_. They reveal an
+  entirely different aspect of his genius, his spirit and his culture.
+  He is one among the few great writers of the world who have attained
+  high excellence in two widely separated provinces of literature.
+  Through all his life he was probably conscious of the "ingeni benigna
+  vena," which in his youth made him the sympathetic student and
+  imitator of the older lyrical poetry of Greece, and directed his
+  latest efforts to poetic criticism. But it was in the years that
+  intervened between the publication of his _Satires_ and _Epistles_
+  that his lyrical genius asserted itself as his predominant faculty. At
+  that time he had outlived the coarser pleasures and risen above the
+  harassing cares of his earlier career; a fresh source of happiness and
+  inspiration had been opened up to him in his beautiful Sabine retreat;
+  he had become not only reconciled to the rule of Augustus, but a
+  thoroughly convinced and, so far as his temperament admitted to
+  enthusiasm, an enthusiastic believer in its beneficence. But it was
+  only after much labour that his original vein of genius obtained a
+  free and abundant outlet. He lays no claim to the "profuse strains of
+  unpremeditated art," with which other great lyrical poets of ancient
+  and modern times have charmed the world. His first efforts were
+  apparently imitative, and were directed to the attainment of perfect
+  mastery over form, metre and rhythm. The first nine _Odes_ of the
+  first book are experiments in different kinds of metre. They and all
+  the other metres employed by him are based on those employed by the
+  older poets of Greece--Alcaeus, Sappho, Archilochus, Alcman, &c. He
+  has built the structure of his lighter _Odes_ also on their model,
+  while in some of those in which the matter is more weighty, as in that
+  in which he calls on Calliope "to dictate a long continuous strain,"
+  he has endeavoured to reproduce something of the intricate movement,
+  the abrupt transitions, the interpenetration of narrative and
+  reflection, which characterize the art of Pindar. He frequently
+  reproduces the language and some of the thoughts of his masters, but
+  he gives them new application, or stamps them with the impress of his
+  own experience. He brought the metres which he has employed to such
+  perfection that the art perished with him. A great proof of his
+  mastery over rhythm is the skill with which he has varied his metres
+  according to the sentiment which he wishes to express. Thus his great
+  metre, the Alcaic, has a character of stateliness and majesty in
+  addition to the energy and impetus originally imparted to it by
+  Alcaeus. The Sapphic metre he employs with a peculiar lightness and
+  vivacity which harmonize admirably with his gayer moods.
+
+  Again in regard to his diction, if Horace has learned his subtlety and
+  moderation from his Greek masters, he has tempered those qualities
+  with the masculine characteristics of his race. No writer is more
+  Roman in the stateliness and dignity, the terseness, occasionally even
+  in the sobriety and bare literalness, of his diction.
+
+  While it is mainly owing to the extreme care which Horace gave to
+  form, rhythm and diction that his own prophecy
+
+          "Usque ego postera
+    Crescam laude recens"
+
+  has been so amply fulfilled, yet no greater injustice could be done to
+  him than to rank him either as poet or critic with those who consider
+  form everything in literature. With Horace the mastery over the
+  vehicle of expression was merely an essential preliminary to making a
+  worthy and serious use of that vehicle. The poet, from Horace's point
+  of view, was intended not merely to give refined pleasure to a few,
+  but above all things, to be "utilis urbi." Yet he is saved, in his
+  practice, from the abuse of this theory by his admirable sense, his
+  ironical humour, his intolerance of pretension and pedantry. Opinions
+  will differ as to whether he or Catullus is to be regarded as the
+  greater lyrical poet. Those who assign the palm to Horace will do so,
+  certainly not because they recognize in him richer or equally rich
+  gifts of feeling, conception and expression, but because the subjects
+  to which his art has been devoted have a fuller, more varied, more
+  mature and permanent interest for the world.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For the life of Horace the chief authorities are his own
+  works and a short ancient biography which is attributed to Suetonius.
+  The _apparatus criticus_ is most fully described in O. Keller's
+  preface to vol. i. of the 2nd ed. (1899) of Keller and Holder's
+  recension of Horace's works. This edition also gives by far the
+  largest collection of variants and emendations to the text and of the
+  _testimonia_ of ancient writers.
+
+  What might have proved the most important manuscript of Horace, the
+  so-called _vetustissimus Blandinius_, is now lost, and we know it only
+  from the account of J. Cruquius who saw it in 1565. The relations of
+  the extant MSS. to each other and the presumed archetype present an
+  intricate problem; and Keller's solution has not proved generally
+  acceptable. See a _resume_ of the controversy _Horazkritik seit 1880_
+  by J. Bick (Leipzig, 1906) and F. Vollmer in _Philologus_. Supp. x. 2,
+  pp. 261-322. Many MSS. of Horace contain ancient scholia which are
+  copied or taken with abridgment from the commentaries of Porphyrio,
+  who lived about A.D. 200, and Helenius Aero, a still earlier
+  grammarian. These scholia also have been collected and edited--the
+  Porphyrio scholia by A. Holder (1902) and the "Acronian" (or
+  pseudo-Acronian) by O. Keller (1902-1904). R. Bentley's epoch-making
+  edition (1711) has been reprinted with an index by Zangemeister
+  (1869). Of the modern commentaries the most useful are those of J. C.
+  Orelli (4th ed., revised by O. Hirschfelder and J. Mewes, 1886-1890,
+  with _index verborum_), and of A. Kiessling (revised by R. Heinze,
+  _Odes_, 1901, 1908, _Satires_, 1906, _Epistles_, 1898). The best
+  complete English commentary is that of E. C. Wickham (2 vols.,
+  1874-1896). Other editions with English notes are those of T. E. Page
+  (_Odes_, 1883), A. Palmer (_Satires_, 1883), A. S. Wilkins
+  (_Epistles_, 1885), J. Gow (_Odes_ and _Epodes_, 1896, _Satires_, i.,
+  1901), P. Shorey (_Odes_ and _Epodes_, 1898, Boston, U.S.A.). L.
+  Muller's elaborate edition of the _Odes_ and _Epodes_ was published
+  posthumously (1900). Of the critical editions Keller and Holder's
+  still holds the field: to this Keller's _Epilegomena zu Horaz_ (1879)
+  is a necessary adjunct. F. Vollmer's text (1907) uses Keller's
+  materials on a new principle. Of illustrated editions H. H. Milman's
+  (1867) and C. W. King's (1869, with text revised by H. A. J. Munro)
+  deserve mention. The best verse translation is that of J. Conington
+  lately reprinted with the Latin text from the recension in Postgate's
+  new _Corpus poetarum_. For further information see Teuffel's
+  _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_ (Eng. trans. by G. C. Warr), SS
+  234-240, and M. Schanz's excellent account in his _Geschichte der
+  romischen Litteratur_, vol. ii. SS 251-266.     (W. Y. S.; J. G*.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The date is determined by the poem on the death of Quintilius
+    Varus (who died 24 B.C.), and by the reference in _Ode_ i. 12 to the
+    young Marcellus (died in autumn 23 B.C.) as still alive. Cf.
+    Wickham's Introduction to the _Odes_.
+
+
+
+
+HORAE (Lat. _hora_, hour), the Hours, in Greek mythology [Greek: Horai],
+originally the personification of a series of natural phenomena. In the
+_Iliad_ (v. 749) they are the custodians of the gates of Olympus, which
+they open or shut by scattering or condensing the clouds; that is, they
+are weather goddesses, who send down or withhold the fertilizing dews
+and rain. In the _Odyssey_, where they are represented as bringing round
+the seasons in regular order, they are an abstraction rather than a
+concrete personification. The brief notice in Hesiod (_Theog._ 901),
+where they are called the children of Zeus and Themis, who superintend
+the operations of agriculture, indicates by the names assigned to them
+(Eunomia, Dike, Eirene, i.e. Good Order, Justice, Peace) the extension
+of their functions as goddesses of order from nature to the events of
+human life, and at the same time invests them with moral attributes.
+Like the Moerae (Fates), they regulate the destinies of man, watch over
+the newly born, secure good laws and the administration of justice. The
+selection of three as their number has been supposed to refer to the
+most ancient division of the year into spring, summer and winter, but it
+is probably only another instance of the Greek liking for that
+particular number or its multiples in such connexions (three Moerae,
+Charites, Gorgons, nine Muses). Order and regularity being indispensable
+conditions of beauty, it was easy to conceive of the Horae as the
+goddesses of youthful bloom and grace, inseparably associated with the
+idea of springtime. As such they are companions of the Nymphs and
+Graces, with whom they are often confounded, and of other superior
+deities connected with the spring growth of vegetation (Demeter,
+Dionysus). At Athens they were two (or three) in number: Thallo and
+Carpo, the goddesses of the flowers of spring and of the fruits of
+summer, to whom Auxo, the goddess of the growth of plants, may be added,
+although some authorities make her only one of the Graces. In honour of
+the Horae a yearly festival (Horaea) was celebrated, at which protection
+was sought against the scorching heat and drought, and offerings were
+made of boiled meat as less insipid and more nutritious than roast. In
+later mythology, under Alexandrian influence, the Horae become the four
+seasons, daughters of Helios and Selene, each represented with the
+conventional attributes. Subsequently, when the day was divided into
+twelve equal parts, each of them took the name of Hora. Ovid (_Metam._
+ii. 26) describes them as placed at equal intervals on the throne of
+Phoebus, with whom are also associated the four seasons. Nonnus (5th
+century A.D.) in the _Dionysiaca_ also unites the twelve Horae as
+representing the day and the four Horae as the seasons in the palace of
+Helios.
+
+  See C. Lehrs, _Populare Aufsatze_ (1856); J. H. Krause, _Die Musen,
+  Grazien, Horen, und Nymphen_ (1871); and the articles in Daremberg and
+  Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, J. A. Hild; and in Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_, W. Rapp.
+
+
+
+
+HORAPOLLON, of Phaenebythis in the nome of Panopolis in Egypt, Greek
+grammarian, flourished in the 4th century A.D. during the reign of
+Theodosius I. According to Suidas, he wrote commentaries on Sophocles,
+Alcaeus and Homer, and a work ([Greek: Temenika]) on places consecrated
+to the gods. Photius (cod. 279), who calls him a dramatist as well as a
+grammarian, ascribes to him a history of the foundation and antiquities
+of Alexandria (unless this is by an Egyptian of the same name, who lived
+In the reign of Zeno, 474-491). Under the name of Horapollon two books
+on _Hieroglyphics_ are extant, which profess to be a translation from an
+Egyptian original into Greek by a certain Philippus, of whom nothing is
+known. The inferior Greek of the translation, and the character of the
+additions in the second book point to its being of late date; some have
+even assigned it to the 15th century. Though a very large proportion of
+the statements seem absurd and cannot be accounted for by anything known
+in the latest and most fanciful usage, yet there is ample evidence in
+both the books, in individual cases, that the tradition of the values of
+the hieroglyphic signs was not yet extinct in the days of their author.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editions by C. Leemans (1835) and A. T. Cory (1840)
+  with English translation and notes; see also G. Rathgeber in Ersch and
+  Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; H. Schafer, _Zeitschrift fur
+  agyptische Sprache_ (1905), p. 72.
+
+
+
+
+HORATII and CURIATII, in Roman legend, two sets of three brothers born
+at one birth on the same day--the former Roman, the latter Alban--the
+mothers being twin sisters. During the war between Rome and Alba Longa
+it was agreed that the issue should depend on a combat between the two
+families. Two of the Horatii were soon slain; the third brother feigned
+flight, and when the Curiatii, who were all wounded, pursued him without
+concert he slew them one by one. When he entered Rome in triumph, his
+sister recognized a cloak which he was wearing as a trophy as one she
+had herself made for her lover, one of the Curiatii. She thereupon
+invoked a curse upon her brother, who slew her on the spot. Horatius was
+condemned to be scourged to death, but on his appealing to the people
+his life was spared (Livy i. 25, 26; Dion. Halic. iii. 13-22). Monuments
+of the tragic story were shown by the Romans in the time of Livy (the
+altar of Janus Curiatius near the _sororium tigillum_, the "sister's
+beam," or yoke under which Horatius had to pass; and the altar of Juno
+Sororia). The legend was probably invented to account for the origin of
+the _provocatio_ (right of appeal to the people), while at the same time
+it points to the close connexion and final struggle for supremacy
+between the older city on the mountain and the younger city on the
+plain. Their relationship and origin from three tribes are symbolically
+represented by the twin sisters and the two sets of three brothers.
+
+  For a critical examination of the story, see Schwegler, _Romische
+  Geschichte_, bk. xii. 11. 14; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, _Credibility of
+  Early Roman History_, ch. xi. 15; W. Ihne, _Hist. of Rome_, i.; E.
+  Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 3 (1898), and _Ancient Legends of Roman
+  History_ (Eng. trans., 1906), where the story is connected with the
+  ceremonies performed in honour of Jupiter Tigillus and Juno Sororia;
+  C. Pascal, _Fatti e legende di Roma antica_ (Florence, 1903); O.
+  Gilbert, _Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum_
+  (1883-1885).
+
+
+
+
+HORATIUS COCLES, a legendary hero of ancient Rome. With two companions
+he defended the Sublician bridge against Lars Porsena and the whole army
+of the Etruscans, while the Romans cut down the bridge behind. Then
+Horatius threw himself into the Tiber and swam in safety to the shore. A
+statue was erected in his honour in the temple of Vulcan, and he
+received as much land as he could plough round in a single day.
+According to another version, Horatius alone defended the bridge, and
+was drowned in the Tiber.
+
+There is an obvious resemblance between the legend of Horatius Codes and
+that of the Horatii and Curiatii. In both cases three Romans come
+forward as the champions of Rome at a critical moment of her fortunes,
+and only one successfully holds his ground. In the one case, the
+locality is the land frontier, in the other, the boundary stream of
+Roman territory. E. Pais finds the origin of the story in the worship of
+Vulcan, and identifies Cocles (the "one-eyed") with one of the Cyclopes,
+who in mythology were connected with Hephaestus, and later with Vulcan.
+He concludes that the supposed statue of Cocles was really that of
+Vulcan, who, as one of the most ancient Roman divinities and, in fact,
+the protecting deity of the state, would naturally be confounded with
+the hero who saved it by holding the bridge against the invaders. He
+suggests that the legend arose from some religious ceremony, possibly
+the practice of throwing the stuffed figures called Argei into the Tiber
+from the Pons Sublicius on the ides of May. The conspicuous part played
+in Roman history by members of the Horatian family, who were connected
+with the worship of Jupiter Vulcanus, will explain the attribution of
+the name Horatius to Vulcan-Cocles.
+
+  See Livy ii. 10; Dion. Halic. v. 23-25; Polybius vi. 55; Plutarch,
+  _Poplicola_, 16. For a critical examination of the legend, see
+  Schwegler, _Romische Geschichte_, bk. xxi. 18; W. Ihne, _History of
+  Rome_, i.; E. Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 4 (1898), and _Ancient
+  Legends of Roman History_ (Eng. trans., 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HORDE, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Westphalia, is 2 m. S.E. from Dortmund on the railway to Soest. Pop.
+(1905) 28,461. It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, a
+synagogue and an old castle dating from about 1300. There are large
+smelting-works, foundries, puddling-works, rolling-mills and
+manufactures of iron and plated wares. In the neighbourhood there are
+large iron and coal mines. A tramway connects the town with Dortmund.
+
+
+
+
+HOREB, the ancient seat of Yahweh, the tribal god of the Kenites,
+adopted by His covenant by Israel. This is the name preferred by the
+Elohistic writer (E) whose work is interwoven into the Old Testament
+narrative, and he is followed by the Deuteronomist school (D). The
+Yahwistic writer (J), on the other hand, prefers to call the mountain
+Sinai (q.v.), and so do the priestly writers (P). This latter form
+became the more usual. There is no ground for distinguishing between
+Horeb as the range and Sinai as the single mountain, or between Horeb
+and Sinai as respectively the N. and S. parts of the range.
+
+
+
+
+HOREHOUND (O. Eng. _harhune_, Ger. _Andorn_, Fr. _marrube_). Common or
+white horehound, _Marrubium vulgare_, of the natural order _Labiatae_,
+is a perennial herb with a short stout rootstock, and thick stems, about
+1 ft. in height, which, as well as their numerous branches, are coated
+with a white or hoary felt--whence the popular name of the plant. The
+leaves have long petioles, and are roundish or rhombic-ovate, with a
+bluntly toothed margin, much wrinkled, white and woolly below and pale
+green and downy above; the flowers are sessile, in dense whorls or
+clusters, small and dull-white, with a 10-toothed calyx and the upper
+lobe of the corolla long and bifid. The plant occurs in Europe, North
+Africa and West Asia to North-West India, and has been naturalized in
+parts of America. In Britain, where it is found generally on sandy or
+dry chalky ground, it is far from common. White horehound contains a
+volatile oil, resin, a crystallizable bitter principle termed
+_marrubiin_ and other substances, and has a not unpleasant aromatic
+odour, and a persistent bitter taste. Formerly it was official in
+British pharmacopoeias; and the infusion, syrup or confection of
+horehound has long been in popular repute for the treatment of a host of
+dissimilar affections. Black horehound, _Ballota nigra_, is a hairy
+perennial herb, belonging to the same order, of foetid odour, is 2 to 3
+ft. in height, and has stalked, roundish-ovate, toothed leaves and
+numerous flowers, in dense axillary clusters, with a green or purplish
+calyx, and a pale red-purple corolla. It occurs in Europe, North Africa
+and West Asia, and in Britain south of the Forth and Clyde, and has been
+introduced into North America.
+
+[Illustration: Horehound.]
+
+
+
+
+HORGEN, a small town in the Swiss canton of Zurich, situated on the left
+or west shore of the Lake of Zurich, and by rail 10(1/2) m. S.E. of the
+town of Zurich. Pop. (1900) 6883, mostly German-speaking and
+Protestants. It possesses many industrial establishments of various
+kinds, and is a centre of the Zurich silk manufacture. It came in 1406
+into the possession of Zurich, with which it communicates by means of
+steamers on the lake, as well as by rail.
+
+
+
+
+HORIZON (Gr. [Greek: horizon], dividing), the apparent circle around
+which the sky and earth seem to meet. At sea this circle is well
+defined, the line being called the sea horizon, which divides the
+visible surface of the ocean from the sky. In astronomy the horizon is
+that great circle of the sphere the plane of which is at right angles to
+the direction of the plumb line. Sometimes a distinction is made between
+the rational and the apparent horizon, the former being the horizon as
+determined by a plane through the centre of the earth, parallel to that
+through the station of an observer. But on the celestial sphere the
+great circles of these two planes are coincident, so that this
+distinction is not necessary (see ASTRONOMY: _Spherical_). The _Dip_ of
+the horizon at sea is the angular depression of the apparent sea
+horizon, or circle bounding the visible ocean, below the apparent
+celestial horizon as above defined. It is due to the rotundity of the
+earth, and the height of the observer's eye above the water. The dip of
+the horizon and its distance in sea-miles when the height of the
+observer's eye above the sea-level is h feet, are approximately given by
+the formulae: Dip = 0'.97 [root]h; Distance = 1^m.17 [root]h. The
+difference between the coefficients 0.97 and 1.17 arises from the
+refraction of the ray, but for which they would be equal.
+
+
+
+
+HORMAYR, JOSEPH, BARON VON (1782-1848), German statesman and historian,
+was born at Innsbruck on the 20th of January 1782. After studying law in
+his native town, and attaining the rank of captain in the Tirolese
+Landwehr, the young man, who had the advantage of being the grandson of
+Joseph von Hormayr (1705-1778), chancellor of Tirol, obtained a post in
+the foreign office at Vienna (1801), from which he rose in 1803 to be
+court secretary and, being a near friend of the Archduke John, director
+of the secret archives of the state and court for thirteen months. In
+1803 he married Therese Anderler von Hohenwald. During the insurrection
+of 1809, by which the Tirolese sought to throw off the Bavarian
+supremacy confirmed by the treaty of Pressburg, Hormayr was the mainstay
+of the Austrian party, and assumed the administration of everything
+(especially the composition of proclamations and pamphlets); but,
+returning home without the prestige of success, he fell, in spite of the
+help of the Archduke John, into disfavour both with the emperor Francis
+I. and with Prince Metternich, and at length, when in 1813 he tried to
+stir up a new insurrection in Tirol, he was arrested and imprisoned at
+Munkatt. In 1816 some amends were made to him by his appointment as
+imperial historiographer; but so little was he satisfied with the
+general policy and conduct of the Austrian court that in 1828 he
+accepted an invitation of King Louis I. to the Bavarian capital, where
+he became ministerial councillor in the department of foreign affairs.
+In 1832 he was appointed Bavarian minister-resident at Hanover, and from
+1837 to 1846 he held the same position at Bremen. Together with Count
+Johann Friedrich von der Decken (1769-1840) he founded the Historical
+Society of Lower Saxony (Historischer Verein fur Niedersachsen). The
+last two years of his life were spent at Munich as superintendent of the
+national archives. He died on the 5th of October 1848.
+
+Hormayr's literary activity was closely conditioned by the circumstances
+of his political career and by the fact that Johannes von Muller (d.
+1611) was his teacher: while his access to original documents gave value
+to his treatment of the past, his record or criticism of contemporary
+events received authority and interest from his personal experience. But
+his history of the Tirolese rebellion is far from being impartial; for
+he always liked to put himself into the first place, and the merits of
+Andreas Hofer and of other leaders are not sufficiently acknowledged. In
+his later writings he appears as a keen opponent of the policy of the
+court of Vienna.
+
+  The following are among Hormayr's more important works: _Geschichte
+  des Grafen von Andechs_ (1796); _Lexikon fur Reisenden in Tirol_
+  (1796); _Kritisch-diplomatische Beitrage zur Geschichte Tirols im
+  Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Innsbruck, 1802-1803, new ed., 1805); _Gesch.
+  der gefurst. Grafschaft Tirol_ (2 vols., Tubingen, 1806-1808);
+  _Osterreichischer Plutarch_, 20 vols., collection of portraits and
+  biographies of the most celebrated administrators, commanders and
+  statesmen of Austria (Vienna, 1807); an edition of Beauchamp's
+  _Histoire de la guerre en Vendee_ (1809); _Geschichte Hofers_ (1817,
+  2nd ed., 2 vols., 1845) and other pamphlets; _Archiv fur Gesch.,
+  Stat., Lit. und Kunst_ (20 vols., 1809-1828); _Allgemeine Geschichte
+  der neuesten Zeit vom Tod Friedricks des Grossen bis zum zweiten
+  Pariser Frieden_ (3 vols., Vienna, 1814-1819, 2nd ed., 1891); _Wien,
+  seine Gesch. und Denkwurdigkeiten_ (5 vols., Vienna, 1823-1824);
+  together with _Fragmente uber Deutschland, in Sonderheit Bayerns
+  Welthandel; Lebensbilder aus dem Befreiungskriege_ (3 vols., Jena,
+  1841-1844, 2nd ed., 1845); _Die goldene Chronik von Hohenschwangau_
+  (Munich, 1842); _Anemonen aus dem Tagebuch eines alten Pilgersmanns_
+  (4 vols., Jena, 1845-1847). Together with Mednyanski (1784-1844) he
+  founded the _Taschenbuch fur die Vaterland. Gesch._ (Vienna,
+  1811-1848).
+
+  See T. H. Merdau, _Biographische Zuge aus dem Leben deutscher Manner_
+  (Leipzig, 1815); Graffer, _Osterreichische National-Encyclopadie_, ii.
+  (1835); _Taschenbuch fur vaterlandische Geschichte_ (1836 and 1847);
+  _Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen_ (1848); _Blatter fur literarische
+  Unterhaltung_ (1849); Wurzbach, _Osterreichisches biographisches
+  Lexikon_, ix. (1863); K. Th. von Heigel in the _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_ (1881) and F. X. Wegele, _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Historiographie_ (Munich and Leipzig, 1885); F. v. Krones, _Aus
+  Osterreichs stillen und bewegten Jahren 1810-1815_; _Biographie und
+  Briefe an Erzhz. Johann_ (Innsbruck, 1892); Hirn, _Tiroler Aufstand_
+  (1909).     (J. Hn.)
+
+
+
+
+HORMISDAS, pope from 514 to 523 in succession to Symmachus, was a native
+of Campania. He is known as having succeeded in obtaining the reunion of
+the Eastern and Western Churches, which had been separated since the
+excommunication of Acacius in 484. After two unsuccessful attempts under
+the emperor Anastasius I., Hormisdas had no difficulty in coming to an
+understanding in 518 with his successor Justin. Legates were despatched
+to Constantinople; the memorial of the schismatic patriarchs was
+condemned; and union was resumed with the Holy See.
+
+  Details of this transaction have come down to us in the _Collectio
+  Avellana_ (_Corpus script. eccl. Vindobon._, vol. xxv., Nos. 105-203;
+  cf. Andreas Thiel, _Epp. Rom. Pont._ i. 741 seq.).
+
+
+
+
+HORMIZD, or HORMIZDAS, the name of five kings of the Sassanid dynasty
+(see PERSIA: _Ancient History_). The name is another form of Ahuramazda
+or Ormuzd (Ormazd), which under the Sassanids became a common personal
+name and was borne not only by many generals and officials of their time
+(it therefore occurs very often on Persian seals), but even by the pope
+of Rome noticed above. It is strictly an abbreviation of Hormuzd-dad,
+"given by Ormuzd," which form is preserved by Agathias iv. 24-25 as name
+of King Hormizd I. and II. ([Greek: Hormisdates]).
+
+1. HORMIZD I. (272-273) was the son of Shapur I., under whom he was
+governor of Khorasan, and appears in his wars against Rome (Trebellius
+Pollio, _Trig. Tyr._ 2, where Noldeke has corrected the name Odomastes
+into Oromastes, i.e. Hormizd). In the Persian tradition of the history
+of Ardashir I., preserved in a Pahlavi text (Noldeke, _Geschichte des
+Artachsir I. Papakan_), he is made the son of a daughter of Mithrak, a
+Persian dynast, whose family Ardashir had extirpated because the magians
+had predicted that from his blood would come the restorer of the empire
+of Iran. Only this daughter is preserved by a peasant; Shapur sees her
+and makes her his wife, and her son Hormizd is afterwards recognized and
+acknowledged by Ardashir. In this legend, which has been partially
+preserved also in Tabari, the great conquests of Shapur are transferred
+to Hormizd. In reality he reigned only one year and ten days.
+
+2. HORMIZD II., son of Narseh, reigned for seven years five months,
+302-309. Of his reign nothing is known. After his death his son
+Adarnases was killed by the grandees after a very short reign, as he
+showed a cruel disposition; another son, Hormizd, was kept a prisoner,
+and the throne reserved for the child with which a concubine of Hormizd
+II. was pregnant and which received the name Shapur II. Hormizd escaped
+from prison by the help of his wife in 323, and found refuge at the
+court of Constantine the Great (Zosim. ii. 27; John of Antioch, fr. 178;
+Zonar. 13.5), In 363 Hormizd served in the army of Julian against
+Persia; his son, with the same name, became consul in 366 (Ammian. Marc.
+26. 8. 12).
+
+3. HORMIZD III., son of Yazdegerd I., succeeded his father in 457. He
+had continually to fight with his brothers and with the Ephthalites in
+Bactria, and was killed by Peroz in 459.
+
+4. HORMIZD IV., son of Chosroes I., reigned 578-590. He seems to have
+been imperious and violent, but not without some kindness of heart. Some
+very characteristic stories are told of him by Tabari (Noldeke,
+_Geschichte d. Perser und Araber unter den Sasaniden_, 264 ff.). His
+father's sympathies had been with the nobles and the priests. Hormizd
+protected the common people and introduced a severe discipline in his
+army and court. When the priests demanded a persecution of the
+Christians, he declined on the ground that the throne and the government
+could only be safe if it gained the goodwill of both concurring
+religions. The consequence was that he raised a strong opposition in the
+ruling classes, which led to many executions and confiscations. When he
+came to the throne he killed his brothers, according to the oriental
+fashion. From his father he had inherited a war against the Byzantine
+empire and against the Turks in the east, and negotiations of peace had
+just begun with the emperor Tiberius, but Hormizd haughtily declined to
+cede anything of the conquests of his father. Therefore the accounts
+given of him by the Byzantine authors, Theophylact, Simocatta (iii. 16
+ff.), Menander Protector and John of Ephesus (vi. 22), who give a full
+account of these negotiations, are far from favourable. In 588 his
+general, Bahram Chobin, defeated the Turks, but in the next year was
+beaten by the Romans; and when the king superseded him he rebelled with
+his army. This was the signal for a general insurrection. The magnates
+deposed and blinded Hormizd and proclaimed his son Chosroes II. king. In
+the war which now followed between Bahram Chobin and Chosroes II.
+Hormizd was killed by some partisans of his son (590).
+
+5. HORMIZD V. was one of the many pretenders who rose after the murder
+of Chosroes II. (628). He maintained himself about two years (631, 632)
+in the district of Nisibis.     (Ed. M.)
+
+
+
+
+HORMUZ (_Hurmuz_, _Ormuz_, _Ormus_), a famous city on the shores of the
+Persian Gulf, which occupied more than one position in the course of
+history, and has now long practically ceased to exist. The earliest
+mention of the name occurs in the voyage of Nearchus (325 B.C.). When
+that admiral beached his fleet at the mouth of the river Anamis on the
+shore of Harmozia, a coast district of Carmania, he found the country to
+be kindly, rich in every product except the olive. The Anamis appears to
+be the river now known as the Minab, discharging into the Persian Gulf
+near the entrance of the latter. The name Hormuz is derived by some from
+that of the Persian god Hormuzd (Ormazd), but it is more likely that the
+original etymology was connected with _khurma_, "a date"; for the
+meaning of Moghistan the modern name of the territory Harmozia is "the
+region of date-palms." The foundation of the city of Hormuz in this
+territory is ascribed by one Persian writer to the Sassanian Ardashir
+Babegan (c. 230 A.D.). But it must have existed at an earlier date, for
+Ptolemy takes note of [Greek: Harmonza polis] (vi. 8).
+
+Hormuz is mentioned by Idrisi, who wrote c. 1150, under the title of
+Hormuz-al-sahiliah, "Hormuz of the shore" (to distinguish it from inland
+cities of the same name then existing), as a large and well-built city,
+the chief mart of Kirman. Siraf and Kish (Kais), farther up the gulf,
+had preceded it as ports of trade with India, but in the 13th century
+Hormuz had become the chief seat of this traffic. It was at this time
+the seat also of a petty dynasty of kings, of which there is a history
+by one of their number (Turan Shah); an abstract of it is given by the
+Jesuit Teixeira. According to this history the founder of the dynasty
+was Shah Mohammed Dirhem-Kub ("the Drachma-coiner"), an Arab chief who
+crossed the gulf and established himself here. The date is not given,
+but it must have been before 1100 A.D., as Ruknuddin Mahmud, who
+succeeded in 1246, was the twelfth of the line. These princes appear to
+have been at times in dependence necessarily on the atabegs of Fars and
+on the princes of Kirman. About the year 1300 Hormuz was so severely and
+repeatedly harassed by raids of Tatar horsemen that the king and his
+people abandoned their city on the mainland and transferred themselves
+to the island of Jerun (Organa of Nearchus), about 12 m. westward and 4
+m. from the nearest shore.
+
+The site of the continental or ancient Hormuz was first traced in modern
+times by Colonel (Sir Lewis) Pelly when resident at Bushire. It stands
+in the present district of Minab, several miles from the sea, and on a
+creek which communicates with the Minab river, but is partially silted
+up and not now accessible for vessels. There remain traces of a long
+wharf and extensive ruins. The new city occupied a triangular plain
+forming the northern part of the island, the southern wall, as its
+remains still show, being about 2 m. in extent from east to west. A
+suburb with a wharf or pier, called Turan Bagh (garden of Turan) after
+one of the kings, a name now corrupted to Trumpak, stood about 3 m. from
+the town to the south-east.
+
+Odoric gives the earliest notice we have of the new city (c. 1320). He
+calls it Ormes, a city strongly fortified and abounding in costly wares,
+situated on an island 5 m. distant from the main, having no trees and no
+fresh water, unhealthy and (as all evidence confirms) incredibly hot.
+Some years later it was visited more than once by Ibn Batuta, who seems
+to speak of the old city as likewise still standing. The new Hormuz,
+called also Jerun (i.e. still retaining the original name of the
+island), was a great and fine city rising out of the sea, and serving as
+a mart for all the products of India, which were distributed hence over
+all Persia. The hills on the island were of rock-salt, from which vases
+and pedestals for lamps were carved. Near the gate of the chief mosque
+stood an enormous skull, apparently that of a sperm-whale. The king at
+this time was Kutbuddin Tahamtan, and the traveller gives a curious
+description of him, seated on the throne, in patched and dirty raiment,
+holding a rosary of enormous pearls, procured from the Bahrein
+fisheries, which at one time or another belonged, with other islands in
+the gulf and on the Oman shores from Ras-el-had (C. Rosalgat of the
+Portuguese) on the ocean round to Julfar on the gulf, to the princes of
+Hormuz. Abdurazzak, the envoy of Shah Rukh on his way to the Hindu court
+of Vijayanagar, was in Hormuz in 1442, and speaks of it as a mart which
+had no equal, frequented by the merchants of all the countries of Asia,
+among which he enumerates China, Java, Bengal, Tenasserim, Shahr-i-nao
+(i.e. Siam) and the Maldives. Nikitin, the Russian (c. 1470), gives a
+similar account; he calls it "a vast emporium of all the world."
+
+In September 1507 the king of Hormuz, after for some time hearing of the
+terrible foe who was carrying fire and sword along the shores of Arabia,
+saw the squadron of Alphonso d'Albuquerque appear before his city, an
+appearance speedily followed by extravagant demands, by refusal of these
+from the ministers of the young king, and by deeds of matchless daring
+and cruelty on the part of the Portuguese, which speedily broke down
+resistance. The king acknowledged himself tributary to Portugal, and
+gave leave to the Portuguese to build a castle, which was at once
+commenced on the northern part of the island, commanding the city and
+the anchorage on both sides. But the mutinous conduct and desertion of
+several of Albuquerque's captains compelled him suddenly to abandon the
+enterprise; and it was not till 1514, after the great leader had
+captured Goa and Malacca, and had for five years been viceroy, that he
+returned to Hormuz (or Ormuz, as the Portuguese called it), and without
+encountering resistance to a name now so terrible, laid his grasp again
+on the island and completed his castle. For more than a century Hormuz
+remained practically in the dominions of Portugal, though the hereditary
+prince, paying from his revenues a tribute to Portugal (in lieu of which
+eventually the latter took the whole of the customs collections),
+continued to be the instrument of government. The position of things
+during the Portuguese rule may be understood from the description of
+Cesare de' Federici, a Venetian merchant who was at Hormuz about 1565.
+After speaking of the great trade in spices, drugs, silk and silk
+stuffs, and pearls of Bahrein, and in horses for export to India, he
+says the king was a Moor (i.e. Mahommedan), chosen by and subordinate to
+the Portuguese. "At the election of the king I was there and saw the
+ceremonies that they use.... The old king being dead, the captain of the
+Portugals chooseth another of the blood-royal, and makes this election
+in the castle with great ceremony. And when he is elected the captain
+sweareth him to be true ... to the K. of Portugal as his lord and
+governor, and then he giveth him the sceptre regal. After this ... with
+great pomp ... he is brought into the royal palace in the city. The king
+keeps a good train and hath sufficient revenues, ... because the captain
+of the castle doth maintain and defend his right ... he is honoured as a
+king, yet he cannot ride abroad with his train, without the consent of
+the captain first had" (in Hakluyt).[1]
+
+The rise of the English trade and factories in the Indian seas in the
+beginning of the 17th century led to constant jealousies and broils with
+the Portuguese, and the successful efforts of the English company to
+open traffic with Persia especially embittered their rivals, to whom the
+possession of Hormuz had long given a monopoly of that trade. The
+officers of Shah Abbas, who looked with a covetous and resentful eye on
+the Portuguese occupation of such a position, were strongly desirous of
+the aid of English ships in attacking Hormuz. During 1620 and 1621 the
+ships of Portugal and of the English company had more than once come to
+action in the Indian seas, and in November of the latter year the
+council at Surat had resolved on what was practically maritime war with
+the Portuguese flag. There was hardly a step between this and the
+decision come to in the following month to join with "the duke of
+Shiraz" (Imam Kuli Khan, the governor of Fars) in the desired expedition
+against Hormuz. There was some pretext of being forced into the alliance
+by a Persian threat to lay embargo on the English goods at Jashk; but
+this seems to have been only brought forward by the English agents when,
+at a later date, their proceedings were called in question. The English
+crews were at first unwilling to take part in what they justly said was
+"no merchandizing business, nor were they engaged for the like," but
+they were persuaded, and five English vessels aided, first, in the
+attack of Kishm, where (at the east end of the large island so called)
+the Portuguese had lately built a fort,[2] and afterwards in that of
+Hormuz itself. The latter siege was opened on the 18th of February 1622,
+and continued to the 1st of May, when the Portuguese, after a gallant
+defence of ten weeks, surrendered. It is to be recollected that Portugal
+was at this time subject to the crown of Spain, with which England was
+at peace; indeed, it was but a year later that the prince of Wales went
+on his wooing adventure to the Spanish court. The irritation there was
+naturally great, though it is surprising how little came of it. The
+company were supposed (apparently without foundation) to have profited
+largely by the Hormuz booty; and both the duke of Buckingham and the
+king claimed to be "sweetened," as the record phrases it, from this
+supposed treasure. The former certainly received a large bribe
+(L10,000). The conclusion of the transaction with the king was formerly
+considered doubtful; but entries in the calendar of East India papers
+seem to show that James received an equal sum.[3]
+
+Hormuz never recovered from this blow. The Persians transferred their
+establishments to Gombroon on the mainland, about 12 m. to the
+north-west, which the king had lately set up as a royal port under the
+name of Bander Abbasi. The English stipulations for aid had embraced an
+equal division of the customs duties. This division was apparently
+recognized by the Persians as applying to the new Bander, and, though
+the trade with Persia was constantly decaying and precarious, the
+company held to their factory at Gombroon for the sake of this claim to
+revenue, which of course was most irregularly paid. In 1683-1684 the
+amount of debt due to the company in Persia, including their proportion
+of customs duties, was reckoned at a million sterling. As late as
+1690-1691 their right seems to have been admitted, and a payment of 3495
+sequins was received by them on this account. The factory at Gombroon
+lingered on till 1759, when it was seized by two French ships of war
+under Comte d'Estaing. It was re-established, but at the time of
+Niebuhr's visit to the gulf a few years later no European remained.
+Niebuhr mentions that in his time (c. 1765) Mulla 'Ali Shah, formerly
+admiral of Nadir Shah, was established on the island of Hormuz and part
+of Kishm as an independent chief.
+
+  See also Barros, _Asia_; _Commentaries of Albuquerque_, trans. by
+  Birch (Hak. Society); _Relaciones de Pedro Teixeira_ (Antwerp, 1610);
+  Narratives in Hakluyt's _Collection_ (reprint in 1809, vol. ii.) and
+  in Purchas's _Pilgrims_, vol. ii.; Pietro della Valle, _Persia_, lett.
+  xii.-xvii.; _Calendar of E. I. Papers_, by Sainsbury, vol. iii.;
+  Ritter, _Erdkunde_, xii.; _Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc._, Kempthorne in vol.
+  v., White-locke in vol. viii., Pelly in vol. xxxiv.; Fraser,
+  _Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan_ (1825); Constable and Stifle,
+  _Persian Gulf Pilot_ (1864); Bruce, _Annals of the E. I. Company_, &c.
+  (1810).     (H. Y.)
+
+The island has a circumference of 16 m. and its longest axis measures
+4(1/2) m. The village is in 27 deg. 6' N., 56 deg. 29' E. The Portuguese
+fort still stands, but is sadly out of repair and much of its western
+wall has been undermined and washed away by the action of the sea. It is
+a bastioned fort with orillons and loopholed casemates under the
+ramparts and was separated from the town by a deep moat, now silted up,
+cut E.-W. across the isthmus and crossed by a bridge. It has three
+cisterns for collecting rainwater; two are 17-18 ft. deep, have a
+capacity of about 60,000 gallons and are covered by arched roofs
+supported on six stone pillars. The third cistern is smaller and has no
+roof. Five rusty old iron guns are lying prone on the roof; six others
+on the strand before the village are used for fastening boats, another
+serves as a socket for a flagstaff before the representative of the
+government. The island is under the jurisdiction of the governor of the
+Persian Gulf ports who resides at Bushire. Of the old city hardly
+anything stands except a minaret, 70 ft. high, with a winding staircase
+inside and much worn away at the base, part of a former mosque used by
+the Portuguese as a lighthouse, but the traces of buildings, massive
+foundations constructed of stone quarried in the hills on the island, of
+many cisterns (some say 300), &c., are numerous and extensive. The
+modern settlement, situated south of the fort on the eastern shore, has
+a population of about 1000 during the cool season, but less in the hot
+season, when many people go over to Minab on the mainland to the east.
+Most of the people live in huts constructed of the branches and leaves
+of the date palm. They own about sixty small sailing vessels trading to
+Muscat and other ports and also do some pearl-fishing. At Turan Bagh on
+the east coast 4(1/2) m. S.E. of the fort are some considerable ruins,
+irrigation canals, an extensive burial ground and some huts occupied by
+a few families who cultivate a small garden on a terrace supported by
+old retaining walls. On a hill near the shore 1(1/2) m. S.E. of the fort
+is the ruin of a small chapel called "Santa Lucia" on an old map in
+Astley's _Collection of Voyages_, and on the summit of a salt hill
+1(1/2) m. south of the fort are the remains of another chapel called
+"N.S. de la Pena" on the same map, and a "Monastery" in a sketch of
+Hormuz made by David Davies, a mate on board the East India Company's
+ship "Discovery" in 1627. With the exception of the northern part, where
+the old city stood, and the little patch at Turan Bagh, the island is
+covered with reddish brown hills with sharp serrated ridges composed of
+gypsum, rock-salt and clay. These hills, which do not exceed 300 ft. in
+height, are broken through in four places by conical, whitish peaks of
+volcanic rocks (greenstone, trachyte); the highest of these peaks with
+an altitude of 690 ft. is situated almost in the centre of the island.
+
+The island has extensive beds of red ochre in which nodules of very pure
+hematite are often found. The ochre, here called _gilek_, has been an
+important article of export for centuries[4] and great quantities of it
+are exported at the present time to England (in 1906-1907, 10,000 tons;
+local price 27s. the ton). The climate of Hormuz, although hot, is,
+according to medical experts, the best in the Persian Gulf. Rain falls
+in January, February and March, and the annual rainfall is said to be
+about the same as that of Bushire, 12 to 13 in.
+
+  Capt. A. W. Stiffe in _Geogr. Mag._ (April 1874); William Foster in
+  _Geogr. Journal_ (Aug. 1894); writer's notes taken on island.
+       (A. H.-S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In Barros, _Dec. II._ book x. c. 7, there is a curious detail of
+    the revenue and expenditure of the kingdom of Ormuz, which would seem
+    to exhibit the former as not more than L100,000.
+
+  [2] The attack on Kishm was notable in that one of the two Englishmen
+    killed there was the great navigator Baffin.
+
+  [3] _Colonial Series, E. Indies_, by Sainsbury, vol. iii. _passim_,
+    especially see pp. 296 and 329.
+
+  [4] "Reddle or Red Ochre from the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire
+    is very little inferior to the Sort brought from the Island of Ormuz
+    in the Persian Gulph and so much valued and used by our Painters
+    under the name of Indian Red" (Sir John Hill, _Theophrastus's History
+    of Stones_, London, 1774).
+
+
+
+
+HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742), Swedish statesman, was born at
+Vuorentaka in Finland on the 6th of April 1664, of a noble but indigent
+family. After completing his studies at Abo, he entered the army and
+served for several years in the Netherlands, in Hungary under Prince
+Eugene, and in Flanders under Waldeck (1690-1695). He stood high in the
+favour of the young Charles XII. and was one of his foremost generals in
+the earlier part of the great Northern War. In 1704 he was entrusted
+with his first diplomatic mission, the deposition of Augustus II. of
+Poland and the election of Stanislaus I., a mission which he
+accomplished with distinguished ability but absolute unscrupulousness.
+Shortly afterwards he was besieged by Augustus in Warsaw and compelled
+to surrender. In 1705 he was made a senator, in 1706 a count and in 1707
+governor of Charles XII.'s nephew, the young duke Charles Frederick of
+Holstein-Gottorp. In 1710 he succeeded Nils Gyldenstolpe as prime
+minister. Transferred to the central point of the administration, he had
+ample opportunity of regarding with other eyes the situation of the
+kingdom, and in consequence of his remonstrances he fell rapidly in the
+favour of Charles XII. Both in 1710 and 1713 Horn was in favour of
+summoning the estates, but when in 1714 the diet adopted an
+anti-monarchical attitude, he gravely warned and ultimately dissolved
+it. In Charles XII.'s later years Horn had little to do with the
+administration. After the death of Charles XII. (1718) it was Horn who
+persuaded the princess Ulrica Leonora to relinquish her hereditary
+claims and submit to be _elected_ queen of Sweden. He protested against
+the queen's autocratic behaviour, and resigned both the premiership and
+his senatorship. He was elected _landtmarskalk_ at the diet of 1720, and
+contributed, on the resignation of Ulrica Leonora, to the election of
+Frederick of Hesse as king of Sweden, whose first act was to restore to
+him the office of prime minister. For the next eighteen years he so
+absolutely controlled both the foreign and the domestic affairs of
+Sweden that the period between 1720 and 1738 has well been called the
+Horn period. His services to his country were indeed inestimable. His
+strong hand kept the inevitable strife of the parliamentary factions
+within due limits, and it was entirely owing to his provident care that
+Sweden so rapidly recovered from the wretched condition in which the
+wars of Charles XII. had plunged her. In his foreign policy Horn was
+extremely wary and cautious, yet without compromising either the
+independence or the self-respect of his country. He was, however, the
+promoter of a new principle of administration which in later days proved
+very dangerous to Sweden under ministers less capable than he was. This
+was to increase the influence of the diet and its secret committees in
+the solution of purely diplomatic questions, which should have been left
+entirely to the executive, thus weakening the central government and at
+the same time facilitating the interference of foreign Powers in
+Sweden's domestic affairs. Not till 1731 was there any appearance of
+opposition in the diet to Horn's "system"; but Horn, piqued by the
+growing coolness of the king, the same year offered his resignation,
+which was not accepted. In 1734, however, the opposition was bold enough
+to denounce his neutrality on the occasion of the war of the Polish
+Succession, when Stanislaus I. again appeared upon the scene as a
+candidate for the Polish throne; but Horn was still strong enough to
+prevent a rupture with Russia. Henceforth he was bitterly but unjustly
+accused of want of patriotism, and in 1738 was compelled at last to
+retire before the impetuous onslaught of the triumphant young Hat party.
+For the rest of his life he lived in retirement at his estate at
+Ekebyholm, where he died on the 17th of April 1742. Horn in many
+respects greatly resembled his contemporary Walpole. The peculiar
+situation of Sweden, and the circumstances of his time, made his policy
+necessarily opportunist, but it was an opportunism based on excellent
+common sense.
+
+  See V. E. Svedelius, _Arvid Bernard Horn_ (Stockholm, 1879); R. N.
+  Bain, _Gustavus III._, vol. i. (London, 1894), and _Charles XII._
+  (1895); C. F. Horn, _A. B. Horn: hans lefnad_ (Stockholm, 1852).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT OF (1518-1568), a man of illustrious
+descent and great possessions in the Netherlands, became in succession
+under Charles V. and Philip II. stadtholder of Gelderland, admiral of
+Flanders and knight of the Golden Fleece. In 1559 he commanded the
+stately fleet which conveyed Philip II. from the Netherlands to Spain,
+and he remained at the Spanish court till 1563. On his return he placed
+himself with the prince of Orange and Count Egmont at the head of the
+party which opposed the policy of Cardinal Granvella. When Granvella
+retired the three great nobles continued to resist the introduction of
+the Spanish Inquisition and of Spanish despotic rule into the
+Netherlands. But though Philip appeared for a time to give way, he had
+made up his mind to visit the opponents of his policy with ruthless
+punishment. The regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma, was replaced by the
+duke of Alva, who entered the Netherlands at the head of a veteran army
+and at once began to crush all opposition with a merciless hand. Orange
+fled from the country, but Egmont and Horn, despite his warning, decided
+to remain and face the storm. They were both seized, tried and condemned
+as traitors, and were executed on the 5th of June 1568 in the great
+square before the town hall at Brussels.
+
+  See biographical notices in A. J. van der Aa, _Biographisch
+  Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (Haarlem, 1851-1879); J. Kok,
+  _Vaderlandsch Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1785-1799); also bibliography
+  to chaps. vi. vii. and xix. in _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iii.
+  pp. 798-809 (1904).
+
+
+
+
+HORN, English hero of romance. _King Horn_ is a heroic poem or gest of
+1546 lines dating from the 13th century. Murry (or Allof), king of
+Sudenne[1] (Surrey and Sussex?) is slain by Saracen pirates who turn his
+son Horn adrift with twelve other children. The boat drifts to
+Westernesse[2] (Cornwall?), where the children are received by King
+Aylmer (Aethelmaer). Presently Horn is denounced by one of his
+companions as the lover of the king's daughter Rymenhild (Rimel) and is
+banished, taking with him a ring, the gift of his bride and a talisman
+against danger. In Ireland, under the name of Godmod, he serves for
+seven years, and slays in battle the Saracens who had killed his father.
+Learning that Rymenhild is to be married against her will to King Mody,
+he returns to Westernesse disguised as a palmer, and makes himself known
+to the bride by dropping the ring into the cup she offers him, with the
+words "Drink to Horn of Horn." He then reconquers his father's kingdom
+and marries Rymenhild.
+
+  The other versions of the story, which are founded on a common
+  tradition, but are not immediately dependent on one another, are: (1)
+  the longer French romance of _Horn et Rimenhild_ by "mestre Thomas,"
+  describing more complex social conditions than those of the English
+  poem; (2) a slightly shorter Middle English poem, _Horn Childe and
+  Maiden Rimnild_; (3) the Scottish ballad of "Hind Horn;" (4) a prose
+  romance founded on the French _Horn_, entitled _Pontus et Sidoine_
+  (Lyons, 1480, Eng. trans. pr. by Wynkyn de Worde, 1511; German trans.
+  Augsburg, 1483).
+
+There is a marked resemblance between the story of Horn and the legend
+of Havelok the Dane, and it is interesting to note how closely Richard
+of Ely followed the Horn tradition in the 12th century _De gestis
+Herewardi Saxonis_. Hereward also loves an Irish princess, flees to
+Ireland, and returns in time for the bridal feast, where he is presented
+with a cup by the princess. The orphaned prince who recovers his
+father's kingdom and avenges his murder, and the maid or wife who waits
+years for an absent lover or husband, and is rescued on the eve of a
+forced marriage, are common characters in romance. The second of these
+motives, with almost identical incidents, occurs in the legend of Henry
+the Lion, duke of Brunswick; it is the subject of ballads in Swedish,
+Danish, German, Bohemian, &c., and of a _Historia_ by Hans Sachs, though
+some magic elements are added; it also occurs in the ballad of _Der edle
+Moringer_ (14th century), well known in Sir Walter Scott's translation;
+in the story of Torello in the _Decameron_ of Boccaccio (10th day, 9th
+tale); and with some variation in the Russian tale of Dobrynya and
+Nastasya.
+
+  _King Horn_ was re-edited for the Early English Text Soc. by G. H.
+  McKnight in 1901; _Horn et Rimenhild_ was edited with the English
+  versions for the Bannatyne Club by F. Michel (Paris, 1845); _Horn
+  Childe and Maiden Rimnild_ in J. Ritson's _Metrical Romances_, vol.
+  iii.; and "Hind Horn" in F. J. Child's _English and Scottish_
+  _Popular Ballads_ (vol. i., 1882), with an introductory note on
+  similar legends. See also H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of Romances_, vol.
+  i., where the relation between Havelok and Horn is discussed; _Hist.
+  litt. de la France_ (vol. xxii., 1852); W. Soderhjelm, _Sur l'identite
+  du Thomas auteur de Tristan et du Thomas auteur de Horn_ (_Romania_,
+  xv., 1886); T. Wissmann, "King Horn" (1876) and "Das Lied von King
+  Horn" (1881) in Nos. 16 and 45 of _Quellen und Forschungen zur Spr.
+  und Culturgesch. d. german. Volker_ (Strassburg and London); _Reinfrid
+  von Braunschweig_, a version of the legend of Henry the Lion, edited
+  by K. Bartsch (Stuttgart, 1871); and a further bibliography in O.
+  Hartenstein, _Studien zur Hornsage_ (Heidelberg, 1902).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] There was a barrow in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, called
+    Hornesbeorh; and there are other indications which point to a
+    possible connexion between _Horn_ and Dorset (see H. L. Ward, _Cat.
+    of Romances_, i. 451).
+
+  [2] Sudenne and Westernesse are tentatively identified also with Isle
+    of Man and Wirral (_Cambridge Hist. of Eng Lit._, i. 304).
+
+
+
+
+HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. _cornu_; cf. Gr. [Greek:
+keras]). The weapons which project from the heads of various species of
+animals, constituting what are known as horns, embrace substances which
+are, in their anatomical structure and chemical composition, quite
+distinct from each other; and although in commerce also they are known
+indiscriminately as horn, their uses are altogether dissimilar. These
+differences in structure and properties were thus indicated by Sir R.
+Owen:--"The weapons to which the term horn is properly or technically
+applied consist of very different substances, and belong to two organic
+systems, as distinct from each other as both are from the teeth. Thus
+the horns of deer consist of bone, and are processes of the frontal
+bone; those of the giraffe are independent bones or 'epiphyses' covered
+by hairy skin; those of oxen, sheep and antelopes are 'apophyses' of the
+frontal bone, covered by the corium and by a sheath of true horny
+material; those of the prong-horned antelope consist at their basis of
+bony processes covered by hairy skin, and are covered by horny sheaths
+in the rest of their extent. They thus combine the character of those of
+the giraffe and ordinary antelope, together with the expanded and
+branched form of the antlers of deer. Only the horns of the rhinoceros
+are composed wholly of horny matter, and this is disposed in
+longitudinal fibres, so that the horns seem rather to consist of coarse
+bristles compactly matted together in the form of a more or less
+elongated sub-compressed cone." True horny matter is really a modified
+form of epidermic tissue, and consists of the albuminoid "keratin." It
+forms, not only the horns of the ox tribe, but also the hoofs, claws or
+nails of animals generally, the carapace of the tortoises and the
+armadilloes, the scales of the pangolin, porcupine quills, and birds'
+feathers, &c.
+
+Horn is employed in the manufacture of combs, buttons, the handles of
+walking-sticks, umbrellas, and knives, drinking-cups, spoons of various
+kinds, snuff-boxes, &c. In former times it was applied to several uses
+for which it is no longer required, although such applications have left
+their traces in the language. Thus the musical instruments and fog
+signals known as horns indicate their descent from earlier and simpler
+forms of apparatus made from horn. In the same way powder-horns were
+spoken of long after they ceased to be made of that substance; to a
+small extent lanterns still continue to be "glazed" with thin
+transparent plates of horn.
+
+
+
+
+HORN (Lat. _cornu_; corresponding terms being Fr. _cor_, _trompe_; Ger.
+_Horn_; Ital. _corno_), a class of wind instruments primarily derived
+from natural animal horns (see above), and having the common
+characteristics of a conical bore and the absence of lateral holes. The
+word "horn" when used by modern English musicians always refers to the
+French horn.
+
+Modern horns may be divided into three classes: (1) the short horns with
+wide bore, such as the bugles (q.v.) and the post-horn. (2) The saxhorns
+(q.v.), a family of hybrid instruments designed by Adolphe Sax, and
+resulting from the adaptation of valves and of a cup-shaped mouthpiece
+to instruments of the calibre of the bugle. The Flugelhorn family is the
+German equivalent of the saxhorns. The natural scale of instruments of
+this class comprises the harmonics from the second to the eighth only.
+(3) The French horn (Fr. _cor de chasse_ or _trompe de chasse_, _cor a
+pistons_; Ger. _Waldhorn_, _Ventilhorn_; Ital. _corno_ or _corno di
+caccia_), one of the most valuable and difficult wind instruments of the
+orchestra, having a very slender conical tube wound round in coils upon
+itself. It consists of four principal parts--the body, the crooks, the
+slide and the mouthpiece.
+
+  (a) The _body_ is the main tube, having a bore of the form known as
+  trunco-conical, measuring approximately 7 ft. 4 in. in length, in
+  which the increase in the diameter of the bore is very gradual in
+  proportion to the length, the cone becoming accentuated only near the
+  bell. In the valve horn the bore is only theoretically conical, the
+  extra lengths of tubing attached to the valves being practically
+  cylindrical. The body is coiled spirally, and has at one end a
+  wide-mouthed bell from 11 to 12 in. in diameter having a parabolic
+  curve, and at the other a conical ferrule into which fit the crooks.
+
+  (b) The _crooks_ (Fr. _corps_ or _tons de rechange_; Ger.
+  _Krummbogen_, _Stimmbogen_, _Einsetzbogen_) are interchangeable,
+  spiral tubes, tapering to a diameter of a quarter of an inch at the
+  mouthpiece end and varying in length from 16 in. for the B[flat] alto
+  crook to 125 in. for the B[flat] basso. Each crook is named according
+  to the fundamental tone which it produces on being added to the body.
+  By lengthening the tube at will the crook lowers the pitch of the
+  instrument, and consequently changes the key in which it stands.
+  Although the harmonic series remains the same for all the crooks, the
+  actual sounds produced by overblowing are lower, the tube being
+  longer, and they now belong to the key of the crook. The principle of
+  the crook was known early in the 17th century; it had been applied to
+  the trumpet, trombone and Jagertrummet[1] before being adapted to the
+  horn. Crooks are merely transposing agents; they are powerless to fill
+  up the gaps in the scale of the horn in order to make it a chromatic
+  or even a diatonic instrument, for they require time for adjustment.
+  The principle of the crook doubtless suggested to Stolzel the system
+  of valves, which is but an instantaneous application of the general
+  principle to the individual notes of the harmonic series, each of
+  which is thereby lowered a semitone, a tone or a tone and a half, as
+  long as the valve remains in operation. The body of the horn without
+  crooks is of the length to produce 8 ft. C., and forms the standard,
+  being known as the alto horn in C, which is the highest key in which
+  the horn is pitched. The notes are sounded as written.
+
+  (c) The _mouthpiece_ of the horn differs substantially from that of
+  the trumpet.[2] There is, strictly speaking, no cup, the inside of the
+  mouthpiece being, like the bore of the instrument itself, in the form
+  of a truncated cone or funnel. Like the other parts of this difficult
+  and complex instrument, the proportions of the mouthpiece must bear a
+  certain undefined relation to the length and diameter of the column of
+  air. The choice of a suitable mouthpiece is in fact a test of skill;
+  the shape of the lip of the performer and the more special use he may
+  wish to make of either the higher or the lower harmonics have to be
+  taken into consideration. In orchestral music the part for first horns
+  naturally calls for the use of the higher harmonics, which are more
+  easily obtained by means of a somewhat smaller and shallower
+  mouthpiece[3] than that used upon the second horn, which is called
+  upon to dwell more on the lower harmonics.
+
+  (d) The _tuning slides_ (Fr. _coulisses_; Ger. _Stimmbogen_) consist
+  of a pair of sliding U-shaped tubes fitting tightly into each other,
+  by means of which the instrument can be brought strictly into tune,
+  and which also act as compensators with the crooks. On these tuning
+  slides, placed across the ring formed by the coils of the valve-horn,
+  are fixed the pistons with their extra lengths of tubing; as the
+  connexion of the pistons with the body of the horn is made through the
+  slides, the value of the latter as compensators will be readily
+  understood. Those accustomed to deal with instruments having fixed
+  notes, such as the piano and harp, hardly realize the extreme
+  difficulties which confront both maker and performer in intricate wind
+  instruments such as the horn, on which no sounds can be produced
+  without conscious adjustment of lips and breath, and but few without
+  the additional use of some such contrivance as slide, crook, piston of
+  of the hand in the bell, in the case of the natural or hand horn.
+
+
+  Acoustics.
+
+The production of sound in wind instruments has a fourfold object: (1)
+pitch; (2) range or scale of available notes; (3) quality of tone or
+_timbre_; (4) dynamic variation, or crescendo and diminuendo. The pitch
+of the horn, as of other wind instruments, depends almost exclusively on
+the length of the air-column set in vibration, and remains practically
+uninfluenced by the diameter of the bore. In the case of conical tubes
+in which the difference in diameter at the two extremities, mouthpiece
+and bell, is very great, as in the horn, the pitch of the tube will be
+slightly higher than its theoretical length would warrant.[4] When, for
+instance, three tubes of the same length are sounded--No. 1, conical
+diverging; No. 2, conical converging in the direction from mouthpiece
+to bell; No. 3, cylindrical--No. 1 gives a fundamental tone somewhat
+higher, No. 2 somewhat lower, than No. 3. Victor Mahillon[5] adds that
+the rate of vibration in such conical tubes as the horn is slightly less
+than the rate of vibration in ambient air; therefore, as the rate of
+vibration (i.e. the number of vibrations per second) varies in the
+inverse ratio with the length of the tube, it follows that the practical
+length of the horn is slightly less than the theoretical, the difference
+for the horn in B[flat] normal pitch amounting to 13.9 cm.
+(approximately 5(1/2) in.).
+
+The tube of the horn behaves as an open pipe. E. F. F. Chladni[6] states
+that the mouthpiece end is to be considered as open in all wind
+instruments (excepting reed instruments), even when, as in horns and
+trumpets, it would seem to be closed by the lips. Victor Mahillon,
+although apparently holding the opposite view, and considering as closed
+the tubes of all wind instruments played by means of reeds, whether
+single or double, or by the lips acting as reeds, gives a new and
+practical explanation of the phenomenon.[7] The result is the same in
+both cases, for the closed pipe of trunco-conical bore, whose diameter
+at the bell is at least four times greater than the diameter at the
+mouthpiece, behaves in the same manner, when set in vibration by a reed,
+as an open pipe, and gives the consecutive scale of harmonics.[8]
+
+  In order to produce sound from the horn, the performer, stretching his
+  lips across the funnel-shaped mouthpiece from rim to rim, blows into
+  the cavity. The lips, vibrating as the breath passes through the
+  aperture between them, communicate pulsations or series of
+  intermittent shocks to the thin stream of air, known as the exciting
+  current, which, issuing from them, strikes the column of air in the
+  tube, already in a state of stationary vibration.[9] The effect of
+  this series of shocks, without which there can be no sound, upon the
+  column of air confined within the walls of the tube is to produce
+  sound-waves, travelling longitudinally through the tube. Each
+  sound-wave consists of two half-lengths, one in which the air has been
+  compressed or condensed by the impulse or push, the second in which,
+  the push being spent, the air again dilates or becomes rarefied. In an
+  open pipe, the wave-length is theoretically equal to the length of the
+  tube. The pitch of the note depends on the frequency per second with
+  which each vibration or complete sound-wave reaches the drum of the
+  ear. The longer the wave the lower the frequency. The velocity of the
+  wave is independent of its length, being solely conditioned by the
+  rate of vibration of the particles composing the conveying medium:
+  while one individual particle performs one complete vibration, the
+  wave advances one wave-length.[10] The rate of particle vibration or
+  frequency is therefore inversely proportional to the corresponding
+  wave-length.[11] Sound-waves generated by the same exciting current
+  travel with the same velocity whatever their length, the difference
+  being the frequency number and therefore the pitch of the note. As
+  long as the performer blows with normal force, the same length of tube
+  produces the same wave-length and therefore the same frequency and
+  pitch. By "blowing with normal force" is understood the proper
+  relative proportions to be maintained between the wind-pressure and
+  the lip-tension--a ratio which is found instinctively by the performer
+  but was only suspected by the older writers.[12] If the shocks or
+  vibrations initiated by the lips through the medium of the exciting
+  current be sharper owing to the increased tension of the lips, and at
+  the same time succeed each other with greater velocity, the
+  wave-length breaks up, and two, three or more proportionally shorter
+  complete waves form instead of one, and traverse the pipe within the
+  same space of time, producing sounds proportionally higher by an
+  octave, a twelfth, &c., according to the character of the initiatory
+  disturbance. We may therefore add this proposition: the rate of
+  vibration of a tube varies as the number of segments into which the
+  vibrating column of air within it is divided. In order to obtain the
+  fundamental, the performer's lips must be loose and the wind-pressure
+  gentle but steady, so that the exciting current may issue forth in a
+  broad, slow stream. To set in vibration a column of air some 16 or 17
+  ft. long is a feat of extreme difficulty; that is why it is quite
+  exceptional to find a horn-player who can sound the fundamental on the
+  low C or B[flat] _basso_ horns. In the organ, where even a 32 ft. tone
+  is obtained, the wind-pressure and the lip-opening controlling the
+  exciting current are mechanically regulated for each length of
+  pipe--only one note being required from each. In order, therefore, to
+  induce the column of air within the tube to break up and vibrate in
+  aliquot parts, the exciting current must be compressed into an ever
+  finer, tenser and more incisive stream. There is in fact a certain
+  minimum pressure for each degree of tension of the lips below which no
+  harmonic can be produced.
+
+  It is often stated that the harmonics are obtained by increasing the
+  tension of the lips and a crescendo by increasing the pressure of the
+  breath.[13] Victor Mahillon[14] accounts for the harmonics by
+  increased wind-pressure only. It is evident that the greater the
+  tension of the lips, the greater the force of wind required to set
+  them vibrating; therefore the force and velocity of the air must vary
+  with the tension of the lips in order to produce a steady or musical
+  sound. D. J. Blaikley considers that the ratio of increase in lips and
+  breath follows that of the harmonic series. The tension of the lips
+  has the effect of reducing the width of the slit or aperture between
+  them and the width of the exciting current. While increasing its
+  density the energy of the wind must, therefore, either expend itself
+  in increasing the rate of vibration, or frequency of the pulses, which
+  influences the pitch of the note; or else in increasing the extent of
+  excursion or amplitude of the vibrations, which influences the dynamic
+  force of the sound or loudness.[15] If the aperture be narrowed
+  without providing a proportional increase of wind-pressure, the
+  harmonic overtone may be heard, but either the intonation will suffer
+  or the intensity of the tone will be reduced, because the force
+  required, to set the tenser membrane in vibration is insufficient to
+  give the vibrations the requisite amplitude as well as the frequency.
+  If the force expended be excessive, i.e. more than the maximum
+  required to ensure the increased frequency proportional to the
+  increased tension, the superfluous energy must expend itself in
+  increasing the amplitude of the vibrations so that a note of a greater
+  degree of loudness as well as of higher pitch will be produced. The
+  converse is equally true; the lower the pitch of the note the slower
+  the pulses or vibrations and therefore the looser the lip and the
+  gentler the force of current required to set them vibrating. To draw a
+  parallel from organ-pipes: as long as even wind-pressure is
+  maintained, the mouthpiece being fixed proportional to the length of
+  tube, the pipe gives out one note of unvarying dynamic intensity;
+  increase the pressure of the wind and harmonics are heard, but it is
+  impossible to obtain a crescendo unless the mouthpiece be dispensed
+  with and a free reed (q.v.) adapted.
+
+  Reference has already been made above to the difficulty of obtaining
+  the fundamental on tubes of great length and narrow bore like the
+  horn. The useful compass of the horn, therefore, begins with the note
+  that an open pipe half its length would give; the Germans term
+  instruments of such small calibre _half instruments_, and those of
+  wide calibre, such as bugles and tubas, _whole instruments_,[16] since
+  in them the whole of the length of the tube is available in practice.
+
+  The harmonic series of the horn, or the open notes obtainable without
+  using valves or crooks, is written as for the alto horn in C of 8 ft.
+  tone, which forms the standard of notation. Notes written in the bass
+  clef are generally, for some unexplained reason, placed an octave
+  lower than the real sounds.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  All the crooks, a list of the principal of which is appended,
+  therefore necessarily give real sounds _lower_ than the above series
+  according to their individual length.
+
+    _Table of Principal Crooks now in Use._[17]
+
+    +---------------+------------------+-------------+----------+-----------------+
+    |     Key of    | Actual Sounds of |             | Length of|                 |
+    |     Crook.    | Range of Useful  |             | Crook in |  Transposes to  |
+    |               |    Harmonics.    |             |  Inches. |                 |
+    +---------------+------------------+-------------+----------+-----------------+
+    | B[flat] alto  |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 10th |  16      | major 2nd lower |
+    | A[natural]    |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 10th |  22(1/2) | minor 3rd   "   |
+    | A[flat]       |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 10th |  29(1/2) | major 3rd   "   |
+    | G             |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 12th |  36(3/4) | perfect 4th "   |
+    | F             |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 16th |  52(1/2) | perfect 5th "   |
+    | E             |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 16th |  61      | minor 6th   "   |
+    | E[flat]       |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 16th |  70(1/4) | major 6th   "   |
+    | D             |   [music notes]  | 2nd to 16th |  80      | minor 7th   "   |
+    | C basso       |   [music notes]  | 3rd to 16th | 101      | 8^ve        "   |
+    | B[flat] basso |   [music notes]  | 3rd to 16th | 125      | major 9th   "   |
+    +---------------+------------------+-------------+----------+-----------------+
+
+  The practical aggregate compass of the natural horns from B[flat]
+  basso at the service of composers therefore ranges (actual sounds)
+  from [music notes] or with 3 valves from [music notes] By means of
+  hand-stopping, i.e. the practice of thrusting the hand into the bell
+  in order to lower the sound by a tone or a semitone, or by the
+  adaptation of valves to the horn, this compass may be rendered
+  chromatic almost throughout the range.
+
+  The principle of the valve as applied to wind instruments differs
+  entirely from that of keys. The latter necessitate lateral holes bored
+  through the tube, and when the keys are raised the vibrating column of
+  air within the tube and the ambient air without are set in
+  communication, with the result that the vibrating column is shortened
+  and the pitch of the note raised. The valve system consists of valves
+  or pistons attached to additional lengths of tubing, the effect of
+  which is invariably to lower the pitch, except in the case of valve
+  systems specified as "ascending" tried by John Shaw and Adolphe Sax.
+  Insuperable practical difficulties led to the abandonment of these
+  systems, which in any case were the exception and not the rule. The
+  valves, placed upon the U-shaped slides in the centre of the horn, are
+  worked by means of pistons or levers, opening or closing the wind-ways
+  at will, so that when they are in operation the vibrating column of
+  air no longer takes its normal course along the main tube and directly
+  through the slides, but makes a detour through the extra length of
+  tubing before completing its course. Thus the valves, unlike the keys,
+  do not open any communication with the ambient air. Even authoritative
+  writers[18] have confused the two principles, believing them to be one
+  and the same.
+
+  French horns are made with either two or three valves. To the first
+  valve is attached sufficient length of tubing to lower the pitch of
+  the instrument a tone, so that any note played upon the horn in F
+  while the first valve is depressed takes effect a tone lower, or as
+  though the horn were in E[flat]. The second valve opens a passage into
+  a shorter length of tubing sufficient to lower the pitch of the
+  instrument a semitone, as though the instrument were for the time
+  being in E. The third valve similarly lowers the pitch a tone and a
+  half. It will thus be seen that the principle applied in the crook and
+  the valve is in the main the same, but the practical value of the
+  valve is immeasurably superior. Thanks to the valve system the
+  performer is able to have the extra lengths of tubing necessary to
+  give the horn a chromatic compass permanently incorporated with the
+  instrument, and at will to connect one or a combination of these
+  lengths with the main tube of the instrument during any interval of
+  time, however short. The three devices, crooks, valves and slides, are
+  in fact all based upon the same principle, that of providing
+  additional length of tubing in order to deepen the pitch of the whole
+  instrument at will and to transpose it into a different key. Valves
+  and slides, being instantaneous in operation, give to the instrument a
+  chromatic compass, whereas crooks merely enable the performer to play
+  in many keys upon one instrument instead of requiring a different
+  instrument for each key. The slide is the oldest of these devices, and
+  probably suggested the crook as a substitute on instruments of conical
+  bore such as the horn.
+
+  The invention of the valve, although a substantial improvement, was
+  found to fall short of perfection in its operation on the tubes of
+  wind instruments so soon as the possibility of using the three valves
+  in combination to produce six different positions or series of
+  harmonics was realized, and for the following reason. In order to
+  deepen the pitch one tone by means of valve 1, a length of tubing
+  exactly proportional to the length of the main tube must be thrown
+  into communication with the latter. If, in addition to valve 1, valve
+  3 be depressed, a further drop in pitch of 1(1/2) tone should be
+  effected; but as the length of tubing added by depressing valve 3 is
+  calculated in proportion to the main tube, and the latter has already
+  been lengthened by depressing valve 1, therefore the additional length
+  supplied by opening valve 3 is now too short to produce a drop of a
+  minor third strictly in tune, and all notes played while valves 1 and
+  3 are depressed will be too sharp. Means of compensating slight errors
+  in intonation are provided in the U-shaped slides mentioned above.
+
+  The _timbre_ of the natural horn is mellow, sonorous and rich in
+  harmonics; it is quite distinctive and bears but little resemblance to
+  that of the other members of the brass wind. In listening to its
+  sustained notes one receives the impression of the tone being breathed
+  out as by a voice, whereas the trumpet and trombone produce the effect
+  of a rapid series of concussions, and in the tuba and cornet the
+  concussions, although still striking, are softened as by padding. The
+  timbre of the hand-stopped notes is veiled and suggestive of mystery;
+  so characteristic is the timbre that passages in the _Rheingold_ heard
+  when the magic power of the Tarnhelm reveals itself sound meaningless
+  if the weird chords are played by means of the valves instead of by
+  hand-stopping. The timbre of the piston notes is more resonant than
+  that of the open notes, partaking a little of the character of the
+  trombone, which is probably due to the fact that the strictly conical
+  bore of the natural horn has been replaced by a mixed cylindrical and
+  conical as in trumpet and trombone.
+
+  The form of the mouthpiece (q.v.) at the point where it joins the main
+  bore of the tube must also exercise a certain influence on the form of
+  vibration, which it helps to modify in conjunction with the
+  conformation of each individual horn-player's lip. In the horn the cup
+  of the mouthpiece is shaped like a funnel, the bore converging
+  insensibly into the narrow end of the main conical bore without break
+  or sharp edges as in the mouthpieces, more properly known as
+  cup-shaped, of trumpet and bombardon.
+
+  The brilliant sonorousness and roundness of the timbre of the horn are
+  due to the strength and predominance of the partial tones up to the
+  7th or 8th. The prevalence of the higher harmonics from the 10th to
+  the 16th, in which the partial tones lie very close together,
+  determines the harsh quality of the trumpet timbre, which may be
+  easily imitated on the horn by forcing the sound production and using
+  a trumpet mouthpiece, and by raising the bell, an effect which is
+  indicated by composers by the words "Raise the Bells."[19]
+
+
+  History.
+
+The origin of the horn must be sought in remote prehistoric times, when,
+by breaking off the tip of a short animal horn, one or at best two
+notes, powerful, rough, unsteady, only barely approximating to definite
+musical sounds, were obtained. This was undoubtedly the archetype of the
+modern families of brass wind instruments, and from it evolved the
+trumpet, the bugle and the tuba no less than the horn. The common
+characteristics which link together these widely different modern
+families of instruments are: (1) the more or less pronounced conical
+bore, and (2) the property possessed in a greater or lesser degree of
+producing the natural sounds by what has been termed overblowing the
+harmonic overtones. If we follow the evolution of the animal horn
+throughout the centuries, the ultimate development leads us not to the
+French horn but to the bugle and tuba.
+
+  Before civilization had dawned in classic Greece, Egypt, Assyria and
+  the Semitic races were using wind instruments of wood and metal which
+  had left the primitive ram or bugle horn far behind. Even in northern
+  Europe, during the Bronze age (c. 1000 B.C.), prehistoric man had
+  evolved for himself the prototype of the Roman _cornu_, a bronze horn
+  of wide conical bore, bent in the shape of a G. One of these
+  instruments, known among the modern Scandinavian races as _luurs_ or
+  _lurs_, found in the peat beds of Denmark and now preserved in the
+  Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, has a length of 1.91 m.
+  (about 6 ft. 4 in.). The U-shaped mouthpiece joint is neatly joined to
+  the remainder of the crescent-tube by means of a bronze ring; the
+  bell, which must have rested on the shoulder, consists merely of a
+  flat rim set round the end of the tube. There is therefore no graceful
+  curve in the bell as in the French horn. An exact facsimile of this
+  prehistoric horn has been made by Victor Mahillon of Brussels, who
+  finds that it was in the key of E[flat] and easily produces the first
+  eight harmonics of that key. It stands, therefore, an octave higher
+  than the modern horn in E[flat] (which measures some 13 ft.), but on
+  the _lur_ the fundamental E[flat] can be reached owing to the wider
+  calibre of the bore.[20]
+
+  Among the Romans the wind instruments derived from the horn were well
+  represented, and included well-developed types which do not differ
+  materially from the natural instruments of modern times. The buccina
+  developed directly into the trumpet and trombone during the middle
+  ages, losing no characteristic of importance but the bent form, which
+  was perforce abandoned when the art of bending hollow tubes was lost
+  after the fall of the Roman Empire. The name clung through all the
+  changes in form and locality to the one type, and still remains at the
+  present day in the German _Posaune_ (trombone). There were four
+  instruments known by the name of _cornu_ among the Romans: (1) the
+  short animal horn used by shepherds; (2) the longer, semicircular
+  horn, used for signals; and (3) the still longer _cornu_, bent and
+  carried like the buccina, which had the wide bore of the modern tuba.
+  But whereas on the buccina the higher harmonics were easily obtained,
+  on the cornu the natural scale consisted of the first eight harmonics
+  only. The cornu, although shorter than the buccina, had a deeper pitch
+  and more sonorous tone, for, owing to the wider calibre of the bore,
+  the fundamental was easily reached. In the reliefs on Trajan's Column,
+  where the two instruments may be compared, the wider curve of the
+  buccina forms a ready means of identification. In addition to these
+  was (4) the small instrument like the medieval hunting-horn or
+  post-horn, with the single spiral turn similar to one which figures as
+  service badge in many British infantry regiments,[21] such as the
+  first battalion of the King's Own Light Infantry. A terra-cotta model,
+  slightly broken, but with the spiral intact, was excavated at Ventoux
+  in France and is at present preserved in the department of Greek and
+  Roman antiquities at the British Museum, having been acquired from the
+  collection of M. Morel.
+
+  The _lituus_, or cavalry trumpet of the Romans, consisted of a
+  cylindrical tube, to which was attached a bent horn or conical bell,
+  the whole in the shape of a J. The long, straight Roman tuba was
+  similar to the large, bent cornu so far as bore and capabilities were
+  concerned, but more unwieldy. All these wind instruments seem to have
+  been used during the classic Greek and Roman periods merely to sound
+  fanfares, and therefore, in spite of the high degree of perfection to
+  which they attained as instruments, they scarcely possess any claim to
+  be considered within the domain of music. They were signalling
+  instruments, mainly used in war, in hunting and in state or civic
+  ceremonial. Vegetius (A.D. 386) describes these instruments, and gives
+  detailed instructions for the special traditional uses of tuba,
+  buccina and cornu in the military camp: "Semivocalia sunt, quae per
+  tubam, aut cornua, aut buccinam dantur. Tuba quae directa est
+  appellatur buccina, quae in semet ipsam aereo circulo flectitur. Cornu
+  quod ex uris agrestibus, argento nexum, temperatum arte, et spiritu,
+  quem canentis flatus emittit auditur."[22] It will be seen that
+  Vegetius demands a skilled horn-player. These service instruments may
+  all be identified in the celebrated bas-reliefs of Trajan's Column[23]
+  (fig. 1) and of the Triumphal arch of Augustus at Susa.[24]
+
+  Interesting evidence of a collegium cornicinum (gild of horn-players)
+  is furnished by an altar stone in the Roman catacombs, erected to the
+  memory of one "M. Julius victor ex Collegio Liticinum Cornicinum," on
+  which are carved a lituus, a cornu and a pan's pipe, the cornu being
+  similar to those on Trajan's Column.
+
+  All three Roman instruments, the tuba, the buccina and the cornu, had
+  well-formed mouthpieces, differing but little from the modern
+  cup-shaped form in use on the trumpet, the trombone, the tubas,
+  &c.[25] It would seem that even the short horn in the 4th century was
+  provided with a mouthpiece,[26] judging from a carved specimen on an
+  ivory _capsa_ or _pyxis_ dating from the period immediately preceding
+  the fall of the Roman Empire, preserved among the precious relics at
+  Xanten.
+
+  [Illustration: From Conrad Cichorius, _Die Reliefs der Traiansaule_,
+  by permission of Georg Reimer.
+
+  FIG. 1.--Roman Cornu and Buccina.]
+
+  After the fall of the Roman Empire, when instrumental music had fallen
+  into disrepute and had been placed under a ban by the church, the art
+  of playing upon such highly-developed instruments gradually died out
+  in western Europe. With the disappearance of the civilization and
+  culture of the Romans, the skilled crafts also gradually vanished, and
+  the art of making metal pipes of delicate calibre and of bending them
+  was completely forgotten, and had to be reacquired step by step during
+  the middle ages from the more enlightened East. The names of the
+  instruments and representations of them survived in MSS. and monuments
+  of art, and as long as the West was content to turn to late Roman and
+  Romano-Christian art for its models, no difficulties were created for
+  the future archaeologist. By the time the Western races had begun to
+  express themselves and to develop their own characteristics, in the
+  11th century, the arts of Persia, Arabia and the Byzantine Empire had
+  laid their mark upon the West, and confusion of models, and more
+  especially of names, ensued. The greatest confusion of all was created
+  by the numerous translations and glosses of the Bible and by the
+  attempts of miniaturists to illustrate the principal scenes. In
+  Revelation, for instance (ch. viii.), the seven angels with their
+  trumpets are diversely represented with long tubas, with curved horns
+  of various lengths, and with the buisine, busaun or posaune, the
+  descendant of the buccina.
+
+  We know from the colouring used in illuminated MSS., gold and pale
+  blue, that horns were made of metal early in the middle ages. The
+  metal was not cast in moulds but hammered into shape.
+  Viollet-le-Duc[27] reproduces a miniature from a MS. of the end of the
+  13th century (Paris, Bibliotheque du corps legislatif), in which two
+  metal-workers are shown hammering two large horns.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Medieval Hunting Horn with the
+
+  Tablature in use in the 14th Century.]
+
+  The early medieval horns had no mouthpieces, the narrow end being
+  merely finished with a rim on which the lips rested. The tone suffered
+  in consequence, being uncertain, rough and tremulous, wherefore it was
+  indicated by the neume known as _quilisma_: "Est vox tremula; sicut
+  est sonus flatus tubae vel cornu et designatur per neumam, quae
+  vocatur _quilisma_."[28]
+
+  During the middle ages the bugle-horn or bull's horn was extensively
+  used as a signal instrument on land and sea (see BUGLE), by the
+  night-watchmen in cities, in the watch tower of the feudal castle and
+  by foresters and huntsmen. The hunting-horn was generally represented
+  as small in the hunting scenes which abound in illuminated MSS. and
+  early printed books; it was crescent-shaped and was worn slung by a
+  leather strap over one shoulder and resting on the opposite hip. When
+  played it was held with the wide end curving upwards in front of the
+  huntsman's head. A kind of tablature for the horn was in use in France
+  in the 14th century; an example of it is here reproduced (fig. 2) from
+  a 14th-century French MS. treatise on venery.[29] Only one note is
+  indicated, the various calls and signals being based chiefly on
+  rhythm, and the notes being left to the taste and skill of the
+  huntsman. The interpretation[30] of the _Cornure de chasse de veue_
+  seen in the figure is as follows:
+
+    First line = [music notes]
+
+    Second line = [music notes]
+
+    Third line = [music notes]
+
+  In the first poem is given a list of these signs with the names by
+  which they were known in venery.
+
+  In the 16th century in England the hunting-horn sometimes had a spiral
+  turn in the centre, half-way between mouthpiece and bell end; the
+  extra length was apparently added solely in order to lower the pitch,
+  the higher harmonics not being used for the hunting calls. In George
+  Turbevile's _Noble Arte of Venerie_ (1576, facsimile reprint, Oxford,
+  1908) the "measures of blowing according to the order which is
+  observed at these dayes in this Realme of Englande" are given for the
+  horn in D. One of these, given in fig. 3, is the English 16th-century
+  hunting call, corresponding to the 14th-century French _Cornure de
+  chasse de veue_ given above.
+
+  [Illustration: From Turbevile's _Noble Art of Venerie_ (1576), by
+  permission of the Clarendon Press.
+
+  FIG. 3.--Hunting Call.]
+
+  The hunting-horn, whether in its simplest form or with the one spiral,
+  was held with the bell upwards on a level with the huntsman's head or
+  just above it.[31]
+
+  A horn of the same fine calibre as the French horn, 3 or 4 ft. in
+  length, slightly bent to take the curve of the body, was in use in
+  Italy, it would seem, in the 15th century.[32] It was held slanting
+  across the body with the bell already slightly parabolic, at arm's
+  length to the left side.
+
+  The hunting- and post-horns were favourite emblems on medieval coats
+  of arms, more especially in Germany[33] and Bohemia.
+
+  It is necessary at this point to draw attention to the fact that the
+  French horn is a hybrid having affinities with both trumpet and
+  primitive animal horn, or with _buccina_ and _cornu_, and that both
+  types, although frequently misnamed and confused by medieval writers
+  and miniaturists, subsisted side by side, evolving independently until
+  they merged in the so-called French horn. Both buccina and cornu after
+  the fall of the Roman Empire, while Western arts and crafts were in
+  their infancy, were made straight, being then known as the busine or
+  straight trumpet (busaun or posaun in Germany), and the long horn,
+  _Herhorn_, slightly curved.[34]
+
+  [Illusration: FIG. 4.--Medieval Circular Horn.]
+
+  [Illusration: FIG. 5.--Medieval Circular Horn, 1589.]
+
+  From two medieval representations of instruments like the Roman cornu
+  one might be led to conclude that the instrument had been revived and
+  was in use from the 14th century. A wooden bas-relief on the under
+  part of the seats of the choir of Worcester cathedral,[35] said to
+  date from the 14th century, shows a musician in a robe with long
+  sleeves of fur playing the horn (fig. 4). The tube winds from the
+  mouth in a circle reaching to his waist, passes under the right arm
+  across the shoulders with the bell stretching out horizontally over
+  his left shoulder. The tube, of strictly conical bore, is made in
+  three pieces, the joints being strengthened by means of two rings. The
+  other example is German, and figures in the arms of the city of
+  Frankfort-on-Main.[36] Here in the two opposite corners are two
+  cherubs playing immense cornua. The bore of the instruments (fig. 5)
+  is of a calibre suggestive of the contrabass tuba; the circle formed
+  is of a diameter sufficiently large to accommodate the youthful
+  performer in a sitting posture; the bell is the forerunner of that of
+  the modern saxophone, shaped like a gloxinea; the mouthpiece is
+  cup-shaped. It is possible, of course, that these two examples are
+  attempts to reproduce the classic instrument, but the figures of the
+  musicians and the feeling of the whole scheme of ornamentation seem to
+  render such an explanation improbable. Moreover, Sebastian
+  Virdung,[37] writing on musical instruments at the beginning of the
+  16th century, gives a drawing of a cornu coiled round tightly, the
+  tubing being probably soldered together at certain points. Virdung
+  calls this instrument a _Jegerhorn_, and the short hunting-horn
+  _Acherhorn_ (Ackerhorn--the synonym of the modern Waldhorn). The scale
+  of the former could have consisted only of the first eight harmonics,
+  including the fundamental, which would be easily obtained on an
+  instrument of such a large calibre. Mersenne,[38] a century and a
+  quarter later, gives a drawing of the same kind of horn among his
+  _cors de chasse_, but does not in his description display his
+  customary intimate knowledge of his subject; it may be that he was
+  dealing at second-hand with an instrument of which he had had little
+  practical experience. Praetorius[39] gives as Jagerhorn only the
+  simple forms of crescent-shaped horns with a single spiral; the
+  spirally-wound horn of Virdung is replaced by a new instrument--the
+  _Jagertrummet_ (huntsman's trumpet)--of the same form, but less
+  cumbersome, of cylindrical bore excepting at the bell end and having a
+  crook inserted between the mouthpiece and the main coils. The tube,
+  which could not have been less than 8 ft. long, produced the harmonic
+  series of the cavalry trumpet from the 3rd to the 12th. The
+  restrictions placed upon the use of the cavalry trumpet would have
+  rendered it unavailable for use in the hunting-field, but the
+  snake-shaped model, as Praetorius describes it, was a decided
+  improvement on the horn, although inferior in resonance to the cavalry
+  model. Here then are the materials for the fusion of the trumpet and
+  hunting-horn into the natural or hand-horn of the 17th and 18th
+  centuries. There is evidence, however, that a century earlier, i.e. at
+  the end of the 15th century, the art of bending a brass tube of the
+  delicate proportions of the French horn, which is still a test of fine
+  workmanship, had been successfully practised. In an illustrated
+  edition of Virgil's works published in Strassburg in 1502 and
+  emanating from Gruninger's office, Brant being responsible for the
+  illustrations, the lines (_Aen._ viii. 1-2) "Ut belli signum Laurenti
+  Turnus ab arce Extulit: et rauco strepuerunt cornua cantu" are
+  illustrated by two soldiers, one with the sackbut (posaune, the
+  descendant of the buccina), the other with a horn wound spirally round
+  his body in three coils, which appear to have a conical bore from the
+  funnel-shaped mouthpiece to the bell which extends at the back of the
+  head horizontally over the left shoulder (fig. 6). There is ample
+  room for the performer's head and shoulders to pass through the
+  circle: the length of the tube could not therefore have been much less
+  than 16 ft. long, equivalent to the horn in C or B[flat] basso. In the
+  same book (pl. ccci.) is another horn, smaller, differing slightly in
+  the disposition of the coils and held like the modern horn in front.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Spirally Coiled Horn from Virgil's Works
+  (1502), folio cccviii. versa.]
+
+  These horns were not used for hunting but for war in conjunction with
+  the draw-trumpet. Brant could not have imagined these instruments, and
+  must have seen the originals or at least drawings of them; the
+  instruments probably emanated from the famed workshops of Nuremberg,
+  being intended mainly for use in Italy, and had not been generally
+  adopted in Germany. The significance of these drawings of natural
+  horns in a German work of the dawn of the 16th century will not be
+  lost. It disposes once and for all of the oft-repeated fable that the
+  hunting-horn first assumed its present form in France about 1680, a
+  statement accepted without question by authorities of all countries,
+  but without reference to any _piece justificative_ other than the
+  story of the Bohemian Count Sporken first quoted by Gerber,[40] and
+  repeated in most musical works without the context. The account which
+  gave rise to this statement had been published in 1782 in a book by
+  Faustinus Prochaska:[41] "Vix Parisiis inflandi cornua venatoria
+  inventa ars quum delectatus suavitate cantus duos ex hominibus sibi
+  obnoxiis ea instituendos curavit. Id principium apud nos artis, qua
+  hodie Bohemi excellere putantur." In a preceding passage after the
+  count's name, Franz Anton, Graf von Sporken, are the words "anno
+  saeculi superioris octogesimo quum iter in externas provincias
+  suscepisset," &c. There is no reference here to the invention of the
+  horn in Paris or to the folding of the tube spirally, but only to the
+  manner of eliciting sound from the instrument. Count Sporken,
+  accustomed to the medieval hunting fanfares in which the tone of the
+  horn approximated to the blare of the trumpet, was merely struck by
+  the musical quality of the true horn tone elicited in Paris, and gave
+  France the credit of the so-called invention, which probably more
+  properly belonged to Italy. The account published by Prochaska a
+  hundred years after, without reference to the source from which it was
+  obtained, finds no corroboration from French sources. Had the French
+  really made any substantial improvement in the hunting-horn at the end
+  of the 17th century, transforming it from the primitive instrument
+  into an orchestral instrument, it would only be reasonable to expect
+  to find some evidence of this, considering the importance attached to
+  the art of music at the court of Louis XIV., whose musical
+  establishments, la Chapelle Musique,[42] la Musique de la Chambre du
+  Roi and la Musique de la Grande Ecurie, included the most brilliant
+  French artists. One would expect to find horns of that period by
+  French makers among the relics of musical instruments in the museums
+  of Europe. This does not seem to be the case. Moreover, in Diderot and
+  d'Alembert's _Encyclopedie_ (1767) the information given under the
+  heading _trompe ou cor de chasse grand et petit_ is very vague, and
+  contains no hint of any special merit due to France for any
+  improvement in construction. Among the plates (vol. v., pl. vii.) is
+  given an illustration of a horn very similar to the instruments made
+  in England and Germany nearly a century earlier, but with a
+  funnel-shaped mouthpiece. Dr Julius Ruhlmann states that there are two
+  horns by Raoux, bearing the date 1703,[43] in the Bavarian National
+  Museum in Munich,[44] but although fine examples, one in silver, the
+  other in brass (fig. 6) by Raoux, they turn out on inquiry[45] to bear
+  no date whatever. Ruhlmann's statement in the same article, that in
+  the arms of the family of Wartenberg-Kolb (now extinct), which goes
+  back to 1169, there is a hunting-horn coiled round in a complete
+  circle is also misleading. The horn (a post-horn) did not appear in
+  the arms of the family in question until 1699, when the first peer
+  Casimir Johann Friedrich was created hereditary Post-Master. The
+  influence of such erroneous statements in the work of noted writers is
+  far-reaching. Inquiries at the department of National Archives in
+  Paris concerning Raoux, the founder of the afterwards famous firm of
+  horn-makers whose model with pistons is used in the British military
+  bands and at Kneller Hall, proved fruitless. Fetis states that he
+  worked during the second half of the 18th century. Albert Chouquet[46]
+  states that he has seen a trumpet by Raoux, "seul ordinaire du Roy,
+  Place du Louvre" dated 1695. The inscriptions on the horns in question
+  are: For No. 105, a silver horn of the simplest form of construction
+  in D, "Fait a Paris par Raoux"; for No. 106, a brass horn engraved
+  with a crown on an ermine mantle with the initials C. A. (Carl
+  Albert), "Fait a Paris par Raoux, seul ordinaire du Roy, Place du
+  Louvre." Both horns measure across the coils 56 cm. and across the
+  bell 27(1/2). They are practically the same as the _cors de chasse_
+  now in use in French and Belgian military bands, the large diameter of
+  the coil enabling the performer to carry it over his shoulder. The
+  orchestral horn was given a narrower diameter in order to facilitate
+  its being held in front of the performer in a convenient position for
+  stopping the bell with the right hand. No. 107 in the same collection,
+  a horn of German construction, bears the inscription "Macht Jacob
+  Schmid in Nurnberg" and the trademark "J. S." with a bird. A horn in
+  E[flat]] of French make, having fleur-de-lys stamped on the rim of the
+  bell, and measuring only 15 in. across the coils to the exterior edge
+  of the bell--therefore a very small horn--is preserved in the Grand
+  Ducal Museum at Darmstadt.[47] A horn in F[sharp] (probably F in
+  modern high pitch), having the rim ornamented as above and the
+  inscription "Fait a Paris, Carlin, ordinaire du Roy," readily gives
+  the harmonics from the 3rd to the 12th.[48] The extreme width is 20
+  in.[49] Carlin, who lived at rue Croix des Petits Champs, died about
+  1780. The earliest dated horn extant is believed to be the one
+  preserved in the Hohenzollern Museum in Sigmaringen, "Machts Wilhelm
+  Haas, Nurnberg, 1688."[50] Another early German horn engraved "Machts
+  Heinr. Rich. Pfeiffer in Leipzig, 1697,"[51] formerly in Paul de Wit's
+  museum in Leipzig and now transferred with the rest of the collection
+  to Cologne, is of similar construction.
+
+  [Illustration: From a Photo by K. Teufel.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Early Raoux Horn (Munich).]
+
+  The horn must have been well known at this time in England, for there
+  are 17th-century horns of English manufacture still extant, one, for
+  instance, in the collection of the Rev. F. W. Galpin by William Bull,
+  dated 1699.[52] In 1701 Clagget[53] invented a contrivance by means of
+  which two horns in different keys could be coupled and played by means
+  of one mouthpiece, a valve or key opening the passage into the airways
+  of one or the other of these horns at the will of the performer.
+  Another horn of English manufacture about 1700 was exhibited at the
+  South Kensington Museum in 1872, bearing No. 337 in the catalogue, in
+  which unfortunately no details are given. Enough examples have been
+  quoted to show that, judging from the specimens extant, Germany was
+  not behind France, if not actually ahead, in the manufacture of early
+  natural horns. Data are wanting concerning the instruments of Italy;
+  they would probably prove to be the earliest of all, and as brass
+  wind instruments are perishable are perhaps for that very reason
+  unrepresented at the present day.
+
+  The horn at the present stage in its evolution was also well
+  represented among the illustrations of the musical literature in
+  Germany[54] during the first half of the 18th century, and references
+  to it are frequent.
+
+
+    Music.
+
+  The earliest orchestral music for the horn occurs in the operas of
+  Cavalli and Cesti, leaders of the Venetian Opera in the 17th century.
+  Already in 1639 Cavalli in his opera _Le Nozze de Tito e Pelei_ (act
+  i. sc. 1) introduced a short scena, "Chiamata alla Caccia"[55] in C
+  major for four horns on a basso continuo. An examination of the
+  scoring in C clefs on the first, second, third and fourth lines shows,
+  by the use of the note [music notes] in the bass part and in the
+  second tenor of [music notes] the 5th harmonic of the series, that the
+  fundamental could have been no other than the 16-ft. C; the highest
+  note in the treble part is [music notes], the 12th harmonic of the
+  8-ft. alto horn in C, now obsolete. It is clear therefore that horns
+  with tubing respectively 8 ft. and 16 ft. long, which must have been
+  disposed in coils as in the present day, were in use in Italy before
+  the middle of the 17th century, fifty years before the date of their
+  reputed invention in Paris.
+
+  In the same opera, act i. sc. 4, "Coro di Cavalieri" is a stirring
+  call to arms of elemental grandeur, in which occur the words: "all'
+  armi, o la guerrieri corni e tamburi e trombe, ogni campo ogni canto,
+  armi rimbombe." There are above the voice parts four staves with
+  treble and C clef signatures above the bass, and, although no
+  instruments are indicated, the music written thereon, which alternates
+  with the voices but does not accompany them, can have been intended
+  for no instruments but trumpets and horns, thus carrying out the
+  indications in the text. The horn is here once again put to the same
+  use as the Roman cornu, and associated in like manner with the
+  descendant of the buccina in a call to arms. It may be purely a
+  coincidence that the early illustration of a horn with the tubing
+  wound in coils round the body in the Strassburg Virgil mentioned above
+  was put to the same use and associated with the same instrument.
+
+  Cesti's operas likewise contain many passages evidently intended for
+  the horn, although the instruments are not specified in the score,
+  which was nothing unusual at the time. Lulli composed the incidental
+  music for a ballet, _La Princesse d'Elide_, which formed part of
+  Moliere's divertissement, "Les plaisirs de l'ile enchantee," written
+  for a great festival at Versailles on the 7th of May 1664. A copy of
+  the music for this ballet, made about 1680, is preserved in the
+  library of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The music contains a
+  piece entitled "Les violons et les cors de chasse," written in the
+  same style as Cavalli's scena; there are but two staves, and on both
+  the music is characteristic of the horn, with which the violins would
+  play in unison. The piece finishes on B[flat][music notes] and to play
+  this note as the second of the harmonic series, the fundamental not
+  being obtainable, the tube of the horn must have been over 17 ft.
+  long. Among Philidor's copies of Lulli's ballets preserved in the
+  library of the Paris Conservatoire of Music (vol. xlvii., p. 61) is a
+  more complete copy of the above. The second number is an "Air des
+  valets de chiens et des chasseurs avec les cors de chasse," which is
+  substantially the same as the one in the Fitzwilliam Museum, but set
+  for five horns in B[flat]. Here again the use of D, the fifth note of
+  the harmonic series, indicates that the fundamental was [music notes]
+  a tone lower than the C horn scored for by Cavalli, and known as
+  B[flat] basso. Victor Mahillon[56] considers that the music reveals
+  the fact that it was written for horns in B[flat], 35 degrees
+  (chromatic semitones) above 32-ft. C, or [music notes] having a
+  wave-length of 1.475 m. To this statement it is not possible to
+  subscribe. The quintette required four horns in B[flat] over 8 ft.
+  long and one B[flat] basso about 17 ft. long. It is obvious that the
+  present custom of placing the bass notes of the horn on the F clef an
+  octave too low, as is now customary, had not yet been adopted, for in
+  that case the bass horn would in several bars be playing above the
+  tenor.
+
+  In 1647 Cardinal Mazarin, wishing to create in France a taste for
+  Italian opera, had procured from Italy an orchestra, singers and
+  mise-en-scene. That he was not entirely successful in making Paris
+  appreciate Italian music is beside the mark; he developed instead a
+  demand for French opera, to which Lulli proved equal. The great
+  similarity in the style of the horn _scene_ by Cavalli and Lulli may
+  perhaps provide a clue to the mysterious and sudden apparition of the
+  natural horn in France, where nothing was known of the hybrid
+  instrument thirty years before, when Mersenne[57] wrote his careful
+  treatise on musical instruments.
+
+  The orchestral horn had been introduced from Italy. It is not
+  difficult to understand how the horn came to be called the _French_
+  horn in England; the term only appears after Gerber and other writers
+  had repeated the story of Count Sporken introducing the musical horn
+  into Bohemia.[58] By this time the firm of Raoux, established in Paris
+  a hundred years, had won for itself full recognition of its high
+  standard of workmanship in the making of horns.
+
+  This use of the horn by Lulli in the one ballet seems to be an
+  isolated instance; no other has yet been quoted. The introduction of
+  the natural horn into the orchestra of the French opera did not occur
+  until much later in 1735 in Andre Campra's _Achille et Deidamie_, and
+  then only in a fanfare. In the meantime the horn had already won a
+  place in most of the rising opera houses and ducal orchestras[59] of
+  Germany, and had been introduced by Handel into the orchestra in
+  London in his _Water-music_ composed in honour of George I.
+
+  Although the Italians were undoubtedly the first to introduce the horn
+  into the orchestra, it figured at first only as the characteristic
+  instrument of the chase, suggesting and accompanying hunting scenes or
+  calls to arms. For a more independent use of the horn in the orchestra
+  we must turn to Germany. Reinhard Keiser, the founder of German opera,
+  at the end of the 17th century in Hamburg, introduced two horns in C
+  into the opening chorus of his opera _Octavia_ in 1705, where the
+  horns are added to the string quartette and the oboes; they play again
+  in act i. sc. 3, and in act ii. sc. 6 and 9. The compass used by the
+  composer for the horns in C alto is the following:--
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  Wilhelm Kleefeld draws attention to the characterization, which
+  differed in the three acts. In _Henrico_ (1711), in _Diana_ (1712) and
+  in _L'Inganno Fedele_ (1714) F horns were used. This called forth from
+  Mattheson[60] his much-quoted eulogium, the earliest description of
+  the orchestral horn: "Die lieblich pompeusen Waldhorner sind bei
+  itziger Zeit sehr _en vogue_ kommen, weil sie theils nicht so rude von
+  Natur sind als die Trompeten, teils auch weil sie mit mehr _Facilite_
+  konnen tractiret werden. Die brauchbarsten haben F und mit den
+  Trompeten aus dem C gleichen _Ambitum_. Sie klingen auch dicker und
+  fullen besser aus als die ubertaubende und schreyende Clarinen, weil
+  sie um eine ganze quinte tiefer stehen."
+
+  Lotti in his _Giove in Argo_, given in Dresden, 1717, scored for two
+  horns in C, writing for them soli in the aria for tenor[61] (act iii.
+  sc. 1). Examples of C. H. Graun's[62] scoring for horns in F and G
+  respectively in _Polydorus_ (1708-1729) and in _Iphigenia_ (1731) show
+  the complete emancipation of the instrument from its original
+  limitations; it serves not only as melody instrument but also to
+  enrich the harmony and emphasize the rhythm. A comparison of the early
+  scores of Cavalli and Lulli with those of Handel's
+  _Wasserfahrtmusik_[63] (1717) and of _Radamisto_, performed in London
+  in 1720, shows the rapid progress made by the horn, even at a time
+  when its technique was still necessarily imperfect.
+
+  While Bach was conductor of the prince of Anhalt-Cothen's orchestra
+  (1717-1723), it is probable that horns in several keys were used. In
+  Dresden two Bohemian horn-players, Johann Adalbert Fischer and Franz
+  Adam Samm, were added to the court orchestra in 1711.[64] In Vienna
+  the addition is stated to have taken place in 1712 at the opera.[65]
+  It is probable that as in Paris so in Vienna there were solitary
+  instances in which the horn was heard in opera without attracting the
+  attention of musicians long before 1712, for instance in Cesti's _Il
+  Pomo d'Oro_, printed in Vienna in 1667 and 1668 and performed for the
+  wedding ceremonies of Kaiser Leopold and Margareta, infanta of Spain.
+  A horn in E (former F pitch) in the museum of the Brussels
+  conservatoire bears the inscription "Machts Michael Leicham Schneider
+  in Wien, 1713."[66] Furstenau[67] gives a further list of operas in
+  Vienna during the first two decades of the 18th century.
+
+  It will be well before the next stage in the evolution is approached
+  to consider the compass of the natural horn. The pedal octave from the
+  fundamental to the 2nd harmonic was altogether wanting; the next
+  octave contained only the 2nd and 3rd harmonics or the octave and its
+  fifth; in the third octave, the 8ve, its major 3rd, 5th and minor 7th;
+  in the fourth octave, a diatonic scale with a few accidentals was
+  possible. It will be seen that the compass was very limited on any
+  individual horn, but by grouping horns in different keys, or by
+  changing the crooks, command was gained by the composer over a larger
+  number of open notes.
+
+  An important period in the development of the horn has now been
+  reached. Anton Joseph Hampel is generally credited[68] with the
+  innovation of adapting the crooks to the middle of the body of the
+  horn instead of near the mouthpiece, which greatly improved the
+  quality of the notes obtained by means of the crooks. The crooks
+  fitted into the two branches of U-shaped tubes, thus forming slides
+  which acted as compensators. Hampel's _Inventionshorn_, as it is
+  called in Germany (Fr. _cor harmonique_), is said to date from
+  1753,[69] the first instrument having been made for him by Johann
+  Werner, a brass instrument-maker of Dresden. The same invention is
+  also attributed to Haltenhof of Hanau.[70] Others again mention
+  Michael Wogel[71] of Carlsruhe and Rastadt, probably confusing his
+  adaptation of the _Invention_ or _Maschine_, as the slide contrivance
+  was called in Germany, to the trumpet in 1780. The Inventionshorn,
+  although embodying an important principle which has also found its
+  application in all brass wind instruments with valves as a means of
+  correcting defective intonation, did not add to the compass of the
+  horn. At some date before 1762 it would seem that Hampel[72] also
+  discovered the principle on which hand-stopping is founded.
+
+  By hand-stopping (Fr. _sons bouches_, Ger. _gestopfte Tone_) is
+  understood the practice of inserting the hand with palm outstretched
+  and fingers drawn together, forming a long, shallow cup, into the
+  bell of the horn; the effect is similar to that produced in wood wind
+  instruments, termed _d'amore_, by the pear-shaped bell with a narrow
+  opening, i.e. a veiled mysterious quality, and, according to the
+  arrangement of the hand and fingers (which cannot be taught
+  theoretically, being inter-dependent on other acoustic conditions), a
+  drop in pitch which enables the performer merely to correct the faulty
+  intonation of difficult harmonics or to lower the pitch exactly a
+  semitone or even a full tone by inserting the hand well up the bore of
+  the bell. J. Frohlich[73] gives drawings of the two principal
+  positions of the hand in the horn. The same phenomenon may be observed
+  in the flute by closing all the holes, so that the fundamental note of
+  the pipe speaks, and then gradually bringing the palm of the hand
+  nearer the open end of the flute. As a probable explanation may be
+  offered the following suggestion. The partial closing of the opening
+  of the bell removes the boundary of ambient air, which determines the
+  ventral segment of the half wave-length some distance beyond the
+  normal length; this boundary always lies _beyond_ the end of the tube,
+  thus accounting for the discrepancy between the theoretical length of
+  the air-column and the practical length actually given to the
+  tube.[74] Hampel is also said to have been the first to apply the
+  _sordini_[75] (Fr. _sourdine_) or mute, already in use in the 17th
+  century for the trumpet,[76] to the horn. The original mute did not
+  affect the pitch of the instrument, but only the tone, and when
+  properly constructed may be used with the valve horn to produce the
+  mysterious veiled quality of the hand-stopped notes. No satisfactory
+  scientific explanation of the modifications in the pitch effected by
+  the partial obstruction of the bell, whether by the hand or by means
+  of certain mechanical devices, has as yet been offered. D. J. Blaikley
+  suggests that in cases when the effect of hand-stopping appears to be
+  to raise the pitch of the notes of the harmonic series, the real
+  result of any contraction of the bell mouth (as by the insertion of
+  the hand) is always a flattening of pitch accompanied by the
+  introduction of a distorted or inharmonic scale, of such a character
+  that for instance, the _c_, _d_, _e_, or 8th, 9th and 10th notes of
+  the original harmonic scale become not the c[sharp] d[sharp] e[sharp]
+  of a fundamental raised a semitone, but D[flat], E[flat], and f due to
+  the 9th, 10th and 11th notes of a disturbed or distorted scale having
+  a fundamental lower than that of the normal horn.
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  With regard to the discovery of this method of obtaining a chromatic
+  compass for the horn, which rendered the instrument very popular with
+  composers, instrumentalists and the public, and procured for it a
+  generally accredited position in the orchestra, the following is the
+  sum of evidence at present available. In the Kgl. offentliche
+  Bibliothek, Dresden, is preserved, amongst the musical MSS., an
+  autograph volume of 152 pages, entitled _Lection pro Cornui_, bearing
+  the signature A. J. H[ampel], the name being filled in in pencil by a
+  different hand. There is no introduction, no letterpress of any
+  description belonging to the MS. method for the horn, nor is any book
+  or pamphlet explaining the Inventionshorn or the method of
+  hand-stopping by Hampel extant or known to have existed. He has
+  apparently left no record of his accomplishment. A few typical
+  extracts copied and selected from the original MS., courteously
+  communicated by the director of the Royal Library, Hofrath, P. E.
+  Richter (a practical musician and performer on horn and trumpet), do
+  not prove conclusively that they were intended to be played on
+  hand-stopped horns, with the exception, perhaps, of the A, 13th
+  harmonic from C, which could not easily be obtained except by
+  hand-stopping on the hand-horn. On the blank sheet preceding the
+  exercises is an inscription in the hand of Moritz Furstenau, former
+  custodian of the Royal Private Musical Collection (incorporated with
+  the public library in 1896): "Anton Joseph Hampel, by whom these
+  exercises for the horn were written, was a celebrated horn-player, a
+  member of the Orchestra of the Electoral Prince of Saxony. He invented
+  the so-called Inventionshorn. Cf. _Neues biog.-hist. Lexicon der
+  Tonkunstler_ by Gerber, pt. i. col. 493; also _Zur Gesch. der Musik u.
+  des Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden_, by M. Furstenau, Bd. ii." It will be
+  seen that Furstenau gives Gerber as his authority for the attribution
+  of the invention to Hampel, although he searched the archives, to
+  which he had free access, for material for his book.
+
+  The first possessor of the MS., Franz Schubert (1768-1824), musical
+  director of the Italian opera in Dresden, wrote the following note in
+  pencil on the last page of the cover: "Franz Schubert. The complete
+  school of horn-playing by the Kgl. Polnischen u. Kursachs.
+  Cammermusicus Anton Joseph Hampel, a celebrated virtuoso, invented by
+  himself in 1762." Judging from the standard of modern technique, there
+  are many passages in the "Lection" which could not be played without
+  artificially humouring the production of harmonics with the lips, and
+  it is an open question to what extent this method of correcting
+  intonation and of altering the pitch was practised in the 18th
+  century. When, therefore, Franz Schubert states that the method was
+  _invented_ by Hampel, we may take this as indirectly confirming
+  Gerber's statements. Further confirmation is obtained from the text of
+  a work on the horn written by Heinrich Domnich[77] (b. 1760), the son
+  of a celebrated horn-player of Wurtzburg contemporary with Hampel.
+  Domnich junior settled eventually in Paris, where he was appointed
+  first professor of the horn at the Conservatoire. According to him the
+  mute (sourdine) of metal, wood or cardboard in the form of a hollow
+  cone, having a hole in the base, was used to soften the tone of the
+  horn without altering the pitch. But Hampel, substituting for this the
+  pad of cotton wool used for a similar purpose with the oboe, found
+  with surprise that its effect in the bell of the horn was to _raise_
+  the pitch a semitone (see D. J. Blaikley's explanation above). By this
+  means, says Domnich, a diatonic and chromatic scale was obtained.
+  Later Hampel substituted the hand for the pad. Domnich duly ascribes
+  to Hampel the credit of the Inventionshorn, but erroneously states
+  that it was Haltenhoff of Hanau who made the first instrument. Domnich
+  further explains that Hampel, who had not practised the _bouche_ notes
+  in his youth, only made use of them in slow music, and that the credit
+  of making practical use of the discovery was due to his pupil Giovanni
+  Punto (Joh. Stich) the celebrated horn virtuoso, who was a friend of
+  Domnich's.
+
+  It may be well to draw attention to the fact that hand-stopping was
+  not possible so long as the tube of horn was folded in a circle wide
+  enough to be worn round the body. The reduction of the diameter of the
+  orchestral horn in order to allow the performer to hold the instrument
+  in front of him, thus bringing the bell in front of the right arm in a
+  convenient position for hand-stopping, must have preceded the
+  discovery of hand-stopping. In the absence of contrary evidence we may
+  suppose that the change was effected for the more convenient
+  arrangement and manipulation of the slides or _Inventions_. So radical
+  a change in the compass of the horn could not occur and be adopted
+  generally without leaving its mark on the horn music of the period;
+  this change does not occur, as far as we know, before the last decades
+  of the 18th century. The rapid acceptance in other countries of
+  Hampel's discovery of hand-stopping is evidenced by a passage from a
+  little English work on music, published in London in 1772 but bearing
+  at the end of the preface the date June 1766:[78] "Some eminent
+  Proficients have been so dexterous as very nearly to perform all the
+  defective notes of the scale on the Horn by management of Breath and
+  by a little stopping the bell with their hands."
+
+  Hampel's success gave a general impetus to the inventive faculty of
+  musical instrument makers in Europe. At first the result was negative.
+  Kolbel's attempt must, however, be mentioned, if only to correct a
+  misconception. Kolbel, a Bohemian horn virtuoso at the imperial
+  Russian court from 1754, spent many years in vain endeavours to
+  improve his instrument. At last, in 1760, he applied keys to the horn
+  or the bugle, calling it Klappenhorn (the bugle is known in Germany as
+  _Signal_ or _Buglehorn_). Kolbel's experiment did not become widely
+  known or adopted during his lifetime, but Anton Weidinger, court
+  trumpeter at Vienna, made a keyed trumpet[79] in 1801, which attracted
+  attention in musical circles and gave a fresh impetus in experimenting
+  with keys upon brass instruments. In 1813 Joseph Weidinger, the
+  twelve-year-old son of the above, gave a concert in Vienna on the
+  _Klappenwaldhorn_[80] (or keyed French horn), about which little seems
+  to be known. Victor Mahillon[81] describes such an instrument, but
+  ascribes the invention to Kolbel; there was but one key placed on the
+  bell, which on being opened had the effect of raising the pitch of the
+  instrument a whole tone. By alternately using the harmonic open notes
+  on the normal length of the tube, and then by the action of the key
+  shortening the air column, the following diatonic scale was obtained
+  in the third octave:
+
+  [Illustration: Music notes.]
+
+  In 1812 Dikhuth,[82] horn-player in the orchestra of the grand-duke of
+  Baden at Mannheim, constructed a horn in which a slide on the
+  principle of that of the trombone was intended to replace
+  hand-stopping and to lower the pitch at will a semitone.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Modern Horn (Boosey & Co.)]
+
+  The most felicitous, far-reaching and important of all improvements
+  was the invention of valves (q.v.), pistons or cylinders (the
+  principle of which has already been explained), by Heinrich
+  Stolzel,[83] who applied them first of all to the horn, the trumpet
+  and the trombone,[84] thus endowing the brass wind with a chromatic
+  compass obtained with perfect ease throughout the compass. The
+  inherent defect of valve instruments already explained, which causes
+  faulty intonation needing correction when the pistons are used in
+  combination, has now been practically overcome. The numerous attempts
+  to solve the difficulty, made with varying success by makers of brass
+  instruments, are described under VALVE, BOMBARDEN and CORNET.[85]
+       (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Michael Praetorius, _De organographia_ (Wolfenbuttel, 1618),
+    tab. viii., where crooks for lowering the key by one tone on trumpet
+    and trombone are pictured.
+
+  [2] See Victor Mahillon, _Les Elements d'acoustique musicale et
+    instrumentale_ (Brussels, 1874), pp. 96, 97, &c.; Friedrich Zamminer,
+    _Die Musik und die musikalischen Instrumente_ (Giessen, 1855), p.
+    310, where diagrams of the mouthpieces are given.
+
+  [3] See Joseph Frohlich, _Vollstandige theoretisch-praktische
+    Musikschule_ (Bonn, 1811), iii. 7, where diagrams of the two
+    mouthpieces for first and second horn are given.
+
+  [4] See Gottfried Weber, "Zur Akustik der Blasinstrumente," in
+    _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ (Leipzig, 1816), p. 38.
+
+  [5] _Les Instruments de musique au musee du Conservatoire royal de
+    musique de Bruxelles_, "Instruments a vent," ii., "Le Cor, son
+    histoire, sa theorie, sa construction" (Brussels and London, 1907),
+    p. 28.
+
+  [6] _Die Akustik_ (Leipzig, 1802), p. 86, S 72.
+
+  [7] _Op. cit._ p. 13, S 20, and p. 15, SS 24 and 25. This apparent
+    discrepancy between an early and a modern authority on the acoustics
+    of wind instruments is easily explained. Chladni, when speaking of
+    open and closed pipes, refers to the standard cylindrical and
+    rectangular organ-pipes. Mahillon, on the other hand, draws a
+    distinction in favour of the conical pipe, demonstrating in a
+    practical manner how, given a certain calibre, the conical pipe must
+    overblow the harmonics of the open pipe, whatever the method of
+    producing the sound.
+
+  [8] See Gottfried Weber, _loc. cit._
+
+  [9] See Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, _Wellenlehre_ (Leipzig,
+    1825), p. 519, S 281, and _A Text-Book of Physics_, part. ii.,
+    "Sound," by J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson (London, 1906), pp. 104
+    and 105.
+
+  [10] See Sedley Taylor, _Sound and Music_ (1896), p. 21.
+
+  [11] _Id._ pp. 23-25.
+
+  [12] See Gottfried Weber, _op. cit._, pp. 39-41, and Ernst H. and
+    Wilhelm Weber, _op. cit._ p. 522, end of S 285.
+
+  [13] See A. Ganot, _Elementary Treatise on Physics_, translated by E.
+    Atkinson (16th ed., London, 1902), p. 266, S 282, "In the horn
+    different notes are produced by altering the distance of the lips."
+    Such a vague and misleading statement is worse than useless. See also
+    Poynting and Thomson, _op. cit._ p. 113.
+
+  [14] "Le Cor," p. 22; p. 11, S 18; pp. 6 and 7, S 8.
+
+  [15] The phraseology alone is here borrowed from Sedley Taylor, (_op.
+    cit._ p. 55), who does not enter into the practical application of
+    the theory he expounds so clearly.
+
+  [16] See Dr Emil Schafhautl's article on musical instruments, S iv.
+    of _Bericht der Beurtheilungs Commission bei der Allg. Deutschen
+    Industrie Ausstellung, 1854_ (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-170; also F.
+    Zamminer, _op. cit._
+
+  [17] The measurements are for the high philharmonic pitch a'=452.4.
+    V. Mahillon, "Le cor" (p. 32), gives a table of the lengths of crooks
+    in metres.
+
+  [18] Robert Eitner, editor of the Monatshefte fur Musikwissenschaft,
+    published therein an article in 1881, p. 41 seq., "Wer hat die
+    Ventiltrompete erfunden," in which, after referring to the
+    _Klappenwaldhorn_ and _Trompete_ (keyed horn and trumpet) made by
+    Weidinger and played in public in 1802 and 1813 respectively, he goes
+    on to state that Schilling in his Lexicon makes the comical mistake
+    of looking upon the Klappentrompete (keyed trumpet) and
+    _Ventiltrompete_ (valve trumpet) as different instruments. He
+    accordingly sets matters right, as he thinks, by according to
+    Weidinger the honour of the invention of valves, hitherto wrongfully
+    attributed to Stolzel; and in the _Quellenlexikon_ (1904) he leaves
+    out Stolzel's name, and names Weidinger as the inventor of the
+    _Klappen_ or _Ventil_, referring readers for further particulars to
+    his article, just quoted, in the _Monatshefte_.
+
+  [19] See Hector Berlioz, _A Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and
+    Orchestration_, translated by Mary Cowden Clarke, new edition revised
+    by Joseph Bennett (1882), p. 141.
+
+  [20] See Victor Mahillon, _Catal. descriptif des instruments de
+    musique_, &c., vol. ii. p. 388, No. 1156, where an illustration is
+    given. See also Dr August Hammerich (French translation by E.
+    Beauvais), "Uber altnordische Luren" in _Vierteljahrschrift fur
+    Musik-Wissenschaft_ x. (1894).
+
+  [21] See Major J. H. L. Archer, _The British Army Records_ (London,
+    1888), pp. 402, &c.
+
+  [22] _De re militari_, iii. 5 (Basel, 1532). The successive editions
+    and translations of this classic, both manuscript and printed,
+    throughout the middle ages afford useful evidence of the evolution of
+    these three wind instruments.
+
+  [23] See Wilhelm Froehner, _La Colonne Trajane d'apres le surmoulage
+    execute a Rome en 1861-1862_ (Paris, 1872-1874). On pl. 51 is a cornu
+    framing the head of a cornicen or horn-player. See also the fine
+    plates in Conrad Cichorius, _Die Reliefs der Traiansaule_ (Berlin,
+    1896, &c.).
+
+  [24] Ermanno Ferrero, _L'Arc d'Auguste a Suse_ (Segusio, 9-8 B.C.)
+    (Turin, 1901).
+
+  [25] See the mouthpiece on the Pompeian buccinas preserved in the
+    museum at Naples, reproduced in the article Buccina. The museums of
+    the conservatoires of Paris and Brussels and the Collection Kraus in
+    Florence possess facsimiles of these instruments; see Victor
+    Mahillon, _Catalogue_, vol. ii. p. 30. Cf. also the pair of bronze
+    Etruscan cornua, No. 2734 in the department of Creek and Roman
+    antiquities at the British Museum, which possess well-preserved
+    cup-shaped mouthpieces.
+
+  [26] See Bock, "Gebrauch der Horner im Mittelalter," in Gustav
+    Heider's _Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmaler Osterreichs_ (Stuttgart,
+    1858-1860).
+
+  [27] _Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier francais_ (Paris, 1889), ii.
+    p. 246.
+
+  [28] Engelbertus Admontensis in _De Musica Scriptores_, by Martin
+    Gerbert, Bd. ii. lib. ii. cap. 29; and Edward Buhle, _Die
+    Musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen des fruhen Mittelalters_,
+    pt. i., "Die Blasinstrumente" (Leipzig, 1903), p. 16.
+
+  [29] _Le Tresor de venerie par Hardouin, seigneur de
+    Fontaines-Guerin_ (edited by H. Michelant, Metz, 1856); the first
+    part was edited by Jerome Pichon (Paris, 1855), with an historical
+    introduction by Bottee de Toulmon.
+
+  [30] As worked out by Edward Buhle, _op. cit._, p. 23.
+
+  [31] See Turbevile, _op. cit._, also J. du Fouilloux, _La Venerie_
+    (Paris, 1628), p. 70; cf. also editions of 1650 and of 1562, where
+    the horn is called _trompe_, used with the verb _corner_; Juliana
+    Bernes, _Boke of St Albans_ (1496), the frontispiece of which is a
+    hunting scene showing a horn of very wide bore, without bell. Only
+    half the instrument is visible.
+
+  [32] See "Reliure italienne du xv^e siecle en argent nielle.
+    Collection du Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild, Vienne," in _Gazette
+    archeologique_ (Paris, 1880), xiii. p. 295, pl. 38, where other
+    instruments are also represented.
+
+  [33] See Jost Amman, _Wappen und Stammbuch_ (1589). A reprint in
+    facsimile has been published by Georg Hirth as vol. iii. of
+    _Liebhaber Bibliothek_ (Munich, 1881). See arms of Sultzberger aus
+    Tirol (p. 52), "Ein Jagerhornlin," and of the Herzog von Wirtenberg;
+    cf. the latter with the arms of Wurthemberch in pl. xxii. vol. ii. of
+    Gelre's _Wappenboek ou armorial de 1334 a 1372_ (miniatures of coats
+    of arms in facsimile), edited by Victor Bouton (Paris, 1883).
+
+  [34] For illustrations see autotype facsimile of Utrecht Psalter, 9th
+    century; British Museum, Add. MS. 10,546, Ps. 150, 9th century; Add.
+    MS. 24,199, 10th century; Eadwine Psalter, Trin. Coll. Camb., 11th
+    century, and Cotton MS., Nero, D. IV., 8th century; also Edward
+    Buhle, _op. cit._, pl. ii. and pp. 12-24.
+
+  [35] See John Carter, _Specimens of Ancient Sculpture and Paintings_
+    (London, 1780-1794), i. p. 53 (plates unnumbered); also reproduced in
+    H. Lavoix, _Histoire de la musique_ (Paris, 1884).
+
+  [36] See Jost Amman, _op. cit._
+
+  [37] _Musica getutscht und ausgezogen_ (Basel, 1511), p. 30. The
+    names are not given under the drawings, but the above is the order in
+    which they occur, which is probably reversed.
+
+  [38] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), p. 245.
+
+  [39] _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbuttel, 1618), pl. vii. No. 11, p. 39.
+
+  [40] _Historisch-biographisches Lexicon der Tonkunstler_ (Leipzig,
+    1790-1792 and 1812-1814).
+
+  [41] _De saecularibus Liberalium Artium in Bohemia et Moravia fatis
+    commentarius_ (Prague, 1784), p. 401.
+
+  [42] See Ernest Thoinan, _Les Origines de la chapelle musique des
+    souverains de France_ (Paris, 1864); F. J. Fetis, "Recherches sur la
+    musique des rois de France, et de quelques princes depuis Philippe le
+    Bel jusqu'a la fin du regne de Louis XIV.," _Revue musicale_ (Paris,
+    1832), xii. pp. 193, 217, 233, 241, 257; Castil-Blaze, _La Chapelle
+    musique des rois de France_ (Paris, 1882); Michel Brenet, "Deux
+    comptes de la chapelle musique des rois de France," _Intern. Mus.
+    Ges._, Smbd. vi., i. pp. 1-32; J. Ecorcheville, "Quelques documents
+    sur la musique de la grande ecurie du roi," _Intern. Mus. Ges._,
+    Smbd. ii. 4 (Leipzig, 1901), pp. 608-642.
+
+  [43] _Neue Zeitschrift f. Musik_ (Leipzig, 1870), p. 309.
+
+  [44] See _Die Sammlung der Musikinstrumente des baierischen Nat.
+    Museum_ by K. A. Bierdimpfl (Munich, 1883), Nos. 105 and 106.
+
+  [45] Communication from Dr Georg Hagen, assistant director.
+
+  [46] See Musee du Conservatoire National de Musique. _Catalogue des
+    instruments de musique_ (Paris, 1884), p. 147.
+
+  [47] See Captain C. R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical
+    Instruments exhibited at the Military Exhibition_ (London, 1890), p.
+    147, No. 307.
+
+  [48] See V. Mahillon, _Catal._ vol. i. No. 468.
+
+  [49] See Captain C. R. Day, _Catal._ No. 309, p. 148.
+
+  [50] For an illustration see _Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of
+    Ancient Musical Instruments at South Kensington Museum 1872_ (London,
+    1873), p. 25, No. 332.
+
+  [51] See _Katalog des musikhistorischen Museums von Paul de Wit_
+    (Leipzig, 1904), p. 142, No. 564, where it is classified as a
+    Jagertrompete after Praetorius; it has a trumpet mouthpiece.
+
+  [52] For an illustration see F. J. Crowest, _English Music_, p. 449,
+    No. 12.
+
+  [53] See Ignatz and Anton Bock in _Baierisches Musik-Lexikon_ by
+    Felix J. Lipowski (Munich, 1811), p. 26, note.
+
+  [54] See, for instance, frontispiece of Walther's _Musikalisches
+    Lexikon_ (Leipzig, 1732); J. F. B. C. Majer's _Musik-Saal_
+    (Nuremberg, 1741, 2nd ed.), p. 54; Joh. Christ. Kolb, _Pinacotheca
+    Davidica_ (Augsburg, 1711); Ps. xci.; "Componimenti Musicali per il
+    cembalo Dr Theofilo Muffat, organista di sua Sacra Maesta Carlo VI.
+    Imp." (1690), title-page in _Denkmaler d. Tonkunst in Oesterreich_,
+    Bd. iii.
+
+  [55] See Hugo Goldschmidt, "Das Orchester der italienischen Oper im
+    17 Jahrhundert," _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Smbd. ii. 1, p. 73.
+
+  [56] See "Le Cor," pp. 23 and 24, and _Dictionnaire de l'acad. des
+    beaux arts_, vol. iv., art. "Cor."
+
+  [57] Mersenne's drawings of _cors de chasse_ are very crude; they
+    have no bell and are all of the large calibre suggestive of the
+    primitive animal horn. He mentions nevertheless that they were not
+    only used for signals and fanfares but also for little concerted
+    pieces in four parts for horns alone, or with oboes, at the
+    conclusion of the hunt.
+
+  [58] See William Tans'ur Senior, _The Elements of Musick_ (London,
+    1772); Br. V. Dictionary under "Horn." Also Scale of Horn in the hand
+    of Samuel Wesley; in Add. MS. 35011, fol. 166, Brit. Mus.
+
+  [59] A horn-player, Johann Theodor Zeddelmayer, was engaged in 1706
+    at the Saxon court at Weissenfels; see _Neue-Mitteilungen aus dem
+    Gebiete histor. antiqu. Forschungen_, Bd. xv. (2) (Halle, 1882), p.
+    503; also Wilhelm Kleefeld, "Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper,
+    1678-1738," _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Smbd. i. 2, p. 280, where the
+    appearance of the horn in the orchestras of Germany is traced.
+
+  [60] _Das neu-eroffnete Orchester_, i. 267.
+
+  [61] See Moritz Furstenau, _Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters
+    zu Dresden_ (Dresden, 1861-1862), vol. ii. p. 60.
+
+  [62] See "Carl Heinrich Graun als Opernkomponist," by Albert
+    Mayer-Reinach, _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Smbd. i. 3 (Leipzig, 1900), pp.
+    516-517 and 523-524, where musical examples are given.
+
+  [63] Cf. Chrysander, _Haendel_, ii. 146.
+
+  [64] See Moritz Furstenau, _op. cit._ ii. 58.
+
+  [65] See Ludwig von Kochel, _Die kaiserliche Hofkappelle in Wien_
+    (Vienna, 1869), p. 80.
+
+  [66] See Victor Mahillon, _Catalogue descriptif_, vol. ii. No. 1160,
+    p. 389.
+
+  [67] _Op. cit._ ii. 60.
+
+  [68] The Department of State Archives for Saxony in Dresden possesses
+    no documents which can throw any light upon this point, but, through
+    the courtesy of the director, the following facts have been
+    communicated. Two documents concerning Anton Joseph Hampel are
+    extant: (1) An application by his son, Johann Michael Hampel, to the
+    elector Friedrich August III. of Saxony, dated Dresden, April 3,
+    1771, in which he prays that the post of his father as horn-player in
+    the court orchestra--in which he had already served as deputy for his
+    invalid father--may be awarded to him. (2) A petition from the widow,
+    Aloisia Ludevica Hampelin, to the elector, bearing the same date
+    (April 3, 1771), wherein she announces the death of her husband on
+    the 30th of March 1771, who had been in the service of the house of
+    Saxony thirty-four years as horn-player, and prays for the grant of a
+    monthly pension for herself and her three delicate daughters, as she
+    finds herself in the most unfortunate circumstances. There is no
+    allusion in either letter to any musical merit of the deceased.
+
+  [69] There is an instrument of this early type, supposed to date from
+    the middle of the 18th century, in Paul de Wit's fine collection of
+    musical instruments formerly in Leipzig and now transferred to
+    Cologne; see _Katalog_, No. 645, p. 148.
+
+  [70] See _Dictionnaire de l'acad. des beaux arts_, vol. iv. (Paris),
+    article "Cor."
+
+  [71] See Dr Gustav Schilling, _Universal Lexikon der Tonkunst_
+    (Stuttgart, 1840), Bd. vi., "Trompete"; also Capt. C. R. Day, pp. 139
+    and 151, where the term _Invention_ is quite misunderstood and
+    misapplied. See Gottfried Weber in _Caecilia_ (Mainz, 1835), Bd.
+    xvii.
+
+  [72] Gerber in the first edition of his _Lexikon_ does not mention
+    Hampel or award him a separate biographical article; we may therefore
+    conclude that he was not personally acquainted with him, although
+    Hampel was still a member of the electoral orchestra in Dresden
+    during Gerber's short career in Leipzig. In the edition of 1812
+    Gerber renders him full justice.
+
+  [73] _Vollstandige theoretisch-praktische Musikschule_ (Bonn, 1811),
+    pt. iii. p. 7.
+
+  [74] See Victor Mahillon, "Le Cor," p. 28; Chladni, _op. cit._ p. 87.
+
+  [75] See Frohlich, _op. cit._ 7; and Gerber, _Lexikon_ (ed. 1812), p.
+    493; "Le Cor," pp. 34 and 53.
+
+  [76] See Praetorius and Mersenne, _op. cit._; the latter gives an
+    illustration of the trumpet mute.
+
+  [77] _Methode de premier et de second cor_ (Paris, c. 1807). The
+    passage in question was discovered and courteously communicated by
+    Hofrat P. E. Richter of the Royal Library, Dresden. There is no copy
+    of Domnich's work in the British Museum.
+
+  [78] See William Tans'ur Senior, _op. et loc. cit._
+
+  [79] See _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ (Leipzig), Nov. 1802, p.
+    158, and Jan. 1803, p. 245; and E. Hanslick, _Geschichte des
+    Concertwesens in Wien_ (Vienna, 1869), p. 119.
+
+  [80] See _Allgem. mus. Ztg._, 1815, p. 844.
+
+  [81] "Le Cor," pp. 34-35.
+
+  [82] See the description of the instrument and of other attempts to
+    obtain the same result by Gottfried Weber, "Wichtige Verbesserung des
+    Horns" in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1812), pp. 758, &c.; also
+    1815, pp. 637 and 638 (the regent or keyed bugle).
+
+  [83] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._, 1815, May, p. 309, the first
+    announcement of the invention in a paragraph by Captain G. B. Bierey.
+
+  [84] _Ibid._, 1817, p. 814, by F. Schneider, and Dec. p. 558; 1818,
+    p. 531. An announcement of the invention and of a patent granted for
+    the same for ten years, in which Blumel is for the first time
+    associated with Stolzel as co-inventor. See also _Caecilia_ (Mainz,
+    1835), Bd. xvii. pp. 73 seq., with illustrations, an excellent
+    article by Gottfried Weber on the valve horn and valve trumpet.
+
+  [85] For a very complete exposition of the operation of valves in the
+    horn, and of the mathematical proportions to be observed in
+    construction, see Victor Mahillon's "Le Cor," also the article by
+    Gottfried Weber in _Caecilia_ (1835), to which reference was made
+    above. A list of horn-players of note during the 18th century is
+    given by C. Gottlieb Murr in _Journal f. Kunstgeschichte_ (Nuremberg,
+    1776), vol. ii. p. 27. See also a good description of the style of
+    playing of the virtuoso J. Nisle in 1767 in Schubart, _Aesthetik d.
+    Tonkunst_, p. 161, and _Leben u. Gesinnungen_ (1791), Bd. ii. p. 92;
+    or in L. Schiedermair, "Die Blutezeit d. Ottingen-Wallensteinschen
+    Hofkapelle," _Intern. Mus. Ges._ Smbd. ix. (1), 1907, pp. 83-130.
+
+
+
+
+HORNBEAM (_Carpinus betulus_), a member of a small genus of trees of the
+natural order Corylaceae. The Latin name _Carpinus_ has been thought to
+be derived from the Celtic _car_, wood, and _pin_ or _pen_, head, the
+wood of hornbeams having been used for yokes of cattle (see Loudon,
+_Ency. of Pl._ p. 792, new ed. 1855, and Littre, Dict. ii. 556). The
+common hornbeam, or yoke-elm, _Carpinus betulus_ (Ger. _Hornbaum_ and
+_Hornbuche_, Fr. _charme_), is indigenous in the temperate parts of
+western Asia and of Asia Minor, and in Europe, where it ranges as high
+as 55 deg. and 56 deg. N. lat. It is common in woods and hedges in parts
+of Wales and of the south of England. The trunk is usually flattened,
+and twisted as though composed of several stems united; the bark is
+smooth and light grey; and the leaves are in two rows, 2 to 3 in. long,
+elliptic-ovate, doubly toothed, pointed, numerously ribbed, hairy below
+and opaque, and not glossy as in the beech, have short stalks and when
+young are plaited. The stipules of the leaves act as protecting
+scale-leaves in the winter-bud and fall when the bud opens in spring.
+The flowers appear with the leaves in April and May. The male catkins
+are about 1(1/2) in. long, and have pale-yellow anthers, bearing tufts
+of hairs at the apex; the female attain a length in the fruiting stage
+of 2 to 4 in., with bracts 1 to 1(1/2) in. long. The green and angular
+fruit or "nut" ripens in October; it is about 1/4 in. in length, is in
+shape like a small chestnut, and is enclosed in leafy, 3-lobed bracts.
+The hornbeam thrives well on stiff, clayey, moist soils, into which its
+roots penetrate deeply; on chalk or gravel it does not flourish. Raised
+from seed it may become a tree 40 to as much as 70 ft. in height,
+greatly resembling the beech, except in its rounder and closer head. It
+is, however, rarely grown as a timber-tree, its chief employment being
+for hedges. "In the single row," says Evelyn (_Sylva_, p. 29, 1664), "it
+makes the noblest and the stateliest _hedges_ for long Walks in Gardens
+or _Parks_, of any Tree whatsoever whose leaves are _deciduous_." As it
+bears clipping well, it was formerly much used in geometric gardening.
+The branches should not be lopped in spring, on account of their
+tendency to bleed at that season. The wood of the hornbeam is white and
+close-grained, and polishes ill, is of considerable tenacity and little
+flexibility, and is extremely tough and hard to work--whence, according
+to Gerard, the name of the tree. It has been found to lose about 8% of
+its weight by drying. As a fuel it is excellent; and its charcoal is
+much esteemed for making gunpowder. The inner part of the bark of the
+hornbeam is stated by Linnaeus to afford a yellow dye. In France the
+leaves serve as fodder. The tree is a favourite with hares and rabbits,
+and the seedlings are apt to be destroyed by mice. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._
+xxvi. 26), who describes its wood as red and easily split, classes the
+hornbeam with maples.
+
+The American hornbeam, blue or water beech, is _Carpinus americana_
+(also known as _C. caroliniana_); the common hop-hornbeam, a native of
+the south of Europe, is a member of a closely allied genus, _Ostrya
+vulgaris_, the allied American species, _O. virginiana_, is also known
+as ironwood from its very hard, tight, close-grained wood.
+
+
+
+
+HORNBILL, the English name long generally given to all the birds of the
+family _Bucerotidae_ of modern ornithologists, from the extraordinary
+horn-like excrescence (_epithema_) developed on the bill of most of the
+species, though to which of them it was first applied seems doubtful.
+Among classical authors Pliny had heard of such animals, and mentions
+them (_Hist. Nat._ lib. x. cap. lxx.) under the name of _Tragopan_; but
+he deemed their existence fabulous, comparing them with _Pegasi_ and
+_Gryphones_--in the words of Holland, his translator (vol. i. p.
+296)--"I thinke the same of the Tragopanades, which many men affirme to
+bee greater than the Aegle; having crooked hornes like a Ram on either
+side of the head, of the colour of yron, and the head onely red." Yet
+this is but an exaggerated description of some of the species with which
+doubtless his informants had an imperfect acquaintance. Medieval writers
+found Pliny's bird to be no fable, for specimens of the beak of one
+species or another seem occasionally to have been brought to Europe,
+where they were preserved in the cabinets of the curious, and thus
+Aldrovandus was able to describe pretty fairly and to figure
+(_Ornithologia_, lib. xii. cap. xx. tab. x. fig. 7) one of them under
+the name of "_Rhinoceros Avis_," though the rest of the bird was wholly
+unknown to him. When the exploration of the East Indies had extended
+farther, more examples reached Europe, and the "_Corvus Indicus
+cornutus_" of Bontius became fully recognized by Willughby and Ray,
+under the title of the "Horned Indian Raven or _Topau_ called the
+Rhinocerot Bird." Since the time of those excellent ornithologists our
+knowledge of the hornbills has been steadily increasing, but up to the
+third quarter of the 19th century there was a great lack of precise
+information, and the publication of D. G. Elliot's "_Monograph of the
+Bucerotidae_," then supplied a great want. He divides the family into
+two sections, the _Bucerotinae_ and the _Bucorvinae_. The former group
+contains most of the species, which are divided into many genera. Of
+these, the most remarkable is _Rhinoplax_, which seems properly to
+contain but one species, the _Buceros vigil_, _B. scutatus_ or _B.
+geleatus_ of authors, commonly known as the helmet-hornbill, a native of
+Sumatra and Borneo. This is easily distinguished by having the front of
+its nearly vertical and slightly convex _epithema_ composed of a solid
+mass of horn[1] instead of a thin coating of the light and cellular
+structure found in the others. So dense and hard is this portion of the
+"helmet" that Chinese and Malay artists carve figures on its surface, or
+cut it transversely into plates, which from their agreeable colouring,
+bright yellow with a scarlet rim, are worn as brooches or other
+ornaments. This bird, which is larger than a raven, is also remarkable
+for its long graduated tail, having the middle two feathers nearly twice
+the length of the rest. Nothing is known of its habits. Its head was
+figured by George Edwards in the 18th century, but little else had been
+seen of it until 1801, when John Latham described the plumage from a
+specimen in the British Museum, and the first figure of the whole bird,
+from an example in the Museum at Calcutta, was published by General
+Hardwicke in 1823 (_Trans. Linn. Society_, xiv. pl. 23). Yet more than
+twenty years elapsed before French naturalists became acquainted with
+it.
+
+[Illustration: Great Indian Hornbill (_B. bicornis_). (After Tickell's
+drawing in the Zoological Society's Library.)]
+
+In the _Bucorvinae_ we have only the genus _Bucorvus_, or _Bucorax_ as
+some call it, confined to Africa, and containing at least two and
+perhaps more species, distinguishable by their longer legs and shorter
+toes, the ground-hornbills of English writers, in contrast to the
+_Bucerotinae_ which are chiefly arboreal in their habits, and when not
+flying move by short leaps or hops, while the members of this group walk
+and run with facility. From the days of James Bruce at least there are
+few African travellers who have not met with and in their narratives
+more or less fully described one or other of these birds, whose large
+size and fearless habits render them conspicuous objects.
+
+As a whole the hornbills, of which more than 50 species have been
+described, form a very natural and in some respects an isolated group,
+placed by Huxley among his _Coccygomorphae_. It has been suggested that
+they have some affinity with the hoopoes (_Upupidae_), and this view is
+now generally accepted. Their supposed alliance to the toucans
+(_Rhamphastidae_) rests only on the apparent similarity presented by the
+enormous beak, and is contradicted by important structural characters.
+In many of their habits, so far as these are known, all hornbills seem
+to be much alike, and though the modification in the form of the beak,
+and the presence or absence of the extraordinary excrescence,[2] whence
+their name is derived, causes great diversity of aspect among them, the
+possession of prominent eyelashes (not a common feature in birds)
+produces a uniformity of expression which makes it impossible to mistake
+any member of the family. Hornbills are social birds, keeping in
+companies, not to say flocks, and living chiefly on fruits and seeds;
+but the bigger species also capture and devour a large number of snakes,
+while the smaller are great destroyers of insects. The older writers say
+that they eat carrion, but further evidence to that effect is required
+before the statement can be believed. Almost every morsel of food that
+is picked up is tossed into the air, and then caught in the bill before
+it is swallowed. They breed in holes of trees, laying large white eggs,
+and when the hen begins to sit the cock plasters up the entrance with
+mud or clay, leaving only a small window through which she receives the
+food he brings her during her incarceration.
+
+This remarkable habit, almost simultaneously noticed by Dr Mason in
+Burma, S. R. Tickell in India, and Livingstone in Africa, and since
+confirmed by other observers, especially A. R. Wallace[3] in the Malay
+Archipelago, has been connected by A. D. Bartlett (_Proc. Zool.
+Society_, 1869, p. 142) with a peculiarity as remarkable, which he was
+the first to notice. This is the fact that hornbills at intervals of
+time, whether periodical or irregular is not yet known, cast the
+epithelial layer of their gizzard, that layer being formed by a
+secretion derived from the glands of the proventriculus or some other
+upper part of the alimentary canal. The epithelium is ejected in the
+form of a sack or bag, the mouth of which is closely folded, and is
+filled with the fruit that the bird has been eating. The announcement of
+a circumstance so extraordinary naturally caused some hesitation in its
+acceptance, but the essential truth of Bartlett's observations was
+abundantly confirmed by Sir W. H. Flower and especially by Dr J. Murie.
+These castings form the hen bird's food during her confinement.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Apparently correlated with this structure is the curious
+    thickening of the "prosencephalic median septum" of the cranium as
+    also of that which divides the "prosencephalic" from the
+    "mesencephalic chamber," noticed by Sir R. Owen (_Cat. Osteol. Ser.
+    Mus. Roy. Coll. Surg. England_, i. 287); while the solid horny mass
+    is further strengthened by a backing of bony props, directed forwards
+    and meeting its base at right angles. This last singular arrangement
+    is not perceptible in the skull of any other species examined by the
+    present writer.
+
+  [2] Buffon, as was his manner, enlarges on the cruel injustice done
+    to these birds by Nature in encumbering them with this deformity,
+    which he declares must hinder them from getting their food with ease.
+    The only corroboration his perverted view receives is afforded by the
+    observed fact that hornbills, in captivity at any rate, never have
+    any fat about them.
+
+  [3] In _The Malay Archipelago_ (i. 213), Wallace describes a nestling
+    hornbill (_B. bicornis_) which he obtained as "a most curious object,
+    as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage on any part
+    of it. It was exceedingly plump and soft, and with a semi-transparent
+    skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet
+    stuck on, than like a real bird."
+
+
+
+
+HORNBLENDE, an important member of the amphibole group of rock-forming
+minerals. The name is an old one of German origin, and was used for any
+dark-coloured prismatic crystals from which metals could not be
+extracted. It is now applied to the dark-coloured aluminous members of
+the monoclinic amphiboles, occupying in this group the same position
+that augite occupies in the pyroxene group. The monoclinic crystals are
+prismatic in habit with a six-sided cross-section; the angle between the
+prism-faces (M), parallel to which there are perfect cleavages, is 55
+deg. 49'. The colour (green, brown or black) and the specific gravity
+(3.0-3.3) vary with the amount of iron present. The pleochroism is
+always strong, and the angle of optical extinction on the plane of
+symmetry (x in the figure) varies from 0 deg. to 37 deg. The chemical
+composition is expressed by mixtures in varying proportions of the
+molecules Ca(Mg, Fe)3(SiO3)4, (Mg, Fe)(Al, Fe)2SiO6 and NaAl(SiO3)2.
+Numerous varieties have been distinguished by special names: edenite,
+from Edenville in New York, is a pale-coloured aluminous amphibole
+containing little iron; pargasite, from Pargas near Abo in Finland, a
+green or bluish-green variety; common hornblende includes the
+greenish-black and black kinds containing more iron. The dark-coloured
+porphyritic crystals of basalts are known as basaltic hornblende.
+
+[Illustration.]
+
+Hornblende occurs as an essential constituent of many kinds of igneous
+rocks, such as hornblende-granite, syenite, diorite, hornblende-andesite,
+basalt, &c.; and in many crystalline schists, for example, amphibolite
+and hornblende-schist which are composed almost entirely of this mineral.
+Well-crystallized specimens are met with at many localities, for example:
+brilliant black crystals (syntagmatite) with augite and mica in the
+sanidine bombs of Monte Somma, Vesuvius; large crystals at Arendal in
+Norway, and at several places in the state of New York; isolated crystals
+from the basalts of Bohemia.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+HORN-BOOK, a name originally applied to a sheet containing the letters
+of the alphabet, which formed a primer for the use of children. It was
+mounted on wood and protected with transparent horn. Sometimes the leaf
+was simply pasted against the slice of horn. The wooden frame had a
+handle, and it was usually hung at the child's girdle. The sheet, which
+in ancient times was of vellum and latterly of paper, contained first a
+large cross--the criss-crosse--from which the horn-book was called the
+Christ Cross Row, or criss-cross-row. The alphabet in large and small
+letters followed. The vowels then formed a line, and their combinations
+with the consonants were given in a tabular form. The usual
+exorcism--"in the name of the Father and of the Sonne and of the Holy
+Ghost, Amen"--followed, then the Lord's Prayer, the whole concluding
+with the Roman numerals. The horn-book is mentioned in Shakespeare's
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, v. i, where the _ba_, the _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_,
+_u_, and the horn, are alluded to by Moth. It is also described by Ben
+Jonson--
+
+  "The letters may be read, through the horn,
+   That make the story perfect."
+
+
+
+
+HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS (1825-1895), British admiral of the
+fleet, son of Admiral Sir Phipps Hornby, the first cousin and
+brother-in-law of the 13th earl of Derby, by a daughter of
+Lieut.-General Burgoyne, commonly distinguished as "Saratoga" Burgoyne,
+was born on the 20th of February 1825. At the age of twelve he was sent
+to sea in the flagship of Sir Robert Stopford, with whom he saw the
+capture of Acre in November 1840. He afterwards served in the flagship
+of Rear-Admiral Josceline Percy at the Cape of Good Hope, was
+flag-lieutenant to his father in the Pacific, and came home as a
+commander. When the Derby ministry fell in December 1852 young Hornby
+was promoted to be captain. Early in 1853 he married, and as the Derby
+connexion put him out of favour with the Aberdeen ministry, and
+especially with Sir James Graham, the first lord of the Admiralty, he
+settled down in Sussex as manager of his father's property. He had no
+appointment in the navy till 1858, when he was sent out to China to take
+command of the "Tribune" frigate and convey a body of marines to
+Vancouver Island, where the dispute with the United States about the
+island of San Juan was threatening to become very bitter. As senior
+naval officer there Hornby's moderation, temper and tact did much to
+smooth over matters, and a temporary arrangement for joint occupation of
+the island was concluded. He afterwards commanded the "Neptune" in the
+Mediterranean under Sir William Fanshawe Martin, was flag-captain to
+Rear-Admiral Dacres in the Channel, was commodore of the squadron on the
+west coast of Africa, and, being promoted to rear-admiral in January
+1869, commanded the training squadron for a couple of years. He then
+commanded the Channel Fleet, and was for two years a junior lord of the
+Admiralty. It was early in 1877 that he went out as commander-in-chief
+in the Mediterranean, where his skill in manoeuvring the fleet, his
+power as a disciplinarian, and the tact and determination with which he
+conducted the foreign relations at the time of the Russian advance on
+Constantinople, won for him the K. C. B. He returned home in 1880 with
+the character of being perhaps the most able commander on the active
+list of the navy. His later appointments were to the Royal Naval College
+as president, and afterwards to Portsmouth as commander-in-chief. On
+hauling down his flag he was appointed G. C. B., and in May 1888 was
+promoted to be admiral of the fleet. From 1886 he was principal naval
+aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria, and in that capacity, and as an admiral
+of the fleet, was appointed on the staff of the German emperor during
+his visits to England in 1889 and 1890. He died, after a short illness,
+on the 3rd of March 1895. By his wife, who predeceased him, he left
+several children, daughters and sons, one of whom, a major in the
+artillery, won the Victoria Cross in South Africa in 1900.
+
+  His life was written by his daughter, Mrs Fred. Egerton, (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HORNCASTLE, a market-town in the S. Lindsey or Horncastle parliamentary
+division of Lincolnshire, England, at the foot of a line of low hills
+called the Wolds, at the confluence of the Bain and Waring streams; the
+terminus of a branch line of the Great Northern railway, 130 m. N. from
+London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4038. The church of St Mary is
+principally Decorated and Perpendicular, with some Early English remains
+and an embattled western tower. Queen Elizabeth's grammar school was
+founded in 1562. Other buildings are an exchange, a court-house and a
+dispensary founded in 1789. The prosperity of the town is chiefly
+dependent on agriculture and its well-known horse fairs. Brewing and
+malting are carried on, and there is some trade in coal and iron.
+
+Remains have been found here which may indicate the existence of a Roman
+village. The manor of Horncastle (Hornecastre) belonged to Queen Edith
+in Saxon times and was royal demesne in 1086 and the head of a large
+soke. In the reign of Stephen it apparently belonged to Alice de Cundi,
+a partisan of the empress Maud, and passing to the crown on her death it
+was granted by Henry III. to Gerbald de Escald, from whom it descended
+to Ralph de Rhodes, who sold it to Walter Mauclerc, bishop of Carlisle
+in 1230. The see of Carlisle retained it till the reign of Edward VI.
+when it was granted to Edward, Lord Clinton, but was recovered in the
+following reign. In 1230 Henry III. directed the men of Horncastle to
+render a reasonable aid to the bishop, who obtained the right to try
+felons, hold a court leet and have free warren. An inquisition of 1275
+shows that the bishop had then, besides the return of writs, the assize
+of bread and ale and waifs and strays in the soke. Horncastle was a
+centre of the Lincolnshire rebellion of 1536. Royalist troops occupied
+the town in 1643, and were pursued through its streets after the battle
+fought at Winceby. It was never a municipal or parliamentary borough,
+but during the middle ages it was frequently the residence of the
+bishops of Carlisle. Its prosperity has always depended largely on its
+fairs, the great horse fair described by George Borrow in _Romany Rye_
+being granted to the bishop in 1230 for the octave of St Lawrence,
+together with the fair on the feast of St Barnabas. The three other
+fairs are apparently of later date.
+
+  See George Weir, _Historical and Descriptive Sketches of the Town and
+  Soke of Horncastle in the County of Lincoln and of Several Places
+  adjacent_ (London, 1820).
+
+
+
+
+HORN DANCE, a medieval dance, still celebrated during the September
+"wakes" at Abbots Bromley, a village on the borders of Needwood Forest,
+Staffordshire. Six or seven men, each wearing a deer's skull with
+antlers, dance through the streets, pursued by a comrade who bestrides a
+mimic horse, and whips the dancers to keep them on the move. The
+horn-dance usually takes place on the Monday after Wakes Sunday, which
+is the Sunday next after the 4th of September. Originally the dance took
+place on a Sunday.
+
+  See _Strand Magazine_ for November 1896; also _Folk-lore_, vol. vii.
+  (1896), p. 381.
+
+
+
+
+HORNE, GEORGE (1730-1792), English divine, was born on the 1st of
+November 1730, at Otham near Maidstone, and received his education at
+Maidstone school and University College, Oxford. In 1749 he became a
+fellow of Magdalen, of which college he was elected president in 1768.
+As a preacher he early attained great popularity, and was, albeit
+unjustly, accused of Methodism. His reputation was helped by several
+clever if somewhat wrong-headed publications, including a satirical
+pamphlet entitled _The Theology and Philosophy of Cicero's Somnium
+Scipionis_ (1751), a defence of the Hutchinsonians in _A Fair, Candid
+and Impartial State of the Case between Sir Isaac Newton and Mr
+Hutchinson_ (1753), and critiques upon William Law (1758) and Benjamin
+Kennicott (1760). In 1771 he published his well-known _Commentary on the
+Psalms_. a series of expositions based on the Messianic idea. In 1776
+he was chosen vice-chancellor of his university; in 1781 he was made
+dean of Canterbury, and in 1790 was raised to the see of Norwich. He
+died at Bath on the 17th of January 1792.
+
+  His collected _Works_ were published with a Memoir by William Jones in
+  1799.
+
+
+
+
+HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST (1803-1884), English poet and critic,
+was born in London on New Year's Day 1803. He was intended for the army,
+and entered at Sandhurst, but receiving no commission, he left his
+country and joined the Mexican navy. He served in the war against Spain,
+and underwent many adventures. Returning to England, he became a
+journalist, and in 1836-1837 edited _The Monthly Repository_. In 1837 he
+published two tragedies, _Cosmo de Medici_ and _The Death of Marlowe_,
+and in 1841 a _History of Napoleon_. The book, however, by which he
+lives is his epic of _Orion_, which appeared in 1843. It was published
+originally at a farthing, was widely read, and passed through many
+editions. In the next year he set forth a volume of critical essays
+called _A New Spirit of the Age_, in which he was assisted by Elizabeth
+Barrett (Mrs Browning), with whom, from 1839 to her marriage in 1846, he
+conducted a voluminous correspondence. In 1852 he went to Australia in
+company with William Howitt, and did not return to England until 1869.
+He received a Civil List pension in 1874, and died at Margate on the
+13th of March 1884. Horne possessed extraordinary versatility, but,
+except in the case of _Orion_, he never attained to a very high degree
+of distinction. That poem, indeed, has much of the quality of fine
+poetry; it is earnest, vivid and alive with spirit. But Horne early
+drove his talent too hard, and continued to write when he had little
+left to say. In criticism he had insight and quickness. He was one of
+the first to appreciate Keats and Tennyson, and he gave valuable
+encouragement to Mrs Browning when she was still Miss Elizabeth Barrett.
+
+
+
+
+HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL (1780-1862), English theologian and
+bibliographer, was born in London on the 20th of October 1780, and was
+educated at Christ's Hospital, with S. T. Coleridge as an elder
+contemporary. On leaving school he became clerk to a barrister, but
+showed a keen taste for authorship. As early as 1800 he published _A
+Brief View of the Necessity and Truth of the Christian Revelation_,
+which was followed by several minor works on very varied subjects. In
+1814, having been appointed librarian of the Surrey Institution, he
+issued his _Introduction to the Study of Bibliography_. This was
+followed in 1818 by his long matured work, the _Introduction to the
+Critical Study of the Holy Scriptures_, which rapidly attained
+popularity, and secured for its author widespread fame and an honorary
+M.A. degree from Aberdeen. In 1819 he received ordination from William
+Howley, bishop of London, and after holding two smaller livings was
+appointed rector of the united parishes of St Edmund the King and
+Martyr, and St Nicolas Acons in London. On the breaking up of the Surrey
+Institution in 1823, he was appointed (1824) senior assistant librarian
+in the department of printed books in the British Museum. After the
+project of making a classified catalogue had been abandoned, he took
+part in the preparation of the alphabetical one, and his connexion with
+the museum continued until within a few months of his death on the 27th
+of January 1862.
+
+  Horne's works exceed forty in number. The _Introduction_, edited by
+  John Ayre and S. P. Tregelles, reached a 12th edition in 1869; but,
+  owing to subsequent advances in biblical scholarship, it fell into
+  disuse.
+
+
+
+
+HORNELL, a city of Steuben county, New York, U.S.A., on the Canisteo
+river, 90 m. S.E. of Buffalo. Pop. (1890) 10,996; (1900) 11,918, of whom
+1230 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,617. Hornell is served by the
+Erie and the Pittsburg, Shawmut & Northern railways; the latter connects
+at Wayland (20 m. distant by rail) with the Delaware, Lackawanna &
+Western railroad. In the city are St Ann's Academy, the St James Mercy
+Hospital, the Steuben Sanitarium, a public library, and a county
+court-house--terms of the county court being held here as well as in
+Bath (pop. in 1905, 3695), the county-seat, and in Corning. Hornell has
+extensive car shops of the Erie railroad, and among its manufactures
+are silk goods (silk gloves being a specially important product), sash,
+doors and blinds, leather, furniture, shoes, white-goods, wire-fences,
+foundry and machine shop products, electric motors, and brick and tile.
+The value of the factory product in 1905 was $3,162,677, an increase of
+30.1% since 1900. The first settlement here was made in 1790, within the
+district of Erwin (then in Ontario county); after 1796 it was a part of
+Canisteo township, and the settlement itself was known as Upper Canisteo
+until 1820, when a new township was formed and named Hornellsville in
+honour of Judge George Hornell (d. 1813). The village of Hornellsville
+was incorporated in 1852, and in 1888 was chartered as a city; and by
+act of the state legislature the name was changed to Hornell in 1906.
+
+  See G. H. McMaster, _History of the Settlement of Steuben County_
+  (Bath, New York, 1849).
+
+
+
+
+HORNEMANN, FREDERICK (fl. 1796-1800), German traveller in Africa, was
+born at Hildesheim. He was a young man when, early in 1796, he offered
+his services to the African Association of London as an explorer in
+Africa. By the association he was sent to Gottingen University to study
+Arabic and otherwise prepare for an expedition into the unknown regions
+of North Africa from the east. In September 1797 he arrived in Egypt,
+where he continued his studies. On the invasion of the country by the
+French he was confined in the citadel of Cairo, to preserve him from the
+fanaticism of the populace. Liberated by the French, he received the
+patronage of Bonaparte. On the 5th of September 1798 he joined a caravan
+returning to the Maghrib from Mecca, attaching himself to a party of
+Fezzan merchants who accompanied the pilgrims. As an avowed Christian
+would not have been permitted to join the caravan Hornemann assumed the
+character of a young mameluke trading to Fezzan. He then spoke, but
+indifferently, both Arabic and Turkish, and he was accompanied as
+servant and interpreter by Joseph Freudenburg, a German convert to
+Islam, who had thrice made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Travelling by way of
+the oases of Siwa and Aujila, a "black rocky desert" was traversed to
+Temissa in Fezzan. Murzuk was reached on the 17th of November 1798. Here
+Hornemann lived till June 1799, going thence to the city of Tripoli,
+whence in August of the same year he despatched his journals to London.
+He then returned to Murzuk. Nothing further is known with certainty
+concerning him or his companion. In Murzuk Hornemann had collected a
+great deal of trustworthy information concerning the peoples and
+countries of the western Sahara and central Sudan, and when he left
+Tripoli it was his intention to go direct to the Hausa country, which
+region he was the first European definitely to locate. "If I do not
+perish in my undertaking," he wrote in his journal, "I hope in five
+years I shall be able to make the Society better acquainted with the
+people of whom I have given this short description." The British consul
+at Tripoli heard from a source believed to be trustworthy that about
+June 1803 Jusef (Hornemann's Mahommedan name) was at Casna, i.e.
+Katsena, in Northern Nigeria, "in good health and highly respected as a
+marabout." A report reached Murzuk in 1819 that the traveller had gone
+to "Noofy" (Nupe), and had died there. Hornemann was the first European
+in modern times to traverse the north-eastern Sahara, and up to 1910 no
+other explorer had followed his route across the Jebel-es-Suda from
+Aujila to Temissa.
+
+  The original text of Hornemann's journal, which was written in German,
+  was printed at Weimar in 1801; an English translation, _Travels from
+  Cairo to Mourzouk_, &c., with maps and dissertations by Major James
+  Rennell, appeared in London in 1802. A French translation of the
+  English work, made by order of the First Consul, and augmented with
+  notes and a memoir on the Egyptian oases by L. Langles, was published
+  in Paris in the following year. The French version is the most
+  valuable of the three. Consult also the _Proceedings of the African
+  Association_ (1810), and the Geog. Jnl. Nov. 1906.
+
+
+
+
+HORNER, FRANCIS (1778-1817), British economist, was born at Edinburgh on
+the 12th of August 1778. After passing through the usual courses at the
+high school and university of his native city, he devoted five years,
+the first two in England, to comprehensive but desultory study, and in
+1800 was called to the Scottish bar. Desirous, however, of a wider
+sphere, Horner removed to London in 1802, and occupied the interval
+that elapsed before his admission to the English bar in 1807 with
+researches in law, philosophy and political economy. In February 1806 he
+became one of the commissioners for adjusting the claims against the
+nawab of Arcot, and in November entered parliament as member for St
+Ives. Next year he sat. for Wendover, and in 1812 for St Mawes, in the
+patronage of the marquis of Buckingham. In 1811, when Lord Grenville was
+organizing a prospective ministry, Horner had the offer, which he
+refused, of a treasury secretaryship. He had resolved not to accept
+office till he could afford to live out of office; and his professional
+income, on which he depended, was at no time proportionate to his
+abilities. His labours at last began to tell upon a constitution never
+robust, and in October 1816 his physicians ordered him to Italy, where,
+however, he sank under his malady. He died at Pisa, on the 8th of
+February 1817. He was buried at Leghorn, and a marble statue by Chantrey
+was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Without the advantages of rank, or wealth, or even of genius, Francis
+Horner rose to a high position of public influence and private esteem.
+His special field was political economy. Master of that subject, and
+exercising a sort of moral as well as intellectual influence over the
+House of Commons he, by his nervous and earnest rather than eloquent
+style of speaking, could fix its attention for hours on such dry topics
+as finance, and coinage, and currency. As chairman of the parliamentary
+committee for investigating the depreciation of bank-notes, for which he
+moved in 1810, he extended and confirmed his fame as a political
+economist by his share in the famous _Bullion Report_. It was chiefly
+through his efforts that the paper-issue of the English banks was
+checked, and gold and silver reinstated in their true position as
+circulating media; and his views on free trade and commerce have been
+generally accepted at their really high value. Horner was one of the
+promoters of the _Edinburgh Review_ in 1802. His articles in the early
+numbers of that publication, chiefly on political economy, form his only
+literary legacy.
+
+  See _Memoirs and Correspondence of Francis Horner, M.P._, published by
+  his brother (see below) in 1843. Also the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly
+  Reviews_ for the same year; and _Blackwood's Magazine_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+HORNER, LEONARD (1785-1864), Scottish geologist, brother of Francis
+Horner (above), was born in Edinburgh on the 17th of January 1785. His
+father, John Horner, was a linen merchant in Edinburgh, and Leonard, the
+third and youngest son, entered the university of Edinburgh in 1799.
+There in the course of the next four years he studied chemistry and
+mineralogy, and gained a love of geology from Playfair's _Illustrations
+of the Huttonian Theory_. At the age of nineteen he became a partner in
+a branch of his father's business, and went to London. In 1808 he joined
+the newly formed Geological Society and two years later was elected one
+of the secretaries. Throughout his long life he was ardently devoted to
+the welfare of the society; he was elected president in 1846 and again
+in 1860. In 1811 he read his first paper "On the Mineralogy of the
+Malvern Hills" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ vol. i.) and subsequently
+communicated other papers on the "Brine-springs at Droitwich," and the
+"Geology of the S.W. part of Somersetshire." He was elected F.R.S. in
+1813. In 1815 he returned to Edinburgh to take personal superintendence
+of his business, and while there (1821) he was instrumental in founding
+the Edinburgh School of Arts for the instruction of mechanics, and he
+was one of the founders of the Edinburgh Academy. In 1827 he was invited
+to London to become warden of the London University, an office which he
+held for four years; he then resided at Bonn for two years and pursued
+the study of minerals and rocks, communicating to the Geological Society
+on his return a paper on the "Geology of the Environs of Bonn," and
+another "On the Quantity of Solid Matter suspended in the Water of the
+Rhine." In 1833 he was appointed one of the commissioners to inquire
+into the employment of children in the factories of Great Britain, and
+he was subsequently selected as one of the inspectors. In later years he
+devoted much attention to the geological history of the alluvial lands
+of Egypt; and in 1843 he published his _Life_ of his brother Francis. He
+died in London on the 5th of March 1864.
+
+  See _Memoir of Leonard Horner_, by Katherine M. Lyell (1890)
+  (privately printed).
+
+
+
+
+HORNES, MORITZ (1815-1868), Austrian palaeontologist, was born in Vienna
+on the 14th of July 1815. He was educated in the university and
+graduated Ph.D. He then became assistant in the Vienna mineralogical
+museum. He was distinguished for his researches on the Tertiary mollusca
+of the Vienna Basin, and on the Triassic mollusca of Alpine regions.
+Most of his memoirs were published in the _Jahrbuch der K. K. geol.
+Reichsanstalt_. In 1864 he introduced the term Neogene to include
+Miocene and Pliocene, as these formations are not always to be clearly
+separated: the fauna of the lower division being subtropical and
+gradually giving place in the upper division to Mediterranean forms. He
+died in Vienna on the 4th of November 1868. His son Dr Rudolf Hornes (b.
+1850), professor of geology and palaeontology in the university of Graz,
+has also carried on researches among the Tertiary mollusca, and is
+author of _Elemente der Palaeontologie_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HORNFELS (a German word meaning hornstone), the group designation for a
+series of rocks which have been baked and indurated by the heat of
+intrusive granitic masses and have been rendered massive, hard,
+splintery, and in some cases exceedingly tough and durable. Most
+hornfelses are fine-grained, and while the original rocks (such as
+sandstone, shale and slate, limestone and diabase) may have been more or
+less fissile owing to the presence of bedding or cleavage planes, this
+structure is effaced or rendered inoperative in the hornfels. Though
+they may show banding, due to bedding, &c., they break across this as
+readily as along it; in fact they tend to separate into cubical
+fragments rather than into thin plates. The commonest hornfelses (the
+"biotite hornfelses") are dark-brown to black with a somewhat velvety
+lustre owing to the abundance of small crystals of shining black mica.
+The "lime hornfelses" are often white, yellow, pale-green, brown and
+other colours. Green and dark-green are the prevalent tints of the
+hornfelses produced by the alteration of igneous rocks. Although for the
+most part the constituent grains are too small to be determined by the
+unaided eye, there are often larger crystals of garnet or andalusite
+scattered through the fine matrix, and these may become very prominent
+on the weathered faces of the rock.
+
+The structure of the hornfelses is very characteristic. Very rarely do
+any of the minerals show crystalline form, but the small grains fit
+closely together like the fragments of a mosaic; they are usually of
+nearly equal dimensions and from the resemblance to rough pavement work
+this has been called _pflaster_ structure or pavement structure. Each
+mineral may also enclose particles of the others; in the quartz, for
+example, small crystals of graphite, biotite, iron oxides, sillimanite
+or felspar may appear in great numbers. Often the whole of the grains
+are rendered semi-opaque in this way. The minutest crystals may show
+traces of crystalline outlines; undoubtedly they are of new formation
+and have originated _in situ_. This leads us to believe that the whole
+rock has been recrystallized at a high temperature and in the solid
+state, so that there was little freedom for the mineral molecules to
+build up well-individualized crystals. The regeneration of the rock has
+been sufficient to efface most of the original structures and to replace
+the former minerals more or less completely by new ones. But
+crystallization has been hampered by the solid condition of the mass and
+the new minerals are formless and have been unable to reject impurities,
+but have grown around them.
+
+Slates, shales and clays yield biotite hornfelses in which the most
+conspicuous mineral is black mica, in small scales which under the
+microscope are transparent and have a dark reddish-brown colour and
+strong dichroism. There is also quartz, and often a considerable amount
+of felspar, while graphite, tourmaline and iron oxides frequently occur
+in lesser quantity. In these biotite hornfelses the minerals, which
+consist of aluminium silicates, are commonly found; they are usually
+andalusite and sillimanite, but kyanite appears also in hornfelses,
+especially in those which have a schistose character. The andalusite may
+be pink and is then often pleochroic in thin sections, or it may be
+white with the cross-shaped dark enclosures of the matrix which are
+characteristic of chiastolite. Sillimanite usually forms exceedingly
+minute needles embedded in quartz. In the rocks of this group cordierite
+also occurs, not rarely, and may have the outlines of imperfect
+hexagonal prisms which are divided up into six sectors when seen in
+polarized light. In biotite hornfelses a faint striping may indicate the
+original bedding of the unaltered rock and corresponds to small changes
+in the nature of the sediment deposited. More commonly there is a
+distinct spotting, visible on the surfaces of the hand specimens. The
+spots are round or elliptical, and may be paler or darker than the rest
+of the rock. In some cases they are rich in graphite or carbonaceous
+matters; in others they are full of brown mica; some spots consist of
+rather coarser grains of quartz than occur in the matrix. The frequency
+with which this feature reappears in the less altered slates and
+hornfelses is rather remarkable, especially as it seems certain that the
+spots are not always of the same nature or origin. "Tourmaline
+hornfelses" are found sometimes near the margins of tourmaline granites;
+they are black with small needles of schorl which under the microscope
+are dark brown and richly pleochroic. As the tourmaline contains boron
+there must have been some permeation of vapours from the granite into
+the sediments. Rocks of this group are often seen in the Cornish
+tin-mining districts, especially near the lodes.
+
+A second great group of hornfelses are the calc-silicate-hornfelses
+which arise from the thermal alteration of impure limestones. The purer
+beds recrystallize as marbles, but where there has been originally an
+admixture of sand or clay lime-bearing silicates are formed, such as
+diopside, epidote, garnet, sphene, vesuvianite, scapolite; with these
+phlogopite, various felspars, pyrites, quartz and actinolite often
+occur. These rocks are fine-grained, and though often banded are tough
+and much harder than the original limestones. They are excessively
+variable in their mineralogical composition, and very often alternate in
+thin seams with biotite hornfels and indurated quartzites. When perfused
+with boric and fluoric vapours from the granite they may contain much
+axinite, fluorite and datolite, but the aluminous silicates (andalusite,
+&c.) are absent from these rocks.
+
+From diabases, basalts, andesites and other igneous rocks a third type
+of hornfels is produced. They consist essentially of felspar with
+hornblende (generally of brown colour) and pale pyroxene. Sphene,
+biotite and iron oxides are the other common constituents, but these
+rocks show much variety of composition and structure. Where the original
+mass was decomposed and contained calcite, zeolites, chlorite and other
+secondary minerals either in veins or in cavities, there are usually
+rounded areas or irregular streaks containing a suite of new minerals,
+which may resemble those of the calc silicate hornfelses above
+described. The original porphyritic, fluidal, vesicular or fragmental
+structures of the igneous rock are clearly visible in the less advanced
+stages of hornfelsing, but become less evident as the alteration
+progresses.
+
+In some districts hornfelsed rocks occur which have acquired a schistose
+structure through shearing, and these form transitions to schists and
+gneisses which contain the same minerals as the hornfelses, but have a
+schistose instead of a hornfels structure. Among these may be mentioned
+cordierite and sillimanite gneisses, andalusite and kyanite mica
+schists, and those schistose calc silicate rocks which are known as
+cipolins. That these are sediments which have undergone thermal
+alteration is generally admitted, but the exact conditions under which
+they were formed is not always clear. The essential features of
+hornfelsing are ascribed to the action of heat, pressure and permeating
+vapours, regenerating a rock mass without the production of fusion (at
+least on a large scale). It has been argued, however, that often there
+is extensive chemical change owing to the introduction of matter from
+the granite into the rocks surrounding it. The formation of new felspar
+in the hornfelses is pointed out as evidence of this. While this
+"felspathization" may have occurred in a few localities, it seems
+conspicuously absent from others. Most authorities at the present time
+regard the changes as being purely of a physical and not of a chemical
+nature.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+HORNING, LETTERS OF, a term in Scots law. Originally in Scotland
+imprisonment for debt was enforceable only in certain cases, but a
+custom gradually grew up of taking the debtor's oath to pay. If the
+debtor broke his oath, he became liable to the discipline of the Church.
+The civil power, further, stepped in to aid the ecclesiastical, and
+denounced him as a rebel, imprisoning his person and confiscating his
+goods. The method declaring a person a rebel was by giving three blasts
+on a horn and publicly proclaiming the fact; hence the expression, "put
+to the horn." The subsequent process, the warrant directing a
+messenger-at-arms to charge the debtor to pay or perform in terms of the
+letters, was called "letters of horning." This system of execution was
+simplified by an act of 1837 (Personal Diligence Act), and execution is
+now usually by diligence (see EXECUTION).
+
+
+
+
+HORNPIPE, originally the name of an instrument no longer in existence,
+and now the name of an English national dance. The sailors' hornpipe,
+although the most common, is by no means the only form of the dance, for
+there is a pretty tune known as the "College Hornpipe," and other
+specimens of a similar kind might be cited. The composition of hornpipes
+flourished chiefly in the 18th century, and even Handel did not disdain
+to use the characteristic rhythm. The hornpipe may be written in 3/2 or
+in common time, and is always of a lively nature.
+
+
+
+
+HORNSEY, a municipal borough in the Hornsey parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 6 m. N. of St Paul's Cathedral,
+on the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 44,523; (1901) 72,056. It is
+chiefly occupied by small residences of the working classes. The manor,
+called in the 13th century _Haringee_ (a name which survives as
+Harringay), belonged from an early date to the see of London, the
+bishops having a seat here. In 1387 the duke of Gloucester, uncle of
+Richard II., assembled in Hornsey Park the forces by the display of
+which he compelled the king to dismiss his minister de la Pole, earl of
+Suffolk; and in 1483 the park was the scene of the ceremonious reception
+of Edward V., under the charge of Richard, duke of Gloucester, by Edmund
+Shaw, lord mayor of London. The parish church of St Mary, Hornsey,
+retains its Perpendicular tower (c. 1500) and a number of interesting
+monuments. Finsbury Park, of 120 acres, and other smaller public
+grounds, are within the borough. Hornsey was incorporated in 1903 under
+a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 2875 acres.
+
+
+
+
+HOROWITZ, ISAIAH (c. 1555-c. 1630), Jewish rabbi and mystic, was born at
+Prague, and died at Safed, then the home of Jewish Kabbala. His largest
+work is called _Shelah_ (abbreviated from the initials of the full title
+_Shene luhoth ha-berit_, "Two Tables of the Covenant"). This is a
+compilation of ritual, ethics and mysticism, and had a profound
+influence on Jewish life. It has been often reprinted, especially in an
+abbreviated form.
+
+  For an account of the Jewish mystics at Safed see S. Schecter,
+  _Studies in Judaism_, series ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HORREUM, the Latin word for a magazine or storehouse for the storage of
+grain and other produce of the earth, and occasionally for that of
+agricultural implements. The storehouses of Rome were of the most
+extensive character, there being no fewer than 290 public horrea at the
+time of Constantine. They were used for the storage of food and
+merchandize of all kinds, being part of the great Roman system of
+providing food for the population, and they were supplied constantly
+with corn and other provisions from Africa, Spain and elsewhere.
+
+
+
+
+HORROCKS, JEREMIAH (1619-1641), English astronomer, was born in 1619 at
+Toxteth Park, near Liverpool. His family was poor, and the register of
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge, testifies to his entry as sizar on the 18th
+of May 1632. Isolated in his scientific tastes, and painfully straitened
+in means, he pursued amid innumerable difficulties his purpose of
+self-education. His university career lasted three years, and on its
+termination he became a tutor at Toxteth, devoting to astronomical
+observations his brief intervals of leisure. In 1636 he met with a
+congenial spirit in William Crabtree, a draper of Broughton, near
+Manchester; and encouraged by his advice he exchanged the guidance of
+Philipp von Lansberg, a pretentious but inaccurate Belgian astronomer,
+for that of Kepler. He now set himself to the revision of the Rudolphine
+Tables (published by Kepler in 1627), and in the progress of his task
+became convinced that a transit of Venus overlooked by Kepler would
+nevertheless occur on the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639. He was at this
+time curate of Hoole, near Preston, having recently taken orders in the
+Church of England, although, according to the received accounts, he had
+not attained the canonical age. The 24th of November falling on a
+Sunday, his clerical duties threatened fatally to clash with his
+astronomical observations; he was, however, released just in time to
+witness the punctual verification of his forecast, and carefully noted
+the progress of the phenomenon during half an hour before sunset (3.15
+to 3.45). This transit of Venus is remarkable as the first ever
+observed, that of 1631 predicted by Kepler having been invisible in
+western Europe. Notwithstanding the rude character of the apparatus at
+his disposal, Horrocks was enabled by his observation of it to introduce
+some important corrections into the elements of the planet's orbit, and
+to reduce to its exact value the received estimate of its apparent
+diameter.
+
+After a year spent at Hoole, he returned to Toxteth, and there, on the
+eve of a long-promised visit to his friend Crabtree, he died, on the 3rd
+of January 1641, when only in his twenty-second year. To the inventive
+activity of the discoverer he had already united the patient skill of
+the observer and the practical sagacity of the experimentalist. Before
+he was twenty he had afforded a specimen of his powers by an important
+contribution to the lunar theory. He first brought the revolutions of
+our satellite within the domain of Kepler's laws, pointing out that her
+apparent irregularities could be completely accounted for by supposing
+her to move in an ellipse with a variable eccentricity and directly
+rotatory major axis, of which the earth occupied one focus. These
+precise conditions were afterwards demonstrated by Newton to follow
+necessarily from the law of gravitation.
+
+In his speculations as to the physical cause of the celestial motions,
+his mind, though not wholly emancipated from the tyranny of gratuitous
+assumptions, was working steadily towards the light. He clearly
+perceived the significant analogy between terrestrial gravity and the
+force exerted in the solar system, and by the ingenious device of a
+circular pendulum illustrated the composite character of the planetary
+movements. He also reduced the solar parallax to 14" (less than a
+quarter of Kepler's estimate), corrected the sun's semi-diameter to 15'
+45", recommended decimal notation, and was the first to make tidal
+observations.
+
+  Only a remnant of the papers left by Horrocks was preserved by the
+  care of William Crabtree. After his death (which occurred soon after
+  that of his friend) these were purchased by Dr Worthington, of
+  Cambridge; and from his hands the treatise _Venus in sole visa_ passed
+  into those of Hevelius, and was published by him in 1662 with his own
+  observations on a transit of Mercury. The remaining fragments were,
+  under the directions of the Royal Society, reduced by Dr Wallis to a
+  compact form, with the heading _Astronomia Kepleriana defensa et
+  promota_, and published with numerous extracts from the letters of
+  Horrocks to Crabtree, and a sketch of the author's life, in a volume
+  entitled _Jeremiae Horroccii opera posthuma_ (London, 1672). A memoir
+  of his life by the Rev. Arundell Blount Whatton, prefixed to a
+  translation of the _Venus in sole visa_, appeared at London in 1859.
+
+  For additional particulars, see J. E. Bailey's _Palatine Note-Book_,
+  ii. 253, iii. 17; Bailey's "Writings of Horrocks and Crabtree" (from
+  _Notes and Queries_, Dec. 2, 1882); _Notes and Queries_, 3rd series,
+  vol. v., 5th series, vols. ii., iv.; Martin's _Biographia
+  philosophica_, p. 271 (1764); R. Brickel, _Transits of Venus,
+  1639-1874_ (Preston, 1874); _Astronomical Register_, xii. 293;
+  Hevelii, _Mercurius in sole visus_, pp. 116-140; S. Rigaud's
+  _Correspondence of Scientific Men_; Th. Birch, _History of the Royal
+  Society_, i. 386, 395, 470; Sir E. Sherburne's _Sphere of M.
+  Manilius_, p. 92 (1675); Sir J. A. Picton's _Memorials of Liverpool_,
+  ii. 561; M. Gregson's _Fragments relative to the Duchy of Lancaster_,
+  p. 166 (1817); _Liverpool Repository_, i. 570 (1826); _Phil. Trans.
+  Abridged_, ii. 12 (1809); C. Hutton's _Phil. and Math. Dictionary_
+  (1815); _Penny Cyclopaedia_ (De Morgan); _Nature_, viii. 117, 137; J.
+  B. J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 495; _Hist. de
+  l'astronomie au XVIII^e siecle_, pp. 28, 61, 74; W. Whewell, _Hist. of
+  the Inductive Sciences_, i. 331; R. Grant, _Hist. of Physical
+  Astronomy_, pp. 420, 545; J. Madler, _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, i.
+  275; M. Marie, _Hist. des Sciences_, iv. 168, vi. 90; J. C. Houzeau,
+  _Bibl. Astr._ ii. 167.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HORROCKS, JOHN (1768-1804), British cotton manufacturer, was born at
+Edgeworth, near Bolton, in 1768. His father was the owner of a small
+quarry, and John Horrocks spent his early days in dressing and polishing
+millstones. The Lancashire cotton industry was then in its infancy, but
+Horrocks was greatly impressed with its future possibilities, and he
+managed to obtain a few spinning-frames which he erected in a corner of
+his father's offices. For a time he combined cotton-spinning on a very
+small scale with stone-working, but finally devoted himself entirely to
+cotton-spinning, working the frames with his own hands, and travelling
+through the Lancashire manufacturing districts to sell the yarn. His
+goods obtained a reputation for quality, and his customers increased so
+rapidly that in 1791 he removed to Preston, where he began to
+manufacture cotton shirtings and long-cloths in addition to spinning the
+cotton yarn. By taking full advantage of the machinery invented for
+manufacturing textiles, and by rigidly maintaining the quality of his
+goods, Horrocks rapidly developed his business, and with the aid of the
+capital of a local banker, whom he took into partnership, erected within
+a year of his arrival in Preston his first large mill, securing shortly
+afterwards from the East India Company a monopoly of the manufacture of
+cottons and muslins for the Indian market. The demand for Horrocks's
+goods continued to increase, and to cope with the additional work he
+took first an elder brother and in 1801 a Mr Whitehead and a Mr Miller
+into partnership, the title of the firm being altered to Horrockses,
+Miller & Co. In 1802 he entered parliament as tory member for Preston.
+He died in London in 1804 of brain-fever resulting from over-work.
+
+
+
+
+HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as _hors_,
+_hros_, _ros_; cf. the Ger. _ross_), a name properly restricted to the
+domesticated horse (_Equus caballus_) and its wild or half-wild
+representatives, but in a zoological sense used as a general term for
+all the members of the family Equidae.
+
+
+SPECIES
+
+The distinctive characteristics of the family, and its position in the
+zoological system, are given in the articles EQUIDAE and PERISSODACTYLA.
+Here attention is concentrated on the leading features of the horse as
+contrasted with the other members of the same family, and subsequently
+on the anatomical structure of the former animal. The evolution of the
+existing representatives of the family from primitive extinct animals is
+summarized in the article EQUIDAE.
+
+_Horse_, _Wild Horse_, _Pony_.--The horse (_Equus caballus_) is
+distinguished from the others by the long hairs of the tail being more
+abundant and growing quite or nearly from the base as well as the end
+and sides, and also by possessing a small bare callosity on the inner
+side of the hind leg, just below the "hock" or heel joint, in addition
+to the one on the inner side of the fore-arm above the carpus or "knee,"
+common to all the genus. The mane is also longer and more flowing, and
+the ears are shorter, the limbs longer, and the head smaller.
+
+Though existing horses are usually not marked in any definite manner, or
+only irregularly dappled, or spotted with light surrounded by a darker
+ring, many examples are met with showing a dark median dorsal streak
+like that found in all the other members of the genus, and even with
+dark stripes on the shoulders and legs.
+
+Two distinct types of horse, in many instances largely modified by
+interbreeding, appear to exist. (1) The northern, or dun type,
+represented by the dun ponies of Norway (_Equus caballus typicus_), the
+closely allied Celtic pony (_E. c. celticus_) of Iceland, the Hebrides,
+&c., and the wild pony of Mongolia (_E. c. przewalskii_), with which the
+now extinct tarpan of the Russian steppes appears to have been
+identical. The prevalent colour is yellow-dun, with dark brown or black
+mane, tail and legs; in the wild forms the muzzle is often white and the
+root of the tail short-haired; while the head is relatively large and
+heavy. No depression exists in the skull in front of the eye. Most of
+the ordinary horses of N.W. Europe are descended from the dun type, with
+more or less admixture of Barb blood. (2) The southern, or Barb type,
+represented by Barbs, Arabs, thoroughbreds, &c. (_E. c. asiaticus_ or
+_libycus_), in which the typical colour is bay with black "points" and
+often a white star on the forehead, and the mane and tail are long and
+full. The skull generally shows a slight depression in front of the
+socket of the eye, which, although now serving as the attachment for the
+muscle running to the nostril, may represent the face-gland of the
+extinct _Hipparion_. Many of the dark-coloured horses of Europe have
+Barb or Arab blood in their veins, this being markedly the case with the
+Old English black or Shire horse, the skull of which shows a distinct
+depression in front of the eye-socket. This depression is still more
+marked in the extinct Indian _E. sivalensis_, which may have been the
+ancestral form.
+
+In Europe wild horses were abundant in the prehistoric Neolithic or
+polished-stone period. Judging from the quantity of their remains found
+associated with those of the men of that time, the chase of these
+animals must have been among man's chief occupations, and horses must
+have furnished him with one of his most important food-supplies. The
+characters of the bones preserved, and certain rude but graphic
+representations carved on bones or reindeers' antlers, enable us to know
+that they were rather small in size and heavy in build, with large heads
+and rough shaggy manes and tails, much like, in fact, the recently
+extinct tarpans or wild horses of the steppes of the south of Russia,
+and the still-surviving Mongolian wild pony or "Przewalski's horse."
+These horses were domesticated by the inhabitants of Europe before the
+dawn of history. Horses are now diffused by the agency of man throughout
+almost the whole of the inhabited parts of the globe, and the great
+modifications they have undergone in consequence of domestication,
+crossing, and selective breeding are well exemplified by comparing such
+extreme forms as the Shetland pony, dwarfed by uncongenial climate, the
+thoroughbred racer, and the London dray-horse. In Australia, as in
+America, horses imported by European settlers have escaped into
+unreclaimed lands and multiplied to a prodigious extent, roaming in vast
+herds over the wide and uncultivated plains.
+
+_Ass_, _Zebra_, _Quagga_.--The next group is formed by the Asiatic wild
+asses, or kiangs and onagers, as they might well be called, in order to
+distinguish them from the wild asses of Africa. These asses have
+moderate ears, the tail rather long, and the back-stripe dark brown and
+running from head to tail. On the neck and withers this stripe is formed
+by the mane. There are two species of Asiatic wild ass, with several
+varieties. The first and largest has two races, the chigetai (_Equus
+hemionus_) of Mongolia, and the kiang (_E. h. kiang_) of Tibet, which is
+a redder animal. The onager (_E. onager_), of which there are several
+races, is smaller, with a broader dorsal stripe, bordered with white;
+the colour varying from sandy to greyish. This species ranges from
+Baluchistan and N.W. India to Persia, Syria and Arabia. These asses
+inhabit desert plains or open table-land; the kiang dwelling at
+elevations of about 14,000 ft. They are generally found in herds of from
+twenty to forty, although occasionally in larger numbers. All are fleet,
+and traverse rough ground with speed. On the lowlands they feed on dry
+grasses, and in Tibet on small woody plants. In India and Persia they
+are difficult to approach, although this is not the case in Tibet. Their
+sandy or chestnut colouring assimilates them to the horse, and separates
+them widely from the African wild asses, which are grey. The kiang has
+also larger and more horse-like hoofs, and the tail is haired higher up,
+thus approximating to _Equus caballus przewalskii_.
+
+Among the striped species, or zebras and quaggas of Africa, the large
+Grevy's zebra (_Equus grevyi_) of Somaliland and Abyssinia stands apart
+from the rest by the number and narrowness of its stripes, which have an
+altogether peculiar arrangement on the hind-quarters, the small size of
+the callosities on the fore-legs, the mane extending on to the withers
+and enormous rounded ears, thickly haired internally. The large size of
+the ears and the narrow stripes are in some degree at any rate
+adaptations to a life on scrub-clad plains.
+
+Next comes the closely allied species with small pointed ears, of which
+the true quagga (_E. quagga_) of South Africa is now extinct. This
+animal has the dark stripes limited to the head, neck and shoulders,
+upon a brown ground. In the typical form, now also extinct, of the
+bonte-quagga, dauw, or Burchell's zebra (_E. burchelli_), the
+ground-colour is white, and the stripes cover the body and upper part of
+the limbs. This was the commonest species in the great plains of South
+Africa, where it roamed in large herds, often in company with the quagga
+and numerous antelopes. The species ranges from the Orange river to the
+confines of Abyssinia, but its more northern representatives show a
+gradual increase in the striping of the legs, culminating in the
+north-east African _E. burchelli granti_, in which the stripes extend to
+the hoofs. The markings, too, are alternately black and white, in place
+of brown and creamy, with intermediate "shadow stripes," as in the
+southern races.
+
+Lastly, there is the true or mountain zebra (_E. zebra_), typically from
+the mountain ranges of Cape Colony, where it is now specially protected,
+but represented by _E. zebra penricei_ in south-west Africa. In its
+relatively long ears and general build it approaches the African wild
+asses, from which it chiefly differs by the striping (which is markedly
+different from that of the quagga-group) and the reversal of the
+direction of the hairs along the spine.
+
+The African wild ass (_E. asinus_) is the parent of the domesticated
+breed, and is a long-eared grey animal, with no forelock, and either a
+shoulder-stripe or dark barrings on the legs. There are two races, of
+which the Nubian _E. a. africanus_ is the smaller, and has a continuous
+dorsal stripe and a shoulder-stripe but no bars on the legs. The Somali
+race (_E. a somaliensis_), on the other hand, is a larger and greyer
+animal, with an interrupted dorsal and no shoulder-stripe, but distinct
+leg-barrings.
+
+_Hybrids._--There are thus eight modifications of the horse-type at
+present existing, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species by
+most zoologists, and easily recognizable by their external characters.
+They are, however, all so closely allied that each will, at least in a
+state of domestication or captivity, breed with any of the others. Cases
+of fertile union are recorded between the horse and the quagga, the
+horse and the bonte-quagga or Burchell's zebra, the horse and the onager
+and kiang or Asiatic wild asses, the common ass and the zebra, the ass
+and bonte-quagga, the ass and the onager, the onager and the zebra, and
+the onager and the bonte-quagga. The two species which are farthest
+removed in structure, the horse and the ass, produce, as is well known,
+hybrids or mules, which in certain qualities useful to man excel both
+their progenitors, and in some countries and for certain kinds of work
+are in greater requisition than either. Although occasional more or less
+doubtful instances have been recorded of female mules breeding with the
+males of one or other of the pure species, it is more than doubtful if
+any case has occurred of their breeding _inter se_, although the
+opportunities of doing so must have been great, as mules have been
+reared in immense numbers for at least several thousands of years. We
+may therefore consider it settled that the different species of the
+group are now in that degree of physiological differentiation which
+enables them to produce offspring with each other, but does not permit
+of the progeny continuing the race, at all events unless reinforced by
+the aid of one of the pure forms.
+
+The several members of the group show mental differences quite as
+striking as those exhibited by their external form, and more than
+perhaps might be expected from the similarity of their brains. The
+patience of the ass, the high spirit of the horse, the obstinacy of the
+mule, have long been proverbial. It is very remarkable that, out of so
+many species, two only should have shown any aptitude for
+domestication, and that these should have been from time immemorial the
+universal and most useful companions and servants of man, while all the
+others remain in their native freedom to this day. It is, however, still
+a question whether this really arises from a different mental
+constitution causing a natural capacity for entering into relations with
+man, or whether it may not be owing to their having been brought
+gradually into this condition by long-continued and persevering efforts
+when the need of their services was felt. It is possible that one reason
+why most of the attempts to add new species to the list of our domestic
+animals in modern times have ended in failure is that it does not answer
+to do so in cases in which existing species supply all the principal
+purposes to which the new ones might be put. It can hardly be expected
+that zebras and bonte-quaggas fresh from their native mountains and
+plains can be brought into competition as beasts of burden and draught
+with horses and asses, whose useful qualities have been augmented by the
+training of thousands of generations of progenitors.
+
+Not infrequently instances occur of domestic horses being produced with
+a small additional toe with complete hoof, usually on the inside of the
+principal toe, and, though far more rarely, three or more toes may be
+present. These malformations are often cited as instances of reversion
+to the condition of some of the earlier forms of equine animals
+previously mentioned. In some instances, however, the feet of such
+polydactyle horses bear little resemblance to those of the extinct
+_Hipparion_ or _Anchitherium_, but look rather as if due to that
+tendency to reduplication of parts which occurs so frequently as a
+monstrous condition, especially among domesticated animals, and which,
+whatever its origin, certainly cannot in many instances, as the cases of
+entire limbs superadded, or of six digits in man, be attributed to
+reversion.
+
+
+ANATOMY
+
+The anatomical structure of the horse has been described in detail in
+several works mentioned in the bibliography at the end of this section,
+though these have generally been written from the point of view of the
+veterinarian rather than of the comparative anatomist. The limits of the
+present article will only admit of the most salient points being
+indicated, particularly those in which the horse differs from other
+Ungulata. Unless otherwise specified, it must be understood that all
+that is stated here, although mostly derived from observation upon the
+horse, applies equally well to the other existing members of the group.
+
+  _Skeleton._--The skull as a whole is greatly elongated, chiefly in
+  consequence of the immense size of the face as compared with the
+  hinder or true cranial portion. The basal line of the cranium from the
+  lower border of the foramen magnum to the incisor border of the palate
+  is nearly straight. The orbit, of nearly circular form, though small
+  in proportion to the size of the whole skull, is distinctly marked,
+  being completely surrounded by a strong ring of bone with prominent
+  edges. Behind it, and freely communicating with it beneath the osseous
+  bridge (the post-orbital process of the frontal) forming the boundary
+  between them, is the small temporal fossa occupying the whole of the
+  side of the cranium proper, and in front is the great flattened
+  expanse of the "cheek," formed chiefly by the maxilla, giving support
+  to the long row of cheek-teeth, and having a prominent ridge running
+  forward from below the orbit for the attachment of the masseter
+  muscle. The lachrymal occupies a considerable space on the flat
+  surface of the cheek in front of the orbit, and below it the jugal
+  does the same. The latter sends a horizontal or slightly ascending
+  process backwards below the orbit to join the under surface of the
+  zygomatic process of the squamosal, which is remarkably large, and
+  instead of ending as usual behind the orbit, runs forwards to join the
+  greatly developed post-orbital process of the frontal, and even forms
+  part of the posterior and inferior boundary of the orbit, an
+  arrangement not met with in other mammals. The closure of the orbit
+  behind distinguishes the skull of the horse from that of its allies
+  the rhinoceros and tapir, and also from all of the perissodactyles of
+  the Eocene period. In front of the brain cavity, the great tubular
+  nasal cavities are provided with well-developed turbinal bones, and
+  are roofed over by large nasals, broad behind, and ending in front in
+  a narrow decurved point. The opening of the anterior nostrils is
+  prolonged backwards on each side of the face between the nasals and
+  the elongated slender premaxillae. The latter expand in front, and are
+  curved downwards to form the semicircular alveolar border which
+  supports the large incisor teeth. The palate is narrow in the interval
+  between the incisor and molar teeth, in which are situated the large
+  anterior palatine foramina. Between the molar teeth it is broader, and
+  it ends posteriorly in a rounded excavated border opposite the hinder
+  border of the penultimate molar tooth. It is mainly formed by the
+  maxillae, as the palatines are very narrow. The pterygoids are
+  delicate slender slips of bone attached to the hinder border of the
+  palatines, and supported externally by, and generally welded with, the
+  rough pterygoid plates of the alisphenoid, with no pterygoid fossa
+  between. They slope obliquely forwards, and end in curved, compressed,
+  hamular processes. There is a distinct alisphenoid canal for the
+  passage of the internal maxillary artery. The base of the cranium is
+  long and narrow; the alisphenoid is very obliquely perforated by the
+  foramen rotundum, but the foramen ovale is confluent with the large
+  foramen lacerum medium behind. The glenoid surface for the
+  articulation of the mandible is greatly extended transversely, concave
+  from side to side, convex from before backwards in front, and hollow
+  behind, and is bounded posteriorly at its inner part by a prominent
+  post-glenoid process. The squamosal enters considerably into the
+  formation of the temporal fossa, and, besides sending the zygomatic
+  process forwards, it sends down behind the meatus auditorius a
+  post-tympanic process which aids to hold in place the otherwise loose
+  tympano-periotic bone. Behind this the exoccipital gives off a long
+  paroccipital process. The periotic and tympanic are welded together,
+  but not with the squamosal. The former has a wide but shallow
+  floccular fossa on its inner side, and sends backwards a considerable
+  "pars mastoidea," which appears on the outer surface of the skull
+  between the post-tympanic process of the squamosal and the
+  exoccipital. The tympanic forms a tubular meatus auditorius externus
+  directed outwards and slightly backwards. It is not dilated into a
+  distinct bulla, but ends in front in a pointed rod-like process. It
+  completely embraces the truncated cylindrical tympanohyal, which is of
+  great size, corresponding with the large development of the whole
+  anterior arch of the hyoid. This consists mainly of a long and
+  compressed stylohyal, expanded at the upper end, where it sends off a
+  triangular posterior process. The basi-hyal is remarkable for the
+  long, median, pointed, compressed "glossohyal" process, which it sends
+  forward from its anterior border into the base of the tongue. A
+  similar but less developed process is found in the rhinoceros and
+  tapir. The lower jaw is large, especially the region of the angle,
+  which is expanded and flattened, giving great surface for the
+  attachment of the masseter muscle. The condyle is greatly elevated
+  above the alveolar border; its articular surface is very wide
+  transversely, and narrow and convex from before backwards. The
+  coronoid process is slender, straight, and inclined backwards. The
+  horizontal ramus, long, straight, and compressed, gradually narrows
+  towards the symphysis, where it expands laterally to form with the
+  ankylosed opposite ramus the wide, semicircular, shallow alveolar
+  border for the incisor teeth.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side view of Skull of Horse, with the bone
+  removed so as to expose the whole of the teeth.
+
+    PMx, Premaxilla.
+    Mx,  Maxilla.
+    Na,  Nasal bone.
+    Ma,  Jugal or malar bone.
+    L,   Lacrymal bone.
+    Fr,  Frontal bone.
+    Sq,  Squamosal bone.
+    Pa,  Parietal bone.
+    oc,  Occipital condyle.
+    pp,  Paroccipital process.
+    i^1, i^2, and i^3, The three incisor teeth.
+    c,   The canine tooth.
+    pm^1, The situation of the rudimentary first premolar, which has been
+      lost in the lower, but is present in the upper jaw.
+    pm^2, pm^3, and pm^4, The three fully developed premolar teeth.
+    m^1, m^2, and m^3, The three true molar teeth.]
+
+  The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal, six
+  lumbar, five sacral, and fifteen to eighteen caudal vertebrae There
+  may be nineteen rib-bearing vertebrae, in which case five only will be
+  reckoned as belonging to the lumbar series. The odontoid process of
+  the axis is wide, flat, and hollowed above, as in the ruminants. The
+  bodies of the cervical vertebrae are elongated, strongly keeled, and
+  markedly opisthocoelous, or concave behind and convex in front. The
+  neural laminae are broad, the spines almost obsolete, except in the
+  seventh, and the transverse processes not largely developed. In the
+  trunk vertebrae the opisthocoelous character of the centrum gradually
+  diminishes. The spinous processes of the anterior thoracic region are
+  high and compressed. To these is attached the powerful elastic
+  ligament (_ligamentum nuchae_, or "paxwax") which, passing forwards in
+  the middle line of the neck above the neural arches of the cervical
+  vertebrae--to which it is also connected--is attached to the occiput
+  and supports the weight of the head. The transverse processes of the
+  lumbar vertebrae are long, flattened, and project horizontally
+  outwards or slightly forward from the arch. The metapophyses are
+  moderately developed, and there are no anapophyses. The caudal
+  vertebrae, except those quite at the base, are slender and
+  cylindrical, without processes and without chevron bones beneath. The
+  ribs are eighteen or nineteen in number on each side, flattened, and
+  united to the sternum by short, stout, tolerably well ossified sternal
+  ribs. The sternum consists of six pieces; the anterior or presternum
+  is compressed and projects forwards like the prow of a boat. The
+  segments which follow gradually widen, and the hinder part of the
+  sternum is broad and flat.
+
+  As in all other ungulates, there are no clavicles. The scapula is long
+  and slender, the supra-scapular border being rounded, and slowly and
+  imperfectly ossified. The spine is very slightly developed; rather
+  above the middle its edge is thickened and somewhat turned backwards,
+  but it gradually subsides at the lower extremity without forming any
+  acromial process. The coracoid is a prominent rounded nodule. The
+  humerus is stout and rather short. The ulna is rudimentary, being
+  represented by little more than the olecranon. The shaft gradually
+  tapers below and is firmly welded to the radius. The latter bone is of
+  nearly equal width throughout. The three bones of the first row of the
+  carpus (scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform) are subequal in size. The
+  second row consists of a broad and flat magnum, supporting the great
+  third metacarpal, having to its radial side the trapezoid, and to its
+  ulnar side the unciform, which are both small, and articulate
+  inferiorally with the rudimentary second and fourth metacarpals. The
+  pisiform is large and prominent, flattened and curved; it articulates
+  partly with the cuneiform and partly with the lower end of the radius.
+  The large metacarpal is called in veterinary anatomy "cannon bone";
+  the small lateral metacarpals, which gradually taper towards their
+  lower extremities, and lie in close contact with the large one, are
+  called "splint bones." The single digit consists of a moderate-sized
+  proximal (_os suffraginis_, or large pastern), a short middle (_os
+  coronae_, or small pastern), and a wide, semi-lunar, ungual phalanx
+  (_os pedis_, or coffin bone). There is a pair of large nodular
+  sesamoids behind the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation, and a single
+  large transversely-extended sesamoid behind the joint between the
+  second and third phalanx, called the "navicular bone."
+
+  The carpal joint, corresponding to the wrist of man, is commonly
+  called the "knee" of the horse, the joint between the metacarpal and
+  the first phalanx the "fetlock," that between the first and second
+  phalanges the "pastern," and that between the second and third
+  phalanges the "coffin joint."
+
+  In the hinder limb the femur is marked, as in other perissodactyles,
+  by the presence of a "third trochanter," a flattened process, curving
+  forwards and arising from the outer side of the bone, about one-third
+  of the distance from the upper end. The fibula is reduced to a mere
+  rod-like rudiment of the upper end. The lower part is absent or
+  completely fused with the tibia. The calcaneum has a long and
+  compressed calcaneal process. The astragalus has a large flat
+  articular surface in front for the navicular, and a small one for the
+  cuboid. The navicular and the external cuneiform bones are broad and
+  flat. The cuboid is small, and the internal and middle cuneiform bones
+  are small and united together. The metapodals and phalanges resemble
+  very closely those of the fore limb, but the principal metatarsal is
+  more laterally compressed at its upper end than is the corresponding
+  metacarpal. The joint between the femur and tibia, corresponding to
+  the knee of man, is called the "stifle-joint"; that between the tibia
+  and tarsus, corresponding to the ankle of man, the "hock." The bones
+  and joints of the foot have the same names as in the fore limb. The
+  horse is eminently "digitigrade," standing on the extremity of the
+  single digit of each foot, which is kept habitually in a position
+  approaching to vertical.
+
+  The muscles of the limbs are modified from those of the ordinary
+  mammalian type in accordance with the reduced condition of the bones
+  and the simple requirements of flexion and extension of the joints, no
+  such actions as pronation and supination, or opposition of digits,
+  being possible or needed. The muscles therefore which perform these
+  functions in other quadrupeds are absent or rudimentary.
+
+  Below the carpal and tarsal joints, the fore and hind limbs correspond
+  almost exactly in structure as well as function. On the anterior or
+  extensor surface of the limb a powerful tendon (7 in fig. 2), that of
+  the anterior extensor of the phalanges (corresponding to the _extensor
+  communis digitorum_ of the arm and _extensor longus digitorum_ of the
+  foot of man) passes down over the metacarpal bone and phalanges, to be
+  inserted mainly into the upper edge of the anterior surface of the
+  last phalanx or pedal bone. There is also a much smaller second
+  extensor on the outer side of this in each limb, the lateral extensor
+  of the phalanges. In the fore-leg the tendon of this muscle (which
+  corresponds with the _extensor minimi digiti_ of man) receives a slip
+  from that of the principal extensor, and is inserted into the first
+  phalanx. In the hind-leg (where it is the homologue apparently of the
+  _peroneus brevis_ of man) the tendon becomes blended with that of the
+  large extensor.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Foot of Horse.
+
+    1, Metacarpal bone.
+    2, First phalanx (_os suffraginis_).
+    3, Second phalanx (_os coronae_).
+    4, Third or ungual phalanx (_os pedis_, or coffin bone).
+    5, One of the upper sesamoid bones.
+    6, Lower sesamoid or navicular bone.
+    7, Tendon of anterior extensor of the phalanges.
+    8, Tendon of superficial flexor (_fl. perforatus_).
+    9, Tendon of deep flexor (_fl. perforans_).
+    10, Suspensory ligament of fetlock.
+    11, Inferior or short sesamoid ligament.
+    12, Derma or skin of the foot, covered with hair, and continued into
+    13, The coronary cushion,
+    14, The podophyllous or laminar membrane, and
+    15, The keratogenous membrane of the sole.
+    16, Plantar cushion.
+    17, Hoof.
+    18, Fatty cushion of fetlock.]
+
+  A strong ligamentous band behind the metapodium, arising from near the
+  upper extremity of its posterior surface, divides into two at its
+  lower end, and each division, being first connected with one of the
+  paired upper sesamoid bones, passes by the side of the first phalanx
+  to join the extensor tendon of the phalanges. This is called in
+  veterinary anatomy the "suspensory ligament of the sesamoids," or of
+  the "fetlock" (10 in fig. 2); but its attachments and relations, as
+  well as the occasional presence of muscular fibres in its substance,
+  show that it is the homologue of the interosseous muscles of other
+  mammals, modified in structure and function, to suit the requirements
+  of the horse's foot. Behind or superficial to this are placed the two
+  strong tendons of the flexor muscles, the most superficial, or _flexor
+  perforatus_ (8) dividing to allow the other to pass through, and then
+  inserted into the middle phalanx. The _flexor perforans_ (9) is as
+  usual inserted into the terminal phalange. In the fore-leg these
+  muscles correspond with those similarly named in man. In the hind-leg,
+  the perforated tendon is a continuation of that of the plantaris,
+  passing pulley-wise over the tuberosity of the calcaneum. The
+  perforating tendon is derived from the muscle corresponding with the
+  long flexor of man, and the smaller tendon of the oblique flexor
+  (_tibialis porticus_ of man) is united with it.
+
+  The hoof of the horse corresponds to the nail or claw of other
+  mammals, but is so constructed as to form a complete and solid case to
+  the expanded termination of the toe, giving a firm basis of support
+  formed of a non-sensitive substance, which is continually renewed by
+  the addition of material from within, as its surface wears away by
+  friction. The terminal phalange of the toe is greatly enlarged and
+  modified in form to support this hoof, and the size of the internal
+  framework of the foot is increased by a pair of lateral
+  fibro-cartilaginous masses attached on each side to the hinder edges
+  of the bone, and by a fibro-cellular and fatty plantar cushion in the
+  median part. These structures are all enclosed in the middle
+  subcorneous integument, a continuation of the ordinary skin of the
+  limb, but extremely vascular, and having its superficial extent
+  greatly increased by being developed into papillae or laminae. From
+  this the horny material which constitutes the hoof is exuded. A
+  thickened ring encircling the upper part, called coronary cushion (13)
+  and the sole (15), are covered with numerous thickly-set papillae or
+  villi, and take the greatest share in the formation of the hoof; the
+  intermediate part constituting the front and side of the foot (14),
+  corresponding with the wall of the hoof, is covered with parallel,
+  fine longitudinal laminae, which fit into corresponding depressions in
+  the inner side of the horny hoof.
+
+  The horny hoof is divided into a wall or crust consisting of the front
+  and sides, the flattened or concave sole, and the frog, a triangular
+  median prominence, notched posteriorly, with the apex turned forwards,
+  situated in the hinder part of the sole. It is formed of pavement
+  epithelial cells, mainly grouped in a concentric manner around the
+  vascular papillae of the subcorneous integument, so that a section
+  near the base of the hoof, cut transversely to the long axis of these
+  papillae, shows a number of small circular or oval orifices, with
+  cells arranged concentrically round them. The nearer the surface of
+  the hoof, or farther removed from the seat of growth, the more
+  indistinct the structure becomes.
+
+  Small round or oval plates of horny epithelium called "chestnuts,"
+  callosities growing like the hoof from enlarged papillae of the skin,
+  are found on the inner face of the fore-arm, above the carpal joint in
+  all species of Equidae, and in the horse (_E. caballus_) similar
+  structures occur near the upper extremity of the inner face of the
+  metatarsus. They are evidently rudimentary structures which it is
+  suggested may represent glands (Lydekker, _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_,
+  1903, vol. i.).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Longitudinal and Transverse Section of Upper
+  Incisor of Horse.
+
+    p, Pulp cavity.
+    d, Dentine or ivory.
+    e, Enamel.
+    c, Outer layer of cementum or crusta petrosa.
+    c', Inner layer of cementum, lining a, the pit
+    or cavity of the crown of the tooth.]
+
+  _Dentition._--The dentition of the horse, when all the teeth are in
+  place, is expressed by the formula _i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 4/4 _m._
+  3/3 = 44. The incisors of each jaw are placed in close contact,
+  forming a semicircle. The crowns are broad, somewhat awl-shaped, and
+  of nearly equal size. They have all the great peculiarity, not found
+  in the teeth of any other mammal, and only in the Equidae of
+  comparatively recent geological periods (see also PALAEONTOLOGY), of
+  an involution of the external surface of the tooth (see fig. 3), by
+  which what should properly be the apex is carried deeply into the
+  interior of the crown, forming a pit, the bottom of which becomes
+  partially filled with cement. As the tooth wears, the surface, besides
+  the external enamel layer as in an ordinary simple tooth, shows in
+  addition a second inner ring of the same hard substance surrounding
+  the pit, which adds greatly to the efficiency of the tooth as an organ
+  for biting tough, fibrous substances. This pit, generally filled in
+  the living animal with particles of food, is conspicuous from its dark
+  colour, and constitutes the "mark" by which the age of the horse is
+  judged, as in consequence of its only extending to a certain depth in
+  the crown it becomes obliterated as the latter wears away, and then
+  the tooth assumes the character of that of an ordinary incisor,
+  consisting only of a core of dentine, surrounded by the external
+  enamel layer. It is not quite so deep in the lower as in the upper
+  teeth. The canines are either rudimentary or absent in the female. In
+  the male they are compressed, pointed, and smaller than the incisors,
+  from which they are separated by a slight interval. The teeth of the
+  cheek series are all in contact with each other, but separated from
+  the canines by a considerable toothless space. The anterior premolars
+  are quite rudimentary, sometimes not developed at all, and generally
+  fall by the time the animal attains maturity, so that there are but
+  six functional cheek teeth,--three that have predecessors in the
+  milk-dentition, and hence are considered as premolars, and three
+  molars, but otherwise, except the first and last of the series, not
+  distinguishable in form or structure. These teeth in both upper and
+  lower jaws are extremely long-crowned or hypsodont, successive
+  portions being pushed out as the surface wears away, a process which
+  continues until the animal becomes advanced in age. The enamelled
+  surface is infolded in a complex manner (a modification of that found
+  in other perissodactyles), the folds extending quite to the base of
+  the crown, and the interstices being filled and the surface covered
+  with a considerable mass of cement, which binds together and
+  strengthens the whole tooth. As the teeth wear, the folded enamel,
+  being harder than the other constituents, the dentine and cement,
+  forms projecting ridges on the surface arranged in a definite
+  pattern, which give it great efficiency as a grinding instrument (see
+  fig. 2, in article EQUIDAE). The free surfaces of the upper teeth are
+  quadrate, except the first and last, which are nearly triangular. The
+  lower teeth are much narrower than the upper.
+
+  The milk-dentition consists of i. 3/3, c. 0/0, m. 3/3 = 24,--the
+  canines and first or rudimentary premolars having apparently no
+  predecessors. In form and structure the milk-teeth much resemble the
+  permanent ones, having the same characteristic enamel-foldings. Their
+  eruption commences a few days after birth, and is complete before the
+  end of the first year, the upper teeth usually appearing somewhat
+  earlier than the lower. The first teeth which appear are the first and
+  second milk-molars (about five days), then the central incisor (from
+  seven to ten days); this is followed by the second incisor (at one
+  month), then the third molar, and finally the third incisor. Of the
+  permanent teeth the first molar appears a little after the end of the
+  first year, followed by the second molar before the end of the second
+  year. At about two and a half years the first premolar replaces its
+  predecessor. Between two and a half and three years the first incisor
+  appears. At three years the second and third premolars, and the third
+  molar have appeared, at from three and a half to four years the second
+  incisor, at four to four and a half years the canine, and, finally, at
+  five years, the third incisor, completing the permanent dentition. Up
+  to this period the age of the horse is clearly shown by the condition
+  of dentition, and for some time longer indications can be obtained
+  from the wear of the incisors, though this depends to a certain extent
+  upon the hardness of the food or other circumstances. As a general
+  rule, the depression caused by the infolding of the surface of the
+  incisor (the "mark") is obliterated in the first or central incisor at
+  six years, in the second at seven years, and in the third at eight
+  years. In the upper teeth, as the depressions are deeper, this
+  obliteration does not take place until about two years later. After
+  this period no certain indications can be obtained of the age of the
+  horse from the teeth.
+
+  _Digestive Organs._--The lips are flexible and prehensile; and the
+  membrane that lines them and the cheeks smooth. The palate is long and
+  narrow; its mucous surface has seventeen pairs of not very sharply
+  defined oblique ridges, extending as far back as the last molar tooth,
+  beyond which the _velum palati_ extends for about 3 in., having a soft
+  corrugated surface, and ending posteriorly in an arched border without
+  a uvula. This embraces the base of the epiglottis, and, except while
+  swallowing food, shuts off all communication between the cavity of the
+  mouth and the pharynx, respiration being, under ordinary
+  circumstances, exclusively through the nostrils. Between the mucous
+  membrane and the bone of the hard palate is a dense vascular and
+  nervous plexus. The membrane lining the jaws is soft and corrugated.
+  An elongated raised glandular mass, 3 in. long and 1 in. from above
+  downwards, extending backwards from the root of the tongue along the
+  side of the jaws, with openings on the surface leading into crypts
+  with glandular walls, represents the tonsil. The tongue, corresponding
+  to the form of the mouth, is long and narrow. It consists of a
+  compressed intermolar portion with a flat upper surface, broad behind
+  and becoming narrower in front, and of a depressed anterior part
+  rather shorter than the former, which is narrow behind and widens
+  towards the evenly rounded apex. The dorsal surface generally is soft
+  and smooth. There are two large circumvallate papillae near the base,
+  rather irregular in form, about a quarter of an inch in diameter and
+  half an inch apart. The conical papillae are small and close set,
+  though longer and more filamentous on the intermolar portion. There
+  are no fungiform papillae on the dorsum, but a few inconspicuous ones
+  scattered along the sides of the organ.
+
+  Of the salivary glands the parotid is by far the largest, elongated in
+  the vertical direction, and narrower in the middle than at either end.
+  Its upper extremity embraces the lower surface of the cartilaginous
+  ear-conch; its lower end reaches the level of the inferior margin of
+  the mandible, along the posterior margin of which it is placed. Its
+  duct leaves the inferior anterior angle, at first descends a little,
+  and runs forward under cover of the rounded inferior border of the
+  lower jaw, then curves up along the anterior margin of the masseter
+  muscle, becoming superficial, pierces the buccinator, and enters the
+  mouth by a simple aperture opposite the middle of the crown of the
+  third premolar tooth. It is not quite so thick as a goose-quill when
+  distended, and nearly a foot in length.
+
+  The submaxillary gland is of very similar texture to the last, but
+  much smaller; it is placed deeper, and lies with its main axis
+  horizontal. It is elongated and slender, and flattened from within
+  outwards. Its posterior end rests against the anterior surface of the
+  transverse process of the atlas, from which it extends forwards and
+  downwards, slightly curved, to beneath the ramus of the jaw. The duct
+  which runs along its upper and internal border passes forwards in the
+  usual course, lying in the inner side of the sublingual gland, to open
+  on the outer surface of a distinct papilla, situated on the floor of
+  the mouth, half an inch from the middle line, and midway between the
+  lower incisor teeth and the attachment of the fraenum linguae. The
+  sublingual is represented by a mass of glands lying just beneath the
+  mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth on the side of the tongue,
+  causing a distinct ridge, extending from the fraenum backwards, the
+  numerous ducts opening separately along the summit of the ridge. The
+  buccal glands are arranged in two rows parallel with the molar teeth.
+  The upper ones are the largest, and are continuous anteriorly with the
+  labial glands, the ducts of which open on the mucous membrane of the
+  upper lip.
+
+  The stomach of the horse is simple in its external form, with a
+  largely developed right _cul de sac_, and is a good deal curved on
+  itself, so that the cardiac and pyloric orifices are brought near
+  together. The _antrum pyloricum_ is small and not very distinctly
+  marked. The interior is divided by the character of the lining
+  membrane into two distinct portions, right and left. Over the latter
+  the dense white smooth epithelial lining of the oesophagus is
+  continued, terminating abruptly by a raised crenulated border. Over
+  the right part the mucous membrane has a greyish-red colour and a
+  velvety appearance, and contains numerous peptic glands, which are
+  wanting in the cardiac portion. The oesophageal orifice is small, and
+  guarded by a strong crescentic or horseshoe-like band of muscular
+  fibres, supposed to be the cause of the difficulty of vomiting in the
+  horse. The small intestine is of great length (80 to 90 ft.), its
+  mucous membrane being covered with numerous fine villi. The caecum is
+  of conical form, about 2 ft. long and nearly a foot in diameter; its
+  walls are sacculated, especially near the base, having four
+  longitudinal muscular bands; and its capacity is about twice that of
+  the stomach. It lies with its base near the lower part of the abdomen,
+  and its apex directed towards the thorax. The colon is about one-third
+  the length of the small intestine, and very capacious in the greater
+  part of its course. As usual it may be divided into an ascending,
+  transverse, and descending portion; but the middle or transverse
+  portion is folded into a great loop, which descends as low as the
+  pubis; so that the colon forms altogether four folds, generally
+  parallel to the long axis of the body. The descending colon is much
+  narrower than the rest, and not sacculated, and, being considerably
+  longer than the distance it has to traverse, is thrown into numerous
+  folds.
+
+  The liver is tolerably symmetrical in general arrangement, being
+  divided nearly equally into segments by a well-marked umbilical
+  fissure. Each segment is again divided by lateral fissures, which do
+  not extend quite to the posterior border of the organ; of the central
+  lobes thus cut off, the right is rather the larger, and has two
+  fissures in its free border dividing it into lobules. The extent of
+  these varies, however, in different individuals. The two lateral lobes
+  are subtriangular in form. The Spigelian lobe is represented by a flat
+  surface between the postal fissure and the posterior border, not
+  distinctly marked off from the left lateral by a fissure of the ductus
+  venosus, as this vessel is buried deep in the hepatic substance, but
+  the caudate lobe is distinct and tongue-shaped, its free apex reaching
+  nearly to the border of the right lateral lobe. There is no
+  gall-bladder, and the biliary duct enters the duodenum about 6 in.
+  from the pylorus. The pancreas has two lobes or branches, a long one
+  passing to the left and reaching the spleen, and a shorter right lobe.
+  The principal duct enters the duedenum with the bile-duct, and there
+  is often a second small duct opening separately.
+
+  _Circulatory and Respiratory Organs._--The heart has the form of a
+  rather elongated and pointed cone. There is one anterior vena cava,
+  formed by the union of the two jugular and two axillary veins. The
+  aorta gives off a large branch (the anterior aorta) very near its
+  origin, from which arise--first, the left axillary, and afterwards the
+  right axillary and the two carotid arteries.
+
+  Under ordinary circumstances the horse breathes entirely by the nasal
+  passages, the communication between the larynx and the mouth being
+  closed by the velum palati. The nostrils are placed laterally, near
+  the termination of the muzzle, and are large and dilatable, being
+  bordered by cartilages upon which several muscles act. Immediately
+  within the opening of the nostril, the respiratory canal sends off on
+  its upper and outer side a blind pouch ("false nostril") of conical
+  form, and curved, 2 to 3 in. in depth, lying in the notch formed
+  between the nasal and premaxillary bones. It is lined by mucous
+  membrane continuous with that of the nasal passage; its use is not
+  apparent. It is longer in the ass than in the horse. Here may be
+  mentioned the guttural pouches, large air-sacs from the Eustachian
+  tubes, and lying behind the upper part of the pharynx, the function of
+  which is also not understood. The larynx has the lateral sacculi well
+  developed, though entirely concealed within the alae of the thyroid
+  cartilage. The trachea divides into two bronchi.
+
+  _Nervous System._--The brain differs little, except in details of
+  arrangement of convolutions, from that of other ungulates. The
+  hemispheres are rather elongated and subcylindrical, the olfactory
+  lobes are large and project freely in front of the hemispheres, and
+  the greater part of the cerebellum is uncovered. The eye is provided
+  with a nictitating membrane or third eyelid, at the base of which open
+  the ducts of the Harderian gland.
+
+  _Reproductive System._--The testes are situated in a distinct sessile
+  or slightly pedunculated scrotum, into which they descend from the
+  sixth to the tenth month after birth. The accessory generative glands
+  are the two vesiculae seminales, with the median third vesicle, or
+  _uterus masculinus_, lying between them, the single bilobed prostate,
+  and a pair of globular Cowper's glands. The penis is very large,
+  cylindrical, with a truncated, expanded, flattened termination. When
+  in a state of repose it is retracted, by a muscle arising from the
+  sacrum, within the prepuce, a cutaneous fold attached below the
+  symphysis pubis.
+
+  The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina is often partially divided by a
+  membraneous septum or hymen. The teats are two, inguinally placed. The
+  surface of the chorion is covered evenly with minute villi,
+  constituting a diffuse non-deciduate placenta. The period of gestation
+  is eleven months.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R. I. Pocock, "The Species and Subspecies of Zebras,"
+  _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 6, vol. xx., 1897, and "A New Arrangement
+  of the Existing Species of Equidae," Op. cit. ser. 7, vol. x., 1902;
+  R. Lydekker, "Notes on the specimens of Wild Asses in English
+  Collections," _Novitates Zoologicae_, vol. xi., 1904; B. Salensky, "On
+  Equus przewalskii," _Mem. Acad. St Petersburg_, 1902; M. S. Arloing,
+  "Organisation du pied chez le cheval," _Ann. Sci. Nat._, 1867, viii.
+  55-81; H. Burmeister, _Los caballos fosiles de la Pampa Argentina_
+  (Buenos Aires, 1875); Chauveau and Arloing, _Traite d'anatomie
+  comparee des animaux domestiques_ (Paris, 1871), and English edition
+  by G. Fleming (1873); A. Ecker, "Das Europaische Wildpferd und dessen
+  Beziehungen zum domesticirten Pferd," _Globus_, Bd. xxxiv. (Brunswick,
+  1878); Major Forsyth, "Beitrage zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde
+  besonders Italiens," _Abh. Schw. Pal. Ges._ iv. 1-16, pt. iv.; George,
+  "Etudes zool. sur les Hemiones et quelques autres especes chevalines,"
+  _Ann. Sci. Nat._, 1869, xii. 5; E. F. Gurlt, _Anatomische Abbildungen
+  der Haussaugethiere_ (1824), and _Hand. der vergleich. Anat. der
+  Haussaugethiere_ (2 vols., 1822); Huet, "Croisement des diverses
+  especes du genre cheval," _Nouv. Archives du Museum_, 2nd ser., tom.
+  ii. p. 46, 1879; Leisering, _Atlas der Anatomie des Pferdes_ (Leipzig,
+  1861); O. C. Marsh, "Notice of New Equine Mammals from the Tertiary
+  Formation," _Am. Journ. of Science and Arts_, vol. vii., March 1874;
+  _Id._, "Fossil Horses in America," _Amer. Naturalist_, vol. viii., May
+  1874; _Id._, "Polydactyle Horses," _Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts_, vol.
+  xvii., June 1879; Franz Muller, _Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Pferdes_
+  (Vienna, 1853); R. Owen, "Equine Remains in Cavern of Bruniquel,"
+  _Phil. Trans._ vol. clix., 1870, p. 535; W. Percivall, _The Anatomy of
+  the Horse_ (1832); G. Stubbs, _Anatomy of the Horse_ (1766); W. H.
+  Flower, _The Horse_ (London, 1891); Ridgeway, _Origin of the
+  Thoroughbred Horse_ (1905).     (W. H. F; R. L.*)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+From the evidence of philology it appears that the horse was already
+known to the Aryans before the period of their dispersion.[1]
+
+The first mention of the British horse occurs in the well-known passages
+in Caesar (_B.G._ iv. 24. 33, v. 15. 16; cf. Pomp. Mela iii. 6), in
+which he mentions the native "essedarii" and the skill with which they
+handled their war chariots. We are left quite in the dark as to the
+character of the animal thus employed; but there would appear to be much
+probability in the surmise of W. Youatt, who conjectures the horse to
+have been, "then as ever, the creature of the country in which he lived.
+With short fare, and exposed to the rigour of the seasons, he was
+probably the little hardy thing we yet see him; but in the marshes of
+the Nen and the Witham, and on the borders of the Tees and the Clyde,
+there would be as much proportionate development of frame and strength
+as we find at the present day." After the occupation of the country by
+the Romans, it appears that the horses of their cavalry were crossed
+with the native mares, and thus there was infused into the breed new
+blood, consisting probably of strains from every quarter from which
+Roman remounts were procured. As to the effect of this cross we are not,
+however, in a position to judge. We are also quite uncertain as to the
+extent to which the Jutes and Saxons may in their turn have again
+introduced a new breed of horses into England; and even to the close of
+the Anglo-Saxon period of English history allusions to the horse are
+still very infrequent. The _horsthegn_ we know, however, was from an
+early period a high court official; and from such a law as that of
+Athelstan prohibiting the exportation of horses except as presents, it
+may be inferred that the English breed was not only much valued at home
+but also in great request abroad.[2]
+
+The period of the Norman Conquest marks an important stage in the
+history of the British horse. William the Conqueror's own horse was of
+the Spanish breed, and others of the same kind were introduced by the
+barons on their estates. But the Norman horses included many varieties,
+and there is no doubt that to the Conquest the inhabitants of Britain
+were indebted for a decided improvement in the native horse, as well as
+for the introduction of several varieties previously unknown. According
+to Giraldus Cambrensis, Roger de Bellesme, a follower of William I.,
+afterwards created earl of Shrewsbury, imported some stallions from
+Spain into England; their produce was celebrated by Drayton the poet. It
+is curious to notice that agriculture seems to be the last use to which
+the horse has been put. The earliest suggestion that horses were used in
+agriculture is derived from a piece of the Bayeux tapestry, where a
+horse is represented as drawing a harrow. This, however, must have been
+an exceptional case, for we know that oxen were used until a
+comparatively late time, and that in Wales a law existed forbidding
+horses to be used for ploughing.
+
+In 1121 two Eastern horses are said to have been imported,--one of them
+remaining in England, and the other being sent as a present by King
+Alexander I. to the church of St Andrews, in Scotland. It has been
+alleged that these horses were Barbs from Morocco, but a still more
+likely theory is that they existed only in name, and never reached
+either England or Scotland. The crusades were probably the means of
+introducing fresh strains of blood into England, and of giving
+opportunity for fresh crossings. The Spanish jennet was brought over
+about 1182. King John gave great encouragement to horse-breeding: one of
+his earliest efforts was to import a hundred Flemish stallions, and,
+having thus paved the way for improving the breed of agricultural
+horses, he set about acquiring a valuable stud for his own use.
+
+Edward III. was likewise an admirer of the horse; he procured fifty
+Spanish horses, probably jennets. At this time there was evidently a
+tendency to breed a somewhat lighter and speedier horse; but, while the
+introduction of a more active animal would soon have led to the
+displacement of the ponderous but powerful cavalry horse then in use,
+the substituted variety would have been unable to carry the weight of
+armour with which horse and rider were alike protected; and so in the
+end the old breed was kept up for a time. With the object of preserving
+to England whatever advantages might accrue from her care and skill in
+breeding an improved stamp of horses, Edward III. forbade their
+exportation; they consequently improved so rapidly in value that Richard
+II. compelled dealers to limit their prices to a fixed maximum. In the
+ninth year of his reign, Edward received from the king of Navarre a
+present of two running horses, supposed to have been valuable. The wars
+of 1346 checked the improvement of horses, and undid much of what had
+been previously accomplished, for we read that the cavalry taken into
+France by Edward III. were but indifferently mounted, and that in
+consequence he had to purchase large numbers of foreign horses from
+Hainault and elsewhere for remounts. The reign of Richard III. does not
+seem to have been remarkable for the furtherance of horse-breeding; but
+it was then that post-horses and stages were introduced.
+
+Our information on the whole subject is but scanty down to the reign of
+Henry VII., who continued the enactment against the exportation of
+stallions, but relaxed it in the case of mares above two years old. His
+object was to retain the best horses in the country, and to keep the
+price of them down by limiting the demand and encouraging the supply. In
+his reign gelding is believed to have had its origin, on account of
+numerous herds of horses belonging to different proprietors grazing
+together, especially in time of harvest. Henry VIII. was particularly
+careful that horse-breeding should be conducted on right principles, and
+his enactments, if somewhat arbitrary, were singularly to the point. In
+the thirty-second year of this reign, the "bill for the breed of horses"
+was passed, the preamble of which runs thus:--"Forasmuch as the
+generation and breed of good and strong horses within this realm
+extendeth not only to a great help and defence of the same, but also is
+a great commodity and profit to the inhabitants thereof, which is now
+much decayed and diminished, by reason that, in forests, chases, moors
+and waste grounds within this realm, little stoned horses and nags of
+small stature and of little value be not only suffered to pasture
+thereupon, but also to cover mares feeding there, whereof cometh in
+manner no profit or commodity." Section 2 of the act provides that no
+entire horse being above the age of two years, and not being of the
+height of 15 "handfulls," shall be put to graze on any common or waste
+land in certain counties; any one was to be at liberty to seize a horse
+of unlawful height, and those whose duty it was to measure horses, but
+who refused to do so, were to be fined 40s. By section 6 all forests,
+chases, commons, &c., were to be "driven" within fifteen days of
+Michaelmas day, and all horses, mares and colts not giving promise of
+growing into serviceable animals, or of producing them, were to be
+killed. The aim of the act was to prevent breeding from animals not
+calculated to produce the class of horse suited to the needs of the
+country. By another act (27 Henry VIII. chapter 6), after stating that
+the "breed of good strong horses" was likely to diminish, it was ordered
+that the owners of all parks and enclosed grounds of the extent of one
+mile should keep two mares 13 hands high for breeding purposes, or, if
+the extent of the ground was 4 m., four mares. The statute was not to
+extend to the counties of Westmorland, Cumberland, Northumberland or the
+bishopric of Durham. Henry took great pains to improve the royal stud:
+according to Sir Thomas Chaloner--a writer in the reign of Elizabeth--he
+imported horses from Turkey, Naples and Spain.
+
+Queen Elizabeth is reputed to have been an accomplished horsewoman, and
+to have indulged in riding late in life. In the first year of her reign
+she revived an act passed by Henry VIII. making it felony "to sell,
+exchange or deliver within Scotland, or to the use of any Scottishman,
+any horse"; this, however, was very naturally repealed by James I.
+Carriages were soon after introduced, and the use of them speedily
+became so fashionable that a bill was brought in "to restrain the
+excessive and superfluous use of coaches." Prior to the introduction of
+carriages horseback was the means of locomotion, and Queen Elizabeth
+rode in state to St Paul's on a pillion; but even after carriages were
+used, horseback was held to be more dignified, for James I. and his
+judges rode on horseback to Westminster Hall. One advantage of the
+introduction of carriages was that it created a demand for a lighter and
+quicker sort of horse, instead of the ponderous animal which, despite
+all attempts to banish him, was still the horse of England--the age of
+chivalry having been the first epoch of the British horse.
+
+Gunpowder, too, was invented; and now that the weight of the cavalry
+soldier was diminished by the substitution of lighter armour, a quicker
+and better bred horse was thought desirable for military service. The
+introduction of carriages and the invention of gunpowder thus opened out
+a new industry in breeding; and a decided change was gradually creeping
+on by the time that James I. came to the throne (1603), which commences
+the second epoch. James was a thorough sportsman, and his taste for
+racing, in which he freely indulged, caused him to think but little of
+the speed of even the best English horses. With the laudable motive,
+therefore, of effecting improvement in horses, he gave the then large
+sum of 500 guineas for an Arab stallion which had been procured from
+Constantinople by a Mr Markham, since known as the "Markham Arabian."
+This is the first authentic account we have of the importation of Arab
+blood, and the _Stud-Book_ says he was the first of that breed ever seen
+in England. The people having to do with horses at that time were as
+conservative in their notions as most of the grooms are now, and the
+"Markham Arabian" was not at all approved of. The duke of Newcastle, in
+his treatise on horsemanship, said that he had seen the above Arabian,
+and described him as a small bay horse and not of very excellent shape.
+In this instance, however, prejudice (and it is difficult to believe
+that it was anything else) was right, for King James's first venture
+does not appear to have been a success either as a race-horse or as a
+sire, and thus Arabian blood was brought into disrepute. The king,
+however, resolved to give Eastern blood another trial, and bought a
+horse known as Place's White Turk from a Mr Place, who subsequently held
+some office in connexion with the stable under Cromwell. Charles I.
+followed in the footsteps of James, and lent such patronage to the
+breeding of a better kind of horse that a memorial was presented to him,
+asking that some measures might be taken to prevent the old stamp of
+horse "fit for the defence of the country" from dying out.
+
+We now come to a very important period in the history of the British
+horse, for Charles II. warmly espoused the introduction of Eastern blood
+into England. He sent his master of the horse abroad to purchase a
+number of foreign horses and mares for breeding, and the mares brought
+over by him (as also many of their produce) were called "royal mares";
+they form a conspicuous feature in the annals of breeding. The
+_Stud-Book_ shows of what breed the royal mares really were: one of
+them, the dam of Dodsworth (who, though foaled in England, was a natural
+Barb), was a Barb mare; she was sold by the stud-master, after Charles
+II.'s death, for forty guineas, at twenty years old, when in foal by the
+Helmsley Turk.
+
+James II. was a good horseman, and had circumstances been more
+propitious he might have left his mark in the sporting annals of the
+country. In his reign, according to the _Stud-Book_, the Stradling or
+Lister Turk was brought into England by the duke of Berwick from the
+siege of Buda.
+
+The reign of William III. is noteworthy as the era in which, among other
+importations, there appeared the first of three Eastern horses to which
+the modern thoroughbred race-horse traces back as the founders of his
+lineage. This was the Byerly Turk, of whom nothing more is known than
+that--to use the words of the first volume of the _Stud-Book_--he was
+Captain Byerly's charger in Ireland in King William's wars. The second
+of the three horses above alluded to was the Darley Arabian, who was a
+genuine Arab, and was imported from Aleppo by a brother of Mr Darley of
+Aldby Park, Yorkshire, about the end of the reign of William III. or the
+beginning of that of Anne. The third horse of the famous trio, the
+Godolphin Arabian or Barb, brought to England about five-and-twenty
+years after the Darley Arabian, will be more particularly referred to
+further on. All the horses now on the turf or at the stud trace their
+ancestry in the direct male line to one or other of these three--the
+Byerly Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the Godolphin Arabian or Barb. In
+the female line their pedigrees can be traced to other sources, but for
+all practical purposes it suffices to regard one or other of these three
+animals as the _ultima Thule_ of racing pedigree. Of course there is a
+large interfusion of the blood of each of the trio through the dams of
+horses of the present day; indeed, it is impossible to find an English
+race-horse which does not combine the blood of all three.
+
+_The Race-horse._--The third and last epoch of the British horse, viz.
+that of the thoroughbred racer, may be taken to date from the beginning
+of the 18th century. By thoroughbred is meant a horse or mare whose
+pedigree is registered in the _Stud-Book_ kept by Messrs Weatherby, the
+official agents of the Jockey Club--originally termed the keepers of the
+match-book--as well as publishers of the _Racing Calendar_. The first
+attempt to evolve order out of the chaos which had long reigned supreme
+was made in 1791, for we find in the preface of the first volume of the
+Stud-Book, published in 1808, that "with a view to correct the then
+increasing evil of false and inaccurate pedigrees, the author was in the
+year 1791 prevailed upon to publish an _Introduction to a General
+Stud-Book_, consisting of a small collection of pedigrees which he had
+extracted from racing calendars and sale papers and arranged on a new
+plan." It will be seen that the compiler of the volume on which so much
+depends had to go back fully a century, with little else to guide him
+but odds and ends in the way of publications and tradition. Mistakes
+under such circumstances are pardonable. The _Stud-Book_ then (vol. i.),
+which is the oldest authority we have, contains the names and in most
+cases the pedigrees, obscure though they may be, of a very large number
+of horses and mares of note from the earliest accounts, but with two
+exceptions no dates prior to the 18th century are specified in it. These
+exceptions are the Byerly Turk, who was "Captain Byerly's charger in
+Ireland in King William's wars (1689, &c.)," and a horse called
+Counsellor, bred by Mr Egerton in 1694, by Lord D'Arcy's Counsellor by
+Lord Lonsdale's Counsellor by the Shaftesbury Turk out of sister to
+Spanker--all the dams in Counsellor's pedigree tracing back to Eastern
+mares. There is not the least doubt that many of the animals named in
+the _Stud-Book_ were foaled much earlier than the above dates, but we
+have no particulars as to time; and after all it is not of much
+consequence.
+
+The _Stud-Book_ goes on to say of the Byerly Turk that he did not cover
+many bred mares, but was the sire of the duke of Devonshire's Basto,
+Halloway's Jigg, and others. Jigg, or Jig, is a very important factor,
+as will be seen hereafter. The _Stud-Book_, although silent as to the
+date of his birth, says he was a common country stallion in Lincolnshire
+until Partner was six years old--and we know from the same authority
+that Partner was foaled in 1718; we may therefore conclude that Jigg was
+a later foal than Basto, who, according to Whyte's _History of the
+Turf_, was a brown horse foaled in 1703.
+
+The reign of Queen Anne, however (1702-1714), is that which will ever be
+inseparably connected with the thoroughbred race-horse on account of the
+fame during that period of the Darley Arabian, a bay stallion, from whom
+our very best horses are descended. According to the _Stud-Book_,
+"Darley's Arabian was brought over by a brother of Mr Darley of
+Yorkshire, who, being an agent in merchandise abroad, became member of a
+hunting club, by which means he acquired interest to procure this
+horse." The _Stud-Book_ is silent, and other authorities differ, as to
+the date of the importation of this celebrated Arab, some saying he came
+over in the year 1700, others that he arrived somewhat later; but we
+know from the _Stud-Book_ that Manica (foaled in 1707), Aleppo (1711),
+Almanzor (1713), and Flying Childers (1715) were got by him, as also was
+Bartlett's Childers, a younger brother of Flying Childers. It is
+generally believed that he was imported in Anne's reign, but the exact
+date is immaterial, for, assuming that he was brought over as early as
+1700 from Aleppo, he could scarcely have had a foal living before 1701,
+the first year of the 18th century. The Darley Arabian did much to
+remove the prejudice against Eastern blood which had been instilled into
+the public mind by the duke of Newcastle's denunciation of the Markham
+Arabian. Prince George of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne, was himself a
+large horse-owner; and it was in a great measure owing to his
+intervention that so many valuable stallions were imported during her
+reign.
+
+At this period we find, among a mass of horses and mares in the
+_Stud-Book_ without any dates against their names, many animals of note
+with the earliest chronology extant, from Grey Ramsden (1704) and Bay
+Bolton (1705) down to a mare who exercised a most important influence on
+the English blood-horse. This was Roxana (1718) by the Bald Galloway,
+her dam sister to Chanter by the Akaster Turk, from a daughter of
+Leedes's Arabian and a mare by Spanker. Roxana threw in 1732 the bay
+colt Lath by the Godolphin Arabian, the sorrel colt Roundhead by
+Childers in 1733, and the bay colt Cade by the Godolphin Arabian in
+1734, in which year she died within a fortnight after foaling, the
+produce--Cade--being reared on cow's milk. The Godolphin Barb or
+Arabian, as he was commonly called, was a brown bay about 15 hands in
+stature, with an unnaturally high crest, and with some white on his off
+hind heel. He is said to have been imported into England from France by
+Mr Coke, where, as the editor of the _Stud-Book_ was informed by a
+French gentlemen, he was so little thought of that he had actually drawn
+a cart in the streets of Paris. Mr Coke gave him to a Mr. Williams, who
+in his turn presented him to the earl of Godolphin. Although called an
+Arabian, there is little doubt he was a Barb pure and simple. In 1731,
+being then the property of Mr. Coke, he was teazer to Hobgoblin, and on
+the latter refusing his services to Roxana, the mare was put to the
+Godolphin, and the produce was Lath (1732), the first of his get, and
+the most celebrated race-horse of his day after Flying Childers. He was
+also the sire of Cade, own brother to Lath, and of Regulus the maternal
+grandsire of Eclipse. He died at Gogmagog in Cambridgeshire, in the
+possession of Lord Godolphin, in 1753, being then, as is supposed, in
+his twenty-ninth year. He is believed to have been foaled in Barbary
+about 1724, and to have been imported during the reign of George II.
+
+In regard to the mares generally, we have a record of the royal mares
+already alluded to, and likewise of three Turk mares brought over from
+the siege of Vienna in 1684, as well as of other importations; but it is
+unquestionable that there was a very large number of native mares in
+England, improved probably from time to time by racing, however much
+they may have been crossed at various periods with foreign horses, and
+that from this original stock were to some extent derived the size and
+stride which characterized the English race-horse, while his powers of
+endurance and elegant shape were no doubt inherited from the Eastern
+horses, most of which were of a low stature, 14 hands or thereabouts. It
+is only necessary to trace carefully back the pedigree of most of the
+famous horses of early times to discover faults on the side of the
+dam--that is to say, the expression "dam's pedigree unknown," which
+evidently means of original or native blood. Whatever therefore may be
+owing to Eastern blood, of which from the middle of the 17th to the
+beginning of the 18th century a complete wave swept over the British
+Isles, some credit is unquestionably due to the native mares (which
+Blaine says were mostly Cleveland bays) upon which the Arabian, Barb, or
+Turk blood was grafted, and which laid the foundation of the modern
+thoroughbred. Other nations may have furnished the blood, but England
+has made the race-horse.
+
+Without prosecuting this subject further, it may be enough here to
+follow out the lines of the Darley Arabian, the Byerly Turk, and the
+Godolphin Arabian or Barb, the main ancestors of the British
+thoroughbred of the 18th and 19th centuries, through several famous
+race-horses, each and all brilliant winners,--Flying Childers, Eclipse,
+Herod and Matchem,--to whom it is considered sufficient to look as the
+great progenitors of the race-horse of to-day.
+
+  1. The Darley Arabian's line is represented in a twofold
+  degree--first, through his son Flying Childers, his grandsons Blaze
+  and Snip, and his great-grandson Snap, and, secondly, through his
+  other son Bartlett's Childers and his great-great-grandson Eclipse.
+  Flying or Devonshire Childers, so called to distinguish him from other
+  horses of the same name, was a bay horse of entirely Eastern blood,
+  with a blaze in his face and four white feet, foaled in 1715. He was
+  bred by Mr Leonard Childers of Carr House near Doncaster, and was
+  purchased when young by the duke of Devonshire. He was got by the
+  Darley Arabian from Betty Leedes, by Careless from sister to Leedes,
+  by Leedes's Arabian from a mare by Spanker out of a Barb mare, who was
+  Spanker's own mother. Spanker himself was by D'Arcy's Yellow Turk from
+  a daughter of the Morocco Barb and Old Bald Peg, by an Arab horse from
+  a Barb mare. Careless was by Spanker from a Barb mare, so that
+  Childers's dam was closely in-bred to Spanker. Flying Childers--the
+  wonder of his time--was never beaten, and died in the duke of
+  Devonshire's stud in 1741, aged twenty-six years. He was the sire of,
+  among other horses, Blaze (1733) and Snip (1736). Snip too had a
+  celebrated son called Snap (1750), and it is chiefly in the female
+  line through the mares by these horses, of which there are fully
+  thirty in the _Stud-Book_, that the blood of Flying Childers is handed
+  down to us.
+
+  The other representative line of the Darley Arabian is through
+  Bartlett's Childers, also bred by Mr Leonard Childers, and sold to Mr
+  Bartlett of Masham, in Yorkshire. He was for several years called
+  Young Childers,--it being generally supposed that he was a younger
+  brother of his Flying namesake, but his date of birth is not on
+  record,--and subsequently Bartlett's Childers. This horse, who was
+  never trained, was the sire of Squirt (1732), whose son Marske (1750)
+  begat Eclipse and Young Marske (1762), sire of Shuttle (1793). This at
+  least is the generally accepted theory, although Eclipse's dam is said
+  to have been covered by Shakespeare as well as by Marske. Shakespeare
+  was the son of Hobgoblin by Aleppo, and consequently the male line of
+  the Darley Arabian would come through these horses instead of through
+  Bartlett's Childers, Squirt, and Marske; the _Stud-Book_, however,
+  says that Marske was the sire of Eclipse. This last-named celebrated
+  horse--perhaps the most celebrated in the annals of the turf--was
+  foaled on the 1st of April 1764, the day on which a remarkable eclipse
+  of the sun occurred, and he was named after it. He was bred by the
+  duke of Cumberland, after whose decease he was purchased by a Mr
+  Wildman, and subsequently sold to Mr D. O'Kelly, with whom he will
+  ever be identified. His dam Spiletta was by Regulus, son of the
+  Godolphin Barb, from Mother Western, by a son of Snake from a mare by
+  Old Montague out of a mare by Hautboy, from a daughter of Brimmer and
+  a mare whose pedigree was unknown. In Eclipse's pedigree there are
+  upwards of a dozen mares whose pedigrees are not known, but who are
+  supposed to be of native blood. Eclipse was a chestnut horse with a
+  white blaze down his face; his off hind leg was white from the hock
+  downwards, and he had black spots upon his rump--this peculiarity
+  coming down to the present day in direct male descent. His racing
+  career commenced at five years of age, viz. on the 3rd May 1769, at
+  Epsom, and terminated on the 4th October 1770, at Newmarket. He ran or
+  walked over for eighteen races, and was never beaten. It was in his
+  first race that Mr O'Kelly took the odds to a large amount before the
+  start for the second heat, that he would place the horses. When called
+  upon to declare, he uttered the exclamation, which the event
+  justified, "Eclipse first, and the rest nowhere."
+
+  Eclipse commenced his stud career in 1771, and had an enormous number
+  of foals, of which four only in the direct male line have come down to
+  us, viz. Potoooooooo, or, as he is commonly called, Pot-8-os (1773),
+  his most celebrated son, King Fergus (1775), Joe Andrews (1778), and
+  Mercury (1778), though several others are represented in the female
+  line. Pot-8-os was the sire of Waxy (1790) out of Maria (1777) by
+  Herod out of Lisette (1772) by Snap. Waxy, who has been not inaptly
+  termed the ace of trumps in the _Stud-Book_, begat Whalebone (1807),
+  Web (1808), Woful (1809), Wire (1811), Whisker (1812), and Waxy Pope
+  (1806), all but the last being out of Penelope (1798) by Trumpator
+  (1782) from Prunella (1788) by Highflyer out of Promise by Snap, while
+  Waxy Pope was out of Prunella, dam of Parasol (1800) by Pot-8-os.
+  Trumpator was a son of Conductor, who was by Matchem out of a mare by
+  Snap.
+
+  Whalebone's best sons were Camel (1822) and Sir Hercules (1826). Camel
+  was the sire of Defence (1824) and Touchstone (1831), while Sir
+  Hercules was the sire of Birdcatcher (1833) and Faugh-a-Ballagh
+  (1841), own brothers, and of Gemma di Vergy (1854). Touchstone was the
+  sire of Newminster (1848), who begat Lord Clifden, Adventurer, and the
+  Hermit, as well as of Orlando (1841), sire of Teddington (1848).
+  Whalebone's blood also descends through Waverley (1817) and his son
+  the Saddler (1828), while Whisker is represented by the Colonel (1825)
+  and by Economist (1825) and his son Harkaway (1834), sire of King Tom
+  (1851). Birdcatcher begat, besides Saunterer (1854), the Baron (1842),
+  sire of Stockwell (1849) and of Rataplan (1850). Stockwell, who was a
+  chestnut with black spots, was the sire of Blair Athol (1861), a
+  chestnut, and also of Doncaster (1870), another chestnut, but with the
+  characteristic black spots of his grandsire; and Doncaster was the
+  sire of the chestnut Bend Or (1877).
+
+  To turn to Eclipse's other sons. King Fergus (1775) was the sire of
+  Beningbrough (1791), whose son was Orville (1799), whence comes some
+  of the stoutest blood on the turf, including Emilius (1820) and his
+  son Priam (1827), Plenipotentiary (1831), Muley (1810), Chesterfield
+  (1834), and the Hero (1843). Joe Andrews (1778) was the sire of Dick
+  Andrews (1797), and from him descend Tramp (1810), Lottery (1820),
+  Liverpool (1828), Sheet Anchor (1832), Lanercost (1835), Weatherbit
+  (1842), Beadsman (1855), and Blue Gown (1865). Mercury was sire of
+  Gohanna (1790), who was foaled in the same year as Waxy, and the two,
+  who were both grandsons of Eclipse and both out of Herod mares, had
+  several contests, Waxy generally getting the better of his cousin.
+  Gohanna's descendants come down through Golumpus (1802), Catton
+  (1809), Mulatto (1823), Royal Oak (1823), and Slane (1833).
+
+  2. The Byerly Turk's line is represented by Herod, the Turk being the
+  sire of Jigg, who was the sire of Partner (1718), whose son Tartar
+  (1743) begat King Herod, or Herod as he was commonly called, foaled in
+  1758. Herod's dam was Cypron (1750) by Blaze (1733), son of Flying
+  Childers. Cypron's dam was Selima by Bethel's Arabian from a mare by
+  Graham's Champion from a daughter of the Darley Arabian and a mare who
+  claims Merlin for her sire, but whose mother's pedigree is unknown. In
+  Herod's pedigree there are fully a dozen dams whose pedigree is
+  unknown. Herod was a bay horse about 15 hands 3 inches high, possessed
+  both of substance and length,--those grand requisites in a
+  race-horse,--combined with uncommon power and stamina or lasting
+  qualities. He was bred by William, duke of Cumberland, uncle of King
+  George III. He commenced his racing career in October 1763, when he
+  was five years old, and ended it on the 16th of May 1767. He ran ten
+  times, winning six and losing four races. He died in 1780, and among
+  other progeny left two famous sons, Woodpecker (1773), whose dam was
+  Miss Ramsden (1760) by Cade, son of the Godolphin Barb, but descended
+  also on the dam's side from the Darley Arabian and the Byerly Turk,
+  and Highflyer (1774), whose dam was Rachel (1763) by Blank, son of the
+  Godolphin Barb from a daughter of Regulus, also son of the Godolphin.
+  These two horses have transmitted Herod's qualities down to the
+  present day in the direct male line, although in the female line he is
+  represented through some of his other sons and his daughters as well.
+  Woodpecker was the sire of Buzzard (1787), who in his turn became the
+  father of three celebrated sons, Castrel (1801), Selim (1802), and
+  Rubens (1803), all three chestnuts, and all out of an Alexander mare
+  (1790), who thereby became famous. This mare was by Eclipse's son
+  Alexander (1782) out of a mare by Highflyer (son of Herod) out of a
+  daughter of Alfred, by Matchem out of a daughter of Snap. Bustard
+  (1813), whose dam was a daughter of Shuttle, and his son Heron (1833),
+  Sultan (1816) and his sons Glencoe (1831) and Bay Middleton (1833) and
+  Middleton's sons Cowl (1842) and the Flying Dutchman (1846), Pantaloon
+  (1824) and his son Windhound (1847), Langar (1817) and his son Epirus
+  (1834) and grandson Pyrrhus the First (1843), are representatives of
+  Castrel and Selim.
+
+  Highflyer is represented through his greatly esteemed son Sir Peter
+  Teazle, commonly called Sir Peter (1784), whose dam was Papillon by
+  Snap. Sir Peter had five sons at the stud, Walton (1790), Stamford
+  (1794), and Sir Paul (1802) being the chief. Paulowitz (1813), Cain
+  (1822), Ion (1835), Wild Dayrell (1852), and his son Buccaneer (1857)
+  bring down Sir Paul's blood; whilst Walton is represented through
+  Phantom (1806), Partisan (1811) and his sons Glaucus (1829) and
+  Venison (1833) and Gladiator (1833), Venison's sons Alarm (1842) and
+  Kingston (1849), Gladiator's son Sweetmeat (1842), Sweetmeat's sons
+  Macaroni (1860) and Parmesan (1857), and Parmesan's sons Favonius
+  (1868) and Cremorne (1869). It may be added that in the first volume
+  of the _Stud-Book_ there are nearly a hundred Herod and Highflyer
+  mares registered.
+
+  3. The Godolphin Barb is represented by Matchem, as the former was the
+  sire of Cade (1734), and Cade begat Matchem, who was foaled in 1748.
+  He was thus ten years the senior of Herod, representing the Byerly
+  Turk, and sixteen years before Eclipse, though long subsequent to
+  Flying Childers, who represent the Darley Arabian. Matchem was a brown
+  bay horse with some white on his off hind heel, about 15 hands high,
+  bred by Sir John Holme of Carlisle, and sold to Mr W. Fenwick of
+  Bywell, Northumberland. His dam was sister to Miss Partner (1735) by
+  Partner out of Brown Farewell by Makeless (son of the Oglethorpe
+  Arabian) from a daughter of Brimmer out of Trumpet's dam, by Place's
+  White Turk from a daughter of the Barb Dodsworth and a Layton Barb
+  mare; while Brimmer was by D'Arcy's Yellow Turk from a royal mare.
+  Matchem commenced his racing career on the 2nd of August 1753, and
+  terminated it on 1st September 1758. Out of thirteen engagements he
+  won eleven and lost two. He died in 1781, aged thirty-three years. His
+  best son was Conductor (1767) out of a mare by Snap; Conductor was the
+  sire of Trumpator (1782), whose two sons, Sorcerer (1790) and Paynator
+  (1791), transmit the blood of the Godolphin down to modern times.
+  Sorcerer was the sire of Soothsayer (1808), Comus (1809), and
+  Smolensko (1810). Comus was the sire of Humphrey Clinker (1822), whose
+  son was Melbourne (1834), sire of West Australian (1850) and of many
+  valuable mares, including Canezou (1845) and Blink Bonny (1854), dam
+  of Blair Athol. Paynator was the sire of Dr Syntax (1811), who had a
+  celebrated daughter called Beeswing (1833), dam of Newminster by
+  Touchstone.
+
+  The gems of the three lines may be briefly enumerated thus: (1) of the
+  Darley Arab's line--Snap, Shuttle, Waxy, and Orville--the stoutest
+  blood on the turf; (2) of the Byerly Turk's line--Buzzard and Sir
+  Peter--speedy blood, the latter the stouter of the two; (3) of the
+  Godolphin Barb's line--Sorcerer--often producing large-sized animals,
+  but showing a tendency to die out, and becoming rare.
+
+
+On the principle that as a rule like begets like, it has been the
+practice to select as sires the best public performers on the turf, and
+of two horses of like blood it is sound sense to choose the better as
+against the inferior public performer. But there can be little doubt
+that the mating of mares with horses has been often pursued on a
+haphazard plan, or on no system at all; to this the _Stud-Book_
+testifies too plainly. In the article HORSE-RACING mention is made of
+some of the great horses of recent years; but the following list of the
+principal sires of earlier days indicates also how their progeny found a
+place among the winners of the three great races, the Derby (D), Oaks
+(O), and St Leger (L):--
+
+  _Eclipse_: Young Eclipse (D), Saltram (D), Sergeant (D), Annette (O).
+
+  _Herod_: Bridget (O), Faith (O), Maid of the Oaks (O), Phenomenon (L).
+
+  _Matchem_: Teetotum (O), Hollandaise (L).
+
+  _Florizel_ (son of Herod): Diomed (D), Eager (D), Tartar (L),
+  Ninety-three (L).
+
+  _Highflyer_: Noble (D), Sir Peter Teazle (D), Skyscraper (D), Violante
+  (O), Omphale (L), Cowslip (L), Spadille (L), Young Flora (L).
+
+  _Pot-8-os_: Waxy (D), Champion (D, L), Tyrant (D), Nightshade (O).
+
+  _Sir Peter_ (D): Sir Harry (D), Archduke (D), Ditto (D), Paris (D),
+  Hermione (O), Parasite (O), Ambrosio (L), Fyldener (L), Paulina (L),
+  Petronius (L).
+
+  _Waxy_ (D): Pope (D), Whalebone (D), Blucher (D), Whisker (D), Music
+  (O), Minuet (O), Corinne (O).
+
+  _Whalebone_ (D): Moses (D), Lapdog (D), Spaniel (D), Caroline (O).
+
+  _Woful_: Augusta (O), Zinc (O), Theodore (L).
+
+  _Whisker_ (D): Memnon (L), The Colonel (L).
+
+  _Phantom_: Cedric (D), Middleton (D), Cobweb (O).
+
+  _Orville_ (L): Octavius (D), Emilius (D), Ebor (L).
+
+  _Tramp_: St Giles (D), Dangerous (D), Barefoot (L).
+
+  _Emilius_ (D): Priam (D), Plenipotentiary (D), Oxygen (O), Mango (L).
+
+  _Priam_ (D): Miss Seltz (O), Industry (O), Crucifix (O).
+
+  _Sir Hercules_: Coronation (D), Faugh-a-Ballagh (L), Birdcatcher (L).
+
+  _Touchstone_ (L): Cotherstone (D), Orlando (D), Surplice (D, L),
+  Mendicant (O), Blue Bonnet (L), Newminster (L).
+
+  _Birdcatcher_ (L): Daniel O'Rourke (D), Songstress (O), Knight of St
+  George (L), Warlock (L), The Baron (L).
+
+  _The Baron_ (L): Stockwell (L).
+
+  _Melbourne_: West Australian (D, L), Blink Bonny (D, O), Sir Tatton
+  Sykes (L).
+
+  _Newminster_ (L): Musjid (D), Hermit (D), Lord Clifden (L).
+
+  _Sweetmeat_: Macaroni (D), Mincemeat (O), Mincepie (O).
+
+  _Stockwell_ (L): Blair Athol (D, L), Lord Lyon (D, L), Doncaster (D),
+  Regalia (O), St Albans (L), Caller Ou (L), The Marquis (L),
+  Achievement (L).
+
+  _King Tom_: Kingcraft (D), Tormentor (O), Hippia (O), Hannah (O, L).
+
+  _Rataplan_ (son of the Baron): Kettledrum (D).
+
+  _Monarque_: Gladiateur (D, L).
+
+  _Parmesan_ (son of Sweetmeat): Favonius (D), Cremorne (D).
+
+  _Buccaneer_: Kisber (D), Formosa (O, L), Brigantine (O).
+
+  _Lord Clifden_ (L): Jannette (O, L), Hawthornden (L), Wenlock (L),
+  Petrarch (L).
+
+  _Adventurer_: Pretender (D), Apology (O, L), Wheel of Fortune (O).
+
+  _Blair Athol_ (D, L): Silvio (D, L), Craig Millar (L).
+
+In regard to mares it has very frequently turned out that animals which
+were brilliant public performers have been far less successful as dams
+than others which were comparatively valueless as runners. Beeswing, a
+brilliant public performer, gave birth to a good horse in Newminster;
+the same may be said of Alice Hawthorn, dam of Thormanby, of Canezou,
+dam of Fazzoletto, of Crucifix, dam of Surplice, and of Blink Bonny, dam
+of Blair Athol; but many of the greatest winners have dropped nothing
+worth training. On the other hand, there are mares of little or no value
+as racers who have become the mothers of some of the most celebrated
+horses on the turf; among them we may cite Queen Mary, Pocahontas and
+Paradigm. Queen Mary, who was by Gladiator out of a daughter of
+Plenipotentiary and Myrrha by Whalebone, when mated with Melbourne
+produced Blink Bonny (winner of the Derby and Oaks); when mated with
+Mango and Lanercost she produced Haricot, dam of Caller Ou (winner of
+the St Leger). Pocahontas, perhaps the most remarkable mare in the
+_Stud-Book_, never won a race on the turf, but threw Stockwell and
+Rataplan to the Baron, son of Birdcatcher, King Tom to Harkaway, Knight
+of St Patrick to Knight of St George, and Knight of Kars to Nutwith--all
+these horses being 16 hands high and upwards, while Pocahontas was a
+long low mare of about 15 hands or a trifle more. She also gave birth to
+Ayacanora by Birdcatcher, and to Araucaria by Ambrose, both very
+valuable brood mares, Araucaria being the dam of Chamant by Mortemer,
+and of Rayon d'Or by Flageolet, son of Plutus by Touchstone. Paradigm
+again produced, among several winners of more or less celebrity, Lord
+Lyon (winner of the Two Thousand Guineas, Derby and St Leger) and
+Achievement (winner of the St Leger), both being by Stockwell. Another
+famous mare was Manganese (1853) by Birdcatcher from Moonbeam by Tomboy
+from Lunatic by the Prime Minister from Maniac by Shuttle. Manganese
+when mated with Rataplan threw Mandragora, dam of Apology, winner of the
+Oaks and St Leger, whose sire was Adventurer, son of Newminster. She
+also threw Mineral, who, when mated with Lord Clifden, produced Wenlock,
+winner of the St Leger, and after being sold to go to Hungary, was there
+mated with Buccaneer, the produce being Kisber, winner of the Derby.
+
+We append the pedigree of Blair Athol, winner of the Derby and St Leger
+in 1864, who, when subsequently sold by auction, fetched the then
+unprecedented sum of 12,000 guineas, as it contains, not only Stockwell
+(the emperor of stallions, as he has been termed), but Blink Bonny and
+Eleanor--in which latter animal are combined the blood of Eclipse,
+Herod, Matchem and Snap,--the mares that won the Derby in 1801 and 1857
+respectively, as well as those queens of the stud, Eleanor's
+great-granddaughter Pocahontas and Blink Bonny's dam Queen Mary. Both
+Eleanor and Blink Bonny won the Oaks as well as the Derby.
+
+                                                                       /Whalebone* (1807)   /Waxy* (1790)
+                                                         /Sir Hercules<                     \Penelope (1798)
+                                                         |  (1826)     \Peri (1823)         /Wanderer (1790)
+                                           /Birdcatcher <                                   \Thalestris (1809)
+                                           |  [++]       |             /Bob Booty (1804)    /Chanticleer (1787)
+                                           |  (1833)     |Guiccioli   <                     \Ierne (1790)
+                                           |             \  (1823)     \Flight (1809)       /Escape (1802)
+                             /The Baron[++]<                                                \Young Heroine
+                             |  (1842)     |                           /Whisker* (1812)     /Waxy* (1790)
+                             |             |             /Economist   <                     \Penelope (1798)
+                             |             |             |   (1825)    \Floranthe (1818)    /Octavian (1807)
+                             |             |Echidna     <                                   \Caprice (1797)
+                             |             \  (1838)     |             /Blacklock (1814)    /Whitelock (1803)
+                             |                           |Miss Pratt  <                     \Coriander mare (1799)
+                             |                           \  (1825)     \Gadabout (1812)     /Orville[++] (1709)
+              /Stockwell[++]<                                                               \Minstrel (1803)
+              |(1849)        |                                         /Selim (1802)        /Buzzard (1787)
+              |              |                           /Sultan      <                     \Alexander mare (1790)
+              |              |                           |  (1816)     \Bacchante (1809)    /Williamson's Ditto (1800)
+              |              |             /Glencoe     <                                   \Sister to Calomel (1791)
+              |              |             | (1831)      |             /Tramp (1810)        /Dick Andrews (1797)
+              |              |             |             |Trampoline  <                     \Gohanna mare
+              |              |             |             \  (1825)     \Web (1808)          /Waxy* (1790)
+              |              |Pocahontas  <                                                 \Penelope (1798)
+              |              \  (1837)     |                           /Orville[++] (1799)  /Beningbrough (1790)
+              |                            |             /Muley       <                     \Evelina (1791)
+              |                            |             |  (1810)     \Eleanor*[++] (1798) /Whiskey (1789)
+              |                            |Marpessa    <                                   \Young Giantess (1790)
+              |                            \  (1830)     |             /Marmion (1806)      /Whiskey (1789)
+              |                                          |Clare       <                     \Young Noisette (1789)
+              |                                          \  (1824)     \Harpalice (1814)    /Gohanna (1790)
+  Blair       |                                                                             \Amazon (1799)
+  Athol*[++] <                                                         /Sorcerer (1796)     /Trumpator (1782)
+  (1861)      |                                          /Comus       <                     \Young Giantess (1790)
+              |                                          |  (1809)     \Houghton Lass (1801)/Sir Peter* (1784)
+              |                            /Humphrey    <                                   \Alexina (1788)
+              |                            | Clinker     |             /Clinker (1805)      /Sir Peter* (1784)
+              |                            |  (1822)     |Clinkerina  <                     \Hyale (1797)
+              |                            |             \  (1812)     \Pewet (1786)        /Tandem (1773)
+              |               /Melbourne  <                                                 \Termagant
+              |               |  (1834)    |                           /Don Quixote (1784)  /Eclipse (1764)
+              |               |            |             /Cervantes   <                     \Grecian Princess (1770)
+              |               |            |             |  (1806)     \Evelina (1791)      /Highflyer (1774)
+              |               |            |Daughter of <                                   \Termagant
+              |               |            \  (1825)     |             /Golumpus (1802)     /Gohanna (1790)
+              |               |                          |Daughter of <                     \Catherine (1795)
+              |               |                          \  (1818)     \Daughter of (1810)  /Paynator (1791)
+              |Blink Bonny*[+]<                                                             \Sister to Zodiac
+              \  (1854)       |                                        /Walton (1799)       /Sir Peter* (1784)
+                              |                          /Partisan    <                     \Arethusa (1792)
+                              |                          |  (1811)     \Parasol (1800)      /Pot-8-os (1773)
+                              |            /Gladiator   <                                   \Prunella (1788)
+                              |            |  (1833)     |             /Moses* (1819)       /Whalebone* by Waxy* (1807)
+                              |            |             |Pauline     <                     \Gohanna mare
+                              |            |             \  (1826)     \Quadrille (1815)    /Selim (1802)
+                              |Queen Mary <                                                 \Canary Bird (1806)
+                              \(1843)      |                           /Emilius* (1820)     /Orville[++] (1799)
+                                           |             /Plenipote-  <                     \Emily (1810)
+                                           |             | ntiary*     \Harriett (1819)     /Pericles (1809)
+                                           |Daughter of <   (1831)                          \Selim mare (1812)
+                                           \  (1840)     |             /Whalebone* (1807)   /Waxy* (1790)
+                                                         |Myrrha      <                     \Penelope (1798)
+                                                         \  (1830)     \Gift (1818)         /Young Gohanna (1810)
+                                                                                            \Sister to Grazier by Sir
+                                                                                               Peter* (1808)
+
+   * Winner of the Derby.
+   + Winner of the Oaks.
+  ++ Winner of the St Leger.
+
+The shape of a race-horse is of considerable importance, although it is
+said with some degree of truth that they win in all shapes. There are
+the neat and elegant animals, like the descendants of Saunterer and
+Sweetmeat; the large-framed, plain-looking, and heavy-headed Melbournes,
+often with lop ears; the descendants of Birdcatcher, full of quality,
+and of more than average stature, though sometimes disfigured with curby
+hocks; and the medium-sized but withal speedy descendants of Touchstone,
+though in some cases characterized by somewhat loaded shoulders. In
+height it will be found that the most successful racers average from 15
+to 16(1/2) hands, the former being considered somewhat small, while the
+latter is unquestionably very large; the mean may be taken as between
+15(1/2) and 16 hands (the hand = 4 in.). The head should be light and
+lean, and well set on; the ears small and pricked, but not too short;
+the eyes full; the forehead broad and flat; the nostrils large and
+dilating; the muzzle fine; the neck moderate in length, wide, muscular,
+and yet light; the throat clean; the windpipe spacious and loosely
+attached to the neck; the crest thin, not coarse and arched. The withers
+may be moderately high and thin; the chest well developed, but not too
+wide or deep; the shoulder should lie well on the chest, and be oblique
+and well covered with muscle, so as to reduce concussion in galloping;
+the upper and lower arms should be long and muscular; the knees broad
+and strong; legs short, flat and broad; fetlock joints large; pasterns
+strong and of moderate length; the feet should be moderately large, with
+the heels open and frogs sound--with no signs of contraction. The body
+or barrel should be moderately deep, long and straight, the length being
+really in the shoulders and in the quarters; the back should be strong
+and muscular, with the shoulders and loins running well in at each end;
+the loins themselves should have great breadth and substance, this being
+a vital necessity for weight-carrying and propelling power uphill. The
+hips should be long and wide, with the stifle and thigh strong, long and
+proportionately developed, and the hind quarters well let down. The hock
+should have plenty of bone, and be strongly affixed to the leg, and show
+no signs of curb; the bones below the hock should be flat, and free from
+adhesions; the ligaments and tendons well developed, and standing out
+from the bone; the joints well formed and wide, yet without undue
+enlargement; the pasterns and feet similar to those of the forehand. The
+tail should be high set on, the croup being continued in a straight line
+to the tail, and not falling away and drooping to a low-set tail.
+Fine action is the best criterion of everything fitting properly, and
+all a horse's points ought to harmonize or be in proportion to one
+another, no one point being more prominent than another, such as good
+shoulders, fine loins or excellent quarters. If the observer is struck
+with the remarkable prominence of any one feature, it is probable that
+the remaining parts are deficient. A well-made horse wants dissecting in
+detail, and then if a good judge can discover no fault with any part,
+but finds each of good proportions, and the whole to harmonize without
+defect, deformity or deficiency, he has before him a well-shaped horse;
+and of two equally well-made and equitably proportioned horses the best
+bred one will be the best. As regards hue, the favourite colour of the
+ancients, according to Xenophon, was bay, and for a long time it was the
+fashionable colour in England; but for some time chestnut thoroughbreds
+have been the most conspicuous figure on English race-courses, so far as
+the more important events are concerned. Eclipse was a chestnut;
+Castrel, Selim and Rubens were chestnuts; so also were Glencoe and
+Pantaloon, of whom the latter had black spots on his hind quarters like
+Eclipse; and also Stockwell and Doncaster. Birdcatcher was a chestnut,
+so also were Stockwell and his brother Rataplan, Manganese, Mandragora,
+Thormanby, Kettledrum, St Albans, Blair Athol, Regalia, Formosa, Hermit,
+Marie Stuart, Doncaster, George Frederick, Apology, Craig Millar, Prince
+Charlie, Rayon d'Or and Bend Or. The dark browns or black browns, such
+as the Sweetmeat tribe, are not so common as the bays, and black or grey
+horses are almost as unusual as roans. The skin and hair of the
+throughbred are finer, and the veins which underlie the skin are larger
+and more prominent than in other horses. The mane and tail should be
+silky and devoid of curl, which is a sign of impurity.
+
+Whether the race-horse of to-day is as good as the stock to which he
+traces back has often been disputed, chiefly no doubt because he is
+brought to more early maturity, commencing to win races at two years
+instead of at five years of age, as in the days of Childers and Eclipse;
+but the highest authorities, and none more emphatically than the late
+Admiral Rous, have insisted that he can not only stay quite as long as
+his ancestors, but also go a good deal faster. In size and shape the
+modern race-horse is unquestionably superior, being on an average fully
+a hand higher than the Eastern horses from which he is descended; and in
+elegance of shape and beauty of outline he has certainly never been
+surpassed. That experiments, founded on the study of his nature and
+properties, which have from time to time been made to improve the breed,
+and bring the different varieties to the perfection in which we now find
+them, have succeeded, is best confirmed by the high estimation in which
+the horses of Great Britain are held in all parts of the civilized
+world; and it is not too much to assert that, although the cold, humid
+and variable nature of their climate is by no means favourable to the
+production of these animals in their very best form, Englishmen have by
+great care, and by sedulous attention to breeding, high feeding and good
+grooming, with consequent development of muscle, brought them to the
+highest state of perfection of which their nature is capable.
+     (E. D. B.)
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  SHIRE STALLION.
+  CLYDESDALE STALLION.
+  SUFFOLK STALLION.
+  HACKNEY STALLION.
+
+  BREEDS OF HORSES. (_From Photographs by F. Babbage._) The comparative
+  sizes of the horses are shown.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  THOROUGHBRED STALLION.
+  SHETLAND PONY STALLION.
+  COACHING STALLION.
+  POLO PONY STALLION.
+
+  BREEDS OF HORSES. (_From Photographs by F. Babbage._) The comparative
+  sizes of the horses are shown.]
+
+
+BREEDS OF HORSES
+
+The British breeds of _light_ horses include the Thoroughbred, the
+Yorkshire Coach-horse, the Cleveland Bay, the Hackney and the Pony; of
+_heavy_ horses, the Shire, the Clydesdale and the Suffolk.
+
+The _Thoroughbred_ is probably the oldest of the breeds, and it is known
+as the "blood-horse" on account of the length of time through which its
+purity of descent can be traced. The frame is light, slender and
+graceful. The points of chief importance are a fine, clean, lean head,
+set on free from collar heaviness; a long and strongly muscular neck,
+shoulders oblique and covered with muscle; high, long withers, chest of
+good depth and narrow but not extremely so; body round in type; back rib
+well down; depth at withers a little under half the height; length equal
+to the height at withers and croup; loins level and muscular; croup
+long, rather level; tail set on high and carried gracefully; the hind
+quarters long, strongly developed, and full of muscle and driving power;
+the limbs clean-cut and sinewy, possessing abundance of good bone,
+especially desired in the cannons, which are short, broad and flat;
+comparatively little space between the fore legs; pastern joints smooth
+and true; pasterns strong, clean and springy, sloping when at rest at an
+angle of 45 deg.; feet medium size, wide and high at the heels, concave
+below and set on straight. The action in trotting is generally low, but
+the bending of the knee and the flexing of the hock is smooth, free and
+true. The thoroughbred is apt to be nervous and excitable, and impatient
+of common work, but its speed, resolution and endurance, as tested on
+the race-course, are beyond praise.
+
+Many of the best hunters in the United Kingdom are thoroughbreds, but of
+the substantial weight-carrying type. The Hunters Improvement Society,
+established in 1885, did not restrict entries to the _Hunters'
+Stud-Book_ to entirely clean-bred animals, but admitted those with
+breeding enough to pass strict inspection. This society acts in consort
+with two other powerful organizations (the Royal Commission on
+Horse-breeding, which began its work in 1888, and the Brood Mare
+Society, established in 1903), with the desirable object of improving
+the standard of light horse breeding. The initial efforts began by
+securing the services of thoroughbred stallions for specified districts,
+by offering a limited number of "Queen's Premiums," of L200 each, to
+selected animals of four years old and upwards. Since the formation of
+the Brood Mare Society mares have come within the sphere of influence of
+the three bodies, and well-conceived inducements are offered to breeders
+to retain their young mares at home. The efforts have met with
+gratifying success, and they were much needed, for while in 1904 the
+Dutch government took away 350 of the best young Irish mares, Great
+Britain was paying the foreigner over L2,000,000 a year for horses which
+the old system of management did not supply at home. The Royal Dublin
+Society also keeps a _Register of Thoroughbred Stallions_ under the
+horse-breeding scheme of 1892, which, like the British efforts, is now
+bearing fruit.
+
+The _Yorkshire Coach-horse_ is extensively bred in the North and East
+Ridings of Yorkshire, and the thoroughbred has taken a share in its
+development. The colour is usually bay, with black or brown points. A
+fine head, sloping shoulders, strong loins, lengthy quarters,
+high-stepping action, flat bone and sound feet are characteristic. The
+height varies from 16 hands to 16 hands 2 in.
+
+The _Cleveland Bay_ is an ancestor of the Yorkshire Coach-horse and is
+bred in parts of Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland. He is adapted
+alike for the plough, for heavy draught, and for slow saddle work. Some
+specimens make imposing-looking carriage horses, but they have low
+action and are lacking in quality. The colour is light or dark bay, with
+black legs. Though rather coarse-headed, the Cleveland Bay has a
+well-set shoulder and neck, a deep chest and round barrel. The height is
+from 16 to 17 hands.
+
+The _Hackney_ has come prominently to the front in recent years. The
+term _Nag_, applied to the active riding or trotting horse, is derived
+from the A.S. _hnegan_, to neigh. The Normans brought with them their
+own word _haquenee_, or _hacquenee_, a French derivative from the Latin
+_equus_, a horse, whence the name hackney. Both nag and hackney continue
+to be used as synonymous terms. Frequent mention is made of hackneys and
+trotters in old farm accounts of the 14th century. The first noteworthy
+trotting hackney stallion, of the modern type, was a horse foaled about
+1755, and known as the Schales, Shields or Shales horse, and most of the
+recognized hackneys of to-day trace back to him. The breeding of
+hackneys is extensively pursued in the counties of Norfolk, Cambridge,
+Huntingdon, Lincoln and York, and in the showyard competitions a keen
+but friendly rivalry is usually to be noticed between the
+hackney-breeding farmers of Norfolk and Yorkshire. The high hackney
+action is uncomfortable in a riding horse. Excellent results have
+sometimes followed the use of hackney sires upon half-bred mares, i.e.
+by thoroughbred stallions and trotting mares, but it is not always so.
+As regards the movement, or "action," of the hackney, he should go light
+in hand, and the knee should be well elevated and advanced during the
+trot, and, before the foot is put down, the leg should be well extended.
+The hackney should also possess good hock action, as distinguished from
+mere fetlock action, the propelling power depending upon the efficiency
+of the former. The hackney type of the day is "a powerfully built,
+short-legged, big horse, with an intelligent head, neat neck, strong,
+level back, powerful loins, and as perfect shoulders as can be obtained,
+good feet, flat-boned legs, and a height of from 15 hands 2 in. to 15
+hands 3(1/2) in." Carriage-horses hackney-bred have been produced over
+17 hands high.
+
+The _Pony_ differs essentially from the hackney in height, the former
+not exceeding 14 hands. There is one exception, which is made clear in
+the following extract from Sir Walter Gilbey's _Ponies Past and Present_
+(1900):--
+
+  Before the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1883 the
+  dividing line between the horse and the pony in England was vague and
+  undefined. It was then found necessary to distinguish clearly between
+  horses and ponies, and, accordingly, all animals measuring 14 hands or
+  under were designated "ponies," and registered in a separate part of
+  the (Hackney) Stud-Book. This record of height, with other particulars
+  as to breeding, &c., serves to direct breeders in their choice of
+  sires and dams. The standard of height established by the Hackney
+  Horse Society was accepted and officially recognized by the Royal
+  Agricultural Society in 1889, when the prize-list for the Windsor show
+  contained pony classes for animals not exceeding 14 hands. The altered
+  polo-rule, which fixes the limit of height at 14 hands 2 in., may be
+  productive of some little confusion; but for all other purposes 14
+  hands is the recognized _maximum_ height of a pony. Prior to 1883
+  small horses were called indifferently Galloways, hobbies, cobs or
+  ponies, irrespective of their height.
+
+Native ponies include those variously known as Welsh, New Forest,
+Exmoor, Dartmoor, Cumberland and Westmorland, Fell, Highland, Highland
+Garron, Celtic, Shetland and Connemara. Ponies range in height from 14
+hands down to 8 hands, Shetland ponies eligible for the Stud-Book not
+exceeding the latter. As in the case of the hackney, so with the pony,
+thoroughbred blood has been used, and with good results, except in the
+case of those animals which have to remain to breed in their native
+haunts on the hills and moorlands. There the only possible way of
+improvement is by selecting the best native specimens, especially the
+sires, to breed from. The thin-skinned progeny of thoroughbred or Arab
+stock is too delicate to live unless when hand-fed--and hand-feeding is
+not according to custom. Excellent polo ponies are bred as first or
+second crosses by thoroughbred stallions on the mares of nearly all the
+varieties of ponies named. The defective formation of the pony, the
+perpendicular shoulder and the drooping hind quarters, are modified; but
+neither the latter, nor bent hocks, which place the hind legs under the
+body as in the zebra, are objected to, as the conformation is favourable
+to rapid turning. One object of the pony breeder, while maintaining
+hardiness of constitution, is to control size--to compress the most
+valuable qualities into small compass. He endeavours to breed an animal
+possessing a small head, good shoulders, true action and perfect
+manners. A combination of the best points of the hunter with the style
+and finish of the hackney produces a class of weight-carrying pony which
+is always saleable.
+
+The _Shire_ horse owes its happily-chosen name to Arthur Young's
+remarks, in the description of his agricultural tours during the closing
+years of the 18th century, concerning the large Old English Black Horse,
+"the produce principally of the _Shire_ counties in the heart of
+England." Long previous to this, however, the word Shire, in connexion
+with horses, was used in the statutes of Henry VIII. Under the various
+names of the War Horse, the Great Horse, the Old English Black Horse and
+the Shire Horse, the breed has for centuries been cultivated in the rich
+fen-lands of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and in many counties to
+the west. The Shire is the largest of draught horses, the stallion
+commonly attaining a height of 17 to 17.3 hands. Though the black colour
+is still frequently met with, bay and brown are more usually seen. With
+their immense size and weight--1800 lb. to 2200 lb.--the Shires combine
+great strength, and they are withal docile and intelligent. They stand
+on short stout legs, with a plentiful covering--sometimes too
+abundant--of long hair extending chiefly down the back but also round
+the front of the limbs from knees and hocks, and when in full feather
+obscuring nearly the whole of the hoofs. The head is a good size, and
+broad between the eyes; the neck fairly long, with the crest well arched
+on to the shoulders, which are deep and strong, and moderately oblique.
+The chest is wide, full and deep, the back short and straight, the ribs
+are round and deep, the hind quarters long, level and well let down into
+the muscular thighs. The cannon-bones should be flat, heavy and clean,
+and the feet wide, tough, and prominent at the heels. A good type of
+Shire horse combines symmetrical outlines and bold, free action. There
+is a good and remunerative demand for Shire geldings for use as draught
+horses in towns.
+
+The _Clydesdale_, the Scottish breed named from the valley of the Clyde,
+is not quite so large as the Shire, the average height of stallions
+being about 16 hands 2 in. The popular colour is bay, particularly if of
+a dark shade, or dappled. Black is not uncommon, but grey is not
+encouraged. White markings on one or more of the legs, with a white star
+or stripe on the face, are characteristic. The long hair on the legs is
+not so abundant as in the Shires, and it is finer in texture. It is
+regarded as an indication of good bone. The bones of the legs should be
+short, flat, clean and hard; the feet large, with hoofs deep and concave
+below. With its symmetry, activity, strength and endurance the
+Clydesdale is easily broken to harness, and makes an excellent draught
+horse. This breed is growing rapidly in favour in Canada, but in the
+United States the _Percheron_, with its round bone and short pasterns,
+holds the field. A blend of the Shire and Clydesdale strains of the
+British rough-legged draught horse (virtually sections of the same
+breed) is a better animal than either of the parents. It is an
+improvement upon the Shire due to the quality contributed by the
+Clydesdale, and it surpasses the Clydesdale in strength and substance,
+as a result of the Shire connexion. To secure success the two Stud-Books
+will require to be opened to animals eligible to be entered in either
+record. The blend is being established in U.S.A. as a National breed.
+
+The _Suffolk_ is a horse quite distinct from the Shire and the
+Clydesdale. Its body looks too heavy for its limbs, which are free from
+the "feather" so much admired in the two other heavy breeds; it
+possesses a characteristic chestnut colour. How long the Suffolks have
+been associated with the county after which they are named is unknown,
+but they are mentioned in 1586 in Camden's _Britannia_. With an average
+height of about 16 hands they often have a weight of as much as 2000
+lb., and this may explain the appearance which has given rise to the
+name of the Suffolk Punch, by which the breed is known. The Suffolk is a
+resolute and unwearying worker, and is richly endowed with many of the
+best qualities of a horse. The _Suffolk Stud-Book and History of the
+Breed_, published in 1880, is the most exhaustive record of its kind in
+England.     (W. Fr.; R. W.)
+
+
+MANAGEMENT
+
+_Breeding._--Animals to breed from should be of good blood, sound and
+compactly built, with good pluck and free from nervous excitability and
+vicious tendency. A mare used to be put to the horse at three years old,
+but latterly two has become the common age. Young sires begin to serve
+in moderation at two. May is considered the best month for a mare to
+foal, as there is abundance of natural food and the weather is mild
+enough for the mare to lie out. Show specimens generally profit by being
+born earlier. The period of gestation in the mare is about eleven
+months. No nursing mare should go to work, if this can possibly be
+avoided. A brood mare requires plenty of exercise at a slow pace and may
+work, except between shafts or on a road, till the day of foaling.
+
+To avoid colic an animal has to be gradually prepared by giving small
+quantities of green food for a few days before going to grass. Shelter
+against severe storms is needed. Succulent food encourages the flow of
+milk, and the success of the foal greatly depends on its milk supply.
+Mares most readily conceive when served at the "foal heat" eleven days
+after foaling. A mature stallion can serve from eighty to one hundred
+mares per annum.
+
+Foals are weaned when five or six months old, often in October, and
+require to be housed to save the foal-flesh, and liberally but not
+overfed; but from the time they are a month old they require to be
+"gentled" by handling and kindly treatment, and the elementary training
+of leading from time to time by a halter adjusted permanently to the
+head. When they are hand-reared on cow's milk foals require firm
+treatment and must have no fooling to teach them tricks. Young horses
+that are too highly fed are apt to become weak-limbed and top-heavy.
+
+_Breaking._--Systematic breaking begins at about the age of two years,
+and the method of subduing a colt by "galvayning" is as good as any. It
+is a more humane system than "rareying," which overcame by exhaustion
+under circumstances which were not fruitful of permanent results.
+Galvayning is accomplished by bending the horse's neck round at an angle
+of thirty-five to forty degrees and tieing the halter to the tail, so
+that when he attempts to walk forward he holds himself and turns "round
+and round, almost upon his own ground." The more strenuous his
+resistance the sooner he yields to the inevitable force applied by
+himself. A wooden pole, the "third hand," is then gently applied to all
+parts of the body until kicking or any form of resistance ceases.
+"Bitting" or "mouthing," or the familiarizing of an animal to the bit in
+his mouth, and to answer to the rein without bending his neck, is still
+a necessity with the galvayning method of breaking. Experience can only
+be gained by a horse continuing during a considerable time to practise
+what he has been taught.
+
+Three main characteristics of a successful horse-breaker are firmness,
+good temper and incessant vigilance. Carelessness in trusting too much
+to a young colt that begins its training by being docile is a fruitful
+source of untrustworthy habits which need never have developed. Driving
+with long reins in the field should precede the fastening of ropes to
+the collar, as it accustoms the animal to the pressure on the shoulders
+of the draught, later to be experienced in the yoke. If a young horse be
+well handled and accustomed to the dummy jockey, mounting it is not
+attended with much risk of resistance, although this should invariably
+be anticipated. An animal ought to be in good condition when being
+broken in, else it is liable to break out in unpleasant ways when it
+becomes high-spirited as a result of improved condition. It should be
+well but not overfed, and while young not overworked, as an overtired
+animal is liable to refuse to pull, and thus contract a bad habit. Most
+bad habits and stable tricks are the result of defective management and
+avoidable accidents.
+
+_Feeding._--Horses have small stomachs relatively to ruminating animals,
+and require small quantities of food frequently. While grazing they feed
+almost continually, preferring short pasture. No stable food for quick
+work surpasses a superior sample of fine-hulled whole oats like
+"Garton's Abundance" (120 lb. per week), and Timothy hay harvested in
+dry weather. The unbruised oats develop a spirit and courage in either a
+saddle or harness horse that no other food can. A double handful of
+clean chaff, or of bran mixed with the oats in the manger, prevents a
+greedy horse from swallowing a considerable proportion whole. Unchewed
+oats pass out in the faeces uninjured, so that they are capable of
+germination, and are of less than no value to a horse. Horses doing slow
+or other than "upper ten" work may have oats crushed, not ground, and a
+variety of additions made to the oats which are usually the basis of the
+feed--for example, a few old crushed beans, a little linseed meal,
+ground linseed cake or about a wine-glassful of unboiled linseed oil.
+Indian pulses are to be avoided on account of the danger of Lathyrus
+poisoning. A seasoning of ground fenugreek or spice is sometimes given
+to shy feeders to encourage them to eat. A little sugar or molascuit
+added to the food will sometimes serve the same purpose. Newly crushed
+barley or cracked maize, even in considerable proportion to the rest of
+the food, gives good results with draught, coach, 'bus and light
+harness horses generally. Boiled food of any kind is unnatural to a
+horse, and is risky to give, being liable to produce colic, especially
+if the animal bolts its food when hungry, although it generally produces
+a glossy coat. Too much linseed, often used in preparing horses for
+market, gives a similar appearance, but is liable to induce fatty
+degeneration of the liver; given in moderation it regulates the bowels
+and stimulates the more perfect digestion of other foods. In England
+red-clover hay, or, better still, crimson-clover or lucerne hay, is
+liberally fed to farm horses with about 10 lb. per day of oats, while
+they usually run in open yards with shelter sheds. Bean straw is
+sometimes given as part of the roughage in Scotland, but not in England.
+In England hunters and carriage horses are generally fed on natural hay,
+in Scotland on Timothy, largely imported from Canada, or ryegrass hay
+that has not been grown with nitrate of soda. Heavily nitrated hay is
+reputed to produce excessive urination and irritation of the bladder.
+Pease straw, if not sandy, and good bright oat straw are good fodder for
+horses; but with barley and wheat straw, in the case of a horse, more
+energy is consumed during its passage through the alimentary canal than
+the digested straw yields. Three or four Swedish turnips or an
+equivalent of carrots is an excellent cooling food for a horse at hard
+work. The greater number of horses in the country should have green
+forage given them during summer, when the work they do will permit of
+it, as it is their natural food, and they thrive better on it than on
+any dry food.
+
+When a horse has been overstrained by work the best remedy is a long
+rest at pasture, and, if it be lame or weak in the limbs, the winter
+season is most conducive to recovery. The horse becomes low in condition
+and moves about quietly, and the frost tends to brace up the limbs. In
+autumn all horses that have been grazing should be dosed with some
+vermifuge to destroy the worms that are invariably present, and thus
+prevent colic or an unthrifty or anaemic state. On a long journey a
+horse should have occasional short drinks, and near the end a long drink
+with a slower rate of progression with the object of cooling off. In the
+stable a horse should always be provided with rock salt, and water to
+drink at will by means of some such stall fixture as the Mundt hygienic
+water-supply fittings. Overhead hay-racks are unnatural and are liable
+to drop seeds into a horse's eye.
+
+  LITERATURE.--For riding, &c. see RIDING, DRIVING, HORSEMANSHIP, and
+  HORSE-RACING. For diseases of the horse see VETERINARY SCIENCE. The
+  literature about the horse and its history and uses is voluminous, and
+  is collected up to 1887 in Huth's _Works on Horses, &c._, a
+  bibliographical record of hippology. See also, besides the works
+  already mentioned, various books by Capt. M. Horace Hayes, _Points of
+  the Horse_ (1893, 2nd ed., 1897); _Stable Management and Exercise_
+  (1900); _Illustrated Horse-breaking_ (1889, 2nd ed., 1896); and _The
+  Horsewoman_ (1893) (with Mrs Hayes); E. L. Anderson, _Modern
+  Horsemanship_ (1884); W. Day, _The Horse: How to Breed and Rear Him_
+  (1888); W. Ridgeway, _Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse_
+  (1905); Major-General Tweedie, _The Arab Horse_ (1894); J. Wortley
+  Axe, _The Horse; its Treatment in Health and Disease_ (1906); R.
+  Wallace, _Farm Live Stock of Great Britain_ (1885, 4th ed., 1907);
+  Sydney Galvayne, _The Twentieth Century Book of the Horse_ (1905); C.
+  Bruce Low, _Breeding Racehorses by the Figure System_ (1895); J. H.
+  Wallace, _The Horse of America in his Derivation, &c._ (1897);
+  Weatherly's _Celebrated Racehorses_ (1887); Ruff's _Guide to the
+  Turf_; T. A. Cook, _History of the English Turf_ (1903); _The General
+  Stud-Book_ (issued quinquennially); and the _Stud-Books_ of the
+  various breed societies.     (R. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Compare Sans, _acva_, Zendish and Old Persian _acpa_, Lithuanian
+    _aszva_ (mare), Prussian _asvinan_ (mare's milk), O.H. Ger. _ehu_,
+    A.S. _eoh_, Icel. _ior_, Gothic _aihos_, _aihous_ (?), Old Irish
+    _ech_, Old Cambrian and Gaelic _ep_ (as in _Epona_, the horse
+    goddess), Lat. _equus_, Gr. [Greek: hippos] or [Greek: ikkos]. The
+    word seems, however, to have disappeared from the Slavonic languages.
+    The root is probably _ak_, with the idea of sharpness or swiftness
+    ([Greek: akros, okus], _acus_, _ocior_). See Pott, _Etym. Forsch_,
+    ii. 256, and Hehn, _Kulturpflanzen u. Hausthiere in ihrem Ueber gang
+    aus Asien nach Griechenland u. Italien sowie in das ubrige Europa_
+    (3rd ed., 1877), p. 38. The last-named author, who points out the
+    absence of the horse from the Egyptian monuments prior to the
+    beginning of the 18th century B.C., and the fact that the earliest
+    references to this animal in Hebrew literature (Judges v. 22, 28; cf.
+    Josh, xi. 4) do not carry us any farther back, is of opinion that the
+    Semitic peoples as a whole were indebted for the horse to the lands
+    of Iran. He also shows that literature affords no trace of the horse
+    as indigenous to Arabia prior to about the beginning of the 5th
+    century A.D., although references abound in the pre-Islamitic poetry.
+    Horses were not numerous even in Mahomet's time (Sprenger, _Leb.
+    Moh._ iii. 139, 140). Compare Ignazio Guidi's paper "Della sede
+    primitiva dei popoli Semitici" in the _Transactions_ of the Accademia
+    dei Lincei (1878-1879), Professor W. Ridgeway, in his _Origin and
+    Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse_ (1905), reinvestigated the
+    historical mystery as to the Arab breed, and its connexion with the
+    English thoroughbred stock, but his conclusions have been hotly
+    controverted; archaeology and biology are in fact still in the dark
+    on the subject, but see the section on "Species" above. According to
+    Ridgeway, the original source of the finest equine blood is Africa,
+    still the home of the largest variety of wild Equidae; he concludes
+    that thence it passed into Europe at an early time, to be blended
+    with that of the indigenous Celtic species, and thence into western
+    Asia into the veins of an indigenous Mongolian species, still
+    represented by "Przewalski's horse"; not till a comparatively late
+    period did it reach Arabia, though the "Arab" now represents the
+    purest form of the Libyan blood. The controversy depends upon the
+    consideration of a wealth of detail, which should be studied in
+    Ridgeway's book; but zoological authorities are sceptical as to the
+    suggested species, _Equus caballus libycus_.
+
+  [2] Some fragments of legislation relating to the horse about this
+    period may be gleaned from _Ancient Laws and Institutes of England_
+    (fol., London, 1840), and _Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales_
+    (fol., London, 1841).
+
+
+
+
+HORSE LATITUDES, the belts of calms and variable breezes at the polar
+edge of the N.E. and S.E. trades. According to the _New English
+Dictionary_ two explanations have been given of the origin of the name:
+one that the calm kills horses on a sailing ship, the other that the
+name signifies the unruly and boisterous nature of these winds compared
+with the pleasant trades. The name is commonly applied to the permanent
+belt of high atmospheric pressure which encircles the globe in 30 deg.
+to 35 deg. from the equator.
+
+
+
+
+HORSE-MACKEREL, the name applied to a genus of fishes (_Caranx_) found
+in abundance in almost all temperate and especially in tropical seas.
+The designation "cavalli," given to them by the early Portuguese
+navigators, and often met with in the accounts of the adventures of the
+buccaneers, is still in frequent use among the sailors of all nations.
+Some ninety different kinds are known--the majority being wholesome
+food, and some of the species attaining a length of 3 ft. and more. The
+fish to which the name horse-mackerel is applied in Great Britain is
+_Caranx trachurus_, distinguished by having the lateral line in its
+whole length armed with large but narrow bony plates. Horse-mackerel are
+found singly on the coast all the year round, but sometimes they
+congregate in shoals of many thousands. Although well-flavoured, they
+are much more frequently used for bait than for food. This species has a
+most extraordinary range, being found almost everywhere within the
+temperate and tropical zones of the northern and southern hemispheres.
+
+
+
+
+HORSEMANSHIP, the art of managing the horse from his back and
+controlling his paces and the direction and speed of his movement. The
+ordinary procedure is dealt with in the articles on RIDING and cognate
+subjects (see also HORSE: section _Management_). A special kind of skill
+is, however, needed in breaking, training, bitting and schooling horses
+for a game like polo, or for the evolutions of what is known as the
+_haute ecole_. It is with the latter, or "school" riding, that we deal
+here. The middle ages had seen chivalry developed into a social
+distinction, and horsemanship into a form of knightly prowess. The
+Renaissance introduced the cultivation of horsemanship as an art, with
+regular conditions and rules, instead of merely its skilful practice for
+utility and exercise. In Italy in the 16th century schools of
+horsemanship were established at Naples, Rome and other chief cities;
+thither flocked the nobility of France, Spain and Germany; and Henry
+VIII. of England and other monarchs of his time had Italians for their
+masters of the horse. The academy of Pignatelli at Naples was the most
+famous of the schools in the middle of the 16th century, but a score of
+other less renowned masters devoted themselves to teaching the riders
+and training the horses. Trappings of all sorts multiplied; the
+prescribed tricks, feats and postures involved considerable dexterity;
+they were fatiguing to both man and beast, and were really useless
+except for show. This elaborate art, enthusiastically followed among the
+Romance nations, was the parent of later developments of the _haute
+ecole_, and of the circus-performances of modern days. In England,
+however, the continental style did not find favour for long. The duke of
+Newcastle's _Methode nouvelle de dresser les chevaux_ (1648) was the
+leading text-book of the day, and in 1761 the earl of Pembroke published
+his _Manual of Cavalry Horsemanship_. In France a simplification was
+introduced in the early part of the 18th century by La Gueriniere
+(_Ecole de cavalerie_) and others. The French military school thus
+became the model for Europe, though the English style remained in
+opposition, forming a sort of compromise with the ordinary method of
+riding across country. In more modern times France again came to the
+front in regard to the _haute ecole_, through the innovations of the
+vicomte d'Aure (1798-1863) and Francois Baucher (1796-1873). Baucher was
+a circus-rider who became the greatest master of his art, and who had an
+elaborate theory of the principles involved in training a horse. His
+system was carried on, with modifications, by masters and theorists like
+Captain Raabe, M. Barroil and M. Fillis. In more recent times the style
+of the _haute ecole_ has also been cultivated by various masters in the
+United States, such as H. L. de Bussigny at Boston.
+
+  See d'Aure, _Traite d'equitation_ (1847); Hundersdorf, _Equitation
+  allemande_ (Bruxelles, 1843); Baucher, _Passe-temps equestres_ (1840),
+  _Methode d'equitation_ (1867); Raabe, _Methode de haute ecole
+  d'equitation_ (1863); Barroil, _Art equestre_; Fillis, _Principes de
+  dressage_; Hayes, _Riding on the flat, &c._ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+HORSENS, a market town of Denmark, at the head of Horsens Fjord, on the
+east side of Jutland, 32 m. by rail S.W. of Aarhus, in the _amt_
+(county) of that name. Pop. (1901) 22,243. It is the junction of branch
+railways to Bryrup and to Torring inland, and to Juelsminde on the
+coast. The exports are chiefly bacon and butter; the imports, iron,
+yarn, coal and timber. The town is ancient; there is a disused convent
+church with tombs of the 17th century, and the Vor-Frelsers-Kirke has a
+carved pulpit of the same period. Horsens is the birthplace of the
+navigator Vitus Bering or Behring (1680), the Arctic explorer. To the
+north lies the picturesque lake district between Skanderborg and
+Silkeborg (see AARHUS).
+
+
+
+
+HORSE-POWER. The device, frequently seen in farmyards, by which the
+power of a horse is utilized to drive threshing or other machinery, is
+sometimes described as a "horse-power," but this term usually denotes
+the unit in which the performance of steam and other engines is
+expressed, and which is defined as the rate at which work is done when
+33,000 lb. are raised one foot in one minute. This value was adopted by
+James Watt as the result of experiments with strong dray-horses, but, as
+he was aware, it is in excess of what can be done by an average horse
+over a full day's work. It is equal to 746 watts. On the metric system
+it is reckoned as 4500 kilogram-metres a minute, and the French
+_cheval-vapeur_ is thus equal to 32,549 foot-pounds a minute, or 0.9863
+of an English horse-power, or 736 watts. The "nominal horse-power" by
+which engines are sometimes rated is an arbitrary and obsolescent term
+of indefinite significance. An ordinary formula for obtaining it is
+(1/15.6)D^2 [root 3]S for high-pressure engines, and (1/47)D^2 [root 3]S
+for condensing engines, where D is the diameter of the piston in inches
+and S the length of the stroke in feet, though varying numbers are used
+for the divisor. The "indicated horse-power" of a reciprocating engine
+is given by ASPN/33,000, where A is the area of the piston in square
+inches, S the length of the stroke in feet, P the mean pressure on the
+piston in lb. per sq. in., and N the number of effective strokes per
+minute, namely, one for each revolution of the crank shaft if the engine
+is single-acting, but twice as many if it is double-acting. The mean
+pressure P is ascertained from the diagram or "card" given by an
+indicator (see STEAM-ENGINE). In turbine engines this method is
+inapplicable. A statement of indicated horse-power supplies a measure of
+the force acting in the cylinder of an engine, but the power available
+for doing external work off the crank-shaft is less than this by the
+amount absorbed in driving the engine itself. The useful residue, known
+as the "actual," "effective" or "brake" horse-power, can be directly
+measured by a dynamometer (q.v.); it amounts to about 80% of the
+indicated horse-power for good condensing engines and about 85% for
+non-condensing engines, or perhaps a little more when the engines are of
+the largest sizes. When turbines, as often happens in land practice, are
+directly coupled to electrical generators, their horse-power can be
+deduced from the electrical output. When they are used for the
+propulsion of ships recourse is had to "torsion meters" which measure
+the amount of twist undergone by the propeller shafts while transmitting
+power. Two points are selected on the surface of the shaft at different
+positions along it, and the relative displacement which occurs between
+them round the shaft when power is being transmitted is determined
+either by electrical means, as in the Denny-Johnson torsion-meter, or
+optically, as in the Hopkinson-Thring and Bevis-Gibson instruments. The
+twist or surface-shear being proportional to the torque, the horse-power
+can be calculated if the modulus of rigidity of the steel employed is
+known or if the amount of twist corresponding to a given power has
+previously been ascertained by direct experiment on the shaft before it
+has been put in place.
+
+
+
+
+HORSE-RACING. Probably the earliest instance of the use of horses in
+racing recorded in literature occurs in _Il._ xxiii. 212-650, where the
+various incidents of the chariot-race at the funeral games held in
+honour of Patroclus are detailed with much vividness. According to the
+ancient authorities the four-horse chariot-race was introduced into the
+Olympic games as early as the 23rd Olympiad; to this the race with
+mounted horses was added in the 33rd; while other variations (such as
+two-horse chariot-races, mule races, loose-horse races, special races
+for under-aged horses) were admitted at a still later period. Of the
+training and management of the Olympic race-horse we are left in
+ignorance; but it is known that the equestrian candidates were required
+to enter their names and send their horses to Elis at least thirty days
+before the celebration of the games commenced, and that the charioteers
+and riders, whether owners or proxies, went through a prescribed course
+of exercise during the intervening month. At all the other national
+games of Greece (Pythian, Isthmian, Nemean), as well as at many of the
+local festivals (the Athenian Olympia and Panathenaea), similar contests
+had a prominent place. Some indication of the extent to which the
+passion for horse-racing was indulged in at Athens, for example, about
+the time of Aristophanes may be obtained from the scene with which _The
+Clouds_ opens; while it is a significant fact that the Boeotians termed
+one of the months of their year, corresponding to the Athenian
+Hecatombaeon, Hippodromius ("Horse-race month"; see Plutarch, _Cam._
+15). For the chariot-races and horse-races of the Greeks and Romans, see
+CIRCUS and GAMES.
+
+
+GREAT BRITAIN
+
+There is no direct historical evidence to show that the ancient Britons
+addicted themselves to any form of this amusement; but there are
+indications that among some at least of the Germanic tribes, from a very
+early period, horse-racing was an accompaniment of their religious
+cultus. There can be no doubt that the Romans encouraged the pursuit in
+Britain, if they did not introduce it; traces of race-courses belonging
+to the period of their occupation have been frequently discovered. The
+influence of the Christian Church was everywhere at first strongly
+against the practice. The opinion of Augustine and other fathers of the
+church with regard to attendance at the spectacles, whether of theatre
+or of circus, is well known; those who performed in them were rigidly
+excluded from church fellowship, and sometimes even those who merely
+frequented them. Thus the first council of Arles, in its fourth canon,
+declared that those members of the church who drove chariots at the
+public games should, so long as they continued in that employment, be
+denied communion. (Compare the rule in the _Ap. Const._ viii. 32; ap.
+Bingham. _Ant. Chr. Church_, xvi. 4, 10.) In many cases, however, the
+weight of ecclesiastical authority proved insufficient to cope with the
+force of old custom, or with the fascination of a sport the unchristian
+character of which was not very easily demonstrable; and ultimately in
+Germany and elsewhere the old local races appear to have been admitted
+to a recognized place among the ceremonies peculiar to certain Christian
+festivals.
+
+The first distinct indication which contemporary history affords of
+horse-racing as a sport occurs in the _Description of the City of
+London_ of William Fitzstephen (c. 1174). He says that in a certain
+"plane field without one of the gates (quidam planus campus re et
+nomine--_Smithfield_, quasi Smoothfield) every Friday, unless it be one
+of the more solemn festivals, is a noted show of well-bred (_nobilium_)
+horses exposed for sale. The earls, barons and knights who are resident
+in the city, as well as a multitude of citizens, flock thither either to
+look on or buy." After describing the different varieties of horses
+brought into the market, especially the more valuable chargers
+(_dextrarios preciosos_), he says: "When a race is to be run by such
+horses as these, and perhaps by others which, in like manner, according
+to their breed are strong for carriage and vigorous for the course, the
+people raise a shout and order the common horses to be withdrawn to
+another part of the field. The jockeys, who are boys expert in the
+management of horses, which they regulate by means of curb bridles,
+sometimes by threes and sometimes by twos, as the match is made, prepare
+themselves for the contest. Their chief aim is to prevent a competitor
+from getting before them. The horses too, after their manner, are eager
+for the race: their limbs tremble, and impatient of delay they cannot
+stand still; upon the signal being given they stretch out their limbs,
+hurry on the course, and are borne along with unremitting speed. The
+riders, inspired with the love of praise and the hope of victory, clap
+spurs to their flying horses, lashing them with whips, and inciting them
+by their shouts" (see Stow's Translation).
+
+In the reign of Richard I. knights rode at Whitsuntide on steeds and
+palfreys over a three-mile course for "forty pounds of ready gold,"
+according to the old romance of Sir Bevys of Hampton. The feats of the
+tilt-yard, however, seem to have surpassed horse-racing in popular
+estimation at the period of the crusades. That the sport was to some
+extent indulged in by King John is quite possible, as running horses are
+frequently mentioned in the register of royal expenditure; and we know
+that Edward III. had a number of running horses, but it is probable they
+were chiefly used for field sports.
+
+An evidence of the growing favour in which horse-racing was held as a
+popular amusement is furnished by the fact that public races were
+established at Chester in 1512. Randle Holme of that city tells us that
+towards the latter part of Henry VIII.'s reign, on Shrove Tuesday, the
+company of saddlers of Chester presented to "the drapers a wooden ball
+embellished with flowers, and placed upon the point of a lance. This
+ceremony was performed in the presence of the mayor at the cross of the
+Roody or Roodee, an open place near the city; but this year (1540) the
+ball was changed into a silver bell, valued at three shillings and
+sixpence or more, to be given to him who shall run best and furthest on
+horseback before them on the same day, Shrove Tuesday; these bells were
+denominated St George's bells." In the reign of Elizabeth there is
+evidence from the poems of Bishop Hall (1597) that racing was in vogue,
+though apparently not patronized by the queen, or it would no doubt have
+formed part of the pastimes at Kenilworth; indeed, it seems then to have
+gone much out of fashion.
+
+The accession of the Stuarts opened up an era of prosperity for the
+sport, for James I., who, according to Youatt, had encouraged if not
+established horse-racing in Scotland, greatly patronized it in England
+when he came to the throne. Not only did he run races at Croydon and
+Enfield, but he endeavoured to improve the breed of horses by the
+purchase for a high figure of the Arab stallion known as Markham's
+Arabian, which little horse, however, was beaten in every race he ran.
+
+In 1607, according to Camden's _Britannia_, races were run near York,
+the prize being a little golden bell. Camden also mentions as the prize
+for running horses in Gatherley Forest a little golden ball, which was
+apparently anterior to the bell. In 1609 Mr Robert Ambrye, sometime
+sheriff of the city of Chester, caused three silver bells to be made of
+good value, which bells he appointed to be run for with horses on St
+George's day upon the Roodee, the first horse to have the best bell and
+the money put in by the horses that ran--in other words, a
+sweepstake--the bells to be returned that day twelvemonth as challenge
+cups are now; towards the expenses he had an allowance from the city. In
+1613 subscription purses are first mentioned. Nicholls, in his _Progress
+of James I._, makes mention of racing in the years 1617 and 1619.
+Challenge bells appear to have continued to be the prizes at Chester,
+according to Randle Holme the younger, and Ormerod's _History of
+Chester_, until 1623 or 1624, when Mr John Brereton, mayor of Chester,
+altered the course and caused the horses to run five times round the
+Roodee, the bell to be of good value, L8 or L10, and to be a free bell
+to be held for ever--in other words, a presentation and not a challenge
+prize.
+
+During James's reign public race meetings were established at Gatherley
+or Garterley, near Richmond in Yorkshire, at Croydon in Surrey, and at
+Enfield Chase, the last two being patronized by the king, who not only
+had races at Epsom during his residence at Nonsuch, but also built a
+house at Newmarket for the purpose of enjoying hunting, and no doubt
+racing too, as we find a note of there having been horse-races at this
+place as early as 1605. Races are also recorded as having taken place at
+Linton near Cambridge, but they were probably merely casual meetings.
+The prizes were for the most part silver or gold bells, whence the
+phrase "bearing away the bell." The turf indeed appears to have
+attracted a great deal of notice, and the systematic preparation of
+running horses was studied, attention being paid to their feeding and
+training, to the instruction of jockeys--although private matches
+between gentlemen who rode their own horses were very common,--and to
+the adjustment of weights, which were usually about 10 stone. The sport
+also seems to have taken firm hold of the people, and to have become
+very popular.
+
+The reign of Charles I., which commenced in 1625, saw still more marked
+strides made, for the king not only patronized the racing at Newmarket,
+which we know was current In 1640, but thoroughly established it there,
+and built a stand house in 1667, since which year the races have been
+annual. Mention is likewise made in the comedy of the _Merry Beggars_,
+played in 1641, of races, both horse and foot, in Hyde Park, which were
+patronized by Charles I., who gave a silver cup, value 100 guineas, to
+be run for instead of bells. Butcher, in his survey of the town of
+Stamford (1646), also says that a race was annually run in that town for
+a silver and gilt cup and cover, of the value of L7 or L8, provided by
+the care of the aldermen for the time being out of the interest of a
+stock formerly made by the nobility and gentry of the neighbourhood.
+
+In 1648 Clarendon tells us that a meeting of Royalists was held at
+Banstead Downs, as Epsom Downs were then called, "under the pretence of
+a horse-race," so that horse-racing at Epsom was not unknown early in
+the 17th century; Pepys, too, in his _Diary_ of 1663, mentions his
+having intended to go to Banstead Downs to see a famous horse-race.
+Cromwell is said to have kept running horses in the year 1653, but in
+1654 he appears to have gone so far as to forbid racing for six and
+eight months respectively. After the Reformation in 1660, a new impetus
+was given to horse-racing, which had languished during the civil wars,
+and the races at Newmarket, which had been suspended, were restored and
+attended by the king; and as an additional spur to emulation, according
+to Youatt, royal plates were given at each of the principal courses, and
+royal mares, as they were called, were imported from abroad. Charles II.
+rebuilt the house originally erected at Newmarket by James I., which had
+fallen into decay. The Round course was made in 1666, and racing at the
+headquarters of the turf was regulated in the most systematic way, as to
+the course, weights and other conditions. Charles II. was the first
+monarch who entered and ran horses in his own name; and, besides being a
+frequent visitor at the races on Newmarket Heath, and on Burford Downs,
+near Stockbridge, where the Bibury Club meeting was held, he established
+races at Datchet. In the reign of James II. nothing specially noteworthy
+occurred, but William III. continued former crown donations and even
+added to them.
+
+Anne was much devoted to horse-racing, and not only gave royal plates to
+be competed for, but ran horses for them in her own name. In 1703
+Doncaster races were established, when 4 guineas a year were voted by
+the corporation towards a plate, and in 1716 the Town Plate was
+established by the same authority to be run on Doncaster Moor. Nearly a
+century, however, elapsed before the St Leger was instituted. Matches at
+Newmarket had become common, for we find that Basto, one of the earliest
+race-horses of whom we have any authentic account, won several matches
+there in 1708 and 1709. In the latter year, according to Camden, York
+races were established, the course at first being on Clifton Ings, but
+it was subsequently removed to Knavesmire, on which the races are now
+run. In 1710 the first gold cup said to have been given by the queen, of
+60 guineas value, was run for by six-year-old horses carrying 12 stone
+each, the best of three 4-mile heats, and was won by Bay Bolton. In 1711
+it was increased to 100 guineas. In 1712 Queen Anne's gelding Pepper ran
+for the Royal Cup of L100 at York, and her Mustard, a nutmeg-grey horse,
+ran for the same prize in 1713. Again in 1714 her Majesty's bay horse
+Star won a sweepstake of 10 guineas added to a plate of L40 at the same
+place, in four heats, carrying 11 stone. In 1716 the Ladies' Plate at
+York for five-year-olds was won by Aleppo, son of the Darley Arabian.
+Racing and match-making continued to be a regular sport at Newmarket,
+and at York and Hambleton, and we also find a record of a race at
+Lincoln in August 1717 for a silver tea-board, won by Brocklesby Betty,
+as was the Queen's Plate at Black Hambleton in the year before.
+
+Between 1714 and 1720 there were races at Pontefract in Yorkshire for
+plates or money. The best of two out of three heats was to be the
+winner, provided the said horse was not distanced in the third heat--the
+distance post being 1 furlong from the winning post; and this appears to
+have been a usual condition. In or about the year 1721 Flying Childers
+is said to have run a trial against Almanzor and Brown Betty over the
+Round course at Newmarket (3 m. 4 f. 93 y.) in 6 m. 40 s., and another
+trial over the Beacon course (4 m. 1 f. 138 y.) in 7 m. 30 s.--which is
+fast even for a six-year old; but it is just possible that in those days
+the art of time-taking was anything but perfect. In 1721 George I. gave
+100 guineas in specie in lieu of the gold cup at York presented by Anne,
+and the king's or queen's plates have been given in cash ever since. In
+1725 a ladies' plate was run for on the 14th of September by female
+riders on Ripon Heath in Yorkshire. In 1727 Mr John Cheney established
+the _Racing Calendar_--an historical list of all the horse matches run,
+and of all plates and prizes run for in England and Wales of the value
+of L10 or upwards in 1727, &c. No systematic records had till then been
+preserved of the running of the race-horses of the day, and it is only
+through the performances of certain celebrated horses and mares that we
+have any information of what actually took place, and even that is more
+or less of a fragmentary kind. At this time racing was thoroughly
+established as a national and popular sport, for there were upwards of a
+hundred meetings in England and Wales; but the plates or sweepstakes run
+for were for the most part of small value, as L10, L20, L30, L40, and
+sometimes L50. In 1727, according to Whyte, there were only a dozen
+royal plates run for in England: one at Newmarket in April for
+six-year-old horses at 12 stone each, in heats over the Round
+course--first called the King's Plate course; one for five-year-old
+mares at 10 stone each, in one heat, and another in October for
+six-year-old horses at 12 stone, in heats over the same course; one at
+York (which commenced in 1711) for six-year-old horses, 12 stone each,
+4-m. heats; one at Black Hambleton, Yorkshire (of which no regular
+account was kept until 1715), for five-year-old mares, 10 stone, 4 m.;
+one at each of the following places, Nottingham, Lincoln, Guildford,
+Winchester, Salisbury and Lewes, for six-year-old horses, 12 stone each,
+4-m. heats; and one at Ipswich for five-year-old horses, 10 stone each.
+A royal plate was also run for at Edinburgh in 1728 or 1729, and one at
+the Curragh of Kildare in 1741.
+
+In 1739 an act was passed to prevent racing by ponies and weak horses,
+13 Geo. II. cap. 10, which also prohibited prizes or plates of less
+value than L50. At this period the best horses seldom ran more than five
+or six times, and some not so often, there being scarcely any plates of
+note except royal ones, and very few sweepstakes or matches of value
+except at Newmarket until after 1750; moreover, as the races were run in
+heats, best three out of four, over a course of several miles in length,
+the task set the horses before winning a plate was very severe, and by
+no means commensurate with the value of the prize. In 1751 the great
+subscription races commenced at York, the city also giving L50 added
+money to each day's racing. At Newmarket there were only two meetings,
+one in April and the other in October, but in 1753 a second spring
+meeting was established, and in that year the Jockey Club, which was
+founded in 1750, established the present racing ground. In 1762 a second
+October meeting was added, in 1765 the July meeting, in 1770 the
+Houghton meeting, and in 1771 the Craven meeting. In 1766 Tattersall's
+was established at Hyde Park Corner by Richard Tattersall for the sale
+of horses; it remained the great emporium of horses, and the rendezvous
+for betting on horse races, until 1865, when, the lease of the premises
+at the Corner having run out, it was removed to Knightsbridge.
+
+We now come to a very important period--that at which the great
+three-year-old races were instituted.
+
+
+  The St Leger.
+
+The St Leger was established in 1776 by Colonel St Leger, who resided at
+Parkhill, near Doncaster. On the 24th of September, during the Doncaster
+races, which took place annually in the autumn, at his suggestion a
+sweepstake of 25 guineas each for three-year-old colts and fillies was
+run over a 2-m. course; there were six competitors, the property of as
+many subscribers,--a very small beginning, it must be owned. The race
+was won by a filly by Sampson, belonging to Lord Rockingham, which was
+afterwards named Allabaculia. In the following year the same stake had
+twelve subscribers and ten starters, and was won by Mr Sotheron's
+Bourbon. It was not, however, until the succeeding year, 1778, that it
+was named the St Leger, in compliment to the founder, at the suggestion
+of the marquis of Rockingham. The stakes were increased in 1832 to 50
+sovs. each, and the weights have been raised from time to time to keep
+pace with modern requirements. The Doncaster Cup, a weight for age race
+for three-year-olds and upwards, was established in 1801. The course is
+nearly flat, of an oval or kite shape, about 1(3/4) m. round the
+town-moor.
+
+
+  The Derby and Oaks.
+
+The Epsom Derby and Oaks were established in 1779 and 1780, the Oaks in
+the former and the Derby in the latter year. It is true that in 1730
+Epsom races became annual, but the prizes were nothing more than the
+usual plates run for in heats, the money required being raised by
+voluntary subscriptions, as well by the owners of booths on the downs as
+by the parties more immediately interested, whence arose the custom of
+charges being made by the lord of the manor for permission to erect
+booths, &c. during the race-meetings. On the 14th of May 1779 the
+twelfth earl of Derby originated the Oaks stakes (named after his seat
+or hunting-box "The Oaks" at Woodmansterne), a sweepstake for
+three-year-old fillies run on a course 1(1/2) m. long. The race was won
+by Lord Derby's bay filly Bridget, bred by himself--her sire being Herod
+and her dam Jemima. In the following year the earl established a
+sweepstake of 50 sovs. each, half forfeit, for three-year-old colts.
+This, the first Derby, was won by Sir C. Bunbury's chestnut colt Diomed
+by Florizel, son of Herod, who beat eight opponents, including the duke
+of Bolton's Bay Bolton and Lord Grosvenor's Diadem. These two races have
+since been run for regularly every year, the Derby, which before 1839
+was run on the Thursday, now taking place on the Wednesday, and the Oaks
+on the Friday, in the same week at the end of May.
+
+
+  Ascot Races.
+
+Ascot races, which are held on Ascot Heath, were established by the duke
+of Cumberland, uncle of George III., and are patronized by royalty in
+state or semi-state. They are mentioned in the first _Racing Calendar_,
+published in 1727, but the races were for the most part plates and other
+prizes of small importance, though a royal plate for hunters appears to
+have been given in 1785. The Gold Cup was first given in 1807, and has
+been regularly competed for ever since, though from 1845 to 1853
+inclusive it went by the designation of the Emperor's Plate, the prize
+being offered by the emperor of Russia. In 1854, during the Crimean War,
+the cup was again called the Ascot Gold Cup, and was given from the race
+fund. The Queen's Vase was first given in 1838, and the Royal Hunt Cup
+in 1843, while in 1865 a new long-distance race for four-year-olds and
+upwards was established, and named the Alexandra Plate, after the
+Princess of Wales.
+
+
+  Goodwood.
+
+Goodwood races were established by the duke of Richmond on the downs at
+the northern edge of Goodwood Park in 1802, upon the earl of Egremont
+discontinuing races in his park at Petworth. The races take place at the
+end of July, on the close of the London season. The Goodwood Cup, the
+chief prize of the meeting, was first given in 1812; but from 1815 to
+1824 inclusive there was no race for it, with the single exception of
+1816.
+
+
+  Two Thousand, &c.
+
+During the latter half of the 18th century horse-racing declined very
+much in England, and numbers of meetings were discontinued, the wars
+which took place necessarily causing the change. From the beginning of
+the 19th century, and especially after the conclusion of the French war
+in 1815, racing rapidly revived, and many new meetings were either
+founded or renewed after a period of suspension, and new races were from
+time to time established. Among others the Two Thousand Guineas at
+Newmarket for three-year-old colts and fillies, and the One Thousand
+Guineas for fillies, were established in 1809 and 1814 respectively, the
+Goodwood Stakes in 1823, the Chester Cup and Brighton Stakes in 1824,
+the Liverpool Summer Cup in 1828, the Northumberland Plate in 1833, the
+Manchester Cup in 1834, the Ascot Stakes and the Cesarewitch and
+Cambridgeshire Handicaps at Newmarket in 1839, the Stewards' and
+Chesterfield Cups at Goodwood in 1840, the Great Ebor Handicap at York
+in 1843, and, to omit others, the City and Suburban Handicap at Epsom in
+1851, and the Lincoln Handicap in 1853.
+
+Two-year-old racing was established very shortly after the great
+three-year-old races, and on a similar footing, that is to say, the
+competitors carried the same weights, with the exception of a slight
+allowance for sex,--the July Stakes at the Newmarket Midsummer Meeting
+having been founded as early as 1786. The Woodcote Stakes at Epsom
+succeeded in 1807, the Champagne Stakes at Doncaster in 1823, the
+Criterion Stakes at the Houghton Meeting in 1829, the Chesterfield
+Stakes at the Newmarket July meeting in 1834, the New Stakes at Ascot in
+1843, the Middle Park Plate (or two-year-old Derby, as it is sometimes
+called) at the Newmarket Second October Meeting in 1866, the Dewhurst
+Plate at the Houghton Meeting in 1875, and the Richmond Stakes at
+Goodwood in 1877.     (E. D. B.)
+
+
+  Classic Races in England.
+
+_Present Conditions._--Horse-racing, usually described as "the national
+sport," has greatly advanced in general popularity in the British Isles.
+There is no doubt that the best specimens of the English thoroughbred
+horse are the finest animals of their kind in existence; the value of an
+infusion of the blood for chargers, hunters, hacks, and other varieties
+is scarcely to be overestimated; and the only way of ascertaining what
+animals may be most judiciously employed for breeding purposes is to
+submit them to the tests of preparation for and performance on the turf.
+Racing is therefore a practical necessity. On some accepted authority,
+the origin of which is not to be traced, five races run each season by
+three-year-olds are distinguished as "classic." Of these the chief, by
+universal consent, is the Derby, which takes place at Epsom during the
+week which includes the 31st May. The Epsom course, on which the Derby
+has been run since its origin in 1780, is by no means a good one, in
+consequence of the abrupt turn at Tattenham Corner; and the severe
+descent after this turn is made is also held to be a disadvantage,
+though a really good horse should be able to act on ascents, descents
+and level ground with equal relative facility. In many respects the St
+Leger, run at Doncaster about the middle of September, is a better test,
+as here colts and fillies meet when both are presumably able to do
+themselves the fullest justice. September, indeed, has been called "the
+Mares' Month," for though fillies are eligible to run in the Derby, they
+are very frequently out of sorts and always more or less uncertain in
+their performances during the summer--only four have been successful in
+129 contests for the stake--whereas in the autumn their numerous
+victories in the St Leger prove them to be at their best. It was the
+recognition of this fact which induced an alteration of the weights in
+the year 1882, previously to which fillies had carried 5 lb. less than
+colts; the weights, formerly 8 st. 10 lb. and 8 st. 5 lb., are now 9 st.
+and 8 st. 11 lb. The Doncaster course is superior for racing purposes to
+that at Epsom, where the Oaks, another of the "classic races," is run on
+the Friday following the Derby; the other two contests which come into
+this category being the Two Thousand Guineas for colts and fillies, and
+the One Thousand Guineas for fillies only. These races take place at
+Newmarket during the First Spring Meeting, the former always on a
+Wednesday, the latter on Friday. The expression "a Derby horse" is
+common, but has no precise significance, as the three-year-olds vary
+much in capacity from year to year. It is generally understood, for
+instance, that Ormonde, who won the Derby in 1886, must have been at
+least 21 lb. superior to Sir Visto or Jeddah, who were successful in
+1895 and 1898. By their ability to carry weight the value of horses is
+estimated on the turf. Thus one horse who beats another by a length over
+a distance of a mile would be described as a 5-lb. better animal.
+
+
+  Handicap Horses.
+
+The term "handicap horse" once had an adverse significance which it does
+not now possess. In handicaps horses carry weight according to their
+presumed capacity, as calculated by handicappers who are licensed by the
+Jockey Club and employed by the directors of different meetings. The
+idea of a handicap is to afford chances of success to animals who would
+have no prospect of winning if they met their rivals on equal terms; but
+of late years the value of handicaps has been so greatly increased that
+few owners resist the temptation of taking part in them. Horses nowadays
+who do not run in this kind of contest are very rare, though a few, such
+as Ormonde, Isinglass, and Persimmon, never condescended to this class
+of sport. The duke of Westminster did not hesitate to put his Derby
+winner Bend Or into some of the chief handicaps; and it is, of course, a
+great test of merit when horses carrying heavy weights show marked
+superiority in these contests to rivals of good reputation more lightly
+burdened. St Gatien, who dead-heated with Harvester in the Derby of
+1884; Robert the Devil, who won the St Leger in 1880 and on several
+occasions beat the Derby winner Bend Or; and La Fleche, who won the Oaks
+and the St Leger in 1892, added to the esteem in which they were held by
+their successes under heavy weights, the colts in the Cesarewitch, the
+filly in the Cambridgeshire. Of the chief handicaps of the year, special
+mention may be made of the City and Suburban, run at the Epsom Spring
+Meeting over 1(1/4) m.; the Kempton Park Jubilee, over 1 m.; the Ascot
+Stakes, 2 m., and the Royal Hunt Cup, 1 m.; the Stewards' Cup at
+Goodwood, six furlongs; the Cesarewitch Stakes and the Cambridgeshire
+Stakes at Newmarket, the former 2(1/4) m., the latter now a mile and a
+furlong--till lately it was "a mile and a distance"--"a distance" on the
+Turf being a fixed limit of 240 yds. The cups at Manchester, Newbury,
+and Liverpool are also handicaps of some note, though it may be remarked
+that the expression "a cup horse" is understood to imply an animal
+capable of distinguishing himself over a long distance at even weights
+against the best opponents. There are many other valuable stakes of
+almost equal importance, diminishing to what are known as "selling
+handicaps," the winners of which are always put up for sale by auction
+immediately after the race, in the lowest class of them the condition
+being that the winner is to be offered for L50. No stake of less than
+L100 can be run for under Jockey Club rules, which govern all reputable
+flat racing in England, nor is any horse ever entered to be sold for
+less than L50. As horses mature they are naturally able to carry heavier
+weights.
+
+  _Scale of Weight for Age._
+
+  The following scale of weight for age is published under the sanction
+  of the Stewards of the Jockey Club as a guide to managers of race
+  meetings, but is not intended to be imperative, especially as regards
+  the weights of two-and three-year olds relatively to the old horses in
+  selling races early in the year. It is founded on the scale published
+  by Admiral Rous, and revised by him in 1873, but has been modified in
+  accordance with suggestions from the principal trainers and practical
+  authorities.
+
+  +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |      Age.       |Mar. and|  May.  |  June. |  July. |  Aug.  | Sept.  |Oct. and|
+  |                 | April. |        |        |        |        |        |  Nov.  |
+  +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |_Five Furlongs_--|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|st.  lb.|
+  |  Two years      | 6    0 | 6    2 | 6    7 | 6    9 | 7    0 | 7    4 | 7    7 |
+  |  Three years    | 8    2 | 8    3 | 8    5 | 8    7 | 8    9 | 8   10 | 8   11 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9    1 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |_Six Furlongs_-- |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Two years      | 6    0 | 6    4 | 6    7 | 6   11 | 7    0 | 7    5 | 7    7 |
+  |  Three years    | 8    4 | 8    6 | 8    8 | 8   10 | 8   12 | 9    0 | 9    2 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9    9 | 9    8 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 | 9    7 |
+  |_One Mile_--     |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Two years      |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   | 6    5 | 6    7 |
+  |  Three years    | 7    9 | 7   11 | 7   13 | 8    2 | 8    4 | 8    5 | 8    6 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9    4 | 9    3 | 9    2 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |_One Mile and a  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    Half_--      |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Two years      |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   | 6    0 | 6    4 |
+  |  Three years    | 7    7 | 7    9 | 7   11 | 7   13 | 8    1 | 8    3 | 8    5 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9    5 | 9    4 | 9    3 | 9    2 | 9    1 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |_Two Miles_--    |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Two years      |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   | 6    0 | 6    2 |
+  |  Three years    | 7    8 | 7   11 | 7   12 | 8    0 | 8    3 | 8    4 | 8    5 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 | 9    4 |
+  |  Five, six and  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |    aged         | 9   10 | 9    9 | 9    8 | 9    7 | 9    6 | 9    5 | 9    4 |
+  |_Three Miles_--  |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
+  |  Three years    | 7    1 | 7    4 | 7    5 | 7    7 | 7    9 | 7   11 | 7   13 |
+  |  Four years     | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 | 9    0 |
+  |  Five years     | 9    8 | 9    7 | 9    6 | 9    5 | 9    5 | 9    4 | 9    3 |
+  |  Six and aged   | 9   10 | 9    8 | 9    7 | 9    6 | 9    5 | 9    4 | 9    3 |
+  +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+
+  L10,000 Races.
+
+In the year 1884 the managers of Sandown Park formulated the scheme of a
+race for a prize of L10,000, to be called the Eclipse Stakes, and to be
+run over a distance of 1(1/4) m. In order to secure a large entry, horses
+were to be nominated soon after their birth; owners who perceived the
+hopelessness of their nominations could withdraw at stated intervals by
+the payment of increasing forfeits; if their animals finally went to the
+post a stake amounting in all to L115 would have to be paid for them;
+and thus it will be seen that owners were really running for their own
+money, though if there were an insufficient number of entries the funds
+of the club might be taxed to supply the deficiency. The scheme was
+found to be attractive, and the example was followed at Leicester and at
+Manchester, at both of which places, however, it lapsed. At Newmarket,
+under the immediate auspices of the Jockey Club, the L10,000 races
+succeeded, and there were two of them each year. The Princess of Wales's
+Stakes was run for the first time in 1894 at the First July Meeting, and
+the Jockey Club Stakes at the First October. The former has, however,
+now been reduced to L2000 added to a sweepstake of L30 each with a minor
+forfeit. In the year 1900 a fourth race of similar character, the
+Century Stakes, was originated at Sandown, but the experiment proved a
+failure, and the contest was discontinued.
+
+
+  Two-year-old Races.
+
+The age of the thoroughbred horse is always dated from the 1st January.
+Foals are generally born in February, March or April, though not a few
+good horses have been born in May; they become yearlings, therefore, on
+the 1st January following, two-year-olds twelve months later, and many
+of them begin to race in the following March, for flat racing always
+starts during the week which contains the 25th, except when Easter falls
+unusually early. In France no two-year-olds run until the 1st August,
+and discussion is frequently raised as to the respective wisdom of the
+English and French systems. It happens, however, that some young horses
+"come to hand" soon, and deteriorate with equal rapidity. They are, in
+fact, able to win races at the beginning of the season, and fail to hold
+their own later in the year against bigger and more powerful animals of
+their own age who have taken longer to mature; so that there is some
+argument in favour of the earlier date. The first noteworthy
+two-year-old race is the Brocklesby Stakes, run at Lincoln during the
+first week of the season. Sometimes the winner of the Brocklesby is
+really a good animal, as was the case with The Bard in 1885 and Donovan
+in 1888, but as a general rule when the autumn comes he is found to be
+far inferior to the winners of subsequent two-year-old races of good
+class. It is seldom that a first-class two-year-old appears before the
+Ascot Meeting about the middle of June, though horses of character
+sometimes run for the Woodcote Stakes at Epsom and in other contests
+elsewhere. The names of many of the most famous horses on the turf are
+found in the list of winners of the New Stakes at Ascot, which was first
+run in 1843 and maintains its character. In 1890 the Coventry Stakes was
+originated, and is regarded as a race of practically equal importance.
+The July Stakes at Newmarket is the oldest of existing two-year-old
+races, having been first run in 1786. The list of winners is a brilliant
+one. The Chesterfield Stakes ranks with it. The best two-year-olds are
+usually seen out at Goodwood, and as a general rule those that have
+chiefly distinguished themselves during the year, and are to make names
+for themselves later in life, are found contesting the Middle Park Plate
+at the Newmarket Second October Meeting and the Dewhurst Plate at the
+Newmarket Houghton. The Middle Park Plate is generally worth over L2000,
+the other races named are between L1000 and L2000 in value; but these
+are not the richest two-year-old prizes of the year, the value of the
+National Breeders' Produce Stakes at Sandown, run on the day following
+the Eclipse, being between L4000 and L5000, and the Imperial Stakes at
+Kempton Park falling not very far short of L3000. As a rule, a colt who
+has been specially successful as a two-year-old maintains his capacity
+later in life, unless it be found that he cannot "stay"--that is to say,
+is unable to maintain his best speed over more than five or six
+furlongs; but it is frequently the case that fillies who have won good
+races as two-year-olds entirely lose their form and meet with little or
+no success afterwards.
+
+
+  Newmarket.
+
+  Ascot and other meetings.
+
+Newmarket is called with reason "the headquarters of the Turf." There
+are about forty training establishments in the town, each trainer being
+in charge of an average of thirty to forty horses, irrespective of
+mares, foals and yearlings. During the year eight race meetings are held
+on the Heath: the Craven; the First and Second Spring; the First and
+Second October--the First October usually occurring at the end of
+September; and the Houghton. These are contested on "the Flat," the
+course which includes the Rowley Mile. It is said that the Rowley Mile
+is so called from the fact of its having been a favourite race-ground
+with Charles II. The First and Second July Meetings take place on
+another course, known as "Behind the Ditch," the Ditch being the huge
+embankment which runs through several counties and has existed from time
+immemorial. The Craven Stakes for three-year-olds is an event of some
+importance at the first meeting of the year. It used to finish on an
+ascent at what is called the "Top of the Town," a course over which the
+handicap for the Cambridgeshire was run. This course has now been
+abandoned and the stand pulled down. At the First Spring Meeting the Two
+Thousand Guineas and the One Thousand Guineas occur, as already stated,
+but the names do not represent the values of the stakes, which are, in
+fact, usually worth close on L5000 each. The July Stakes and the
+Princess of Wales' Stakes are run at the First July Meeting. The Jockey
+Club Stakes is the leading event of the First October; the Cesarewitch
+and the Middle Park Plates follow in the Second October; the Criterion
+Stakes, another of the few races that once finished at the "Top of the
+Town," the Cambridgeshire and the Dewhurst Plate take place at the
+Houghton Meeting. The majority of races finish at the Rowley Mile post;
+but there are three other winning-posts along the Rowley Mile. "Behind
+the Ditch" races finish at two different posts, one of which enables
+horses to avoid the necessity of galloping up the severe ascent of the
+"Bunbury Mile." Although, as a rule, there is no better racing to be
+seen than the best events at Newmarket, the programmes are often spun
+out by selling plates and paltry handicaps, and a high level is nowhere
+so consistently maintained as at Ascot. The Ascot meeting is
+distinguished by the entire absence of selling plates, and much more
+"added money" is given than on any other course. Added money is the sum
+supplied by the directors of a race meeting, derived by them from the
+amounts paid for entrances to stands and enclosures; for in many
+races--the Ten Thousand prizes, for instance--owners run mainly or
+entirely for money which they have themselves provided. The Ascot Cup is
+generally spoken of as a race success in which sets the seal to the fame
+of a good horse. It is a prize of the highest distinction, and of late
+years has been of considerable value, the winner in 1909 having gained
+for his owner L3430. That the number of runners for this race should be
+invariably small--the average for many years past has been about six--is
+not a matter of surprise to those who are familiar with the Turf. There
+are very few horses possessing sufficient speed and staying power to
+make it worth the while of their owners to submit them to the
+exceedingly severe test of a preparation for this race, which is run
+over 2(1/2) m. of ground at a time of year when the turf is almost always
+extremely hard everywhere, and harder at Ascot than almost anywhere
+else. There is no course on which more good horses have hopelessly
+broken down. All the prizes are handsome, and success at Ascot confers
+much prestige, for the reason that the majority of horses that run are
+good ones; but annually there is a list of victims that never recover
+from the effects of galloping on this ground. Goodwood also attracts
+horses of high character, though some unimportant races fill out the
+programme. Formerly there were many meetings around London, which fell
+into disrepute in consequence of the manner in which they were
+conducted. These have been replaced by well-managed gatherings in
+enclosed parks, and here the value of the prizes is often so high that
+the best horses in training are attracted. These meetings include
+Sandown, Kempton, Gatwick, Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park. Liverpool,
+Manchester, Birmingham, Brighton, York and various other towns have race
+meetings twice or oftener in the course of each year. At the various
+fixtures over half a million of money is annually given in stakes. The
+largest sum ever won by a horse was the L57,185 gained by Isinglass in
+1892-1895. Donovan follows with L54,935. In all probability these large
+totals would have been considerably exceeded had not Flying Fox--who had
+won in his first two seasons L40,090--been disqualified by the death of
+his owner, the duke of Westminster, as this colt was engaged in the four
+L10,000 races of 1900, in which to all appearance he could not have been
+beaten, so much was he superior to his contemporaries. The death of an
+owner of horses disqualifies the animals he has entered--a necessary
+regulation, as otherwise an heir might be burdened with a stable of
+horses the possession of which would entail heavy expense and serious
+responsibility on a person who perhaps had no knowledge of or taste for
+racing.
+
+
+  Value of horses.
+
+The value of an unquestionably good horse is enormous. It has been seen
+what handsome prizes are offered for competition, and when withdrawn
+from the Turf the horse may secure a large income to his owner at the
+stud. A stallion's fee of 600 guineas (as in the case of St Simon)
+should mean well over L20,000 a year; and fees of 100 guineas and more
+are common. Proved merit on the Turf is considered essential in a sire,
+though there have been instances of horses, unsuccessful during their
+racing career, who have distinguished themselves at the stud: Wisdom,
+sire of the Derby winner Sir Hugo, and several notable examples might be
+cited. Mares are much more uncertain in this respect. On the whole, the
+famous mares that have won the Oaks, the St Leger and other leading
+races, have been apt to fail in the paddocks; but there is always a hope
+of success with them, and the large sum of 12,600 guineas was paid for
+La Fleche when she had ceased from active service on the Turf. For
+None-the-Wiser 7200 guineas was given; and 4600 guineas for Wedlock when
+well advanced in years, on the strength of her having been the dam of a
+good horse called Best Man. Well-bred mares that have shown no capacity
+for racing are, however, frequently the dams of good winners. Breeding
+is a lottery. An Australian enthusiast some years since published a book
+the object of which was to enable breeders to produce good horses by a
+species of mathematical calculation; but the fallacy of the "Figure
+System" was at once proved by the simple circumstance that in very many
+cases the own brothers and sisters of good winners, whose breeding
+conformed entirely to the system, proved to be utterly worthless for
+racing purposes. It is a fact difficult of explanation that the majority
+of famous winners have been privately bred by their owners. Many persons
+breed for sale, in some cases sparing no expense or trouble in the
+endeavour to secure good results, and yearlings sold by auction have
+fetched prices of from 10,000 guineas (paid for Sceptre, a daughter of
+Persimmon and Ornament, in 1900) downwards; sums of over 1000 guineas
+being frequently given. That so large a proportion of high-priced
+yearlings should turn out failures is not at all a matter for surprise,
+considering the uncertainties of the Turf, but it by no means follows
+that a high-priced yearling is necessarily an expensive animal; 5500
+guineas was, for instance, given for La Fleche, who won for her owner
+L34,585 in stakes, and, as already observed, was subsequently sold for
+12,600 guineas. The principal yearling sales take place during the July
+meeting at Newmarket and the Doncaster meeting in September. There are
+also sales at Ascot and elsewhere. The Royal Stud at Bushey Park, where
+Memoir, La Fleche, Best Man and other good animals were bred, has now
+been abandoned.
+
+
+  Trainers and jockeys.
+
+In many cases trainers have graduated from jockeys. The usual charge to
+an owner is 50s. a week per horse, but, as regards the cost of a horse
+in training, to this there are various additions irrespective of
+entrances to races, forfeits, travelling, jockey's fees, &c. The
+recognized sum paid to a jockey is 3 guineas for a losing mount, 5
+guineas for winning. In many cases special terms are made; the principal
+owners usually have a claim on a rider's services, and for this call as
+much as L5000 per annum, exclusive of the usual riding fees, has been
+given.
+
+From time immemorial until within a very recent period jockeys rode in
+much the same style, though, of course, with varying degrees of skill.
+Many hundreds of boys exercise daily at Newmarket and other training
+grounds, all of them necessarily having a firm seat in the saddle, for
+the thoroughbred horse is, as a rule, high-couraged and apt to play
+violent tricks; but though most of these lads find chances to
+distinguish themselves in trials and races for apprentices, probably not
+5% grow into professional jockeys, increasing weight keeping many from
+the business, as a jockey has few chances unless he can ride well under
+9 stone. Knowledge of pace is a rare gift or acquisition which is
+essential to successful jockeyship. The rider must also be quick to
+perceive how his own horse is going--what he has "left in him"; he must
+understand at a glance which of his rivals are beaten and which are
+still likely to be dangerous; must know when the moment comes for the
+supreme effort to be made, and how to balance and prepare the horse for
+that critical struggle. At the beginning of the race the jockey used to
+stand in his stirrups, with the idea of removing weight from the horse's
+back and preserving perfect steadiness; towards the end of the race, if
+it were necessary to drive the animal home, he sat down "to finish."
+
+This method used to be adopted in all countries, but recently a new
+system came into practice in America. Instead of putting the saddle in
+the middle of the horse's back, where it had always been placed
+previously, it was shifted forward on to the animal's withers. The
+jockey rode with very short stirrups, leaning forward over the neck and
+grasping the reins within a few inches of the horse's mouth. The
+appearance of this was ungainly in the extreme and an entire departure
+from ancient ways (though Fordham and a few other riders of great
+reputation had always sat much more forward than their contemporaries),
+but it was found to be remarkably effective. From the position thus
+adopted there was less resistance to the wind, and though the saving in
+this respect was largely exaggerated, in racing, where success or
+failure is frequently a matter of a very few inches, every little that
+helps is to be considered. The value of the discovery lay almost
+entirely in the fact that the horse carries weight better--and is
+therefore able to stride out more freely--when it is placed well forward
+on his shoulders. With characteristic conservatism the English were slow
+to accept the new plan. Several American jockeys, however, came to
+England. In all the main attributes of horsemanship there was no reason
+to believe that they were in the least superior to English jockeys, but
+their constant successes required explanation, and the only way to
+account for them appeared to be that horses derived a marked advantage
+from the new system of saddling. A number of English riders followed the
+American lead, and those who did so met with an unusual degree of
+success. Race-riding, indeed, was in a very great measure revolutionized
+in the closing years of the 19th century.
+
+
+  Foreign horses.
+
+Of late years American horses--bred, it must always be remembered, from
+stock imported from England--have won many races in England. Australian
+horses have also been sent to the mother country, with results
+remunerative to their owners, and the intermixture of blood which will
+necessarily result should have beneficial consequences. French
+horses--i.e. horses bred in France from immediate or from more or less
+remote English parentage--have also on various occasions distinguished
+themselves on English race-courses. That coveted trophy, the Ascot Cup,
+was won by a French horse, Elf II., in 1898, it having fallen also to
+the French-bred Verneuil in 1878, to Boiard in 1874, to Henry in 1872
+and to Mortemer in 1871. In the Cesarewitch Plaisanterie (3 yrs., 7 st.
+8 lb.) and Tenebreuse (4 yrs., 8 st. 12 lb.) were successful in 1885 and
+1888; and Plaisanterie also carried off the Cambridgeshire as a
+three-year-old with the heavy weight of 8 st. 12 lb. in a field of 27
+runners. In most respects racing in France is conducted with
+praiseworthy discrimination. There are scarcely any of the five- and
+six-furlong scrambles for horses over two years old which are such
+common features of English programmes.
+
+
+  Time.
+
+That the horses who have covered various distances in the shortest times
+on record must have been exceptionally speedy animals is obvious. The
+times of races, however, frequently form a most deceptive basis in any
+attempt to gauge the relative capacity of horses. A good animal will
+often win a race in bad time, for the reason that his opponents are
+unable to make him exert himself to the utmost. Not seldom a race is
+described as having been "won in a canter," and this necessarily
+signifies that if the winner had been harder pressed he would have
+completed the course more quickly. The following figures show the
+shortest times that had been occupied in winning over various distances
+up to the spring of 1910:--
+
+                                                                       M. S.
+                           / Mirida (2 years), Epsom, 1905       \
+    Five furlongs         <  Le Buff (aged), Epsom, 1903          > 0  56(2/5)
+                           \ Master Willie (aged), Epsom, 1903   /
+    Six furlongs             Master Willie (5 years), Epsom, 1901   1   7(1/5)
+    Seven furlongs           Vav (4 years), Epsom, 1907             1  20(3/5)
+    Mile                     Caiman (4 years), Lingfield, 1900      1  33(1/5)
+    Mile and a quarter       Housewife (3 years), Brighton, 1904    2   1(4/5)
+    Mile and a half          Zinfandel (3 years), Manchester, 1903  2  28(4/5)
+    Mile and three quarters  Golden Measure (4 years), York, 1906   2  57(4/5)
+    Two miles                Pradella (aged), Ascot, 1906           3  19(2/5)
+    Two miles and a half     Bachelor's Button, Ascot, 1906         4  23(1/5)
+    Three miles              Corrie Roy, Ascot, 1884                5   9
+
+  It may be noted that, as compared with similar records in 1901, only
+  three of these latter held good in 1910, i.e. the mile, the six
+  furlongs and the three miles. The fastest times over a mile and a half
+  (the Derby and Oaks distance) up to 1901 may be repeated here as of
+  some interest: Avidity, 2 min. 30(4/5) secs., in September 1901 at
+  Doncaster; Santoi, 2 min. 31 secs., in May 1901 at Hurst Park; King's
+  Courier, 2 min. 31 secs., in 1900 at Hurst Park; Landrail, 2 min. 34
+  secs., in September 1899 at Doncaster; Carbiston, 2 min. 37(2/5)
+  secs., in August 1899 at York; Bend Or, 2 min. 40 secs., in 1881 at
+  Epsom (gold cup): Volodyovski won the Derby in 1901, and Memoir the
+  Oaks in 1890, in 2 min. 40(4/5) secs.
+
+As regards time in famous races, Ormonde, perhaps the best horse of the
+19th century--one, at any rate, that can scarcely have had a
+superior--occupied 2 minutes 45(3/5) seconds in winning the Derby; and
+Lonely, one of the worst mares that have won the Oaks, galloped the same
+mile and a half in 2 seconds less. Ormonde's St Leger time was 3 m.
+21(2/5) s., and Sir Visto, one of the poorest specimens of a winner of
+the great Doncaster race, took 3 m. 18(2/5) s. The regulation of the
+weight to be carried serves to "bring the horses together," as the
+popular sporting phrase runs--that is to say, it equalizes their chances
+of winning; hence handicaps, the carrying of penalties by winners of
+previous races, and the granting of "maiden allowances." A horse that
+has never won a race, and is therefore known as a "maiden," often has an
+allowance of as much as 7 lb. made in its favour.
+
+
+  The Jockey Club.
+
+Sport is carried on under the auspices of the Jockey Club, a
+self-elected body of the highest standing, whose powers are absolute and
+whose sway is judicious and beneficent. Three stewards, one of whom
+retires each year, when a successor is nominated, govern the active--and
+extremely arduous--work of the club. They grant licences to trainers and
+jockeys and all officials, and supervise the whole business of racing.
+The stewards of the Jockey Club are _ex officio_ stewards of Ascot,
+Epsom, Goodwood and Doncaster. All other meetings are controlled by
+stewards, usually well-known patrons of the Turf invited to act by the
+projectors of the fixture, who settle disputed points, hear and
+adjudicate on objections, &c., and, if special difficulties arise,
+report to the stewards of the Jockey Club, whose decision is final.
+
+
+  Steeplechasing.
+
+Steeplechasing has altered entirely since the first introduction of this
+essentially British sport. In early days men were accustomed to match
+their hunters against each other and ride across country to a fixed
+point near to some steeple which guided them on their way; and this is
+no doubt, in several respects, a class of sport superior to that now
+practised under the name of steeplechasing; for it tested the capacity
+of the horse to jump fences of all descriptions, and provided the rider
+with opportunities of showing his readiness and skill in picking the
+best line of country. But racing of this kind afforded spectators a very
+small chance of watching the struggle; and made-up steeplechase courses,
+the whole circuit of which could be viewed from the enclosures, came
+into existence. The steeplechase horse has also changed. The speed of
+the thoroughbred is so much greater than that of all other breeds that
+if one were in the field, if he only stood up and could jump a little,
+his success was certain; consequently, except in "point-to-point" races,
+organized by various hunts, where a qualification is that all starters
+must have been regularly ridden with hounds, few other than thoroughbred
+horses are nowadays ever found in races run under the rules of the
+National Hunt Committee, the body which governs the sport of
+steeplechasing. A considerable proportion of existing steeplechase
+horses have done duty on the flat. Members of certain equine families
+display a special aptitude for jumping; thus the descendants of Hermit,
+who won the Derby in 1867, are very frequently successful in
+steeplechases--Hermit's son Ascetic, the sire of Cloister, Hidden
+Mystery and other good winners, is a notable case in point. The sons and
+daughters of Timothy and of several other Hermit horses often jump well.
+When a flat-race horse appears to have comparatively poor prospects of
+winning under Jockey Club rules, he is frequently, if he "looks like
+jumping," schooled for steeplechasing, generally in the first place over
+hurdles, and subsequently over what is technically called "a country,"
+beginning with small fences, over which he canters, led by some steady
+animal who is to be depended on to show the way. A great many
+steeplechase horses also come from Ireland. They are usually
+recognizable as thoroughbred, though it is possible that in some cases
+the name of an ancestor may be missing from the Stud Book. Irish
+horse-masters are for the most part particularly skilful in schooling
+jumpers, and the grass and climate of Ireland appear to have beneficial
+effects on young stock; but, as a rule, the imported Irish horse
+improves considerably in an English training-stable, where he is better
+fed and groomed than in most Irish establishments. All steeplechase
+courses must at the present time contain certain regulation jumps, the
+nature of which is specified in the National Hunt rules:--
+
+  44. In all steeplechase courses there shall be at least twelve fences
+  (exclusive of hurdles) in the first 2 m., and at least six fences in
+  each succeeding m. There shall be a water jump at least 12 ft. wide
+  and 2 ft. deep, to be left open, or guarded only by a perpendicular
+  fence not exceeding 2 ft. in height. There shall be in each m. at
+  least one ditch 6 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep on the taking-off side of
+  the fence, which ditch may be guarded by a single rail, or left open,
+  and which fence must be 4 ft. 6 in. in height, and, if of dead
+  brushwood or gorse, 2 ft. in width.
+
+  45. In all hurdle-race courses there shall be not less than eight
+  flights of hurdles in the first 2 m., with an additional flight of
+  hurdles for every quarter of a m. or part of one beyond that distance,
+  the height of the hurdles being not less than 3 ft. 6 in. from the
+  bottom bar to the top bar.
+
+Natural fences would no doubt be desirable if they could be utilized;
+but it is obvious that fences must be made up, because when the same
+hedge is jumped frequently, and for the most part in the same place--as
+it is the object of riders to go the shortest way round--gaps would
+necessarily be made. The use of these made courses naturally renders
+the sport somewhat artificial, but under existing conditions this is
+unavoidable; and as a matter of fact, by reason of the conformation of
+the ground, the arrangement and make of the fences, courses do vary in
+no small degree. The steeplechase horse differs from the hunter in his
+method of jumping. In riding to hounds a man usually steadies his horse
+at a fence, and in almost every case the animal "dwells" more or less
+after the leap. In a steeplechase, where speed is everything, horses
+must be taught to dash resolutely at their jumps without hesitation, and
+to get away with no pause on the other side; as a rule, therefore, an
+old steeplechase horse who is employed as a hunter is rarely a pleasant
+mount for any but a bold rider. It has been remarked that steeplechase
+horses are usually in the first place schooled over hurdles, and many
+animals remain hurdle racers till the end. More speed is required for
+hurdles than for a steeplechase course, and there is more money to be
+won over hurdles than over "a country." No hurdle race is worth so much
+as the Grand National or the Lancashire Handicap Steeplechase, the two
+richest prizes now offered; but, with the exception of these,
+hurdle-race stakes are as a rule of greater value. Except as a
+spectacle, there is little to be said in defence of this mongrel
+business, which is neither one thing nor the other; but hurdle races are
+popular and are therefore likely to continue. A few years ago an attempt
+was made to discriminate between what were called "hunters" and handicap
+steeplechase horses, and certain races were only open to the former
+class. It proved, however, to be a distinction without a difference;
+thoroughbred horses crept into the ranks of the so-called hunters, and
+when nominal hunters began to be entered for, and in some cases to win,
+the Grand National and other important steeplechases, for which they
+could be nominated by abandoning their qualification of hunter, the
+meaningless title was relinquished. Still more absurd were the hunters'
+flat races of a former day. In order to compete in these the rule was
+that an owner must produce a certificate from a master of hounds to the
+effect that his horse had been hunted. Thoroughbreds who lacked speed to
+win under Jockey Club rules used to be ridden to a meet, perhaps
+cantered across a field or two, and were then supposed to have become
+hunters. Animals who were genuinely and regularly utilized for the
+pursuit of foxes had of course no chance against these race-horses in
+shallow disguise. What are called National Hunt flat races still exist,
+the qualification being that a horse must have been placed first, second
+or third in a steeplechase in Great Britain or Ireland, after having
+jumped all the fences and completed the whole distance of the race to
+the satisfaction of at least two of the stewards, to whom previous
+notice must have been given in writing. There are no handicaps for such
+animals, and none is allowed to carry less than 11 stone. No race under
+National Hunt rules can be of a shorter distance than 2 m., except for
+three-year-olds, who sometimes run a mile and a half over hurdles; and
+the lowest weight carried can never be less than 10 stone except in a
+handicap steeplechase of 3(1/2) m. or upwards, when it may be 9 st. 7 lb.
+
+Horses are ridden in these races either by gentlemen, or qualified
+riders or jockeys. The first of these classes comprises officers on full
+pay in the army or navy, persons holding commissions under the Crown,
+bearing titles either in their own right or by courtesy, or members of
+certain social and racing clubs. Qualified riders may be farmers holding
+at least a hundred acres of land, their sons if following the same
+occupation, and persons elected by members of the National Hunt
+Committee, a proviso being that they must never have ridden for hire;
+but it is feared that this rule is in not a few cases evaded.
+Professional jockeys are paid L5 for each mount or L10 if they win. The
+sport is governed by the National Hunt Committee, a body which receives
+delegated powers from the Jockey Club, and six stewards are elected
+every year to supervise the business of the various meetings.
+Steeplechases and hurdle races are either handicaps or weight-for-age
+races according to the following scale:--
+
+  _For Steeplechases of 3 miles and upwards._
+
+    From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+      10 st. 3 lb.   11 st. 8 lb.     12 st. 3 lb.
+
+    From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+         11 st.       11 st. 12 lb.   12 st. 3 lb.
+
+  _For Steeplechases of less than 3 miles._
+
+    From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+      10 st. 10 lb.   11 st. 10 lb.   12 st. 3 lb.
+
+    From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+      11 st. 6 lb.       12 st.       12 st. 3 lb.
+
+  _For Hurdle Races._
+
+    From the 1st of January to the 31st of August, inclusive:--
+         4 yrs.          5 yrs.        6 and aged
+      11 st. 6 lb.    11 st. 10 lb.   12 st. 0 lb.
+
+    From the 1st of September to the 31st of December, inclusive:--
+         3 yrs.          4 yrs.      5, 6, and aged
+      10 st. 7 lb.    11 st. 12 lb.   12 st. 3 lb.
+
+
+  The Grand National.
+
+The great test of merit in a steeplechase horse is success in the Grand
+National, which is always run at Liverpool during the first week of the
+flat-racing season. The course is 4(1/2) m., and includes thirty jumps,
+the fences being for the most part larger than are found elsewhere. The
+average time occupied is well under ten minutes. The stake has varied in
+value since the race was originated in 1839; it now amounts to close on
+L2500. Only a very small percentage of steeplechase horses possess the
+speed and staying power to give them a chance in this race, and the
+number of entries year by year falls considerably short of a hundred,
+the prospects of many of these usually appearing hopeless to all but
+unduly sanguine owners. The average number of starters during the period
+1860-1901 was rather over twenty. As many as thirty-two competed in
+1909, when the French-bred Latteur III. won; in 1883, when Zoedone,
+ridden by her owner, Count Kinsky, was successful, only ten went to the
+post. Mishaps are almost invariably numerous; in most years about
+one-third complete the course. So severe is the task that for a long
+time many good judges of steeplechasing believed that no horse with more
+than 12 stone on his back could possibly win. In 1893, however, Cloister
+won in a canter by forty lengths carrying 12 st. 7 lb., and with the
+same weight Manifesto also won in 1899. The race which most nearly
+approaches the Grand National in importance is the Lancashire Handicap
+Steeplechase, run at Manchester over 3(1/2) m. early in April. The stake
+is worth about L1750. An interesting steeplechase called the Grand
+Sefton takes place at Liverpool about the middle of November; the
+distance is 3 m. During the winter, and extending into the spring,
+steeplechasing and hurdle racing are carried on at Sandown, Kempton,
+Gatwick, Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park; at Ludlow, Newmarket,
+Aldershot, Birmingham, Manchester, Windsor and other places. A race
+called the National Hunt Steeplechase, under the immediate patronage of
+the National Hunt Committee, is run annually over a 4-mile course, the
+stake being L1000. Managers of various courses bid for the privilege of
+having the race on their ground, and it is therefore found in different
+localities. A condition is that no horse who has ever won a race can
+compete; and, as few owners are willing to keep their animals with a
+view to success in this event, the field consists either of unknown
+horses or of those that have been beaten.
+
+
+  AUSTRALIA
+
+  Racing in Australia has its headquarters at Sydney, under the
+  government of the Australian Jockey Club, the principal course being
+  at Ranwick; and at Melbourne, where the Victoria Jockey Club is
+  supreme, the principal course being at Flemington. In New Zealand
+  sport is carried on under the authority of delegates from the chief
+  racing clubs, who meet in conference. There is a Sydney Derby and a
+  Victoria Derby, and a notable event at Flemington is the Champion
+  Race, weight-for-age, for three-year-olds and upwards, which usually
+  attracts the best horses in training, as the fee at which a sire
+  stands depends in a great measure on his success in this contest. This
+  race is over a distance of 3 m., and to ensure a good pace there is a
+  regulation that the time in which it is run must not exceed 5 minutes
+  40 seconds, though the stewards have power to extend this in case the
+  ground should be made exceptionally heavy by rainy weather. The
+  Melbourne Cup is regarded as one of the most important races in the
+  state. This is a handicap, and in comparison with English races may
+  perhaps be ranked with the Cesarewitch. The birth of horses dates from
+  the 1st of August, which corresponds as nearly as possible to the 1st
+  of February in England, so that the Australian horses are practically
+  seven months younger than the English--a matter of some importance in
+  the case of those sent to run in England. There are few races which
+  close long before the date of decision, and practically all the good
+  animals run in handicaps. The five- and six-furlong races for other
+  than two-year-olds, so common in Great Britain, are extremely rare;
+  and it is asserted by colonial sportsmen that their horses stay better
+  than those bred in England, a circumstance which is largely attributed
+  to the fact that mares and foals have much more liberty and exercise
+  than is the case in the mother country.
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+Horse-racing was indulged in to a limited extent in Maryland and
+Virginia as early as the middle of the 17th century, particularly in the
+latter colony. Most of the inhabitants of both were either from the
+British Isles or were descended from parents who had immigrated from
+them, and they inherited a taste for the sport. The animals used for
+this purpose, however, were not highly prized at the time, and the
+pedigree of not even one of them has been preserved. A horse called
+Bully Rock by the Darley Arabian out of a mare by the Byerly Turk,
+granddam by the Lister Turk, great-granddam a royal mare, foaled 1718,
+is the first recorded importation of a thoroughbred horse into America.
+He was imported into Virginia in 1730. In 1723 the duke of Bolton bred a
+mare named Bonny Lass by his celebrated horse Bay Bolton out of a
+daughter of the Darley Arabian. She became celebrated in England as a
+brood mare, and was the first thoroughbred mare, according to the
+records, that was carried to America. This is supposed to have been in
+or after 1740, as the _Stud-Book_ shows she produced in England after
+1739 a filly by Lord Lonsdale's Arabian, and subsequently became
+familiar to the public as the granddam of Zamora. The importations
+increased very rapidly from this period, and many valuable shipments
+were made before the war which resulted in a separation of the colonies
+from the mother country. This acquisition of thoroughbred stock
+increased the number and value of racing prizes, and extended the area
+of operations into the Carolinas in the South, and New Jersey and New
+York in the North. The first race run in South Carolina was in February
+1734 for L20. It took place over "the Green," on Charleston Neck. This
+shows that the earlier races in America were actually on the turf, as
+they have always been in England. The next year a Jockey Club was
+organized at Charleston (1735), and a course was prepared, such as those
+which came later into general use throughout the states, the turf being
+removed and the ground made as level as possible.
+
+After 1776, when the United States declared their independence of Great
+Britain, the importation of thoroughbred horses from England became
+quite common, and selections were made from the best stocks in the
+United Kingdom. This continued and even increased as the country became
+developed, down to 1840. The following Derby winners were among those
+carried into the states: Diomed, who won the first Derby in 1780;
+Saltram, winner in 1783; John Bull, winner in 1792; Spread Eagle, winner
+in 1795; Sir Harry, winner in 1798; Archduke, winner in 1799; and Priam,
+who won in 1830. The most important and valuable importations, however,
+proved to be Jolly Roger, Fearnought, Medley, Traveller, Diomed,
+Glencoe, Leviathan, Tranby, Lexington, Margrave, Yorkshire Buzzard,
+Albion and Leamington. The best results were obtained from Diomed and
+Glencoe. Diomed sired one horse, Sir Archy, who founded a family to
+which nearly all the blood horses of America trace back. He was foaled
+in 1805, in Virginia, and became celebrated as a sire. The superiority
+of his progeny was so generally conceded that they were greatly sought
+after. From this period, too, the number and value of races increased;
+still they were comparatively few in number, and could not compare in
+value with those of Great Britain. Up to 1860 the value of racing prizes
+was quite inadequate to develop large breeding establishments, or to
+sustain extensive training stables. Then the civil war between the North
+and the South broke out, which raged for four years. Breeding
+establishments were broken up during that time; the horses were taken by
+the armies for cavalry purposes, for which service they were highly
+prized; and racing was completely paralysed. It took some time to regain
+its strength; but an era of prosperity set in about 1870, and since then
+the progress in interest has been continuous.
+
+In the United States interest in trotting races more than rivals that
+felt in the contests of thoroughbred horses. This interest dates back to
+the importation to Philadelphia from England, in 1788, of the
+thoroughbred horse Messenger, a grey stallion, by Mambrino, 1st dam by
+Turf, 2nd dam by Regulus, 3rd dam by Starling, 4th dam by Fox, 5th dam
+Gipsey, by Bay Bolton, 6th dam by duke of Newcastle's Turk, 7th dam by
+Byerly Turk, 8th dam by Taffolet Barb, 9th dam by Place's White Turk. He
+was eight years old when imported to the United States. He was at the
+stud for twenty years, in the vicinity of Philadelphia and New York,
+serving a number of thoroughbred mares, but a far greater number of
+cold-blooded mares, and in the progeny of the latter the trotting
+instinct was almost invariably developed, while his thoroughbred sons,
+who became scattered over the country, were also noted for transmitting
+the trotting instinct. The first public trotting race of which there is
+any account in the United States was in 1818, when the grey gelding
+Boston Blue was matched to trot a mile in 3 minutes, a feat deemed
+impossible; but he won, though the time of his performance has not been
+preserved. From about that date interest in this gait began to increase;
+breeders of trotters sprang up, and horses were trained for trotting
+contests. The problem of breeding trotters has been necessarily found to
+be a much more complex one than that of breeding the thoroughbred, as in
+the latter case pure blood lines of long recognized value could be
+relied upon, while in the former the best results were constantly being
+obtained from most unexpected sources. Among the leading families came
+to be the Hambletonian, of which the modern head was Rysdyk's
+Hambletonian, a bay horse foaled in 1849, got by Abdallah (traced to
+imp. Messenger on the side of both sire and dam) out of the Charles Kent
+mare, by imp. (i.e. imported) Bellfounder, with two crosses to imp.
+Messenger on her dam's side; the Mambrinos, whose modern head was
+Mambrino Chief, foaled 1844, by Mambrino Paymaster, a grandson of imp.
+Messenger; the Bashaws, founded by Young Bashaw, foaled 1822, by Grand
+Bashaw, an Arabian horse, dam Pearl, by First Consul; the Clays,
+springing from Henry Clay, a grandson of Young Bashaw through Andrew
+Jackson; the Stars, springing from Stockholm's American Star, by Duroc,
+son of imp. Diomed; the Morgans, whose founder was Justin Morgan, foaled
+1793, by a horse called True Briton, or Beautiful Bay, who was probably
+thoroughbred; the Black Hawks, a branch of the Morgan family; the Blue
+Bulls, descended from Doyle's Blue Bull, foaled 1855, a pacer, sired by
+a pacer of the same name, dam by Blacknose, son of Medoc; the Canadians,
+whose best representatives were St Lawrence and pacing Pilot, horses of
+unknown pedigree; the Gold Dusts, another branch of the Morgan family;
+and the Royal Georges, springing from Tippoo, a horse who was probably
+by Ogden's Messenger, son of imp. Messenger. But trotters of great speed
+have been produced which do not trace to any of the sources mentioned.
+Very large prices are paid. Steinway, a three-year-old colt, was sold in
+1879, to go to California, for $13,000; and in 1878 $21,000 was paid for
+the four-year-old filly Maud S., after she had trotted a mile in public
+in 2 m. 17(1/2) s. Much larger sums have been paid, however, for matured
+trotters, such as $40,000 for the stallion Smuggler, $38,000 for
+Pocahontas, $35,000 for Dexter, $36,000 for Rarus, and long prices for
+many others; St Julien, the trotter with the fastest record at the close
+of 1879, was held at $50,000, while Rysdyk's Hambletonian, Messenger
+Duroc and Volunteer were valued, in their prime, at $100,000 each.
+
+Compared with the early days of American trotting, the advance has been
+rapid and the changes marked. After the performance of Boston Blue,
+mentioned above, more attention was paid to the gait, but for a long
+time the races were generally under saddle, and at long distances, 3 m.
+being rather the favourite. The best of the old time trotters were Edwin
+Forrest, who trotted a mile in 2 m. 31(1/2) s. in 1834; Dutchman, who
+did 3 m. under saddle in 7 m. 32(1/2) s.; Ripton; Lady Suffolk, who
+trotted a mile in 2 m. 26(1/2) s. in 1843, and headed the list of
+performers; Mac, Tacony, &c. After 1850, however, the taste of the
+people settled upon the style of race called "mile heats, best three out
+of five, in harness" as the favourite. By "in harness" is meant that the
+horse draws a sulky, a light two-wheeled vehicle in which the driver
+sits close to the horse, with his legs on each side of his flanks. These
+sulkies often weigh less than 40 lb. The driver is required to weigh,
+with the blanket on which he sits, 150 lb., while for saddle races the
+regulation weight is 145 lb., or 10 st. 5 lb. Each heat of a mile is a
+separate race; 20 minutes is allowed between heats; and the horse that
+first places three heats to his credit wins the race. There are various
+penalties imposed upon a horse that breaks into a run in a trotting
+race. The driver is required to pull him to a trot as quickly as
+possible; if the horse gains by running, the judges set him back at the
+finish twice the distance he has gained, in their estimation, by
+running; and for repeated "breaks" they can declare him distanced. The
+first-class tracks are of oval shape, with long stretches and easy
+curves, measuring 1 m. at 3 ft. distance from the "pole," as the inner
+railing of the track is called. The time in which the leading horse
+trots each heat is accurately kept, placed on a blackboard in front of
+the judges' stand for the information of the public, and also placed in
+the book of the course. The fastest time that any trotter has is thus
+entered as his "record." This is one of the distinctive features of
+trotting in America.
+
+Prior to 1866 purses for trotters were small; match races were more in
+vogue, and the trotting turf was in bad odour. In that year an
+association was formed at Buffalo, N.Y., which inaugurated its efforts
+by offering the then unprecedented sum of $10,500 for a trotting meeting
+of four days' duration. The experiment was successful; other cities
+followed the example of Buffalo; larger and larger purses were given;
+and at Buffalo in 1872 the prizes amounted to $70,000. Since then the
+amount offered in the United States and Canada, during a single year,
+has reached $1,500,000. Individual trotters, in the course of a long
+turf career, earn enormous amounts. A remarkable instance of this was
+the mare Goldsmith Maid, by Alexander's Abdallah (a son of Rysdyk's
+Hambletonian), out of an Abdallah mare. She began trotting in 1866, and
+left the turf in 1878, when twenty-one years old, and her winnings
+amounted to over $200,000.
+
+In 1869 the National Trotting Association was formed, under which an
+elaborate code of rules has been published.
+
+In trotting races, it will be noted, the time test is supreme, differing
+from running races, in which time is of comparatively little
+consequence. The animal which has the fastest record for 1 mile in
+harness is, until deposed, the king or queen of the trotting turf. Lady
+Suffolk, with her record of 2 m. 26(1/2) s., in 1843, held this honour
+until 1853, when Tacony trotted in 2 m. 25(1/2) s. under saddle; Flora
+Temple wrested it from him in 1856 by trotting in 2 m. 24(1/2) s. in
+harness. This latter mare, in 1859, trotted a mile in 2 m. 19(3/4) s., a
+feat which the best horsemen thought would never be repeated, but since
+that time forty-two trotters have beaten 2 m. 20 s. Dexter's record was
+2 m. 17(1/4) s. in 1867, and Goldsmith Maid's in 1871 was 2 m. 17 s.,
+which she reduced, by successive efforts, to 2 m. 16(3/4) s., 2 m. 16
+s., 2 m. 15 s., 2 m. 14(3/4) s., and finally, in 1874, to 2 m. 14 s. In
+1878 Rarus trotted a mile in 2 m. 13(1/4) s., and in October 1879 the
+bay gelding St Julien, by Volunteer, son of Rysdyk's Hambletonian, dam
+by Henry Clay, trotted a mile in California in 2 m. 12(3/4) s. Other
+notable performances reducing the record were Maud S. in 1881, 2 m.
+10(1/4) s.; Maud S. in 1885, 2 m. 8(3/4) s.; Sunol in 1891, 2 m. 8(1/4)
+s.; Nancy Hanks in 1892, 2 m. 4 s.; Alix in 1894, 2 m. 3(3/4) s.;
+Cresceus in 1901, 2 m. 2(1/4) s.; Lou Dillon in 1905, 1 m. 58(1/2) s.
+Improved times have doubtless been the result of improved methods, as
+well as of care in the breeding of the trotter. Some very severe
+training rules used to be sedulously observed; about 1870, for
+instance, a horse never had water the night before a race, and the
+system generally appears to have overtaxed the animal's strength. A
+prominent consideration in trotting races is the adjustment of
+toe-weights, which are fastened on to the horses' feet to equalize their
+action, and it is found that horses improve their time to the extent of
+several seconds when properly shod.
+
+Pacing races are also frequent in the United States. In trotting the
+action may be described as diagonal; the pacer moves both legs on the
+same side at the same time, and both feet stride as one. A similar
+"gait," to employ the American term, was called in England some
+centuries ago an "amble." The pacer moves more easily and with
+apparently less exertion than the trotter, and the mile record (made by
+Prince Alert in 1903) stands at 1 m. 57 s.
+
+Owing to the vast size of the country there are various centres of
+sport, which can be classified with reasonable accuracy as follows: the
+Eastern States, dominated by the Jockey Club, founded in New York in
+1894, and recognized by a state law in 1895; the Middle Western States,
+under the control of the Western Jockey Club, whose headquarters are in
+Chicago; the Pacific Coast, with San Francisco for its centre; and the
+Southern and South-Western States, with Louisville as the most important
+centre. The passage of the racing law in New York State marked the
+opening of a new era. Supreme even over the Jockey Club is a State
+Racing Commission of three, appointed by the governor of the state.
+While the Jockey Club is only recognized by law in its native state, it
+has assumed and maintains control of all racing on the eastern seaboard,
+within certain lines of latitude and longitude, extending as far north
+as the Canadian border and south to Georgia. There is small question
+that other states, both east and west, will follow suit and enact
+similar laws. The Western Jockey Club, though not recognized by law,
+controls practically all the racing through the middle west, south-west
+and south; but the racing associations of the Pacific Coast have
+maintained a position of independence.
+
+What New York is to the east, Chicago is to the middle west, and a very
+large proportion of American racing is conducted close to these centres.
+In New York State the Coney Island Jockey Club, at Sheepshead Bay; the
+Brooklyn Jockey Club, at Gravesend; the Westchester Racing Association,
+at Morris Park; the Brighton Beach Racing Association, at Brighton
+Beach; the Queen's County Jockey Club, at Aqueduct; and the Saratoga
+Racing Association, at Saratoga, are the leading organizations; and all
+these race-courses, with the exception of Saratoga, are within a radius
+of 20 miles of the city. The Empire City Jockey Club, near Yonkers, and
+another club with headquarters near Jamaica, Long Island, have also
+become prominent institutions. The Washington Park Club, at Chicago, is
+the leading Turf body of the west, and the only one on an equal footing
+with the prominent associations of New York State. With this single
+exception the most important and valuable stakes of the American Turf
+are given in the east; and so great has the prosperity of the Turf been
+since the Jockey Club came into existence that the list of rich prizes
+is growing at a surprising rate. In this respect the principal fault is
+the undue encouragement given to the racing of two-year-olds. At the
+winter meetings held at New Orleans and San Francisco, two-year-olds are
+raced from the very beginning of the year; and under the rules of the
+Jockey Club of New York they run as early as March. The Westchester
+Racing Association, with which are closely identified some of the
+principal members of the Jockey Club, gives valuable two-year-old stakes
+in May. The Futurity Stakes, the richest event of the year--on one
+occasion it reached a value of $67,675--is for two-year-olds, and is run
+at Sheepshead Bay in the autumn. The institution of races, either
+absolutely or practically at weight-for-age, and over long courses, has
+engaged much attention. The Coney Island Jockey Club has the leading
+three-year-old stake in the Lawrence Realization, over 1 mile 5
+furlongs, with an average value of about $30,000. The Westchester Racing
+Association's two principal three-year-old stakes, the Withers, over a
+mile, run in May, and the Belmont, 1 mile and 3 furlongs, run later in
+the same month, are of less value, but are much older-established and
+have a species of "classic" prestige, dating from the old Jerome Park
+race-course in the 'sixties. The Coney Island Jockey Club's Century and
+the Annual Champion Stakes, both for three-year-olds and upwards, over a
+mile and a half and two miles and a quarter respectively, are fair
+specimens of the races the associations have founded. At Saratoga a
+stake of $50,000 for three-year-olds and upwards, distance a mile and a
+quarter, was opened, and run for first in 1904. The hope is to wean
+owners from the practice of overtaxing their two-year-olds, which has
+resulted practically in a positive dearth, almost a total absence, of
+good four-year-olds and upwards of late years. Handicaps play a more
+important part than in England. The principal events of this character,
+such as the Brooklyn Handicap at Gravesend and the Suburban at
+Sheepshead Bay, have for years drawn the largest attendances of the
+racing season.
+
+Practically all flat racing in the United States is held on
+"dirt-tracks," i.e. courses with soil specially prepared for racing,
+instead of turf courses. At Sheepshead Bay there is a turf course, but
+it is only used for a minority of races. Dirt-tracks, which are, like
+many other things in American racing, a legacy from the once hugely
+popular harness-racing, are conducive to great speed, but are costly in
+the extreme strain on horses' legs. Steeplechases are run on turf. This
+branch of the sport in the east is now flourishing under the
+administration of the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association, a
+sister body of the Jockey Club. Comparatively few races are, however,
+run under these rules, as the weather conditions render it impossible to
+have a separate season for cross-country sport and steeplechases, and
+hurdle races are incorporated in programmes of flat racing held through
+the spring, summer and autumn, though the ground is frequently so hard
+as to be unsafe. Since the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association
+assumed control, regulation courses, practically similar in every
+respect to those used in England, have been insisted upon in the east,
+the "open ditch" figuring under the name of the "Liverpool." In the west
+and south there is not the same uniformity, and so far the sport has not
+flourished.
+
+
+FRANCE
+
+Racing in France as conducted on modern lines may be said to date from
+the year 1833, when the French _Stud-Book_ was originated, and a body
+formed, somewhat after the model of the English Jockey Club, under the
+title of the Societe d'Encouragement pour l'Amelioration des Races de
+Chevaux en France. Races took place in the Champs de Mars, and an
+unsuccessful attempt was made in 1834 to arrange for a course, or
+"hippodrome," as it is termed in France, at Maisons Laffitte. Chantilly
+was, however, fixed upon as the principal racing centre; on the 22nd
+April 1836 the first meeting was held there, with five races on the
+card, the principal being the Prix d'Orleans, a stake of 3500 francs,
+named after the due d'Orleans, one of the chief promoters of the
+fixture. Next day the first race for the Prix du Jockey Club was run,
+and won by Frank, the property of Lord Henry Seymour, who was at the
+time taking a very active part in French sport. The Prix du Jockey Club
+was then worth 5000 francs; the value has since increased to 200,000
+francs. This race occupies in France the place of the English Derby. The
+Prix de Diane, which corresponds to the English Oaks, was first run in
+1843. Chantilly still continues an important centre of the French Turf,
+and a great many horses are trained in the district. Attempts had been
+made to popularize racing at Longchamps prior to the year 1856, when the
+Societe d'Encouragement obtained a lease, erected stands, laid out the
+course, and held their first meeting on the 27th August 1857. Next
+season two meetings were held, one of four days in the spring and
+another of three in the autumn; at the present time the sport is
+vigorously carried on from March to the end of October, except during a
+summer recess. In 1857 meetings under the auspices of the Societe
+d'Encouragement began to take place at Amiens, Caen, Nantes,
+Versailles, Moulins and other towns; and there were stakes for
+two-year-olds in the spring, though of late years the appearance of the
+young horses has been postponed to the 1st of August. Progress was
+rapid, and in 1863 two important events were contested for the first
+time, the Prix du Prince Imperial, which was designed to balance the
+English St Leger, but for obvious reasons faded out of the programme,
+and the Grand Prix de Paris, an international race for three-year-olds,
+run at Longchamps over a distance of 1 mile 7 furlongs, and now the most
+valuable stake in Europe. In 1909 the prize was L14,071. The first Grand
+Prix fell to an English horse, Mr Savile's The Ranger; two years later
+it was won by Gladiateur, winner of the English Derby and the property
+of the comte de Lagrange, who raced equally in France and in England;
+the duke of Beaufort's Ceylon was successful in 1866, and the marquis of
+Hastings' Earl in 1868. Mr Savile's Cremorne followed up his Derby
+victory by a victory at Longchamps in 1872, as did Mr Baltazzi's Kisber
+four years later. English horses were also victorious in 1874 (Mr W. R.
+Marshall's Trent), in 1878 (Prince Soltykoff's Thurio), in 1880 (Mr C.
+Brewer's Robert the Devil), in 1881 (Mr Keene's Foxhall, who, however,
+should rather rank as an American horse), in 1882 (Mr Rymill's Bruce),
+in 1885 (Mr Cloete's Paradox), in 1886 (Mr Vyner's Minting); and in 1906
+Major Eustace Loder's Derby winner Spearmint. During the first 23 years
+of the Grand Prix (owing to the war the race did not take place in 1871)
+the stake fell to English horses--if Kisber and Foxhall be included--on
+twelve occasions, and generally to English jockeys. In recent years,
+however, French owners have held their own. In not a few respects racing
+is managed more judiciously than in England. The courses, for one thing,
+are better tended and maintained. The five- and six-furlong races for
+others than two-year-olds, which are so common at English meetings, are
+comparatively rare in France, and the value of the prizes in an average
+day's racing is considerably higher across the Channel than in England.
+A very large percentage of trainers and jockeys are English, and the
+former are, as a rule, quite as expert as at Newmarket and elsewhere.
+Transatlantic methods have been introduced by American jockeys since
+1899. From the middle of February until the middle of December a race
+meeting within easy reach of Paris takes place almost every day, except
+during August, when the sport is carried on in the provinces, notably at
+Deauville. Near Paris, the chief centre after Longchamps is Maisons
+Laffitte. At Longchamps, early in October, a race called the Prix du
+Conseil Municipal, worth L4000, for three-year-olds and upwards, over a
+mile and a half, was organized in 1893, and has usually attracted
+English horses, Mr Wallace Johnstone's Best Man having been successful
+in 1894, and Mr Sullivan's Winkfield's Pride the following year. Except
+when the Whip is challenged for and the challenge decided over the
+Beacon Course at Newmarket, no race is run in England over a longer
+distance than two miles and 6 furlongs; but in France the Prix
+Gladiateur, of L1200 and a work of art value L100, 3 miles 7 furlongs,
+creates considerable interest at Longchamps in the autumn.
+
+
+  Steeplechasing.
+
+The first recognized steeplechase in France took place at Croix de
+Berny, and was won by the comte de Vaublanc's May-fly, all the horses at
+that time being ridden by gentlemen. Sport does not seem to have been
+carried on with much spirit, for it is said that the death of an animal
+called Barcha, in 1839, nearly led to the abandonment of the meeting;
+and it was not till 1863, when the Societe des Steeplechases de France
+was founded, that the business was resolutely taken in hand. Gravelle
+and Vincennes were the principal centres until 1873, when the Societe
+obtained possession of the ground at Auteuil, where the excellent course
+now in use was laid out. In 1874 twelve days' racing took place here,
+the card each day including three steeplechases and a hurdle race, the
+"hurdles," however, being small fences, as they are at present. The
+Grand Steeplechase d'Auteuil was then for a stake of 30,000 francs, at
+the time the most valuable offered in any country; but, as in racing on
+the flat, the stakes have enormously increased in value, and in 1901 the
+Paris Grand Steeplechase, as the chief event is now called, credited the
+winner with L6020, the hurdle race being worth rather more than half as
+much. In England there is scarcely any steeplechasing between March and
+November, except at hunt meetings, but in Paris cross-country sport is
+pursued almost all through the year, the chief races at Auteuil taking
+place in June, about the time of the Grand Prix, which is usually run
+for between the English Epsom and Ascot meetings. The Auteuil course is
+laid out in the shape of the figure 8, with varied fences, several of
+which really test a horse's jumping capacity; and variety is further
+obtained by starting the fields in different places and traversing the
+course in different ways. St Ouen, a meeting within half an hour's drive
+of the Louvre, is entirely devoted to steeplechasing; and jumping is
+also carried on at Vincennes, Colombes, Enghien, and elsewhere near
+Paris, as also at Nice in the winter, at Dieppe and other places in
+August. As a rule, the stakes run for, especially at Auteuil, are very
+much larger than in England. There are none of the clubs and special
+enclosures such as at Sandown, Kempton, Hurst, Lingfield, Gatwick, &c.,
+though portions of the stand are set apart for privileged persons. A fee
+of 20 francs is charged for admission to the chief French race-courses,
+with half as much for a lady's voucher, and the tickets give access
+everywhere but to the very few reserved portions. At Vincennes, St
+Cloud, and some other courses trotting races are also contested.
+
+  _Other Countries._--Racing in Germany is mainly conducted under the
+  authority of the Union Club of Berlin, the principal course being the
+  Hoppegarten. Two-year-olds do not run until the 1st of June, except in
+  Saxony, where they appear a month earlier. During the month of August
+  there are several days' racing at Baden-Baden, steeplechases as well
+  as flat races being run. Some of the more valuable stakes are usually
+  contested by a proportion of horses from France and other countries, a
+  few being occasionally sent from England. For years past blood-stock
+  has been imported from England. In Austria the two centres of racing
+  are Vienna and Budapest, each of which has its Jockey Club. Racing in
+  Belgium derives no little support from the contiguity of the country
+  to France. The headquarters of the Belgium Jockey Club are in the Bois
+  de la Cambre at Boisfort, and meetings are held at Ostend, Antwerp,
+  Spa, Bruges and elsewhere. Steeplechases take place at Groenenval and
+  on other Belgian courses, but are not of high class. Racing has not
+  reached a great degree of excellence in Italy, though attempts have
+  been made to improve competitors by the purchase of Melton, who won
+  the Derby of 1885, and of other notable animals. Meetings take place
+  at Florence, Padua, Bologna and other places, but the stakes are
+  usually small.     (A. E. T. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HORSERADISH (Ger. _Meerrettig_; Fr. _raifort_ = _racine forte_, _cran de
+Bretagne_; Swed. _Peppar-rot_; Russ. _chren_), known botanically as
+_Cochlearia Armoracia_, a perennial plant of the natural order
+Cruciferae, having a stout cylindrical rootstock from the crown of which
+spring large radical leaves on long stalks, 4 to 6 in. broad, and about
+a foot in length with a deeply crenate margin, and coarsely veined; the
+stem-leaves are short-stalked or sessile, elongated and tapering to
+their attachment, the lower ones often deeply toothed. The flowers,
+which appear in May and June, are 3/8 in. in width, in flat-topped
+panicles, with purplish sepals and white petals; the fruit is a small
+silicula, which does not ripen in the climate of England. The
+horseradish is indigenous to eastern Europe. Into western Europe and
+Great Britain, where it is to be met with on waste ground, it was
+probably introduced. It was wild in various parts of England in Gerard's
+time.
+
+The root, the _armoraciae radix_ of pharmacy, is 1/2 to 2 in. or more in
+diameter, and commonly 1 ft., sometimes 3 ft. in length; the upper part
+is enlarged into a crown, which is annulated with the scars of fallen
+leaves; and from the numerous irregular lateral branches are produced
+vertical stolons, and also adventitious buds, which latter render the
+plant very difficult of extirpation. From the root of Aconite (q.v.),
+which has occasionally been mistaken for it, horseradish root differs in
+being more or less cylindrical from a little below the crown, and in its
+pale yellowish (or brownish) white hue externally, acrid and penetrating
+odour when scraped or bruised, and pungent and either sweetish or
+bitter taste. Under the influence of a ferment which it contains, the
+fresh root yields on distillation with water about .05% of a volatile
+oil, butyl sulphocyanide, C4H9CNS. After drying, the root has been found
+to afford 11.15% of ash. Horseradish root is an ingredient in the
+_spiritus armoraciae compositus_ (dose 1-2 drachms) of the British
+Pharmacopoeia. It is an agreeable flavouring agent. In common with other
+species of _Cochlearia_, the horseradish was formerly in high repute as
+an antiscorbutic. The root was, as well as the leaves, taken with food
+by the Germans in the middle ages, whence the old French name for it,
+_moutarde des Allemands_; and Coles, writing in 1657, mentions its use
+with meat in England, where it is still chiefly employed as a condiment
+with beef.
+
+For the successful cultivation of the horseradish, a light and friable
+damp soil is the most suitable; this having been trenched 3 ft. deep in
+autumn, and the surface turned down with a liberal supply of farm-yard
+manure, a second dressing of decomposed manure should in the ensuing
+spring be dug in 2 ft. deep, and pieces of the root 6 in. in length may
+then be planted a foot apart in narrow trenches. During summer the
+ground requires to be kept free of weeds; and the application of liquid
+manure twice or thrice in sufficient quantity to reach the lowest roots
+is an advantage. When dug the root may be long preserved in good
+condition by placing it in sand.
+
+  See Gerard, _Herball_, p. 240, ed. Johnson (1636); Fluckiger and
+  Hanbury, _Pharmacographia_, p. 71 (2nd ed., 1879); Bentley and Trimen,
+  _Med. Pl._, i. 21 (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HORSE-SHOES. The horny casing of the foot of the horse and other
+Solidungulates, while quite sufficient to protect the extremity of the
+limb under natural conditions, is found to wear away and break,
+especially in moist climates, when the animal is subjected to hard work
+of any kind. This, however, can be obviated by the simple device of
+attaching to the hoof a rim of iron, adjusted to the shape of the hoof.
+The animal itself has been in a very marked manner modified by shoeing,
+for without this we could have had neither the fleet racers nor the
+heavy and powerful cart-horses of the present day. Though the ancients
+were sufficiently impressed by the damage done to horses' hoofs to
+devise certain forms of covering for them (in the shape of socks or
+sandals), the practice of nailing iron plates or rim-shoes to the hoof
+does not appear to have been introduced earlier than the 2nd century
+B.C., and was not commonly known till the close of the 5th century A.D.,
+or in regular use till the middle ages. The evidence for the earlier
+date depends on the doubtful interpretations of designs on coins, &c. As
+time went on, however, the profession of the farrier and the art of the
+shoesmith gradually grew in importance. It was only in the 19th century
+that horse-shoeing was introduced in Japan, where the former practice
+was to attach to the horse's feet slippers of straw, which were renewed
+when necessary, a custom which may indicate the usage of early peoples.
+In modern times much attention has been devoted to horse-shoeing by
+veterinary science, with the result of showing that methods formerly
+adopted caused cruel injury to horses and serious loss to their owners.
+The evils resulted from (1) paring the sole and frog; (2) applying shoes
+too heavy and of faulty shape; (3) employing too many and too large
+nails; (4) applying shoes too small and removing the wall of the hoof to
+make the feet fit the shoes, and (5) rasping the front of the hoof. In
+rural districts, where the art of the farrier is combined with general
+blacksmith work, too little attention is apt to be given to
+considerations which have an important bearing on the comfort,
+usefulness and life of the horse. According to modern principles (1)
+shoes should be as light as compatible with the wear demanded of them;
+(2) the ground face of the shoe should be concave, and the face applied
+to the foot plain; (3) heavy draught horses alone should have toe and
+heel calks on their shoes to increase foothold; (4) the excess growth of
+the wall or outer portion of horny matter should only be removed in
+re-shoeing, care being taken to keep both sides of the hoof of equal
+height; (5) the shoe should fit accurately to the circumference of the
+hoof, and project slightly beyond the heel; (6) the shoes should be
+fixed with as few nails as possible, six or seven in fore-shoes and
+eight in hind-shoes, and (7) the nails should take a short thick hold of
+the wall, so that old nail-holes may be removed with the natural growth
+and paring of the horny matter. Horse-shoes and nails are now made with
+great economy by machinery, and special forms of shoe or plate are made
+for race-horses and trotters, or to suit abnormalities of the hoof.
+
+
+
+
+HORSETAIL (_Equisetum_), the sole genus of the botanical natural order
+Equisetaceae, consisting of a group of vascular cryptogamous plants (see
+PTERIDOPHYTA) remarkable for the vegetative structure which resembles in
+general appearance the genera of flowering plants _Casuarina_ and
+_Ephedra_. They are herbaceous plants growing from an underground
+much-branched rootstock from which spring slender aerial shoots which
+are green, ribbed, and bear at each node a whorl of leaves reduced to a
+toothed sheath. From the nodes spring whorls of similar but more slender
+branches. Some shoots are sterile while others are fertile, bearing at
+the apex the so-called fructification--a dense oval, oblong conical or
+cylindrical spike, consisting of a number of shortly-stalked peltate
+scales, each of which has attached to its under surface a circle of
+spore-cases (sporangia) which open by a longitudinal slit on their
+inner side. The spores differ from those of ferns in their outer coat
+(_exospore_) being split up into four club-shaped hygroscopic threads
+(_elaters_) which are curled when moist, but become straightened when
+dry. In most species the fertile and sterile shoots are alike, both
+being green and leaf-bearing, but in a few species the fertile are more
+or less different, e.g. in _E. arvense_ the fertile shoots appear first,
+in the spring, and are unbranched and not green. Any portion of the
+underground rhizome when broken off is capable of producing a new plant;
+hence the difficulty of eradicating them when once established. There
+are 24 known species of the genus which is universally distributed.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+_Equisetum arvense._
+
+  A, Fertile shoot, springing from the rhizome, which also bears tubers;
+    the vegetative shoots have not yet unfolded.
+  F, Sterile vegetative shoot.
+  B, C, Sporophylls bearing sporangia, which in C have opened.
+  D, Spore showing the two spiral bands of the perinium.
+  E, Dry spores showing the expanded spiral bands.
+  (A, F, reduced. B, C, D, E, enlarged.)]
+
+The corn horsetail _E. arvense_, one of the commonest species, is a
+troublesome weed in clayey cornfields (see fig.). The fructification
+appears in March and April, terminating in short unbranched stems. It is
+said to produce diarrhoea in such cattle as eat it. The bog horsetail,
+_E. palustre_, is said to possess similar properties. It grows in
+marshes, ditches, pools and drains in meadows, and sometimes obstructs
+the flow of water with its dense matted roots. The fructification in
+this species is cylindrical, and in that of _E. limosum_, which grows in
+similar situations, it is ovate in outline. The largest British species,
+_E. maximum_, grows in wet sandy declivities by railway embankments or
+streams, &c., and is remarkable for its beauty, due to the abundance of
+its elegant branches and the alternately green and white appearance of
+the stem. In this species the fructification is conical or lanceolate,
+and is found in April on short, stout, unbranched stems which have large
+loose sheaths. Horses appear to be fond of this species, and in Sweden
+it is stored for use as winter fodder. _E. hyemale_, commonly known as
+the Dutch rush, is much more abundant in Holland than in Britain; it is
+used for polishing purposes. _E. variegatum_ grows on wet sandy ground,
+and serves by means of its fibrous roots to bind the sand together. The
+horsetails are remarkable for the large quantity of silica they contain
+in the cuticle (hence their value in polishing), which often amounts to
+half the weight of the ash yielded by burning them; the roots contain a
+quantity of starch.
+
+
+
+
+HORSHAM, a market town in the Horsham parliamentary division of Sussex,
+England, 38 m. S. by W. from London by the London, Brighton and South
+Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 9446. It is pleasantly
+situated in the midst of a fertile country near the source of the Arun.
+A picturesque avenue leads to the church of St Mary, principally Early
+English and Perpendicular, with remains of Norman work, having a lofty
+tower surmounted by a spire, and containing several fine monuments,
+tombs and brasses. Other buildings include the grammar school, founded
+in 1532 and rebuilt in 1893, a town hall and corn exchange, erected in
+1866 in Italian style, with an assembly room. In the vicinity are
+several fine mansions. The buildings of Christ's Hospital (q.v.) at West
+Horsham were opened in 1902, the school being removed hither from
+London. The town has industries of tanning, founding, carriage-building
+and flour-milling.
+
+Some neolithic remains have been found at Horsham. The town is not
+mentioned in Domesday Book, but the Rape of Bramber, in which it lies,
+belonged at that time to William de Braose. His descendants held the
+borough and the manor of Horsham, and through them they passed to the
+family of Mowbray, afterwards dukes of Norfolk. There are traces of
+burgage tenure at Horsham in 1210, and it was called a borough in 1236.
+It has no charter of incorporation. Horsham sent two representatives to
+parliament from 1295 until 1832, when the number was reduced to one. In
+1885 it was disfranchised. In 1233 Henry III. granted William de Braose
+a yearly three-days' fair at his manor of Horsham. In the reign of
+Edward I. William de Braose claimed to have a free market on Wednesdays
+and Saturdays. Fairs are held on the 5th of April, 18th of July, 17th of
+November and 27th of November. Market days are Monday and Wednesday.
+"Glovers" of Horsham are mentioned in a patent roll of 1485, and a
+brewery existed here in the time of Queen Anne.
+
+
+
+
+HORSLEY, JOHN (c. 1685-1732), British archaeologist. John Hodgson
+(1779-1845), the historian of Northumberland, in a short memoir
+published in 1831, held that he was born in 1685, at Pinkie House, in
+the parish of Inveresk, Midlothian, and that his father was a
+Northumberland Nonconformist, who had migrated to Scotland, but returned
+to England soon after the Revolution of 1688. J. H. Hinde, in the
+_Archaeologia Aeliana_ (Feb. 1865), held that he was a native of
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, the son of Charles Horsley, a member of the Tailors'
+Company of that town. He was educated at Newcastle, and at Edinburgh
+University, where he graduated M.A. on the 29th of April 1701. There is
+evidence that he "was settled in Morpeth as a Presbyterian minister as
+early as 1709." Hodgson, however, thought that up to 1721, at which time
+he was residing at Widdrington, "he had not received ordination, but
+preached as a licentiate." Even if he was ordained then, his stay at the
+latter place was probably prolonged beyond that date; for he
+communicated to the _Philosophical Transactions_ (xxxii. 328) notes on
+the rainfall there in the years 1722 and 1723. Hinde shows that during
+these years "he certainly followed a secular employment as agent to the
+York Buildings Company, who had contracted to purchase and were then in
+possession of the Widdrington estates." At Morpeth Horsley opened a
+private school. Respect for his character and abilities attracted pupils
+irrespective of religious connexion, among them Newton Ogle, afterwards
+dean of Westminster. He gave lectures on mechanics and hydrostatics in
+Morpeth, Alnwick and Newcastle, and was elected F.R.S. on the 23rd of
+April 1730. It is as an archaeologist that Horsley is now known. His
+great work, _Britannia Romana, or the Roman Antiquities of Britain_
+(London, 1732), one of the scarcest and most valuable of its class,
+contains the result of patient labour. There is in the British Museum a
+copy with notes by John Ward (c. 1679-1758), biographer of the Gresham
+professors. Horsley died of apoplexy on the 12th of January 1732, on the
+eve of the publication of the _Britannia Romana_. He also published two
+sermons and a handbook to his lectures on mechanics, &c., and projected
+a history of Northumberland and Durham, collections for which were found
+among his papers.
+
+  J. P. Wood (d. 1838) (_Parish of Cramond_, 1794, and _Anecdotes of
+  Bowyer_, 1782, p. 371) says that his wife was a daughter of William
+  Hamilton, D.D., minister of Cramond, afterwards professor of divinity
+  in Edinburgh University, but probably the John Horsley in question was
+  another, the father of Samuel Horsley (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT (1817-1903), English painter, son of William
+Horsley, the musician, and grand-nephew of Sir Augustus Callcott, was
+born in London, on the 29th of January 1817. He studied painting in the
+Academy schools, and in 1836 exhibited "The Pride of the Village"
+(Vernon Gallery) at the Royal Academy. This was followed by numerous
+_genre_ pictures at subsequent exhibitions up to 1893, the best known of
+these being "Malvolio," "L'Allegro and il Penseroso" (painted for the
+Prince Consort), "Le Jour des Morts," "A Scene from Don Quixote," &c. In
+1843 his cartoon of "St Augustine Preaching" won a prize in the
+Westminster Hall competition, and in 1844 he was selected as one of the
+six painters commissioned to execute frescoes for the Houses of
+Parliament, his "Religion" (1845) being put in the House of Lords; he
+also painted the "Henry V. assuming the Crown" and "Satan surprised at
+the Ear of Eve." In 1864 he became R.A., and in 1882 was elected
+treasurer, a post which he held till 1897, when he resigned and became a
+"retired Academician." Mr Horsley had much to do with organizing the
+winter exhibitions of "Old Masters" at Burlington House after 1870.
+When, during the 'eighties, the example of the French Salon began to
+affect the Academy exhibitors, and paintings of the nude became the
+fashion, he protested against the innovation, and his attitude caused
+_Punch_ to give him the punning sobriquet of "Mr J. C(lothes) Horsley."
+He died on the 18th of October 1903. His son, Sir Victor Horsley (b.
+1857), became famous as a surgeon and neuropathologist, and a prominent
+supporter of the cause of experimental research.
+
+
+
+
+HORSLEY, SAMUEL (1733-1806), English divine, was born in London on the
+15th of September 1733. Entering Trinity College, Cambridge, he became
+LL.B. in 1758 without graduating in arts, and in the following year
+succeeded his father in the living of Newington Butts in Surrey. Horsley
+was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767; and secretary in
+1773, but, in consequence of a difference with the president (Sir Joseph
+Banks) he withdrew in 1784. In 1768 he attended the eldest son of the
+4th earl of Aylesford to Oxford as private tutor; and, after receiving
+through the earl and Bishop Lowth various minor preferments, which by
+dispensations he combined with his first living, he was installed in
+1781 as archdeacon of St Albans. Horsley now entered in earnest upon his
+famous controversy with Joseph Priestley, who denied that the early
+Christians held the doctrine of the Trinity. In this controversy,
+conducted on both sides in the fiercest polemical spirit, Horsley showed
+the superior learning and ability. His aim was to lessen the influence
+which the prestige of Priestley's name gave to his views, by indicating
+inaccuracies in his scholarship and undue haste in his conclusions. For
+the energy displayed in the contest Horsley was rewarded by Lord
+Chancellor Thurlow with a prebendal stall at Gloucester; and in 1788 the
+same patron procured his promotion to the see of St David's. As a
+bishop, Horsley was energetic both in his diocese, where he strove to
+better the position of his clergy, and in parliament. The efficient
+support which he afforded the government was acknowledged by his
+successive translations to Rochester in 1793, and to St Asaph in 1802.
+With the bishopric of Rochester he held the deanery of Westminster. He
+died at Brighton on the 4th of October 1806.
+
+  Besides the controversial _Tracts_, which appeared in 1783-1784-1786,
+  and were republished in 1789 and 1812, Horsley's more important works
+  are:--_Apollonii Pergaei inclinationum libri duo_ (1770); _Remarks on
+  the Observation ... for determining the acceleration of the Pendulum
+  in Lat. 70 deg. 51'_ (1774); _Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae extant Omnia_,
+  with a commentary (5 vols. 4to, 1779-1785); _On the Prosodies of the
+  Greek and Latin Languages_ (1796); _Disquisitions on Isaiah xviii._
+  (1796); _Hosea, translated ... with Notes_ (1801); _Elementary
+  Treatises on ... Mathematics_ (1801); _Euclidis elementorum libri
+  priores XII._ (1802); _Euclidis datorum liber_ (1803); _Virgil's Two
+  Seasons of Honey_, &c. (1805); and papers in the _Philosophical
+  Transactions_ from 1767 to 1776. After his death there
+  appeared--_Sermons_ (1810-1812); _Speeches in Parliament_ (1813);
+  _Book of Psalms, translated with Notes_ (1815); _Biblical Criticism_
+  (1820); _Collected Theological Works_ (6 vols. 8vo, 1845).
+
+
+
+
+HORSLEY, WILLIAM (1774-1858), English musician, was born on the 15th of
+November 1774. He became in 1790 the pupil of Theodore Smith, an
+indifferent musician of the time, who, however, taught him sufficient to
+obtain in 1794 the position of organist at Ely Chapel, Holborn. This
+post he resigned in 1798, to become organist at the Asylum for Female
+Orphans, as assistant to Dr Callcott, with whom he had long been on
+terms of personal and artistic intimacy, and whose eldest daughter he
+married. In 1802 he became his friend's successor upon the latter's
+resignation. Besides holding this appointment he became in 1812 organist
+of Belgrave Chapel, Halkin Street, and in 1838 of the Charter House. He
+died on the 12th of June 1858. Horsley's compositions are numerous, and
+include amongst other instrumental pieces three symphonies for full
+orchestra. Infinitely more important are his glees, of which he
+published five books (1801-1807) besides contributing many detached
+glees and part songs to various collections. His glees, "By Celia's
+arbour," "O nightingale," "Now the storm begins to lower," and others,
+are amongst the finest specimens of this peculiarly English class of
+compositions. Horsley's son Charles Edward (1822-1876), also enjoyed a
+certain reputation as a musician. He studied in Germany under Hauptmann
+and Mendelssohn, and on his return to England composed several oratorios
+and other pieces, none of which had permanent success. In 1808 he
+emigrated to Australia, and in 1872 went to America; he died in New
+York.
+
+
+
+
+HORSMAN, EDWARD (1807-1876), English politician, was the son of a
+well-to-do gentleman of Stirling, and connected on the mother's side
+with the earls of Stair. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and
+was called to the Scotch bar in 1832, but then took to politics. He was
+elected to parliament as a Liberal for Cockermouth in 1836, and
+represented that constituency till 1852, when he was defeated; in 1853
+he was returned for Stroud, and sat there till 1868; and from 1869 till
+he died he was member for Liskeard. He was a junior lord of the treasury
+in Lord Melbourne's administration for a few months during 1841, and
+became prominent for attacking Lord John Russell's ecclesiastical policy
+in 1847 and subsequent years. In 1855, under Lord Palmerston, he was
+made chief secretary for Ireland, but resigned in 1857. He gradually
+took up a position as an independent Liberal, and was well known for his
+attacks on the Church, and his exposures of various "jobs." But his name
+is principally connected with his influence over Robert Lowe (Lord
+Sherbrooke) in 1866 at the time of Mr Gladstone's Reform Bill, to which
+he and Lowe were hostile; and it was in describing the Lowe-Horsman
+combination that John Bright spoke of the "Cave of Adullam." Horsman
+died at Biarritz on the 30th of November 1876.
+
+
+
+
+HORST, the term used In physical geography and geology for a block of
+the earth's crust that has remained stationary while the land has sunk
+on either side of it, or has been crushed in a mountain range against
+it. The Vosges and Black Forest are examples of the former, the Table,
+Jura and the Dole of the latter result. The word is also applied to
+those larger areas, such as the Russian plain, Arabia, India and Central
+South Africa, where the continent remains stable, with horizontal
+table-land stratification, in distinction to folded regions such as the
+Eurasian chains.
+
+
+
+
+HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY (1828-1892), English theologian, was born in
+Dublin on the 23rd of April 1828, the great-grandson of Josiah Hort,
+archbishop of Tuam in the 18th century. In 1846 he passed from Rugby to
+Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was the contemporary of E. W.
+Benson, B. F. Westcott and J. B. Lightfoot. The four men became lifelong
+friends and fellow-workers. In 1850 Hort took his degree, being third in
+the classical tripos, and in 1852 he became fellow of his college. In
+1854, in conjunction with J. E. B. Mayor and Lightfoot, he established
+the _Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology_, and plunged eagerly
+into theological and patristic study. He had been brought up in the
+strictest principles of the Evangelical school, but at Rugby he fell
+under the influence of Arnold and Tait, and his acquaintance with
+Maurice and Kingsley finally gave his opinions a direction towards
+Liberalism. In 1857 he married, and accepted the college living of St
+Ippolyts, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, where he remained for fifteen
+years. During his residence there he took some part in the discussions
+on university reform, continued his studies, and wrote essays for
+various periodicals. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the committee
+for revising the translation of the New Testament, and in 1871 he
+delivered the Hulsean lectures before the university. Their title was
+_The Way, the Truth, and the Life_, but they were not prepared for
+publication until many years after their delivery. In 1872 he accepted a
+fellowship and lectureship at Emmanuel College; in 1878 he was made
+Hulsean professor of divinity, and in 1887 Lady Margaret reader in
+divinity. In the meantime he had published, with his friend Westcott, an
+edition of the text of the New Testament. The Revision Committee had
+very largely accepted this text, even before its publication, as a basis
+for their translation of the New Testament. The work on its appearance
+created an immense sensation among scholars, and was vehemently attacked
+in many quarters, but on the whole it was received as being much the
+nearest approximation yet made to the original text of the New Testament
+(see BIBLE: _New Testament_, "Textual Criticism"). The introduction was
+the work of Hort, and its depth and fulness convinced all who read it
+that they were under the guidance of a master. Hort died on the 30th of
+November 1892, worn out by intense mental labour. Next to his Greek
+Testament his best-known work is _The Christian Ecclesia_ (1897). Other
+publications are: _Judaistic Christianity_ (1894); _Village Sermons_
+(two series); _Cambridge and other Sermons_; _Prolegomena to ...
+Romans and Ephesians_ (1895); _The Ante-Nicene Fathers_ (1895); and two
+_Dissertations_, on the reading [Greek: monogenes theos] in John i. 18,
+and on _The Constantinopolitan and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth
+Century_. All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of
+materials.
+
+  His _Life and Letters_ was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart.
+  (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HORTA, the capital of an administrative district comprising the islands
+of Pico, Fayal, Flores and Corvo, in the Portuguese archipelago of the
+Azores. Pop. (1900) 6574. Horta is a seaport on the south-east coast of
+Fayal. It is defended by two castles and a wall, but these
+fortifications are obsolete. The harbour, a bay 2 m. long and nearly 1
+m. broad, affords good anchorage in 5 to 20 fathoms of water, but is
+dangerous in south-westerly and south-easterly winds. It is the
+headquarters of profitable whale, tunny, bonito and mullet fisheries.
+Its exports include sperm-oil, fruit, wine and grain. Between 1897 and
+1904 the port annually accommodated about 140 vessels of 220,000 tons,
+mostly of British or Portuguese nationality.
+
+
+
+
+HORTEN, a seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg-Laurvik _amt_ (county),
+beautifully situated on the west bank of the Christiania Fjord, opposite
+Moss, 38 m. by water and 66 by rail S. of Christiania. Pop. (1900) 8460.
+It is practically united with Karl-Johansvaern, which is defended by
+strong fortifications, is the headquarters of the Norwegian fleet, and
+possesses an arsenal and shipbuilding yards. There are also an
+observatory and a nautical museum.
+
+
+
+
+HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (114-50 B.C.), surnamed Hortalus, Roman orator and
+advocate. At the age of nineteen he made his first speech at the bar,
+and shortly afterwards successfully defended Nicomedes III. of Bithynia,
+one of Rome's dependants in the East, who had been deprived of his
+throne by his brother. From that time his reputation as an advocate was
+established. As the son-in-law of Q. Lutatius Catulus he was attached to
+the aristocratic party. During Sulla's ascendancy the courts of law were
+under the control of the senate, the judges being themselves senators.
+To this circumstance perhaps, as well as to his own merits, Hortensius
+may have been indebted for much of his success. Many of his clients were
+the governors of provinces which they were accused of having plundered.
+Such men were sure to find themselves brought before a friendly, not to
+say a corrupt, tribunal, and Hortensius, according to Cicero (_Div. in
+Caecil._ 7), was not ashamed to avail himself of this advantage. Having
+served during two campaigns (90-89) in the Social War, he became
+quaestor in 81, aedile in 75, praetor in 72, and consul in 69. In the
+year before his consulship he came into collision with Cicero in the
+case of Verres, and from that time his supremacy at the bar was lost.
+After 63 Cicero was himself drawn towards the party to which Hortensius
+belonged. Consequently, in political cases, the two men were often
+engaged on the same side (e.g. in defence of Rabirius, Murena, Publius
+Cornelius Sulla, and Milo). After Pompey's return from the East in 61,
+Hortensius withdrew from public life and devoted himself to his
+profession. In 50, the year of his death, he successfully defended
+Appius Claudius Pulcher when accused of treason and corrupt practices by
+P. Cornelius Dolabella, afterwards Cicero's son-in-law.
+
+Hortensius's speeches are not extant. His oratory, according to Cicero,
+was of the Asiatic style, a florid rhetoric, better to hear than to
+read. He had a wonderfully tenacious memory (Cicero, _Brutus_, 88, 95),
+and could retain every single point in his opponent's argument. His
+action was highly artificial, and his manner of folding his toga was
+noted by tragic actors of the day (Macrobius, _Sat._ iii. 13. 4). He
+also possessed a fine musical voice, which he could skilfully command.
+The vast wealth he had accumulated he spent on splendid villas, parks,
+fish-ponds and costly entertainments. He was the first to introduce
+peacocks as a table delicacy at Rome. He was a great buyer of wine,
+pictures and works of art. He wrote a treatise on general questions of
+oratory, erotic poems (Ovid, _Tristia_, ii. 441), and an _Annales_,
+which gained him considerable reputation as an historian (Vell. Pat. ii.
+16. 3).
+
+His daughter HORTENSIA was also a successful orator. In 42 she spoke
+against the imposition of a special tax on wealthy Roman matrons with
+such success that part of it was remitted (Quint. _Instit._ i. 1. 6;
+Val. Max. viii. 3. 3).
+
+  In addition to Cicero (_passim_), see Dio Cassius xxxviii. 16, xxxix.
+  37; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ix. 81, x. 23, xiv. 17, xxxv. 40; Varro,
+  _R.R._ iii. 13. 17.
+
+
+
+
+HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS, dictator of Rome 286 B.C. When the people, pressed
+by their patrician creditors, "seceded" to the Janiculum, he was
+commissioned to put an end to the strife. He passed a law whereby the
+resolutions of the multitude (_plebiscita_) were made binding on all the
+citizens, without the approval of the senate being necessary. This was
+not a mere re-enactment of previous laws. Another law, passed about the
+same time, which declared the _nundinae_ (market days) to be _dies
+fasti_ (days on which legal business might be transacted), is also
+attributed to him. He is said to have died while still dictator.
+
+  Aulus Gellius xv. 27; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 15; Macrobius,
+  _Saturnalia_ i. 16; Livy, _Epit._ ii.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6, by Various
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